UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
GIFT OF
MRS. MARY WOLFSOHN
IN MEMORY OF
HENRY WOLFSOHN
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FROM THE WORKS OF THE MOST DISTINGUISHED
BRITISH AND FOREIGN NATURALISTS.
GLASGOW. EDINBURGH & LONDO
A HISTORY
BY OLIVER GOLDSMITH.
WITH NUMEROUS NOTES
WORKS OF THE MOST DISTINGUISHED BRITISH AND FOREIGN NATURALISTS.
ILLUSTRATED BY DPWAEDS OF TWO THOUSAND FIGURES.
VOLUME II.
BLACKIE & SON:
FREDERICK STREET, GLASGOW; SOUTH COLLEGE STREET, EDINBURGH;
AND WARWICK SQUARE, LONDON.
GLASGOW :
W. O. BLACKIE AND CO., PRINTERS,
VIIJ.AFIELD.
CONTENTS OF VOLUME SECOND.
A HISTORY OF BIRDS.
BOOK I.
OF BIRDS IN GENERAL.
MM
CHAP. i. Introduction . . . . 1
n. Of the Generation, Nestling, and
Incubation of Birds . . 7
in. Of the Division of Birds . . 17
iv. The Ostrich . , • . • ' . 19
v. The Emu . . :•* . . .23
vi. The Cassowary . . . 25
vii. The Dodo 27
BOOK II.
OF RAPACIOUS BIRDS.
CHAP. I. Of Rapacious Birds in General . 29
II. The Eagle aud its affinities . . 31
in. The Condor of America . . 37
iv. Of the Vulture and its affinities • 40
v. Of the Falcon kind, and its affinities 44
vi. The Butcher-bird . . '50
vn. Of Rapacious Birds of the Owl kind,
that prey by night . . 52
BOOK III.
OF BIRDS OF THE POULTRY KIND IN GENERAL.
CHAP. i. Introduction . . , .59
n. The Cock . . . . 61
in. The Peacock . . . .64
iv. The Turkey 66
v. The Pheasant . . . .71
vi. The Pintado, or Guinea-hen . 75
vn. The Bustard . ... 76
vm. The Grouse, and its affinities . 77
CH. ix. The Partridge, and its affinities
x. The Quail
BOOK IV.
OF BIRDS OF THE PIE KIND.
82
84
86
CHAP. i. Introduction ....
II. Of the Raven, the Crow, and their
affinities .
in. Of the Magpie, and its affinities .
iv. Of the Woodpecker, and its affini-
ties
v. Of the Bird of Paradise, and its
varieties 108
vi. Of the Cuckoo, and its varieties 110
vii. Of the Parrot, and its affinities .
vm. Of the Pigeon, and its varieties
BOOK V.
87
96
101
113
120
OF BIRDS OF THE SPARROW KIND.
130
137
146
CHAP. i. Introduction ....
II. Of the Thrush, and its affinities .
m. Of the Nightingale and other soft-
billed song-birds .
iv. Of the Canary-bird, and other kinds
of hard-billed Singing-birds . 155
v. Of the Swallow, and its affinities 160
vi. Of the Humming-bird, and its
varieties
165
BOOK VI.
OF BIRDS OF THE CRANE KIND.
CHAP. i. Introduction
n. The Crane
in. The Stork .
VI
CONTENTS OF VOLUME SECOND.
CH. iv. Of the Balearic and other Foreign
Cranes .... 178
v. Of the Heron and its varieties . 180
VI. Of the Bittern, or Mire-drum . 184
vn. Of the Spoonbill or Shoveller . 185
vin. The Flamingo . . . .187
IX. The Avosetta or Scooper ; and the
Corrira, or Runner . . . 189
X. Small birds of the Crane kind,
with the thighs partly bare of
Feathers .... 190
xi. Of the Water-hen, and the Coot . 197
BOOK VII.
200
201
01' WATER-FOWL.
CHAP. i. Introduction . . » .
n. The Pelican ....
in. The Albatross,.the first of the Gall c
kind 204
iv. The Cormorant . . . .206
v. The Gannet, or Solan Goose . 208
vi. Of the smaller Gulls and Petrels . 210
VII. Of the Penguin kind : and first, of
the great Magellanic Penguin
vin. Of the Auk, Puffin, and other
birds of the Penguin kind . 219
ix. Of Birds of the Goose kind, pro-
perly so called ....
x. Of the Swan, tame and wild .
xi. Of the Goose, and its varieties
xn. Of the Duck, and its varieties .
xin. Of the King-fisher . .
215
222
224
227
231
237
A HISTORY OF FISHES.
BOOK I.
OF FISHES IN GENERAL.
CHAP. I. Introduction .... 240
II. Of Cetaceous Fishes in general . 249
Hi. Of the Whale, properly so called,
and its varieties . . . 250
iv. Of the Narwhal . . . .260
v. Of the Cachalot, and its varieties 262
VI, Of the Dolphin, the Grampus, and
the Porpoise, with their varieties 264
BOOK II.
OF CARTILAGINOUS FISHES.
MM
CHAP, i Introduction .... 268
II. Of Cartilaginous Fishes of the Shark
kind 269
in. Of Cartilaginous Flat-fish, or the
Ray kind .... 273
iv. Of the Lamprey, and its affinities . 280
v. Of the Sturgeon, and its varieties 283
vi. Of Anomalous Cartilaginous fishes 286
BOOK III.
OF SPINOUS FISHES.
CHAP. i. The Division of Spinous Fishes . 293
SECT. i. Prickly -finned Fishes . . 294
H. Soft-finned Fishes . . 299
II. Of Spinous Fishes in general . 308
BOOK IV.
OF CRUSTACEOUS AND TESTACEOUS FISHES.
CHAP. i. The Division of Shell-fish . . 326
ii. Crustaceous Animals of the Lobster
kind 326
in. Of the Tortoise and its kinds . 337
iv. Of the shell of Testaceous Fishes . 347
v. Of Turbinated Shell-fish, orthe Snail
kind 359
vi. Of bivalved Shell-fish, or shells of
the Oyster kind . . .365
vn. Of multivalve Shell-fish . . 373
A HISTORY OF FROGS, LIZARDS,
AND SERPENTS.
BOOK I.
OF FROGS AND TOADS.
CHAP I. Introduction .... 377
II. Of the Frog, and its varieties . 377
in. Of the Toad, and its varieties . 384
CONTENTS OF VOLUME SECOND.
Vll
BOOK n.
OF LIZARDS.
MM
CHAP. I. Introduction .... 391
n. Of the Crocodile, and its affinities 392
ni. Of the Salamander . . .399
iv. Of the Cameleon, the Iguana, and
Lizards of different kinds . . 402
BOOK III.
OF SERPENTS, &c.
CHAP. i. Introduction . . . . 407
ii. Of venomous Serpents in general 416
in. Of Serpents without venom . 427
Supplemental Note on Reptiles . 431
A HISTOEY OF INSECTS, &c.
BOOK I.
INSECTS OF THE FIRST ORDEK.
436
447
448
455
456
461
CHAP. i. Introduction f . , •
ii. Of Insects without wings .
in. Of the Spider, and its varieties
rv. Of the Plea .
v. Of the Louse, and its varieties
vi. Of the Bug, and its varieties
vii. Of the Wood-louse, and its varieties 463
vni. Of the Monoculus, or Arborescent
Water-flea . > « . ib.
ix. Of the Scorpion, and its varieties 464
x. Of the Scolopendra and Gallyworm 466
xi. Of the Leech ... . 467
BOOK H.
INSECTS OF THE SECOND ORDER.
CHAP. i. Introduction . ; . . 470
II. Of the Libella, or Dragon-fly . ib.
in. Of the Formica Leo, or Lion-Ant . 472
iv. Of the Grasshopper, the Locust, the
Cicada, the Cricket, and the Mole-
cricket .... 475
CHAP. v. Of the Earwig, the Froth Insect,
and some others belonging to the
second order of Insects . . 483
vi. Of the Ephemera . . .485
BOOK HI.
INSECTS OF THE THIRD ORDER.
CHAP. I. Of Caterpillars in general . . 490
II. Of the transformation of the Cater-
pillar into its corresponding but-
terfly or moth, . . . 491
m. Of Butterflies and Moths . .499
iv. Of the enemies of the Caterpillar 505
v. Of the Silkworm . . .506
BOOK IV.
INSECTS OF THE FOURTH ORDER.
CHAP. I. Introduction .
n. Of the Bee . . .
ni. Of the Wasp . . .
TV. Of the Ichneumon fly .
v. Of the Ant ....
vi. Of the Beetle, and its varieties
vii. Of the Gnat Tipula
512
ib.
528
534
535
541
553
A HISTOEY OF ZOOPHYTES.
BOOK V.
OF THE ZOOPHYTES.
CHAP. i. Introduction . *
n. Of Worms . . .
in. Of the Star-fish .
iv. Of the Polypus . .
v. Of Lithophytes and Sponges
557
558
561
562
570
Supplement on Crustacea and Mollusca . 575
Supplement on Microscopic discovery . .587
CHAP. I. The results of Microscopical Inquiry
concerning the minute formations
and phenomena of the natural
world 588
II. Infusorial Animalcules . . 623
INDEX . ... 641
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
BOOK I.
OF BIRDS IN GENERAL.
CHAP. I.
INTRODUCTION.
VVrK are now come to a beautiful and loqua-
cious race of animals, that embellish our for-
ests, amuse our walks, and exclude solitude
from our most shady retirements. From these
man has nothing to fear; their pleasures, their
desires, and even their animosities, only serve
to enliven the general picture of nature, and
give harmony to meditation.
No part of nature appears destitute of inha-
bitants. The woods, the waters, the depths
of the earth, have their respective tenants ;
while the yielding air, and those tracts of
seeming space where man never can ascend,
are also passed through by multitudes of the
most beautiful beings of the creation.
Every order and rank of animals seems fit-
ted for its situation in life ; but none more ap-
parently than birds : they share, in common
with the stronger race of quadrupeds, the ve-
getable spoils of the earth ; are supplied with
swiftness, to compensate for their want of
force ; and have a faculty of ascending into
the air, to avoid "that power which they can-
not oppose.
The birds seem formed entirely for a life
of escape ; and every part of the anatomy of
the animal seems calculated for swiftness. As
it is designed to rise upon air, all its parts are
proportionably light, and expand a large sur-
face without solidity.
In a comparative view with man, their for-
mation seems much ruder and more imper-
tect ; and they are in general found incapable
of the docility even of quadrupeds. Indeed,
what degree of sagacity can be expected
in animals whose eyes are almost as large
as their brain? However, though they fall
below quadrupeds in the scale of nature, and
VOL. II.
are less imitative of human endowments ;
yet they hold the next rank, and far surpass
fishes and insects, both in the structure of their
bodies and in their sagacity.
As in mechanics the most curious instru-
ments are generally the most complicated, so
it is in anatomy. The body of man presents
the greatest variety upon dissection ; quadru-
peds, less perfectly formed, discover their de-
fects in the simplicity of their conformation ;
the mechanism of birds is still less complex ;
fishes are furnished with fewer organs still ;
whilst insects, more imperfect than all, seem
to fill up the chasm that separates animal from
vegetable nature. Of man, the most perfect
animal, there are but three or four species; of
quadrupeds, the kinds are more numerous ;
birds are more various still ; fishes yet more ;
but insects afford so very great a variety, that
they elude the search of the most inquisitive
pursuer.
Quadrupeds, as was said, have some distant
resemblance in their internal structure with
man ; but that of birds is entirely dissimilar.
As they seem chiefly formed to inhabit the
empty regions of air, all their parts are
adapted to their destined situation. It will
be proper, therefore, before I give a genera/
history of birds, to enter into a slight detail of
their anatomy and conformation.
As to their external parts, they seem sur-
prisingly adapted for swiftness of motion.
The shape of their body is sharp before, to
pierce and make way through the air ; it then
rises by a gentle swelling to its bulk, and falls
off in an expansive tail, that helps to keep it
buoyant, while the fore-parts are cleaving the
air by their sharpness. From this conforma-
tion, they have often been compared to a ship
making its way through water; the trunk of
the body answers to the hold, the head to the
prow, the tail to the rudder, and the wings to the
A H /STORY OF
oars ; from whence the poets have adopted
ihe metaphor of remigium alarutn, when they
described the wavy motion of a bird in flight.
What we are called upon next to admire
in the external formation of birds is, the neat
position of the feathers, lying all one way,
answering at once the purposes of warmth,
speed, and security. They mostly tend back-
ward, and are laid over one another in an ex-
act and regular order, armed with warm and
soft down next the body, and more strongly
fortified, and curiously closed externally, to
fence off the injuries of the weather. But,
lest the feathers should spoil by their violent
attrition against the air, or imbibe the mois-
ture of the atmosphere, the animal is fur-
nished with a gland behind, containing a pro-
per quantity of oil, which can be pressed out
by the bird's bill, and laid smoothly over
every feather that wants to be dressed for the
occasion. This gland is situated on the rump,
and furnished with an opening or excretory
duct ; about which grows a small tuft of fea-
thers somewhat like a painter's pencil. When,
therefore, the feathers are shattered or rum-
pled, the bird, turning its head backwards,
with the bill catches hold of the gland, and,
pressing it, forces out the oily substance, with
which it anoints the ^disjoined parts of the fea-
thers ; and drawing them out with great assi-
duity, recomposes and places them in due
order ; by which they unite more closely to-
gether. Such poultry, however, as live for
the most part under cover, are not furnished
with so large a stock of this fluid, as those
birds that reside in the open air. The fea-
thers of a hen, for instance, are pervious to
every shower ; on the contrary, swans, geese,
ducks, and all such as Nature has directed
to live upon the water, have their feathers
dressed with oil from the very first day of
their leaving the shell. Thus their stock of
fluid is equal to the necessity of its consump-
tion. Their very flesh contracts a flavour
from it, which renders it in some so very ran-
cid, as to make it utterly unfit for food ; how-
ever, though it injures the flesh, it improves
the feathers for all the domestic purposes to
which they are usually converted.
Nor are the feathers with which birds are
covered less an object of admiration. The
shaft of every feather is made proportionably
strong ; but hollow below for strength and
lightness, and above filled with a pith to feed
the growth of the vane or beard that springs
from the shaft of the feather on either side.
All the feathers are placed generally ac-
cording to their length and strength, so that
the largest and strongest feathers in flight
have the greatest share of duty. The vane
or beard of the feather is formed with equal
contrivance and care. It consists not of one
continued membrane ; because, if this wore
broken, it could not easily be repaired; but it
is composed of many layers, each somewhat
in itself resembling a feather, and lying
against each other in close conjunction. To-
wards the shaft of the feather, these layers
are broad, and of a semicircular form, to serve
for strength, and for the closer grafting them
one against the other when in action. To-
wards the outer part of the vane, these layers
grow slender and taper, to be more light.
On their under-side they are thin and smooth,
but their upper outer-edge is parted into two
hairy edges, each side having a different sort
of hairs, broad at bottom, and slender and
bearded above. By this mechanism, the
hooked beards of one layer always lie next
the straight beards of the next, and by that
means lock and hold each other.1
1 All birds are covered with feathers, and they are
the only animals which, properly speaking, are so.
These feathers are of two sorts — feathers for clothing, to
protect the animal from the vicissitudes of the weather,
and feathers for flight. Both of these are beautifully
modified, so as to suit the different habits of the several
species, and adapt them to the climates and the ele-
ments in which they find their food.
Some other animals, as for instance the lepidopterous
insects — the butterflies and the moths — have a coat of
feathers, or rather of fringed or feathery scales ; but
these have few or none of the characters of true feathers,
and in no case, except that of birds, are feathers the in-
struments of flight. But still we can, in the imperfect
feathers of the lepidoptera, discover one of the uses of
feathers in birds better than we can perhaps do in the
feathers of birds themselves, as in them it is conjoined
with other uses. The study of one animal often assists
us in acquiring a knowledge of another, especially when
the one contains a single part of that which is a com-
pound organ in another ; because by this means we get
an analysis of the living animal, which is far more satis-
factory than any that we could obtain by the dissection
of a dead one ; for we can, in the one case, actually see
the part of the organ in action, whereas in the other we
can only infer or guess at the way in which it acts.
Now, every one must have noticed, that bees, flies,
and all insects which have membranous or naked wings,
must keep those wings constantly in rapid motion while
they fly. The motion is often so rapid that the wings
cannot be seen, any further than by a sort of tremulous
motion in the air; and the action of the wings produces
all that humming and buzzing among flying insects
which makes the summer air so lively; for insects do
not breathe by the mouth, and have no organ of voice of
any description. The action of those naked wings upon
the air must be very considerable; because, when a
common bluebottle-fly (Musca vomitoria) alights on the
window, and marches along one of the dusty bars of the
frame, winnowing the air with its wings, in a vain at-
tempt to escape through the glass, it stirs the dust more
in proportion than a coach and six driving rapidly along
a dry road on a hot summer's day. Insects with wings
of this description cannot hover, or lean on the air with
still and expanded wing.
But the lepidoptera, especially the butterflies, do ho-
ver about, and rest on the air, and wheel in various di-
rections, with very little apparent motion of the wings;
and when they do move them, it is done much mote
slowly than the motion of the naked wing, in proportion
to the rate of progressive motion. These lepidopti rous
BIRDS IN GENERAL.
The next object that comes under consider-
ation, in contemplating an animal that flies,
is the wing, the instrument by which this
wonderful progression is performed. In such
wings also move in silence, or when they are brought
into such rapid action as to produce a sort of noise, it is
a low and muffled rustle, and does not ring out, so that
the largest butterfly or moth gets along much more si-
lently than the gnat. We may add, as a further in-
stance of the same kind, that the bats when they fly are
always obliged to winnow the air with their flying mem-
branes, something in the same way as naked winged in-
sects do, though the flight of hats, unless when they are
agitated, is comparatively noiseless. So also those rep-
tiles which fly by means of membranous appendages are
obliged to flutter these very much in proportion to the
rate of their progressive motion.
Now, the difference of action in these two textures of
wings in the other classes of animals, shows us the ad-
vantages which birds derive from their feathery cover-
ing and feathery organs of flight. These feathers, even
to the minutest fibre on the plumes or webs, are tubular,
consisting of only a thin film of solid matter, filled with
air within, though strengthened by partitions of cellular
substance, more or less close together, recording to the
strain which the feathers have to bear. From the mode
in which the feathers and all their parts are laid upon
the bird, it presents a smooth surface upwards and for-
wards, so that the animal can move in either of these-di-
rections with very little resistance from the friction of
the air. When it moves in either of them, the resis-
tance of friction does not increase so rapidly as the rate
of motion; because the pressure smooths the feathers,
and causes the air to take less hold of them. This pro-
perty, which arises in part from the texture of the up-
per surface of the feathers, but chiefly from the way in
which they are formed and placed, is of equal service to
birds when they must perch or otherwise remain at rest
so as to abide the blast, as when they fly exposed to it.
Perching or flying, when a bird is in the wind it always
faces the current, and thus offers the least resist*;*^
both by its form and its feathers.
When, however, the feathers are taken in the oppo-
site directions, they offer as much increase of resistance
as they offer diminution when they are taken above or
in front. The wings are always more or less hollow on
the under sides, and they take hold of the air by millions
of fibres, so that a bird with its flying feathers on the
stretch, would fall much more slowly than one would
suppose from the difference between its specific gravity
and that of the air.
The resistance which all the feathers on the body of
the bird offer to motion backwards is still greater; and it
increases with the force which tends to move the ani-
mal in that direction. The instant that it begins to be
driven backwards, so that a current against its body is
produced, the points of the feathers rise and take the
wind with so many fibres, that the resistance is very si-
milar to that made by a scaly fish, when one attempts to
draw one of these by the tail; and every one who has
angled, and accidentally caught even a common trout in
that way, knows that an ounce weight is as difficult to
land when so hooked as a pound weight is when hooked
by the head. But the feathers of birds rise much more
in proportion than the free edges of the scales upon any
fish, and they are every way as well formed for " hold-
ing on" in the air, as those are for holding on in the
water. Thus the bird may be said to resist motion
backwards in the air, by throwing out the point of each
feather like the " fluke" of an anchor.
The bird, when its habit is to be much on the wing,
la ail over adapted for flight; and the system of its me-
chanics, if we could fully comprehend it, would certain-
birds that fly, they are usually placed at that
part of the body which serves to poise the
whole, and support it in a fluid that at first
seems so much lighter than itself. They an-
iy be the most curious, and far from the least instruc-
tive, in the whole of the animal kingdom.
The buoyancy, as well as the upward motion, is not
very difficult to understand, because the wing, from its
general form, and the structure of the feathers, rises:
with much less effort than it descends. Thus the con-
slant tendency of the powerfully_winged bird is to mount
upwards; and on this account the firmest bird, that
which with the same volume of body and extent of
wings has the greatest specific gravity, is the best flyer,
flies more steadily, and apparently with less effort.
This must of course have a limit; because, leaving (he
incapacity of breathing out of the question, no bird could
fly in a vacuum, and thus there must be a certain den-
sity of air which is the best adapted for the flight of any
given species of bird. This appears, even in the case of
heavy birds, to be considerably less than the density of
the mean level of the earth's surface. Eagles are heavy
birds, even for their powerful wings, and yet they are
high fliers, even when their abodes are at great eleva-
tions in the mountains. All birds which take long
flights fly high, whatever may be their other habits.
Wild geese, herons, all birds indiscriminately " take the
sky" when they set out upon long journeys. In some,
this may be in part done to avoid enemies or obstacles,
but the habit is too general for being accounted for upon
any principle, save that the high flight is the less fatigu-
ing. Even rooks may be observed to adjust the height
of their daily excursions from the rookeries to the dis-
tance at which the pasture upon which they are to feed
lies ; and the swallow tribe wheel about far more rapidly
and gracefully when they hawk high before rain, than
when they skim the surfaces of the pools in fine weather.
If we may judge from their appearance when we see
them on the wing (the only means we have of judging),
it appears that birds, when they are not in search of any
thing upon the ground near them, mount up till they
j iome to that density of atmosphere which is best suited
to their weight and wings, and then continue onwards.
There maybe another reason: those upper regions to
which the birds ascend on their long flights are in a
great measure exempted from the momentary gusts and
squalls which war upon the surface under them.
The circulation of blood is, as has been hinted already,
more rapid in birds than in the mammalia, which agrees
with the greater violence and longer continuance of some
of their actions. But though these more violent actions
— such as coursing on two feet, as fleetly as antelopes do on
four, and with the aid of the flexible spine and its mus-
cles, as in the ostrich — plunging into the water like the
gannet or the cormorant — dashing through that element
like the divers — cleaving the air beyond comparison
with all terrestrial speed, as in the falcon, the swift, or
the pratincole, or breasting the tempest with the majesty
of the eagle — require, and are furnished with, a supply
of blood proportional to the waste which their great
energy must occasion; yet they are by no means so well
suited to an equally rapid breathing by means of lung?.
But the application of renovating air to the blood must,
in all animals, be proportional to the circulation, and,
among vertebrated animals, it is only the reptiles and
fishes which have the temperature low and the circula-
tion lagging, and which spend much of their time in a
state of comparative inaction, that can carry on theit
systems in a healthy state with only a partial aeration of
the blood.
If the subject is considered according to our plans in
contriving and executing, there is thus a difficulty to bo
overcome in the case of the birds, similar to which no-
A HISTORY OF
s\ver to the fore-legs in quadrupeds, and at
(he extremity of this they have a certain fin-
ger-like appendix, which is usually called the
bastard- rv ing. This instrument of flight is
furnisned. with quills, which differ from the
common feathers only in their size being lar-
ger, and also from their springing from the
deeper part of the skin, their shafts lying al-
most close to the bone. The beards of these
quills are broad on one side and more narrow
on the other, both which contribute to the pro-
gressive motion of the bird, and the closeness
of the wing. The manner in which most
birds avail themselves of these, is first thus:
they quit the earth with a bound, in order to
have room for flapping with the wing ; when
they have room for this, they strike the body
of air beneath the wing with a violent motion,
and with the whole under surface of the same ;
but then to avoid striking the air with equal
violence on the upper side as they rise, the
wing is instantly contracted ; so that the ani-
mal rises by the impulse, till it spreads the
wing for a second blow. For this reason, we
always see the birds choose to rise against the
wind, because they have thus a greater body
of air on the under than the upper side of the
wing. For this reason also large fowls do
not rise easily ; both because they have not
sufficient room at first for the motion of their
wings, and because the body of air does not
lie so directly under the wing as they rise.
In order to move the wings, all birds are
furnished with two very strong pectoral mus-
thing occurs in that of any of the other vertebrated ani-
mals. They stand more in need of the action of the air
than any other animals; and their habits are such, that
they are less able to bear even the same action, by
means of the ordinary apparatus of lungs.
The means by which the action of the air on the blood
of birds is rendered equal to the rapidity in circulation,
and consequent necessity of vital repair in that fluid,
without the painful fatigue of ever-panting lungs, is
made, like all other contrivances in nature, to answer
other important purposes at the same time. The lungs
of birds are ample in their dimensions, and have the cells
into which air is admitted larger than in the mammalia;
and they are kept in their places by being fastened to
the bones. Ramifications extend from them in tubes
and cells through the whole cavity of the body, into the
hollows of the bones, and, in short, along the course of
every artery which is not immediately embedded in
those muscles which are in action during the violent ex-
ertions of the bird. The blood-vessels in these muscles
are fewer than those in the muscles of the mammalia, as
any one may infer from the greater rigidity of their tex-
ture, and the whiteness of their colour. Thus, there is
not a blood-vessel of any considerable size in the whole
body of a bird, to the coats of which the air has not ac-
cess during the greater part of their course; and thus
the real action of breathing in birds is not concentrated
into one organ, to be toiling and panting there, as it
would be in the lungs of the mammalia, but distributed
over the whole circulation, and consequently diminished
in local intensity in proportion as it extended over a
greater surface. — Mudic's Natural History of Birds.
clcs, which lie on each side of the breastbone.
The pectoral muscles of quadrupeds, are trill-
ing in comparison to those of birds. In quad-
rupeds, as well as in man, the muscles which
move the thighs and hinder parts of the body
are by far the strongest, while those of the
arms are feeble; but in birds, which make
use of their wings, the contrary obtains ; the
pectoral muscles, that move the wings or
arms, are of enormous strength, while those of
the thighs are weak and slender. By means
of these, a bird can mo<re its wings with a de-
gree of strength which, when compared to the
animal's size, is almost incredible. The flap
of a swan's wing would break a man's leg ;
and a similar blow from an eagle has been
known to lay a man dead in an instant. Such,
consequently, is the force of the wing, and
such its lightness, as to be inimitable by art.
No machines, that human skill can contrive,
are capable of giving such force to so light an
apparatus. The art of flying, therefore, that
has so often and so fruitlessly been sought
after, must, it is feared, for ever be unattain-
able ; since as man increases the force of his
flying machine, he must be obliged to in-
crease its weight also.
In all birds, except nocturnal ones, the
head is smaller, and bears less proportion to
the body than in quadrupeds, that it may more
readily divide the air in flying, and make
way for the body, so as to render its passage
more easy. Their eyes also are more flat and
depressed than in quadrupeds ; a circle of
small plates of bone, placed scalewise, under
the outer coat of the organ, encompasses the
pupil on each, to strengthen and defend it
from injuries. Besides this, birds have a kind
of skin, called the nictitating membrane, with
which, like a vail, they can at pleasure cover
their eyes, though their eye-lids continue
open. This membrane takes its rise from the
greater or more obtuse corner of the eye, and
serves to wipe, cleanse, and probably to mois-
ten its surface. The eyes, though they out-
wardly appear but small, yet, separately, each
almost equals the brain ; whereas in man the
brain is more than twenty times larger than
the orbit of the eye. Nor is this organ in
birds less adapted for vision by a particular
expansion of the optic nerve, which renders
the impressions of external objects more vivid
and distinct.
From this conformation of the eye it fol-
lows, that the sense of seeing in birds is infi-
nitely superior to that of other animals. In-
deed this piercing sight seems necessary to
the creature's support and safety. Were this
organ blunter, from the rapidity of the bird's
motion, it would be apt to strike against every
object in its way ; and it could scarcely find
subsistence, unless possessed of a power to
BIRDS IN GENERAL.
discern its food from above with astonishing
sagacity. A hawk, for instance, perceives
a lark at a distance which neither men nor
dogs could spy ; a kite, from an almost im-
perceptible height in the clouds, darts down
on its prey with the most unerring aim. The
sight of birds, therefore, exceeds what we
know in most other animals, and excels them
both in strength and precision.
All birds want the external ear standing
out from the head ; they are only furnished
with holes that convey sounds to the auditory
canal. It is true, indeed, that the horned
owl, and one or two more birds, seem to have
external ears ; but what bears that resem-
blance are only feathers sticking out on each
side of the head, but no way necessary to the
sense of hearing. It is probable, however,
that the feathers encompassing the ear-hole*
in birds, supply the defect of the exterior car,
and collect sounds to be transmitted to the in-
ternal sensory. The extreme delicacy of this
organ is easily proved by the readiness with
which birds learn tunes, or repeat words, and
the great exactness of their pronunciation.
The sense of smelling seems not less vivid
in the generality of birds. Many of them
wind their prey at an immense distance, while
others are equally protected by this sense
against their insidious pursuers. In decoys,
where ducks are caught, the men who attend
them universally keep a piece of turf burning
near their mouths, upon which they breathe,
lest the fowl should smell them, and conse-
quently fly away. The universality of this
practice puts the necessity of it beyond a
doubt, and proves the extreme delicacy of the
sense of smelling, at least in this species of
the feathered creation.
Next to the parts for flight, let us view the
legs and feet ministering to motion. They
are both made light, for the easier transporta-
tion through the air. The toes in some are
webbed, to fit them for the waters; in others
they are separate, for the better holding ob-
jects, or clinging to trees for safety. Such as
have long legs have also long necks, as other-
wise they would be incapable of gathering up
their food either by land or water. But it does
not hold, however, that those who have long
necks should have long legs, since we see that
swans and geese, whose necks are extremely
long, have very short legs, and these chiefly
employed in swimming.
Thus every external part, hitherto noticed,
appears adapted to the life and situation of the
animal ; nor are the inward parts, though less
immediately appropriated to flight, less ne-
cessary to safety. The bones of every part
of the body are extremely light and thin ; and
all the muscles, except that immediately mov-
ing the wings, extremely slight and feeble.
The tail, which is composed of quill feathers,
serves to counterbalance the head and neck ;
it guides the animal's flight, like a rudder,
and greatly assists it either in its ascent or
when descending.
If we go on to examine birds internally,
we shall find the same wonderful conformation
fitting them for a life in air, and increasing
the surface by diminishing the solidity. In
the first place their lungs, which are common-
ly called the sole, stick fast tcr tire sides of the
ribs and back, and can be very little dilated
or contracted. But to make up for this,
which might impede their breathing, the ends
of the branches of the wind-pipe open into
them, while these have openings into the ca-
vity of the belly, and convey the air drawn
in by breathing into certain receptacles like
bladders, running along the length of the
whole body. Nor are these openings obscure,
or difficult to be discerned ; for a probe thrust
into the lungs of a fowl will easily find a pas-
sage into the belly ; and air blown into the
wind-pipe will be seen to distend the animal's
body like a bladder. In quadrupeds this pas-
sage is stopped by the midriff; but in fowls
the communication is obvious; and, conse-
quently, they have a much greater facility of
taking a long and large inspiration. It is
sometimes also seen that the wind-pipe makes
many convolutions within the body of a bird,
and it is then called the labyrinth ; but of
what use these convolutions are, or why the
wind-pipe should make so many turnings
within the body of some birds, is a difficulty
for which no naturalist has been able to ac-
count.
This difference of the wind-pipe often ob-
tains in animals that, to all appearance, are of
the same species. Thus in the tame swan,
the wind-pipe makes but a straight passage
into the lungs ; while in the wild swan, which
to all external appearance seems the same
animal, the wind-pipe pierces through the
breast-bone, and there has several turnings
before it comes out again, and goes to enter
the lungs. It is not to form the voice that
these turnings are found, since the fowls that
are without them are vocal; and those, parti-
cularly the bird just now mentioned, that have
them, are silent. Whence, therefore, some
birds derive that loud and various modulation
in their warblings, is not easily to be account-
ed for ; at least the knife of the anatomist
goes but a short way in the investigation.
All we are certain of is, that birds have much
louder voices, in respect to their bulk, than
animals of any other kind ; for the bellowing
of an ox is not louder than the scream of a
peacock.
In these particulars, birds pretty much re-
semble each other in their internal conibrma-
A HISTORY OF
turn ; but there are some varieties which we
should more attentively observe. All birds
have, properly speaking, but one stomach ;
but this is very different in different kinds.
In all the rapacious kinds that live upon ani
mal food, as well as in some of the fish-feed-
ing tribe, the stomach is peculiarly formed.
The oesophagus, or gullet, in them, is found
replete with glandulous bodies, which serve
to dilate and macerate the food, as it passes
into the stomach, which is always very large
in proportion to the size of the bird, and ge-
nerally wrapped round with fat, in order to
increase its warmth and powers of digestion.
Granivorous birds, or such as live upon
fruits, corn, and other vegetables, have their
intestines differently formed from those of the
rapacious kind. Their gullet dilates just
above the breast-bone, and forms itself into a
pouch or bag, called the crop. This is re-
plete with salivary glands, which serve to
moisten and soften the grain and other food
which it contains. These glands are very
numerous, with longitudinal openings, which
emit a whitish and a viscous substance. Af-
ter the dry food of the bird has been macera-
ted for a convenient time, it then passes into
the belly, where, instead of a soft, moist sto-
mach, as in the rapacious kinds, it is ground
between two pair of muscles, commonly called
the gizzard, covered on the inside with a
stony, ridgy coat, and almost cartilaginous.
These coats rubbing against each other, are
capable of bruising and attenuating the hard-
est substances, their action being often com-
pared to that of the grinding teeth in man and
other animals. Thus the organs of digestion
are in a manner reversed in birds. Beasts
grind their food with their teeth, and then it
passes into the stomach, where it is softened
and digested. On the contrary, birds of this
sort, first macerate and soften it in the crop,
and then it is ground and comminuted in the
stomach and gizzard. Birds are also careful
to pick up sand, gravel, and other hard sub-
stances, not to grind their food as has been
supposed, but to prevent the too violent action
of the coats of the stomach against each other.
Most birds have two appendices, or blind-
guts, which, in quadrupeds, are always found
single. Among such birds as are thus sup
plied, all carnivorous fowl, and all birds of
the sparrow kind, have very small and short
ones ; water-fowl and birds of the poultry
kind, the longest of all. There is still another
appendix observable in the intestines of birds,
resembling a little worm, which is nothing
more than the remainder of that passage by
which the yolk was conveyed into the guts of
the young chicken, while yet in the egg and
under incubation.
The outlet of that duct which conveys the
bile into the intestines is, in most birds, a
great way distant from the stomach ; which
may arise from the danger there would be of
the bile regurgitating into the stomach in
their various rapid motions, as we see in men
at sea ; wherefore their biliary duct is so
contrived, that this regurgitation cannot take
place.
All birds, though they want a bladder for
urine, have large kidneys and ureters, by
which this secretion is made,- and carried
away by one common canal, " Birds," says
Harvey, " as well as serpents, which have
spongy lungs, make but little water, because
they drink but little. — They therefore have
no need of a bladder ; but their urine distils
down into the common canal, designed for re-
ceiving the other excrements of the body.
The urine of birds differs from that of other
animals : for, as there is usually in urine two
parts, one more serous and liquid, the other
more thick and gross, which subsides to the
bottom ; in birds, the last part is most abun-
dant, and is distinguished from the rest by its
white or silver colour. This part is found not
only in the whole intestinal canal, but is seen
also in the whole channel of the ureters, which
may be distinguished from the coats of the
kidneys by their whiteness. This milky sub-
stance they have in greater plenty than the
more thin and serous part ; and it is of a
middle consistence, between limpid urine and
the grosser parts of the faeces. In passing
through the ureters, it resembles milk curdled
or lightly condensed ; and, being cast forth,
easily congeals into a chalky crust."
From this simple conformation of the ani-
mal, it should seem that birds are subject to
few diseases ; and, in fact, they have but few.
There is one, however, which they are subject
to, from which quadrupeds are, in a great
measure, exempt ; this is the annual moulting
which they suffer ; for all birds whatsoever
obtain a new covering of feathers once a year,
and cast the old. During the moulting sea-
son they ever appear disordered ; those most
remarkable for their courage, then lose all
their fierceness ; and such as are of a weakly
constitution, often expire under this natural
operation. No feeding can maintain their
strength ; they all cease to breed at this sea-
son ; that nourishment which goes to the pro-
duction of the young is wholly absorbed by
the demand required for supplying the nas-
cent plumage.
This moulting-time, however, may be arti-
ficially accelerated ; and those who have the
management of singing-birds frequently put
their secret in practice. They inclose the
bird in a dark cage, where they keep it ex-
cessively warm, and throw the poor little ani.
mal into an artificial fever ; this produces (he
BIRDS IN GENERAL.
moult; his old feathers fall before their time,
and a new set take place, more brilliant and
beautiful than the former. They add, that it
mends the bird's singing, and increases its
vivacity; but it must not be concealed, that
scarcely one bird in three survives the opera-
tion.
The manner in which nature performs this
operation of moulting is thus : the quill, or
feather, when first protruded from the skin,
and come to its full size, grows harder as it
grows older, and receives a kind of periosteum
or skin round the shaft, by which it seems
attached to the animal. In proportion as
the quill grows older, its sides, or the bony
part, thicken ; but its whole diameter shrinks
and decreases. Thus, by the thickening of
its sides, all nourishment from the body be-
comes more sparing ; and, by the decrease of
its diameter, it becomes more loosely fixed in
its socket, till at length it falls out. In the
mean time, the rudiments of an incipient quill
are beginning below. The skin forms itself
into a little bag, which is fed from the body
by a small vein and artery, and which every
day increases in size till it is protruded.
While the one end vegetates into the beard
or vane of the feather, that part attached to
the skin is still soft, and receives a constant
supply of nourishment, which is diffused
through the body of the quill by that little light
substance which we always rind within when
we make a pen. This substance, which as
yet has received no name that I know of,
serves the growing quill as the umbilical ar-
tery does an infant in the womb, by supply-
ing it with nourishment, and diffusing that
nourishment over the whole frame. When,
however, the quill is come to its full growth,
and requires no further nourishment, the vein
and artery become less and less, till at last
the little opening by which they communica-
ted with the quill becomes wholly obliterated;
and the quill, thus deprived, continues in its
socket for some months, till in the end it
shrinks, and leaves room for a repetition of the
same process of nature as before.
The moulting season commonly obtains
from the end of summer to the middle of au-
tumn. The bird continues to struggle with
this malady during the winter ; and Nature
has kindly provided, that when there are the
fewest provisions, that then the animal's ap-
petite shall be least craving. At the begin-
ning of spring, when food begins again to be
plentiful, the animal's strength and vigour re-
turn. It is then that the abundance of provi-
sions, aided by the mildness of the season, in-
cite it to love, and all Nature seems teeming
with life, and disposed to continue it.1
1 Prnft'sscr Blumenbach of Gottingen, in his admir-
CHAP. II.
OF THE GENERATION, NESTLING, AND
INCUBATION OF BIRDS.
THE return of spring is the beginning of
pleasure. Those vital spirits, which seemed
able Manual of the Elements of Natural History, gives
the following description of the characteristic qualities of
birds. As a summary of all that can be said on the
subject, we consider it to stand unrivalled. With re-
gard to form, he says, all birds coincide in having two
feet, two ivings, a bill, either partly or entirely horny, and
a body covered with feathers. They are distinguished
by these four characters from all other animals, and con-
stitute as it were an isolated class of beings, which does
not pass into any other, and which cannot, therefore, be
introduced without violence into the supposed chain or
gradation of natural bodies.
Of these characters, one is peculiar to birds, viz. fea-
thers placed in regular order (in quincunx,) in the skin,
passing through a considerable quantity of fat, and thrown
oft" and again renewed at certain seasons of the year,
generally in autumn. Many, such as most water-fowl,
the ptarmigan, &c., moult twice in the year, in autumn
and in spring. In many species, the young birds, par-
ticularly before the first moulting, have different marks
or colours of the feathers, from those which the older
ones present. In many instances too, there are con-
siderable differences depending on the sex. The fea-
thers dirler from hair in this respect, that when once
cut or otherwise injured, they never, as far as is known,
are restored.
The strongest feathers are in the pinions and tail:
the former are called Remiges, the latter Rectrices.
The pinion-feathers form, when the wing is expanded,
as it were, broad fans, by which the bird is enabled to
raise itself in the air_ and fly. Some few birds (aves
impennes), as the penguin, &c., have scarcely any pinion-
feathers, and are therefore unfit for flight. Some others
also, as the cassowary, diver, &c., have not any tail-
feathers.
In their internal structure, birds are distinguished by
the remarkable receptacles for air dispersed through
their body, and of the utmost importance in assisting
their flight. They are mostly connected with the lungs,
sometimes, however, only with the throat, and can be
filled or emptied at pleasure. To these receptacles be-
long, in particular, large but delicate membranous cells,
situated partly in the abdomen, partly under the wings,
and elsewhere beneath the skin, and which can be filled
with air through the lungs. The cavities in some of
the bones, as of the shoulder, and in many cases even of
the head, contribute to the same objects, to which, also,
the enormous bills of the toucan and rhinoceros bird are
accessary.
By these notable dispositions, birds are adapted for
flight, of which the rapidity, as well as the continuance
are alike remarkable. A few only, as the ostrich, the
cassowary, penguin, and other aves impennes, are incap-
able of flying.
The abode of birds is nearly as various as that of
mammifera. Most live in trees: others in water; very
few wholly on the ground: and not a single bird undt-i
ground. The form of the foot in birds, as in mammifera,
is adapted to the difference of their abodes.
Many birds change their residence at certain seasons ;
the greater number only in so far as that they remove a
few leagues into neighbouring districts, and speedily
return to their former situation: others, on the contrary.
8
HISTORY OF
locked up during the winter, then begin to
expand ; vegetables and insects supply abun-
dance of food ; and the bird, having more
than a sufficiency for its own subsistence, is
as swallows, the crane, the stork, &c., make long jour-
neys in autumn over seas, and a considerable portion of
the earth, and remain in warmer regions during winter,
until their return in the following spring.
There is not any bird provided with teeth, but they
either tear their food with the beak, or swallow it whole.
In birds that live on seeds, and swallow the grains un-
broken, they do not pass at once into the stomach, but
are previously softened in a crop ( ingluvies, prolobus)
abounding with glands, and thence are gradually pro-
pelled into the stomach. The latter is in these animals
extremely muscular, and so powerful, that, according to
the remarkable experiments of Reaumur and others, it
is able to break nuts and olive kernels, and to wear the
impressions on pieces of money as smooth as paper. In
addition, many birds swallow little pebbles, which also
contribute to the division and subsequent digestion of
their food.* Various carnivorous birds, as falcons, owls,
the king-fisher, &c., are unable to digest the b( nes, hair,
&c., of their prey, but vomit them up after each meal,
in the form of a round ball.f
Among the peculiarities of the organs of sense in
birds, as compared -with mammifera, are the want of an
external cartilaginous ear, for the purpose of collecting
sounds, a deficiency, however, which is compensated
for, especially in nocturnal birds of prey, by the ex-
tremely regular circular disposition of the feathers in
the situation of the ear, and in many, by the super-addi-
tion of a movable valve on the external auditory passage.
Only a very few birds, viz. ducks, and some similar
species, appear to possess a real sense of taste : in them
the organ is the soft covering of the bill, which is sup-
plied with exceedingly large cutaneous nerves, and is
very sensible in the living animal. Accordingly it is
easy to remark the manner in which ducks probe, as it
were, the puddles in search of their food, where they
cannot be guided by their sight or smell.
The voice of birds, particularly the small singing
birds, is varied and agreeable; but they cannot be so
correctly said to sing as to whistle, for natural singing
is an exclusive privilege of man. Besides the recep-
tacles of air already mentioned, their song is accom-
plished particularly by the disposition of the larynx,
which in birds is not, as in mammifera and amphibia,
placed wholly at the upper end of the wind-pipe, but, as
it were, separated into two parts, one placed at each
extremity. Parrots, ravens, starlings, bull-finches, &c.
have been taught to imitate the human voice, and to
speak some words ; singing birds also, in captivity,
readily adopt the song of others, learn tunes, and can
even be made to sing in company, so that it has been
possible actually to give a little concert by several
bullfinches. In general, however, the song of birds in
the wild state appears to be formed by practice and imi-
tation.
Most birds pair in spring ; many, however, as the
cross-bill, at the coldest season of the year, after Christ-
mas. Our domestic poultry are not confined to any
particular time in this respect, hut are always capable of
* Physiologists have differed as to the object and use for
which stones arc thus swallowed. Many have even supposed
that it proceeds from stupidity. According1 to my own inves-
t From a similar source, arise the star-shoots, as they are
called, viz. the greyish-white, gelatinous lumps, commonly
with the convoluted form of intestines, found in meadows, and
consisting of half-digested viscera of .frogs, which have been
rejected by crows, marsh and « ater birds. See I)r Persoon,
in Voigt's Neues Magazin, Vol. I. Part 2. p. 56. et seq.
impelled to transfuse life, as well as to main
tain it. Those warblings, which had been
hushed during the colder seasons, now begin
to animate the fields ; every grove and bush
breeding. Some birds remain in company only during
the time of pairing ; others, as the dove, and house
swallow, constantly; others again, as the domestic fowl,
and of wild birds, the ostrich, are polygamous.
The female, when impregnated, is impelled by in-
stinct to provide for the future, and to build a nest, to
which perhaps, besides the cuckoo, there are very few
exceptions, such as the goatsucker. Among polygamous
birds, such as the various kinds of poultry, the male has
no share in this business; in those, on the contrary,
which live together, as among the singing birds in par-
ticular, he also brings materials for constructing the
nest, and feeds his mate during her employment.
The selection of the place in which each species forms
its nest, corresponds with its wants and mode of life.
Equal care is shown by each in the choice of materials
for the composition of the nest.
The form of the nest is, in different instances, more
or less artificial. Many birds, as snipes, the bustard,
and lapwing, make merely a dry layer of brushwood,
straw, &c., on the surface of the ground ; others make a
soft but unartificial bed in the holes of walls, rocks, or
trees, as the woodpecker, jay, jackdaw, and sparrow.
Many, particularly among the gallinze, doves, and sing-
ing birds, give their nests the form of a hemisphere, or
of a plate ; others, as the wren, the shape of an oven ;
others again, as many titmice, the hawfinch, &c., that of
a bag, and so forth.
When the formation of the nest is completed the
mother lays her eggs, the number of which varies much
in different species. Many water-birds, for instance,
lay each time but one egg ; most doves, two ; gulls,
three; ravens, four; finches, five; swallows, six to
eight; partridges and quails, fourteen; and the do-
mestic fowl, particularly when its eggs are taken away,
fifty and more.J Many birds often lay eggs without
previous impregnation, which cannot produce young, and
are called wind-eggs (ova subventanea, cynosura, zeptiy-
ria, hypenemia.)
The formation of the young animal, which in mam-
mifera is carried on in the womb, in birds, on the
contrary, is completed by the incubation of the egg
after it has been deposited. The cuckoo alone does not
hatch its eggs, but leaves them to the hedge-sparrow, or
water-wagtail, in whose nests it lays them. On '-the
other hand, it is kno\>n that capons, dogs, and even
men, have hatched eggs.$ Chickens too, can be easily
hatched by artificial mians merely, from heated dung,
the lamps of hatching machines, or ovens. Birds are
fatigued by long continued incubation; and it is only
among those which li\e in pairs, as doves, swallows,
&c., that the male takes any part in the business. The
cocks of the canary bird, linnet, goldfinch, &c., though
they leave the hatching altogether to the females, supply
them during its continuance with food, and in part from
their own crop.
During incubation, a remarkable process is going
forwards, the chick being progressively formed in the
egg, and brought daily nearer and nearer to maturity.
For this purpose, not only is the yolk specifically lighter
than the white, hut also that spot on its upper surface
(the so called cicatricula,') in which the future chick is
t In this case too, the laying of esro;s appears to be a volun-
tary function, in which respect it differs remarkably from tho
totallv involuntary parturition of mammifera.
§ Plin. L. 10. Cap. 55. " Livia Augusta, prima sua jiiventa
TilM'rio Cwsare ex Nerone gravida. cum parere virilemsex a
admodum cuperet, hoc. lisa est puellari aiigurio, ovum in sinn
fovendo, atque cum deponendum haberet, nutriei per sinum
tradendo, ne intermitteretur tepor."
BIRDS IN GENERAL.
resounds with the challenge of anger, or the
call of allurement. This delightful concert
of the grove, which is so much admired by
man, is no way studied for his amusement : it
is usually the call of the male to the female ;
his efforts to soothe her during the times of
placed, is lighter than the opposite side; so that in
whatever position the egg is placed, the same part is
always opposed to the belly of the incubating bird. The
first trace of the chick is not perceptible until some time
after the commencement of incubation; in the hen's
egg, for instance, scarcely before the end of the first
day j and at the end of the second, the remarkable spec-
tacle of the first motions of the incomplete heart
(punctum saliens) presents itself. At the end of the
fifth day, the whole jelly-like creature may be seen to
move. On the fourteenth, the feathers appear ; at the
commencement of the fifteenth the chick attempts to
breathe ; and on the nineteenth it is able to chirp.
The first form which the bird assumes in the egg
differs more from that which it possesses after being
hatched, than mammifera do in their first and subsequent
form ; we might say that the chick in the egg arrives at
its more perfect form by a real metamorphosis, and this
as well with respect to individual organs, (the heart for
example,) as the whole form.
Among the many organs subservient to the remarkable
economy of the chick during incubation, the two most
important are the vascular membranes, which are most
conspicuous and beautiful about the middle of the pro-
cess. These are the chorion, which is then expanded
under the shell ; and the membrane of the yolk (mem-
brana valvulosa vitelli,") which communicates with the
intestinal canal of the young animal. The first serves
instead of lungs, for the phlogistic process already men-
tioned : and the second for nutrition by means of the
yolk, which is gradually diluted by mixing with the
white.
Every species of bird has a fixed time of incubation,
of different length in different cases, and capable of
being accelerated or retarded according to the difference
of climate, and the warmth or coldness of the weather.
In the common fowl, the chick is usually able to creep
out of the shell about the end of the twenty-first day.
The young birds are fed for some time by the mother
with great care ; and among those which live in mono-
gamy, also by the father, principally, in the granivorous
birds, with the regurgitated contents of the crop, until
such time as they are feathered, and capable of provid-
ing for themselves.
Birds, in proportion to their size, and as compared
with mammifera, attain a very advanced age : it is
known that, even in captivity, eagles and parrots will
live more than a hundred, chaffinches and goldfinches
more than twenty-four years.
Birds are extremely important creatures for the eco-
nomy of nature in general, although their immediate
utility to mankind is infinitely less than that of mammi-
fera. Tney destroy innumerable insects, and the
thoughtless extirpation of some birds, supposed to be
noxious, as sparrows, crows, &c., in many districts, has
generally given rise to an infinitely more prejudicial
multiplication of vermin. Other birds destroy larger
animals, as field mice, snakes, frogs, lizards, or consume
carrion. Many extirpate weeds. On the other hand,
they assist the increase and propagation of animals, as
well as plants. For instance, it is known that wild
ducks, in their emigrations, carry impregnated spawn
into remote ponds, &c., and thus stock them with fish.
Many birds swallow seeds, which are subsequently
expelled whole, and thus extensively dispersed, as the
doves of Banda with the nutmeg. The excrement of
VOL. n
incubation ; or it is a challenge between two
males, for the affections of some common fa-
vourite.
It is by this call that birds begin to pair at
the approach of spring, and provide for the
support of a future progeny. The loudest
sea-birds manures bare cliffs and coasts, so as to render
them capable of producing useful plants. Many species
of falcons may be taught for the chace, as well as the
cormorant for taking fish. Many birds, together with
their eggs, fat, &c., serve for food.; the entire skins of
sea-birds for the clothing of many northern nations; the
feathers for stuffing beds, for writing, for various and
often costly ornaments, in which respect also they form
an important article of trade among many savage people,
particularly the islanders of the Pacific ocean.
The injury which birds give rise to, is almost wholly
confined to the destruction of useful animals and plants.
The condor, the vulture, and other birds of prey, kill
calves, goats, sheep, &c. The osprey, and many water-
birds, are as injurious to fish and their young, as the
hawk, sparrow-hawk, and magpie, to common poultry.
Sparrows, and many small singing birds destroy corn,
grapes, and fruit. And lastly, they assist in propagat-
ing weeds as well as serviceable plants. Among birds,
no actually venomous animals are to be found.
As the general form of birds'is tolerably uniform, and
certain parts of their body, as the bill and feet, which
are connected with their mode of life, food, &c., influ-
ence their total habit very materially, most ornithologists
have grounded their classification on the differences of
one or other of those parts : Kleine, for instance, on
the form of the toes ; Mohring, on the coverings of the
legs ; Brisson, on both, in combination with the nature
of the bill, &c. Linnaeus, in the plan of his System of
Birds, also adopts several parts, in combination with, in
general, a reference to the total habit ; although in it«
practical application, he appears at times to have been
forgetful ; at least it is impossible to understand how
parrots, humming-birds, and crows, should be placed in
the same order ; or why he should have placed doves
and the common fowl in two separate ones, with other
approximations and divisions of the same nature.
I have, therefore, allowed myself to make some devia-
tions from the Linnean system, and endeavoured to
divide the whole class among the following nine orders.
LAND BIRDS.
I. ACCIPITRES. Birds of prey ; with strong hooked
beaks, mostly with short, strong, knotty feet, and
large crooked sharp claws.
II. LEVIROSTRES. With short feet, and very large,
thick, but mostly hollow, and therefore light,
bills. — Parrots, toucans, &c.
III. PICI. With short feet ; moderately long and small
bills, and the tongue sometimes worm-shaped,
sometimes thread-like. — The wry-neck, wood-
pecker, creeper, humming-bird, &c.
IV. CORACES. With short feet, and the bill moder-
ately long, tolerably strong, and convex above. —
Ravens, crows, &c.
V. PASSERKS. The singing birds, with swallows, &c.
The feet short, the bill more or less conical,
pointed, and of various length and thickness.
VI. GALLING. Birds with short feet, the bill some-
what convex above, and having a fleshy mem-
brane at the base. — I have placed the doves in
this order, as they are far more closely connected
with the Gallinae than the Passeres, among which
Liimteus had placed them.
VII. STRUTHIONES. Large land birds, unsuited for
flying — The ostrich, cassowary, and dodo.
10
A HISTORY OF
notes are usually from the male, while the
lien seldom expresses her consent, but in a
short interrupted twittering. This compact,
at least for the season, holds with unbroken
faith ; many birds live with inviolable fidelity
together for a constancy ; and when one dies,
the other is always seen to share the same fate
soon after. We must not take our idea of the
conjugal fidelity of birds from observing the
poultry in our yards, whose freedom is abridg-
ed, and whose manners are totally corrupted
by slavery. We must look for it in our fields
and our forests, where nature continues in
unadulterated simplicity; where the number
of males is generally equal to that of females ;
and where every little animal seems prouder
of his progeny, than pleased with his mate.
Were it possible to compare sensations, the
male of all wild birds seems as happy in the
young brood as the female ; and all his for-
mer caresses, all his soothing melodies, seem
only aimed at that important occasion, when
they are both to become parents, and to edu-
cate a progeny of their own producing. The
pleasures of love appear dull in their effects,
when compared to the interval immediately
after the exclusion of their young. They
both seem at that season transported with
pleasure; every action testifies their pride,
their importance, and tender solicitude.
When the business of fecundation is per-
formed, the female then begins to lay. Such
eggs as have been impregnated by the cock
are prolific : and such as have not, for she
lays often without any congress whatsoever,
continue barren, and are only addled by in-
cubation. Previous, however, to laying, the
work of nestling becomes the common care ;
and this is performed with no small degree of
assiduity and apparent design. It has been
asserted, that birds of one kind always make
their nests in the same manner, and of the
same materials ; hut the truth is that they vary
this as the materials, places, or climates, happen
to differ. The red-breast, in some parts of Eng-
land, makes its nest with oak leaves, where
they are in greatest plenty; in other parts,
with moss and hair. Some birds, that with
us make a very warm nest, are less solicitous
in the tropical climates, where the heat of the
weather promotes the business of incubation.
[n general, however, every species of birds
has a peculiar architecture of its own ; and
this is adapted to the number of eggs, the tem-
WATER BIRDS.
VIII. GRALL/E. Birds found in marshes, with long feet;
long, and almost cylindrical, bills, and generally
a long neck.
IX. ANSERES. Swimming birds with oar-like feet, a
short bill covered with skin, generally serrated
at the edge, and terminated at the extremity of
the upper jaw by a little hook.
perature of the climate, or the respective heat
of the little animal's own body. Where the
eggs are numerous, it is then incumbent to
make the nest warm, that the animal heat
may be equally diffused to them all. Thus
the wren, and all the small birds, make the
nest very warm ; for having many eggs, it is
requisite to distribute warmth to them in
common : on the contrary, the plover that has
but two eggs, the eagle, and the crow, are
not so solicitous in this respect, as their bodies
are capable of being applied to the small
number upon which they sit. With regard
to climate, water fowl, that with us make but
a very slovenly nest, are much more exact in
this particular in the colder regions of the
north. They there take every precaution to
make it warm ; and some kinds strip the
down from their breasts, to line it with greater
security.
1 The construction and selected situations of the nests
of birds, are as remarkable as the variety of materials
employed in them ; the same forms, places and articles,
being rarely, perhaps never, found united by the differ-
ent species, which we should suppose similar necessities
would direct to a uniform provision. Birds that buikl
early in the spring seem to require warmth and shelter
for their young; and the blackbird and the thrush line
their nests with a plaster of loam, perfectly excluding,
by these cottage-like walls, the keen icy gales of our
opening year ; yet should accident bereave the parents
of their first hopes, they will construct another, even
when summer is far advanced, upon the model of their
first erection, and with the same precautions against
severe weather, when all necessity for such provision has
ceased, and the usual temperature of the season rather
requires coolness and a free circulation of air. The
house sparrow will commonly build four or five times in
the year, and in a variety of situations, under the warm
eaves of our houses and our sheds, the branch of the
clustered fir, or the thick tall hedge that bounds our
garden, &c. ; in all which places, and without the least
consideration of site or season, it will collect a great mass
of straw and hay, and gather a profusion of feathers from
the poultry-yard to line its nest This cradle for its
young, whether under our tiles in March or in July,
when the parent bird is panting in the common heat of
the atmosphere, has the same provisions made to afford
warmth to the brood ; yet this is a bird that is little af-
fected by any of the extremes of our climate. The
wood pigeon and the jay, though they erect their fabrics
on the tall underwood in the open air, will construct
them so slightly, and with such a scanty provision of
materials, that they seem scarcely adequate to support
their broods, and even their eggs may almost be seen
through the loosely connected materials: but the gold-
finch, that inimitable spinner, the Arachne of the grove,
forms its cradle of fine mosses and lichens, collected
from the apple or the pear-tree, compact as a felt, lining
it with the down of thistles besides, till it is as warm as
any texture of the kind can be, and it becomes a model
for beautiful construction. The golden-crested wren, a
minute creature perfectly unmindful of any severity in
our winter, and which hatches its young in June, the
warmer portion of our year, yet builds its most beautiful
nest with the utmost attention to warmth ; and inweav-
ing small branches of moss with the web of the spider,
forms a closely compacted texture nearly an inch in
thickness, lining it with such a profusion of feathers,
BIRDS IN GENERAL.
11
In general, however, every bird resorts to
hatch in those climates and places where its
food is found in greatest plenty ; and always at
that season when provisions are in the greatest
that, sinking deep into this downy accumulation, it
seems almost lost itself when sitting, and the young
when hatched, appear stifled with the warmth of their
bedding and the heat of their apartment; while the
white-throat, the blackcap, and others, which will hatch
their young nearly at the same period, or in July, require
nothing of the kind. A few loose bents and goose-grass,
rudely entwined, with perhaps the luxury of some scat-
tered hairs, are perfectly sufficient for all the wants of
these ; yet they are birds that live only in genial tem-
peratures, feel nothing of the icy gales that are natural
to our pretty indigenous artists, but flit from sun to sun,
and we might suppose would require much warmth in
oar climate during the season of incubation ; but it is
not so. The greenfinch places its nest in the hedge with
little regard to concealment ; its fabric is slovenly and
i ude, and the materials of the coarsest kinds ; while the
chaffinch, just above it in the elm, hides its nest with
cautious care, and moulds it with the utmost attention
to order, neatness, and form. One bird must have a
hole in the ground ; to another a crevice in the wall, or
a chink in a tree, is indispensable. The bullfinch re-
quires fine roots for its nest ; the grey fly-catcher will
have cobwebs for the outworks of its shed. All the
parus tribe, except the individual above mentioned, select
some hollow in a tree or cranny in a wall ; and, shelter-
ed as such places must be, yet will they collect abun-
dance of feathers and warm materials for their infants'
bed. Endless examples might be found of the dissimi-
larity of requirements in these constructions among the
several associates of our groves, our hedges, and our
houses ; and yet the supposition cannot be entertained
for a moment that they are superfluous, or not essential
for some purpose with which we are unacquainted. By
how many of the ordinations of Supreme Intelligence is
our ignorance made manifest? Even the fabrication of
the nests of these little animals exceeds our comprehen-
sion— we know none of the causes or motives of that
un embodied mind that willed them thus. — Journal of a
Naturalist.
Professor Rennie, in his volume on the Architecture
of Birds, classes them according to their different styles
of workmanship. He makes twelve kinds. The first
division includes " mining-birds," such as the sand-
martin, which scoops out its nest in the escarpment of a
sand-pit or quarry: the burrowing-owl, the bee-eater,
and several others belong to this class. Next come the
"ground-builders," which construct a rude nest on the
Mirface, and select a spot possessing a temperature or
moisture favourable to the process of incubation. The
swallow furnishes the most striking example of the
operations of individuals which may appropriately be
termed " mason-birds." The thrush, and some others
which plaster the inside of their nests with clay, are
partially connected with this class. Afterwards come
birds which employs their bills as a tool for cutting out
or excavating their nests. The practice of the wood-
peckers in boring and chiselling a hole in which to shel-
ter the young brood, using means analogous to those
which the carpenter employs, obviously suggests the
idea of classing them, with some others of similar ha-
bits, as " carpenter-birds." Those birds, the natural
heat of whose body is very great, and who seldom have
more than a couple of eggs each sitting, take little trou-
ble in the construction of their nests. They are of the
simplest and rudest form, and consist only of a few
sticks loosely laid together. They are termed " plat-
form-builders," this term being really descriptive ol
their breeding-places. The ring-dove, stock dove, and
abundance. The large birds, and those of
the aquatic kinds, choose places as remote
from man as possible, as their food is in gene-
ral different from that which is cultivated by
Mgeons generally, with the golden eagle, the osprey,
:he heron, the stork and the crane are platform-builders.
Among the ruins of Persepolis the stork frequently
juilds its nest on the top of a perfectly flat column.
The birds whose nests resemble basket-work are a large
lass ; and the materials made use of vary from dried
;wigs, which form the outwork and are without flexibi-
ity, to carpenter's shaviugs, delicate "fibrous roots, grass
both coarse and fine, and horse-hair. The degree of art
with which the " basket-making birds " employ their
materials is not less various. Other birds weave the
materials of their nests together in the neatest man-
ner: the nests of the hedge-sparrow and wagtail afford
the most familiar examples of the art of the " weaver-
birds."
The art of the tailor seems more unlikely to be prac-
tised by a bird than that of the weaver. There are,
lowever, several varieties included amongst the " tailor-
jirds." The orchard-starling of the United States
:orms the external part of its nest of a particular species
of long, tough, and flexible grass, "knit or sewed,"
says Wilson in his ' American Ornithology,' " through
and through in a thousand directions, as if actually done
with a needle." He relates that an old lady of his ac-
quaintance, to whom he was once showing this curious
fabrication, asked him, in a tone between joke and earn-
est, whether he did not think it possible to learn these
birds to darn stockings ? The nest of the orchard-star-
ling is hemispherical, three inches deep by four in
breadth ; the concavity scarcely two inches deep by two
in diameter. The enthusiastic ornithologist whom we
have quoted says, " I had the curiosity to detach one of
the fibres, or stalks, of dried grass from the nest, and
found it to measure thirteen inches in length ; and in
that distance it was thirty-four times hooked through
and returned, winding round and round the nest."
The tailor-bird of India is described by some naturalists
as actually picking up a dead leaf, and forming a nest by
sewing it with some fine fibres to the side of a living
leaf. Three nests so formed are to be seen in the Brit-
ish Museum. Forbes has described in his ' Oriental
Memoirs,' from personal observation, the ingenuity of
the tailor-bird. " It first," he says, "selects a plant
with large leaves, and then gathers cotton from the
shrub, spins it to a thread by means of its long bill and
slender feet, and then, as with a needle, sews the leaves
neatly together to conceal its nest."
The idea that man learned some of the useful arts
from observation of the habits of other animate beings
is not true in any extensive sense. Instinct pointed out
to the class termed " felt-making birds " the suitability
of the materials which they select for weaving or uniting
into a continuous mass. The nest of the capocier, an
American bird, which was examined by Wilson, is de-
scribed by him as so " neatly worked and felted together,
that it might have been taken for a piece of fine cloth a
little worn." Man was long before he employed the
same materials in the manufacture of cloth, and it is
only by the aid of the microscope that he has been able
to discover the cause which adapts them for this purpose,
and the true character of their felting properties. The
" felt-making birds " availed themselves of these pro-
perties from the creation.
The nests of the esculent swallow of Java are an arti-
cle of commercial importance, the nests themselves being
edible, and considered as a luxury and restorative. These
nests are supposed to be composed of oceanic vegetables,
whose principle being highly gelatinous, and cemented
with the salivary gluten of the bird, form a sort of edi-
12
A HISTORY OF
human labour. Some birds, which have only
the serpent to fear, build their nests depend-
ing from the end of a small bough, and form
the entrance from below ; being thus secured
either from the serpent or the monkey tribes.
But all the little birds which live upon fruits
and corn, and that are too often unwelcome
intruders upon the fruits of human industry,
in making tljeir nests, use every precaution
to conceal them from man. On the other
hand, the great birds remote from human so-
ciety, use every precaution to render theirs
inaccessible to wild beasts or vermin.
Nothing can exceed the patience of birds
while hatching ; neither the calls of hunger,
nor the near approach of danger, can drive
them from the nest. They are often fat upon
beginning to sit, yet before incubation is over,
the female is usually wasted to skin and bone.
Ravens and crows, while the females are sit-
ting, take care to provide them with food ;
and this in great abundance. But it is differ-
ent with most of the smaller kinds ; during
the whole time, the male sits near his mate
upon some tree, and soothes her by his sing-
ing; and often when she is tired takes her
place and patiently continues upon the nest
till she returns. Sometimes, however, the
eggs acquire a degree of heat too much for the
purposes of hatching ; in such cases, the hen
leaves them to cool a little, and then returns
to sit with her usual perseverance and plea-
sure.
So great is the power of instinct, in animals
of this class, that they seem driven from one
appetite to another, and continue almost pas-
sive under its influence. Reason we cannot
call it, since the first dictates of that principle
would be self-preservation :— " Take a brute,"
says Addison, " out of his instinct, and you
find him wholly deprived of understanding.
With what caution," continues he, "does the
hen provide herself with a nest in places unfre-
quented, and free from noise and disturbance!
When she has laid her eggs in such a man-
ner that she can cover them, what care does
she take in turning them frequently, that all
parts may partake of the vital warmth ! When
she leaves them, to provide for her necessary
sustenance, how punctually does she return
before they have time to cool, and become in-
capable of producing an animal ! In the sum-
mer you see her giving herself greater free-
doms, and quitting her care for above two
hie paste. Other birds whose nests are tempered by
cement produced by a glutinous matter which the bird
secretes and mixes with saliva, are, with the Java swal-
low, classed as "cementers." The "dome-builders"
include several of our most familiar birds- — as the
magpie, the wren, the sparrow. Lastly come birds
which build no nest at all, but deposit their eggs in the
nest of some other bird.
hours together : but in winter, when the ri-
gour of the season would chill the principles
of life, and destroy the young one, she grows
more assiduous in her attendance, and stays
away but half the time. When the birth ap-
proaches, with how much nicety and attention
does she help the chick to break the prison !
not to take notice of her covering it from the
injuries of the weather, providing it with pro-
per nourishment, and teaching it to help it-
self; nor to mention her forsaking the nest, if,
after the usual time of reckoning, the young
one does not make its appearance. A chemi-
cal operation could not be followed with great-
er art or diligence than is seen in the hatching
a chick, though there are many birds that
show an infinitely greater sagacity : yet at the
same time the hen, that has all this seeming
ingenuity, (which is indeed absolutely neces-
sary for the propagation of the species,) con-
sidered in other respects, is without the least
glimmerings of thought or common sense : she
mistakes a piece of chalk for an egg, and sits
upon it in the same manner ; she is insensible
of any increase or diminution in the number
of those she lays ; she does not distinguish
between her own, and those of another spe-
cies ; and when the birth appears of never so
different a bird, will cherish it for her own.
A hen, followed by a brood of ducks, shall
stand affrighted at the edge of the pond trem-
bling for the fate of her young, which she
sees venturing into so dangerous an element.
As the different principle which acts in these
different animals cannot be termed reason, so
when we call it instinct, we mean something
we have no knowledge of. It appears to me
the immediate direction of Providence ; and
such an operation of the Supreme Being, as
that which determines all the portions of mat-
ter to their proper centres."
The production of the young, as was said,
seems to be the great era of a bird's hap-
piness. Nothing can at that time exceed its
spirit and industry : the most timid becomes
courageous in the defence of its young. Birds
of the rapacious kind, at this season, become
more than usually fierce and active. They
carry their prey, yet throbbing with life, to
the nest, and early accustom their young to
habits of slaughter and cruelty. Nor are
those of milder natures less busily employed ;
the little birds then discontinue their singing,
taken up with more important pursuits of com-
mon subsistence.1
1 There cannot be any question of the immense number
of insects required by birds during the breeding season.
It is stated by Birigly, that a pair of small American
birds, conjectured to be the house-wren, were observed to
leave the nest and return with insects from forty to sixty
times in an hour, and that in one particular hour, they
carried food no fewer than seventy-one times. In this
BIRDS IN GENERAL.
13
While the young are yet unfledged, and
continue in the nest, the old ones take care to
provide them with a regular supply ; and, lest
one should take all nourishment from the rest,
they feed each of the young in their turn. If
they perceive that man has been busy with
their nest, or has handled the little ones, they
abandon the place by night, and provide their
brood a more secure , though less commodious
retreat. When the whole family is com.
pletely plumed, and capable of avoiding dan-
ger by flight ; they are then led forth when
the weather is fine, and taught the paternal
art of providing for their subsistence. They
are led to the places where their food lies ;
they are shown the method of discovering or
carrying it away ; and then led back to the
nest, for a day or two longer. At length,
when they are completely qualified to shift for
themselves, the old ones take them abroad,
arid leading them to the accustomed places,
forsake them for the last time ; and all future
connection is ever at an end.
Those birds which are hatched and sent
out earliest in the season are the most strong
business they were engaged during the greatest part of
the day. Allowing twelve hours to be thus occupied, a
single pair of these birds would destroy at least six hun-
dred insects in the course of one day; on the supposition
that the two birds took only a single insect each time.
But it is highly probable that they often took more.
Looking at the matter in this point of view, the des-
truction of insectivorous birds has in some cases been
considered as productive of serious mischief. One strik-
ing instance we distinctly recollect, though we cannot
at this moment turn to the book in which it is recorded.
The numbers of the crows or rooks of North America
were in consequence of state rewards for their destruc-
tion, so much diminished, and the increase of insects so
great, as to induce the state to announce a counter re-
ward for the protection of the crows. Such rewards are
common in America; and from a document given by
Wilson, respecting a proposal made in Delaware " for
banishing or destroying the crows," it appears that the
money thus expended sometimes amounts to no incon-
siderable sum. The document concludes by saying,
" the sum of five hundred dollars being thus required,
the committee beg leave to address the farmers and
others of Newcastle county and elsewhere on the sub-
ject."
From its sometimes eating grain and other seeds,
" the rook," says Selby, " has erroneously been viewed
in the light of an enemy by most husbandmen ; and in
several districts attempts have been made either to banish
it, or to extirpate the breed. But wherever this mea-
sure has been carried into effect, the most serious injury
to the com and other crops has invariably followed, from
the unchecked devastations of the grub and caterpillar.
As experience is the sure test of utility, a change of con-
duct has -in consequence been partially adopted ; and
some farmers now find the encouragement of the breed
of rooks to be greatly to their interest, in freeing their
lands from the grub of the cockchafer, an insect very
abundant in many of the southern counties. In Nor-
thumberland I have witnessed its usefulness in feeding
on the larvse of the insect commonly known by the name
of Harry Long-legs, which is particularly destructive to
the roots of grain and young clovers."
It has on similar grounds been contended, that the
and vigorous ; those, on the other hand, that
have been delayed till the midst of summer,
are more feeble and tender, and sometimes in-
capable of sustaining the rigours of the ensu-
ing winter. Birds themselves seem sensible
of this difference, and endeavour to produce
early in the spring. If, however, their efforts
are obstructed by having their nests robbed,
or some similar accident, they still perse-
vere in their efforts for a progeny ; and it
often happens that some are thus retarded till
the midst of winter. What number of eggs
any bird can lay in the course of a season is
not ascertained ; but this is true, that such as
would have laid but two or three at the most,
if their nests be robbed, or their eggs stolen,
will lay above ten or twelve. A common
hen, if moderately fed, will lay above ahundred
from the beginning of spring to the latter end
of autumn. In general, however, it obtains,
that the smallest and weakest animals are the
most prolific, while the strong and rapacious
are abridged by sterility. Thus, such kinds
as are easily destroyed, are as readily repair-
ed ; and Nature, where she has denied the
great number of birds caught by bird- catchers, particu-
larly in the vicinity of London, has been productive of
much injury to gardens and orchards. So serious has
this evil appeared to some, that it has even been pro-
posed to have an act of parliament prohibiting bird-
catchers from exercising their art within twenty miles
of the metropolis; and also prohibiting wild birds of any
kind from being shot or otherwise caught or destroyed
within this distance, under certain penalties. It is very
clear, however, that such an act could never be carried ;
and though it might be advantageous to gardens, orchards,
and farms, yet the attacks which the same birds make
on fruit would probably be an equivalent counterbalance.
In the case of swallows, on the other hand, it has
been well remarked by an excellent naturalist (the Rev.
W. T. Bree,) that they are to us quite inoffensive, while
" the beneficial services they perform for us, by clearing
the air of innumerable insects, ought to render them
sacred and secure them from our molestation. Without
their friendly aid the atmosphere we live in, would
scarcely be habitable by man : they feed entirely on in-
sects, which if not kept under by their means, would
swarm and torment us like another Egyptian plague.
The immense quantity of flies destroyed in a short space
of time by one individual bird is scarcely to be credited
by those who have not had actual experience of the fact."
He goes on to illustrate this from a swift, which was
shot. " It was in the breeding season when the young
were hatched ; at which time the parent birds, it is well
known, are in the habit of making little excursions into
the country to a considerable distance from their breed-
ing places, for the purpose of collecting flies which they
bring home to their infant progeny. On picking up my
hapless and ill-gotten prey, I observed a number of flies,
some mutilated, others scarcely injured, crawling out of
the bird's mouth ; the throat and pouch seemed absolutely
stuffed with them, and an incredible number was at
length disgorged. I am sure I speak within compass
•when I state that there was a mass of flies, just caught
by this single swift, larger than when pressed close,
could conveniently be contained in the bowl of an ordin-
ary table-spoon." — Habits of Birds. Library of En-
tertaining Knowkdge.
A HISTORY OF
power of resistance, has compensated by the
fertility attending procreation.
Birds in general, though they have so much
to fear from man and each other, are seldom
scared away from their usual haunts. Al-
though they be so perfectly formed for a wan.
dering life, and are supplied with powers to
satisfy all their appetites, though ever so re-
mote from the object, though they are so well
fitted for changing place with ease and rapi-
dity, yet the greatest number remain content-
ed in the districts where they have been bred,
and by no means exert their desires in pro-
portion to their endowments. The rook, if
undisturbed, never desires to leave his native
grove ; the black-bird still frequents its ac-
customed hedge ; and the red-breast, though
seemingly mild, claims a certain district,
from which he seldom moves, but drives out
every one of the same species from thence
without pity. They are excited to migration
by no other motives but those of fear, climate,
or hunger. It must be from one of these
powerful motives that the birds, which are
called birds of passage, every year forsake us
for some time, and make their regular and
expected returns.
Nothing has more employed the curiosity
of mankind than these annual emigrations ;
and yet few subjects continue so much involved
in darkness. It is generally believed, that the
cause of their retreat from these parts of Eu-
rope, is either a scarcity of food at certain sea-
sons, or the want of a secure asylum from the
persecution of man, during the time of court-
ship and bringing up their young. Thus
the starling, in Sweden, at the approach of
winter, finding subsistence no longer in that
kingdom, descends every year into Germany;
and the hen chaffinches of the same country
are seen every year to fly through Holland in
large flocks, to pass their winter in a milder
climate. Others, with a more daring spirit,
prepare for journeys that might intimidate
even human perseverance. Thus the quails,
in spring, forsake the burning heats of Africa
for the milder sun of Europe ; and, when they
have past the summer with us, steer their
flight back to enjoy in Egypt the temperate
air, which then begins to be delightful. This,
with them, seems a preconcerted undertaking.
They unite together in some open place, for some
days before their departure, and, by an odd
kind of chattering, seem to debate on the me-
thod to proceed. When their plan is resolved
upon, they all take flight together, and often
appear in such numbers, that to mariners at
sea they seem like a cloud that rests upon the
horizon. The boldest, strongest, and by far
the greatest number, make good their inten-
tion ; but many there are, who, not well ap-
prised of thfiir nwo force for the undertaking,
grow weary on the way, and, quite spent by
the fatigues of their flight, drop down into
the sea, and sometimes upon deck, thus be-
coming an easy prey to the mariner.
Of the vast quantity of water-fowl, that fre-
quent our shores, it is amazing to reflect how
few are known to breed here. The cause that
principally urges them to leave this country,
seems to be not merely the want of food, but
the desire of a secure retreat. Our country is
too populous for birds so shy and timid as the
greatest number of these are. When great
part of our island was a mere waste, an un-
cultivated tract of woods and marshes, many
species of birds which now migrate remained
with us throughout the year. The great he-
ron and the crane, that have now forsaken
this country, in former times bred familiarly
in our marshes, and seemed to animate our
fens. Their nests, like those of most cloven-
footed water-fowl, were built on the ground,
and exposed to every invader. But as rural
economy increased, these animals were more
and more disturbed. Before they had little to
fear, as the surrounding marsh defended them
from all the carnivorous quadrupeds, and their
own strength from birds of prey ; but upon the
intrusion of man, and by a long series of
alarms, they have at length been 'obliged to
seek, during the summer, some lonely habita-
tion, at a safe distance from every destroyer.
Of the numerous tribes of the duck kind,
we know of no more than five that breed
here ; the tame swan, the tame goose, the
sheldrake, the eider duck, and a few of the
wild ducks. The rest contribute to form that
amazing multitude of water fowl which annu-
ally repair to the dreary lakes and deserts of
Lapland from the more southern countries of
Europe. In those extensive and solitary re-
treats, they perform the duties of incubation
and nutrition in full security. There are few
of this kind that may not be traced to the nor-
thern deserts, to countries of lakes, rivers,
swamps, and mountains, covered with thick
and gloomy forests, that afford shelter during
summer to the timid animals, who live there
in undisturbed security. In those regions,
from the thickness of I he forests, the ground
remains moist and penetrable during the sum-
mer season ; the woodcock, the snipe, and
other slender-billed birds, can there feed at
ease ; while the web-footed birds find more
than sufficient plenty of food from the number
of insects, which swarm there to an incredible
degree. The days there are long ; and the
beautiful meteorous nights afford them every
opportunity of collecting so minute a food,
which is probably of all others the most grate-
ful. We are not to be astonished, therefore,
at the amazing numbers of fowl that descend
from these regions at the approach of winter ;
BIRDS IN GENERAL.
15
numbers to which the army of Xerxes was
but trifling in comparison ; and which Linnaeus
has observed for eight whole days and nights
to cover the surface of the river Calix.
This migration from the north usually be-
gins in September, when they quit their re-
treats, and disperse themselves over all the
southern parts of Europe. It is not unplea-
sing to observe the order of their flight ; they
generally range themselves in a long line, or
they sometimes make their march angularly,
two lines uniting in the centre like the letter
V reversed. The bird which leads at the
point seems to cleave the air, to facilitate the
passage for those which are to follow. When
fatigued with this laborious station, it falls
back into one of the wings of the file, while
another takes its place. With us they make
their appearance about the beginning of Oc-
tober, circulate first round our shores, and,
when compelled by severe frost, betake them-
selves to our lakes and rivers. Some, indeed,
of the web-footed fowl, of hardier constitutions
than the rest, abide the rigours of their nor-
thern climate the whole winter; but when the
cold reigns there with more than usual sever-
ity, they are obliged to seek for more south-
ern skies. They then repair with the rest for
shelter to these kingdoms ; so that the diver,
the wild swan, and the swallow-tailed sheld-
rake, visit our coasts but seldom, and that only
when compelled by the severity of their win-
ters at home.1
1 The facts which are known relative to the migration
of birds are very curious, and yet leave a vast field for
interesting observation. Some birds regularly return, after
a certain absence, not only to the same country, but to the
same spot where they built their nests before, or where
they were bred. Many storks, which become half tame
in Germany, have been marked, and found to re-
turn regularly to their old nests, built on a wheel, which
the peasants of that country, particularly in the north,
place, for that purpose, on the corner of the roofs of their
houses. The same is related of swallows, and other
birds of passage. Other birds do not return to a particu-
lar country, but travel, according to circumstances, from
one to another. Among the former are some which re-
main in the country of their nativity only as long as is
necessary to breed and .bring up their young; others are
absent but for a very short time. The loriot remains
bnt three months in the middle regions of Europe, whilst
the lark is absent but for a very short time. Mr Brehm,
a German, has collected many interesting facts respect-
ing the birds of passage. Generally speaking, they are
determined as to the place where they build their nests,
by the means of subsistence which they find, as, for in-
stance, the grosbeak, goldfinch, pigeons, cranes, land-
rails, several species of herons, woodcock, geese, ducks.
In 1819, the fruit of the pine-tree being scarce in the
north of Europe, whilst it was very abundant in the cen-
tral parts, large numbers of the crossbill, which chiefly
lives upon this food, were found in the latter regions.
Hunters, and other people living much in the open
air, know that certain birds do not migrate, except on
the approach of a severe winter. How are these birds
led to migrate at such seasons ? The general and easy
answer is, by instinct. But what is instinct ? Cer-
It has been often a subject of astonishment,
how animals, to all appearance so dull and
irrational, should perform such long journeys,
should know whither to steer, and when to
tainly we cannot mean, by this term, a constant direct
interposition of Providence, which drives the birds away
because a severe winter is coming on. Instinct, what-
ever it may be, must be guided by general laws. In
what way, however, the birds are led to guard against
the severity of the approaching season, whether by pecu-
liar sensibility to the causes from whkh its severity will
proceed, or in other ways, we know not. It has been
maintained that much of the conduct of animals neces-
sarily implies reflection. The vicissitudes of the atmos-
phere, on the arrival of the migrating time, have also a
great influence upon them. Most birds perform their
migration during the night; some species, however, by
day. Others stop not, either by day or night. To the
class which fly by day belong the birds of prey which ob-
tain their food by day— the crow, pie, titmouse, wren,
woodpecker, chaffinch, goldfinch, lark, swallow, and
some others. Those which travel by night are the owl,
blackbird, &c., and a great number of aquatic birds.
Those which stop not, day or night, are the heron, wag-
tail, yellow-hammer, plover, stork, crane, wildgoose,
swan. It is very remarkable, that individuals of those
species which travel day and night, and which, by some
cause, are prevented from migrating, remain, during all
the time of the migration of their species, awake, and
only occupy themselves with taking food. These birds
like particularly to travel in bright moonlight.
Many birds obtain their food on the wing. The
swallows, traversing the sea, catch insects, and fishing
birds catch fish, whilst they continue their journey. If
the titmouse, wren, woodpecker, and pie, rest for some
time on the branches of trees, they soon resume their
flight, after having fed. Those birds which habitually
alight on spots where they find nourishment in abun-
dance, never remain longer than two days in succession,
if nothing opposes the continuance of their flight. It is
a curious fact that at these times many birds utter cries
such as they are never heard to make at any other time.
Unless obliged by fogs to keep near the ground, birds
generally fly very high during their migration. Of all
migrating birds, the cranes are perhaps the most remark-
able. They seem to be most endowed with foresight.
They call each other by certain cries, several days be-
fore they depart, assemble, and make a great noise, as if
consulting; after which, they range themselves in two
lines, forming an angle, at the vertex of which is the
leader, who appears to exercise authority and give or-
ders, for instance, to form a circle in a tempest, or to
be watchful if eagles approach, &c. ; he also gives the
sign to descend and take food. If he is tired, he places
himself at the end of the line, and the bird next behind
him takes his place. They utter, during the night,
more piercing cries than during the day, and it seems as
if orders and answers were given. Wild geese and
ducks travel in a similar way. To enable birds to fly
with ease, and to continue long on the wing, they must
fly against the wind, in which respect flying is directly
opposite to sailing. Sportsmen are well acquainted
with this fact. If the wind is unfavourable for a time,
the migration is retarded, yet never entirely given up,
only the birds arrive much leaner, being fatigued by
their efforts. It is astonishing how tender birds, as the
linget, for instance, set out from the extremity of Nor-
way, and brave a long journey even over the ocean.
The quails, which are heavy in their flight, wait on the
shores of the Mediterranean, often a long time, for a fa-
vourable wind, of which they immediately avail them-
selves, halting on all the islands. If the wind suddenly
changes, many are drowned in the sea.
16
A HISTORY OF
set out upon such a great undertaking. It is
probable that the same instinct which governs
all their other actions operates also here.
They rather follow the weather than the coun-
try; they steer only from colder or warmer
climates into those of an opposite nature ; and
finding the variations of the air as they pro-
ceed in their favour, go on till they find land
to repose on. It cannot be supposed that
they have any memory of the country where
they might have spent a former winter ; it
cannot be supposed that they see the country to
which they travel, from their height in the
air ; since, though they mounted for miles,
the convexity of the globe would intercept
their view ; it must therefore only be, that
they go on as they continue to perceive the
atmosphere more suitable to their present
wants and dispositions.
All this seems to be pretty plain : but
there is a circumstance attending the migra-
tion of swallows which wraps this subject in
great obscurity. It is agreed on all hands,
(hat they are seen in migrating into warmer
climates, and that in amazing numbers, at the
approach of the European winter. Their re-
turn into Europe is also as well attested about
the beginning of summer; but we have ano-
ther account, which serves to prove that num-
bers of them continue torpid here during the
winter, and like bats, make their retreat into
old walls, the hollow of trees, or even sink into
the deepest lakes, and find security for the
winter season by remaining there in clusters
White has remarked, in his Natural History of Sel-
borae, that little stress may be laid on the difficulty and
hazard that birds must run in their migrations, by rea-
son of vast oceans, cross winds, &c., because, says he, if
we reflect, a bird may travel from England to the eqn-
ator without launching out or exposing itself to bound-
less seas, and that by crossing the British Channel at
Dover and the Mediterranean at Gibraltar; thus select-
ing the narrowest points of passage. It is, however,
certain that migrating birds in their flight are often sub-
ject both to disasters and considerable fatigue. This in.
deed has been instanced by the settling of birds in an
exhausted state on the rigging f>nd decks of vessels at
sea. Certain birds, as the moorhen, rail, &c., being
unable to fly for any considerable distance, travel partly
on loot. Some even (as the great auk or penguin, diver,
and guillemot) migrate by water. Ornithologists have
observed, that, in Europe, birds migrate in autumn to
the south-west, and in spring towards the north-east;
yet the courses of rivers and chains of mountains exer-
cise considerable influence on the direction of their
flight. It is remarkable, also, that the young of certain
species do not make the same journey as the old birds ;
they go more to the south, so that it is very common to
find, in the south of Europe, only the young birds of a
certain species, whilst the older ones remain more to the
north. In other species, the females go farther south.
It was formerly believed that the birds of the tropical
regions never migrate, and that they never pass the line;
but Humboldt has shown that this is not the case. He
observed, moreover, that the migration there took place
with the periodical rise of rivers.
at the bottom. However this latter circum-
stance may be, their retreat into old walls is
too well authenticated to remain a doubt at
present. The difficulty, therefore, is to ac-
count for this difference in these animals thus
variously preparing to encounter the winter.
It was supposed that in some of them the
blood might lose its motion by the cold, and
that thus they were rendered torpid by the se-
verity of the season; but Mr Buffon having
placed many of this tribe in an ice-house,
found that the same cold by which their blood
was congealed was fatal to the animal ; it re-
mains, therefore, a doubt to this hour, whether
there may not be a species of swallows to all
external appearance like the rest, but differ-
ently formed within, so as to fit them for a
state of insensibility during the winter here.
It was suggested, indeed, that the swallows
found thus torpid, were such only as were too
weak to undertake the migration, or were
hatched too late to join the general convoy ;
but it was upon these that Mr Buffon tried
his experiment; it was these that died under
the operation.
Thus there are ^some birds which by mi-
grating make an habitation of every part of
the earth ; but in general every climate has
birds peculiar to itself. The feathered inha-
bitants of the temperate zone are but little re-
markable for the beauty of their plumage ;
but then the smaller kinds make up for this
defect by the melody of their voices. The
birds of the torrid zone are very bright and
vivid in their colours ; but they have scream-
ing voices, or are totally silent. The frigid
zone, on the other hand, where the seas
abound with fish, are stocked with birds of the
aquatic kind, in much greater plenty than in
Europe ; and these are generally clothed with
a warmer coat of feathers ; or they have large
quantities of fat lying underneath the skin,
which serves to defend them from the rigours
of the climate.
In all countries, however, birds are a more
long-lived class of animals than the quadru-
peds or insects of the same climate. The life
of man himself is but short, when compared to
what some of them enjoy. It is said that
swans have been known to live three hundred
years ; geese are often seen to live fourscore ;
while linnets and other little birds, though
imprisoned in cages, are often found to reach
fourteen or fifteen. How birds, whose age of
perfection is much more early than that of
quadrupeds, should yet live comparatively so
much longer, is not easily to be accounted for :
perhaps, as their bones are lighter, and more
porous, than those of quadrupeds, there are
fewer obstructions in the animal machine; and
Nature, thus finding more room for the opera-
tions of life, is carried on to « greater extent.
BIRDS IN GENERAL.
17
All birds in general are less than quadru-
peds; that is, the greatest of one class far sur-
pass the greatest of the other in magnitude.
The ostrich, which is the greatest of birds,
bears no proportion to the elephant ; and the
smallest humming-bird, which is the least of
the class, is still far more minute than the
mouse. In these the extremities of nature are
plainly discernible ; and in forming them she
appears to have been doubtful in her opera-
tions: the ostrich, seemingly covered with
hair, and incapable of flight, making near ap-
proaches to the quadruped class ; while the
humming bird, of the size of an humble-bee,
and with a fluttering motion, seems nearly
allied to the insect.
These extremities of this class are rather
objects of human curiosity than utility : it is
the middle order of birds which man has
taken care to propagate and maintain. Of
those which he has taken under his protection,
and which administer to his pleasures or ne-
cessities, the greatest number seem creatures
of his formation. The variety of climate to
which he consigns them, the food with which
he supplies them, and the purposes for which
he employs them, produce amazing varieties,
both in their colours, shape, magnitude, and
the taste of their flesh. Wild birds are, for
the most part, of the same magnitude and
shape ; they still keep the prints of primeval
nature strong upon them, except in a few ;
they generally maintain their very colour:
but it is otherwise with domestic animals ;
they change at the will of man — of the tame
pigeon, for instance, it is said they can be
bred to a feather.
As we are thus capable of influencing their
form and colour, so also is it frequent to see
equal instances of our influencing their habi-
tudes, appetites, and passions. The cock, for
instance, is artificially formed into that cour-
age and activity which he is seen to possess ;
and many birds testify a strong attachment to
the hand that feeds them ; how far they are
capable of instruction, is manifest to those that
have the care of .hawks. But a still more
surprising instance of this was seen some time
ago in London : a canary bird was taught to
pick up the letters of the alphabet, at the
word of command, so as to spell any person's
name in company ; and this the little animal
did by motions from its master, which were
imperceptible to every other spectator. Upon
the whole, however, they are inferior to quad,
rupeds in docility ; and seem more mechani-
cally impelled by all the power of instinct.
CHAP. III.
OF THE DIVISION OF BIRDS.
THOUGH birds are fitted for sporting in the air,
yet as they find their food upon the surface of
the earth, there seems a variety equal to the
different aliments with which it tends to sup-
ply them. The flat and burning desert, the
rocky cliff, the extensive fen, 4he-stormy ocean,
as well as the pleasing landscape, have all
their peculiar inhabitants. The most obvious
distinction therefore of birds, is into those that
live by land and those that live by water;
or, in other words, into land birds, and water
fowl.
It is no difficult matter to distinguish land
from water fowl, by the legs and toes. All
land birds have their toes divided without any
membrane or web between them ; and their
legs and feet serve them for the purposes of
running, grasping, or climbing. On the
other hand, water fowl have their legs and
feet formed for the purposes of wading in
water, or swimming on its surface. In those
that wade, the legs are usually long and
naked ; in those that swim, the toes are web-
bed together, as we see in the feet of a goose,
which serve, like oars, to drive them forward
with greater velocity. The formation there-
fore, of land and water fowl, is as distinct as
their habits ; and Nature herself seems to of-
fer us this obvious distribution, in methodizing
animals of the feathered creation.
However, a distinction so comprehensive
goes but a short way in illustrating the differ-
ent tribes of so numerous a class. The num-
ber of birds already known, amounts to above
eight hundred ;' and every person who turns
his mind to these kinds of pursuits, is every
day adding to the catalogue. It is not
enough, therefore, to be able to distinguish a
land from a water fowl; much more is still
required — to be able to distinguish the differ-
ent kinds of birds from each other; and even
the varieties in the same kind, when they
happen to offer. This certainly is a work ol
great difficulty ; and perhaps the attainment
will not repay the labour. The sensible part
of mankind will not withdraw all their atten-
tion from more important pursuits, to give it
entirely up to what promises to repay them
only with a very confined species of amuse-
ment. In my distribution of birds, therefore,
I will follow Linnaeus in »he first sketch of
his system ; and then leave him, to follow the
most natural distinctions, in enumerating the
1 Since Goldsmith's time, nearly three thousand spe-
cies of birds have been ascertained, and many ot the
species have several varieties.
A HISTORY OF
different kinds that admit of a history, or re-
quire a description.
Linnaeus divides all birds into six classes ;
namely, into birds of the rapacious kind, birds
of the pie kind, birds of the poultry kind, birds
of the sparrow kind, birds of the duck kind, and
birds of the crane kind. The four first com-
prehend the various kinds of land birds ; the
two last, those that belong to the water.
Birds of (he rapacious kind constitute that
class of carnivorous fowl that live by rapine.
He distinguishes them by their beak, which
is hooked, strong, and notched at the point;
by their legs, which are short and muscular,
and made for the purposes of tearing ; by their
toes, which are strong and knobbed ; and their
talons, which are sharp and crooked; by the
make of their body, which is muscular; and
their flesh, which is impure: nor are they
less known by their food, which consists en-
tirely of flesh; their stomach, which is mem.
branous; and their manners, which are fierce
and cruel.
Birds of the pie kind have the bill differing
from the former: as in those it resembles a
hook, destined for tearing to pieces; in these
it resembles a wedge, fitted for the purpose of
cleaving. Their legs are formed short and
strong, for walking; their body is slender and
impure, and their food miscellaneous. They
nestle in trees ; and the male feeds the female
during- the time of incubation.
Birds of the poultry kind ihave the bill a
little convex, for the purposes of gathering
their food. The upper chap hangs over the
lower; their bodies are fat and muscular, and
their flesh white and pure. They live upon
grain, which is moistened in the crop. They
make their nest on the ground, without art;
they lay many eggs, and use promiscuous
venery.
Birds of the sparrow kind comprehend all
that beautiful and vocal class that adorn our
fields and groves, and gratify every sense in
its turn. Their bills may be compared to a
forceps that catches hold; their legs are formed
for hopping along ; their bodies are tender ;
pure in such as feed upon grain, impure in
such as live upon insects. They live chiefly
in trees; their nests are artificially made, and
their amours are observed with connubial
fidelity.
Birds of the duck kind use their bill as a
kind of strainer to their food; it is smooth,
covered with a skin, and nervous at the point.
Their legs are short, and their feet formed for
swimming, the toes being webbed together.
Their body is fat, inclined to rancidity. They
live in waters, and chiefly build their nests
upon land.
With respect to the order of birds that be-
long to the waters, those of the crane kind have
the bill formed for the purposes of searching
and examining the bottom of pools ; their legs
are long, and formed for wading ; their toes
are not webbed ; their thighs are half naked ;
their body is slender, and covered with a very
thin skin ; their tail is short, and their flesh
savoury. They live in lakes upon animals,
and they chiefly build their nests upon the
ground.
Such is the division of Linnaeus with res-
pect to this class of animals ; and, at first
sight, it appears natural and comprehensive.
But we must not be deceived by appearances :
the student, who should imagine he was mak-
ing a progress in the history of Nature, while
he was only thus making arbitrary distribu-
tions, would be very much mistaken. Should
he corne to enter deeper into this naturalist's
plan, he would find birds the most unlike in
nature thrown together into the same class ;
and find animals joined, that entirely differ in
climate, in habitudes, in manners, in shape,
colouring, and size. In such a distribution,
for instance, he would find the humming bird
and the raven, the rail and the ostrich, joined
in the same family. If, when he asked what
sort of a creature was the humming-bird, he
were told that it was in the same class with
the carrion-crow, would he not think himself
imposed upon? In such a case the only way
to form any idea of the animal whose history
he is desirous to know, is to see it; and that
curiosity very few have an opportunity of gra-
tifying. The number of birds is so great,
that it might exhaust the patience not only of
the writer, but the reader, to examine them
all : in the present confined undertaking it
would certainly be impossible. I will, there-
fore, now attach myself to a more natural me-
thod ; and still keeping the general division
of Linnaeus before me, enter into some des-
cription of the most noted, or the most worth
knowing.
Under one or other class, as I shall treat
them, the reader will probably find all the
species, and all the varieties that demand his
curiosity. When the leader of any tribe is
described, and its history known, it will give a
very tolerable idea of all the species contained
under it. It is true, the reader will not thus
have his knowledge ranged under such pre-
cise distinctions ; nor can he be able to say
with such fluency, that the rail is of the os-
trich class ; but what is much more material,
he will have a tolerable history of the bird he
desires to know, or at least of that which most
resembles it in nature.
However, it may be proper to apprize the
reader, that he will not here find his curiosity
satisfied, as in the former volumes, where we
often took Mr Buffon for our guide. Those
who have hitherto written the natural history
THE OSTRICH.
19
of birds, have in general been contented with
telling their names, or describing their toes
or their plumage. It must often, therefore,
happen, that instead of giving the history of a
bird, we must be content to entertain the reader
with merely its description. I will, there-
fore, divide the following history of birds,
with Linnaeus, into six parts ; in the first of
which I will give such as Brisson has ranged
among the rapacious birds ; next those of the
pie kind ; and thus go on through the suc-
ceeding classes, till I finish with those of the
duck kind. But before I enter upon a syste-
matic detail, I will beg leave to give the his-
tory of three or four birds, that do not well
range in any system. These, from their great
size, are sufficiently distinguishable from the
rest; and from their incapacity of flying, lead
a life a good deal differing from the rest of the
feathered creation. The birds I mean are
the Ostrich, the Cassowary, the Emu, the
Dodo, and the Solitaire.
CHAP. IV.
THE OSTRICH.
(See Plate XF. fg. 38.)
IN beginning with the feathered tribe, the
first animal that offers seems to unite the class
of quadrupeds and of birds in itself. While
it has the general outline and properties of a
bird, yet it retains many of the marks of the
quadruped. In appearance the ostrich resem-
bles the camel, and is almost as tall ; it is
covered with a plumage that resembles hair
much more nearly than feathers, and its in-
ternal parts bear as near a similitude to those
of the quadruped, as of the bird creation. It
may be considered, therefore, as an animal
made to fill up that chasm in nature which se-
parates one class of beings from another.
The ostrich is the largest of all birds. Tra-
vellers affirm, that they are seen as tall as a
man on horseback ; and even some of those
that have been brought into England were
above seven feet high. The head and bill
somewhat resemble those of a duck ; and the
neck may be likened to that of a swan, but
that it is much longer ; the legs and thighs
resemble those of a hen ; though the whole
appearance bears a strong resemblance to that
of a camel. But to be more particular : it is
usually seven feet high from the top of the
head to the ground ; but from the back it is
only four; so that the head and neck are
above three feet long. From the top of the
head to the rump, when the neck is stretched
out in a right line, it is six feet long, and the
tail is about a foot more. One of the wings,
without the feathers, is a foot and a half; and
being stretched out, with the feathers, is three
feet.
The plumage is much alike in all ; that is,
generally black and white ; though some of
them are said to be gray. The greatest fea-
thers are at the extremities of the wings arid
tail, and the largest are generally white. The
next row is black and white ; and of the small
feathers, on the back and. belly, some are
white and others black. There are no fea-
thers on the sides, nor yet on the thighs, nor
under the wings. The lower part of the
neck, about half way, is covered with still
smaller feathers than those on the belly and
back ; and those, like the former, also are of
different colours.
All these feathers are of the same kind,
and peculiar to the ostrich; for other birds
have several sorts, some of which are soft and
downy, and others hard and strong. Ostrich
feathers are almost all as soft as down, being
utterly unfit to serve the animal for flying,
and still less adapted to be a proper defence
against external injury. The feathers of other
birds have the webs broader on one side than
the other, but. those of the ostrich have their
shaft exactly in the middle. The upper part
of the head and neck is covered with a very
fine, clear, white hair, that shines like the
bristles of a hog ; and in some places there are
small tufts of it, consisting of about twelve
hairs, which grow from a single shaft about
the thickness of a pin.
At the end of each wing there is a kind of
spur, almost like the quill of a porcupine. It
is an inch long, being hollow, and of a horny
substance. There are two of these on each
wing, the largest of which is at the extremity
of the bone of the wing, and the other a foot
lower. The neck seems to be more slendei
in proportion to that of other birds, from its
not being furnished with feathers. The skin
in this part is of a livid flesh-colour, which
some improperly would have to be blue. The
bill is short and pointed, and two inches and
a half at the beginning. The external form
of the eye is like that of man, the upper eye-
lid being adorned with eye-lashes, which are
longer than those on the lid below. The
tongue is small, very short, and composed oV
cartilages, ligaments, and membranes, inter-
mixed with fleshy fibres. In some it is about
an inch long, and very thick at the bottom.
In others it is but half an inch, being a little
forked at the end.
The thighs are very fleshy and large, being
covered with a white skin, inclining to red-
ness, and wrinkled in the manner of a net,
whose meshes will admit the end of a finger.
Some have very small feathers here and there
20
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
on the thighs ; and others again have neither
feathers nor wrinkles. What are called the
legs of birds, in this are covered before with
large scales. The end of the foot is cloven,
and has two very large toes, which, like the
leg, are covered with scales. These toes are
of unequal sizes. The largest, which is on
the inside, is seven inches long, including the
claw, which is near three-fourths of an inch
in length, and almost as broad. The other
toe is but four inches long, and is without a
claw.
The internal parts of this animal are formed
\vith no less surprising peculiarity. At the
top of the breast, under the skin, the fat is
two inches thick ; and on the fore part of the
belly it is as hard as suet, and about two
inches and a half thick in some places. It
has two distinct stomachs. The first, which
is lowermost, in its natural situation somewhat
resembles the crop in other birds; but it is
considerably larger than the other stomach,
and is furnished with strong muscular fibres,
as well circular as longitudinal. The second
stomach, or gizzard, has outwardly the shape
of the stomach of a man ; and, upon opening,
is always found filled with a variety of dis-
cordant substances ; hay, grass, barley, beans,
bones, and stones, some of which exceed in
size a pullet's egg. The kidneys are eight
inches long and two broad, and differ from
those of other birds in not being divided into
lobes. The heart and lungs are separated by
a midriff, as in quadrupeds, and the parts of
generation also bear a very strong resemblance
and analogy.
Such is the structure of this animal, form-
ing the shade that unites birds and quadru-
peds ; and from this structure its habits and
manners are entirely peculiar. It is a native
only of the torrid regions of Africa, and has
long been celebrated by those who have had
occasion to mention the animals of that region.
Its flesh is proscribed in scripture as unfit to
be eaten; and most of the ancient writers de-
scribe it as well known in their times. Like
the race of the elephant, it is transmitted
down without mixture ; and has never been
known to breed out of that country which
first produced it. It seems formed to live
among the sandy and burning deserts of the
torrid zone ; and, as in some measure it owes
its birth to their genial influence, so it seldom
migrates into tracts more mild or more fertile.
As that is the peculiar country of the elephant,
the rhinoceros, and camel, so it may readily
be supposed capable of affording a retreat to
the ostrich. They inhabit, from preference,
the most solitary and horrid deserts, where
there are few vegetables to clothe the surface
of the earth, and where the rain never comes
to refresh it. The Arabians assert that the
ostrich never drinks; and the place of its ha-
bitation seems to confirm the assertion. In
these formidable regions, ostriches are seen in
large flocks, which to the distant spectator
appear like a regiment of cavalry, and have
often alarmed a whole caravan. There is no
desert, how barren soever, but what is capable
of supplying these animals with provision ;
they eat almost every thing ; and these barren
tracts are thus doubly grateful, as they afford
both food and security. The ostrich is, of all
other animals, the most voracious. It will
devour leather, glass, hair, iron, stones, or any
thing that is given. Nor are its powers of
digestion less in such things as are digestible.
Those substances which the coats of the sto-
mach cannot soften, pass whole ; so that glass,
stones, or iron, are excluded in the form in
which they were devoured. All metals, in-
deed, which are swallowed by any animal,
lose a part of their weight, and often the ex-
tremities of their figure, from the action of
the juices of the stomach upon their surface.
A quarter pistole, which was swallowed by a
duck, lost seven grains of its weight in the
gizzard before it was voided ; and it is proba-
ble that a still greater diminution of weight
would happen in the stomach of an ostrich.
Considered in this light, therefore, this ani-
mal may be said to digest iron ; but such sub-
stances seldom remain long enough in the sto-
mach of any animal to undergo so tedious a
dissolution. However this be, the ostrich
swallows almost every thing presented to it.
Whether this be from the necessity which
smaller birds are under of picking up gravel
to keep the coats of their stomach asunder, or
whether it be from a want of distinguishing
by the taste what substances are fit and what
incapable of digestion ; certain it is, that in
the ostrich dissected by Ranby there appeared
such a quantity of heterogeneous substances,
that it was wonderful how any animal could
digest such an overcharge of nourishment.
Valisnierr also found the first stomach filled
with a quantity of incongruous substances ;
grass, nuts, cords, stones, glass, brass, copper,
iron, tin, lead, and wood ; a piece of stone
was found among the rest that weighed more
than a pound. He saw one of these animals
that was killed by devouring a quantity of
quick-lime. It would seem that the ostrich is
obliged to fill up the great capacity of its sto-
mach in order to be at ease ; but that nutri-
tious substances not occurring, it pours in
whatever offers to supply the void.
In their native deserts, however, it is pro-
bable they live chiefly upon vegetables, where
they lead an inoffensive and social life ; the
male, as Thevenot assures us, assorting with
the female with connubial fidelity. They
are said to be very much inclined to venerv ;
THE OSTRICH.
21
and the make of the parts in both sexes seems
to confirm the report. It is probable also they
copulate, like other birds, by compression ;
and they lay very large eggs, some of them
being above five inches in diameter, and weigh-
ing above fifteen pounds. These eggs have a
very hard shell, somewhat resembling those of
(he crocodile, except that those of the latter
are less and rounder.1
The season for laying depends on the climate
where the animal is bred. In the northern
parts of Africa, this season is about the begin-
ning of July : in the south, it is about the latter
end of December. These birds are very pro-
lific, and lay generally from forty to fifty eggs
at one clutch. It has been commonly reported
that the female deposits them in the sand ;
and, covering them up, leaves them to be
hatched by the heat of the climate, and then
permits the young to shift for themselves.
Very little of this, however, is true : no bird
has a stronger affection for her young than the
ostrich, and none watches her eggs with greater
assiduity. It happens, indeed, in those hot
climates, that there is less necessity for the
continual incubation of the female ; and she
more frequently leaves her eggs, which are
in no fear of being chilled by the weather ;
but though she sometimes forsakes them by
1 The male ostrich of South Africa (says the late Mr
Thomas Pringle) at the time of breeding usually associ-
ates to himself from two to six females. The hens lay
all their eggs together in one nest; the nest being merely
a shallow cavity scraped iu the ground, of such dimen-
sions as to be conveniently covered by one of these gi-
gantic birds in incubation. A most ingenious device is
employed to save space, and give at the same time to all
the eggs their due share of warmth. The eggs are made
to stand each with the narrow end on the bottom of the
nest and the broad end upwards ; and the earth which
has been scraped out to form the cavity is employed to
confine the outer circle, and keep the whole in the proper
position. The hens relieve each other in the office of
incubation during the day, and the male takes his turn
at night, when his superior strength is required to pro-
tect the eggs or the new-fledged young from the jackalls,
tiger-cats, and other enemies. Some of these animals, it is
said, are not unfrequently found lying dead near the nest,
destroyed by a stroke from the foot of this powerful bird.
As many as sixty e'ggs are sometimes found in and
around an ostrich nest ; but a smaller number is more
common ; and incubation is occasionally performed by a
single pair of ostriches. Each female lays from twelve
to sixteen eggs. They continue to lay during incuba-
tion, and even after the young brood are hatched, the
supernumerary eggs are not placed in the nest, but around
it, being designed to assist in the nourishment of the
young birds, which, though as large as a pullet when
first hatched, are probably unable at once to digest the
hard and acrid food on which the old ones subsist. The
period of incubation is from thirty-six to forty days. In
the middle of the day the nest is occasionally left by all
the birds, the heat of the sun being then sufficient to
keep the eggs at the proper temperature.
An ostrich egg is considered as equal in its contents
to twenty-four of the domestic hen. When taken fresh
Irom the nest, as those were which we found near Rhin-
oceros Fountain, they are very palatable, and are whole-
day, she always carefully broods over them
by night ; and Kolben, who has seen great
numbers of them at the Cape of Good Hope,
affirms (.hat they sit on their eggs like other
birds, and that the male and female take this
office by turns, as he had frequent opportuni-
ties of observing. Nor is it more true what
is said of their forsaking their young after
they are excluded the shell. On the contrary,
the young ones are not even able to walk tor
several days after they are hatched. During
this time, the old ones are very assiduous in
supplying them with grass, and very careful
to defend them from danger ; nay, they en-
counter every danger in their defence. It
was a way of taking them among the ancients,
to plant a number of sharp stakes round the
ostrich's nest in her absence, upon which she
pierced herself at her return. The young,
when brought forth, are of an ash-colour the
first year, and are covered with feathers all
over. But in time these feathers drop ; and
those parts which are covered assume a differ-
ent and more becoming plumage.
The beauty of a part of this plumage, par-
ticularly the long leathers that compose the
wings and tail,* is the chief reason that man
has been so active in pursuing this harmless
bird to its deserts, and hunting it with no
some though somewhat heavy food. The best mode of
cooking them is that practised by the Hottentots, and
which we adopted under their tuition, namely, to place one
end of the egg in the hot ashes, and making a small ori-
fice in the other, keep stirring the contents with a bit of
stick till they are sufficiently roasted ; and then with a
seasoning of salt and pepper you have a very nice ome-
lade.
The ostrich of South Africa is a prudent and wary
animal, and displays little of that stupidity ascribed to
this bird by some naturalists. On the borders of the
Cape Colony, at least, where it is eagerly pursued for
the sake of its valuable plumage, the ostrich displays no
want of sagacity in providing for its own safety or the
security of its oHspring. It adopts every possible pre-
caution to conceal the place of its nest; and uniformly
abandons it, after destroying the eggs, if it perceives that
the eggs have been disturbed or the footsteps of man are
discovered near it. In relieving each other in hatching,
the birds are said to be careful not to be seen together at
the nest, and are never observed to approach it in a
direct line.
The food of the ostrich consists of the tops of the vari-
ous shrubby plants which even the most arid parts of
South Africa produce in abundance. This bird is so
easily satisfied in regard to water that he is constantly
to be found in the most parched and desolate tracts which
even the antelopes and the beasts of prey have deserted.
His cry at a distance so much resembles that of the lion,
that even the Hottentots are said to be sometimes de-
ceived by it.
When not hatching they are frequently seen in troops
of thirty or forty together, or amicably associated with
herds of zebras or quaggas, their fellow-tenants of the
wilderness. If caught young the ostrich is easily tamed ;
but it does not appear that any attempt has been made
to apply his great strength and swiftness to any purpose
of practical utility.
8 II is generally believed that the fine feathers of the
22
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
small degree of expense and labour. The
ancients used those plumes in their helmets;
(he ladies of the East make them an orna-
ment in their dress ; and, among us, our
undertakers and our fine gentlemen still make
use of them to decorate their hearses and their
hats. Those feathers which are plucked from
the animal while alive, are much more valued
than those taken when dead ; the latter being
dry, light, and subject to be worm eaten.
Beside the value of their plumage, some of
the savage nations of Africa hunt them also
for their flesh, which they consider as a dainty.
They sometimes also breed these birds tame,
to eat the young ones, of which the female is
said to be the greatest delicacy. Some na-
tions have obtained the name of Struthophagi,
or ostrich-eaters, from their peculiar fondness
for this food ; and even the Romans themselves
were not averse to it. Apicius gives a receipt
lor making sauce for the ostrich ; and Helio-
gabalus is noted for having dressed the brains
of six hundred ostriches in one dish ; for it
was his custom never to eat but of one dish
in a day, but- that was an expensive one.
Even among the Europeans now, the eggs of
(he ostrich are said to be well tasted, and ex-
tremely nourishing; but they are too scarce
to be fed upon, although a single egg be a
sufficient entertainment for eight men.
As the spoils of the ostrich are thus valu-
able, it is not to be wondered at that man has
become their most assiduous pursuer. For
this purpose, the Arabians train up their best
and fleetest horses, and hunt the ostrich still
in view. Perhaps of all other varieties of
the chase, this though the most laborious, is
yet the most entertaining. As soon as the
hunter comes within sight of his prey, he
puts on his horse with a gentle gallop, so as
to keep the ostrich still in sight; yet not so as
to terrify him from the plain into the moun-
tains. Of all known animals that make use
of their legs in running, the ostrich is by far
the swiftest ; upon observing himself there-
fore pursued at a distance, he begins to run at
first but gently ; either insensible of his dan-
ger, or sure of escaping. In this situation he
somewhat resembles a man at full speed ; his
wings, like two arms, keep working with a
motion correspondent to that of his legs : and
his speed would very soon snatch him from
the view of his pursuers; but, unfortunately
for the silly creature, instead of going off in
a direct line, he takes his course in circles ;
while the hunters still make a small course
within, relieve each other, meet him at unex-
pected turns, and keep him thus still employ.
ostrich are from the tail of the bird, which is not the
fact. They are from the wings. Tiic tail feathers are
short, and of little value.
ed, still followed for two or three days toge-
ther. At last, spent with faligue and famine,
and finding all power of escape impossible,
he endeavours to hide himself from those ene-
mies he cannot avoid, and covers his head in
the sand, or the first thicket he meets. Some-
times, however, he attempts to face his pur-
suers ; and though in general the most gentle
animal in nature, when driven to desperation,
he defends himself with his beak, his wings,
and his feet. Such is the force of his motion,
that a man would be utterly unable to with-
stand him in the shock.
The Struthophagi have another method of
taking this bird ; they cover themselves with
an ostrich's skin, and passing up an arm
through the neck, thus counterfeit all the mo-
tions of this animal. By this artifice they
approach the ostrich, which becomes an easy
prey. He is sometimes also taken by dogs
and nets, but the most usual way is that men-
tioned above.
When the Arabians have thus taken an
ostrich, they cut its throat, and making a liga
ture below the opening, they shake the bird,
as one would rince a barrel ; then taking off
the ligature, there runs out from the wound in
the throat a considerable quantity of blood,
mixed with the fat of the animal ; and this is
considered one of their greatest dainties. They
next flay the bird ; and of the skin, which is
strong and thick, sometimes make a kind of
vest, which answers the purposes of a cuirass
and a buckler.
There are others who, more compassionate
or more provident, do not kill their captive,
but endeavour to tame it, for the purposes of
supplying those feathers which are in so great
request. The inhabitants of Dara and Lybia
breed up whole flocks of them, and they are
tamed with very little trouble. But it is not
for their feathers alone that they are prized
in this domestic state ; they are often ridden
upon, and used as horses. Moore assures us,
that at Joar he saw a man travelling upon an
ostrich ; and Adanson asserts, that, at the
factory of Podore, he had two ostriches, which
were then young, the strongest of which ran
swifter than the best English racer, although
he carried two negroes on his back. As soon
as the animal perceived that it was loaded, it
set off running with all its force, and made
several circuits round the village ; till at
length the people were obliged to stop it, by
barring up the way. How far this strength
and swiftness may be useful to mankind, even
in a polished state, is a matter that perhaps
deserves inquiry. Posterity may avail them
selves of this creature's abilities ; and riding
upon an ostrich may one day become the fa-
vourite, as it most certainly is the swiftest,
mode of conveyance.
THE EMU.
23
The parts of this animal are suid to be con-
vertible to many salutary purposes in medi-
cine. The tat is said to be emollient and
relaxing; that while it relaxes the tendons, it
fortifies the nervous system; and being ap-
plied to the region of the loins, it abates the
pains of the stone in the kidneys. The shell
of the egg powdered, and given in proper
quantities, is said to be useful in promoting
urine, and dissolving the stone in the bladder.
The substance of the egg itself is thought to
be peculiarly nourishing: however, Galen, in
mentioning this, asserts, that the eggs of hens
and pheasants are good to be eaten ; those of
geese and ostriches are the worst of all.
CHAP. V.
THE EMU.1
OF this bird, which many call the Ameri-
can Ostrich, (see Plate XVIII. fig. 25.) but
1 The term Emu is now applied to the ostrich of New
Holland (see Plate XV. fig. 37.) This bird differs in
many respects from the African ostrich. It has a
straight hill, very much depressed towards the sides,
slightly keeled along its middle, and rounded at the
point ; large nostrils, covered by a membrane and open-
ing above on the middle of the bill ; a head unsur-
mounted by a bony crest, and covered with feathers
up to a certain age ; a naked throat without wattles;
powerful legs of considerable length, fleshy and fea-
thered down to the joint, naked and reticulated below
it ; three toes directed forwards, the two lateral ones
equal in length, and the posterior wholly wanting ; the
claws of all the toes nearly equal ; and no true quill-
feathers either to the wings or tail. It is consequently
distinguished from the African ostrich by the number
of its toes ; from it and the rhea by the trifling de-
velopement of its wings, and the total want of plumage
to the wings and tail ; and from the cassowary by the
absence of crest, wattles, and quills, the depression of
its bill, the position of its nostrils, and the equality of
its claws.
In size and bulk the emu is exceeded by the African
ostrich alone. It is stated by travellers to attain a
height 01 more than seven feet, and its average mea-
suiement in captivity, may be estimated at between five
and six. In form it closely resembles the ostrich, but
is lower on the legs, shorter in the neck, and of a more
thickset and clumsy make. At a distance its feathers
have more of the appearance of hair than of plumage,
their barbs being all loose and separate. As in the
other ostriches, they take their origin by pairs from
the same shaft. Their general colour is a dull brown
mottled with dirty gray, the latter prevailing more par-
ticularly on the under surface of the bird. On the
head and neck they become gradually shorter, assume
still more completely the appearance of hairs, and are
so thinly scattered over the fore part of the throat and
around the ears, that the skin, which is of a purplish
hue, is distinctly visible. This appearance is most
remarkable in the older birds, in which these parts
are left nearly bare. The wings are so extremely small
as to be quite invisible when applied to the. surface
of the body. They are clothed with feathers exactly
little is certainly known. It is an inhabitant
of the New Continent; and the travellers
who have mentioned it, seem to have been
more solicitous in proving its affinity to the
ostrich, than in describing those peculiarities
similar to those of the bark, which, it should be ob-
served, divide as it were from a middle line, and fall
gracefully over on either side. The colour of the bill
and legs is of a dusky black ; and that of the iris dull
brown.
There appears to be but little THfthrence in colour
between the two sexes; but the young on first quitting
the shell have a much more elegant livery. A brood of
these has lately been hatched at the society's garden, in
which the ground colour is grayish white, marked with
two longitudinal broad black stripes along the back, and
two similar ones on either side, each subdivided by a
narrow middle line of white. These stripes are con-
tinued along the neck without subdivision, and are
broken on the head into irregular spots. Two other
broken stripes pass down the fore part of the neck anil
breast, and terminate in a broad band passing on either
side across the thighs. As in the fully grown bird the
bill and legs are of a dusky hue.
These birds appear to be widely spread over the
southern part of the continent of New Holland and the
neighbouring islands; but we are not aware that they
have been hitherto discovered in its tropical regions.
They were formerly very abundant in the neighbour-
hood of Botany Bay and Port Jackson, but have been
of late years compelled by the increasing numbers of
the settlers to seek shelter in the interior. On the
south coast they have been met with in great plenty, at
Port Phillip by Captain Flinders, and at King George's
Sound by the same officer and the naturalists of the ex-
pedition under D'Entrecasteaux. They seem also to be
extremely numerous in the adjacent islands, especially
in Kanguroo island, where they were found in the great-
est abundance by both Flinders and Peron; and in
King's island, where the distinguished naturalist last
named and his companions were fortunately enabled by
the kindness of some English seal-hunters to subsist,
chiefly upon emu's flesh, for several days while tem-
porarily deserted by their captain. According to the
late accounts from Swan river, they have also been ob-
served on that part of the west coast on which the new
settlement is situated.
The emu was first described and figured, under the
name of the New Holland cassowary, in Governor
Phillip's Voyage to Botany Bay, published in 1789.
To this work Dr Latham contributed very considerably
in the ornithological department, and it is therefore
probable that the description of this remarkable bird
was furnished by him. The figure, taken from a draw-
ing made on the spot by lieutenant Watts, is extremely
defective. In the ensuing year a second figure, taken
from the same specimen as the former, hut very different
in appearance and equally inaccurate, was given in
White's Voyage to New South Wales, the zoological
part of which work appears to have been superintended
by Dr Shaw, whose Miscellany likewise contains a copy
of the same figure. A much better representation, al-
though somewhat too highly coloured, occurs in the Atlas
to Peron 's Voyage aux Terres Australes.
In its manners the emu bears a close resemblance to
the ostrich, as might be expected from their near rela-
tionship. Its food appears to be wholly vegetable, con-
sisting chiefly of fruits, roots, and herbage; and it is
consequently, notwithstanding its great strength, per-
fectly inoffensive. The length of its legs, and the mu>;-
cularity of its thighs, enable it to run with great swift-
ness; and, as it is exceedingly shy, it is not easily over.
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
which distinguish it from all others of the
feathered creation.
It is chiefly found in Guiana, along the
banks of the Oroonoko, in the inland pro-
vinces of Brazil and Chili, and the vast forests
that border on the mouth of the river Plata.
Many other parts of South America were
known to have them ; but as men multiplied,
these large and timorous birds either fell be-
neath their superior power, or fled from their
vicinity.
The Emu, though not so large as the
ostrich, is only second to it in magnitude. It
is by much the largest bird in the New Con-
tinent; arid is generally found to be six feet
high, measuring from its head to the ground.
Its legs are three feet long ; and its thigh is
near as thick as that of a man. The toes dif-
fer from those of the ostrich ; as there are
three in the American bird, and but two in
the former. Its neck is long, its head small,
and the bill flatted, like that of the ostrich ;
but in all other respects it more resembles the
cassowary, a large bird to be described here-
after. The form of the body appears round ;
the wings are short, and entirely unfitted for
flying, and it wants a tail. It is covered
from the back and rump with long feathers,
taken, or brought within gun-shot. Captain dime, in
Mr Barren Field's Memoirs on New South Wales,
states that it affords "excellent coursing, equalling, if
not surpassing, the same sport with the hare in Eng-
land." And Mr Cunningham, in his amusing work
entitled Two Years in New South Wales, gives a curious
account of the manner in which it is usually coursed by
the dogs. The latter gentleman states that dogs will
seldom attack it, both on account of some peculiar
odour in its flesh which they dislike, and because the
injuries which it inflicts upon them by striking out with
its feet are frequently very severe. " The settlers even
assert," he says, "that they [the emus] will break the
small bone of a man's leg by this sort of kick ; which to
avoid, the well-trained dogs run up abreast, and make a
sudden spring at their neck, whereby they are quickly
dispatched."
But although dogs in general may be reluctant to
attack the emu, this is by no means the case with those
which are specially trained for the purpose. M. Peron
assures us that the English seal-fishers on King's island
in Bass's strait had with them dogs which were taught
to go alone into the woods in quest of kangnroos and
emus, and rarely failed to destroy several of these ani-
mals every day. When the chase was at an end, they
returned to their masters' dwelling, made known by
signs the success of their expedition, and conducted the
hunters to the spot where the quarry was deposited. It
was thus that these adventurous traders were enabled to
supply themselves with provisions, even while they de-
voted nearly the whole of their time to the commercial
pursuits in which they were engaged. This statement,
M. Peron assures us, does not depend on the mere
assertions of the fishermen themselves, for he had him-
self witnessed the fact. From his account of the dogs
it does not appear whether they were of the native Aus-
tralian breed. It is more probable that they were
English hounds; and the name of one of them, Spot,
adds some confirmation to this conjecture, for we are
not aware that the pure New Holland dog has ever
which fall backward, and cover the anus ;
these feathers are gray upon the back, and
white on the belly. It goes very swiftly, and
seems assisted in its motion by a kind of
tubercle behind, like a heel, upon which, on
plain ground, it treads very securely ; in its
course it uses a very odd kind of action, lift-
ing up one wing, which it keeps elevated for
a time ; till letting it drop, it lifts up the
other. What the bird's intention may be in
thus keeping only one wing up, is not easy
to discover ; whether it makes use of this
as a sail to catch the wind, or whether as
a rudder to turn its course, in order (o avoid
the arrows of the Indians, yet remains to be
ascertained: however this be, the emu runs
with such swiftness, that the fleetest dogs are
thrown out in the pursuit. One of them,
finding itself surrounded by the hunters,
darted among the dogs with such fury, that
they made way to avoid its rage ; and it
escaped, by its amazing velocity, in safety to
the mountains.
As this bird is but little known, so travel-
lers have given a loose to their imaginations
in describing some of its actions, which they
were conscious could not be easily contradic-
ted. This animal, says Nierenberg, is very
been found spotted. In either case the account may
be quoted as a surprising instance of animal docility,
which would be only the more striking if exhibited l>y
the less sagacious breed.
If we are to credit the report of the same author, tho
flesh of the emu is " truly exquisite, and intermediate,
as it were, between that of a turkey and a sucking-pig."
But some allowances must be made for the circumstances
in which he first partook of it, when he and his com-
panions, abandoned by their captain, and without any
means of procuring subsistence, had no other prospect
than that of perishing by starvation, until relieved by
the generosity of the fishermen. The English colonists
do not appear to have quite so high an opinion of its
merits; they compare it to beef, which it resembles,
according to Mr Cunningham, " both in appearance
and taste, and is good and sweet eating : nothing in-
deed can be more delicate than the flesh of the young
ones." " There is but little," he says, " fit for culinary
use upon any part of the emu except the hind-quarters,
which are of such dimensions that the shouldering of
the two hind-legs homewards for a mile distance, once
proved to me as tiresome a task as I ever recollect to
have encountered in the colony." Their eggs are held
in much estimation, and, according to the same author-
ity, the natives almost live upon them during the hatch-
ing season. They are as large as those of an ostrich,
with equally thick shells coloured of a beautiful dark
green, and are usually six or seven in number; but we
have no information as to the manner in which the
wild birds form their nest. It probably consists, liki;
that of other ostriches, of a mere cavity scooped in the
earth. They seem to pair together with tolerable con-
stancy, and the male bird, as in some other monogamous
races, sits and hatches the young. In captivity the
emus are perfectly tame, and speedily become domesti
cated. They are easily acclimated in this country, and
have been bred without difficulty in various collection".
— Gardens and Menagerie of the Zoological .Socttty
Delineated. Vol. II.
THE CASSOWARY.
peculiar in hatching of its young. The male
compels twenty or thirty of the females to lay
their eggs in one nest ; he then, when they
have done laying, chases them away, and
places himself upon the eggs; however, he
takes the singular precaution of laying two of
the number aside, which he does not sit upon.
When the young ones come forth, these two
eggs are addled ; which the male having fore-
seen, breaks one, and then the other, upon
which multitudes of flies are found to settle ;
and these supply the young brood with a
sufficiency of provision, till they are able to
shift for themselves.
On the other hand, Wafer asserts, that he
has seen great quantities of this animal's eggs
on the desert shores, north of the river Plata ;
where they were buried in the sand, in order
to be hatched by the heat of the climate.
Both this, as well as the preceding account,
may be doubted ; and it is more probable that
it was the crocodile's eggs which Wafer had
seen, which are undoubtedly hatched in that
manner.
When the young ones are hatched, they
are familiar, and follow the h'rst person they
meet. I have been followed myself, says
Wafer, by many of these young ostriches ;
which, at first, are extremely harmless and
simple ; but as they grow older, they become
more cunning and distrustful ; and run so
swift, that a greyhound can scarcely overtake
them. Their flesh, in general, is good to be
eaten ; especially if they be young. It would
be no difficult matter to rear up flocks of
these animals tame, particularly as they are
naturally so familiar: and they might be
found to answer domestic purposes, like the
hen or the turkey. Their maintenance could
not be expensive, if, as Narborough says,
they live entirely upon grass.
CHAP. VI.
THE CASSOWARY.1
(See Plate XV 1 1 1. fig. 23.)
THE Cassowary is a bird which was first
brought into Europe by the Dutch, from Java,
1 This scarce and remarkable bird (the Struthio Casn-
ariuf of Linnaeus) is found in India, and the most east-
ern part of the old continent. Even in its native re-
gions it is uncommon ; and few are domesticated. The
habitual dulness of these birds, their disagreeable voice,
and their hard, black flesh, offer no compensation for the
cost of rearing and supporting them. The wild casso-
wary feeds on fruits, tender roots, and occasionally on
the young of small animals. The tame are fed not only
on fruits, but on bread, of which they consume about
VOL. II
in the East Indies, in which part of the world
it is only to be found. Next to the preceding,
it is the largest and the heaviest of the fea-
thered species.
I The cassowary, though not so large as the
, former, yet appears more bulky to the eye ;
| its body being nearly equal, and its neck and
legs much thicker and stronger in proportion ;
this conformation gives it an air of strength
and force, which the fierceness and singularity
of its countenance conspire-to render formida-
ble. It is five feet and a half long, from the
point of the bill to the extremity of the claws.
The legs are two feet and a half high, from
the belly to the end of the claws. The head
and neck together are a foot and a half ; and
the largest toe, including the claw, is five
inches- long. The claw alone of the least toe,
is three inches and a half in length. The
wing is so small, that it does not appear ; it
being hid under the feathers of the back. In
other birds, a part of the feathers serve for
flight, and are different from those that serve
for merely covering ; but in the cassowary, all
the feathers are of the same kind, and out-
wardly of the same colour. They are gene-
rally double ; having two long shafts, which
grow out of a short one, which is fixed in the
skin. Those that are double, are always of
an unequal length ; for some are fourteen
inches long, particularly on the rump ; while
others are not above three. The beards that
adorn the stem or shaft, are, from about half
way to the end, very long, and as thick as a
horse hair, without being subdivided into
fibres. The stem or shaft is flat, shining,
black, and knotted below; and from each
knot there proceeds a beard : likewise the
four pounds a-day. They run very swiftly, and often
outstrip the fleetest horses. They resist dogs by dealing
them severe blows with their feet. The male bird ge-
nerally leaves his mate to the cares of incubation, which
are required only at night; for during the day, their
three greyish eggs spotted with green, are exposed to
the vivifying effects of the sun, being slightly covered
with saud in the hole where they have been laid. In
captivity, their incubation lasts eight and twenty days.
The first cassowary ever seen in Europe was bought by
the Dutch in 1597.
The head of the cassowary is almost bare, covered
with a bluish skin, out of which grow a few scattered
hairs. It is crowned with a conical helmet, brown in
front and yellow in other parts ; this helmet is formed
by the swelling of the skull-bones. The throat is over-
spread with spongy glandular membranes, of a red and
violet colour, which hang down in front. The body is
covered with feathers of a bluish-black, of a particular
character, somewhat similar to long thin hair. The fea-
ther of the wing, or what represents the wing, for it is
not made for flight, consists of five hollow pipes, free
from hair, and red towards the bottom.
The whole length, from the beak to the rump, of the
full-grown bird, is rather more than five feet. The
young bird has no helmet, and his plumes are of a light
red colour, mixed with gray.
26
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
beards at the end of the large feathers are
perfectly black ; and towards the root of a
gray tawny colour ; shorter, more soft, and
throwing out fine fibres like down ; so that
nothing appears except the ends, which are
hard and black ; because the other part, com-
posed of down, is quite covered. There are
feathers on the head and neck ; but they are
so short and thinly sown, that the bird's skin
appears naked, except towards the hinder part
of the head, where they are a little longer.
The feathers which adorn the rump are ex-
tremely thick ; but do not differ, in other re-
spects, from the rest, excepting their being
longer. The wings, when they are deprived
of their feathers, are but three inches long;
and the feathers are like those on other parts
of the body. The ends of the wings are
adorned with five prickles, of different lengths
and thickness, which bend like a bow ; these
are hollow from the roots to the very points,
having only that slight substance within,
which all quills are known to have. The
longest of these prickles is eleven inches ;
and it is a quarter of an inch in diameter at
the root, being thicker there than towards the
extremity ; the point seems broken off.
The part, however, which most distin-
guishes this animal is the head : this, though
small, like that of an ostrich, does not fail to
inspire some degree of terror. It is bare of
feathers, and is in a manner armed with a
helmet of horny substance, that covers it from
the root of the bill to near half the head back-
wards. This helmet is black before and yel-
low behind. Its substance is very hard, being
formed by the elevation of the bone of the
skull ; and it consists of several plates, one
over another, like the horn of an ox. Some
have supposed that this was shed every year
with the feathers ; but the most probable
opinion is, that it only exfoliates slowly like
the beak. To the peculiar oddity of this na-
tural armour may be added the colour of the eye
in this animal , which is a bright yellow, and the
globe being above an inch and a half in diame-
ter, gives it an air equally fierce and extraordi-
nary. At the bottom of the upper eye-lid, there
is a row of small hairs, over which there is
another row of black hair, which look pretty
much like an eye-brow. The lower eyelid,
which is the largest of the two, is furnished
also with plenty of black hair. The hole of
the ear is very large and open, being only
covered with small black feathers. The sides
of the head, about the eye and ear, being des-
titute of any covering, are blue, except the
middle of the lower eye-lid, which is white.
The part of the bill which answers to the upper
jaw in other animals, is very hard at the edges
above, and the extremity of it like that of a
turkey-cock. The end of the lower mandible
is slightly notched, and the whole is of a gray-
ish brown, except a green spot on each side.
As the beak admits a very wide opening, this
contributes not a little to the bird's menacing
appearance. The neck is of a violet colour,
inclining to (hat of slate ; and it is red behind
in several places, but chiefly in the middle.
About the middle of the neck before, at the
rise of the large feathers, there are two pro-
cesses formed by the skin, which resemble
somewhat the gills of a cock, but that they
are blue as well as red. The skin which
covers the fore-part of the breast, on which
this bird leans and rests, is hard, callous, and
without feathers. The thighs and legs are
covered with feathers, and are extremely thick,
strong, straight, and covered with scales of
several shapes ; but the legs are thicker a
little above the foot than in any other place.
The toes are likewise covered with scales, and
are but three in number ; for that which should
be behind is wanting. The claws are of a
hard solid substance, black without, and white
within.
The internal parts are equally remarkable.
The cassowary unites with the double stomach
of animals that live upon vegetables, the short
intestines of these that live upon flesh. The
intestines of the cassowary are thirteen times
shorter than those of the ostrich. The heart is
very small, being but an inch and a half long,
and an inch broad at the base. Upon the whole,
it has the head of a warrior, the eye of a lion,
the defence of a porcupine, and the swiftness
of a courser.
Thus formed for a life of hostility, for terri-
fying others, and for its own defence, it might
be expected that the cassowary was one of the
most fierce and terrible animals of the creation.
But nothing is so opposite to its natural char-
acter, nothing so different from the life it is
contented to lead. It never attacks others ;
and instead of the bill, when attacked, it rather
makes use of its legs, and kicks like a horse,
or runs against its pursuer, beats him down,
and treads him to the ground.
The manner of going of this animal is nol
less extraordinary than its appearance. In-
stead of going directly forward, it seems to
kick up behind with one leg, and then making
a bound onward with the other, it goes with
such prodigious veloctiy, that the swiftest
racer would be left far behind.
The same degree of voraciousness which we
perceive in the ostrich, obtains as strongly here.
The cassowary swallows every thing that comes
within the capacity of its gullet. The Dutch
assert, that it can devour not only glass, iron,
and stones, but even live on burning coals,
without testifying the smallest fear, or feeling
the least injury. It is said, that the passage
of the food through it's gullet is performed so
THE DODO.
27
speedily, that even the very eggs which it has
swallowed whole, pass through it unbroken,
in the same form they went down. In fact,
the alimentary canal of this animal, as was
observed above, is extremely short; and it may
happen that many kinds of food are indiges-
tible in its stomach, as wheat or currants are
to a man when swallowed whole.
The cassowary's eggs are of a gray ash
colour, inclining to green. They are not so
large nor so round as those of the ostrich.
They are marked with a number of little tu-
bercles of a deep green, and the shell is not
very thick. The largest of these is found
to be fifteen inches round one way, and about
twelve the other.
The southern parts of the most eastern Indies
seems to be the natural climate of the cassow-
ary. His domain, if we may so call it, begins
where that of the ostrich terminates. The
latter has never been found beyond the Gan-
ges; while the cassowary is never seen nearer
than the islands of Banda, Sumatra, Java, the
Molucca Islands, and the corresponding parts
of the continent. Yet even here this animal
seems not to have multiplied in any consider-
able degree, as we find one of the kings of
Java making a present of one of these birds
to the captain of a Dutch ship, considering it
as a very great rarity. The ostrich, that has
kept in the desert and unpeopled regions of
Africa, is still numerous, and the unrivalled
tenant of its own inhospitable climate. But
the cassowary, that is the inhabitant of a more
peopled and polished region, is growing scar-
cer every day. It is thus that in proportion
as man multiplies, all the savage and noxious
animals fly before him: at his approach they
quit their ancient habitations, how adapted
soever they may be to their natures, and seek a
more peaceable, though barren, retreat; where
they willingly exchange plenty for freedom ;
and encounter all thedangersof famine, toavoid
the oppressions of an unrelenting destroyer.
CHAP. VII.
THE DODO.
(See Plate XX. Jig. 28.)
MANKIND have generally made swiftness the
attribute of birds ; but the dodo has no title
to this distinction Instead of exciting the
idea of swiftness by its appearance, it seems
to strike the imagination as a thing the most
unwieldy and inactive of all nature. Its body
is massive, almost round, and covered with
gray feathers ; it is just barely supported
upon two short thick legs, like pillars, while
its head and neck rise from it in a manuei
truly grotesque. The neck, thick and pursy,
is joined to the head, which consists of two
great chaps, that open far behind the eyes,
which are large, black and prominent ; so that
the animal, when it gapes, seems to be all
mouth. The bill, therefore, is of an extraor-
dinary length, not flat and broad, but thick,
and of a bluish white, sharp at the end, and
each chap crooked in opposite directions. They
resemble two pointed spoons that are laid to-
gether by the backs. FronTalt this results a
stupid and voracious physiognomy ; which is
still more increased by a bordering of feathers
round the root of the beak, and which gives
the appearance of a hood or cowl, and finishes
this picture of stupid deformity. Bulk, which
in other animals implies strength, in this only
contributes to inactivity. The ostrich, or the
cassowary, are no more able to fly than the
animal before us ; but then they supply that
defect by their speed in running. The dodo
seems weighed down by its own heaviness,
and has scarcely strength to urge itself for-
ward. It seems among birds what the sloth
is among quadrupeds, an unresisting thing,
equally incapable of flight or defence. It is
furnished with wings, covered with soft ash-
coloured feathers, but they are too short to
assist it in flying. It is furnished with a tail,
with a few small curled feathers; but this tail
is disproportioned and displaced. Its legs are
too short for running, and its body too fat to
be strong. One would take it for a tortoise
that had supplied itself with the feathers of a
bird ; and that thus dressed out with the in-
struments of flight, it was only still the more
unwieldy.
This bird is a native of the Isle of France ;
and the Dutch, who first discovered it there,
called it, in their language, the nauseous bird,
as well from its disgusting figure as from the
bad taste of its flesh. However, succeeding
observers contradict the first report, and assert
that its flesh is good and wholesome eating.
It is a silly simple bird, as may very well be
supposed from its figure, and is very easily
taken. Three or four dodos are enough to
dine a hundred men.
Whether the dodo be the same bird with
that which some travellers have described
under the bird of Nazareth, yet remains un-
certain. The country from whence they both
come is the same ; their incapacity of flying
is the same ; the form of the wings and body
in both are similar ; but the chief difference
given is in the colour of the feathers, which
in the female of the bird of Nazareth are said
to be extremely beautiful ; and in the length
of their legs, which in the dodo are short ; in
the other, are described as long. Time and
future observation must clear up these doubts ;
28
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
and the testimony of a single witness, who
shall have seen both, will throw more lighten
the subject than the reasonings of a hundred
philosophers.1
1 The dodo, described above, is now supposed to have
become extinct, and its former existence has even been
called in question by some writers. Instead of euter?i;g
upon this subject, which has been very largely discussed
by naturalists, and which could not be treated of without
occupying much room, we refer to a paper by Mr Dun.
can, in the 12th No. of the Zoological Journal, where
the most complete view of the evidence as to the recent
existence and present extinction of the dodo is given.
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
BOOK II.
OF RAPACIOUS BIRDS.
CHAP. I.
OF RAPACIOUS BIRDS IN GENERAL.1
THERE seems to obtain a general resem-
blance in all the classes of nature. As among
quadrupeds, a part were seen to live upon the
vegetable productions of the earth, and another
part upon the flesh of each other ; so among
birds, some live upon vegetable food, and
others by rapine, destroying all such as want
force or swiftness to procure their safety. By
thus peopling the woods with animals of differ-
ent dispositions, nature has wisely provided
for the multiplication of life ; since, could we
suppose that there were as many animals pro-
duced as there were vegetables supplied to
sustain them, yet there might still be another
class of animals formed, which could find a
sufficient sustenance by feeding upon such of
the vegetable feeders as happened to fall by
the course of nature. By this contrivance, a
greater number will be sustained upon the
whole ; for the numbers would be but very
thin were every creature a candidate for the
same food. Thus, by supplying a variety of
appetites, nature has also multiplied Jife in
her productions.
In thus varying their appetites, nature has
also varied the form of the animal ; and while
she has given some an instinctive passion for
animal food, she has also furnished them with
powers to obtain it. All land birds of the ra-
pacious kinds are furnished with a large head,
and a strong crooked beak, notched at the end,
for the purpose of tearing their prey. They
have strong short legs, and sharp crooked
1 The animals of this order are all carnivorous: they
associate in pairs, build their nests in the most lofty
situations, and produce generally four young ones at a
brood : and the female is mostly larger than the male.
They consist of vultures, eagles, hawks, and owls.
talons, for the purpose of seizing it. Their
bodies are formed for war, being fibrous and
muscular ; and their wings for swiftness of
flight, being well feathered and expansive.
The sight of such as prey by day is astonish-
ingly quick ; and such as ravage by night,
have their sight so fitted as to see objects in
darkness with extreme precision.
Their internal parts are equally formed for
the food they seek for. Their stomach is simple
and membranous, and wrapt in fat to increase
the powers of digestion ; and their intestines
are short and glandular. As their food is
succulent and juicy, they want no length of
intestinal tube to form it into a proper nour-
ishment. Their food is flesh ; which does
not require a slow digestion to be converted
into a similitude of substance to their own.
Thus formed for war, they lead a life of
solitude and rapacity. They inhabit by choice
the most lonely places, and the most desert
mountains. They make their nests in the
clifts of rocks, and on the highest and most
inaccessible trees of the forest. Whenever
they appear in the cultivated plain or the
warbling grove, it is only for the purposes of
depredation ; arid are gloomy intruders on the
general joy of the landscape. They spread
terror wherever they approach : all that var-
iety of music which but a moment before en-
livened the grove, at their appearing is in-
stantly at an end : every order of lesser birds
seek for safety, either by concealment or flight;
and some are even driven to take protection
with man, to avoid their less merciful pursuers.
It would indeed be fatal to all the smaller
race of birds, if, as they are weaker than all,
they were also pursued by all ; but it is con-
trived wisely for their safety, that every order
of carnivorous birds seek only for such as are
of the size most approaching their own. The
eagle flies at the bustard or the pheasant ; the
so
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
sparrow-hawk pursues the thrush and linnet.
Nature has provided that each species should
make war only on such as are furnished with
adequate means of escape. The smallest birds
avoid their pursuers by the extreme agility,
rather than the swiftness of their flight ; for
every order would soon be at an end, if the
eagle, to its own swiftness of wing, added the
versatility of the sparrow.
Another circumstance which tends to render
the tyranny of these animals more support-
able, is, that they are less fruitful than other
birds ; breeding but few at a time. Those of
the larger kind seldom produce above four
eggs, often but two ; those of the smaller
kinds, never above six or seven. The pigeon,
it. is true, which is their prey, never breeds
above two at a time ; but then she breeds
every month in the year. The carnivorous
kinds only breed annually, and, of conse-
quence, their fecundity is small in compari-
son.
As they are fierce by nature, and are diffi-
cult to be tamed, so this fierceness extends
even to their young, which they force from
the nest sooner than birds of the gentler kind.
Other birds seldom forsake their young till
able, completely, to provide for themselves:
the rapacious kinds expel them from the nest
at a time when they still should protect and
support them. This severity to their young
proceeds from the necessity of providing for
themselves. All animals that, by the con-
formation of their stomach and intestines, are
obliged to live upon flesh, and support them-
selves by prey, though they may be mild
when young, soon become fierce and mischiev-
ous, by the very habit of using those arms
with which they are supplied by nature. As
it is only by the destruction of other animals
that they can subsist, they become more furi-
ous every day ; and even the parental feelings
are overpowered in their general habits of
cruelty. If the power of obtaining a supply
be difficult, the old ones soon drive their brood
from the nest to shift for themselves, and often
destroy them in a fit of fury caused by hun-
ger.
Another effect of this natural and acquired
severity is, that almost all birds of prey are
unsociable. It has long been observed by
Aristotle, that all birds with crooked beaks
and talons are solitary : like quadrupeds of
the cat kind, they lead a lonely wandering
life, and are united only in pairs, by that in-
stinct which overpowers their rapacious habits
of enmity with all other animals. As the
male and female are often necessary to each
other in their pursuits, so they sometimes live
together ; but except at certain seasons, they
most usually prowl alone ; and, like robbers,
enjoy in solitude the fruits of their plunder.
All birds of prey are remarkable for one
singularity, for which it is not easy to account.
All the males of these birds are about a third
less, and weaker than the females, contrary
to what obtains among quadrupeds, among
which the males are always the largest and
the boldest : from thence the male is called by
falconers a tarcel; that is, a tierce or third
less than the other. The reason of this dif-
ference cannot proceed from the necessity of
a larger body in the female for the purpose o(
breeding, and that her volume is thus in-
creased by the quantity of her eggs; for in
other birds, that breed much, faster, and that
lay in much greater proportion, such as the
hen, the duck, or the pheasant, the male is by
much the largest of the two.
Whatever be the cause, certain it is, that
the females, as Willoughby expresses it, are
of greater size, more beautiful and lovely for
shape and colours, stronger, more fierce and
generous, than the males ; whether it may be
that it is necessary for the female to be thus
superior, as it is incumbent upon her to pro-
vide, not only for herself, but her young ones
also.
These birds, like quadrupeds of the carni-
vorous kind, are all lean and meagre. Their
flesh is stringy and ill-tasted, soon corrupting,
and tinctured with the flavour of that animal
food upon which they subsist. Nevertheless,
Belonius asserts, that many people admire the
flesh of the vulture and falcon, and dress them
for eating, when they meet with any accident
that unfits them for the chase. He asserts,
that the osprey, a species of the eagle, when
young, is excellent food ; but he contents him-
self with advising us to breed these birds up
for our pleasure rather in the field, than for
the table.
Of land birds of a rapacious nature, there
are five kinds. The eagle kind, the hawk
kind, the vulture kind, the horned and the
screech owl kind. The distinctive marks of
this class are taken from their claws and beak :
their toes are separated : their legs are feath-
ered to the heel : their toes are four in num-
ber ; three before, one behind : their beak is
short, thick, and crooked.
The eagle kind is distinguished from the
rest by his beak, which is straight till towards
the end, when it begins to hook downwards.
The vulture kind is distinguished by the
head and neck ; which are without feathers.
The hawk kind by the beak ; being hooked
from the very root.
The horned owl by the feathers at the base
of the bill standing forwards ; and by some
feathers on the head that stand out, resem-
bling horns.
The screech-owl by the feathers at the bast
of the bill standing forward, and being with.
THE EAGLE.
31
out horns. A description of one in each kind ,
will serve for all the rest.
CHAP. II.
« ?
TITE EAGLE ANt> ITS AFFINITIES.
THE Golden Eagle is the largest and the
noblest of all those birds that have received
the name of eagle. It weighs above twelve
pounds. Iw length is three feet ; the extent
of its wings, seven feet four inches ; the bill
is three inches long, and of a deep blue colour ;
and the eye of a hazel colour. The sight and
sense of smelling are very acute. The head
and neck are clothed with narrow sharp-pointed
feathers, and of a deep brown colour, bordered
with tawny ; but those on the crown of the
head, in very old birds, turn gray. The whole
body, above as well as beneath, is of a dark
brown ; and the feathers of the back are finely
clouded with a deeper shade of the same. The
wings, when clothed, reach to the end of the
tail. The quill- feathers are of a chocolate
colour, the shafts white. The tail is of a deep
brown, irregularly barred and blotched with
an obscure ash-colour, and usually white at
the roots of the feathers. The legs are yel-
low, short, and very strong, being three inches
in circumference, and feathered to the very
feet. The toes are covered with large scales,
and armed with the most formidable claws,
the middle of which are two inches long.
In the rear of this terrible bird follow the
ring-tailed eagle,1 the common eagle, the bald
eagle, the white eagle, the hough-footed eagle,
the erne, the black eagle, the osprey, the sea
eagle, and the crowned eagle. These, and others
that might be added, form different shades in
this fierce family ; but have all the same ra-
pacity, the same general form, the same habits,
and the same manner of bringing up their
young.
In general, these birds are found in moun-
tainous and ill-peopled countries, and breed
1 The ring-tailed eagle is now generally believed to be
the young of the golden eagle.
among the loftiest cliffs. They choose those
places which are remotest from man, upon
whose possessions they but seldom make their
depredations, being contented rather to follow
the wild game in the forest, than to risk their
safety, to satisfy their hunger.
This fierce animal may be considered among
birds, as the lion among quadrupeds ; and in
many respects they have a strong similitude
to each other. They are both possessed of
force, and an empire over-thai* fellows of the
forest. Equally magnanimous, they disdain
smaller plunder ; and only pursue animals
worthy the conquest. It is not till after having
been long provoked, by the cries of the rook
or the magpie, that this generous bird thinks
fit to punish them with death : the eagle also
disdains to share the plunder of another bird ;
and will take up with no other prey but that
which he has acquired by his own pursuits.
How hungry soever he may be, he never stoops
to carrion ; and when satiated, he never re-
turns to the same carcase, but leaves it for
other animals, more rapacious and less delicate
than he. Solitary, like the lion, he keeps the
desert to himself alone ; it is as extraordinary
to see two pair of eagles in the same moun-
tain, as two lions in the same forest. They
keep separate, to find a more ample supply ;
and consider the quantity of their game as the
best proof of their dominion. Nor does the
similitude of these animals stop here : they
have both sparkling eyes, and nearly of the
same colour ; their claws are of the same form,
their breath equally strong, and their cry
equally loud and terrifying. Bred both for
war, they are enemies of all society : alike
fierce, proud, and incapable of being easily
tamed. It requires great patience and much
art to tame an eagle ; and even though taken
young, and brought under by long assiduity,
yet still it is a dangerous domestic, and often
turns its force against its master.
When brought into the field for the pur-
poses of fowling, the falconer is never sure of
its attachment : that innate pride, and love
of liberty, still prompt it to regain its native
solitudes ; and the moment the falconer sees
it, when let loose, first stoop towards the
ground, and then rise perpendicularly into the
clouds, he gives up all his former labour for
lost ; quite sure of never beholding his late
prisoner more. Sometimes, however, they
are brought to have an attachment for their
feeder ; they are then highly serviceable, and
liberally provide for his pleasures and support.
When the falconer lets them go from his hand,
they play about and hover round him till their
game presents, which they see at an immense
distance, and pursue with certain destruction.
Of all animals the eagle flies highest ; and
from thence the ancients have given him the
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
epithet of the bird of heaven. Of all others
also, he has the quickest eye ; but his sense
of smelling is far inferior to that of the vul-
ture. He never pursues, therefore, but in
sight ; and when he has seized his prey, he
stoops from his height, as if to examine its
weight, always laying it on the ground before
he carries it off. As his wing is very power-
ful, yet, as he has but little suppleness in the
joints of the leg, he finds it difficult to rise
when down ; however, if not instantly pur-
sued, he finds no difficulty in carrying off
geese and cranes. He also carries away
hares, lambs, and kids ; and often destroys
fawns and calves, to drink their blood, and
carries a part of their flesh to his retreat. In-
fants themselves, when left unattended, have
been destroyed by these rapacious creatures ;
which probably gave rise to the fable of Gany-
mede's being snatched up by an eagle to hea-
ven.
An instance is recorded in Scotland of two
children being carried off by eagles ; but for-
innately they received no hurt by the way ;
and, the eagles being pursued, the children
were restored unhurt out of the nests to the
affrighted parents.
The eagle is thus at all times a formidable
neighbour ; but peculiarly when bringing up
its young. It is then that the female, as well
as the male, exert all their force and industry
to supply their young. Smith, in his history
of Kerry, relates, that a poor man in that
country got a comfortable subsistence for his
family, during a summer of famine, out of an
eagle's nest, by robbing the eaglets of food,
which was plentifully supplied by the old
ones. He protracted their assiduity beyond
the usual time, by clipping their wings, and
retarding the flight of the young ; and very
probably also, as I have known myself, by so
tying them as to increase their cries, which is
always found to increase the parent's despatch
to procure them provision. It was lucky,
however, that the old eagles did not surprise
the country-man as he was thus employed,
as their resentment might have been danger-
ous.
It happened some time ago, in the same
country, that a peasant resolved to rob the nest
of an eagle, that had built in a small island in
the beautiful lake of Killarney, He accord-
ingly stripped, and swam in upon the island
while the old ones were away ; and, robbing
the nest of its young , he was preparing to swim
back, with the eaglets tied in a string ; but
while he was yet up to his chin in the water,
the old eagles returned, and, missing their
young, quickly fell upon the plunderer, and,
in spite of all his resistance, despatched him
with their beaks and talons.
In order to extirpate these pernicious birds,
there is a law in the Orkney Islands, which
entitles any person that kills an eagle to a hen
out of every house in the parish in which the
plunderer is killed.1
1 In England and the south of Scotland the golden
eagle may be accounted rare, very few districts of the
former being adapted to its disposition, or suitable for
breeding places. Some parts of Derbyshire are recorded
as having possessed eyries; in the mountainous parts of
Wales there are others, and the precipices of Cumber-
land and Westmoreland also boasted of them. Upon
the wild ranges of the Scottish Border, one or two pairs
used to breed, but their nest has not been known for
twenty years, though a straggler in winter sometimes is
yet seen amidst their defiles. It is not until we really
enter the Highlands of Scotland by one of the grand
and romantic passes, that this noble bird can be said oc-
casionally to occur, and it is not until we reach the very
centre of their "wildness," that he can be frequently
seen. But the species must be gradually, though surely
decreasing, for such is the depredation committed among
the flocks during the season of lambing, and which is
the time when a large supply of food is required by the
parent birds for their young, that every device is em-
ployed, and expense incurred by rewards, for their de-
struction. From March, 1831, to March, 1834, in the
county of Sutherland alone, one hundred and seventy-
one old birds, with fifty-three young and eggs, were de-
stroyed, which, while it shows that the bird is not of
that extreme rarity which is sometimes supposed, it, at
the same time, tells us that if the war of extermination
be continued, we sliall ere long look in vain for this ap-
propriate ornament of our northern landscape. In Ire-
land it is generally distributed where the situations are
favourable, but at the same time is much more uncom-
mon than the sea eagle. The Horn Head, the moun-
tain of Rosheen, near Dunfanaghy, A chill Island, and
Crowpatric, are mentioned by Mr Thompson as now or
formerly containing eyries on their precipices ; from
Rosheen they have been now driven off, on account of
the destruction done to the flocks. The nest, placed on
a ledge perfectly inaccessible, was set on fire by burning
a lighted brand, and was consumed with its tenants ;
the parents have since forsaken a station where they had
been attacked in a manner so unusual.
The eyiy of the golden eagle is placed on the face of
some stupendous cliff situated inland; the nest is built
on a projecting shelve, or on some stumped tree that
grows from the rock, generally in a situation perfectly
inaccessible without some artificial means, and often out
of the reach of shot either from below or from the top of
the precipice. It is composed of dead branches, roots
of heather, &c., entangled strongly together, and in
considerable quantity, but without any lining in the in-
side ; the eggs are two in number, white, with pale
brown or purplish blotches, most numerous and largest
at the thicker end. During the season of incubation,
the quantity of food that is procured and brought hither
is almost incredible ; it is composed of nearly all the
inhabitants, or their young, of those wild districts called
forests, which, though indicating a wooded region, are
often tracts where for miles around a tree is not seen.
Hares, lambs, and the young of deer and roebuck, grouse,
black game, ptarmigan, curlews, and plovers, all contri-
bute to the feast.
The manner in which the eagles hunt or survey the
ground is by soaring above, often to an immense heights
the ascent is performed by circles, a beautiful appearance
in flight. When the prey is perceived, it is rushed upon
by a rapid and instantaneous sweep; and surprised ere
it can escape, or paralyzed by terror, the object is gene-
rally at once seized. The weight of the birds and the
great resistance presented to the air by their large bodies
The nest of the eagle is usually built in
the most inaccessible cliff of the rock, and
often shielded from the weather by some jut-
ting crag that hangs over it. Sometimes, how-
ever, it is wholly exposed to the winds, as well
sideways as above ; for the nest is flat, though
built with great labour. It is said that the
same nest serves the eagle during life ; and in-
deed the pains bestowed in forming it seems to
argue as much. One of these was found in
the Peak of Derbyshire ; which Willoughby
thus describes. " It was made of great sticks,
resting one end on the edge of a rock, the
other on two birch trees. Upon these was a
layer of rushes, and over them a layer of
heath, and upon the heath rushes again : upon
which lay one young one, and an addle egg ;
and by them a lamb, a hare, and three heath-
poults. The nest was about two yards square,
and had no hollow in it. The young eagle
was of the shape of a goshawk, of almost the
weight of a goose, rough footed, or feathered
down to the foot, having a white ring about
tlie tail." -Such is the place where the female
eagle deposits her eggs ; which seldom exceed
two at a time in the largest species, and not
above three in the smallest. It is said that
she hatches them for thirty days: but fre-
quently, even of this small number of eggs, a
part is addled; and it is extremely rare to
find three eaglets in the same nest. It is
asserted, that as soon as the young ones are
and expansive wings, prevent pursuit being often tried,
though we have instances mentioned. Montague re-
lates one where a wounded grouse was seized before the
guns could be reloaded, and another, where a black cock
was sprung and instantly pursued ; " the eagle made
several pounces in our view, but without success."
Mr Thompson has given us the following information
of the manner of hunting. — An eagle was seen by Mr
Adams, lately gamekeeper at Glencairn,. in pursuit of a
hare. The poor animal took refuge under every bush
that presented itself, which, as often as she did, the
eagle approached the bush, so near apparently to beat the
top of it with his wings, and thereby forced the hare to
leave her place of refuge. In this way she was event-
ually driven to open ground, which did not long avail, as
the eagle soon came up with and bore her off. Another
anecdote is related on the authority of a sporting friend.
" When out hunting' among the Belfast mountains, an
eagle appeared above his hounds as they came to fault
on the ascent to Devis, the highest of the chain. As
they came on the scent again, and were at full cry, the
eagle for a short time kept above them, but at length
advanced and carried off the hare, when at the distance
of from three to four hundred paces before the hounds."
The distribution of this species extends over the
northern parts of Europe ; but towards the south the
birds become less frequent. It also inhabits North
America, but appears to be there generally rare, although
in the United States, according to Audubon, it is fre-
quently seen. In the fur countries it again becomes
rare ; and the above mentioned naturalist saw a single
specimen only on the coast of Labrador, " sailing at the
height of a few yards above the moss-covered surface of
the dreary rocks." — Naturalist's Library, vol. IX. by
Sir William Jardine, Bart. Edin. 1838.
VOL. II.
THE EAGLE. 33
somewhat grown, the mother kills the most
feeble or the most voracious. If this happens,
it must proceed only from the necessities of
the parent, who is incapable of providing for
their support; and is content to sacrifice apart
to the welfare of all.
The plumage of the eaglets is not so
strongly marked as when they come to be
adult. They are at first white ; then inclin-
ing to yellow ; and at last of a light brown.
Age, hunger, long captivity, jind diseases,
make them whiter. It is said they live above
a hundred years; and that they at last die,
not of old age, but from the beaks turning
inward upon the under mandible, and thus
preventing their taking any food. They are
equally remarkable, says Mr Pennant, for
their longevity, and for their power of sustain-
ing a long abstinence from food. One of
this species, which has now been nine years
in the possession of Mr Owen Holland, of
Conway, lived thirty-two years with the gen-
tleman who made him a present of it ; but
what its age was when the latter received it
from Ireland is unknown. The same bird
also furnishes a proof of the truth of the other
remark ; having once, through the neglect of
servants, endured hunger for twenty-one days,
without any sustenance whatever.
Those eagles which are kept tame, are fed
with every kind of flesh, whether fresh or
corrupting ; and when there is a deficiency of
that, bread, or other provision, will suffice.
It is very dangerous approaching them if not
quite tame ; and they sometimes send forth a
loud piercing lamentable cry, which renders
them still more formidable. The eagle drinks
but seldom ; and perhaps, when at liberty,
not at all, as the blood of its prey serves to
quench its thirst. The eagle's excrements are
always soft and moist, and tinged with that
whitish substance which, as was said before,
mixes in birds with the urine.
Such are the general characteristics and
habitudes of the eagle; however, in some these
habitudes differ, as the sea eagle and the
osprey live chiefly upon fish, and consequently
build their nests on the shore, and by the
sides of rivers on the ground among reeds ;
and often lay three or four eggs, rather less
than those of a hen, of a white elliptical form.
They catch their prey, which is chiefly fish,
by darting down upon them from above. The
Italians compare the violent descent of these
birds on their prey to the fall of lead into
water ; and call them aquila piombina, or the
leaden eagle.
Nor is the bald eagle, (see Plate XV. fig.
2.) which is an inhabitant of North Carolina,
less remarkable for habits peculiar to itself.
These birds breed in that country all the year
round. When the eaglets are just covered
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
with down, and a sort of white woolly fea-
thers, the female eagle lays again. These
eggs are left to be hatched "by the warmth of
the yonng ones that continue in the nest ; so
that the flight of one brood makes room for
the next that are but just hatched. These
birds fly very heavily; so that they cannot
overtake their prey, tike others of the same
denomination. To remedy this, they often
attend a sort of fishing-hawk, which they
pursue, and strip the plunderer of its prey.
This is the more remarkable, as this hawk
flies swifter than they. These eagles also
generally attend upon fowlers in the winter ;
and when any birds are wounded, they are
sure to be seized by the eagle, though they
may fly from the fowler. This bird will often
also steal young pigs, and carry them alive to
the nest, which is composed of twigs, sticks,
and rubbish ; it is large enough to fill the
body of a cart ; and is commonly full of bones
half eaten, and putrid flesh, the stench of
which is intolerable.1
The distinctive marks of each species are
as follow:
1 Wilson, in his American Ornithology, gives the
following spirited description of the bald or white-beaded
The celebrated cataract of Niagara, he says, is a
iMted place of resort for those birds, as well on account
of the fish procured there, as for the numerous carcasses
of squirrels, deer, bears, and various other animals, that
in their attempts to cross the river above the falls have
been dragged into the current, and precipitated down
that tremendous golf, where, among the rocks that
bound the rapids below, they furnish a rich repast for the
vulture, the raven, and the bald eagle, the subject of the
present account.
This bird has been long known to naturalists, being
common to both continents, and occasionally met with
from a very high northern latitude, to the borders of the
torrid cone, but chiefly in the vicinity of the sea, and
•Jong the shores and cliffs of our lakes and large rivers.
Formed by nature for braving the severest cold ; feeding
equally on the produce of the sea and of the land: pos-
sessing powers of flight capable of outstripping even the
tempeaU themselves ; unawed by anything but man ; and
from the ethereal heights to which he soars, looking
abroad, at one glance, on an immeasurable expanse of
forests, fields, lakes, and ocean, deep below him, he ap-
pears indifferent to the little localities of change of sea-
sons; as in a few minutes he can pass from summer to
winter, from the lower to the higher regions of the at
mospbere, the abode of eternal cold, and from thence
descend at will to the torrid or the arctic regions of the
earth. He is therefore found at all seasons in the
countries be inhabits, but prefers all such places as have
been mentioned above, from the great partiality be has for
•sh. In procuring these, he displays, in a very singular
•minor. the genius and energy of his character, which
is fierce, contemplative, daring, and tyrannical ; attri-
butes not exerted but on particular occasions : but when
pot forth, overpowering all opposition. Elevated on the
high dead limb of some gigantic tree that commands a
wide new of the neighbouring shore and ocean, he seems
calmly to contemplate the motions of the various fea-
thered tribes that pursue their busy avocations below;
the snow-white gulls slowly winnowing the air; the busy
The golden eagle : of a tawny iron colour ;
the head and neck of a reddish iron ; the tail
feathers of a dirty white, marked with cross
bands of tawny iron ; the legs covered with
tawny iron feathers.
The common eagle : of a brown colour ; the
head and upper part of the neck inclining to
red ; the tatt feathers white, blackening at the
ends ; the outer ones, on each side, of an ash
colour ; the legs covered with feathers of a
reddish brown.
The bald eagle; brown ; the head, neck, and
tail feathers, white ; the feathers of the upper
part of the leg brown.
The white eagle : the whole white.
The rough-footed eagle : of a dirty brown ;
spotted under the wings, and OH the legs, with
white ; the feathers of the tail white at the be-
ginning and the point ; the leg-feathers dirty
brown, spotted with white.
The white-tailed eagle : dirty brown ; head
white ; the stems of the feathers black ; the
rump inclining to black : the tail feathers, the
first half black, the end half white ; legs
naked.'
troupe (sandpipers) coursing along the sands ; trains of
ducks streaming over the surface ; silent and watchful
cranes, intent and wading ; clamorous crows, and all
the winged multitudes that subsist by the bounty of this
vast liquid magazine of nature. High over all these
hovers one whose action instantly arrests all his atten-
tion. By his wide curvature of wing, and sudden sus-
pension in the air, he knows him to be the fish-hawk
(Pandion Haluetut. Savigny,) settling over some de-
voted victim of the deep. His eye kindles at the sight,
and balancing himself, with half-opened wings, on the
branch, he watches the result. Down, rapid as an arrow
from heaven, descends the distant object of his attention,
the roar of its wings reaching the ear as it disappears in
the deep, making the surge foam around. At this mo-
ment the eager looks of the eagle are all ardour; and
levelling his neck for flight, be sees the fish-hawk once
more emerge, struggling with his prey, and mounting
in the air with screams of exultation. These are the
signal for our hero, who, launching into the air, instantly
gives chace, and soon gains on the fish-hawk ; each ex-
erts his utmost to mount above the other, displaying in
the rencontre the most elegant and sublime aerial evolu-
tions. The unincumbered eagle rapidly advances, and
is just on the point of reaching his opponent, when with
a sudden scream, probably of despair and honest execra-
tion, the latter drops his fish; the eagle, poising him-
self for a moment as if to take a more certain aim, des-
cends like a whirlwind, snatches it in his grasp ere it
reaches the water, and bears his ill-gotten booty silently
away to the woods.
These predatory attacks and defensive manoeuvres of
the eagle and fish-hawk are matters of daily observation
along the whole of our sea-board, from Georgia to New
England, and frequently excite great interest in the
spectators. Sympathy, however, on this as on most
other occasions, generally sides with the honest and la-
borious sufferer, in opposition to the attacks of power, in-
justice, and rapacity, qualities for which our hero is so
generally notorious, and which, in his superior, man,
are equally detestable. As for the feelings of the poor fish,
they seem altogether out of the question. — Amur. Omith.
* This bird often presents a fine feature in the wud
THE EAGLE.
The erne t a dirty iron colour above, an iron
mixed with black below ; the head and neck
ash, mixed with chestnut ; the points of the
wings blackish ; the tail feathers white ; the
legs naked.
The black eagle: blackish; the bead and
upper neck mixed with red ; the tail feathers,
the first half white, speckled with black ; the
other half blackish ; the leg feathers dirtj
white.
The sea eagle : inclining to white, mixed
with iron brown ; belly white with iron col-
oured spots ; the covert feathers of the tail
whitish ; the tail feathers black at the extrem-
ity; the upper part of the leg feathers of an
iron brown.1
and desolate landscape. Its most favourite haunts in
Britain are the northern coasts of Scotland, -where the
headlands reach a stupendous height, are perpendicular
on the face, and when the shelve* and ledges selected
for a breeding or roosting place, can be tenanted secure
from the inroads of an aggressor, either from above or
beneath. Here he resides constantly at one season, or
he finds a safe shelter during the night, after his more
extended hunting excursions; his screams scarcely
sound above the noise of the surge below, or the storm
which may rage around the rocky pinnacles ; bat the
occasional shriek heard in a moment of quiet, tells forci-
bly on the imagination while viewing such scenes, and
the noble bird himself alone attracts the eye amidst the
numerous sea-fowl his companions, his pale gray tinted
plumage and pure outspread tail, being marked objects,
when opposed to the dark green sea, or the deep and
rich shades of many of these splendid precipices. In
>uch situations the eyries are most frequently found,
and the nest is there reared, and the young are hatched
in safety, notwithstanding the bribes offered for their
destruction. The nest is also sometimes placed in more
inland sites. The precipitous crags overhanging some
alpine loch are often chosen, and such is ''Eagles'
Craig," among the lakes of the English 4iorder, and the
" Eagle's nest," at Killaniey. Trees are also selected,
though much less frequently. We visited a nest placed on
an aged larch, grow ing on one of the romantic islands in
Loch Awe. It was a large fabric of sticks placed about half
way up the tree, (the nest of a sparrowfaawk was a model
of it in miniature,) built close to the stem, very flat, but
strongly composed of sticks and roots, and lined in a
very miscellaneous manner; wool formed the greatest
part, moss also, and a child's bonnet, and a part of a
bridle were in its structure. The eggs are generally
two in number, larger than those of the golden eagle,
round in form, and pure white, or with very pale indi:
tinct blotches. In England the breeding places of the
sea eagle are now very rare, perhaps not more than one
or two. The birds themselves are, however, not unfre-
quently met with and shot, both in the south and in the
border counties of Scotland, which are also beyond their
breeding range ; but the greater part of the birds thus
killed are in immature plumage.
From its occurrence in greatest numbers near the sea,
or in the vicinity of some extensive piece of water, the
commonly used name has been gained for this bird ; but
though delighting in fish, and often procuring this kine
of food, we have no record by an eye-witness how the
scaly prey is seized ; it is not a true fisher like the
osprey, its structure is very different, and we have no
authority for believing that it plunges. Its congener
in America, we know, depends entirely on the prowess
of another bird for the fish it procures, and is, moreover,
very awkward in the attempts which it has been seen to
make upon fish in their native element. But though
tish is certainly the most favourite food, nothing noamtT
to come far amiss; dead animals are sometimes even
eaten, and he can be easily trapped by a bait of raw or
newly killed meat. In confinement we have observe*
no nicety whatever, except in discriminating a fish from
any other kind of food ; and a female which has been long
in our possession, comes much more eagerly to the fron
of her cage, and appears more alert than usual when a
trout is presented to her view.
The general colour of the plumage of the adult sea
eagle is a chaste hair brown, of a peculiar dull or opaque
tint; on the head and upper parts it is palest, the centre
of the back and under parts being considerably darker;
the head and upper part of the neck are covered with
lanceolate shaped feathers, which are raised on excite-
ment or irritation, and the tint here is remarkably dear,
appearing at a distance, when shone on by the sun,
almost white; the quills are blackish brown, with a
purplish tinge, and have the shafts pale; the upper tail
coverts and tail are pure white, and in all the attitudes
of the bird are conspicuously seen. This mark of per-
fect plumage is considered to be completed about the
third moult, but the female above alluded to had not
a perfectly pure tail at the age of five years, the outer
feathers retaining a considerable portion of the brow*
mottling, which is seen in the second year's plumage.
Now, at the age of seven years, the tail is unsullied; the
bill and cere are straw yellow, the hitter of a darker,
rather greener tint: the iris is remarkably beautiful, of a
pate grayish honey yellow, very brilliant and expressive.
The plumage of the young bird, or cinereous eagle of
authors, is generally of an umber brown, of a grayer tint
beneath, the feathers tipped with a paler shade, and often
white at the base; the tail is mottled with pafe brownish
white and clove brown, and with the successive moults
the proportion of pale colour increases, prevailing mo*
at the base and centre of the tail ; the colour of the MU
is less dear, more mixed with green, and the iris is pale
chestnut brown, but of a clear expression. The form of
this species is less compact and firm than that of the
golden eagle, and when at rest it appears more sluggish,
from the greater coverts being brought forward and kept
in a hanging position over the quills, covering the thigh*
and a portion of the side of the bird.— Aatara&ff 1*-
rary. l>y Sir fT. Janfet*.
1 The. sea eagles form a less noble as well as a less
typical group than the true eagles, from which they re-
cede considerably both in organization and habits. The
ridge of their beak, instead of being somewhat angular,
is convex and compressed ; and their legs, inntoad of
being plumed down to the very toes, are naked in their
lower parts, the upper half of the tarsi alone being
covered with short close-set feathers. The core
in which the nostrils are perforated is slightly hispid ;
the wings are long and powerful ; the anterior surface
of the tarsi is scutellated ; the toes are free throughout
their whole extent; the outer one is capable of taking a
retroverted direction ; and the claws are of unequal sne,
strongly curved, and furnished with a deep internal
groove. They have all a greater or less tendency to
change in a remarkable degree the colour of their plum-
age on the head and neck as they advance in age, evin-
cing in this, as in several other respects, an approxima-
tion to certain South American groups, in which those
parts are feathered in the young state and partially de-
nuded in maturity, and through them to the vultures, in
which the head and neck are in all stages of their growth
covered only with a silky down.
In the choice of their food the sea-eagles are far less
scrupulous than their brethren of the land Inhabiting
36
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
The osprey: brown above, white below, the
back of the head white, the outward taii
feathers, on the inner side, streaked with
white ; legs naked.1
most commonly the sea-coasts, or the banks of the large
rivers and inlets, they make their prey chiefly of fishes
and aquatic birds. These they usually carry off to de-
vour at their leisure either on the rocks or in their nests.
But occasionally, when all other resources fail, they
fix themselves upon the dead carcasses of animals which
are thrown upon the shore, and their manner of feed-
ing under such circumstances closely resembles the
disgusting voracity of the vultures. For hours and
sometimes for days together they remain stationary
upon the putrid carrion, and quit it only when it no
longer affords the means of satiating the cravings of
their appetite.
Much confusion has existed in the synonymy of the
great sea-eagle, the difference of the colours of the plu-
mage in the various stages of its growth, having misled
authors so far as to induce them to record it under
several distinct specific names. Three of these were
almost universally admitted until about twenty years
ago, when M. Frederic Cuvier published in the Annals
of the French museum the result of his observations
on the individuals confined, in the Jardin des Plantes,
which had convinced him of the propriety of uniting the
falco ossifragus, albicaudus, and albicilla of Gmelin
under one common name. The differences which were
formerly supposed to exist between these birds have
been recognised by almost every subsequent writer as
those of age alone. In its earlier stages its beak is of
a bluish horn-colour ; its head and neck deep brown ;
the plumage of its upper surface brownish black, with
a mixture of whitish or ash-coloured spots on the back
and tail. In this state it is the falco ossifragus of syste-
matic writers. As it advances in age, about the third
or fourth year, the head and neck become of an ashy
brown; the beak gradually loses its bluish tinge and
changes to a pale yellow; the white spots on the back
disappear; and the tail is of a uniform grayish white:
this is the falco albicaudus of Gmelin, the petit
pygargue of Buffon, and the lesser white-tailed eagle
of Latham. When it has attained its fifth year the
change may be regarded as complete : the head and
neck have little of the brown tinge remaining; the
back is throughout of a dusky brown intermixed with
ashy gray; and the tail is perfectly white. It has
now arrived at its mature state, in which it has been
described and figured as the falco albicilla, the grand
pygargue, and the white-tailed or cinereous eagle.
In all its stages the cere and naked parts of the legs
are yellow ; the under part of the body is of a lighter
hue than the upper, and more thickly interspersed
with pale cinereous spots ; and the claws are completely
black.
The great sea-eagle is an inhabitant of nearly the
whole of Europe and of Northern Asia. It sometimes
builds its nests in the clefts of rocks, but more fre-
quently on the summit of some lofty tree. The female
lays two eggs, about the same size and shape as those of
a goose. The young are fed with fish or flesh until they
are able to quit the nest, when they sally forth with
their parents in quest of their own prey, and speedily
assume an independent mode of life.
With the sea-eagles of Europe and of the northern
parts of America, are associated several other species
of the eagle tribe, whose essential characters are nearly
similar, and whose natural habits may therefore be pre-
sumed to be the same. Of these three are Asiatic,
three African, two or three natives of Australia and the
islands of the Polynesia, and two of South America; so
that the group appears to be universally spread over all
The jean le blanc : above, brownish grey;
below, white, spotted with tawny brown; the
tail feathers, on the outside and at the extrem
ity, brown; on the inside, white, streaked
with brown; legs naked.
The eagle of Brazil: blackish brown; ash
colour, mixed in the wings ; tail feathers
white; legs naked. (See Plate XVI. fig.
6.)
The Oroonoko eagle : with a topping; above,
blackish brown ; below, white, spotted with
black; upper neck yellow; tail feathers brown,
with white circles ; leg feathers white, spotted
with black.
The crowned African eagle: with a topping;
the tail of an ash colour, streaked on the upper
side with black.
The eagle of PondicJierry ; chestnut colour:
the six outward tail feathers black one half.2
the grand divisions of the globe. The birds of which it
is composed may be regarded as of almost equal utility
in the economy of nature with the vultures, between
which and the true eagles they hold an intermediate
station. The former consume the putrid carcases of land
animals, and the latter remove the offensive remains of fishes
and other animals, which would otherwise accumulate in
disgusting quantity along the sea-coast, and on the margins
of lakes. — Gardens and Menageries of the Zoological Society
Delineated. Vol. II.
Amongst the sea-eagles are included the WHITE-HEADED
SEA-EAGLE (Halicetus cucocepkalus), the CHILIAN SEA
EAGLE, and the BRAZILIAN CARACARA EAGLE (Fabeo
Brasiliensis). PI. L. fi?s. 1, 3, and 4.
1 The Osprey, or Ossifrage, is so named, because frag-
ments of bones of considerable magnitude have been
found in its stomach. From its usual habitat on the
sea-shore, on the banks of great rivers anil lakes over
which it is continually hovering, it has received the
denomination of the great sea-eagle ; of which an account
is given in the previous note.
2 To these may be added, a species of sea-eagle, which
M. Audubon has called the Bird of Washington, as
seing the noblest of the genus known to naturalists.
" It was on a winter's evening," he says, " in the
month of February, 1814, that, for the first time in my
ife, I had an opportunity of seeing this rare and noble
hird, and never shall I forget the delight it gave me.
We were on a trading voyage, ascending the Upper
Mississippi, — the keen winter blasts whistled over our
heads, and the cold from which I suffered had, in a
great degree, extinguished the deep interest which, at
THE CONDOR.
37
CHAP. III.
THE CONDOR OF AMERICA.
WE might now come to speak of the vul-
ture kind, as they hold the next rank to the
other seasons, this river has been wont to awake in me.
I lay stretched beside our patroon ; the safety of the
cargo was forgotten, and the only thing that called forth
my attention was the multitude of ducks, of different
species, accompanied by vast flocks of swans, which
from time to time would pass us. My patroon, a Can-
adian, had been engaged many years in the fur trade :
he was a man of much intelligence, who, perceiving
that these birds had engaged my curiosity, seemed only
anxious to find some new object to divert me. The
sea-eagle flew over us. ' How fortunate! ' he exclaimed !
' this is what I could have wished. Look, sir ! the
great eagle, and the only one I have seen since I left
the lakes.' I was instantly on my feet, and, having
observed it attentively, concluded, as I lost it in the
distance, that it was a species quite new to me.
" The sea-eagle of America is full one-fourth larger
in size than any female specimen of the other kind I
ever met with, old or young. In the United States,
from Massachusetts to Louisiana on the seaboard, or as
high as the mouth of the Missouri to the north-west, (I
speak only of the extent of country I have visited, and
where I have seen them,) these birds are very rare.
This will appear to all, when I say that during my many
long peregrinations more than eight ornine I neverfound,
and only one nest. Two years had gone by since the
discovery of the nest, in fruitless excursions; but my
wishes were no longer to remain ungratified. In re-
turning from the little village of Henderson, to the house
of Dr R , about a mile distant, I saw one rise
from a small inclosure not a hundred yards before me,
where the doctor had a few days before slaughtered
some hogs, and alight upon a low tree branching over
the road. I prepared my double-barrelled piece, which
I constantly carry, and' went slowly and cautiously to-
wards him ; — quite fearless, he awaited my approach,
looking upon me with an undaunted eye. I fired, and
he fell ; before I reached him he was dead. With
what delight I surveyed this magnificent bird ! Had
the finest salmon ever pleased him as he did me ?
Never. I ran and presented him to my friend. The
doctor, who was an experienced hunter, examined the
bird with much satisfaction, and frankly acknowledged
he had never before seen or heard of it.
" The name I chose for this new species of eagle,
' The Bird of Washington,' may, by some, be con-
sidered as preposterous and unfit; but, being indisput-
ably the noblest of the genus known to naturalists, I
trust it will be allowed to retain it. To those, how-
ever, who may be curious to know my reasons, I can
only say, that as the New World gave me birth and
liberty, the great man who insured its independence is
eagle; but we are interrupted in our method,
by the consideration of an enormous bird,
whose place is not yet ascertained ; as natu-
ralists are in doubt whether to refer it to
the eagle tribe, or to that of the vulture. Its
great strength, force and vivacity, might
plead for its place among the former ; the
baldness of its head and neck might be thought
to degrade it among the latter. In this un-
certainty, it will be enough to describe the
bird by the lights we have, and leave future
historians to settle its rank in the feathered
creation. Indeed, if size and strength, com-
bined with rapidity of flight and rapacity, de-
serve pre-eminence, no bird can be put in
competition with it.
The condor possesses, in a higher degree
next to my heart : he had such true nobility of mind,
and honest, generous feeling, as is seldom possessed.
He was brave — so is the eagle; and his name, extend-
ing from pole to pole, resembles the majestic soarings of
the mightiest of the feathered tribe.
" The flight of this bird i8 very different from that of
the white-headed eagle, encircling more diameter than
the latter; — whilst sailing, keeping nearer to the land
and the surface of the water; — and when about to dive
for fish, falling in a circuitous spiral mariner, as if with
an intention of checking all retreating movement which
its prey might attempt, and only when within a few
yards darting upon it. The fish-hawk often does the
same. When rising with a fish, they fly to a consider-
able distance, forming, in their line of course and that
of the water, a very acute angle, something not exceed-
ing thirty degrees, when several hundred yards distant
from the spot emerged from.
" The glands containing the oil used for the purpose
of lubricating the surface of the plumage were, in the
specimen here represented, extremely large ; the con-
tents had the appearance of hog's fat which had been
melted and become rancid. This bird makes more
copious use of that substance than the white-headed
eagle, or any of the falco genus, except the fish-hawk ;
—the whole plumage looking, upon close examination,
as if it had received a general coating of a thin, clear
dilution of gum-arabic, and presenting less of the downv
gloss exhibited on the upper part of the bald-headed
eagle's plumage. The male bird weighs 14| Ibs.
avoirdupois; measures 3 ft. 7 in. in length, and 10 ft.
2 in. in extent. The upper mandible 3f in., dark
bluish black : it is, however, the same colour for half its
length, turning into yellow towards the mouth, which is
surrounded with a thick yellow skin. Mouth, blue;
tongue, the same ; cere, greenish yellow ; eye, large, of
a fine chestnut colour ; iris, black, the whole protected
above by a broad, strong, bony, cartilaginous substance,
giving the eye the appearance of being much sunk.
Lores, lightish blue, with much strong recumbent hair;
upper part of the head, neck, back, scapulars, rump,
tail coverts, femorals, and tail feathers, dark, coppery,
glossy brown ; throat, front of the neck, breast, and
belly, rich bright cinnamon colour ; — the feathers of
the whole of which are long, narrow, sharp-pointed, of a
hairy texture, each dashed along the centre with the
brown of the back ; the wings, when closed, reach with-
in an inch and a half of the end of the tail feathers,
which are very broad next the body. Lesser coverts,
rusty iron gray, forming with that colour an elongated
oval, reaching from the shoulders to the lower end of
the secondaries, gradually changing to the brown of the
38
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
than the eagle, all the qualities th:it render it
formidable, not only to the feathered kind,
but to beasts, and even to man himself. Acos-
ta, Garcilasso, and Desmarchais, assert, that
it is eighteen feet across, the wings extended.
The beak is so strong as to pierce the body of
a cow ; and two of them are able to devour it.
They do not even abstain from man himself :
but fortunately there are but few of the spe-
cies ; for if they had been plenty, every order
of animals must have carried on an unsuccess-
ful war against them. The Indians assert,
that they will carry off a deer, or a young
calf, in their talons, as eagles would a hare or
a rabbit; that their sight is piercing, and their
air terrible ; that they seldom frequent the
forests, as they require a large space for the dis-
play of their wings ; but that they are found on
the sea-shore, and the banks of rivers, whither
they descend from the heights of the mountains.
back as it meets the scapulars. The secondaries of the
last middle tint. Primaries, brown, darkest in their
inner veins, very broad and firm ; the outer one two and
a half inches shorter than the second ; the longest twenty-
four inches to its roots, and about half an inch in diame-
ter at the barrel. The under wing coverts, iron gray,
very broad, and forming the same cavity that is apparent
in all this genus with the scapulars, which also are very
broad. Legs and feet strong and muscular: the former
one and a half inches in diameter; the latter measuring,
from the base of the hind claw to that of the middle toe,
six and a half inches. Claws strong, much hooked ;
the hind one two inches long, the inner rather less, all
blue, black, aud glossy. Toes warty, with rasp-like ad-
vancing hard particles, covered with large scales appear-
ing again on the front of the leg, all of dirty strong
yellow. Leg feathers brown cinnamon, pointed back-
wards.
" From the above account, it will be seen that the
bird here described and faithfully figured from a fresh-
killed specimen, is a very scarce species, even in those
parts where it is a native ; and, that it is rarely met
with, the few opportunities I have had of seeing it, the
dates of which I have generally given, are a sufficient
proof."
The Martial eagle, sometimes called the griffard, is
a large species discovered in Africa by Le Vaillant. It
inhabits the country of the great Namaquois, between
the twenty-eighth degree of south latitude and the tropic,
and probably exists in the other parts of Africa. When
perched, it emits sharp and piercing cries, mixed with
hoarse and lugubrious tones, which are heard at a great
distance. It flies, with the legs pendant, and, like the
common eagle, rises so high that it is lost sight of,
though its cry is still audible. Highly courageous, it
never suffers any great bird of rapine to approach with-
in its domain. It hunts gazelles and hares.
The griffards, like the other eagles, are usually ob-
served in couples, but during the hatching time the
male alone provides for the subsistence of the family.
The nest is formed between precipitous rocks, or on the
summits of lofty trees. Its basis is constituted like that
of the other eagles' nests, but it is covered with a large
quantity of small wood, moss, and roots, which give it
a thickness of about two feet. This bed is again covered
with small bits of dry wood, on which the female lays
two eggs almost round, entirely white, and more than
three inches in diameter.
The Balbuzxard is pretty generally spread tlu'ough
By later accounts we learn, that they come
down to the sea-shore only at certain seasons,
when their prey happens to fail them upon
land ; that they then feed upon dead fish, and
such other nutritious substances as the sea
throws upon the shore. We are assured,
however, that their countenance is not so ter-
rible as the old writers have represented it ;
but that they appear of a milder nature than
either the eagle or the vulture.
Condamine has frequently seen them in
several parts of the mountains of Quito, and
observed them hovering over a flock of sheep ;
and he thinks they would, at a certain time,
have attempted to carry one off, had they not
been scared away by the shepherds. Labat
acquaints us, that those who have seen this
animal, declare that the body is as large as
that of a sheep ; and that the flesh is tough,
and as disagreeable as carrion. The Span-
France, Germany, and most of the countries of Europe
from north to south. It is also found in Barbary, Egypt,
Louisiana, and even in the island of Pins in the South
Sea. The balbuzzards of the reeds in Carolina and
Cayenne, appear to be only varieties of the same spe-
cies, which equally inhabits Pennsylvania, and is some-
times called piravera. The places which the balbuz/ard
prefers to frequent, are not the shores of the sea, but
low lands bordering on ponds and rivers, from which
habit it might be termed the fresh-water eagle. Perched
on a lofty tree, or hovering at a considerable elevation in
the air, it watches the fish from afar, descends upon it
with the rapidity of lightning, seizes it at the moment
it appears on the surface of the water, or even plunges
in completely after it, and carries it off in its talons.
But this prey, the weight of which renders the flight of
the bird slow and laborious, does not always remain the
portion of the balbuzzard. On the banks of the Ohio,
where it goes to fish, when the perca ocellata quits the
ocean to enter the river, dwells also the formidable py-
gargus. When he sees the balbuzzard arrived to the
height of his eyrie, he quits his own, pursues him close-
ly, until the fisher, convinced of his inferiority, aban-
dons the prey ; then this fierce antagonist with folded
wings shoots down like an arrow, and with the most in-
conceivable address, seizes the fish again before it reaches
the river. The right of the strongest is the sovereign
arbiter of small and great events, and governs through-
out the universe with resistless sway, in the air, 011 the
earth, and under the waters.
The Great Harpy (see Plate XVI. fig. 1.) is a bird
which has been described under various synonyms, in
consequence of the variations which result from age and
sex, in its magnitude and plumage. It is found in Bra-
zil, New Granada, and Guyana, where it particularly
inhabits the forests of the interior. It is also found in
other countries of America, and is peculiar to that con-
tinent. It is said to be the most robust and powerful of
the feathered race. If the stories told of it be true, the
benefits of nature seem, in this way, to be pretty equally
distributed to both worlds. While the old can boast of
the most terrible of quadrupeds, the fiercest and strong-
est of birds has fallen to the inheritance of the new.
Travellers have assured Mauduyt, that the harpy makes
its usual prey on the ai and the unau, and that it often
carries off fawns and other young quadrupeds. It also
attacks the arras, and the larger parrots.
The Wedge-tailed eagle (see Plate XV I. fig. 2.) may
be regarded as the type of a distinct form in the imjjor-
THE CONDOR,
39
iards themselves seem to dread its depreda-
tions ; and there have been many instances of
its carrying off their children.
Mr Strong, the master of a ship, as he was
sailing along the coasts of Chili, in the thirty-
third degree of south latitude, observed a bird
sitting upon a high cliff near the shore, which
some of the ship's company shot with a leaden
bullet and killed. They were greatly sur-
prised when they beheld its magnitude ; for
when the wings were extended, they .measured
thirteen feet from one tip to the other. One
of the quills was two feet four inches long ;
and the barrel or hollow part, was six inches
and three quarters, and an inch and a half in
circumference.
We have a still more circumstantial account
of this amazing bird, by P. Feuille, the only
traveller who has accurately described it: '* In
the valley of Ilo, in Peru, I discovered a con-
dor perched on a high rock before me : I ap-
proached within gun-shot, and fired ; but as
my piece was only charged with swan-shot,
the lead was not able sufficiently to pierce the
bird's feathers. I perceived however, by its
manner of flying, that it was wounded ; and
it was with a good deal of difficulty that it
flew to another rock, about five hundred yards
distant on the sea- shore. I therefore charged
again with ball, and hit the bird under the
throat, which made it mine. I accordingly
ran up to seize it ; but even in death it was
terrible, and defended itself upon its back with
its claws extended against me, so that I
scarcely knew how to lay hold of it. Had it
not been mortally wounded, I should have
found it no easy matter to take it ; but I at
last dragged it down from the rock, and with
the assistance of one of the seamen, I carried
it to my tent to make a coloured drawing.
" The wings of this bird, which I measured
very exactly, were twelve feet three inches
(English) from tip to tip. The great feathers,
that were of a beautiful shining black, were
two feet four inches long. The thickness of
the beak was proportionable to the rest of the
body ; the length about four inches ; the point
hooked downwards, and white at its extrem.
ity ; the other part was of a jet black. A short
down of a brown colour, covered the head ; the
eyes were black, and surrounded with a circle
of reddish brown. The feathers on the breast,
neck, and wings, were of a light brown ;
taut family to which it belongs, agreeing with the
genuine eagles of the old world in most points of its
general structure, and more particularly in its length-
ened wings and feathered legs, but differing from them
in the character from which it derives its name. This
form is peculiar to the continent of New Holland, where
it appears exclusively to occupy the place of the even-
tailed species of the European and Asiatic group, none
of which have hitherto been detected on any part of the
Australian coast.
those on the back were rather darker. Its
thighs were covered with brown feathers to
the knee. The thigh-bone was ten inches
long ; the leg five inches ; the toes were three
before, and one behind : that behind was an
inch and a half : and the claw with which it
was armed was black, and three quarters of an
inch. The other claws were in the same pro-
portion ; and the legs were covered with black
scales, as also the toes ; but in these the scales
were larger.
" These birds usually keep in the moun-
tains, where they find their prey : they never
descend to the sea-shore, but in the rainy sea-
son ; for, as they are very sensible of cold,
they go there for greater warmth. Though
these mountains are situated in the torrid zone,
the cold is often very severe ; for a great part
of the year, they are covered with snow, but
particularly in winter.
" The little nourishment which these birds
find on the sea-coast, except when the tempest
drives in some great fish, obliges the condor
to continue there but a short time. They
usually come to the coast at the approach of
evening ; stay there all night, and fly back in
the morning."
It is doubted whether this animal be proper
to America only, or whether it may not have
been described by the naturalists of other
countries. It is supposed that the great bird
called the Rock, described by Arabian writers,
and so much exaggerated by fable, is but a
species of the condor. The great bird of Tar-
nassar, in the East Indies, that is larger than
the eagle, as well as the vulture of Senegal,
that carries off children, are probably no other
than the bird we have been describing. Russia,
Lapland, and even Switzerland and Germany,
are said to have known this animal. A bird
of this kind was shot in France, that weighed
eighteen pounds, and was said to be eighteen
feet across the wings ; however, one of the
quills was described only as being larger than
that of a swan ; so that, probably, the breadth
of the wings may have been exaggerated,
since a bird so large would have the quills
more than twice as big as those of a swan.
However this be, we are not to regret that it
is scarcely ever seen in Europe, as it appears
to be one of the most formidable enemies of
mankind. In the deserts of Pachomac, where
it is chiefly seen, men seldom venture to travel.
Those wild regions are very sufficient of them-
selves to inspire a secret horror : broken pre-
cipices— prowling panthers — forests only
vocal with the hissing of serpents — and
mountains rendered still more terrible by the
condor, the only bird that ventures to make
its residence in those deserted situations.1
1 The preceding chapter shows how much igkiorani-e
40
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
CHAP. IV.
OF THE VULTURE AND ITS AFFINITIES.
THE first rank in the description of birds
has been given to the eagle ; not because it
is stronger or larger than the vulture, but
because it is more generous and bold. The
eagle, unless pressed by famine, will not stoop
to carrion ; and never devours but what he
has earned by his own pursuit. The vulture,
on the contrary, is indelicately voracious ; and
seldom attacks living animals when it can be
supplied with the dead. The eagle meets
and singly opposes his enemy; the vulture, if
it expects resistance, calls in the aid of its
kind, and basely overpowers its prey by a
cowardly combination. Putrefaction and
stench, instead of deterring, only serves to
allure them. The vulture seems among birds
what the jackal and hyaena are among quad-
rupeds, who prey upon carcasses, and root up
the dead.
Vultures may be easily distinguished from
prevailed regarding the condor up to a late period, and
how much fable was interwoven with its history. Baron
vou Humboldt, the celebrated South American traveller,
was the first to set before the world its true character.
He passed seventeen months in the Andes, the native
mountains of the condor; he saw the bird daily; he shot
many specimens ; and he is satisfied that in general
their average size does not exceed that of the largest
European vultures. The authentic history of the condor
is, however, still full of interest. The eagle builds " his
aery on the mountain top ; " but the elevation at which
the eagle lives is far inferior to the snowy peaks of the
Andes, where the condor has his abiding place. At
the extreme limit of vegetation, where all other ani-
mals perish, the condor prefers to dwell, inhaling au
atmosphere so highly rarefied that almost every other
creature would perish in it. From these immense ele-
vations this wonderful bird soars still higher up, far
above the clouds ; and thence, with an almost unlimited
range of sight, he surveys the earth. Scenting some
carcase upon which he may banquet, he descends into
the plains ; and there he gorges himself with a voracity
almost without example. Captain Head, in his ' Rough
Notes,' has given an example of this habit of the condor:
— " In riding along the plain I passed a dead horse,
about which were forty or fifty condors : many of them
were gorged and unable to fly ; several were standing
on the ground devouring the carcase — the rest hovering
above it. I rode within twenty yards of them : one of
the largest of the birds was standing with one foot on
the ground and the other on the horse's body." He
adds that one of his party had also ridden up to the dead
horse ; and as one of these enormous birds flew about
fifty yards oft', and was unable to go any farther, he rode
up to him, and then, jumping off his horse, seized him
by the neck. The man, who was a Cornish miner, said
he had never had such a battle in his life, although he
was at last the conqueror.
The condor does not exclusively feed upon dead or
putrefying flesh ; he attacks and destroys deer, vicunas,
and other middling-sized or small quadrupeds. It is
said, also, to be very common to see the cattle of the
all those of the eagle kind, by the nakedness
of their heads and necks, which are without
feathers, and only covered with a very slight
down, or a few scattered hairs. Their eyes
are more prominent; those of the eagle being
buried more in the socket. Their claws are
shorter, and less hooked. The inside of the
wing is covered with a thick down, which is
different in them from all other birds of prey.
Their attitude is not so upright as that of the
eagle ; and their flight is more difficult and
heavy.
In .this tribe we may range the golden, the
ash-coloured, and the brown vulture, which
are inhabitants of Europe ; the spotted and
the black vulture of Egypt ; the bearded vul-
ture ; the Brazilian vulture, and the king of
the vultures, of South America. They all
Indians, on the Andes, suffering from the severe wounds
inflicted by these rapacious birds. It does not appear
that they have ever attacked the human race. When
Humboldt, accompanied by his friend Bonpland, was
collecting plants near the limits of perpetual snow,
they were daily in company with several condors which
would suffer themselves to be quite closely approached
without exhibiting signs of alarm, though they never
showed any disposition to act offensively. They were
not accused by the Indians of ever carrying oft' children,
though frequent opportunities were presented, had they
been so disposed. Humboldt believes that no authenti-
cated case can be produced, in which the lammergeyer
(or bearded vulture) of the Alps ever carried oft' a child,
though so currently accused of such theft ; but that the
possibility of the evil has led to the belief of its actual
existence.
The condor is not known to build a nest, but is said
to deposit its eggs on the naked rocks. When hatched,
the female is said to remain with the young for a whole
year in order to provide them with food, and to teach
them to supply themselves. In relation to all these
points, satisfactory information still remains to be pro-
cured .
Humboldt saw the condor only in new Grenada,
Quito, and Peru; but was informed that it follows the
chain of the Andes, from the equator to the seventh
degree of north latitude, into the province of Antioquia.
There is now no doubt, says the Encyclopaedia Ameri-
cana, of its appearing even in Mexico, and the south-
western territory of the United States.
The habits of the condor partake of the bold ferocity
of the eagle, and of the disgusting filthiness of the vul-
ture. Although, like the latter, it appears to prefer the
dead carcass, it frequently makes war upon a living
prey ; but the gripe of its talons is not sufficiently firm
to enable it to carry oft' its victim through the air. Two
of these birds, acting in concert, will frequently attack a
puma, a llama, a calf, or even a full grown cow. They
will pursue the poor animal with unwearied pertinacity,
lacerating it incessantly with their beaks and talons,
until it falls exhausted with fatigue and loss of blood.
Then, having first seized upon its tongue, they proceed
to tear out its eyes, and commence their feast with these
favourite morsels. The intestines form the second
course of their banquet, which is usually continued until
the birds have gorged themselves so fully as to render
them incapable of using their wings in flight. The
Indians, who are well acquainted with this effect ol
their voracity, are in the habit of turning it to account
for their amusement in the chase. For this purpose
THE VULTURE.
41
agree in their nature ; being equally indolent,
yet rapacious and unclean.1
The GOLDEN VULTURE seems to be the fore-
most of the kind ; and is, in many things, like
they expose the dead body of a horse or a cow, by which
some of the condors, which are generally hovering in
the air in search of food, are speedily attracted. As
soon as the birds have glutted themselves on the carcass,
the Indians make their appearance, armed with the
lasso, and the condors, being unable to escape by flight,
are pursued and caught by means of these singular
weapons with the greatest certainty. This sport is a
peculiar favourite in the country, where it is held in
a degree of estimation second to that of a bull-fight
alone.
1 The great family of vultures is extensively spread
throughout the globe, but especially abounds in the hotter
latitudes, where their utility in removing carrion and
ail putrid animal substances, from the fields, the villages,
and even the towns, has been universally acknowledged.
As we recede from the hotter climes to the more
temperate regions, we gradually lose the presence of the
vultures, till at length the boundaries of the race are
passed. Their extreme boundaries, however, are more
northerly, or rather are carried out more nearly to the
higher latitudes of the globe than might at first be sus-
pected. In America the turkey vulture (cathartes aura)
ranges from Terra del Fuego to Nova Scotia, and the
black vulture (cathartes atratatus) is common in Caro-
lina. Species are found in southern and central Europe,
without reckoning the lammer-geyer (gypaitos berbatui)
which forms a connecting link between the timid, in-
dolent, and gluttonous vultures on the one hand, and the
fierce, rapacious eagles pn the other, we may enumerate
the vultur cinereus and the griffon, or vultur fulvus,
both of which occur in the mountain chains of even cen-
tral Europe, and are tolerably common in the southern
districts, being spread over most parts of the old world.
To these we may add the Egyptian vulture, or Pharaoh's
chicken (neophron percnopterus.)
The genus neophron may be regarded as equivalent
in the old world to cathartes in the new, the Egyptian
vulture closely approximating in form, habits, and re-
latively in the range of its habitat to the turkey vulture.
Of the vulture of the old world the' Egyptian vulture
is the smallest; it is however one of the most numerous,
and especially abounds in Egypt and the adjacent pro-
vinces of Europe, Asia, arid Africa; it has even been
seen in Italy and Switzerland, and on one occasion in
England. In temperate climates, birds that prey on
carrion are less necessary as scavengers than in tropical
countries, where flocks of vultures collect together from
distances that have astonished all observers by whom the
circumstance is recorded. This is well exemplified in
two species, which haVe been frequently confounded, the
turkey buzzard and the black vulture, both of which are
looked upon as so useful in several of the States both of
North and South America, that there is a considerable
penalty for killing them. The former bird, indeed, as
we learn from M. Descourtilz, is, at Charleston, com-
monly called ' / the none oifive pounds, from the amount
of this penalty. " These birds," he adds, " are thus
respected for the actual services which they render in
removing from the city and its vicinity all dead animals
and other garbage upon which they exclusively feed.
Hence, if even a chicken die, it is not long before its
bones are picked clean. The vultures are occupied the
whole day in making their rounds to discover carrion
*nd offal, and coming down in legions, they mutually
contend for the prey, which instantly disappears. They
are so familiar that they may easily be knocked down
with a stick. I had a great desire to procure a specimen
in this way ; but I was not disposed to pay five louis-d' or
VOL. IU
the golden eagle, but larger in every proper -
n. From the end of the beak to that of the
tail, it is four feet and a half ; and to the
claws' end, forty-five inches. The length of
of penalty." "The great number of these birds" (the
black vulture,) says Ulloa, " found in such hot climates,
s an excellent provision of nature; as otherwise the
autrifaction caused by the constant and excessive heat
would render the air insupportable to human life. These
irds are familiar in Carthagena ; the tops of the houses
are covered with them: it is they vsho jrjeanse the city
of all its animal impurities. There are few animals
killed whereof they do not obtain the offals ; and when
this food is wanting, they have recourse to other gar-
bage. Their sense of smelling is so acute, that it en-
ables them to trace carrion at the distance of three 01
four leagues ; which they do not abandon till there re-
mains nothing but the skeleton." The following ac-
count of the same bird is by Wilson : —
" A horse had dropped down in the street in convul-
sions, and dying, it was dragged out to Hampstead and
skinned. The ground for a hundred yards around it was
black with carrion crows ; many sat on the tops of sheds,
fences, and houses within sight; sixty or eighty on the
opposite side of a small run. I counted at one time two
hundred and thirty-seven, but I believe there were
more, besides several in the air over my head and at a
distance. I ventured cautiously within thirty yards of
the carcass, where three or four dogs and twenty or thirty
vultures were busily tearing and devouring. Seeing
them take no notice I ventured nearer, till I was within
ten yards, and sat down on the bank. Still they paid
little attention to me. The dogs being sometimes acci-
dentally flapped with the wings of the vultures, would
growl and snap at them, which would occasion them to '
spring up for a mpment, but they immediately gathered
in again. I remarked that the vultures frequently at-
tack each other, fighting with their claws or heels,
striking like a cock, with open wings, and fixing their
claws in each other's head. The females, and I believe
the males likewise, made a hissing sound, with open
mouth, exactly resembling that produced by thrusting a
red-hot poker into water; and frequently a snuffling,
like a dog clearing his nostrils, as, I suppose, they were
theirs. On observing that they did not heed me, I stole
so close that my feet were within one yard of the horse's
legs, and again sat down. They all slid aloof a few
feet ; but seeing me quiet, they soon returned as before.
As they were often disturbed by the dogs, I ordered the
latter home: my voice gave no alarm to the vultures.
As soon as the dogs departed, the vultures crowded in
such numbers, that I counted at one time thirty-seven
on and around the carcass, with several within ; so that
scarcely an. inch of it was visible. Sometimes one would
come out with a large piece of the entrails, which in a
moment was surrounded by several others, who tore it
in fragments, and it soon disappeared. They kept up the
hissing occasionally. Some of them having their whole
legs and heads covered with blood presented a most savage
aspect. Still, as the dogs advanced, I would order them
away, which seemed to gratify the vultures; and one
would pursue another to within a foot or two of the spot
where I was sitting. Sometimes I observed them
stretching their necks along the ground, as if to press
the food downwards." The black vulture appears to be
the same bird which is described by Acosta, under the
name of paullaees. As he tells us, " they have a sur.
prising agility and a piercing eye, and are very useful
for clearing cities, not suffering the least vestige of car
rion or putrid matter to remain. They spend the night
upon trees and rocks, and resort to the towns in the
morning, perching upon the tops of the highest build-
ings, whence they look out for their plunder."
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
the upper mandible is almost seven inches ;
and the tail twenty-seven in length. The
lower part of the neck, breast, and belly, are
of a red colour ; but on the tail it is more
faint, and deeper near the head. The feathers
are black on the back ; and on the wings and
tail of a yellowish brown. Others of the kind
differ from this in colour and dimensions ; but
they are all strongly marked by their naked
heads, and beak, straight in the beginning,
but hooking at the point.
They are still more strongly marked by
their nature, which, as has been observed, is
cruel, unclean, and indolent Their sense of
smelling, however, is amazingly great ; and
Nature, for this purpose, has given them two
large apertures or nostrils without, and an ex-
tensive olfactory membrane within.1 Their
In the plates we have given representations of several
vultures. Fig. 1. plate XV. represents the Griffon Vul-
ture, one of the largest birds of prey of the old contin-
ent, measuring from 3.f to 4 feet in length. It inhabits
the mountain chains of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Fig. 1.
plate XVI. represents the King of the vultures, described
in the text. Fig. 9. represents the Bearded Vulture, a
bird which seems to form a link between the vulture and
the eagle, as it seeks living prey as well as carrion. It
is the Lemmergeyer of the Swiss and German Alps, and
the largest European bird of prey, measuring upwards
of four feet from beak to tail, and nine or ten in the ex-
panse of its wings. Fig. 3. same plate, represents the
Secretary Vulture, so called from the pen-like appendage
behind the ear.
1 Is it by the powers of sight or of smell that these
birds, afar ofl' in the air above, or on the very verge of the
horizon, are thus led to their booty? This is a question
not yet settled. The ancient classic writers teem with
passages attributing to the vulture a keen and discrimi-
nating scent; and certainly the development of the or-
gans of this sense would seem to favour the opinion,
which is supported by Mr Waterton and others, but
which Mr Audubon considers to be erroneous. This
latter observer of Nature maintains that it is by the ex-
traordinary powers of sight that the vulture perceives his
prey, and Le Vailhnt explains the circumstance upon
the same theory. "Desirous," he says, "of observing
how so great a number of vultures could congregate to-
gether in so short a space of time, I concealed myself
one day in a thicket, after having killed a large gazelle,
which I left upon the spot. In an instant a number of
ravens made their appearance, fluttering about the ani-
mal, and making a great croaking. In less than a quar-
ter of an hour these birds were reinforced by the arrival
of kites and buzzards; and immediately afterwards I
perceived, on raising my head, a flight of birds at a pro-
digious height, wheeling round and round in their des-
cent. These I soon recognised to be vultures, which
seemed, if I may so express myself, to escape from a ca-
vern in the sky. The first comers fell immediately upon
the gazelle, but I did not allow them time to tear it in
pieces. I left my concealment, and they betook them-
selves slowly and heavily to flight, rejoining their com-
rades, whose numbers seemed to increase. They seemed
almost to precipitate themselves from the clouds to share
the spoil, but my presence caused them speedily to dis-
appear.
THE SOCIABLE VPLTURB (Vultur auricalaris). This is
a gigantic species of Vulture, inhabiting the greater part
of Africa, and said also to be found in Greece. In size it is
intestines are formed differently from those of
the eagle kind ; toi they partake more of the
formation of such birds as live upon grain.
They have both a crop and a stomach ; which
may be regarded as a kind of gizzard, from
the extreme thickness of the muscles of which
it is composed. In fact, they seem adapted
inwardly, not only for being carnivorous, but
to eat corn or whatsoever of that kind comes
in the way.
This bird, which is common in many parts
of Europe, and but too well known on the
western continent, is totally unknown in Eng-
land. In Egypt, Arabia, and many other
kingdoms of Africa and Asia, vultures are
found in great abundance. The inside down
of their wing is converted into a very warm
and comfortable kind of fur, and is commonly
sold in the Asiatic markets.
Indeed, in Egypt, this bird seems to be of
singular service. There are great flocks of
them in the neighbourhood of Grand Cairo,
which no person is permitted to destroy. The
service they render the inhabitants is the de-
vouring of all the carrion and filth of that
great city ; which might otherwise tend to
corrupt and putrefy the air. They are com-
monly seen in company with the wild dogs of
the country, tearing a carcase very deliberate
ly together. This old association produced
no quarrels ; the birds and quadrupeds seem
to live amicably, and nothing but harmony
subsists between them. The wonder is still
the greater, as both are extremely rapacious,
and both lean and bony to a very great de-
gree ; probably having no great plenty even
of the wretched food on which they subsist.
In America they lead a life somewhat si-
milar. Wherever the hunters, who there
only pursue beasts for the skins, are found to
go, these birds are seen to pursue them. They
still keep hovering at a little distance ; and
equal to the condor, and measures upwards of ten feet
across the expanded wings. It has been observed of this
bird that it is a fit machine for clearing the soil of Africa
from the putrid bodies of elephants, hippopotami, rhin-
oceroses, and giraffes. It haunts the caverns of rocks;
there its night is passed, and there among the lofty crags
it retires to repose when it has sated its appetite. The tail
ia worn down by friction against the rocks, and by the soil
of the plains, in consequence of its laborious efforts to raise
itself into the air. It is only by an extraordinary exertion
of muscular strength that the bird is able to clear the earth,
but when once on the wing it sustains itself with ease, and
its flight is exceedingly grand and powerful. It rises higher
and higher, until its enormous bulk is lost to human sight;
but from this altitude it appears to look with telescopic
vision to the plains below, and no sooner does an animal sink
exhausted to the earth, than the vulture descends upon
it like an arrow, and feeds upon the carcase until he is
full-gorged and unable to resume his flight. The descent
of one vulture is a signal to others, and the carcase is soon
covered with them. Plate LI. fig. 2.
THE VULTURE.
when they see the beast flayed and abandoned,
they call out to each other, pour down upon
the carcase, and, in an instant, pick its bones
as bare and clean as if they had been scraped
by a knife.
At the Cape of Good Hope, in Africa, they
seem to discover a still greater share of dexte-
rity in their methods of carving. " I have,"
says Kolben, "been often a spectator of the
manner in which they have anatomized a dead
body : I say anatomized ; for no artist in the
world could have done it more cleanly. They
Lave a wonderful method of separating the
flesh from the bones, and yet leaving the skin
quite entire. Upon coming near the carcass,
one would not suppose it thus deprived of its
internal substance, till he began to examine it
more closely ; he then finds it, literally speak,
ing, nothing but skin and bone. Their man-
ner of performing the operation is this : they
first make an opening in the belly of the ani-
mal, from whence they pluck out, and gree-
dily devour, the entrails : then entering into
the hollow which they have made, they sepa-
rate the flesh from the bones, without ever
touching the skin. It often happens that an
ox returning home alone to its stall from the
plough, lies down by the way ; it is then, if
the vultures perceive it, that they fall with
fury down, and inevitably devour the unfortu-
nate animal. They sometimes attack them
grazing in the fields ; and then to the number
of a hundred or more, make their attack all at
once and together."
" They are attracted by carrion," says Ca-
tesby, " from a very great distance. It is
pleasant to behold them, when they are thus
eating and disputing for their prey. An
eagle generally presides at these entertain-
ments, and makes them all keep their distance
till he has done. They then fall to with an
excellent appetite ; and their sense of smell-
ing is so exquisite, that the instant a carcass
drops, we may see the vultures floating in the
air from all quarters, and come sousing on
their prey." It is supposed by some, that
they eat nothing that has life ; but this is only
when they are not able ; for when they come
at lambs, they show no mercy ; and serpents
are their ordinary food. The manner of those
birds is to perch themselves, several together,
on the old pine and cypress-trees ; where they
continue all the morning, for several hours,
with their wings unfolded ; nor are they fear-
ful of danger, but suffer people to approach
them very near, particularly when they are
eating.
The sloth, the filth,- and the voraciousness,
of these birds, almost exceeds credibility. In
the Brazils, where they are found in great
abundance, when they light upon a carcass,
which they have liberty to tear at their ease,
they so gorge themselves that they are unable
to fly ; but keep hopping along when they are
pursued. At all times, they are a bird of
slow flight, and unable readily to raise them-
selves from the ground ; but when they have
over-fed, they are then utterly helpless ; but
they soon get rid of their burden ; for they
have a method of vomiting up what they have
eaten, and then they fly off with greater faci-
lity.
It is pleasant, however, to-be a spectator of
the hostilities between animals that are thus
hateful or noxious. Of all creatures, the two
most at enmity is the vulture of Brazil and
the crocodile. The female of this terrible am-
phibious creature, which in the rivers of that
part of the world grows to the size of twenty-
seven feet, lays its eggs, to the number of one
or two hundred, in the sands, on the side of
the river, where they are hatched by the heat
of the climate. For this purpose, she takes
every precaution to hide from all other ani-
mals the place where she deposits her burden :
in the mean time a number of vultures, or gali-
nassos, as the Spaniards call them, sit silent
and unseen in the branches of some neighbour-
ing forest, and view the crocodile's operations,
with the pleasing expectation of succeeding
plunder. They patiently wait till the croco-
dile has laid the whole number of her eggs, till
she has covered them carefully under the sand,
and until she is retired from them to a conve-
nient distance. Then, all together encoura-
ging each other with cries, they pour down
upon the nest, hook up the sand in a moment,
lay the eggs bare, and devour the whole
brood without remorse. Wretched as is the
flesh of these animals, yet men, perhaps when
pressed by hunger, have been tempted to taste
it. Nothing can be more lean, stringy, nau-
seous, and unsavoury. It is in vain that,
when killed, the rump has been cut off ; in
vain the body has been washed, and spices
used to overpower its prevailing odour ; it
still smells and tastes of the carrion by which
it was nourished, and sends forth a stench that
is insupportable.
These birds, at least those of Europe, usu-
ally lay two eggs at a time, and produce but
once a year. They make their nests in inac-
cessible cliffs, and in places so remote, that it
is rare to find them. Those in our part of the
world chiefly reside in the places where they
breed, and seldom come down into the plains,
except when the snow and ice, in the native
retreats, has banished all living animals but
themselves: they then come from their heights,
and brave the perils they must encounter in a
more cultivated region. As carrion is not
found, at those seasons, in sufficient quantity,
or sufficiently remote from man to sustain
them, they prey upon rabbits, hares, serpents,
44
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
and whatever small game they can overtake
or overpower.
Such are the manners cf this bird in gene-
ral; but there is one of the kind, called the
king of the vultures, (See Plate XVI. fig. 1.)
which from its extraordinary figure, deserves
a separate description. This bird is a native
of America, and not of the East Indies, as
those who make a trade of showing birds
would induce us to believe. This bird is
larger than a turkey-cock ; but is chiefly re-
markable for the odd formation of the skin of
the head and neck, which is bare. This skin
arises from the base of the bill, and is of an
orange colour ; from whence it stretches on
each side to the head ; from thence it proceeds,
like an indented comb, and falls on either
side, according to the motion of the head.
The eyes are surrounded by a red skin, of a
scarlet colour ; and the iris has the colour and
lustre of pearl. The head and neck are with-
out feathers, covered with a flesh-coloured
skin on the upper part, a fine scarlet behind
the head, and a duskier coloured skin before •
farther down, behind the head, arises a little
tuft of black down, from whence issues and
extends beneath the throat, on each side, a
wrinkled skin, of a brownish colour, mixed
with blue, and reddish behind : below, upon
the naked part of the neck, is a collar formed
by soft longish feathers, of a deep ash-colour,
which surround the neck, and cover the breast
before. Into this collar the bird sometimes
withdraws its whole neck, and sometimes a
part of its head, so that it looks as if it had
withdrawn the neck into the body. Those
marks are sufficient to distinguish this bird
from all others of the vulture kind ; and it
cannot be doubted, but that it is the most
beautiful of all this deformed family ; how-
ever, neither its habits nor instincts vary from
the rest of the tribe; being, like them, a slow
cowardly bird, living chiefly upon rats, liz-
ards, and serpents ; and upon carrion or ex
crement, when it happens to be in .the way
The flesh is so bad, that even savages them-
selves cannot abide it
CHAP. Y.
EVBRY creature becomes more important in
the history of nature in proportion as it is
connected with man. In this view, the
smallest vegetable, or the most seemingly
contemptible insect, is a subject more deserv-
ing attention than the most flourishing tree,
or the most beautiful of the feathered creation.
In this view, the falcon is a more important
animal than the eagle or the vulture ; and
though so very diminutive in the comparison,
is notwithstanding, from its connection with
our pleasures, a much more interesting object
of curiosity.
The amusement of hawking, indeed, is now
pretty much given over in this kingdom ; for
as every country refines, as its enclosures be-
come higher and closer, those rural sports must
consequently decline, in which the game is to
be pursued over a long extent of country ; and
where, while every thing retards the pursuer
below, nothing can stop the object of his pur-
suit above.1
Falconry, that is now so much disused
among us, was the principal amusement of
our ancestors. A person of rank scarcely
stirred out without his hawk on his hand ;
which, in old paintings, is the criterion of no-
bility. Harold, afterwards king of England,
when he went on a most important embassy
into Normandy, is drawn in an old bas-relief',
as embarking with a bird on his fist, and a
dog under his arm.a In those days it was
thought sufficient for noblemen's sons to wind
the horn, and to carry their hawk fair, and
leave study and learning to the children of
meaner people. Indeed, this diversion was
in such high esteem among the great all over
Europe, that Frederic, one of the emperors of
Germany, thought it not beneath him to write
a treatise upon hawking.
The expense which attended this sport was
very great : among the old Welch princes,
the king's falconer was the fourth officer in
the stale ; but notwithstanding all his honours,
he was forbid to take more than three draughts
of beer from his horn, lest he should get drunk
and neglect his duty. In the reign of James
1 The introduction of fire-arms was the main cause ol
the decline of falconry. We still think, however, that,
as a field sport, hawking must have been much more in-
teresting than any at present in practice.
2 The ancient books of h-wking assign to the different
ranks of persons the sort of hawk proper to be used by
them; and they are placed in the following order:
The eagle, the vulture, and the merloun, for an em-
peror.
The gyr-falcon, and the tercel of the gyr-falcon for a
king.
The falcon gentle and the tercel gentle, for a prince.
The falcon of the rock, for a duke.
The falcon peregrine, for an earl.
The bastard, for a baron.
The sacre, and the sacret, for a knight.
The lanere, and the laneret, for an esquire.
The marlyon, for a lady.
The hobby, for a young man.
The goshawk, for a yeoman.
The tercel, for a poor man.
The sparrow-hawk, for a priest.
The musket for a holy water clerk.
The kesterel, for a knave or servant.
And this list includes, I presume, the greater part,
if not all, of the names appertaining to the birds used
in hawking.— -Slrutt's Sports and Pa&timrs.
THE FALCON.
I. Sir Thomas Monson is said to have given [
a thousand pounds for a cast of hawks ; and j
such was their value in general, that it was
made felony in the reign of Edward III. to
steal a hawk. To take its eggs, even in a
person's own ground, was punishable with
imprisonment for a year and a day, together
with a fine at the king's pleasure. In the
reign of Elizabeth the imprisonment was re-
duced to three months; but the offender was
to lie in prison till he got security for his good
behaviour for seven years farther. In the
earlier times the art of gunning was but little
practised, and the hawk was then valuable,
not only for its affording diversion, but for its
procuring delicacies for the table, that could
seldom be obtained any other way.
Of many of the ancient falcons used for
this purpose, we at this time know only the
names, as the exact species are so ill described,
that one may be very easily mistaken for ano-
ther. Of those in use, at present, both here
and in other countries, are the gyr-falcon, the
falcon, the lanner, the sacre, the hobby, the
kestrel, and the merlin. These are called
the long-winged hawks, to distinguish them
from the goshawk, the sparrow-hawk, the
kite, and the buzzard, that are of shorter
wing, and either too slow, too cowardly, too
indolent, or too obstinate, to be serviceable in
contributing to the pleasures of the field.1
1 The Jer Falcon (see Plate XV. fig. 3.) is of very
rare occurrence in England. It is known in the northern
parts of Scotland, particularly in the Orkney and Shet.
land Isles. Iceland is the native country of this species,
from whence arises its name of Islandicus. It was from
this island that the royal falconries of Denmark and
other northern kingdoms were supplied with their choic-
est casts of hawks. It breeds in the highest and most
inaccessible rocks ; but the numbei and colour of the eggs
remain as yet undescribed. It preys upon the larger
species of game and wild-fowl, also on hares and other
quadrupeds, upon which it precipitates itself with amaz-
ing rapidity and force. Its usual mode of hawking is,
if possible, to out-soar its prey, and thence to dart per-
pendicularly upon it.
The uncertainty in which the history of the Peregrine
Falcon was long involved, appeal's to have arisen from
the error of earlier writers, in considering the Falco
Peregrinus and Falco Communis, with its enumerated
varieties, as two distinct species. Deficiency of obser-
vation, and consequent want of an accurate knowledge
of the various changes of plumage the bird undergoes in
its progress to maturity, naturally led to this effect; and
we accordingly find, that the bird hitherto described as
the Falco Communis, the type of the supposed species
and its varieties, must have been originally figured from
an immature specimen of the Falco Peregrinus. In
England and Wales the peregrine falcon is rare, and is
only found indigenous in rocky or mountainous districts.
The Highlands and northern isles of Scotland appear to
be the situations most favourable to it, and in that part
of the kingdom it is numerous and widely diffused.
The most inaccessible situations are always selected for
its eyry, and its nest is placed upon the shelf of a rock.
It lays four or five eggs, in colour very similar to those
of the kestrel, but considerably larger. The flight of
The generous tribe of hawks, as was said
are distinguished from the rest by the peculiar
length of their wings, which reach nearly as
low as the tail. In these, the first quill of
the wing is nearly as long as the second; it
this species, when pursuing its quarry, is astonishingly
rapid, almost beyond credibility. By Montagu it has
been reckoned at 150 miles in an hour. Colonel Thorn-
ton, an expert falconer, estimated the flight of a falcon,
in pursuit of a snipe, to have been jiinejniles in eleven
minutes, without including the frequent turns. This
sort was formerly much used in falconry, and was flown
at the larger kinds of game, wild ducks and herons. In
its unreclaimed state it preys upon the different sorts of
game, wild geese, wild ducks and pigeons.
In England, the Hobby is among the number of those
birds that are named polar migrants or summer periodi-
cal visitants. It arrives in April, and after performing
the office of incubation, and of rearing its young, leaves
us, for warmer latitudes, in October. Wooded and in-
closed districts appear to be its usual haunts. It builds
in lofty trees, but will sometimes save itself the task of
constructing a nest, by taking possession of the deserted
one of a magpie or crow. The number of its eggs is
commonly four, of a bluish-white, with olive-green or
yellowish-brown blotches. Its favourite game is the
lark, but it preys upon all small birds. Partridges and
quails also become frequent victims to its courage and
rapacity, in which qualities, diminutive as it is, it yields
to none of its tribe. Possessing a great length and
power of wing, the flight of the hobby is wonderfully
rapid, and can be supported with undiminished vigour
for a considerable time. When hawking was keenly
followed, the hobby was trained to the pursuit of young
partridges, snipes, and larks. It is of elegant form, and
resembles, in miniature, the peregrine falcon. The
wings, when closed, generally reach beyond the end of
the tail. According to Temminck, it is common
throughout Europe, during the summer months; but
retires to warmer regions at the approach of winter.
Kestrel. — This well known species is distinguished,
not only by the symmetry of its form and its elegant
plumage, but by the peculiar gracefulness of its flight,
and the manner in which it frequently remains suspen-
ded in the air, fixed, as it were, to one spot by a quiver-
ing play of the wings, scarcely perceptible. It is one of
pur commonest indigenous species, and is widely spread
through the kingdom. Upon the approach of spring (or
the period of incubation), it resorts to rocks and high
cliffs. The nest consists of a few sticks loosely put
together, and sometimes lined with a little hay or wool ,
and is placed in some crevice, or on a projecting shelf.
The eggs are from four to six in number, of a reddish-
brown colour, with darker blotches and variegations. It
preys upon the different species of mice, which it hunts
for from the elevated station at which it usually soars,
and upon which it pounces with the rapidity of an arrow.
The kestrel is easily reclaimed, and was formerly
trained to the pursuit of larks, snipes, and young par-
tridges. It is a species in point of geographical distri-
46
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
terminates in a point, which begins to dimin-
ish from about an inch of its extremity. This
sufficiently distinguishes the generous breed
from that of the baser race of kites, sparrow-
hawks and buzzards, in which the tail is
longer than the wings, and the first feather
of the wing is rounded at the extremity. They
differ also in the latter having the fourth fea-
ther of the wing the longest ; in the generous
race it is always the second.
This generous race, which have been taken
into the service of man, are endowed with
natural powers that the other kinds are not
possessed of. From the length of their wings,
they are swifter to pursue their game ; from a
confidence in this swiftness, they are bolder
to attack it; and from an innate generosity,
they have an attachment to their feeder, and,
consequently, a docility which the baser kinds
are strangers to.
The gyr-falcon leads in this bold train.
He exceeds all other falcons in the largeness
of his size, for he approaches nearly to the
bution, very widely spread, being found in all part of
Europe, and in America.
The Merlin has generally been considered a winter
or equatorial visitant and to leave Great Britain at the
approach of spring, for other and more northern cli-
mates. Its migration is however confined to the southern
parts of the island. Inferior as this species is in size,
it fully supports the character of its tribe; frequently
attacking birds superior to itself in magnitude and
weight, and has been known to kill a partridge at a
single blow. Like others, before enumerated, it became
subjected to the purposes of pastime, and was trained to
pursue partridges, snipes, and woodcocks. Its flight is
low and rapid, and it is generally seen skimming along
the sides of hedges in search of its prey.
The Goshawk. (See Plate XVI. fig. 13 : for swallow-
tailed hawk, see fig. 12.) This powerful species of falcon
is very rarely met with in England. In the wild and
mountainous districts of Scotland it is more common,
and is known to breed in the forest of Rothiemurchus,
and on the wooded banks of the Dee; and, accord ing to
Low, in his Fauna Orcadensis, is rather numerous in
those islands (Orkneys), where it breeds in the rocks
and sea-cliffs. Its flight is very rapid, but generally
low, and it strikes its prey upon the wing. Different
kinds of feathered game, wild ducks, hares and rabbits
form its principal food. According to Meyer, it will
even prey upon the young of its own species. It gener-
ally builds in lofty fir trees, and lays from two to four
eggs, of a skim-milk white, marked with streaks and
spots of reddish-brown. By falconers, it was considered
to be the best and most courageous of the short- winged
hawks, and was accordingly trained to the pursuit of
grouse, pheasants, wild geese, herons, &c. Although it
magnitude of the eagle. The top of the head
is fiat and of an ash-colour, with a strong,
thick, short, and blue beak. The feathers of
the back and wings are marked with black
spots, in the shape of a heart ; he is a coura-
geous and fierce bird, nor fears even the eagle
himself ; but he chiefly flies at the stork, the
heron, and the crane. He is mostly found in
the colder regions of the north, but loses nei-
ther his strength nor his courage when brought
into the milder climates.
The falcon, properly so called, is the second
in magnitude and fame. There are some va-
rieties in this bird ; but there seem to be only
two that claim distinction ; the falcon-gentil
and the peregrine-falcon ; both are much less
than the gyr, and somewhat about the size of
a raven. They differ but slightly, and per-
haps only from the different states they were
in when brought into captivity. Those dif-
ferences are easier known by experience
than taught by description. The falcon-gen-
til1 moults in March, and often sooner ; the
is nearly equal in size to the jer falcon, yet the short-
ness of its wings, and its general contour, readily dis-
tinguish it from that species, in all its stages of plum-
age. The goshawk is very common in France, as well
as in Germany, Switzerland, and Russia. In Holland
it is rare. The " falcon gentil," from its description,
must be referred to this species.
The Sparrow-hawk.- — This destructive and well-known
species is remarkable for the great difference in size
between the male and female the former seldom measur-
ing twelve inches in length, whilst the latter often ex-
ceeds fifteen inches. It is one of the boldest of its
genus, and the female, from her superior size, is a fatal
enemy to partridges and other game, as well as pigeons.
It flies low, skimming over the ground with great
swiftness, and pounces its prey upon the wing with un-
erring aim. The force of its stroke is such as generally
to kill, and sometimes even to force out the entrails of
its victim. It is common in most parts of the kingdom,
but particularly frequents the lower grounds, and well-
wooded inclosures. It Builds in low trees, or thorn
bushes, forming a shallow and flat nest, composed of
slender twigs, and very similar to that of the ring dove,
but rather larger. It will occasionally occupy the de-
serted nest cf a crow. The sparrow-hawk is very widely
diffused and found in all parts of Europe. In the days
of falconry it was trained, and much approved in the
pursuit of partridges, quails, and many other birds. —
Abridged from Setty't Illustrations of British Orni-
thology.
1 The falcons gentil are now ascertained to be merolv
the young of the goshawk.
THE HAWK.
47
peregrine-falcon does not rnoult till the middle
of August The peregrine is stronger in the
shoulder, has a larger eye, and yet more sunk
in the head ; his beak is stronger, his legs
longer, and the toes better divided.
Next in size to these is the lanner, a bird
now very little known in Europe ; then fol-
lows the sacre, the' legs of which are of a blu-
ish colour, and serve to distinguish that bird ;
to them succeeds the hobby, used for smaller
game, for daring larks, and stooping at quails.
The kestril was trained for the same purpo-
ses ; and lastly the merlin ; which, though
the smallest of all the hawk or falcon kind,
and not much larger than a thrush, yet dis-
plays a degree of courage that renders him
formidable even to birds ten times his size.
He has often been known to kill a partridge or
a quail at a single pounce from above.
Some of the other species of sluggish birds
were now and then trained to this sport, but
it was when no better could be obtained ; but
these just described were only considered as
birds of the nobler races. Their courage in
general was such, that no bird, not very much
above their own size, could terrify them ; their
swiftness so great, that scarcely any bird
could escape them ; and their docility so re-
markable, that they obeyed not only the com-
mands, but the signs of their master. They
remained quietly perched upon his hand till
their game was flushed, or else kept hovering
round his head, without ever leaving him but
when he gave permission. The common fal-
con is a bird of such spirit, that, like a con-
queror in a country, he keeps all birds in awe
and subjection to his prowess. Where he is
seen flying wild, as I often had an opportu-
nity of observing, the birds of every kind,
that seemed entirely to disregard the kite or
the sparrow-hawk, fly with screams at his
most distant appearance. Long before I could
see the falcon, I have seen them with the ut-
most signs of terror endeavouring to avoid
him ; and, like the peasants of a country be-
fore a victorious army, every one of them at-
tempting to shift for himself. Even the young
falcons, though their spirit be depressed by
captivity, will, when brought out into the
field, venture to fly at barnacles and wild
geese, till, being soundly brushed and beaten
by those strong birds, they learn their error,
and desist from meddling with such unwieldly
game for the future.
To train up the hawk to this kind of obe-
dience, so as to hunt for his master, and bring
him the game he shall kill, requires no small
degree of skill and assiduity. Numberless
treatises have been written upon this subject
which are now, with the sport itself, almost
utterly forgotten : indeed, except to a few,
they seem utterly unintelligible ; for the fal-
coners had a language peculiar to themselves,
in which they conversed and wrote, and took
a kind of professional pride in using no other,
A modern reader, I suppose, would be little
edified by one of the instructions, for instance,
which we find in Willoughby, when he bids
us " draw our falcon out of the mew twenty
days before we enseam her. If she truss and
carry, the remedy is, to cosse her talons, her
powse, and petty single."
But, as it certainly makes-a part of natural
history, to show how much the nature of birds
can be wrought upon by harsh or kind treat-
ment, I will just take leave to give a short
account of the manner of training a hawk,
divested of those cant words with which men
of art have thought proper to obscure their
profession.
In order to train up a falcon, the master
begins by clapping straps upon his legs, which
are called jesses, to which there is fastened a
ring with the owner's name, by which, in case
he should be lost, the finder may know where
to bring him back. To these also are added
little bells, which serve to mark the place
where he is, if lost in the chase. He is al-
ways carried on the fist, and is obliged to keep
without sleeping. If he be stubborn, and at-
tempts to bite, his head is plunged into water.
Thus, by hunger, watching, and fatigue, he
is constrained to submit to having his head
covered by a hood or cowl, which covers his
eyes. This troublesome employment con-
tinues often for three days and nights without
ceasing. It rarely happens but at the end of
this his necessities and the privation of light
make him lose all idea of liberty, and bring
down his natural wildness. His master judges
of his being tamed when he permits his head
to be covered without resistance, and when
uncovered he seizes the meat before him con-
tentedly. The repetition <5f these lessons by
degrees ensures success. His wants being
the chief principle of his dependence, it is
endeavoured to increase his appetite by giving
him little balls of flannel, which he greedily
swallows. Having thus excited the appetite,
care is taken to satisfy it ; and thus gratitude
attaches the bird to the man who but just be-
fore had been his tormentor.
When the first lessons have succeeded, and
the bird shows signs of docility, he is carried
out upon some green, the head is uncovered,
and, by flattering him with food at different
times, he is taught to jump on the fist, and to
continue there. When confirmed in this
habit, it is then thought time to make him ac-
quainted with the lure. This lure is only a
thing stuffed like the bird the falcon is de-
signed to pursue, such as a heron, a pigeon,
or a quail, and on this lure they always take
care to give him his food. It is quite neces-
48
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
sary that the bird should not only be make ac-
quainted with this, but fond of it, and deli-
cate in his food when shown it. When the
falcon has flown upon this, and tasted the first
morsel, some falconers then take it away ; but
by this there is a danger of daunting the bird ;
and the surest method is, when he flies to seize
it, to let him feed at large, and this serves as
a recompense for his docility. The use of this
lure is to flatter him back when he has flown
in the air, which it sometimes fails to do ; and
it is always requisite to assist it by the voice
and the signs of the master. When these
lessons have been long repeated, it is then ne-
cessary to study the character of the bird ; to
speak frequently to him, if he be inattentive
to the voice; to stint in his food such as do
not come kindly or readily to the lure ; to keep
waking him, if he be not sufficiently familiar;
and to cove* him frequently with the hood, if
he fears darkness. When the familiarity and
the docility of the bird are sufficiently con-
firmed on the green, he is then carried into
the open fields, but still kept fast by a string,
which is about twenty yards long. He is then
uncovered as before ; and the falconer, calling
him at some paces distance, shows him the
lure. When he flies upon it, he is permitted
to. take a large morsel of the food which is
tied to it. The next day the lure is shown
him at a greater distance, till he comes at last
to fly to it at the utmost length of his string.
He is then to be shown the game itself alive,
but disabled or tame, which he is designed to
pursue. After having seized this several
times with his string, he is then left entirely
at liberty, and carried into the field for the
purpose of pursuing that which is wild. At
that he flies with avidity ; and when he has
seized it, or killed it, he is brought back by
the voice and the lure.
By this method of instruction, a hawk may
be taught to fly at any game whatsoever ; but
falconers have chiefly confined their pursuit
only to such animals as yield them profit by
the capture, or pleasure in the pursuit. The
hare, the partridge, and the quail, repay the
trouble of taking them ; but the most delight-
ful sport is the falcon's pursuit of the heron,
the kite, or the wood-lark. Instead of flying
directly forward, as some other birds do, these,
when they see themselves threatened by the
approach of the hawk, immediately take to
the skies.. They fly almost perpendicularly
upward, while their ardent pursuer keeps
pace with their flight, and tries to rise above
them. Thus both diminish by degrees from
the gazing spectator below, till they are quite
lost in the clouds; but they are soon seen
descending, struggling together, and using
every effort on both sides ; the one of rapa-
cious insult, the other of desperate defence.
The unequal combat is soon at an end ; the
falcon comes off victorious, and the other, killed
or disabled, is made a prey either to the bird
or the sportsman.
As for other birds they are not so much
pursued, as they generally fly straight for-
ward, by which the sportsman loses sight of
the chase, and what is still worse, runs a
chance of losing his falcon also. The pur-
suit of the lark, by a couple of merlins, is
considered to him only who regards the saga-
city of the chase, as one of the most delightful
spectacles this exercise can afford. The amuse-
ment is to see one of the merlins climbing to
get the ascendant of the lark, while the other
lying low for the best advantage, waits the
success of its companion's efforts ; thus while
the one stoops to strike its prey, the other
seizes it at its coming down.
Such are the natural and acquired habits of
these birds, which, of all others, have the
greatest strength and courage relative to their
size. While the kite or the goshawk approach
their prey sideways, these dart perpendicu-
larly, in their wild state, upon their game,
and devour it on the spot, or carry it off, if
not too large for their power of flying. They
are sometimes seen descending perpendicu-
larly from the clouds, from an amazing height,
and darting down on their prey with inevit.
able swiftness and destruction.
The more ignoble race of birds make up
by cunning and assiduity what these claim by
force and celerity. Being less courageous,
they are more patient; and having less swift-
ness, they are better skilled at taking (heir
prey by surprise. The kite, that may be dis.
tinguished from all the rest of this tribe by
his forky tail and his slow floating motion ,
seems almost for ever upon the wing.1 He
i The kite is variously diffused throughout England,
being a common bird in many parts of the country, and
rare in others. In all the wooded districts of the eastern
and midland counties it is abundant : it is also met with
in Westmoreland ; but is seldom seen in the northern
parts of Yorkshire, in Durham, or Northumberland. In
Scotland, it occurs plentifully in Aberdeenshire, and is>
found also in the immediate vicinity of Loch Katerine,
THE HAWK.
49
appears to rest himself upon the bosom of the
air, and not to make the smallest effort in fly-
ing. He lives only upon accidental carnage,
almost every bird in the air is able to make
good its retreat against him. He may be,
therefore, considered as an insidious thief,
who only prowls about, and when he finds a
small bird wounded or a young chicken stray-
ed too far from the mother, instantly seizes
the hour of calamity, and, like a famished
glutton, is sure to show no mercy. His
hunger, indeed, often urges him to acts of
seeming desperation. I have seen one of them
fly round and round for a while to mark a
clutch of chickens, and then on a sudden dart
like lightning upon the unresisting little ani-
mal, and carry it off, the hen in vain crying
out, and the boys hooting and casting stones
to scare it from its plunder. For this reason,
of all birds, the kite is the good housewife's
greatest tormentor and aversion.
Of all obscene birds, the kite ia the best
known ; but the buzzard among us is the most
plenty.1 He is a sluggish, inactive bird, and
and of Ben Lomond. It is proverbial for the ease and
gracefulness of its flight, which generally consists of large
and sweeping circles, performed with a motionless wing,
or at least with a slight and almost imperceptible stroke
of its pinions, and at very distant intervals. In this
manner, and directing its course by aid of the tail,
which acts as a rudder, and whose slightest motion pro-
duces effect, it frequently soars to such a height as to
become almost invisible to the human eye. The prey
of the kite consists of young game, leverets, rats, mice,
lizards, &c. which it takes by pouncing upon the ground.
It is a great depredator in farm-yards after chickens,
young ducks, and goslings ; and is in consequence
bitterly retaliated upon as a common enemy in those
districts where it abounds. It will also, under the pres-
sure of hunger, devour offal and carrion, and has been
known to prey upon dead fish. It breeds early in the
spring, in extensive woods, generally making its nest
in the fork of a large tree. The nest is composed of
slicks, lined with wool, hair, and other soft materials.
The eggs are rather larger than those of a hen, and rarely
exceed three in number. They are of a grayish-white,
speckled with brownish-orange, principally at the larger
end; but sometimes they are found quite plain.
Abridged from
1 The common buzzard preys upon leverets, rabbits,
game, and small birds, all of which it pounces on the
VOL. II.
often remains perched whole days together
upon the same bough. He is rather, an as-
sassin than a pursuer ; and lives more upon
frogs, mice, and insects, which he can easily
seize, than upon birds, which he is obliged to
follow. He lives in summer by robbing the
nests of other birds, and sucking their eggs,
and more resembles the owl kind in his coun-
tenance than any other rapacious bird of day.
His figure implies the stupidity of his disposi-
tion ; and so little is he capable^ of instruction
trom man, that it is common to a proverb, to
call one who cannot be taught, or continues
obstinately ignorant, a buzzard. The honey-
buzzard, the moor-buzzard, and the hen-har-
rier, are all of this stupid tribe, and differ
chiefly in their size, growing less in the order
I have named them. The goshawk and
sparrow-hawk are what Mr Willoughby calls
short-winged birds, and consequently unfit for
training, however injurious they may be to
the pigeon-house or the sportsman. They
have been indeed taught to fly at game ; but
little is to be obtained from their efforts, being
ground. It also devours moles and mice, and, when
pressed by hunger, will feed on reptiles and insects. It
breeds in woods, and forms its nest of sticks, lined with
wool, hay, and other materials, and will sometimes
occupy the deserted nest of a crow. The eggs are two
or three in number, larger than those of a hen, and are
white, either plain or spotted with reddish-brown. The
young, according to Pennant, remain in company with
the parent birds for some time after having quitted the
nest, — a circumstance at variance with the usual habits
of birds of prey. It is common in all the wooded parts
of Europe, and according to Temminck, very abundant
in Holland. In France this bird is killed during the
winter for the sake of its flesh, which is esteemed deli-
cious eating.
The Rough-legged Buxzard is a rare British species,
and can only be considered as an occasional visitant.
Montagu mentions two or three instances of its having
been taken in the South of England. It is a native of
Norway, and other northern countries of Europe, where
it frequents marshy districts, preying upon leverets,
hamsters, water-rats, moles, and frequently lizards and
frogs. According to Temminck, it builds in lofty trees,
and lays four white eggs, spotted with reddish-brown.
The Honey. Buzzard preys upon moles, mice, and
small birds, and on lizards and insects, particularly,
wasps, bees, and their larvae, which should appear to be
their favourite food. Its flight is easy and graceful, and
it is frequently seen near pieces of water, on account of
the Libellulse, and other aquatic insects. It breeds in
lofty trees, forming a nest of twigs lined with wool, and
other soft materials. The eggs are small, in proportion
to the size of the bird, of a yellowish-white, marked with
numerous spots and stains of reddish-brown, sometime
so confluent as to make them appear almost entirely
brown. It is a native of eastern climes, and according
to Temminck, is as rare in Holland as in England. In
the south of France it is more abundant, but migratory.
Allied to the Buzzards are the Harriers. They are
bolder and more active than the buzzards. They strike
their prey upon the ground, and generally fly very low
The Marsh- Harriers abound in all the marshy dis-
tricts of England and Scotland, and, according to Mon-
tagu, are very numerous in Wales, where they prey upon
the rabbits that inhabit the sand-banks of the shores of
G
50
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
difficult ot instruction, and capricious in their
obedience. It has been lately asserted, how-
ever, by one whose authority is respectable,
that the sparrow-hawk is the boldest and the
best of all others for the pleasure of the chase.1
CHAP. VI.
THE BUTCHER-BIRD.
I conclude this short history of rapa-
cious birds that prey by day, I must take
leave to describe a tribe of smaller birds, that
seem from their size rather to be classed with
the harmless order of the sparrow kind ; but
that from their crooked beak, courage, and
appetites for slaughter, certainly deserve a
place here.2 The lesser butcher-bird is not
much above the size of a lark ; that of the
smallest species is not so big as a sparrow ;
yet, diminutive as these little animals are,
they make themselves formidable to birds of
four times their dimensions.
The greater butcher-bird is about as large
as a thrush ; its bill is black, an inch long
and hooked at the end. This mark, together
with its carnivorous appetites, ranks it among
the rapacious birds ; at the same time that its legs
and feet, which are slender, and its toes, form-
ed somewhat differently from the former, would
seem to make it the shade between such birds
as live wholly upon flesh, and such as live
chiefly upon insects and grain.
Indeed, its habits seem entirely to corres-
Caermarthenshire. In Holland they are of course nu-
merous, from the nature of the country, and rare in
Switzerland.
The Hen Harrier, though not very numerous, is
pretty generally found throughout Britain, frequenting
low marshy situations, or wide moors. The flight of the
ben-harrier is always low, but at the same time smooth
and buoyant. It is very destructive to game, which it
pounces upon the ground ; it also feeds upon small birds
and animals, lizards and frogs. It breeds on the open
wastes, and frequently in thick furze covers; the nest is
placed on the ground, and the eggs are four or five in
number, of a skim-milk white, round at each end, and
nearly as large as the marsh harrier's. The young males,
for the first year, are similar in appearance to the
females, after which they gradually assume the gray
plumage that distinguishes the adult. It is common in
France, Germany, and Holland, inhabiting the low and
Hat districts ; but in Switzerland, and all mountainous
countries, it is of rare occurrence. (For the American
Hen Harrier, see plate XVI. fig. 10.)
The Ash coloured Harrier. — The British Fauna is
indebted to the researches of Montagu for the discovery
of this new species of falcon. The resemblance it bears
to the hen harrier was without doubt the cause of its
remaining so long unnoticed as a separate species, having,
in all probability, when previously met with, been con-
sidered only as a variety of that bird.
The Ash-coloured harrier, is far from being numerous
in England. It skims along the surface of the ground
like the hen harrier, but with more rapid flight, and
more strikingly buoyant. Lives upon small birds, liz-
ards, frogs, &c. Its nest is placed upon the ground,
amongst furze or low brushwood. The eggs are gen-
erally four, and of a pure white. According to Tem-
minck, it is found throughout Hungary, in Poland, Sil-
esia, and Austria. It is common also in Dalmatia and
the Illyrian provinces, but is of rare occurrence in Italy.
— Selby.
1 The Secretary Falcon, (see plate XVI. fig. 3.) an
inhabitant of the south of Africa, is a singular bird, for
whose natural history we are chiefly indebted to the
labours of M . le Vaillant. Its body, when standing erect,
is not much unlike the crane ; but its head, bill, and
claws, are precisely those of the falcon. The general
colour of the plumage is a bluish-ash. On the back of
the head are several long dark-coloured feathers, hanging
down behind, and which it can erect at pleasure. This
crest has induced the Dutch at the Cape to give it the
name of the secretary, from the resemblance they fancy
it has to the pen of a writer, when in the time of leisure
it is stuck behind the ear. The food to which this bird
is particularly attached consists of snakes and other rep-
tiles, for the destruction of which it is admirably fitted
by its organization.
2 The tribe of birds here noticed under the name of
butcher-birds are otherwise called shrikes. Shrikes are
spread 'over the entire globe, and everywhere exhibit
similar dispositions, habits, and modes of existence. Of
small size, but armed with a strong and crooked beak, of
a fierce and courageous disposition, and of a sanguinary
appetite, they bear much affinity to the birds of prey,
Naturally intrepid, they defend themselves vigorously,
and do not hesitate to attack birds much stronger and
larger than themselves. The European shrikes can
combat with advantage, pies, crows, and even kestrels.
They attack and pursue these birds with great ferocity,
if they dare to approach their nests. It is even suffi-
cient if any of them should pass within reach. The
male and female shrikes unite, fly forth, attack them
with loud cries, and pursue them with such fury, that
they often take to flight without daring to return. Even
kites, buzzards, and ravens will not willingly attack the
shrike. They are habitually insectivorous, and also pur-
sue small birds. They will cast themselves on thrushes,
blackbirds, &c., when these last are taken in a snare.
When they have seized a bird they open the cranium,
devour the brain, deplume the body, and tear it piece-
meal. The prudence to foresee and provide for the
wants of the future, is another of their qualities. That
they may not fail of those insects which form their sub-
sistence, and which only make their appearance at a de-
terminate epoch, some shrikes form kinds of magazines,
not in the hollows of trees, nor in the earth, but in the
open air. They stick their superabundant prey on
thorns, where they may find it again in the hour of need.
Falconers have taken the advantage of the character
of these birds, and occasionally trained them to the
chase. Francis the First of France, according to the
account of Turner, was accustomed to hunt with a tame
shrike, which used to speak, and return upon the hand.
The Swedish hunters, availing themselves of the habit
of the gray shrike of uttering a peculiar sort of cry at the
approach of a hawk, make use of it to discover the birds
of prey which this kind of cry announces.
Though we have said that the shrike genus is exten-
ded over the entire globe, we believe South America
must be excepted. The South American birds which
have been called shrikes belong to other divisions, and
it would appear that this genus does not pass beyond the
Floridas, Louisiana, and the north of Mexico.
THE BUTCHER BIRD.
51
pond with its conformation, as it is found to
live as well upon flesh as upon insects, and
thus to partake, in some measure, of a double
nature. However, its appetite for flesh is the
must prevalent ; and it never takes up with
the former when it can obtain the latter.
This bird, therefore, leads a life of continual
combat and opposition. As from its size it
does not much terrify the smaller birds of the
forest, so it very frequently meets birds wi'.l-
ing to try its strength, and it never declines
the engagement.
It is wonderful to see with what intrepidity
this little creature goes to war with a pie, the
crow, and the kestrej, all above four times
bigger than itself, and that sometimes prey
upon flesh in the same manner. It not only
fights upon the defensive, but often comes to
the attack, and always with advantage, par-
ticularly when the male and female unite to
protect their young, and to drive away the
more powerful birds of rapine. At that sea-
son, they do not wait the approach of their in-
vader ; it is sufficient that they see him pre-
paring for the assault at a distance. It is
then that they sally forth with loud cries,
wound him on every side, and drive him off
with such fury, that he seldom ventures to re-
turn to the charge. In these kinds of dis-
putes, they generally come off with the vic-
tory ; though it sometimes happens that they
fall to the ground with the bird they have so
fiercely fixed upon, and the combat ends with
the destruction of the assailant as well as the
defender.
For this reason, the most redoubtable birds
of prey respect them ; while the kite, the buz-
zard, and the crow, seem rather to fear than
seek the engagement. Nothing in nature
better displays the respect paid to the claims
of courage than to see this little bird, appa-
rently so contemptible, fly in company with
the lanner, the falcon, and all the tyrants of
the air, without fearing their power, or avoid-
ing their resentment.
As for small birds, they are its usual food.
It seizes them by the throat and strangles them
in an instant. When it has thus killed the
bird or insect, it is asserted by the best autho
rity, that it fixes them upon some neighbour-
ing thorn, and, when thus spitted, pulls them
to pieces with its bill. It is supposed, that
as Nature has not given this bird strength
sufficient to tear its prey to pieces with its
feet, as the hawks do, it is obliged to have re-
course to this extraordinary expedient.1
1 The red-backed shrike or lesser butcher-bird is
about seven inches long. Its bill is black ; the head and
lower part of the back, and coverts of the wings, are of
a bright rusty red ; the breast, belly, and sides, are of a
fine pale rose or bloom-colour; the throat is white; a
stroke of black passes from the bill through each eye ;
During summer, such of them as constantly
reside here, for the smaller red butcher-bird
migrates, remain among the mountainous parts
of th? country: but in winter they descend
into the plains, and nearer human habitations.
The larger kind make their nests on the
highest trees, while the lesser build in bushes
in the fields and hedge-rows. They both lay
about rix eggs, of a white colour, but encircled
at the bigger end with a ring of brownish
red. The nest on the outside i* composed of
white moss, interwoven with long grass ; with-
in it is well lined with wool, and is usually
fixed among the forking branches of a tree.
The female feeds her young with caterpillars
and other insects while very young ; but soon
after accustoms them to flesh, which the male
procures with surprising industry. Their
nature also is very different from other birds
of prey in their parental care ; for, so far from
driving out their young from the nest to shift
for themselves, they keep them with care ;
and even when adult they do not forsake
them, but the whole brood live in one family
together. Each family lives apart, and is
generally composed of the male, female, and
five or six young ones ; these all maintain
peace and subordination among each other,
and hunt in concert. Upon the returning
season of courtship, this union is at an end,
the family parts for ever, each to establish a
little household of its own. It is easy to dis-
tinguish these birds at a distance, not only
from their going in companies, but also from
their manner of flying, which is always up
and down, seldom direct or side-ways.
Of these birds there are three or four
different kinds ; but the greater ash-coloured
butcher-bird is the least known among us.
The red-backed butcher-bird migrates in
autumn, and does not return till spring. The
wood chat resembles the former, except in the
colour of the back, which is brown, and not
red as in the other. There is still another,
less than either of the former, found in the
marshes near London. This too is a bird of
prey, although not much bigger than a tit-
mouse ; an evident proof that an animal's
courage or rapacity does not depend upon its
size. Of foreign birds of this kind there are
several ; but as we know little of their man-
ner of living we will not, instead of history,
the two middle feathers of the tail are black, the others
are white at the base ; the quills are of a brown colour ;
and the legs are black. The female, like all other birds
of prey, is larger than the male ; it builds its nest in
hedges or low bushes, and lays six white eggs, marked
with a reddish-brown circle towards the larger end.
This bird preys on young birds, which it takes in the
nest ; it likewise feeds on grasshoppers and beetles. It
inhabits Great Britain, and various other temperate
countries of Europe.
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
substitute mere description. In fact, the
colours of a bird, which is all we know of
them, would afford a reader but small enter-
tainment in the enumeration. Nothing can
be more easy than to fill volumes with the
different shades of a bird's plumage ; but
these accounts are written with more pleasure
than they are read ; and a single glance of a
good plate or a picture imprints a juster idea
than a volume could convey.1
CHAP. VII.
OF RAPACIOUS BIRDS OP THE OWL KJJCD,
THAT PREY BY NIGHT.
HITHERTO we have been describing a tribe
of animals who, though plunderers among
their fellows of the air, yet wage war boldly
in the face of day. We now come to a race
equally cruel and rapacious; but who add to
their savage disposition, the further reproach
of treachery, and carry on all their depreda-
tions by night.
All birds of the owl kind may be con-
sidered as nocturnal robbers, who, unfitted for
taking their prey while it is light, surprise it
at those hours of rest, when the tribes of nature
are in the least expectation of an enemy.
Thus there seems no link in Nature's chain
broken : no where a dead inactive repose : but
every place, every season, every hour of the
day and night, is bustling with life, and fur-
nishing instances of industry, self-defence, and
invasion.*
1 The great butcher-bird of America is said to stick
grasshoppers upon sharp thorns for the purpose, as is
supposed, of tempting the smaller birds into a situation
where it can easily dart out upon them and seize them.
8 The eye and ear of the owl are both admirably
adapted to its mode of life; in the former the pupil
being capable of great dilatation, and formed, by its
particular prominence, for collecting the horizontal and
dim rays of twilight; and being also furnished with a
strong nictitating membrane, that serves, upon occasion,
to defend it from the glare of day, at the same time that
it allows the bird to see with sufficient distinctness for
avoiding any sudden danger or surprise. The external
orifices of the ears are very large and complex, gener-
ally furnished with a valve", and situated immediately
behind the eyes. In consequence of this formation and
disposition, they are alive to the slightest noise, and
not even the rustling of a mouse can escape their notice.
The flight of the owl, when disturbed during the day,
is abrupt and unsteady, but, at night, it skims along in
search of its prey with great facility; the delicate and
downy texture of its plumage, producing the peculiar
buoyancy which must have been generally remarked in
the flight of these birds.
The genus is usually divided into two sections;
horned or eared owls, such as have a tuft of elongated
feathers on each side of the forehead, and smooth headed
owls, or those destitute of the lengthened feathers. This
second section has been subdivided by some authors into
All birds of the owl kind have one com-
mon mark by which they are distinguished
from others ; their eyes are formed for seeing
better in the dusk than in the broad glare of
a third, called actipitrine ; but as the gradation from
one to another is almost imperceptible, and the charac-
ters upon which they have attempted to establish this
subdivision are far from being distinct, it is quite suffi-
cient for the general purposes of science to adhere to the
two-fold division.
The British Fauna enumerates four species in each
section, of which two in the eared owls, and three in
the smooth-headed, are indigenous ; the others are but
occnsional visitants.
Horned Owls.
Great-horned or Eagle Owl, Strix BtJin.
Long-eared Owl, 8 Otus
Short-eared Owl, £. Brachyofof.
Little-horned Owl, S. Scops.
Smooth-headed Owl*.
Stri.v Nyctea.
S. Flammea.
S. Stnrfula,
S. Patterinn,
Snowy Owl,
Barn Owl,
Tawny Owl,
Little Owl.
Great-horned, or Eagle Owl. — This species, which is
equal in size to some of the largest eagles, is of very
rare occurrence in Great Britain; and, in the few in-
stances on record, the birds can only be regarded as
wanderers, or compelled by tempest to cross the North-
ern ocean. It preys upon fauns, rabbits, the different
species of grouse, rats, &c. — It builds amid rocks, or on
lofty trees, and lays two or three eggs, larger than those
of a hen, round at each end, and of a bluish-white col-
our. According to Temminck, it is common in Rus-
sia, Hungary, Germany, and Switzerland. It is also a
native of Africa, and the northern parts of the new
world.
Long-eared Owl —The excellent mixture of colours
in this bird, and the imposing appearance of its long
tufts or ears, render it one of the most interesting of its
gonns. Though not so numerous as the barn, or the
THE OWL.
siui-shine. As in the eyes of tigers and cats,
that are formed for a life of nocturnal depre-
dation, there is a quality in the retina that
takes in the rays of light so .copiously as to
tawny owl, it is found in most of the wooded districts of
England- and Scotland. Plantations of fir, pai ticularly
of the spruce kind, are its favourite haunts, as in these
it finds a secure and sheltered retreat during the day. It
also frequently inhabits thick holly or ivy bushes, whose
evergreen foliage ensures a similar retirement. It is
nn indigenous species, and breeds early in spring ; not
making any nest of its own, but taking possession oi that
of a magpie or crow. The eggs are generally four or
five in number, white, and rather larger and rounder
than those of the ring-dove. When first excluded, the
young birds are covered with a fine and closely set white
down ; they remain in the nest for more than a month
before they are able to fly. If disturbed and handled,
they hiss violently, strike with their talons, and, at the
same time, make a snapping noise with their bills.
When they quit the nest, they take up their abode in
some adjoining tree, and, for many subsequent days,
may be heard, after sunset, uttering a plaintive but loud
call for food ; during which time the parent birds may
he seen diligently employed in hawking for prey. Mice
and moles form the principal part of their provender ;
though Montagu says, that they sometimes take small
birds on the roost. It is pretty generally diffused
throughout Europe; and in North America is found to
inhabit the woods at a distance from the sea. It has
been observed as far northward as Hudson's Bay.
Short-eared Owl. — The birds of this species are only
U be met with in England, between the months of Octo-
ber and April, as they migrate on the approach of spring,
to the northern islands of Scotland, where they breed.
Mr Low, in his Fauna, Orcadensis, mentions this owl as
being very frequent in the hills of Hoy, where it builds
its nest amongst the heath. It is there of great bold-
ness, and has been seen to chase pigeons in the open
day. In a nest, which contained two full-fledged young
ones, he found the remains of a moor-fowl, and two
plovers, besides the feet of several others. In this
country they generally remain concealed in long grass,
or in rushy places, upon waste ground, or moors. In
autumn, they are often met with in turnip fields, but are
seldom seen in plantations ; nor do they ever attempt to
perch upon a tree. Five or six of these birds are fre-
quently found roosting together ; from which circum-
stance it is probable that they migrate in families.
Montagu thinks that this may arise from the abundance
ot food they meet with in the places where they are thus
collected, but the truth of this supposition may be doubt-
ed, from the fact of their being seldom met with during
two days together in the same place. The head of this
owl being smaller than the generality of its fellow spe-
cies, has procured it, in some parts, the nanje of hawk
owl, or mouse hawk. Many ornithologists have been in
doubt respecting it, and the synonymes are consequently
in some confusion and obscurity. This owl is of wide
locality, being met with in Siberia, and in many parts of
North America; and specimens are also mentioned as
having been brought from the Sandwich Islands.
The Scops-eared Owl. — It is very common in the
warmer parts of Europe during the summer months, but
regularly leaves them on the approach of autumn, for
regions itear to the equator. In France, it arrives and
departs with the swallow. Its favourite residence in
Italy, according to Spallanzani, is in the lower wooded
regions. — Field and shrew mice, insects, and earth-
worms, are its food, in quest of which it sallies forth at
night-fall, uttering at the same time its cry, which re-
sembles the word chivi, anH whence, in some districts,
permit their seeing in places almost quite
dark ; so in these birds there is the same con-
formation of that organ, and though, like us,
they cannot see in a total exclusion of light,
it has acquired the name of Chevini. It constructs no
nest, but deposits five or six eggs in the hollow of a tree.
Snowy Owl. — It is only within these few years past,
that this noble and beautiful owl has been established as
indigenous in Great Britain. In a tour made to the
Orkney and Shetland Isles, in the £earJ812, Mr Bul-
lock, the late proprietor of the London Museum, met
with it in both groups of islands ; and it is now ascer-
tained that the species is resident, and breeds there. It
is common in the regions of the arctic circle even inha-
biting the frozen coasts ot Greenland. Is very numer-
ous on the shores of Hudson's Bay, in Norway, Sweden,
and Lapland ; but of very rare occurrence in the tem-
perate parts of Europe and America.
Barn or White Owl. — This is the most common ot
the British species, and is found in every part of the
kingdom. It is an inhabitant of ruins, church-towers,
barns and other buildings, where it is not liable to con.
tiuual interruption ; and is of essential service in check-
ing the breed of the common and shrew mouse, upon
which it subsists. On the approach of twilight it may
frequently be seen issuing from its retreat to the adjoin-
ing meadows and hedge-banks in search of food, hunt-
ing with great regularity, and precipitating itself upon
it's prey with rapidity and unerring aim. This it swal-
lows whole, and without any attempt to tear it in pieces
with its claws. It breeds in old towers, under the
eaves of churches, or in similar quiet places, and some-
times in the hollows of trees, laying from three to five
eggs, of a bluish-white colour. The young, when first
from the shell, are covered with white down, and are a
long time in becoming fully fledged, or in being able to
quit the nest. Like the other species of owls, it ejects
the hair, bones, and other indigestible parts of its food, in
oval pellets, by the mouth. These castings are often found
in great quantities in places where these birds have lorg
resorted. In its flight it occasionally utters loud screams.
54
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
yet they are sufficiently quick-sighted, at
times when we remain in total obscurity. In
the eyes of all animals, Nature hath made a
complete provision, either to shut out too
much light, or to admit a sufficiency, by the
contraction and dilatation of the pupil. In
these birds the pupil is capable of opening
very wide, or shutting very close ; by con-
tracting the pupil, the brighter light of the
day, which would act too powerfully upon the
sensibility of the retina, is excluded; by
dilating the pupil, the animal takes in the
more faint rays of the night, and thereby is
enabled to spy its prey, and catch it with
greater facility in the dark. Besides this,
there is an irradiation on the back of the eye,
and the very iris itself has a faculty of reflect-
ing the rays of light, so as to assist vision in
the gloomy places where these birds are found
to frequent.
and when perched, hisses and snores considerably. It
is an abundant species throughout Europe and Asia, and
Temminck says it is the same throughout North Ameri-
ca. It is easily domesticated, and will become very
tame when taken young. Montagu reared a white owl,
a sparrow-hawk, and a ring-dove together, who lived in
great harmony for six months. They were then set at
liberty : and the owl was the only one of the three that
returned.
Next to the white or barn owl, the Tawny Owl is the
most abundant of the British species,* and is, like the
former, generally dispersed throughout the kingdom :
but is most readily to be met with in well-wooded dis-
tricts, as it takes up its abode in woods and thick planta-
tions, preferring those which abound in firs and holly,
or ivy bushes. In such situations it remains concealed
till night-fall, as it is very impatient of the glare of day,
and sees, indeed, imperfectly during that time. It
builds in the cavities of old trees, or will occupy the
deserted nest of a crow, and produces four or five white
eggs, of an elliptical shape. The young, on their ex-
clusion, are covered with a grayish down, and are easily
tamed, when fed by the hand; but Montagu observes,
that if placed out of doors within hearing of their parents,
they retain their native shyness, as the old birds visit
them at night, and supply them with abundance of food.
They prey upon rats, mice, moles, rabbits, and young
leverets, and are sometimes destructive to pigeons,
entering the dovecots, and committing great havock.
At night this species is very clamorous, and is easily to
be known from the others by its hooting, in the utter-
ance of which sounds its throat is largely inflated.
Little Owl. — This diminutive species is only an
occasional visitant in England, and that but very rarely.
According to Temminck, it is never found in Europe
beyond the 55th degree of north latitude ; but in the
warmer regions of this quarter of the globe it is very
common. It inhabits ruins, church-towers, and similar
old buildings, and in such it also breeds. The eggs
are four or five in number, of a round shape, and white,
like those of most of the other species. It is of a wild
and fierce disposition, and not capable of being tamed
like the little horned or scops eared owl. It sometimes
preys by day, and, from having been seen to pursue
swallows, must be strong and rapid on the wing. Its
prey consists of mice, small birds, and insects. — Selby's
Ornithology.
* Sir William Jardine considers the long-eared owl to be
more frequently met with than the tawny owl, especially in
the south of Scotland. The long eared owl is more common
in America than even the barn owl.
But though owls are dazzled by too bright
a day-light, yet they do not see best in the
darkest nights, as some have been apt to
imagine. It is in the dusk of the evening,
or the gray of the morning, that they are best
fitted for seeing, at those seasons when there
is neither too much light, nor too little. It is
then that they issue from their retreats, to
hunt or to surprise their prey, which is usually
attended with great success : it is then that
they find all other birds asleep, or preparing
for repose, and they have only to seize the
most unguarded.
The nights when the moon shines are the
times of their most successful plunder ; for
when it is wholly dark, they are less qualified
for seeing and pursuing their prey : except,
therefore, by moonlight, they contract the
hours of their chase ; and if they come out at
the approach of dusk in the evening, they re-
turn before it is totally dark, and then rise
by twilight the next morning to pursue their
game, and to return in like manner, before
the broad day-light begins to dazzle them with
its splendour.
Yet the faculty of seeing in the night, or of
being entirely dazzled by the day, is not
alike in every species of these nocturnal birds :
some see by night better than others ; and
some are so little dazzled by day-light, that
they perceive their enemies, and avoid them.
The common white or barn owl, for instance,
sees with such exquisite acuteness in the
dark, that though the barn has been shut at
night, and the light thus totally excluded, yet
it perceives the smallest mouse that peeps
from its hole : on the contrary, the brown
horned owl is often seen to prowl along the
hedges by day, like the sparrow-hawk ; and
sometimes with good success.
All birds of the owl kind may be divided
into two sorts ; those that have horns, and
those without. These horns are nothing more
than two or three feathers that stand upon each
side of the head over the ear, and give this
animal a kind of horned appearance. Of the
horned kind is, the Great Horned Owl, which
at first view appears as large as an eagle.
When he comes to be observed more closely,
however, he will be found much less. His
legs, body, wings, and tail, are shorter ; his
head much larger and thicker ; his horns are
composed of feathers that rise above two inches
and a half high, and which he can erect or
depress at pleasure: his eyes are large and
transparent, encircled with an orange-coloured
iris : his ears are large and deep, and it would
appear that no animal was possessed with a
more exquisite sense of hearing; his plumage
is of a reddish brown, marked on the back
with black and yellow spots, and yellow only
upon the belly.
THE OWL.
55
Next to this is the Common Horned Owl,
of a much smaller size than the former, and
with horns much shorter. As the great owl
was five feet from the tip of one wing to the
other, this is but three. The horns are but
about an inch long, and consist of six feathers,
variegated with black and yellow.
There is still a smaller kind of the horned
owl, which is not much larger than a black-
bird ; and whose horns are remarkably short,
being composed but of one feather, and that
not above half an inch high.
To these succeeds the tribe without horns.
The HOWLET, which is the largest of this kind,
with dusky plumes and black eyes ; the
SCREECH OWL, of a smaller size, with blue eyes,
and plumage of an iron gray ; the WHITE OWL,
about as large as the former, with yellow eyes
and whitish plumage ; the GREAT BROWN OWL,
less than the former, with brown plumage and
a brown beak ; and lastly, the LITTLE BROWN
OWL, with yellowish coloured eyes, and an
orange-coloured bill. To this catalogue might
be added others of foreign denominations, which
differ but little from our own, if we except the
HARFANG,Or GREAT HUDSON'S BAY OWL of Edwards,
which is the largest of all the nocturnal tribe,
and as white as the snows' of the country of
which he is a native.1
All this tribe of animals, however they may
differ in their size and plumage, agree in their
general characteristics of preying by night,
and having their eyes formed for nocturnal
vision. Their bodies are strong and muscu-
lar ; their feet and claws made for tearing
their prey ; and their stomachs for digesting
it. It must be remarked, however, that the
digestion of all birds that live upon mice, liz-
ards, or such like food, is not very perfect ; for
though they swallow them whole, yet they
are always seen some time after to disgorge
the skin and bones, rolled up in a pellet, as
being indigestible.
In proportion as each of these animals bears
the daylight best, he sets forward earlier in
the evening in pursuit of his prey. The great
horned owl is the foremost in leaving his re-
treat ; and ventures into the woods and thickets
very soon in the evening. The horned, and
the brown owl, are later in their excursions :
but the barn-owl seems to see best in profound
darkness, and seldom leaves his hiding-place
till midnight.
As they are incapable of supporting the
light of the day, or at least of then seeing and
readily avoiding their danger, they keep all
this time concealed in some obscure retreat,
suited to their gloomy appetites, and there
1 For the mottled owl, see plate XVI. fig. 11 ; for
Dalhousie's owl, see plate XV. fig. 4. Wilson has des-
cribed the former of these, and other owls common to
America, with Us usual animation.
continue in solitude and silence. The cavern
of a rock, the darkest part of a hollow tree,
the battlements of a ruined and unfrequented
castle, some obscure hole in a farmer's out-
house, are the places where they are usually
found : if they be seen out of these retreats
in the day-time, they may be considered as
having lost their way ; as having by some
accident been thrown into the midst of their
enemies and surrounded with danger.
Having spent the day iiflheir retreat, at
the approach of evening they sally forth, and
skim rapidly up and down along the hedges.
The barn-owl, indeed, who lives chiefly upon
mice, is contented to be more stationary : he
takes his residence upon some shock of corn,
or the point of some old house ; and there
watches in the dark, with the utmost perspi-
cacity and perseverance.
Nor are these birds by any means silent ;
they all have a hideous note ; which, while
pursuing their prey, is seldom heard ; but may
be considered rather as a call to courtship.
There is something always terrifying in this
call, which is often heard in the silence of
midnight, and breaks the general pause with
a horrid variation. It is different in all ;
but in each it is alarming and disagreeable.
Father Kircher, who has set the voices of birds
to music, has given all the tones of the owl
note, which make a most tremendous melody.
Indeed, the prejudices of mankind are united
with their sensations to make the cry of the
owl disagreeable. The screech-owl's voice
was always considered among the people as a
presage of some sad calamity that was soon
to ensue.8
2 " Up to the year 1813, the barn owl had a sad time
of it at Walton Hall. Its supposed mournful notes
alarmed the aged housekeeper. She knew full well what
sorrow it had brought into other houses when she was
a young woman; and there was enough of mischief in
the midnight wintry blast, without having it increased
by the dismal screams of something which people knew
very little about, and which every body said was far too
busy in the church-yard at night time. Nay, it was a
well-known fact, that, if any person were sick in the
neighbourhood, it would be for ever looking in at the
window, and holding a conversation outside with some-
body, they did not know whom. The gamekeeper agreed
witli her in everything she said on this important sub-
ject; and he always stood better in her books when he
had managed to shoot a bird of this bad and mischievous
family. However, in 1813, on my return from the wilds
of Guiana, having suffered myself, and learned mercy,
I broke in pieces the code of penal laws which the knavery
of the gamekeeper and the lamentable ignorance of the
other servants had hitherto put in force, far too success-
fully, to thin the numbers of this poor, harmless, unsus-
pecting tribe. On the ruin of the old gateway, against
which tradition says the waves of the lake have dashed
for the better part of a thousand years, I made a place
with stone and mortar, about four feet square, and fixed
a thick oaken stick firmly into it. Huge masses of ivy
now quite cover it. In about a month or so after it was
finished, a pair of bam owls came and took up their abodo
in it. I threatened to strangle the keeper if ever after
56
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
They seldom, however, are heard while
they are preying ; that important pursuit is
always attended with silence, as it is by no
means their intention to disturb or forewarn
this he molested either the old birds or their young ones;
and I assured the housekeeper that I would take upon
myself the whole responsibility of all the sickness, woe,
and sorrow that the new tenants might bring into the
hall. She made a low courtesy; as much as to say," Sir,
I fall into your will and pleasure:" but I saw in her eye
that she had made up her mind to have to do with things
of fearful and portentous shape, and to hear many a mid-
night wailing in the surrounding woods. I do not think
that up to the day of this old lady's death, which took
place in her eighty-fourth year, she ever looked with
pleasure or contentment on the barn owl, as it flew round
the large sycamore trees which grow near the old ruined
gateway.
" When I found that this first settlement on the gate-
way had succeeded so well, I set about forming other
establishments. This year I have had four broods, and
I trust that next season I can calculate on having nine.
This will be a pretty increase, and it will help to supply
the plaee of those which in this neighbourhood are still
unfortunately doomed to death by the hand of cruelty or
superstition. We can now always have a peep at the
owls, in their habitation on the old ruined gateway,
whenever we choose. Confident of protection, these
pretty birds betray no fear when the stranger mounts up
to their place of abode. I would here venture a surmise,
that the barn owl sleeps standing. Whenever we go to
look at it, we invariably see it upon the perch bolt up-
right, and often with its eyes closed, apparently fast
asleep. Bufibn and Bewick err (no doubt unintention-
ally) when they say that the barn owl snores during its
repose. What they took for snoring was the cry of the
young birds for food. I had fully satisfied myself on this
score some years ago. However, in December, 1823,
I was much astonished to hear this same snoring kind of
noise, which had been so common in the month of July.
On ascending the ruin, I found a brood of young owls
in the apartment.
" Upon this ruin is placed a perch, about a foot from the
hole at which the owls enter. Sometimes, at mid-day,
when the weather is gloomy, you may see an owl upon
it, apparently enjoying the refreshing diurnal breeze.
This year (1831) a pair of barn owls hatched their young
on the 17th of September, in a sycamore tree near the
old ruined gateway.
" If this useful bird caught its food by day, instead of
hunting for it by night, mankind would have ocular de-
monstration of its utility in thinning the country of
mice, and it would be protected and encouraged every-
where. It would be with us what the ibis was with the
Egyptians. When it has young, it will bring a mouse
to the nest about every twelve or fifteen minutes. But,
in order to have a proper idea of the enormous quantity
of mice which this bird destroys, we must examine the
pellets which it ejects from its stomach in the place of
its retreat. Every pellet contains from four to seven
skeletons of mice. In sixteen months from the time
that the apartment of the owl on the old gateway was
cleaned out, there has been a deposit of a bushel of pellets.
" The barn owl sometimes carries of!' rats. One even-
ing I was sitting under a shed, and killed a very large
rat as it was coming out of a hole, about ten yards from
where I was watching it. I did not go to take it up,
hoping to get another shot. As it lay there, a barn owl
pounced upon it, and flew away with it.
" This bird has been known to catch fish. Some years
ago, on a fine evening in the month of July, long before
it was dark, as I was standing on the middle of the
bridge, and minuting the owl by my watch, as she
those little animals they wish to surprise.
When their pursuit has been successful, they
soon return to their solitude, or to their young,
if that be the season. If, however, they find
brought mice into her nest, all on a sudden she dropped
perpendicular into the water. Thinking that she had
fallen down in epilepsy, my first thoughts were to go and
fetch the boat : but before I had well got to the end of
the bridge, 1 saw the owl rise out of the water with a
fish in her claws, and take it to the nest. This fact is
mentioned by the late much revered and lamented Mr.
Atkinson of Leeds, in his compendium, in a note, under
the signature of W., a friend of his, to whom I had com.
municated it in a few days after I had witnessed it.
" I cannot make up my mind to pay any attention to
the description of the amours of the owl by a modern
writer ; at least the barn owl plays off' no buflboneries
here, such as those which he describes. An owl is an
owl all the world over, whether under the influence of
Momus, Venus, or Diana.
" When farmers complain that the barn owl destroys
the eggs of their pigeons, they lay the saddle on the
wrong horse. They ought to put it on the rat. Formerly
I could get very few young pigeons till the rats were
excluded effectually from the dovecot. Since that took
place, it has produced a great abundance every year,
though the barn owls frequent it, and are encouraged all
around it. The barn owl merely resorts to it for repose
and concealment. If it were really an enemy to tho
dovecot, we should see the pigeons in commotion as soon
as it begins its evening flight; but the pigeons heed it
not: whereas if the sparrow hawk or windhover should
make their appearance, the whole community would be
up at once, proof sufficient that the barn owl is not looked
upon as a bad, or even a suspicious character, by the in-
habitants of the dovecot.
" Till lately, a great and well-known distinction has
always been made betwixt the screeching and the hooting
of owls. • The tawny owl is the only owl which hoots ;
and when I am in the woods after poachers, about an
hour before daybreak, I hear with extreme delight its
loud, clear, and sonorous notes, resounding far and near
through hill and dale. Very different from these notes
is the screech of the barn owl. But Sir William Jar-
dine informs us that this owl hcots ; and that he has shot
it in the act of hooting. This is stiff authority : and I
believe it because it comes from the pen of Sir William
Jardine. Still, however, methinks that it ought to be
taken in a somewhat diluted state ; we know full well
that most extraordinary examples of splendid talent do,
from time to time, make their appearance on the world's
wide stage. Thus, Franklin brought down fire from the
skies: — " Eripuit fulmeu ccelo, sceptrumque tyrannis."
Paganini has led all London captive, by a piece of twisted
catgut: — ''Tu potes reges comitesque stultos ducere."
Leibnitz tells us of a dog in Germany that could pro-
nounce distinctly thirty words ; Goldsmith informs us
that he once heard a raven whistle the tune of the "Sham-
rock," with great distinctness, truth, and humour. With
these splendid examples before our eyes, may we not be
inclined to suppose that the barn owl which Sir William
shot in the absolute act of hooting may have been a gifted
bird, of superior parts and knowledge (una de multis, as
Horace said of Miss Danaus,) endowed, perhaps, from
its early days with the faculty of hooting, or else skilled
in the art by having been taught it by its neighbour, the
tawny owl ? I beg to remark that, though I unhesitat-
ingly grant the faculty of hooting to this one particular
individual owl, still I flatly refuse to believe that hooting
is common to barn owls in general. Ovid, in his sixth
book Fastorum, pointedly .says that it screeched in his
days —
THE OWL.
57
but little game, they continue their quest still
longer ; and it sometimes happens that, obey-
ing the dictates of appetite rather than of pru-
dence, they pursue so long, that broad day
breaks in upon them, and leaves them dazzled,
bewildered, and at a distance from home.
In this distress they are obliged to take
shelter in the first tree or hedge that offers,
there to continue concealed all day, till the
returning darkness once more supplies them
with a better plan of the country. But jt too
often happens that, with all their precaution
to conceal themselves, they are spied out by
the other birds of the place, and are sure to
receive no mercy. The blackbird, the thrush,
the jay, the bunting, and the red-breast, all
come in file, and employ their little arts of in-
sult and abuse. The smallest, the feeblest,
and the most contemptible of this unfortunate
bird's enemies, are then the foremost to injure
and torment him. They increase their cries
and turbulence round him, flap him with their
wings, and are ready to show their courage to
be great, as they are sensible that their danger
is but small. The unfortunate owl, not know-
ing where to attack or where to fly, patiently
sits and suffers all their insults. Astonished
and dizzy, he only replies to their mockeries
by awkward and ridiculous gestures, by turn-
ing his head and rolling his eyes with an ai;
of stupidity. It is enough that an owl appears
by day to set the whole grove into a kind of
uproar. Either the aversion all the small birds
have to this animal, or the consciousness of
their own security, makes them pursue him
without ceasing, while they encourage each
other by their mutual cries to lend assistance
in this laudable undertaking.
" Est illis strigibus nomen : sed nnmims hujus
Causa, quod liorrenda stridere nocte solent."
The barn owl may be heard shrieking here perpetually
on the portico, and in the large sycamore trees near the
house. It shrieks equally when the moon shines, and
when the night is rough and cloudy ; and he who takes
an interest in it may here see the barn owl the night
through when there is a moon ; and he may hear it
shriek when perching on the trees, or when it is on wing.
He may see it and hear it shriek, within a few yards of
him, long before dark; and again, often after daybreak,
before it takes its final departure to its wonted resting-
place. I am amply repaid for the pains I have taken to
protect and encourage the barn owl ; it pays me a hun-
dredfold by the enormous quantity of mice which it des-
troys throughout the year. The servants now no longer
wish to persecute it. Often, on a fine summer's even-
ing, with delight I see the villagers loitering under the
sycamore trees longer than they would otherwise do, to
have a peep at the barn owl, as it leaves the ivy-mantled
tower: fortunate for it, if, in lieu of exposing itself to
danger, by mixing with the world at large, it only knew
the advantage of passing its nights at home; for here
" No birds that haunt my valley free
To slaughter I condemn ;
Taught by the Power that pities me,
I learn to pity thcta."
VOL. II.
It sometimes happens, however, that the
little birds pursue their insults with the same
imprudent zeal with which the owl himself
had pursued his depredations. They hunt
him the whole day until evening returns ;
which restoring him his faculties of sight once
more, he makes the foremost of his pursuers
pay dear for their former sport. Nor is man
always an unconcerned spectator here. The
bird-catchers have got on an art of counterfeit-
ing the cry of the owl exactly-^ and having
before limed the branches of a hedge, they sit
unseen, and give the call. At this, ail the
little birds flock to the place where they expect
to find their well-known enemy ; but instead of
finding their stupid antagonist they are stuck
fast to the hedge themselves. This sport must
be put in practice an hour before night-fall, in
order to be successful ; for if it is put off till
later, those birds which but a few minutes
sooner came to provoke their enemy, will then
fly from him with as much terror as they just
before showed insolence.
It is not unpleasant to see one stupid bird
made, in some sort, a decoy to deceive another.
The great horned owl is sometimes made use
of for this purpose to lure the kite, when fal-
coners desire to catch him for the purposes of
training the falcon. Upon this occasion they
clap the tail of a fox to the great owl, to render
his figure extraordinary ; in which trim he
sails slowly along, flying low, which is his
usual manner. The kite, either curious to
observe this odd kind of animal, or perhaps in-
quisitive to see whether it may not be proper
for food, flies after, and comes nearer and
nearer. In this manner he continues to hover,
and sometimes to descend, till the falconer
setting a strong-winged hawk against him,
seizes him for the purpose of training his young
ones at home.
The usual place where the great horned owl
breeds is in the cavern of a rock, the hollow
of a tree, or the turret of some ruined castle.
Its nest is near three feet in diameter, and
composed of sticks, bound together by the
fibrous roots of trees, and lined with leaves on
the inside. It lays about three eggs, which
are larger than those of a hen, and of a colour
somewhat resembling the bird itself. The
young ones are very voracious, and the parents
not less expert at satisfying the call of hunger.
The lesser owl of this kind never makes a nest
for itself, but always takes up with the old
nest of some other bird, which it has often
been forced to abandon. It lays four or five
eggs ; and the young are all white at first, but
change colour in about a fortnight. The other
owls in general build near the place where
they chiefly prey ; that which feeds upon birds,
in some neighbouring grove ; that which preys
chiefly upon mice, near some farmer's yard.
58
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
where the proprietor of the place takes care to
give it perfect security. In fact, whatever
mischief one species of owl may do in the
woods, the barn owl makes a sufficient recom-
pense for, by being equally active in destroy-
ing mice nearer home ; so that a single owl is
said to be more serviceable than half a dozen
cats, in ridding the barn of its domestic ver-
min. " In the year 1580," says an old writer,
" at Hallontide, an army of mice so over-
run the marshes near Southminster, that they
eat up the grass to the very roots. But at
length a great number of strange painted owls
came and devoured all the mice." The like
happened again in Essex about sixty years
after.
To conclude our account of these birds,
they are all very shy of man, and extremely
indocile and difficult to be tamed. The white
owl in particular, as Mr Buffon asserts, can-
not be made to live in captivity ; I suppose
he means, if it be taken when old. " They
live," says he, " ten or twelve days in the
aviary where they are shut up ; but they re-
fuse all kind of nourishment, and at last die
of hunger. By day they remain without
moving upon the floor of the aviary ; in the
evening they mount on the highest perch,
where they continue to make a noise like a
man snoring with his mouth open. This
seems designed as a call for their old compa
nions without ; and, in fact, I have seen seve-
ral others come to the call, and perch upon the
roof of the aviary, where they made the same
kind of hissing, and soon after permitted them-
selves to be taken in a net."
HISTORY OF BIRDS,
BOOK III.
OF BIRDS OF THE POULTRY KIND IN GENERAL.
CHAP. I.
OF BIKDS OF THE POULTRY KIND
IN GENERAL.
KROM the most rapacious qjadr noxious tribe
of birds, we make a transition to those which
of all others are most harmless, and the most
serviceable to man. He may force the rapa-
cious tribes to assist his pleasures in the field,
or induce the smaller warblers to delight him
with their singing ; but it is from the poultry
kind that he derives the most solid advanta-
ges, as they not only make a considerable ad-
dition to the necessaries of life, but furnish out
the greatest delicacies to every entertainment.
Almost, if not all, the domestic birds of the
poultry kind that we maintain in our yards,
are of foreign extraction ; but there are others
to be ranked in this class that are as yet in a
state of nature ; and perhaps only wait till
they become sufficiently scarce to be taken
under the care of man, to multiply their pro-
pagation. ' It will appear remarkable enough,
if we consider how much the tame poultry
which we have imported from distant climates
has increased, and how much those wild birds
of the poultry kind that have never yet been
taken into keeping have been diminished and
destroyed. They are all thinned ; and many
of the species, especially in the more cultiva-
ted and populous parts of the kingdom, are
utterly unseen.
Under birds of the poultry kind I rank all
those that have white flesh, and, comparatively
to their head and limbs, have bulky bodies.
They are furnished with short strong bills for
picking up grain, which is their chief and
often their only sustenance. Their wings are
short and concave ; for which reason they are
not able to fly far. They lay a great many
eggs ; and, as they lead their young abroac
:he very day they are hatched, in quest of food,
which they are shown by the mother, and
which they pick up for themselves, they gene-
rally make their nests on the ground. The
oes of all these are united by a membrane
as far as the first articulation, and then are
divided as in those of the former class.
Under this class we may therefore rank
;he common cock, the peacock, the turkey,
;he pintada or Guinea-hen, the pheasant, the
bustard, the grous, the partridge, and the quail.
These all bear a strong similitude to each
other, being equally granivorous, fleshy, and
delicate to the palate. These are among birds
what beasts of pasture are among quadrupeds,
peaceable tenants of the field, and shunning
the thicker parts of the forest, that abound
with numerous animals, who carry on unceas-
ing hostilities against them.
As Nature has formed the rapacious class
for war, so she seems equally to have fitted
these for peace^ restj and society. Their
wings are but short, so that they are ill formed
for wandering from one region to another;
their bills are also short, and incapable of an-
noying their opposers ; their legs are strong,
indeed, but their toes are made for scratching
up their food, and not for holding or tearing
it. These are sufficient indications of their
harmless nature ; while their bodies, which
are fat and fleshy, render them unwieldy tra-
vellers, and incapable of straying far from
each other.
Accordingly we find them chiefly in society ;
they live together ; ajid though they may
have their disputes, like all other animals,
upon some occasions, yet when kept in the
same district, or fed in the same yard, they
learn the arts of subordination ; and, in pro.
portion as each knows his strength, he seldom
tries a second time the combat where he has
once been worsted.
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
In this manner, all of this kind seem to
lead an indolent voluptuous life ; as they are
furnished internally with a very strong sto-
mach, commonly called a gizzard, so their vo-
raciousness scarcely knows any bounds. If
kept in close captivity, and separated from all
their former companions, they still have the
pleasure of eating left; and they soon grow
fat and unwieldy in their prison. To say
this more simply, many of the wilder species
of birds, when cooped or caged, pine away,
grow gloomy, and some refuse all sustenance
whatever ; none, except those of the poultry
kind, grow fat, who seem to lose all remem-
brance of their former liberty, satisfied with
indolence and- plenty.
The poultry kind may be considered as
sensual epicures, solely governed by their ap-
petites. The indulgence of these seems to in-
fluence their other habits, and destroys among
them that connubial fidelity for which most
other kinds are remarkable. The eagle and
the falcon, how fierce soever to other animals,
are yet gentle and true to each other; their
connections, when once formed, continue till
death ; and the male and female, in every
exigence, and every duty, lend faithful assis-
tance to each other. They assist each other
in the production of their young, in providing
for them when produced; and even then,
though they drive them forth to fight their
own battles, yet the old ones still retain their
former affection to each other, and seldom part
far asunder.
But it is very different with this luxurious
class I am now describing. Their courtship
is but short and their congress fortuitous. The
male takes no heed of his offspring, and satis-
fied with the pleasure of getting, leaves to the
female all the care of providing for posterity.
Wild and irregular in his appetites, he ranges
from one to another ; and claims every fe-
male which he is strong enough to keep from
bis fellows. Though timorous when opposed
to birds of prey, yet he is incredibly bold
among those of his own kind ; and but to see
a male of his own species is sufficient to pro-
duce a combat. As his desires extend to all,
every creature becomes his enemy that pre-
tends to be his rival.
The female, equally without fidelity or at-
tachment, yields to the most powerful. She
stands by a quiet meretricious spectator of
their fury, ready to reward the conqueror with
every compliance. She takes upon herself all
the labour of hatching and bringing up her
young, and chooses a place for hatching as re-
mote as possible from the cock. Indeed she
gives herself very little trouble in making her
nest, as her young ones are to leave it the in-
stant they part from the shell.
She is equally unassisted in providing for
her young, that are not fed with meat put into
their mouths, as in other classes of the fea- .
thered kind, but peck their food, and forsaking
their nests, run here and there, following the
parent wherever it is to be found. She leads
them forward where they are likely to have
the greatest quantity of grain, and takes care
to show, by pecking, the sort proper for them
to seek for. Though at other times voracious,
she is then abstemious to an extreme degree ;
and intent only on providing for, and showing
her young clutch their food, she scarcely takes
any nourishment herself. Her parental pride
seems to overpower every other appetite : but
that decreases in proportion as her young ones
are more able to provide for themselves, and
then all her voracious habits return.1
Among the other habits peculiar to this
' I take great delight in observing the habits of the
animals in my farm-yard. The old gander watches the
sitting goose with great care, and will sometimes take
his place on her nest. He is always forward to protect
the goslings, and hisses at and runs after any thing from
which he apprehends danger. The cock struts before
the hens, and never seems so happy as when he collects
them about him to feast upon a grain of corn or an in-
sect which he has found. This gallantry is, I believe,
peculiar to our domestic cock, and does him no little
credit. He fights to the last extremity with any intru-
der, and if he is beaten, appears to consider himself un-
worthy of the society of his former mates, and mopes in
a corner, the very picture of wretchedness.
Hen turkiys are dull, and seem less capable of enjoy-
ment than any birds I know. I have watched them
stretching out their necks, and stupidly looking for a
quarter of an hour together at a small tuft of grass,
making short, low cries all the time. On going up to
examine what occasioned this unusual movement, I have
found a toad or frog concealed in the grass. Curiosity,
more than fear, appeared to have attracted the turkies to
the spot. They are bad mothers, and frequently tram-
ple on their young, appearing to disregard their cries.
Unlike the hen, they do not take any trouble in procur-
ing food for their young. Ducks are in a prodigious
bustle when they quit their nests for food, and make a
great outcry when the drake comes up to greet their ar-
rival again in the poultry-yard. They run into the
pond, flap their wings, and then come out, and are very
clamorous till food is brought them. The young ducks,
as soon as they are hatched, take to the water, and dart
after flies with the greatest activity. I am always sorry
to see the anxiety and misery of a hen who has hatched
ducks, instead of her natural progeny. When they take
to the water sht» is in a perfect agony, running round the
brink of the pond, and sometimes flying into it, in hopes
of rescuing her brood from the danger she apprehends
them to be in. A friend of mine observed a remarkable
instance of the degree to which this natural apprehension
for her brood may be overcome in the hen by the habit of
nursing ducks. A hen, who had reared three broods of
ducks in three successive yc-ars, became habituated to
their taking to the water, and would fly to a large stone
in the middle of the pond, and patiently and quietly
watch her brood as they swam about it. The fourth
year she hatched her own eggs, and finding that her
chickens did not take to the water as the ducklings had
done, she flew to the stone in the pond, and called them
to her with the utmost eagerness. This recollection of
the habits of her former charge, though it had taken place
a year before, is not a little curious. — Jesse's Gleanings.
THE COCK.
61
class of birds is that of dusting themselves.
They lie flat in some dusty place, and with
their wings and feet raise and scatter the dust
over their whole body. What may be their
reason for thus doing, it is not easy to explain.
Perhaps the heat of their bodies is such, that
(hey require this pnwder to be interposed be-
tween their feathers, ro keep them from lying
<oo close together, and thus increasing that
Leat with which they are incommoded
CHAP. II.
OF THE COCK
'
ALL birds taken under the protection of man
lose a part of their natural figure, and are al-
tered, not only in their habits, but their very
form. Climate, food, and captivity, are three
very powerful agents in producing these altera-
tions ; and those birds that have longest felt
their influence under human direction are the
most likely to have the greatest variety in
their figures, their plumage, and their dispo-
sitions.
Of all other birds, the cock seems to be the
oldest companion of mankind, to have been
(irst reclaimed from the forest, and taken to
supply the accidental failure of the luxuries or
necessities of life. As he is thus longest un-
der the care of man, so of all others perhaps
he exhibits the greatest number of varieties,
there being scarce two birds of this species
that exactly resemble each other in plumage
and form. The tail, which makes such a
beautiful figure in the generality of these
birds, is yet found entirely wanting in others ;
and not only the tail, but the rump also. The
toes, which are usually four in all animals of
the poultry kind, yet in a species of the cock
are found to amount to five. The feathers,
which lie so sleek and in such beautiful order,
in most of those we are acquainted with, are,
in a peculiar breed, all inverted, and stand
staring the wrong way. Nay, there is a spe-
cies that comes from Japan, which instead of
feathers seems to be covered all over with
hair. These, and many other varieties, are to
be found in this animal, which seem to be the
marks this early prisoner bears of his long
captivity.
It is not well ascertained when the cock
was first made domestic in Europe, but it is
generally agreed that we first had him in our
western world from the kingdom of Persia.
Aristophanes calls the cock the Persian bird,
and tells us, he enjoyed that kingdom before
some of its earliest monarchs. This animal
was in fact known so early, even in the most
savage parts of Europe, tbai-we are told the
cock was one of the forbidden foods among the
ancient Britons. Indeed, the domestic fowl
seems to have banished the wild one. Persia
itself, that first introduced it to our acquain-
tance, seems no longer to know it in its natu-
ral form ; and if we did not find it wild in
some of the woods of India, as well as those
of the islands in the Indian ocean, we might
begin to doubt, as we do with regard to the
sheep, in what form it first existed in a state
of nature.1
But those doubts no longer exist; the cock
is found in the island of Tinian, in many
others of the Indian ocean, and in the woods
on the coast of Malabar, in his ancient state
of independence. In his wild condition, his
plumage is black and yellow, and bis comb
and wattles yellow and purple. There is an-
other peculiarity also in those of the Indian
woods ; their bones, which when boiled with
us are white, as every body knows, in those
1 The bird known in India by the name of the " Jun-
gle Fowl" is the " Wild Cock" of Sonnerat, who was the
first to describe it in his " Voyage anx Indes Orientates."
This naturalist maintained with considerable zeal that
this bird formed the stock whence most of our races of
domestic fowl have proceeded. He concurred in the
opinion of Buflbn, that most of our varieties of domestic
fowl have proceeded from a single type, and that the dif-
ferences which we perceive among them have resulted
from accidents of climate, domestication, and crossings
of varieties. Sonnerat, who did not or would not know
of any other species of wild cock than this — for he speaks
slightingly of the authority of Dampier, who mentions
that he saw wild cocks in the Indian Archipelago — na-
turally enough concluded that in this jungle-fowl he had
found the primitive stock. Subsequent inquiries have,
however, confirmed the statements of Dampier, not only
as to the existence of species of wild fowl in the Indian
Archipelago; but it is also admitted that the Bankiva
species in Java, and the Jago species in Sumatra, more
nearly approximate to our common fowl than that now
under consideration, and to which Sonnerat's statements
refer. Upon the whole, it seems that our varieties of
domestic fowl proceed from mixtures of original species.
Practical observers arrive at much the same conclusions
on this point with scientific naturalists. It is thus, for
instance, considered in India that our game cock origi-
nated from a mixture of the jungle cock with wild spe-
cies in Malaya and Chittagong. Altogether, however, it
must be admitted that, on this disputed point, very little
is actually known ; and the domestication of the bird as-
cends to such remote antiquity, that it seems hopeless to
determine the era, and still more hopeless to ascertain
the original species with precision.
62
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
are as black as ebony. Whether this tincture
proceeds from their food, as the bones are
tinctured red by feeding upon madder, I leave
to the discussion of others : satisfied with the
fact, let us decline speculation.
In their first propagation in Europe, there
were distinctions then that now subsist no
longer. The ancients esteemed those fowls
xvhose plumage was reddish as invaluable ;
but as for the white, it was considered as ut-
terly unfit for domestic purposes. These they
regarded as subject to become a prey to rapa-
cious birds; and Aristotle thinks them less
fruitful than the former. Indeed his division
of those birds seems to be taken from their cu-
linary uses ; the one sort he calls generous and
noble, being remarkable for fecundity: the
other sort, ignoble and useless, from their ste-
rility. These distinctions differ widely from
our modern notions of generosity in this ani-
mal ; that which we call the game-cock being
by no means so fruitful as the ungenerous
dung-hill cock, which we treat with contempt
The Athenians had their cock matches as well
as we; but it is probable that they did not
enter into that refinement of choosing out the
most barren of the species for the purposes of
combat.
However this be, no animal in the world
has greater courage than the cock, when op-
posed to one of his own species ; and in every
part of the world, where refinement and po-
lished manners have not entirely taken place,
cock-fighting is a principal diversion. In
China, India, the Philippine islands, and all
over the East, cock-fighting is the sport and
amusement even of kings and princes. With
us it is declining every day, and it is to be
hoped that it will in time become only the
pastime of the lowest vulgar. It is the opin-
ion of many, that we have a bolder and more
valiant breed than is to be found elsewhere ;
and some, indeed, have entered into a serious
discussion upon the cause of so flattering a sin-
gularity. But the truth is, they have cocks
in China as bold, if not bolder, than ours ; and
what would still be considered as valuable
among cockers here, they have more strength
with less weight. Indeed, I have often won-
dered why men who lay two or three hundred
pounds upon the prowess of a single cock,
have not taken every method to improve the
breed. Nothing, it is probable, could do this
more effectually than by crossing the strain,
as it is called, by a foreign mixture ; and whe-
ther having recourse even to the wild cock in
the forests of India would not be useful, I
leave to their consideration. However, it is
a mean and ungenerous amusement, nor would
I wish much to promote it. The truth is, I
could give such instructions with regard to
cook-fighting;, and could so arm one of these
c; ra*
animals against the other that it would be al-
most impossible for the adversary's cock to
survive the first or second blow ; but as Boer-
haave has said upon a former occasion, when
he was treating upon poisons, " to teach the
arts of cruelty is equivalent to committing
them."
This extraordinary courage in the cock is
thought to proceed from his being the most sa-
lacious of all other birds whatsoever. A sin-
gle cock suffices for ten or a dozen hens; and
it is said of him, that he is the only animal
whose spirits are not abated by indulgence
But then he soon grows old ; the radical mois
ture is exhausted ; and in three or four years
he becomes utterly unfit for the purposes of
impregnation. " Hens also," to use the words
of Willoughby, " as they for the greatest part
of the year daily lay eggs, cannot suffice foi
so many births, but for the most part, after
three years, become effete and barren : for
when they have exhausted all their seed-eggs,
of which they had but a certain quantity from
the beginning, they must necessarily cease to
lay, there being no new ones generated with-
in.
The hen seldom clutches a brood of chickens
above once a season, though instances have
been known in which they produced two.
The number of eggs a domestic hen will lay
in the year are above two hundred, provided
she be well fed, and supplied with water and
liberty. It matters not much whether she be
trodden by the cock or no ; she will continue
to lay, although all the eggs of this kind can
never, by hatching, be brought to produce a
living animal. Her nest is made without any
care, if left to herself; a hole scratched into
the ground, among a few bushes, is the only
preparation she makes for this season of pa-
tient expectation. Nature, almost exhausted
by. its own fecundity, seems to inform her oi
the proper time for hatching, which she her-
self testifies by a clucking note, and by dis-
continuing to lay. The good housewives,
who often get more by their hens laying than
by their chickens, artificially protract this
clucking season, and sometimes entirely re-
move it. As soon as their hen begins to
cluck, they stint her in her provisions ; and if
that fails, they plunge her into cold water :
this, for the time, effectually puts back her
hatching ; but then it often kills the poor birds,
who takes cold, and dies under the opera-
tion.1
1 In the hatching of poultry, as in most other things,
Nature is the best guide. The hen and duck, if left to
themselves, find some dry, warm, sandy hedge or bank,
in which to deposit their eggs, forming their nests of
leaves, moss or dry grass. In this way the warmth is
retained when the bird quits the nest for the moments
she devotes to her scanty and hurried meal. The good
THE COCK.
If left entirely to herself, the hen would
seldom lay above twenty eggs in the same
nest, without attempting to hatch them : but
in proportion as she lays her eggs are removed ;
and she continues to lay, vainly hoping to in-
crease the number. In the wild state the hen
seldom lays above fifteen eggs ; but then her
provision is more difficultly obtained, and she
is perhaps sensible of the difficulty of main-
taining too numerous a family.
When the hen begins to sit, nothing can
exceed her perseverance and patience ; she
continues for some days immovable ; and
when forced away by the importunities of
hunger, she quickly returns. Sometimes,
also, her eggs become too hot for her to bear,
especially if she be furnished with too warm a
nest within doors, for then she is obliged to
leave them to cool a little : thus the warmth
of the nest only retards incubation, and often
puts the brood a day or two back in the shell.
While the hen sits she carefully turns her
eggs, and even removes them to different si-
tuations ; till at length, in about three weeks,
the young brood begin to give signs of a de-
sire to burst their confinement. When, by
the repeated efforts of their bill, which serves
like a pioneer on this occasion, they have
broke themselves a passage through the shell,
the hen still continues to sit till all are exclu-
ded. The strongest and best chickens gene-
rally are the first candidates for liberty ; the
weakest come behind, and some even die in
the shell. When all are produced, she then
leads them forth to provide for themselves-
Her affection and her pride seem then to al-
ter her very nature, and correct her imperfec-
tions. No longer voracious or cowardly, she
abstains from all food that her young can
swallow, and flies boldly at every creature
that she thinks is likely to do them mischief.
Whatever the invading animal be, she boldly
attacks him ; the horse, the hog, or the mas-
tiff. When marching at the head of her little
troop, she acts the commander, and has a va-
housewife's mode is the reverse of this. She makes a
nest, or box, of stone, brick, or wood, and fills it with
clean long straw. By these means, less heat is genera-
ted by the hen, and that which is produced quickly es-
capes in her occasional absences ; — the eggs are chilled
and addled, and frequent failures ensue in the expected
brood. To obviate this, the best mode is to put at the
bottom and sides of the boxes of the henhouse, a suffi-
cient quantity of fine, dry sand, or of coal or wood ashes,
lining them with a little well-broken dry grass, or
untwisted haybands, or moss, or bruised straw. Wood-
ashes have been found to be the best, as they produce the
effect of destroying the fleas by which poultry are so
much infested ; and that this will not be disagreeable to
them is evident from the propensity which they have to
roll in heaps of dust, or of ashes of any kind. An ex-
perienced rearer of poultry adopted the method above
described during a long course of years, and scarcely
ever met with a disappointment.
riety of notes to call her numerous train to
their food, or to warn them of approaching
danger. Upon one of these occasions I have
seen the whole brood run for security into the
thickest part of a hedge, when the hen herself
ventured boldly forth, and faced a fox that
came for plunder. With a good mastiff, how-
ever, we soon sent the invader back to his re-
treat ; but not before he had wounded the hen
in several places.
Ten or twelve chickens-art^ the greatest
number that a good hen can rear and clutch
at a time ; but as this bears no proportion to
the number of her eggs, schemes have been
imagined to clutch all the eggs of a hen, and
thus turn her produce to the greatest advan-
tage. By these contrivances it has been ob-
tained that a hen, that ordinarily produces but
twelve chickens in the year, is found to pro-
duce as many chickens as eggs, and conse-
qently often above two hundred. The con-
trivance I mean is the artificial method of
hatching chickens in stoves, as is practised at
Grand Cairo;1 or in a chemical elaboratory
properly graduated, as has been effected by
Mr Reaumur. At Grand Cairo they thus
produce six or seven thousand chickens at a
time ; where, as they are brought forth in theii
mild spring, which is warmer than our sum-
mer, the young ones thrive without clutching.
But it is otherwise in our colder and unequal
climate ; the little animal may, without much
difficulty, be hatched from the shell ; but they
almost all perish when excluded. To remedy
this, Reaumur has made use of a wollen hen,
as he calls it ; which was nothing more than
putting the young ones in a warm basket, and
clapping over them a thick-woollen canopy.
I should think a much better substitute might
be found ; and this from among the species
themselves. Capons may very easily be
taught to clutch a fresh brood of chickens
throughout the year ; so that when one little
colony is thus reared, another. may be brought
to succeed it. Nothing is more common than
to see capons thus employed ; and the manner
of teaching them is this: first the capon is
made very tame, so as to feed from one's
hand ; then, about evening, they pluck the
feathers off his breast, and rub the bare skin
with nettles ; they then put the chickens to
him, which presently run under his breast and
belly, and probably rubbing his bare skin
gently with their heads allay the stinging pain
which the nettles had just produced. This is
repeated for two or three nights, till the ani-
mal takes an affection to the chickens that
have thus given him relief, and continues to
give them the protection they seek for: per-
1 See a note on this subject in the chapter "On the
Incubation of Animals," vol. i-
64
baps also the querulous voice of the chickens
may be pleasant to him in misery, and invile
him to succour the distressed. He from that
time brings up a brood of chickens like a hen,
clutching them, feeding them, clucking, and
performing all the functions of the tenderest
parent. A capon once accustomed to this ser-
vice, will not give over ; but when one brood
is grown up he may have another nearly
hatched put under him, which he will treat
with the same tenderness he did the former.
The cock, from his salaciousness, is allowed
to be a short-lived animal ; but how long these
birds live, if left to themselves, is not yet well
ascertained by any historian. As they are
kept only for profit, and in a few years be-
come unfit for generation, there are few that,
from mere motives of curiosity, will make
this tedious experiment of maintaining a pro-
per number till they die. Aldrovandus hints
their age to be ten years ; and it is probable
that this may be its extent. They are sub-
ject to some disorders, which it is not our busi-
ness to describe ; and as for poisons, besides
mix vomica, which is fatal to most animals
except man, they are injured, as Linnasus
asserts, by elder-berries, of which they are
not a little fond.1
1 The varieties of our domestic cock and hen most
esteemed at present in Britain, are the following:
The common dunghill cock and hen, middle size, of
every colour, and variety
The game cock and hen, rather small in size, delicate
in limb, colour generally red or brown ; flesh white, and
superior to that of any other variety for richness and de-
licacy of flavour; eggs small, fine shaped, and extremely
delicate: the chickens are difficult to rear from their
pugnacity of disposition. The game cock has long been
a bird both of cruel and curious sport in this as well as
other countries; but the taste for these amusements, like
that for others suited to times of comparative leisure
and ignorance, is now happily on the decline in Britain.
The Dorking cock and hen, so called from the town
in Surrey of that name, is the largest variety; shape
handsome; body long and capacious; legs short, five
claws on each foot; eggs large, and lays abundantly;
colour of the flesh inclining to yellowish or ivory. Both
hens and cocks often made into capons.
The Poland cock and hen were originally imported
from Holland. The colour shining black, with white
tops on the head of both cock and hen ; head flat, sur-
mounted by a fleshy protuberance, out of which spring
the crown feathers, or top, white or black, with the fleshy
king David's crown (the celestial in heraldry), consisting
of four or five spikes ; their form plump and deep ; legs
short, feet with five claws ; lay abundantly ; are less in-
clined to set than any other breed; they fatten quickly,
and are more juicy and rich than the Dorking. On
the whole, this is one of the most useful varieties.
The Silver-spangled Polith Cock is a beautiful variety of this
species. Plate LIII. fig. 2.
The every-day cock and hen is a subvariety of the
above, of Dutch origin; they are of smaller size, and
said to be everlasting layers. Their tops are large, and
should be periodically clipped near the eyes; otherwise,
according to Mowbray, they will grow into the eyes of
tie fowls and render them very subject to alarm.
CHAP. 111.
OF THE TEACOCK.
THE Peacock, by the common people of
Italy, is said to have the plumage of an
angel, the voice of the devil, and the guts of
a thief. In fact, each of these qualities mark
pretty well the nature of this extraordinary
bird. When it appears with its tail expanded,
there is none of the feathered creation can vie
The bantam cock and hen is a small Indian breed,
valued chiefly for its grotesque figure and delicate flesh.
Mowbray mentions a subvariety, extremely small, and
as smooth-legged as a game fowl. From their size and
delicacy they are very convenient, as they may always
be used as substitutes for chickens, when small ones are
not otherwise to be had. They are also particularly
useful for sitting upon the eggs of partridges and phea-
sants, being good nurses as well as good layers. There
are two varieties of this breed, of which the more com-
mon is remarkable for having the legs and feet furnished
with feathers. The other, and more scarce, variety is
even smaller; and is most elegantly formed, as well as
most delicately limbed. There is a society of fanciers
of this breed, who rear them for prizes.
The Chittagong or Malay hen is an Indian breed, and
the largest variety of the species. They are in colour
striated, yellow, and dark brown ; long necked, serpent-
headed, and high upon the leg ; their flesh dark, coarse,
and chiefly adapted to soup. They are good layers ;
and being well fed produce large, substantial, and nutri.
live eggs: but these birds are too long-legged to b,e
steady sitters.
The Shack-bag, or duke of Leeds' breed, was formerly
in great repute, but is now nearly lost. It is sometimes
to be met with at Wokingham (Oakingham), in Berk-
shire, and is so large, and the flesh so white, firm, and
fine, as to afford a convenient substitute for the turkey.
The improved Spanish cock and hen is a cross between
the Dorking and Spanish breed, also to be found in and
around Wokingham. It is a large bird with black
plumage, white and delicate flesh, the largest eggs ot
any British variety, and well adapted for capons.
The common variety is easily procurable; but the
others must either be procured from those parts of the
country where they are usually bred, or from the poul-
terers and bird fanciers in large towns, and especially
in London. It should be a general rule to breed from
young stock ; a two-year-old cock, or stag, and
THE PEACOCK.
65
with it for beauty ; yet the horrid scream of
its voice serves to abate the pleasure we find
from viewing it ; and still more its insatiable
gluttony, and spirit of depredation, make it
one of the most noxious domestics that man
has taken under his protection.
Our first peacocks were brought from the
East Indies; and we are assured, that they
are still found in vast flocks, in a wild state,
in the islands of Java and Ceylon. So beau-
tiful a bird, and one esteemed such a delicacy
at the tables of the luxurious, could not be
permitted to continue long at liberty in its
distant retreats. So early as the days of Solo-
mon, we find in his navies, among the articles
imported from the east, apes and peacocks.
./Elian relates, that they were brought into
Greece from some barbarous country, and were
held in such high esteem among them, that a
male and female were valued at above thirty
pounds of our money. We are told also, that
when Alexander was in India, he found them
flying wild in vast numbers, on the banks of
the river Hyarotis, and was so struck with their
beauty, that he laid a severe fine and punish-
ment on all who should kill or disturb them.
Nor are we to be surprised at this, as the
Greeks were so much struck with the beauty
of this bird, when first brought among them,
that every person paid a fixed price for seeing
it ; and several people came to Athens, from
Lacedaemon and Thessaly, purely to satisfy
their curiosity.
in their second year. Pullets in their first year, if early
birds, will, indeed, probably lay as many eggs as ever
after; but the eggs are small, and such young hens are
unsteady sitters. Hens are in their prime at three years
of age, and decline after five, whence, generally, it is
not advantageous to keep them beyond that period, with
the exception of those of capital qualifications. Hens
with a large comb, OP which crow like the cock, are ge-
nerally deemed inferior. Yellow-legged fowls are often
of a tender constitution, and always inferior in the qua-
lity of their flesh, which is of a loose flabby texture, and
ordinary flavour. »
The health of fowls is observable in the fresh and
florid colour of the comb, and the brightness and dry-
ness of the eyes; the nostrils being freed from any dis-
charge, and the healthy gloss of the plumage. The most
useful cock is generally a bold, active, and savage bird,
iometimes cruel, and destructive in his fits of passion, if
not well watched, to his hens, and even to his offspring.
Hens above the common size of their respective varie-
ties are by no means preferable either as layers or set-
ters. The indications of old age are paleness of the
comb and gills, dullness of colour, and a sort of downy
stiffness in the feathers, and length and size of talons,
the scales upon the legs becoming large and prominent.
The number of hens to one cock should be from four
to six, the latter being the extreme number, with a view
of making the utmost advantage. Ten and even twelve
hens have been formerly allowed to one cock, but the
produce of eggs and chickens under such an arrange-
ment will seldom equal that to be obtained from the
smaller number of hens. Every one is aware that the
spring is the best season to commence breeding with
VOL. m
It was probably first introduced into the
West merely on account of its beauty; but
mankind, from contemplating its figure, soon
came to think of serving it up for a dif-
ferent entertainment. Aufidius Hurco stands
charged by Pliny with being the first who
fatted up the peacock for the feast of the lux-
urious. Whatever there may be of delicacy
in the flesh of a young peacock, it is certain
an old one is very indifferent eating ; never-
theless, there is no mention m«de-of choosing
the youngest; it is probable they were killed
indiscriminately, the beauty of the feathe'rs in
some measure stimulating the appetite. Hor-
tensius the orator, was the first who served
them up at an entertainment at Rome ; and
from that time they were considered as one of
the greatest ornaments of every feast. Whe-
ther the Roman method of cookery, which
was much higher than ours, might not have
rendered them more palatable than we find
them at present, I cannot tell ; but certain it
is, they talk of the peacock as being the first
of viands.
Its fame for delicacy, however, did not con-
tinue very long : for we find in the times of
Francis the First, that it was a custom to
serve up peacocks at the tables of the great,
with an intention not to be eaten, but only to
be seen. Their manner was to strip off the
skin ; and then preparing the body with the
warmest spices, they covered it up again in its
former skin;'v/ith all its plumage in full dis-
poultry, and in truth it scarcely matters how early, pre-
supposing the best food, accommodation, and attendance,
under which hens may be suffered to sit in January.
The conduct of the cock towards his hens is generally
of the kindest description, and sometimes, as in the
Polish breed, so remarkably so, as to be quite incredible
to those who have not witnessed it. It is not an un-
common occurrence, however, for the cock to take an
antipathy to some individual hen ; when it continues for
any length of time it is best to remove her, and supply
her place by another, taking care that the stranger be
not worried by the hens. Spare coops or houses will be
found useful on such occasions.
The change of a cock, from death or accident, is al-
ways attended with interruption and delay, as it may be
some considerable time before the hens will associate
kindly with their new partner; and further, a new cock
may prove dull and inactive from the change, however
good in nature. This frequently happens with cocks of
the superior breeds, purchased from the London dealers,
in whose coops they have been kept in such a high state
of temperature, that they are unable to endure the open
air of the country, unless in the summer season. Such
being removed in autumn, winter, or early in spring, if
immediately turned abroad with hens, are liable to be-
come aguish, torpid, and totally useless ; perhaps, in the
end, turning roupy or glandered. The only metho'd of
safety in this case is to keep such a cock in the house,
upon the best and most nourishing food, turning the
hens to him several times in the day, and permitting
him to be abroad an hour or so, the weather being fine,
until, in a few weeks, he shall be accustomed to the
air.
66
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
play, and no way injured by the preparation.
The bird thus prepared was often preserved
for many years without corrupting ; and it is
asserted of the peacock's flesh, that it keeps
longer unputrified than that of any other ani-
mal. To give a higher zest to these enter-
tainments, on weddings particularly, they
filled the bird's beak and throat with cotton
and camphire, which they set on fire, to amuse
and delight the company. I do not know that
the peacock is much used at our .entertain-
ments at present, except now and then at an
alderman's dinner, or common-council feast,
when our citizens resolve to be splendid ; and
even then it is never served with its cotton
and camphire.
Like other birds of the poultry kind the
peacock feeds upon corn, but its chief predi-
lection is for barley. But as it is a very
proud and fickle bird, there is scarcely any
food that it will not at times covet and pur-
sue. Insects and tender plants are often
eagerly sought at a time that it has a suffi-
ciency of its natural food provided more near-
ly. In the indulgence of these capricious
pursuits walls cannot easily confine it ; it strips
the tops of houses of their tiles or thatch, it
lays waste the labours of the gardener, roots
up his choicest seeds, and nips his favourite
flowers in .the bud. Thus its beauty but ill
recompenses for the mischief it occasions ; and
many of the more homely looking fowls are
very deservedly preferred before it.
Nor is the peacock less a debauchee in its
affections, than a glutton in its appetites. He
is still more salacious than even the cock ; and
though not. possessed of the same vigour, yet
burns with more immoderate desire. He re-
quires five females at least to attend him ; and
if there be not a sufficient number, he will
even run upon and tread the sitting hen. For
this reason, the peahen endeavours as much as
she can, to hide her nest from the male, as he
would otherwise disturb her sitting, and break
her eggs.
The peahen seldom lays above five or six
eggs in this climate before she sits. Aristotle
describes her as laying twelve ; and it is pro-
bable in her native climate she may be thus
prolific; for it is certain, that in the forests
where they breed naturally, they are numer-
ous beyond expression. This bird lives about
twenty years ; and riot till its third year has it
that beautiful variegated plumage that adorns
its tail.
"• In the kingdom of Cambaya," says Ta-
vernier, " near the city of Baroch, whole
flocks of them are seen in the fields. They
are very shy, however, and it is impossible to
come near them. They run off swifter than
the partridge ; and fade themselves in the
thickets, where it is impossible to find them.
They perch by night upon trees ; and the
fowler often approaches them at that season
with a kind of banner, on which a peacock is
painted to the life on either side. A lighted
torch is fixed on the top of this decoy ; and the
peacock when disturbed flies to what it takes
for another, and is thus caught in a noose pre-
pared for that purpose."
There are, varieties of this bird, some of
which are white, others crested : that which is
called the Peacock of Thibet is the most beau-
tiful of the feathered creation, containing in
its plumage all the most vivid colours, red,
blue, yellow, and green, disposed in an almost
artificial order, as if merely to please the eye
of the beholder.1
CHAP. IV.
TIIE TURKEY.
THE natal place of the cock and the peacock
is pretty well ascertained, but there are strong-
er doubts concerning the turkey ;2 some con-
tending that it has been brought into Europe
from the East Indies many centuries ago ;
while others assert that it is wholly unknown
in that part of the world, that it is a native oi
i The Japan Peacock (See Plate XVIII. fig. 5.) is
about the size of the crested peacock; but the bill is lar-
ger, "and ash-coloured ; the iris yellow, and round the eye
is red. On the top of the head is an upright crest four
inches long, and shaped somewhat like an ear of corn.
The colour is green mixed with blue.
The Chinese peacock (See Plate XVIII. fig. 3.) is
larger than the common peacock: the bill is black, but
from the nostrils to the tip of the upper mandible red:
the iris is yellow. The feathers on the crown of the
head are sufficiently long to form a crest of a dull brown
colour.
The Thibet peacock is about two feet and two inches
long. The bill is above an inch and a half long, and
cinereous ; the iris yellow ; the head, neck, and under
parts are ash-coloured, marked with blackish lines; the
wing-coverts, back, and rump are gray, with small white
dots: besides which, on the wing-coverts and back are
large round spots, of a fine blue, changing in different
lights to violet .and green gold.
The variety of White Peacocks is not very common,
and these birds always bring a high price.
* It is now indubitably ascertained that the Turkey
comes originally from America. See the following note.
THE TURKEY.
67
the - new continent, and that it was not
brought into Europe till the discovery of that
part of the world.
Those who contend for the latter opinion
very truly observe, that among all the descrip-
tions we have of eastern birds, that of the tur-
key is not to be found ; while on the contrary,
it is very well known in the new continent,
where it runs wild about the woods. It is said
by them to have been first seen in France in
the reign of Francis I. and in England in that
of Henry VIII. which is about the time when
Mexico was first conquered by Spain. On
the other hand it is asserted, that the turkey,
so far from being unknown in Europe before
that time, was known even to the ancients ;
and that .ffilian has given a pretty just de-
scription of it. They allege, that its very
name implies its having been brought from
some part of {he east ; and that it is found
among other dainties served up to the tables
of the great, before that time among ourselves.
But what they pretend to be the strongest
proof is, that though the wild turkey be so nu-
merous in America, yet the natives cannot
contrive to tame it ; and though hatched in
the ordinary manner, nothing can render it
domestic. In this diversity of opinions, per-
haps it is best to suspend assent till more
lights are thrown on the subject: however,
I am inclined to concur with the former
opinion.
With us,. when young, it is one of the
tenderest of all birds ; yet, in its wild state, it
is found in great plenty in the forests of Ca-
nada, that are covered with snow above three
parts of the year. In the natural woods they
are found much larger than in their state of
domestic captivity. They are much more
beautiful also, their feathers being of a dark
gray, bordered at the edges with a bright gold
colour.1 These the savages of the country
1 Prince Charles Lucian Bonaparte, in his American
Ornithology, has give a very full and interesting ac-
count of the wild turkey. We extract it here with
some abridgment.
The native country of the wild turkey extends from
the north-western territory of the United States to the
Isthmus of Panama, south of which it is not to be found,
notwithstanding the statements of authors, who have
mistaken the curassow for it. In Canada, and the now
densely peopled parts of the United States, wild turkeys
were formerly very abundant ; but, like, the Indian and
buffalo, they have been compelled to yield to the destruc-
tive ingenuity of the white settlers, often wantonly exer-
cised, and seek refuge in the remotest parts of the in-
terior. Although they relinquish their native soil with
ilow and reluctant steps, yet such is the rapidity with
which settlements are extended and condensed over the
surface of this country, that we may anticipate a day,
at no distant period, when the hunter will seek the wild
turkey in vain.
The wild turkeys do not confine themselves to any
particular food; they eat maize, all sorts of berries,
weave into cloaks to adorn their persons, and
fashion into fans and umbrellas, but never
once think of taking into keeping animals
that the woods furnish them with in sufficient
/
fruits, grasses, beetles; and even tadpoles, young frogs,
and lizards, are occasionally found in their crops ; but
where the pecan nut is plenty, they prefer that fruit to
any other nourishment ; their more general predilection
is, however, for the acorn, on which they rapidly fatten.
When an unusually profuse crop of acorns is produced
in a particular section of country, great jmmbers of tur-
keys are enticed from their ordinary haunts in the sur-
rounding districts. About the beginning of October,
while the mast still remains on the trees, they assemble
in flocks, and direct their course to the rich bottom
lands. At this season they are observed in great num-
bers on the Ohio and Mississippi. The time of this
irruption is known to the Indians by the name of the
turkey month.
The males, usually termed gobblers, associate in par-
ties, numbering from ten to a hundred, and seek their
food apart from the females; whilst the latter either
move about singly with their young, then nearly two-
thirds grown, or, in company with other females and
their families, form troops, sometimes consisting of
seventy or eighty individuals, all of whom are intent on
avoiding the old males, who, whenever opportunity
offers, attack and destroy the young, by repeated blows
on the skull. All parties, however, travel in the same
direction, and on foot, unless they are compelled to seek
their individual safety by flying from the hunter's dog,
or their march is impeded by a large river. Wheu
about to cross a river, they select the highest eminences,
that their flight may be the more certain; and here they
sometimes remain for a day or more, as if for the pur-
pose of consultation, or to be duly prepared for so hazard-
ous a voyage. During this time the males gobble obstre-
perously, and strut with extraordinary importance, as if
they would animate their companions, and inspire them
with the utmost degree of hardihood ; the females and
young also assume much of the pompous air of the
males, the former spreading their tails, and moving
silently around. At length the assembled multitude
mount to the tops of the highest trees, whence, at a
signal note from a leader, the whole together wing their
way towards the opposite shore. All the old and fat
ones cross without difficulty, even when the river ex-
ceeds a mile in width j but the young, meagre, and
weak, frequently fall short of the desired landing, and
are forced to swim for their lives; this they do dexter-
ously enough, spreading their tails for a support, closing
their wings to the body, stretching the neck forwards,
and striking out quickly and forcibly with their legs. If,
in thus endeavouring to regain the land, they approach
an elevated or inaccessible bank, their exertions are re-
mitted, they resign themselves to the stream for a short
time, in order to gain strength, and then, with one vio-
lent effort, escape from the water. But in this attempt
all are not successful ; some of the weaker, as they can-
not rise sufficiently high in air to clear the bank, fall
again and again into the water, and thus miserably
perish. Immediately after the turkeys have succeeded
in crossing a river, they for some time ramble about
without any apparent unanimity of purpose, and a great
many are destroyed by the hunters, although they are
then least valuable.
When the turkeys have arrived in their land of abun-
dance, they disperse in small flocks, composed of indi-
viduals of all sexes and ages intermingled, who devour
all the mast as they advance: this occurs about the
middle of November. It has been observed, that, after
these long journeys, the turkeys become so familiar as
to venture on the plantations, and even approach so new
68
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
abundance. Savage man seems to find a de-
light in precarious possession. A great part
of the pleasures of the chase lies in the un-
the farmhouses as to enter the stables and corn-cribs, in
search of food ; in this way they pass the autumn, and
part of the winter. During this season great numbers
are killed by the inhabitants, who preserve them in a
frozen state, in order to transport them to a distant
market.
Early in March they begin to pair ; and, for a short
time previous, the females separate from, and shun their
mates, though the latter pertinaciously follow them, ut-
tering their gobbling note. The sexes roost apart, but
at no great distance, so that, when the female utters a
call, every male within hearing responds, rolling note
after note, in the most rapid succession ; not as when
spreading the tail and strutting near the hen, but in a
voice resembling that of the tame turkey, when he hears
any unusual or frequently repeated noise. Where the
turkeys are numerous, the woods from one end to the
other, sometimes for hundreds of miles, resound with
this remarkable voice of their wooing, uttered respon-
sively from their roosting places. This is continued for
about an hour; and, on the rising of the sun, they
silently descend from their perches, and the males begin
to strut, for the purpose of winning the admiration of
their mates.
If the call be given from the ground, the males in
the vicinity fly towards the individual, and, whether
they perceive her or not, erect and spread their tails,
throw the head backwards, distend the comb and wattles,
strut pompously, and rustle their wings and body fea-
thers, at the same moment ejecting a puff of air from
the lungs. Whilst thus occupied, they occasionally halt
to look out for the female, and then resume their strut-
ting and puffing, moving with as much rapidity as the
nature of their gait will admit. During this ceremoni-
ous approach, the males often encounter each other, and
desperate battles ensue, when the conflict is only termi-
nated by the flight or death of the vanquished.
This pugnacious disposition is not to be regarded as
accidental, but as resulting from a wise and excellent
law of nature, who always studies the good of the spe-
cies, without regard to the individuals. Did not females
prefer the most perfect of their species, and were not
the favours of beauty most willingly dispensed to the
victorious, feebleness and degeneracy would soon mark
the animal creation; but, in consequence of this general
rule, the various races of animals are propagated by
those individuals who are not only most to be admired
for external appearance, but most to be valued for their
intrinsic spirit and energy.
When the object of his pursuit is discovered, if the
female be more than one year old, she also struts, and
even gobbles, evincing much desire ; she turns proudly
round the strutting male, and suddenly opening her
wings, throws herself towards him, as if to terminate
his procrastination, and, laying herself on the earth, re-
ceives his dilatory caresses. But should he meet a
young hen, his strut becomes different, and his move-
ments are violently rapid ; sometimes rising in air, he
takes a short circular flight, and on alighting drags his
wings for a distance of eight or ten paces, running
at full speed, occasionally approaching the timorous
hen, and pressing her, until she yields to his solicita-
tions. Thus are they mated for the season, though
the male does not confine himself exclusively to one
female, nor does he hesitate to bestow his attentions
and endearments on several, whenever an opportunity
offers.
One or more females, thus associated, follow their
%voiirite, and roost in his immediate neighbourhood, if |
to abridge himself in any accidental success
that may attend his fatigues. The hunting
the turkey, therefore, makes one of his prin-
certainty of the pursuit, and he is unwilling cipal diversions; as its flesh contributes chiefly
not on the same tree, until they begin to lay, when they
change their mode of life, in order to save their eggs,
which the male uniformly breaks if in his power, that
the female may not be withdrawn from the gratification
of his desires. At this time the females shun the males
during the greater part of the day ; the latter become
clumsy and careless, meet each other peacefully, and so
entirely cease to gobble, that the hens are obliged to
court their advances, calling loudly and almost continu-
ally for them. The female may then be observed caress-
ing the male, and imitating his peculiar gestures, in
order to excite his amorousness.
The cocks, even when on the roost, sometimes strut
and gobble, but more generally merely elevate the tail,
and utter the puff, on which the tail and other fea-
thers suddenly subside. On light or moonshining
nights, near the termination of the breeding season,
they repeat this action, at intervals of a few minutes,
for several hours together, without rising from their
perches.
The sexes then separate ; the males, being much ema-
ciated, cease entirely to gobble, retire and conceal them-
selves by prostrate trees, in secluded parts of the forest,
or in the almost impenetrable privacy of a cane-brake.
Rather than leave their hiding places, they suffer them-
selves to be approached within a short distance, when
they seek safety in their speed of foot ; at this season,
however, they are of no value to the hunter, being
meagre and covered with ticks. By thus retiring, using
very little exercise, and feeding on peculiar grasses, they
recover their flesh and strength, and when this object
is attained, again congregate, and recommence their
rambles.
About the middle of April, when the weather is dry,
the female selects a proper place in which to deposit lu-r
eggs, secured from the encroachment of water, and, as
far as possible, concealed from the watchful eye of the
crow: this crafty bird espies the hen going to her nest,
and having discovered the precious deposit, waits for
the absence of the parent, and removes every one of the
eggs from the spot, that he may devour them at leisure.
The nest is placed on the ground, either on a dry ridge,
in the fallen top of a dead leafy tree, under a thicket of
sumach or briars, or by the side of a log: it is of a very
simple structure, being composed of a few dried leaves.
In this receptacle the eggs are deposited, sometimes to
the number of twenty, but more usually from nine to
fifteen ; they are whitish, spotted with reddish brown,
like those of the domestic bird.
The female always approaches her nest with great
caution, varying her course so as rarely to reach it
twice by the same route ; and, on leaving her charge,
she is very careful to cover the whole with dry leaves,
with which she conceals it so artfully, as to make it ex-
tremely difficult, even for one who has watched her
movements, to indicate the exact spot: hence few nests
are found, and these are. generally discovered by fortuit-
ously starting the female from them, or by the appear-
ance of broken shells, scattered around by some cunning
lynx, fox, or crow. When laying or sitting, the turkey
hen is not readily driven from her post by the approach
of apparent danger; but, if an enemy appears, she
crouches as low as possible, and suffers it to pass. A
circumstance related by Mr Audubon will show how
much intelligence they display on such occasions: hav-
ing discovered a sitting hen, he remarked that, by as-
suming a careless air, whistling, or talking to himself,
he was permitted to pass within five or six feet of her ;
but, if he advanced cautiously, she would not suflerhim
THE TURKEY.
69
to the support of his family. When he has
discovered the place of their retreat, which,
in general, is near fields of nettles, or where
there is plenty of any kind of grain, he takes
to come within twenty paces, but ran off twenty or
thirty yards with her tail expanded, when, assuming a
stately gait, she paused on every step, occasionally ut-
tering a chuck. They seldom abandon their nests on
account of being discovered by man, but should a snake,
or any other animal, suck one of the eggs, the parent
leaves them altogether. If the eggs be removed, she
again seeks the male and recommences laying, though
otherwise she lays but one nest of eggs during the sea-
son. Several turkey hens sometimes associate, perhaps
for mutual safety, deposit their eggs in the same nest,
and rear their broods together. Mr Audubon once
found three females sitting on forty-two eggs. In such
cases, the nest is constantly guarded by one of the par-
ties, so that no crow, raven, nor even polecat, dares ap-
proach it.
When the process of incubation is ended, and the
mother is about to retire from the nest with her young
brood, she shakes herself violently, picks and adjusts
the feathers about the belly, and assumes a different
aspect ; her eyes are alternately inclined obliquely up-
wards and sidewise; she stretches forth her neck, in
every direction, to discover birds of prey or other ene-
mies ; her wings are partially spread, and she softly
clucks to keep her tender offspring close to her side.
They proceed slowly, and, as the hatching generally
occurs in the afternoon, they sometimes return to pass
the first night in the nest. While very young the
mother leads them to elevated dry places, as if aware
that humidity, during the first few days of their life,
would be very dangerous to them, they having then
no other protection than a delicate, soft, hairy down.
In very rainy seasons wild turkeys are scarce, be-
cause, when completely wetted, the young rarely sur-
vive.
At the expiration of about two weeks, the young
leave the ground on which they had previously reposed
at night under the female, and follow her to some low,
large branch of a tree, where they nestle under the
broadly curved wings of their vigilant and fostering
parent. The time then approaches in which they seek
the open ground or prairie land during the day, in search
of strawberries, and subsequently of dewberries, black-
berries, and grasshoppers; thus securing a plentiful food,
and enjoying the influence of the genial sun. They fre-
quently dust themselves in shallow cavities of the soil,
or on anthills, in order to clean off the loose skin of their
growing feathers, and rid themselves of ticks and other
vermin. •
The young turkeys now grow rapidly, and in the
month of August, when several broods flock together,
and are led by their mothers to the forest, they are stout
and quite able to secure themselves from the unexpected
attacks of wolves, foxes, lynxes, and even cougars, by
rising quickly from the ground, aided by their strong
legs, and reaching with ease the upper limbs of the
tallest tree. Amongst the numerous enemies of the
wild turkey, the most dreaded are the large diurnal and
nocturnal birds of prey, and the lynx {Felix rufa,) who
sucks their eggs, and is extremely expert at seizing both
parent and young; he follows them for some distance,
in order to ascertain their course, and then, making a
rapid circular movement, places himself in ambush be-
fore them, and waits until, by a single bound, he can
fasten on his victim.
These birds are guardians of each other, and the first
who sees a hawk or eagle gives a note of alarm, on
which all within hearing lie close to tiie ground. As
they usually roost in docks, perched on the naked branches
his dog with him, which is trained to the
sport, (a faithful rough creature, supposed to
be originally reclaimed from the wolf,) and
he sends him into the midst of the flock. The
of trees, they are easily discovered by the large owls,
and, when attacked by these prowling birds, often escape
by a somewhat remarkable manuosuvre. The owl sails
around the spot to select his prey ; but, notwithstanding;
the almost inaudible action of his pinions, the quick ear
of one of the slumberers perceives the danger, which is
immediately announced to the whole party by a chuck ;
thus alarmed, they rise on their legs, and watch the mo-
tions of the owl, who, darting like an arrow, would in-
evitably secure the individual at which he aimed, did not
the latter suddenly drop his head,' squat, and spread his
tail over his back; the owl then glances over without
inflicting any injury, at the very instant that the turkey
suffers himself to fall headlong towards the earth, where
he is secure from his dreaded enemy.
On hearing the slightest noise, wild turkeys conceal
themselves in the grass, or among shrubs, and thus fre-
quently escape the hunter, or the sharp-sighted birds of
prey. The sportsman is unable to find them during the
day, unless he has a dog trained for the purpose j it is
necessary to shoot them at a very short distance, since,
when only wounded, they quickly disappear, and, acce-
lerating their motion by a sort of half flight, run with
so much speed, that the swiftest hunter cannot overtake
them. The traveller, driving rapidly down the decli-
vity of one of the Alleghanies, may sometimes see
several of them before him, that evince no urgent desire
to get out of the road; but, on alighting, in hopes of
shooting them, he soon finds that all pursuit is vain.
The most common mode of taking turkeys is by
means of pens, constructed with logs, covered in at top,
and with a passage in the earth under one side of it,
just large enough to admit an individual when stooping.
The ground chosen for this purpose is generally sloping,
and the passage is cut on the lower side, widening out-
wards. These preparations being completed, Indian
corn is strewed for some distance around the pen, to en-
tice the flock, which, picking up the grain, is gradually
led towards the passage, and thence into the enclosure,
where a sufficient quantity of corn is spread to occupy
the leader until the greater part of the turkeys have en-
tered. When they raise their heads and discover that
they are prisoners, all their exertions to escape are di-
rected upwards and against the sides of the pen, not
having sagacity enough to stoop sufficiently low to pass
out by the way they entered, aud thus they become an
easy prey, not only to the experienced hunter, but even
to the boys on the frontier settlements.
In proportion to the abundance or scarcity of food,
and its good or bad quality, they are small or large,
meagre or fat, and of an excellent or indifferent flavour:
in general, however, their flesh is more delicate, more
succulent, and better tasted than that of the tame tur-
key: they are in the bes.t order late in the autumn, or
in the beginning of winter. The Indians value this •
food so highly, when roasted, that they call it " the
white man's dish," and present it to strangers as the
best they can offer. They make much use of their tails
as fans; the women weave their feathers with much art
on a loose web made of the rind of the birch tree, ar-
ranging them so as to keep the down on the inside, and
exhibit the brilliant surface to the eye.
Among the benefits conferred by America on the rest
of the world, the gift of this noble bird should occupy a
distinguished place, as unquestionably one of the most
useful of the feathered tribe, being capable of minister-
ing largely to the sustenance and comfort of the human
race. Though the turkey is surpassed in external beauty
by the magnificent ^eacocls, its flesh is greatly superior
70
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
turkeys no sooner perceive their enemy, than
they set off running at full speed, and with
such swiftness, that they leave the dog far be-
hind them ; he follows, nevertheless, and sen-
sible they must soon be tired, as they cannot
go full speed for any length of time, he at
last forces them to take shelter in a tree,
where they sit quite spent and fatigued till
the hunter comes up, and, with a long pole,
knocks them down, one after the other.
This manner of suffering themselves to be
destroyed, argues no great instinct in the ani-
mal ; and, indeed, in their captive state they
do not appear to be possessed of much. They
seem a stupid, vain, querulous tribe, apt
enough to quarrel among themselves, yet
without any weapons to do each other an in-
jury. Every body knows the strange anti-
pathy the turkey-cock has to a red colour;
how he bristles, and, with his peculiar gob-
bling sound, flies to attack it. But there is
another method of increasing the animosity of
these birds against each other, which is often
practised by boys, when they have a mind for
a battle. This is no more than to smear over
the head of one of the turkeys with dirt, and
the rest run to attack it with all the speed
of impotent animosity ; nay, two of them,
thus disguised, will fight each other till
in excellence, standing almost unrivalled for delicacy of
texture and agreeable sapidity. On this account it has
been eagerly sought by almost all nations, and has been
naturalized with astonishing rapidity throughout the
world, almost universally constituting a favourite ban-
quet dish.
The turkey, belonging originally to the American con-
tinent, was necessarily unknown to the ancients, who, in
this as in a thousand other instances, were deficient in our
most common and essential articles of food. Readers
unacquainted with the fact may well be surprised to
learn, that, although the introduction of this bird into
Europe is comparatively modern, its origin has already
been lost sight of, and that eminent naturalists of the
last century, who lived so much nearer to the time of
its first appearance, have expressed great uncertainty
concerning its native country. Thus Belon, Aldrovan-
di, Gessner, Ray, &c. thought that it came originally
from Africa and the East Indies," and endeavoured to
recognise it in some of the domestic birds of the an-
cients. Belon and Aldrovandi supposed it to have been
mentioned by ancient authors, but they mistook for it
the Numida ineleagris of Liune, which is actually an
African bird, now almost naturalized in America, even
in a wild state, so that it would be apparently more rea-
sonable for America to regard that bird as indigenous,
than that the old continent should lay claim to the tur-
key. In so soon losing sight of the origin of this bird,
we see a strong exemplification of the ungrateful dis-
position of man, who can durably treasure up the me-
mory of wrongs and injuries, but fails to recollect the
greatest benefits he has received. It would be loss of
time to combat the arguments advanced by authors, who
have deceived themselves in attempting to deprive
America of her just title to this bird, since they have
been fully refuted by the eloquent Buflbn ; but we may
here introduce a sketch of its progress from America
throughout Europe.
they are almost suffocated with fatigue and
anger.
But though so furious among themselves,
they are weak and cowardly against other
animals, though far less powerful than they.
The cock often makes the turkey keep at a
distance ; and they seldom venture to attack
him but with united force, when they rathei
oppress him by their weight, than annoy him
by their arms. There is no animal, how con-
temptible soever, that will venture boldly to
face the turkey-cock, that he will not fly from.
On the contrary, with the insolence of a bully,
he pursues any thing that seems to fear him,
particularly lap-dogs arid children, against
both which he seems to have a peculiar aver-
sion. On such occasions, after he has made
them scamper, he returns to his female train,
displays his plumage around, struts about the
yard, and gobbles out a note of self-approba-
tion.
The female seems of a milder, gentler dis-
position. Rather querulous than bold, she
hunts about in quest of grain, and pursuit of
insects, being particularly delighted with the
eggs of ants and caterpillars. She lays
eighteen or twenty eggs, larger than those of
a hen, whitish, but marked with spots resem-
bling the freckles of the face. Her young are
The first unquestionable description of the turkey was
written by Oviedo, in 1525, in the summary of his His-
tory of the Indies. This bird was sent from Mexico to
Spain early in the sixteenth century; from Spain it was
introduced into England in 1524. Turkeys were taken
to France in the reign of Francis the First, whence
they spread into Germany,. Italy, &c. ; a few, however,
had been carried to the latter country by the Spaniards,
some years previously. The first turkey eaten in France
appears to have been served up at the wedding banquet
of Charles the Ninth, in the year 1570. Since that
period they have been bred with so much care, that, in
England, as we read in ancient chronicles, their rapid
increase rendered them attainable at country feasts,
where they were a much esteemed dish as early as 1585.
Europeans conveyed them to all their colonies, and thus
were they gradually introduced into Asia, Africa, and
even Occatiica.
The French distinguished them by the name ofCoqel
Poule d' Inde, (cock and hen from India,) because they
were natives of the West Indies. Subsequently, for the
sake of brevity, they called them Dindon, an appellation
which is yet retained. The English name is still worse,
as it conveys the false idea that the turkey originated in
Asia, owing to the ridiculous habit, formerly prevalent,
of calling every foreign object by the name of Turk,
Indian, &c.
Those who have not observed the turkey in its wild
state, have only seen its deteriorated progeny, which
are greatly inferior in size and beauty. So far from
having gained by the care of man, and the abundance of
food accessible in its state of domestication, this bird has
degenerated not only in Europe and Asia, but, what is
certainly extraordinary, even in its native country.
The domesticated turkey of America, accustomed as it
is to roam in the woods and open fields almost without
restraint, is in no respect superior to that of the Euro-
pean poultry yard.
THE PHEASANT.
71
extremely tender at first, and must be carefully
fed with curd chopped with dock-leaves ; but
as they grow older, they become more hardy,
and follow the mother to considerable distan-
ces, in pursuit of insect food, which they pre-
fer to any other. On these occasions, how-
ever, the female, though so large, and, as it
would seem, so powerful a bird, gives them
but very little protection against the attacks of
any rapacious animal that comes in her way.
She rather warns her young to shift for them-
selves, than prepares to defend them. " I
have heard," says the Abbe la Pluche, " a
turkey-hen, when at the head of her brood,
send forth the most hideous screams, without
knowing as yet the cause : however, her
young, immediately when the warning was
given, skulked under the bushes, the grass, or
whatever else offered for shelter, or protection.
They even stretched themselves at their full
length upon the ground, and continued lying
as motionless as if they were dead. In the
meantime the mother, with her eyes directed
upwards, continued her cries and screaming
as before. Upon looking up to where she
seemed to gaze, 1 discovered a black spot just
under the clouds, but was unable, at first, to
determine what it was ; however, it soon ap-
peared to be a bird of prey, though, at first,
at too great a distance to be distinguished. I
have seen one of these animals continue in this
violent agitated state, and her whole brood
pinned down as it were to .the ground for
four hours together ; whilst their formidable
foe has taken his circuits, has mounted, and
hovered directly over their heads : at last,
upon disappearing, the parent began to change
her note, and sent forth another cry, which,
in an instant, gave life to the whole trembling-
tribe, and they all flocked round her with ex-
pressions of pleasure, as if conscious of their
happy escape from danger."
When once grown up, turkeys are very
hardy birds, and feed themselves at very little
expense to the farmer. Those of Norfolk are
said to be the largest of this kingdom, weigh-
ing from twenty to thirty pounds. There are
places, however, in the East Indies, where
they are known only in their domestic state,
in which they grow to the weight of sixty
pounds.1
1 A great variety of gallinaceous birds, which might
easily be added to our domestic poultry, are peculiar to
America. Such are especially the Curassows. In
many parts of South America these birds have long been
reclaimed; and it is really surprising, considering the
extreme familiarity of their manners, and the facility
with which they appear to pass from a state of nature to
the lameness of domestic fowls, that they have not yet
been introduced to the poultry-yards of Europe. That,
with proper treatment, they would speedily become ha-
bituated to the climate we have no reason to doubt; on
CHAP. V.
THE PHEASANT.
IT would surprise a sportsman to be told,
that the pheasant which he finds wild in the
the contrary, numerous examples have shown that they
thrive well even in its northern parts; and M. Tem-
minck informs us that they have once at least been tho-
roughly acclimated in Holland, where they were as pro-
lific, in their domesticated state, as any of our common
poultry. The establishment, however, in which this
had been effected, was broken up by the civil commo-
tions which followed in the train of the French revolu-
tion, and all the pains which had been bestowed upon the
education of these birds were lost to the world by their
sudden and complete dispersion.
The plumage of the Crested Curassow (See Plate
XVIII. fig. 12.) is of a deep black with a slight gloss of
green upon the head, crest, neck, back, wings anil upper
part of the tail ; and dull white beneath and on the lower
tail coverts. Its crest is from two to three inches in
length, and occupies the whole upper surface of the head:
it is curled and velvety in its appearance, and capable of
being raised or depressed at will, in accordance with the
temporary feelings by which the bird is actuated. The
eyes are surrounded by a naked skin, which extends into
the cere and there assumes a bright yellow colour. In
size. the bird is almost equal to a turkey. This species
is a native of Mexico, Guiana, and Brasil, and probably
extends itself over a large portion of the southern divi-
sion of the American continent. In the woods of
Guiana it appears to be so extremely common that M.
Sonnini regards it as the most certain resource of a
hungry traveller, whose stock of provisions is exhausted,
and who has consequently to trust to his gun for furnish-
ing him with a fresh supply. They congregate together
in numerous flocks, and appear to be under little or no
uneasiness from the intrusion of men into their haunts.
Even when a considerable number of them have been
shot, the rest remain quietly perched upon the trees,
apparently unconscious of the havoc that has been com-
mitted among them. This conduct is by no means the
result of stupidity, but proceeds rather from the natural
tameness and unsuspiciousness of their character. Those,
however, which frequent the neighbourhood of inhabited
places are said to be much wilder and more mistrustful,
being kept constantly on the alert to avoid the pursuit
of the hunters, who destroy them in great numbers.
They build their nests on the trees, forming them ex-
ternally of branches interlaced with the stalks of herba-
ceous plants, and lining them internally with leaves.
They generally lay but onoe a-year, during the rainy
season ; the number of their eggs being, according to
Sonnini, five or six, and to D'Azara as many as eight.
72
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
woods, in the remotest parts of the kingdom,
and in forests which can scarcely be said to
have an owner, is a foreign bird, and was
at first artificially propagated amongst us.
They were brought into Europe from the
banks of the Phasis, a river of Colchis, in
Asia ]V|inor; and from whence they still re-
tain their name.
Next to the peacock, they are the most
beautiful of birds, as well for the vivid colour
of their plumes, as for their happy mixtures
and variety. It is far beyond the power' of
the pencil to draw any thing so glossy, so
bright, or points so finely blended into each
other. We are told that when Crcesus, king
of Lydia, was seated on his throne, adorned
with royal magnificence, and all the barbar-
ous pomp of eastern splendour, he asked Solon
if he had ever beheld any thing so fine ? The
Greek philosopher, no way moved by the
objects before him, or taking a pride in his
native simplicity, replied, that after having
seen the beautiful plumage of the pheasant,
he could be astonished at no other finery.
In fact, nothing can satisfy the eye with a
greater variety and richness of ornament than
this beautiful creature. The iris of the eye is
yellow ; and the eyes themselves are sur-
They are nearly as large as those of a turkey, but are
white like a hen's, and with a thicker shell.
The Galeated Gurassow (see Plate XVIII. fig. 1.)
is in size about equal to the crested curassow. Its head
and neck are covered with short black velvety feathers ;
and all the rest of the plumage, with the exception of
the white abdomen, and under tail-coverts, is of a bril-
liant black, exhibiting, in certain positions, a slight
tinge of green. The tail-feathers are tipped with white.
The legs are red; the claws yellow; the iris brown.
The bill is of a bright red ; and the protuberance by
which it is surmounted (which is rounded in the young
birds, and pear-shaped with the narrow end directed
forwards in adult males), is of a livid slate-colour. This
remarkable projection is more than two inches in length
when fully developed ; it is hard and bony externally,
and internally cellular, the cells communicating with
the cavity of the mouth. It is not visible until after the
first moulting, when it begins to make its appearance in
the form of a small tubercle, and attains a much larger
size in the male than in the female. In other respects
there is little difference between the sexes; and the
young are only distinguished by a browner tinge. The
windpipe descends for a considerable distance in front of
the sternum, immediately beneath the skin, and makes
no less than three distinct convolutions before passing
into the cavity of the chest. These birds are natives
of Mexico, and live in large bands, perching upon the
trees but more commonly building their nests upon the
ground. The Red Curassmo is figured, PI. 55, fig. 4.
The Rasor-billed Curassow's most distinctive charac-
ter consists in the form of the horny process that sur-
mounts its bill, which rises above the level of the head,
is flattened on the sides, runs anteriorly into a sharp
edge, spreads out at the base where it is continuous
with the bill, and is, like it, of a bright red. The whole
of the upper parts, the fore part of the neck, the breast,
and the legs, are black, with a violet or purple gloss.
The tail is of the same colour for the greater part of its
length, but terminates in a white band ; and the extreme
rounded with a scarlet colour, sprinkled with
small specks of black. On the forepart of
the head there are blackish feathers mixed
with a shining purple. The top of the head
and the upper part of the neck are tinged
with a darkish green, that shines like silk.
In some, the top of the head is of a shining
blue, and the head itself, as well as the upper
part of the neck, appears sometimes blue and
sometimes green, as it is differently placed to
the eye of the spectator. The feathers of the
breast, the shoulders, the middle of the back,
and the sides under the wings, have a black-
ish ground, with edges tinged of an exquisite
colour, which appears sometimes black and
sometimes purple, according to the different
lights it is placed in ; under the purple there
is a transverse streak of gold colour. The
tail, from the middle feathers to the root, is
about eighteen inches long ; the legs, the feet,
and the toes, are of the colour of horn. There
are black spurs on the legs, shorter than those
of a cock ; there is a membrane that connects
two of the toes together ; and the male is
much more beautiful than the female.
This bird, though so beautiful to the eye,
is not less delicate when served up to the
table. Its flesh is considered as the greatest
part of the belly is of a chestnut brown. Above the base
of the bill, which is covered with short velvety feathers
concealing the nostrils, is a tuft of straight feathers ; the
iris is dusky, and the naked legs are reddish brown. In
the j'oung bird the horny process of the bill is smaller,
and less intensely red. It has not yet been attempted
to naturalize the present species in this quarter of the
globe ; but its flesh, according to Marcgrave, in what-
ever mode prepared, but especially when roasted, yields
to that of no bird either of Europe or America. He
adds that it is domesticated and cultivated by the gentry
of Brazil, on account both of its dignity and elegance.
The Guan is of the same family with the curassows,
and closely allied to those birds both in structure and
general appearance. It is nevertheless distinguished by
several remarkable peculiarities. The bill is much
shallower, its transverse diameter exceeding its depth,
somewhat elongated, and naked at the base ; the nostrils
are placed about the middle of the bill, and are not at
all concealed by the advancement of the feathers of the
head ; a naked space surrounds the eyes ; the skin of
the throat is destitute of feathers and capable of con-
siderable distension ; the claws are strong, curved, and
pointed ; and the hinder toe is articulated on the same
level with the anterior ones, and consequently applies
its whole length to the surface of the ground. As in
the other genera of the family, the bill is convex above
and curved at the point ; the legs are of moderate length
and without spurs ; the wings short, with the sixth
quill-feather longest ; and the tail flat, rounded at the
extremity, and formed of twelve broad feathers. From
its long domestication in the poultry yards of South
America, it is subject to very extensive variations. It
is the largest bird of the genus that has yet been dis-
covered, measuring when fully grown about thirty inches
in total length, of which the tail constitutes thirteen or
fourteen. The whole upper surface of the body is of a
dusky black or bronze colour with a gloss of green, which
becomes olive in certain positions with regard to light
— Supplement to the English edition of Cuvier.
THE PHEASANT.
73
dainty ; and when the old physicians spoke
of the wholesomeness of any viands, they
made their comparison with the flesh of the
pheasant. However, notwithstanding all these
perfections to tempt the curiosity or the palate,
the pheasant has multiplied in its wild state ;
and, as if disdaining the protection of man,
has left him, to take shelter in the thickest
woods and the remotest forests. All others of
the domestic kind, the cock, the turkey, or
the pintado, when once reclaimed, have still
continued in their domestic state, and per-
severed in the habits and appetites of willing
slavery. But the pheasant, though taken
from its native warm retreats, where the woods
supply variety of food, and the warm sun suits
its tender constitution, has still continued its
attachment to native freedom ; atid now wild
among us, makes the most envied ornament
of our parks and forests, where he feeds upon
acorns and berries, and the scanty produce of
our chilling climate.
This spirit of independence seems to attend
the pheasant even in captivity. In the woods,
the hen pheasant lays from eighteen to twenty
eggs in a season ; but in a domestic state she
seldom lays above ten. In the same manner
when wild she hatches and leads up her brood
with patience, vigilance, and courage ; but
when kept tame, she never sits well ; so that
a hen is generally her substitute upon such
such occasions ; and as for leading her young
to their food, she is utterly ignorant of where
it is to be found : and the young birds starve,
if left solely to her protection. The pheasant
therefore, on every account, seems better left,
at large in the woods, than reclaimed to pris-
tine captivity. Its fecundity when wild is
sufficient to stock the forest ; its beautiful
plumage adorns it ; and its flesh retains a
higher flavour from its unlimited freedom.1
1 The pheasants (phasianidai) form one of the most
interesting groups of the feathered race, whatever be the
point of view in which we contemplate them. Their
beauty of form and the splendour of their hues, have
attracted universal admiration. Many dazzle by the
metallic lustre of their plumage, which gleams with
green, and blue, and gold. Such, for example, is the
case with that gorgeous bird the Impeyan pheasant
(Lophopkorus Impeyanus) of the Himalayan moun-
tains, which it has several times been attempted to bring
alive into this country, but hitherto without success.
Others, as the golden pheasant of China (phasianus
piclus), delight us with the richness and multiplicity of
their tints, which contrast admirably witu each other.
However, it has been the aim of late to
take these birds once more from the woods,
and to keep them in places fitted for their
reception. Like all others of the poultry
The common pheasant, now naturalized over the greater
portion of Europe, is exceedingly beautiful, but it is far
surpassed by many of its congeners, of which we may
mention that elegant Chinese species the Phasianus
Reevesii (P. venesatus, Temm.), of which a fine speci-
men adorns the Gardens of the Zootngieal Society. It
is to be observed, however, that this beauty of plumage
is confined to the males j the females are universally
attired in a sober dress of brown, often indeed exquisitely
pencilled with spots and zigzag lines, but totally desti-
tute of the brilliant hues which glisten in their mates.
Independently, however, of the beauty of the pheasant
tribe, there is another point of interest which cannct be
overlooked — we allude to their value as it respects the
table. The flesh of all the gallinaceous birds affords to
man a wholesome and nutritious food, and that of the
pheasants is deservedly in high estimation. Hence the
introduction and naturalization of the common pheasant
in western Europe is a positive good, and it is desirable
therefore to add other species to the list of those which
are acclimated with us.
The pheasants (family Phasianida-) are all natives
of Asia. The common pheasant was originally brought
from the river Phasis by the Greeks in some of their
earlier expeditions ; that of the Argonauts under Jason
has the popular credit of having introduced it. How-
ever this may be, the name given to the bird by the
Greeks (Qanxttf, in Latin Phasianus) of which all our
modern European names for it are merely corruptions,
points to the banks of the Phasis as the place from which
it was derived ; and to the present day the pheasants of
Mingrelia (the Colchis of the ancients) are celebrated
for their beauty and size. Extreme brilliancy of plum-
age is in general the characteristic of birds dwelling in
torrid regions beneath a glowing sky ; such is not the
case as it regards the most gorgeous and beautiful of the
pheasant tribe. On the contrary, the high mountains
of the Himalaya, bordering upon the limits of perpetual
snow, are tenanted by the most splendid of this family.
The Impeyan pheasant is an example in point : adapted
for regions where the temperature is at the most only
moderate, and often at a low degree, this noble bird soon
dies when taken from its alpine home into the burning
lowlands of India; and hence arises one of the difficul-
ties in the way of our obtaining living specimens in
Europe. But besides the Impeyan pheasant, the Hima-
laya chain of mountains presents us with a group or
genus of this family, containing a very limited number
of species remarkable both for their great beauty and
their characters, which indicate an affinity to the tur.
keys, between which group and that of the genuine
pheasants, they constitute an intermediate link. The
genus to which we allude is that termed Tragopan>
(Cuvier,) of which three species only are known. They
are easily distinguishable from all the rest of the
Phasianidce (at least as far as regards the male birds)
by the presence of large throat-wattles, or naked carun-
culated flaps of skin, (resembling those of the turkey),
which extend from the naked cheeks, spread over the
throat, and proceed down each side of the neck, while
from behind each eye rises a soft fleshy horn. The
whole of these appendages are capable of being con.
tracted and dilated at pleasure, or at least in accordance
with the emotions of anger, fear, &c., as we see in the
male turkey : the tints of the horns and wattles are
rich purple, mingled with scarlet, and are most proba-
bly changeable from one hue to another. The tail is
broad and rounded, and the plumage is dotted with
74.
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
kind, they have nu great sagacity, and suffer
themselves easily to be taken. At night
they roost upon the highest trees of the wood;
and by day they come down into the lower
brakes and bushes, where' their food is chiefly
found. They generally make a kind of flap-
ping noise when they are with the females;
and this often apprises the sportsman 01 their
retreats. At otlier times he tracks them in
the snow, and frequently takes them in springs.
But of all birds they are shot most easily, as
they always make a whirring noise when
they rise, by which they alarm the gunner,
and being a large mark, and flying very slow,
there is scarcely any missing them.
round spots of white on a brown or red ground, the
effect of which is very pleasing.
Of the three species that are known at present, two
have been but recently introduced to science, nor, in-
deed, is our acquaintance with the one first described
of distant date. The first species is the horned phea-
sant of Nepal (Tragopan satyrus), (see Plate XVIII.
fig. 24. ; for Argus Pheasant, see fig. 8. ; and Diard's
Pheasant, fig. 10.) It was first described and figured
by Edwards, in the third volume of his " Natural His-
tory of Birds," p. 116, — partly from a drawing sent
from India to Dr Mead, and partly from a head of the
bird preserved in spirits which accompanied the draw-
ing. Edwards's third volume is dated 1750, and his
plate was etched in 1749, as appears by the date in-
scribed in the corner. The alliance of this bird to the
turkey was not unobserved by this writer, who in his
catalogue places it among that group, while in his ac-
count of it he observes that it is, " for shape of body
and proportion of parts, pretty much like a turkey, and
may be ranged with fowls of the poultry kind." Dr
Latham, in his " General History of Birds," states that
these birds, though by no means common, "are not
unfrequent in drawings done in India; and are par-
ticularly well figured in those of Mr Middleton and
Lady Impey." * * * " In the drawings of Sir
J. Austruther it is said to inhabit the snowy regions
of Thibet." Its size is between that of a fowl and
turkey. It is beautifully figured in Gould's " Century
of Birds."
The second species is from Thibet and the Chinese
borders, and was first described and figured in the
" Indian Zoology," by Mr Gray, under the title of
Tragopan Temminckii. Of this species, as rare as
it is beautiful, a living specimen, presented by J. R.
Reeves, Esq., is now in the Gardens of the Zoological
Society, and constitutes, as far as we are aware, the
first example of one of the present group having reached
our shores alive and in health. It was procured in
China.
The third species is from the northern range of the
Himalaya, and was first illustrated in Mr Gould's
" Century," under the name of Tragopan Hastingsii }
the figures are those of an adult and young male, and
adult female. In size this species rather exceeds the
Tragopan satyrus, its total length being twenty-three
inches. The head of the adult male is covered with
a pendent crest of feathers, which, together with the
ear-coverts and the throat, are black ; the neck and
shoulders are rich maroon ; the chest, fine orange red ;
the naked skin round the eyes is scarlet; the wattles
and horns, purple, tinted here and there with scarlet.
The upper parts exhibit a mixture of zigzag lines, and
marks of dark and light brown, forming a ground on
which are scattered numerous distinct spots of white.
Ah . what avail his glossy, varying dyes,
His purpled crest, and scarlet circled eyes.
'Jhe vivid fjreen his shining plumes unfold,
His painted wings, and breast that flames with go!d.
POPK.
When these birds are taken young into
keeping, they become as familiar as chickens;
and when they are designed for breeding,
they are put together in a yard, five hens to
a cock ; for this bird, like all of the poultry
kind, is very salacious. In her natural state
the female makes her nest of dry grass and
leaves ; the same must be laid for her in the
pheasantry, and she herself will sometimes
The feathers of the under surface are maroon, bordered
with black, and having each a large central spot of white.
The young male is less brilliant, and the wattles are
but little developed.
The plumage of the female consists of an uniform
brown, mottled, barred, and dashed irregularly with
dark brown and dull fawn colour; the cheeks are clothed
with feathers, and the head is slightly crested: there
are neither horns nor pendent wattles.
Of the habits and manners of these noble birds in a
state of nature little is accurately known. The strength
of their legs (tarsi), which are clothed with large scales,
and in the males armed with a short sharp spur, to-
gether with the rounded form of the wings, indicate
them to be chiefly terrestrial. The bill is strong and
large, but wants that spoonlike form of the tip of the
upper mandible, so conspicuous in the Impeyan phea-
sant (Lophophorus Imptyanus), by which it is adapted
for the scooping up of bulbous roots, on which that
bird is known to feed. Most probably the diet of the
present group consists, as in others of the rasorial order,
of grains, roots, and the larvae of ants and various
insects.
Could the horned pheasants, or the refulgent Im-
peyan pheasant, be imported in suflicient numbers into
our island (and we trust this will be soon accomplished),
there is little doubt but that they might, with proper
management, become naturalized. There is nothing to
fear with regard to cold. They are the natives of a
cold or temperate region ; — they verge upon the line of
perpetual snow ; — so that the wooded hills of our por-
tion of the globe would not be very uncongenial to their
constitution. Nor would there be much difficulty in
providing them with suitable food. Grain forms the
staple diet of all the gallinaceous tribe ; — hence the
peacock of India, the guinea-fowl of Africa, the com-
mon pheasant of Asia, the turkey of America, have
equally become naturalized and have multiplied in our
western regions — to say nothing of the common fowl,
the origin of which is from India, but which, from time
immemorial, has been reclaimed or domesticated, and
has long since spread in this condition over the greatest
portion of the globe. If to our poultry-yard could be
added the horned pheasants, so closely allied to them in
form, habits, and general manners, they would constitute a
most important acquisition, and produce a full reward for the
trouble bestowed in their naturalization.— Penny Magazine.
THE RINGED PHEASANT (Phasianus Torqualus) inhabits
the forests of China, and takes its name from the annular
band round its neck. PI. 54, fig. 2.
THE SILVER PHEASANT (Phasianus •nycthemerus). This
is one of the most powerful of the pheasants, and is match
in battle for a game-cock. It is a native of the northern
parts of China, where it is frequently kept in a tame stato.
PI. 54, fig. 4.
THE PINTADO.
75
properly dispose them. If she refuses to
hatch her eggs, then a common hen must be
got to supply her place, which task she will
perform with perseverance and success. The
young ones are very difficult to be reared ;
and they must be supplied with ants' eggs,
which is the food the old one leads them to
gather when wild in the woods. To make
these go the farther, they are chopped up
with curds, or other meat; and the young
ones are to be fed with great exactness, both
as to the quantity and the time of their sup-
ply. This food is sometimes also to be
varied, and woodlice, earwigs, and other in-
sects, are to make a variety. The place
where they are reared must be kept extremely
clean; their water must be changed twice or
thrice a day ; they must not be exposed till
the dew is off the ground in the morning ;
and they should always be taken in before
sunset. When they become adult, they very
well can shift for themselves, but they are
particularly fond of oats and barley.
In order to increase the breed, and make
it still more valuable, Longolius teaches us a
method that appears very peculiar. The
pheasant is a very bold bird, when /first
brought into the yard among other poultry,
not sparing the peacock, nor even such young
cocks and hens as it can master ; but after a
time it will live tamely among them, and
will at last be brought to couple with a com-
mon hen. The breed thus produced take
much stronger after the pheasant than the
hen ; and in a few successions, if they be left
to breed with a cock pheasant, (for the mix-
lure is not barren,) there will be produced a
species more tame, stronger, and more pro-
lific; so that he adds, that it is strange why
most of our pheasantries are not stocked with
birds produced in this manner.
The pheasant, when full grown, seems to
feed indifferently upon every thing that offers.
It is said by a French writer, that one of the
king's sportsmen shooting at a parcel of crows,
that were gathered round a dead carcase, to
his great surprise-, upon coming up, found that
he had killed as many pheasants as crows.1
It is even asserted by some, that such is the
carnivorous disposition of this bird, that when
several of them are put together in the same
yard, if one of them happens to fall sick, or
seems to be pining, that all the rest will fall
upon, kill, and devour it. Such is the lan-
guage of books ; those who have frequent op.
portunities of examining the manners of the
bird itself, know what credit ought to be given
to such an account.
1 When pheasants are observed pecking at carrion, it
is not the carrion they are eating, but the maggots upon
it, of which they are fond.
Of the pheasant, as of all other domestic
fowl, there are many varieties. There are
white pheasants, crested pheasants, spotted
pheasants ; but of all others, the golden phea
sant of China is the most beautiful. It is a
doubt whether the peacock itself can bear the
comparison. However, the natives of China
would not have us consider it as their most
beautiful bird, though covered all over with
eyes, resembling in miniature those of the
peacock. By their accounts^-it 4s far exceed-
ed by the fongwang, an imaginary bird, of
which they give a most fantastic description.
It is thus that the people of every country,
though possessed of the greatest advantages,
have still others that they would persuade
strangers they enjoy, which have existence
only in the imagination.
CHAP. VI.
THE I'lNTADO, OR GUINEA-HEN.
THIS is a very remarkable bird, and in
some measure unites the characteristics of the
pheasant and the turkey. It has the fine de-
licate shape of the one, and the bare head of
the other. To be more particular, it is about
the size of a common hen, but as it is support-
ed on longer legs, it looks much larger. It
has a round back, with a tail turned down-
wards like a partridge. The head is covered
with a kind of casque ; and the whole plum-
age is black or dark gray, speckled with
white spots. It has wattles under the bill,
which do not proceed from (he lower chap as
in cocks, but from the upper, which gives it a
very peculiar air ; while its restless gait and
odd chuckling sound distinguish it sufficiently
from all other birds whatever.
It is well known all over Europe, and even
better than with us, as the nations that border
on the Mediterranean probably had it before
us from those parts of Africa which lay near-
est. Accordingly we find it in different coun-
tries called by different names, from the place
whence they had it. They are by some called
the Barbary-lien; by others, the Tamis bird,
and by others, the bird of Numidia. * We
1 The pintado is the bird formerly known to the an-
V'6
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
liave given it the name of that part of Africa
from whence, probably, it was first brought.
In many parts of their native country, they
are seen in vast flocks together, feeding their
young, and leading them in quest of food.
All their habits are like those of the poultry
kind, and they agree in every other respect,
except that the male and female are so much
alike, that they can hardly be distinguished
asunder. The only difference lies in the wat-
tles described above ; which in the cock are of
a bluish cast; in the hen they are more in-
clining to a red. Their eggs, like their bodies,
are speckled ; in our climate, they lay but five
or six in a season ; but they are far more pro-
line in their sultry regions at home. They
are kept among us rather for show than use,
as their flesh is not much esteemed, and as
they give a good deal of trouble in rearing.
CHAP. VII.
THE BUSTARD.
THE Bustard is the largest land bird that is
a native of Britain. It was once much more
numerous than at present; but the increased
cultivation of the country, and the extreme de-
licacy of its flesh, has greatly thinned the spe-
cies ; so that a time may come when it may
be doubted whether ever so large a bird was
bred among us. It is probable that long be-
fore this the bustard would have been extir-
pated, but for its peculiar manner of feeding.
Had it continued to seek shelter among our
woods, in proportion as they were cut down,
it must have been destroyed. If in the forest,
the fowler might approach it without being
seen ; and the bird, from its size, would be too
great a mark to be easily missed. But it in-
habits only the open and extensive plain,
where its food lies in abundance, and where
every invader may be seen at a distance.
The bustard is much larger than the tur-
key, the male generally weighing from twenty,
five to twenty-seven pounds. The neck is a
foot long, and the legs a foot and a half. The
wings are not proportionable to the rest of the
body, being but four feet from the tip of the
one to the other ; for which reason the bird
flies with great difficulty. The head and
neck of the male are ash-coloured ; the back
is barred transversely with black, bright, and
rust colour. The greater quill-feathers are
black; the belly white ; and the tail, which
cients under the name of Meleagris or Numidian Fowl.
Its flesh was much esteemed by the Romans. Among
the varieties of this bird are the Crested Pintado (See
Plate XVIII. fig. 11.) and the Mitred Pintado.
consists of twenty feathers, is marked with
broad black bars.
It would seem odd, as was hinted before,
how so large a land bird as this could find
shelter in so cultivated a country as England ;
but the wonder will cease when we find it
only in the most open countries, where there
is scarce any approaching it without being
discovered. They are frequently seen in
flocks of fifty or more, in the extensive downs
of Salisbury Plain, in the heaths of Sussex
and Cambridgeshire, the Dorsetshire uplands,
and so on as far as East Lothian in Scotland1
In those extensive plains, where there are no
woods to screen the sportsman, nor hedges to
creep along, the bustards enjoy an indolent se-
curity. Their food is composed of the berries
that grow among the heath, and the large
earth-worms that appear in great quantities on
the downs before sun-rising in summer. It is
in vain that the fowler creeps forward to ap-
proach them, they have always sentinels
placed at proper eminences, which are ever
on the watch, and warn the flock of the small-
est appearance of danger. All therefore that
is left the sportsman, is the comfortless view
of their distant security. He may wish ; but
they are in safety.
It sometimes happens that these birds,
though they are seldom shot by the gun, are
often run down by the greyhounds. As they
are voracious and greedy, they often sacrifice
their safety to their appetite, and feed them-
selves so very fat, that they are unable to fly
without great preparation. When the grey-
hound, therefore, comes within a certain dis-
tance, the bustard runs off flapping its wings,
and endeavouring to gather air enough under
them to rise ; in the meantime, the enemy ap-
proaches nearer and nearer, till it is too late
for the bird even to think of obtaining safety
by flight ; for just at the rise there is always
time lost, and of this the bird is sensible ; it
continues, therefore, on the foot, until it has
got a sufficient way before the dog for flight,
or until it is taken.
As there are few places where they can at
once find proper food and security, so they
generally continue near their old haunts, sel-
dom wandering above twenty or thirty miles
from home. As their food is replete with
moisture, it enables them to live upon these
dry plains, where there are scarcely any
springs of water, a long time without drink-
ing. Besides this, Nature has given the
males an admirable magazine for their secu-
rity against thirst. This is a pouch, the en-
trance of which lies immediately under the
1 The Great Bustard is now extremely scarce in Bri-
tain. Indeed, Selby is inclined to believe that the breed
in this country is extinct.
THE GROUSE.
i /
tongue, and capable of holding near seven
quarts of water.1 This is probably filled upon
proper occasions, to supply the hen when sit-
ting, or the young before they can fly.
Like all other birds of the poultry kind,
they change their mates at the season of incu-
bation, which is about the latter end of sum-
mer. They separate in pairs, if there be a
sufficiency of females for the males : but when
this happens to be otherwise, the males fight
until one of them falls. In France, they often
find some of those victims to gallantry dead in
the fields, and no doubt are not displeased at
the occasion.
They make their nests upon the ground,
only just scraping a hole in the earth,
and sometimes lining it with a little long
grass or straw. There they lay two eggs
only, almost of the size of a goose egg, of a
pale olive brown, marked with spots of a
darker colour. They hatch in about five
weeks, and the young ones run about as soon
as they are out of the shell.
The bustards assemble in flocks in the
month of October, and keep together till April.
In winter, as their food becomes more scarce,
they support themselves indiscriminately, by
feeding on moles, mice, and even little birds,
when they can seize them. For want of
other food, they are contented to live upon
turnip-leaves, and such like succulent ve-
getables. In some parts of Switzerland, they
are found frozen in the fields in severe wea-
1 The reservoir is capable of holding only about half
the above quantity.
The female bustard is not much more than half the
size of the male. The top of her head is of a deep or-
ange, and the rest of the head brown. Her colours we
not so bright as those of the male, and she wants the
tuft on each side of the head. She also wants the reser
voir.
There are eleven species of this bird; viz. the Arabian
Passurrage, Ruffed, Indian, White-eared, White-chin-
ned, Thick-kneed, Chilese, Great and Little Bustard.
The two latter are natives of our island.
The Little Bustard (See Plate XVIII. fig. 34.)—
Length seventeen inches. The female is smaller, and
has not the black collar on the neck; in other. respects
she nearly resembles the male. This bird is very un-
common in this country but is common in France, where
it is taken in nets, like the partridge. It is a very shy
and cunning bird ; if disturbed, it flies two or three
hundred paces, not far from the ground, and then runs
away much faster than one. can follow on foot. The fe-
male lays her eggs in June, to the number of three or
four, of a glossy green colour : as soon as the young are
hatched, she leads them about, as the hen does her
rhickens. They begin to fly about the middle of Au-
gust. Both this and the great bustard are excellent
eating, and, we should imagine, would well repay the
trouble of domestication; indeed, it seems surprising
that we should suffer these fine birds to run wild, and be
in danger of total extinction, which, if properly cul-
tivated, might afford as excellent a repast as our own
domestic poultry, or even as the turkey, for which we
arc indebted to distant countries.
ther ; but when taken to a warm place, they
again recover. They usually live fifteen
years, and are incapable of being propa-
gated in a domestic state, as they probably
want that food which best agrees with their
appetite.
CHAP.
THE GROUSE, AND ITS AFFINITIES.2
TKB cock of the wood, the black cock, the
grouse, and the ptarmigan — these are all birds
2 The high latitudes of North America produce nu-
merous species of grouse, most of which are peculiar to
that continent ; two or three of these are also found in
the parallel latitudes of Europe: while, on the other
hand, there are in Europe several species peculiar to our
portion of the globe, and of these one at least is very
limited in the extent of its habitat. Thus the lagopus
saliceti, or willow-grouse, (see Plate XVIII. fig. 17.)
which inhabits the fur-countries from the fiftieth to the
seventieth parallels of latitude, is also abundant in Scan-
dinavia, Kamtschatka, Greenland and Iceland. The te-
truo rupestris, or rock-grouse, which abounds in Melville
Island and the Barren Grounds, is common in Sweden
and Norway: while on the contrary the black grouse
(tetrao tetriai) is peculiar to Europe, as is also the caper-
cailzie (tetrao urogallus) : and the red grouse (lagopus
Scoticws) is even more circumscribed, being exclusively
a native of the British islands.
We shall proceed to offer a few observations respec-
tively on the two groups into which the tribe of Euro-
pean grouse naturally divide themselves: these we may
characterize us forest-grouse, comprehended in the genus
tetrao, and as moorland or ptarmigan grouse, compre-
hended in the genus lagopus. It is in the genus tetrao
that the largest of the tribe are found ; but this genus is
by no means so numerous in species as that of lagopus.
The pine and birch forests which clothe the mountains
and hills of the colder latitudes are their abode ; they
seldom visit the open country, but prefer the densest re-
cesses of the wood, where they perch with ease upon
the branches. Shy, recluse, and wary, they retire from
the presence of the intruder, and seek refuge in the deep
wooded glens which intervene between the mountains,
where vast, morasses teem with a luxuriant growth of
willow, alder, birch, and trees of a similar nature.
Hence it requires much address and caution to approach
within range of gun-shot. Their food consists of the
tender shoots of pines, the seeds of plants, the berries of
various species ol vaccinium and arlutw, the buds of
the birch and alder, leaves and grain. In their habits
they are polygamous. As the breeding season draws on,
the male birds choose each for themselves a certain ter-
ritory, from which the possessor drives every intruding
rival. Desperate combats are then continually taking
place, the weaker or less fortunate being obliged to quit
the precincts of the station ; and it not unfrequently
happens that the contest terminates only with the deatii
of the defeated. Secure in his temporary dominion, the
proud victor raises a call of invitation morning and even-
ing, which resounds through the wood, and brings his
bevy of mates to the selected spot. The nest is very
simply constructed, consisting of dried grasses, and
placed upon the ground, sheltered among the herbage.
The genus tetrao is characterized, among other points,
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
of a similar nature, and chiefly found in heathy
mountains and piny forests, at a distance from
mankind. They might once indeed have been
common enough all over England, when a
great part of the country was covered with
heath; but at present their numbers are thin-
ned ; the two first of this kind are utterly un-
known in the south, and have taken refuge in
the northern parts of Scotland, where the ex-
tensive heaths afford them security, and the
forest shelter.
The cock of the wood is sometimes of the
size of a turkey, and often weighs near four-
teen pounds; the black cock, of which the
male is all over black, though the female is of
the colour of a partridge, is about the size of
a hen, and, like the former, is only found with
us in the highlands of Scotland ; ' the grouse
by a peculiarity in the structure of the toes, which de-
serves especial attention. The tarsi are covered with
liairlike feathers, but the toes are bare, having their
edges strongly pectinated, or fringed with an array of
rough prominences; for this remarkable fact it is diffi-
cult to assign a reason perfectly satisfactory to inquirers;
our own opinion is, that it is a provision for enabling the
birds to grasp securely the smooth branches of the trees
on which they perch, but more especially when they are
covered with frozen snow, or a coat of glassy ice, which
in the forests of the north is a common winter occur-
rence.
In their flight the forest grouse are rapid for short dis-
tances, but the motion of their wings is accompanied by
a whirring noise, like that of the pheasant. The scar-
let-fringed skin above the eye, so peculiar an ornament
in the grouse-tribe, they possess in great perfection ; the
beak is stout, short, and convex ; the nostrils are hidden
beneath a tuft of close small feathers, enveloping the
base of the upper mandible.
Two species of this genus are indigenous in the Bri-
tish islands ; — one is the black grouse, common in the
pine woods of Scotland, and of the northern counties of
England, and elsewhere ; — the other, we regret to say, is
no longer a sojourner among us, — it is the capercailzie
or cock of the wood S?e ike following note.
1 The cock of the woods, which was once plentiful in
Scotland, where it was called, the capercailzie, is now no
longer to be found there. This bird is by far the most
magnificent of the tribe to which it belongs, and must
have been a truly worthy tenant of those splendid prime-
val forests which once overspread our country. The
male is nearly three feet in length, and attains a weight
of about fifteen pounds; black, brown, green, arid white,
are his predominating colours ; and from the hook of his
bill, the strength of his limbs, and majesty of deport-
ment, he might rather be supposed to be a bird of prey
is about half as larga again as a partridge,
and its colour much like that of a wood-cock,
but redder; the ptarmigan is still somewhat
less, and is of a pale brown or ash colour.
than even the chief of the grouse family of gallium.
The numbers of the capercailzie naturally decreased in
Scotland with the woods that gave them shelter, and it
is now about sixty years since the last native individual
of the species ever seen in the country was shot in the
neighbourhood of Inverness. They are now most plen-
tiful in the forests of Northern Europe, and some parts
of Northern Asia, where they feed on the young shoots
and cones of the pine, the catkins of the birch, and ber-
ries of the juniper which form the underwood. They
are exceedingly shy, and in Germany, where they do
not abound so much as in. Norway and Sweden, he is
considered an excellent hunter who has in a whole life-
time killed thirty. It is indeed only at the period of
incubation, when the male bird comes from his retire-
ment, and calls the females around him, that he is easily
approachable. Nevertheless, in Sweden they are some-
times domesticated in aviaries, and feed tamely from
the hand, and will even breed in confinement, though
it is remarked that in this state they still retain so
much of their natural wildness as to fly at and peck
strangers.
Nilsson, a Norwegian naturalist, used to hunt the
capercailzie in autumn, in company with a cocker dog
called Brunette, by whose assistance he would flush them
from the ground, and cause them to perch in the trees.
" Here," he says, " as Brunette had the eye of an eagle
and the foot of an antelope, she was not long in follow-
ing them. Sometimes, however, those birds were in
the pines in the first instance; but as my dog was pos-
sessed of an extraordinarily fine sense of smelling, she
would often wind, or, in other words, scent them from a
long distance. When she found the capercailzie, she
would station herself under the tree where they were
sitting, and, by keeping up an incessant barking, direct
my steps towards the spot. I now advanced with silence
and caution ; and as it frequently happened that the at-
tention of the bird was much taken up with observing
the dog, I was enabled to approach until it was within
the range of my rifle, or even of my common gun. In
the forest, the capercailzie does not always present an
easy mark ; for, dipping down from the pines nearly
to the ground, as is frequently the case, they are often
almost out of distance before one can properly take aim."
Towards the commencement and during the continu-
ance of winter, the capercailzies are generally in packs ;
these, which are usually of cocks (the hens keeping
apart), do not separate until the approach of spring.
These packs, which are sometimes said to contain fifty
or a hundred birds, usually hold to the sides of the nu-
merous -lakes and morasses with which the northern
forests abound ; and to stalk the same in the winter-
time, with a good rifle, is no ignoble amusement.
Among other expedients resorted to in the northern
forests for the destruction of the capercailzie, is the fol-
lowingr^During the autumnal months, after flushing
and dispersing the brood, people place themselves, in
ambush, and imitate the cry of the old or young birds,
as circumstances may require. By thus attracting them
to the spa, they are often enabled to shoot the whole
brood in succession. The manner in which this is prac-
tised may be better understood from what Mr Grierl
says on the subject: —
"After the brood has been dispersed, and you see the
growth they have acquired, the dogs are to be bound up,
and a hut formed precisely on the spot where the birds
were driven from, in which you place yourself to call ;
and you adapt your call according to the greater or less
size of your young birds. When they are as large us
THE GROUSE.
79
They are all distinguishable from other birds
of the poultry kind by a naked skin of a scar-
let colour, above the eyes, in the place and of
the figure of eye-brows.
the hen, you ought not to begin to call until an hour
after they have been flushed ; should you wish to take
them alive, the common net is placed round him who
calls. Towards the quarter the hen flies, there are sel-
dom to be found any of the young birds, for she tries
by her cackling to draw the dogs after her, and from her
young ones. As long as you wish to shoot, you must
not go out of your hut to collect the birds you have shot.
When the hen answers the call, or lows like a cow, she
has either got a young one with her, or the calling is in-
correct; or else she has been frightened, and will not
then quit her place. A young hen answers more
readily to the call than an old one."
Mr Lloyd, in his amusing work, the Field Sports of
(he North of Europe, describes a still more remarkable
mode of hunting the capercailzie — namely, by torchlight
— which he says is chiefly practised in the southern pro-
vinces of Sweden. " In Smaland and Ostergothland,"
Bays he, "it is effected in the following manner: — To-
wards nightfall, people watch the last flight of the caper-
cailzie before they go to roost. The direction they have
taken into the forest is then carefully marked, by means
of a prostrate tree, or by one which is felled especially
for the purpose. After dark, two men start in pursuit of
the birds ; one of them is provided with a gun, the other
with a long pole, to either end of which a flambeau is
attached. The man with the flambeau now goes in ad-
rance, the other remaining at the prostrate tree, to keep
it and the two lights in an exact line with each other ;
by this curious contrivance they cannot well go astray
in the forest. Thus they proceed, occasionally halting,
and taking a fresh mark, until they come near to the
spot where they may have reason to suppose the birds are
roosting. They now carefully examine the trees; and
when they discover the objects of their pursuit, which
are said stupidly to remain gazing at the fire blazing be-
neath, they shoot them at their leisure. Should there
be several capercailzies in the same tree, however, it is
always necessary to shoot those on the lower branches in
the first instance ; for unless one of these birds falls on
its companions, it is said the rest will never move, and,
in consequence, the whole of them may be readily
cilled."
An attempt is now in the course of being made to re-
store to the pine forests of Aberdeenshire a bird which
once formed the object of a stately sport among our na-
tional nobility, and adorned the grandest of their feasts.
In the year 1828, a male and female were imported for
this purpose from Sweden by the earl of Fife, but as the
hen died before landing, the experiment was on that oc-
casion frustrated. Another pair was brought over in
1829, and placed in a proper aviary at Mar Lodge,
where an incubation took place, but without producing
a live bird. Another incubation of the same hen in
1830 was equally unsuccessful, and it was not till 1831,
and till particular pains had been taken for the preserva-
tion and proper hatchjng of the eggs, by the seclusion of
the female, that a brood was obtained. According to
the latest intelligence from the scene of this experi-
ment, it is designed, as soon as a few healthy broods
have been reared in confinement, to liberate a few in the
old pine woods of Braemar, and thus eventually to stock
with the finest of feathered game the noblest of Scottish
forests.
Inferior though it be to the capercailzie, there still
remains in Scotland a very. fine species of grouse — the
black-grouse or Hack-cock. This bird, though not larger
than the common hen, weighs nearly four pounds; its
length Js abcut one foot ten inches, breadth two feet nine.
It seems to be something extraordinary,
that all the larger wild animals of every spe-
cies choose the darkest and the inmost recesses
of the woods for their residence, while the
The bill is blacx ; the eyes dark blue ; below each eye
there is a spot of a dark white colour, and above, a large
one, of a bright scarlet, which extends almost to the top
of the head ; the general colour of the plumage is a
deep black, richly glossed with blue on the neck and
rump ; the lesser wing-coverts are dusky brown ; the
greater are white, which extends to the ridge of the
wing, forming a spot of that colour on the shoulder,
when the wing is closed: the quills are brown, the lower
parts and tips of the secondaries are white, forming a
bar of white across the wing; there is likewise a spot o(
white on the bastard wing; the feathers of the tail are
almost square at the ends, and, when spread out, form a
curve on each side ; the under tail coverts are of a pure
white; the legs and thighs are of a dark brown colour,
mottled with white ; the toes are toothed on the edges,
like those of the former species. In some of our speci-
mens the nostrils are thickly covered with feathers,
whilst in others they are quite bare, probably owing to
the different ages of the birds. These birds, like the
former, are found chiefly in high and woody situations in
the northern parts of our island ; they are common in
Russia, Siberia, and other northern countries: they feed
on various kinds of berries and other fruits, the produce
of wild and mountainous places. In summer the.y fre-
quently come down from their lofty situations, for the
sake of feeding upon corn. They do not pair; but, on
the return of spring, the males assemble in great num-
bers, at their accustomed resorts, on the tops of high
and heathy mountains, when the contest for superiority
commences, and continues with great bitterness till the
vanquished are put to flight. The victors, being left in
possession of the field, place themselves on an eminence,
clap their wings, and with loud cries give- notice to their
females, who immediately resort to the spot. It is said,
that each cock has two or three hens, which seem parti-
cularly attached to him. The female is about one-third
less than the male, and differs from him considerably in
colour; her tail is likewise much less forked. She makes
an artless nest on the ground, where she lays six or eight
eggs of a yellowish colour, with freckles and spots of a
rusty brown. The young cocks at first resemble the
mother, and do not acquire their male garb till towards
the end of autumn, when the plumage gradually changes
to a deeper colour, and assumes that of a bluish black,
which it afterwards retains.
The Red Grouse, or Lluirfowl. — The weight of the
male is about nineteen, and of the female fifteen ounces.
The bill is black; and at the base of the lower mandi-
ble there is on each side a white spot. Each eye is
arched with a large, naked, scarlet spot. The throat is
red. The plumage of the upper part of the body is
mottled with dusky red and black. The breast and belly
are purplish, crossed with small dusky lines. The
heathy and mountainous parts of the northern counties
of England are in genera! well stocked with red grouse.
so
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
smaller kinds come more into the open arid
cultivated parts, where there is more food and
more danger. It is thus with the birds I am
describing : while the cock of the wood i
These birds are likewise very common in Wales, and
the highlands of Scotland ; but they have not yet bee
observed in any of the countries of the continent. In
winter they are usually found in flocks of sometime
forty or fifty in number, which are termed, by sports-
men, packs, and become remarkably shy and wild.
They keep near the summits of the heathy hills, seldom
descending to the lower grounds ; here they feed on the
mountain-berries, and on the tender tops of the heath.
They pair in spring ; and the females lay from six to
ten eggs, in a rude nest formed on the ground. The
young brood (which during the first year are called
poults) follow the hen till the approach of winter, when
they unite with several others into packs. Red grouse
have been known to breed in confinement, in the mena-
gerie of the late Duchess Dowager of Portland. This
was, in some measure, effected by her grace causing
fresh pots of heath to be placed in the menagerie almost
every day. The flesh, as in all others of this tribe, is an
excellent food ; but it soon corrupts. To prevent this,
the bird should be drawn immediately after they are
shot.
White Grouse, or Ptarmigan. — This bird is nearly
the same size as the red grouse. Its bill is black ; the
upper parts of its body are ol a pale brown or ash-colour,
mottled with small dusky spots and bars ; the bars on
the head and neck are somewhat broader, and are mixed
with white ; the under parts are white, as are also the
wings, excepting the shafts of the quills, which are
black. This is its summer dress, which in winter is
changed to a pure white, excepting that in the male
there is a black line between the bill and the eye. The
tail consists of sixteen feathers; the two middle ones
are ash-coloured in summer, and white in winter; the
next two are slightly marked with white near the ends;
the rest are wholly black: the upper tail coverts are
long, and almost cover the tail. The white grouse is
fond of lofty situations, where it braves the severest
cold. It is found in most of the northern parts of
Europe, even as far as Greenland ; in this country it is
only to. be met with on the summits of some of our
highest hills, chiefly in the highlands of Scotland, in the
Hebrides and Orkneys, and sometimes, but rarely, on
the lofty hills of Cumberland and Wales. Buffon,
speaking of this bird, says, that it avoids the solar heat,
and prefers the biting frost on the tops of mountains ;
for as the snow melts on the sides of mountains, it con-
stantly ascends, till it gains the summit, where it forms
holes and burrows in the snow. They pair at the same
time as the red grouse. The female lays eight or ten
eggs, which are white, spotted with brown : she makes
no nest, but deposits them on the ground. In winter
they fly in flocks ; and are so little accustomed to the
sight of man, that they are easily shot, or taken in a
snare. They feed on the wild productions of the hills,
which sometimes gives the flesh a bitter, but not unpa-
latable taste ; it is dark-coloured, and, according to M.
Buffon, has somewhat the flavour of the hare.
seldom seen, except on the inaccessible parts
of heathy mountains, or in the midst of piny
forests, the grouse is found in great numbers
in the neighbourhood of corn-fields, where
The Rock Grouse. — Orange, with black bands and
white blotches ; the toes are downy ; the tail feathers
black, tipt with white ; the middle ones are entirely
white. The rock grouse inhabits Hudson's Bay ; is less
than the last ; it does not frequent woods, but sits on the
tops of rocks, and makes a cry like a man calling with
a loud voice.
The Sand Grouse — Its collar, belly, and vent are
black; the tail feathers are barred with brown and gray,
and tipt with white; the two middle ones are tawnyish:
the head is ashy; the chin, pale yellow, with a black
semi-circle on the throat, the feathers truncate and shin-
ing ; the tail is barred, the two middle feathers subulate
at the tip ; the legs behind are naked, having a small
spur. The female of this species is yellowish, having
the head and neck spotted with black, and the back is
barred with black. For banded sand grouse, see Plate
XVIII. fig. 19; for Pallas's sand grouse, see fig. 27;
for spotted grouse, see fig. 18.
The Heteroclitous Grouse. — The feet are three-toed;
the toes are downy, and connected nearly to the tips.
The heteroclitous grouse inhabits the southern deserts of
Tartary ; it is an ambiguous bird, between the bustard
and the grouse. The bill is more slender than in others
of the tribe ; the upper mandible neither arched, nor re-
ceiving the lower one. Its head and neck are hoary;
the chin tawnyish, with an orange spot on each side of
the neck ; the back is waved with gray and black ; the
breast is of a pale reddish ash colour; the belly, flanks,
and vent are black; the wings long and pointed, white
beneath, and dotted with black above.
Among the other varieties of grouse, are the Ruffed
Grouse — the Pinnated Grouse — the Hazel Grouse, pretty
generally spread throughout the central countries of
Europe — the Pintado Grouse, a native of the cold re-
gions of North America — and the Willow Grouse, which
inhabits the north of Europe and America, as far as the
ices of the pole.
The Cock of the plain. This splendid bird is the
largest of the American grouse ; and, as far as beauty,
size, and rarity are concerned, bears the same rank in
;he American fauna with the wood-grouse, or cock ol
;he wood of Europe. He is equally sought after by the
luntsman, and is even now as difficult to procure as that
ive have just compared him to. But the form and habits
are quite distinct. In our once native bird the form is
emarkably powerful, the tail rounded and very ample,
the habitation, the most extensive forests, delighting to
jerch on the highest trees. The bird of America in-
labits only the uncovered plains, never perches, and the
brm of the tail is lengthened, the feathers narrowing to
a point. This acquisition to the grouse was first noticed
n the expedition of Lewis and Clark, who met with it
Tear the fountain of the Missouri, in the heatt of the
locky mountains, and also on the Columbia river. A
igure was first given of it by Bonaparte, from a speci-
men in the possession of Mr Leadbetter. Both sexes
.vere again figured in Mr Wilson's Illustrations of Zoo-
THE GROUSE.
81
there is heath to afford retreat and shelter. —
Their food too somewhat differs ; while the
smaller kind lives upon heath blossoms, cran-
berries, and corn, the larger feeds upon the
cones of the pine-tree ; and will sometimes
entirely strip one tree before it offers to touch
those of another, though just beside him. tn
other respects, the manners of these birds are
the same ; being both equally simple in their
diet, and licentious in their amours.
The cock of the wood, for it is from him we
will take our description, is, as was said,
chiefly fond of a mountainous and woody si-
tuation. In winter he resides in the darkest
and inmost parts of the woods ; in summer,
he ventures down from his retreats, to make
short depredations on the farmer's corn. The
delicacy of his flesh, in some measure, sets a
high price upon his head ; and as he is greatly
sought after, so he continues, when he comes
down from the hills, always on his guard.
Upon these occasions, he is seldom surprised;
and those who would take him, must venture
up lo find him in his native retreats.
The cock of the wood, when in the forests,
attaches himself principally to the oak and
the pine-tree ; the cones of the latter serving
for his food, and the thick boughs for a habi-
tation. He even makes a choice of what
cones he shall feed upon; for he sometimes
will strip one tree bare before he will deign
to touch the cones of another. He feeds also
upon ants' eggs, which seem a high delicacy
to all birds of the poultry kind : cranberries
logy, and an excellent, representation of the male is given
in the Northern Zoology.
The total length of the male is thirty one and a half
inches, that of the female twenty-two. The colour of
the plumage is a beautiful mixture of yellowish-brown,
mottled and varied with deeper tints, the under parts
nearly white, with longitudinal streaks of brown, and
the centre of the belly dotted with large black patches.
On each side of the breast are two round naked protu-
berances, placed farther forward than those of T. cupido,
or pinnated grouse. Above each there is a tuft of fea-
thers, having their shafts considerably elongated, naked,
and tipped with black radii. On the sides of the neck
and across the breast, below the protuberances, the fea-
thers are short, rigid, and sharp-pointed, but lie over
each other with the same regularity as the scales of a
fish. The tail is eleven inches long, each feather lan-
ceolate, and is gradually attenuated to a fine point. The
female has the whole of the upper plumage umber-brown
and yellowisli-white, barred or mottled in equal propor-
tions. Under part nearly as in the male, but without
the projecting stifT feathers.
The description of the manners of this species by Mr
Douglass, is the best account we yet have. "The flight
of these birds is slow, unsteady, and affords but little
amusement to the sportsman. From the disproportion-
ately small, convex, thin-quilled wing, — so thin, that a
vacant space half as broad as a quill appears between
tach, — the flight may be said to be a sort of fluttering,
more than any thing else: the bird giving two or three
claps of the wings in quick succession, at the same time
hurriedly rising; then shooting or floating, swinging
iro.n side to side, gradually falling, and thus producing
VOL. II.
are likewise often found in his crop ; and his
gizzard, like that of domestic fowls, contains
a quantity of gravel, for the purpose of as-
sisting his powers of digestion.
At the earliest return of spring, this bird
begins to feel the genial influence of the sea-
son. During the month of March, the ap-
proaches of courtship are continued, and do
not desist till the trees have all their leaves
and the forest is in full bloom. During this
whole season, the cock of the-wood is seen at
sunrise and setting, extremely active, upon
one of the largest branches of the pine-tree.
With his tail raised and expanded like a fan,
and the wings drooping, he is seen walking
backward and forward, his neck stretched out,
his head swollen and red, and making a thou-
sand ridiculous postures : his cry upon that
occasion is a kind of loud explosion, which is
instantly followed by a noise like the whetting
of a scythe, which ceases and commences al-
ternately for about an hour, and is then ter-
minated by the same explosion.
During the time this singular cry continues,
the bird seems entirely deaf and insensible of
every danger ; whatever noise may be made
near him, or even though fired at, he still
continues his call ; and this is the time that
sportsmen generally take to shoot him. Upon
all other occasions, he is the most timorous
and watchful bird in nature ; but now he
seems entirely absorbed by his instincts ; and
seldom leaves the place where he first begins
to feel the accesses of desire. This extraor-
a clapping, whirring sound. When started the voice is
cuck, cuck, cuck, like the common pheasant. They
pair in March and April. Small eminences on the banks
of streams are the places usually selected for celebrating
the weddings, the time generally about sunrise. The
wings of the male are lowered, buzzing on the ground,
the tail spread like a fan, somewhat erect, the bare yel-
low oesophagus inflated to a prodigious size, fully half as
large as ,1ns 'body, and, from its soft membranous sub-
stance, being well contrasted with the scale-like feathers
below it on the breast, and the flexile silky feathers
on the neck, which on these occasions stand erect. In
this grotesque form he displays, in the presence of his
intended mate, a variety of attitudes. His love-song is
a confused grating, but not offensively disagreeable tone
• — something that we can imitate, but have a difficulty
of expressing — ' Hur-hur-hur-r-r-r-hoo,' ending in a
deep hollow tone, not unlike the sound produced by
blowing into a large reed. Nest on the ground under
the shade of Purshia and Artemisia, or near streams,
among Phalaris arundinacea, carefully constructed of
dry grass and slender twigs. Eggs from thirteen to
seventeen, about the size of a common fowl, of a wood-
hrowri colour, with irregular chocolate blotches on the
thick end. Period of incubation from twenty-one to
twenty-two days. The young leave the nest a few hours
after they are hatched." " In summer and autumn
months these birds are seen in small troops, and in win-
ter and spring in flocks of several hundreds. Plentiful
throughout the barren, arid plains of the river Columbia:
also in the interior of North California. They do not
exist on the banks of the river Missouri; nor have the}
been seen in any place east of the Rocky Mountains."
L
82
/I I STORY OF BIRDS.
djnary cry, wliich is accompanied by a clap-
fang of the wings, is no sooner finished, than
ihe female, hearing it, replies, approaches,
and places herself under the tree, from whence
il e cock descends to impregnate her. The
number of females that, on this occasion, re-
sort to his call is uncertain ; but one male ge-
nerally suffices for all.
The female is much less than her male,
and entirely unlike him in plumage, so that
she might be mistaken for a bird of another
species : she sehdom lays more than six or
seven eggs, which are while, and marked
with yellow, of the size of a common hen's
egg ; she generally lays them in a dry place,
and a mossy ground, and hatches them with-
out the company of the cock. When she is
obliged, during the time of incubation, to
leave her eggs in quest of food, she covers
them up so artfully, with moss or dry leaves,
that it is extremely difficult to discover them.
On this occasion, she is extremely tame and
tranquil, however wild and timorous in ordin-
ary. She often keeps to her nest, though
strangers attempt to drag her away.
As soon as (he young ones are hatched,
iliey are seen running with extreme agility
after the mother, though sometimes they are
not entirely disengaged from (he shell. The
hen leads them forward, for the first time, into
the woods, shows them ants' eggs, and (he
wild mountain-berries, which, while young,
are their only food. As they grow older,
their appetites grow stronger, and they then
ieed upon the tops of heather, and the cones
of the pine-tree. In this manner they soon
come to perfection ; they are a hardy bird,
their food lies everywhere before them, and it
would seem that they should increase in great
abundance. But this is not the case ; their
numbers are thinned by rapacious birds and
beasts of every kind ; and still more by their
own salacious contests.
As soon as the clutching is over, which the
female performs in the manner of a hen, the
whole follow the mother for about a month
or two, at the end of which the young males
entirely forsake her, and keep in great har-
mony together till the beginning of spring.
At this season, they begin, for the first time,
to feel the genial access ; and then adieu to
all their former friendship ! They begin to
consider each other as rivals; and the rage of
concupiscence quite extinguishes the spirit of
society. They fight each other like game-
cocks; and at that time are so inattentive to
their own safety, that it often happens that
two or three of them are killed at a shot. It
is probable that in these contests, the bird
which comes off victorious takes possession of
the female seraglio, as it is certain they have
no faithful attachments.
CHAP. IX.
OF THE PARTRIDGE, AND ITS VARIETIES.
The Partridge may be particularly con.
sidered as belonging to the sportsman. It is
a bird which even our laws have taken
under protection ; and, like a peacock or a
hen, maybe ranked as private property. The
only difference now is, that we feed one in
our farms, the other in our yards ; that these
are contented captives ; those, servants that
have it in their power to change their master,
by changing their habitation.1
" These birds," says Willoughby," hold the
principal place in the feasts and entertain-
ments of princes; without which their feasts
are esteemed ignoble, vulgar, and of no ac-
count. The Frenchmen do so highly value,
and are so fond of, the partridge, that if they
be wanting, they utterly slight and despise
the best-spread tables ; as if there could be
no feast without them." But however this
might be in the times of our historian, the
partridge is now too common in France to be
considered as a delicacy; and this, as well as
every other simple dish, is exploded for luxuries
of a more compound invention.
ID England, where the partridge is much
scarcer, and a great deal dearer, it is still a
favourite delicacy at the tables of the rich ;
and the desire of keeping it to themselves,
has induced them to make laws for its preser-
vation, no way harmonizing with the general
spirit of English legislation. What can be
more arbitrary than to talk of preserving the
game ; which, when defined, means no more
than that the poor shall abstain from what the
rich have taken a fancy to keep for themselves ?
If these birds could, like a cock or a hen, be
made legal property, could they be taught to
keep within certain districts, and only feed
on those grounds that belong to the man
whose entertainments they improve, it then
might, with some show of justice, be admit-
ted, that as a man fed them, so he might
claim them. But this is not the case ; nor is
it in any man's power to lay a restraint upon
the liberty of these birds, that, when let. loose,
put no limits to their excursions. They feed
every where ; upon every man's ground ; and
no man can say these birds are fed only by
me. Those birds which are nourished by all,
belong to all ; nor can any one man, or any
set of men, lay claim to them, when still con-
tinuing in a state of nature.
I never walked out about the environs of
Paris, that I did not consider the immense
quantity of game that was running almost
1 This arrount is from the Journal fEconomiqut', and
ir.ay be relied on.- — Goldsmith.
THE PARTRIDGE
83
tame on every side of me, as a badge of the
slavery of the people ; and what they wished
me to observe as an object of triumph, I
always regarded with a kind of secret compas-
sion ; yet this people have no game-laws for
the remoter parts of the kingdom ; the game
is only preserved in a few places for the king,
and is free in most places else. In England,
the prohibition is general; and the peasant
has not a right to what even slaves, as he is
taught to call them, are found to possess.
Of partridges there are two kinds; the gray
and the red.1 The red partridge is the largest
of the two, and often perches upon trees ; the
gray, with which we are best acquainted in
England, is most prolific, and always keeps on
the ground.
The partridge seems to be a bird well
known all over the world, as it is found in
every country, and in every climate ; as well
in the frozen regions about the pole, as the
torrid tracts under the equator. It even
seems to adapt itself to the nature of the
climate where it resides. In Greenland, the
partridge, which is brown in summer, as soon
as the icy winter sets in, begins to take
a covering suited to the season ; it is then
clothed with a warm down beneath ; and its
outward plumage assumes the colour of the
snows amongst which it seeks its food. Thus
it is doubly fitted tor the place by the warmth
and the colour of its plumage ; the one to de-
fend it from the cold, the other to prevent its
being noticed by the enemy. Those of Bara-
conda, on the other hand, are longer legged,
much swifter of foot, and choose the highest
precipices and rocks to reside in.
They all, however, agree in one character,
of being immoderately addicted to venery ;
and, as some writers affirm, often to an un-
natural degree. It is certain the male will
pursue the hen even to her nest ; and will
break her eggs, rather than not indulge his
inclinations. Though the young ones have
kept together in flocks during the winter,
w'heri they begin to pair in spring, their society
disperses, and combats, very terrible with re-
spect to each other, ensue. Their manners,
in other circumstances, resemble all those of
poultry in general : but their cunning and in-
stincts seem superior to those of the larger
kinds. Perhaps, as they live in the very
neighbourhood of their enemies, they have
more frequent occasion to put their little arts
in practice ; and learn, by habit, the means
of evasion or safety. Whenever, therefore, a
dog, or other formidable animal, approaches
1 Modern ornithologists have ascertained many more
varieties of partridges. The Greek Partridge is more
bulky than the red, with which it has frequently been
confounded. The Painted Partridge is a beautiful
fpecies belonging to India. See Plate XVIII. fig. 20.
their nest, the female uses every means to draw
him away. She keeps just before him, pre-
tends to be incapable of flying, just hops up,
and then falls down before him, but never
goes off so far as to discourage her pursuer.
At length, when she has drawn him entirely
away from her secret treasure, she at once
takes wing, and fairly leaves him to gaze
after her in despair.
After the danger is over, and the dog with-
drawn, she then calls her young, who as-
semble at once at her cry, and follow where
she leads them. There are generally from
ten to fifteen in a covey ; and, if unmolested,
they live from fifteen to seventeen years.
There are several methods of taking them,
as is well known ; that by which they are taken
in a net with a setting dog, is the most plea-
sant, as well as the most secure. The dog, as
every body knows, is trained to this exercise
by a long course of education: by blows and
caresses he is taught to lie down at the word
of command ; a partridge is shown him, and
he is then ordered to lie down ; he is brought
into the field, and when the sportsman per-
ceives where the covey lies, he orders his dog
to crouch; at length the dog, from habit,
crouches wherever he approaches a covey ;
and this is the signal which the sportsman re-
ceives for unfolding, and covering the birds
with his net. A covey thus caught, is some-
times fed in a place proper for their reception ;
but they can never be thoroughly tamed, like
the rest of our domestic poultry.8
2 Partridge shooting is one of the most esteemed sports
of the British fowler ; and when pursued in a sportsman-
like manner, with finely bred dogs, is of considerable
interest. The county of Norfolk has been long cele-
brated for the number of its partridges, as well as for her
zealous agriculturist, Mr Coke, one of the first shots in
the kingdom. The following account from Pierce Egan's
anecdotes, will give some idea both of the abundance of
the partridge, and the excess to which the sport may be
carried.
" The bet between Mr William Coke and Lord
Kennedy, was for 200 sovereigns a-side, play or pay,
who shot and bagged the greatest number of partridges
in two days sporting ; both parties to shoot on the same
lays, the 26th of September 1S23, and the 4th of Oc-
tober in the same season. Mr William Coke to sport
upon his uncle's manors in Norfolk ; and Lord Kennedy
in any part of Scotland he pleased. The result of Mr
Coke's first day's shooting was eighty and a half brace
of birds bagged. On Saturday, October 4, Mr W. Coke
took the field soon after six o'clock in the morning : he
>vas accompanied by his uncle, T. W. Coke, Esq, M. P.,
and by two umpires : Colonel Dixon for Mr Coke, and
P. S. Blunt, Esq. for Lord Kennedy ; also by two of
his friends, Sir. H. Goodrich, Bart., and F. Hollyhorke,
Esq. He was attended by several gamekeepers, and by
one dog only to pick up the game. Several respect-
able neighbouring yeomen volunteered their services in
assisting to beat for game, and rendered essential service
throughout the day. Mr Coke sported over part of the
Wigton and Egmere manors. The morning was foggy,
and the turnips were so wet that the birds would not ]i«
among them. Very little execution was done, in con.
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
CHAP. X.
i
THE QUALL.
TUB last of the poultry kind that I shall
mention, is the quail; a bird much smaller
than any of the former, being not above half
the size of a partridge. The feathers of the
sequence, in the early part of the day; in the two first
hours only six brace of birds were bagged. The day
cleared up after eight o'clock, and the sportsman amply
made up for his lost time. He found birds plentiful
among Mr Denny's fine crop of turnips on the Egmere
farm, and in one and twenty acre breck of Swedes, he
bagged thirty-five and a half brace of birds. He con-
cluded his day's sport soon after six in the evening, and
had then bagged eighty-eight brace of birds, and five
pheasants ; but a dispute having arisen among the umpires
about one bird, Colonel Dixun gave the point up, and
the number was ultimately declared to be eighty-seven
and a half brace of birds bagged ; pheasants and other
game not counted in the match : so that Mr W.
Coke's number of birds bagged in the two days shooting,
stands 173 brace. He had much fewer shots in the
second than in the first day, but he shot better, as will be
seen from the comparative number of birds bagged. On
Saturday he bagged ISO birds from 327 shots, which was
considered good shooting in a match of this nature, when
a chance, however desperate it may appear, is not to be
thrown away. His uncle, T. W. Coke, Esq. loaded a
great part of the gun on Saturday, and as a finale to the
day's sport, shot at and killed the last bird, which his
nephew had previously missed. Lady Ann Coke was in
the field a great part of the day; her ladyship carried re-
freshments for the sportsmen in her pony gig. Lord
Kennedy chose for the scene of his exploits Montreith,
in Scotland, a manor belonging to Sir William Maxwell,
considered equal to any lands in Scotland for rearing
partridges. On the first day of trial his lordship bagged
fifty, and on the second, eighty-two brace, being in all
132 brace of partridges in two days."
Varieties of the partridge frequently occur ; the most
common are those varied with white, which sometimes
prevails through a whole covey. Specimens entirely of
a cream-colour are also not uufrequent, and here, although
the tint may be said to be uniform, the various markings
of the plumage appear conspicuous in different lights, as
if from a variation of the structure of the feathers.
The Mountain Partridge has been said to be more
frequently found in alpine districts than in lowlands,
but they are known to mingle occasionally with those of
common plumage. The colour is remarkable to be as-
sumed as a variety, though it is often, we may say,
generally mingled with whitish or reddish-white. The
whole plumage is of deep sienna-brown, and this colour,
somewhat like that of the common grouse, prevails in
many species entirely upon the breast, lower parts, and
shoulders. The specimens are generally less than those
of ordinary plumage.
The partridge, therefore, seems to have a more exten-
sive range of variation than almost any bird we are ac-
quainted with, and according to Temminck and some
other authors, is somewhat influenced by almost every
change of climate. Those broods which frequent and
are bred on the marshy grounds of the Zuyder Zee and
mouth of Meuse are less in size and of a duller tint than
those found in the drier lands of Belgium. Dry or parch-
ed districts, abundance of food and water, will always
influence their condition, and it is to the same causes,
with variation of climate that Temminck attributes the
head are black, edged witli rusty brown; the
breast is of a pale yellowish red, spotted with
black ; the feathers on the back are marked
with lines of a pale yellow, and the legs are
of a pale hue. Except in the colours thus
described, arid the size, it every way resembles
a partridge in shape ; and, except that it is a
bird of passage, all others of the poultry kind,
in its habits and nature.1
migrations of the partridge on some parts of the continent.,
and which are also said to be of a smaller size than those
which do not migrate. This migratory bird has by some
been also raised to the rank of a species, and named the
Damascus partridge. By the modern ornithologists of
this country, it is very little known, or its claims upon
which even the variety rests ascertained, beyond the tact
of its migration. And our latest, or indeed only au-
thority from actual examination, is that of Temminck,
who says that among many individuals he has been able
to discover no good distinctions. — Naturalist's LiLrary,
by Sir fT. Jardine. Vol. IV.
1 The quails, forming the genus Coturnix of moderns,
are at first sight so similar to the partridges, that they
are not to be distinguished without a knowledge of their
habits, and examination of their forms. In the bill and
legs there are slight modifications, but the form of the
wing is quite different, the first three quills being long-
est, while in the partridges the third is the longest, and
a rounded wing of less power is the consequence. It
may be recollected that, though the partridges were said
to migrate in some countries, the migration is compara-
tively very partial, and often only from one part of a
continent to another; on the other hand, almost all the
quails migrate to a certain distance, and hence perform
lengthened journeys often across the seas. In their habits
they also show considerable difference, as they never
perch. They often assemble in large flocks after the
breeding season: and although they pair regularly, so
soon as the female commences to sit, she is left alone,
and the male attends no longer, nor afterwards assists in
protecting the brood. They delight in cultivated coun-
tries, and never frequent woods. They are found in
Europe, Asia, Africa, and New Holland.
The common quail seems to be generally distributed
over the old world, though, in the south of Europe, it is
perhaps as abundant as elsewhere. In Britain they may
now be termed only an occasional visitant, the numbers
of those which arrive to breed having considerably de-
creased, and they are to be met with certainty only in
some of the warmer southern or midland counties of
England. Thirty years since they were tolerably com-
mon and regular in their returns; and even in the south
of Scotland a few broods were occasionally to be found.
In these same districts they are now very uncertain.
We have known of broods twice, and occasionally have
shot a straggler apparently on its way to the south.
They are extremely difficult to flush after the first time.
The nest is made by the female, but, like the partridges,
the eggs are deposited almost on the bare ground ; these,
also, unlike the uniform tint which we find prevailing
in those of the true partridges, are deeply blotched with
oil-green, and, except in form, are somewhat similar to
those of the snipe. In France they are very abundant ;
and besides supplying the markets of that country, thou-
sands are imported alive by the London poulterers, and
fattened for the luxury of the metropolis.
They are taken by nets, into which they are decoyed
by imitating their call. On the coast of Italy and Si-
cily, and all the Greek islands, they arrive at certain
seasons in immense numbers. An hundred thousand
are said to have been taken in one day. They are run
THE QUAIL.
85
The quail is by all known to be a bird of
passage ; and yet if we consider its heavy
manner of flying, and its dearth of plumage,
with respect to its corpulence, we shall be
surprised how a bird so apparently ill quali-
fied lor migration, should take such extensive
journeys. Nothing, however, is more cer-
tain : " When we sailed from Rhodes to
Alexandria," say Bcllonius, " about autumn,
many quails, flying from the north to the
south, were taken in our ship ; and sailing at
spring-time, the contrary way, from the south
to the north, I observed them on their return,
when many of them were taken in the same
manner." This account is confirmed by
many others; who aver, that they choose a
north wind for these adventures ; the south
wind being very unfavourable, as it retards
their flight, by moistening their plumage.
They then fly two by two; continuing, when
after during the flight like the passenger pigeons of
America, and a harvest is gathered when the numbers
are greatest. In Sicily, crowds of all ages and degrees
assemble on the shore. The number of boats is even
greater; and enviable is the lot of the idle apprentice,
who, with a borrowed musket or pistol, no matter how
unsafe, has gained possession of the farthest rock, where
there is but room for himself and his dog, which he has
fed with bread only, all the year round, for these delight-
ful days, and which sits in as happy expectation as him-
self for the arrival of the quails. Ortygia was named
(rom them ; and so abundant were they on Capri, an
island at the entrance of the Gulf of Naples, that they
formed the principal revenue of the bishop of the island.
From twelve to sixty -thousand were annually taken ;
and one year the capture amounted to one hundred and
sixty thousand. In China, and in many of the eastern
islands, and Malacca, they are also very abundant, per-
forming regular migrations from the interior to the coast.
Here they are domesticated along with a small species
of Ortygis, and trained to fight. Large stakes are
risked upon the result, as in the cockpit. They are
also used by the Chinese to warm their hands in cold
weather, their bodies being thought to contain a large
proportion of animal heat, from the pugnacious disposi-
tion of their tempers.
The common quail has the crown of the head and
back of the neck black, each feather margined with
chestnut ; and down the centre of the head and neck
there is a cream-yellaw streak. Over each eye, and
proceeding down the neck, is a white streak: chin and
throat chestnut-brown, mixed with blackish-brown.
Back scapulars and wing-coverts black, the feathers
margined and varied with brown, and each having its
shaft and central parts sienna-yellow. The breast and
belly are pale bun" or orange, the shafts and margins of
the feathers yellowish-white. Tail blackish-brown,
with the shafts, tips, and base cream-yellow. In the
female there is no black or brown on the neck and throat.
Her breast is spotted with blackish-brown, and the
general tints of her plumage are paler. Pure white on
spotted varietieg sometimes occur. — Naturalist's Lib.
Vol. IV.
their way lies over land, to go faster by night
than by day; and to fly very high, to avoid
b^ing surprised or set upon by birds of prey.
However, it still remains a doubt whether
quails take such long journeys as Bellonius
has made them perform. It is now asserted
by some, that the quail only migrates from
one province of a country to another. For
instance, in England, they fly from the in-
land counties, to those bordering on the sea,
and continue there all the winter. If frost
or snow drive them out of the stubble-fields or
marshes, they then retreat to the sea-side,
shelter themselves among the weeds, and live
upon what is thrown up from the sea upon
shore. Particularly in Essex, the time of
their appearance upon the coasts of that coun-
try exactly coincides with their disappearance
from the more internal parts of the kingdom ;
so that what has been said of their long
flights, is probably not so well founded, as is
generally supposed.
These birds are much less prolific than the
partridge ; seldom laying more than six or
seven whitish eggs, marked with ragged rush-
coloured spots. But their ardour in courtship
yields scarcely toanyother bird, as they are fierce
and cruel at the season to each other, fighting
most desperately, and (a punishment they
richly deserve) being at that time very easily
taken. Quail-fighting was a favourite amuse-
ment among the Athenians : they abstained
from the flesh of this bird, deeming it un-
wholesome, as supposing that it fed upon the
white hellebore ; but they reared great num-
bers of them, for the pleasure of seeing them
fight; and staked sums of money, as we do
with regard to cocks, upon the success of the
combat. Fashion, however, has at present
changed with regard to this bird ; we take no
pleasure in its courage, but its flesh is con-
sidered as a very great delicacy.
Quails are easily caught by a call ; the
fowler, early in the morning, having spread his
net, hides himself under it among the corn ;
he then imitates the voice of the female with
his quail-pipe, which the cock hearing, ap-
proaches with the utmost assiduity; when he
has got under the net, the fowler then dis-
covers himself, and terrifies the quail, who
attempting to get away, entangles himself the
more in the net, and is taken. The quail
may thus very well serve to illustrate the old
adage, that every passion, carried to an inor-
dinate excess, will at last lead to ruin. (For
Welcome Quail, see Plate XVIII. fig. 16.)
HISTORY OF BIRDS,
BOOK IV.
OF BIRDS OF THE PIE KIND.
CHAP. I.
OF BIRDS OP THE PIE KIND.
IN marshalling our army of the feathered
creation, we have placed in the van a race of
birds long bred to war, and whose passion is
slaughter; in the centre we have placed the
slow and heavy laden, that are usually brought
into the field to be destroyed ; we now come
to a kind of light infantry, that partake some-
thing of the spirit of the two former, and yet
belonging to neither. In this class we must
be content to marshal a numerous irregular
tribe, variously armed, with different pursuits,
appetites, and manners ; not formidably formed
for war, and yet generally delighting in mis-
chief, not slowly and usefully obedient, and
yet without any professed enmity to the rest
of their fellow tenants of air.
To speak without metaphor; under this
class of birds we may arrange all that noisy,
restless, chattering, teazing tribe, that lies be-
tween the hen and the thrush, that, from the
size of the raven down to that of the wood-
pecker, flutter round our habitations, and
rather with the spirit of pilferers than of rob-
bers, make free with the fruits of human in-
dustry.
Of all the other classes, this seems to be
that which the least contributes to furnish out
the pleasures, or supply the necessities of
man. The falcon hunts for him; the poultry
tribe supplies him with luxurious food; and
the little sparrow race delight him with the
melody of their warblings. The crane kind
make a studied variety in his entertainments ;
and the class of ducks are not only many of
them delicate in their flesh, but extremely
useful for their feathers. But in the class of
the pie kind, there are few, except the pigeon,
that are any wav useful. They serve rather
to teaze man, than to assist or amnse him.
Like faithless servants, they are fond of his
neighbourhood, because they mostly live by his
labour; but their chief study is what they can
plunder in his absence, while their deaths
make no atonement for their depredation.
But though, with respect to man, this whole
class is rather noxious than beneficial ; though
he may consider them in this light, as false,
noisy, troublesome neighbours, yet, with res-
pect to each other, no class of birds are so in-
genious, so active, or so well fitted for society.
Could we suppose a kind of morality among
birds, we should find that these are by far the
most industrious, the most faithful, the most
constant, and the most connubial. The rapa-
cious kinds drive out their young before they
are fit to struggle with adversity ; but the pie
kind cherish their young to the last. The
poultry class are faithless and promiscuous in
their courtship ; but these live in pairs, and
their attachments are wholly confined to each
other. The sparrow kind frequently overleap
the bounds of nature, and make illicit varie-
ties ; but these never. They live in harmony
with each other ; every species is true to its
kind, and transmits an unpolluted race to pos-
terity.
As other kinds build in rocks or upon the
ground, the chief place where these build is
in trees or bushes ; the male takes his share
in the labours of building the nest, and often
relieves his mate in the duties of incubation.
Both take this office by turns ; and when the
young are excluded, both are equally active
in making them an ample provision.
They sometimes live in societies ; and in
these there are general laws observed, and a
kind of republican form of government esta-
blished among them. They watch not only
for the general safety, but for that of every
other bird of the grove. How often have wo"
THE RAVEN.
87
seen a fowler, stealing in upon a flock of ducks
or wild geese, disturbed by the alarming note
of a crow or a magpie : its single voice gave
the whole thoughtless tribe warning, and
taught them in good time to look to their
safety.
Nor are these birds less remarkable for
their instincts than their capacity for instruc-
tion. There is an apparent cunning or arch-
ness in the look of the whole tribe; and I
have seen crows and ravens taught to fetch
and carry with the docility of a spaniel. In-
deed, it is often an exercise that, without teach-
ing, all this tribe are but too fond of. Every
body knows what a passion they have for shining
substances, and such toys as some of us put a
value upon. A whole family has been alarmed
at the loss of a ring ; every servant has been
accused, and every creature in the house, con-
scious of their own innocence, suspected each
other; when, to the utter surprise of all, it has
been found in the nest of a tame magpie or a
jackdaw, that nobody had ever thought of.
However, as this class is very numerous, it
is not to be supposed that the manners are
alike in all. Some, such as the pigeon, are
gentle and serviceable to man; others are
noxious, capricious, and noisy. In a few
general characters they all agree ; namely, in
having hoarse voices, slight active bodies, and
a facility of flight, that baffles even the bold-
est of the rapacious kinds in the pursuit. I
will begin with those birds which most pro-
perly may be said to belong to this class, and
go on till I finish with the pigeon, a harmless
bird, that resembles this tribe in little else
except their size, and that seems to be the
shade uniting the pie and the sparrow kind
into one general picture.
It is not to be expected that in this sketch
of the great magazine of nature, we can stop
singly to contemplate every object. To des-
cribe the number that offers would be tedious,
and the similitude that one bears to another
would make the history disgusting. As a
historian in relating the action of some noble
people does not stop to give the character of
every private man in the army, but only of
such as have been distinguished by their con-
duct, courage, or treachery; so should the
historian of nature only seize upon the most
striking object before him; and having given
one common account of the most remarkable,
refer the peculiarities of the rest to their
general description.
CHAP. II.
OF THE RAVEN, THE CROW, AND THEFR
AFFINITIES.1
THE Raven, the Carrion-crow, and the Rook,
are birds so well known, that a long descrip-
1 Five species of the genus Corvus occur in Britain:
— the raven, the carrion-crow,~the~~honried-crow, the
rook, and the jackdaw. They are all permanently re-
sident. The magpie differs so much from the rest in
the elongation of the tail, the comparative shortness of
the wings, and some other circumstances, that several
writers have referred it to a separate genus; but the bill,
the feet, and the organs in general, are so similar, that
there would be little reason for setting it apart, were
there not other species having more dissimilar features.
Each species differs greatly in many of its habits, so
that I am unable, from my own observation, to arrive at
more general conclusions than those given above. In
fact, every species in existence has peculiarities both in
habits and structure, which render extended generic
characters, applicable to all the beings in an assumed
group, impossible.
The raven, (see Plate XV. fig. 7.) which is the largest
species of the crow family, is one of the most remark-
able of our native birds, both on account of its habits,
and its historical, superstitious, and economical relations.
With a grave and dignified air it combines great saga-
city, and in courage is not much inferior even to some
of the rapacious birds.
It is crafty, vigilant, and shy, so as to be with great
difficulty approached, unless in the breeding season,
when its affectionate concern for its young in a great
measure overcomes its habitual dislike to the proximity
of man, — a dislike which is the result of prudence more
than of mere timidity, for undor particular circumstances
it will not hesitate to make advances which a timorous
bird would no doubt deem extremely hazardous. Either
from natural instinct, or from observation and reflection,,
it appears to know in some measure the power of its arch
enemy; and rinding that its own faculties are insufficient
to enable it to counteract his destructive propensities,
carefully avoids coming within his reach. On the other
hand it eats from ofl' the same carcase as a dog, and
takes its station close to an otter devouring its prey,
doubtless because its vigilance and activity suffice to
enable it to elude their efforts to inflict injury upon it;
and while it yields to the eagle, it drives away the
hooded crow and the gull. It knows the distance too at
which it is safe from a man armed with a gun, and al-
lows the shepherd and his dogs to come much nearer
than the sportsman.
When searching for food on the ground, it generally
walks with a steady and measured pace, like the carrion-
crow, the hooded-crow, and the rook ; but under excite-
ment it occasionally leaps, using its wings at the same
time, as when driven from carrion by a dog, or when
escaping from its fellows with a fragment of flesh or in-
testine. Its flight is commonly steady and rather slow,
and is performed by regularly-timed beats of its extended
wines, the neck and feet being retracted; but it can
urge its speed to a great degree of rapidity, so as to
overtake an eagle or even a hawk, when passing near its
nest. In fine weather it often soars to a vast height, in
the manner of the birds just mentioned, and floats as it
were at ease high over the mountain tops. Some na-
turalists observing birds thus engaged, have imagined
them to bo searching for food, and have consequently
amused their readers with marvellous^ accounts of the
i distances at which the eagle can spy its prey ; but had
88
IIISTOIIY OF BIRDS.
tion would but obscure our ideas of them. The
raven is the largest of the three, and distin-
guished from the rest not only by his size, but
by his bill being somewhat more hooked than
they patiently watched, they might have found that the
quiet soarings of the raven and the rapacious species
have no reference to prey. On the other hand, it may
sometimes be observed gliding along, and every now and
then shifting its course, in the heaviest gales, when
scarcely another bird can be seen abroad. Although
there is not much reason for calling it " the tempest-
Jovino raven," it would be a severe storm indeed that
would keep it at home when a carcase was in view.
Having enjoyed ample opportunities of cultivating an
acquaintance with this species in the outer Hebrides, I
shall describe its manners as observed by me in those
dreary, but to the naturalist, highly interesting islands.
There the raven, in search of food, may be seen, either
singly or in pairs, in all sorts of situations, along the
rocky shores, on the sand fords, the sides of the hills,
the inland moors, and the mountain tops, tt flies at a
moderate height, proceeding rather slowly, deviating to
either, sailing at intervals, and seldom uttering any
sound. When it has discovered a dead sheep, it alights
on a stone, a peat bank, or other eminence, folds up its
wings, looks around, and croaks. It then advances
nearer, eyes its prey with attention, leaps upon it, and
in a half-crouching attitude examines it. Finding mat-
ters as it wished, it croaks aloud, picks out an eye, de-
vours part of the tongue if that organ be protruded, and
lastly attacks the subcaudal region. By this time ano-
ther raven has usually come up. They perforate the ab-
domen, drag out end swallow portions of the intestines,
and continue to feast until satiateo" or disturbed. Some-
times, especially should it be winter, they are joined by
a great black-backed gull, or even a herring gull, which,
although at first shy, are allowed to come in for a share
of the plunder; but should an eagle arrive, both they
and the gulls retire to a short distance, the former wait-
in" patiently, the latter walking backwards and forwards
uttering plaintive cries, until the intruder departs. When
the carcase is that of a larger animal than a sheep, they
do not however fly ofi", although an eagle or even a dog
should arrive. " Feris convivialis," observes Linnaeus,
and the fact is proverbial in the Hebrides, where this
bird is named Biadhtach, and where biadhtachd, which
etymologically is analogous to ravening, signifies asso-
ciating for the purpose of eating and making merry.
These observations I have made while lying in wait in
little huts constructed for the purpose of shooting eagles
and ravens from them. The latter I have allowed to
remain unmolested for hours, that they might attract the
former to the carrion ; and in this manner I have been
enabled to watch their actions when they were perfectly
unrestrained.
Although the raven, is omnivorous, its chief food is
carrion, by which is here meant the carcases of sheep,
horses, cattle, deer, and other quadrupeds, dolphins and
cetaceous animals in general, as well as fishes that have
been cast ashore. In autumn it sometimes commits
great havock among the barley, and in spring it occa-
sionally destroys young lambs. It has also been accused
of killing diseased sheep by picking out their eyes; but
of this I have obtained no satisfactory evidence. It an-
noys the housewives by sometimes flying off with young
poultry, and especially by breaking and sucking eggs
which the ducks or hens may have deposited, as they
frequently do, among the herbage.
In these islands, should a horse or a cow die, as in my
younger days was very frequently the case in the begin-
ning of summer, after a severe winter or spring, or
should a grampus or other large cetaceous animal be cast
on the shore, the ravens speedily assemble, and remain
that of the rest. As for the carrion-crow and
the rook, they so strongly resemble each other,
both in make and size, that they are not easily
distinguished asunder. The chief difference
in the neighbourhood until they have devoured it. A
large herd of grampuses, delphinus orca, having been
driven by the inhabitants of Pabbay on the sand beach
of that island, which is one of those in the Sound of
Harris, an amazing number of ravens soon collected
from all quarters, and continued for several weeks to
feast upon the carcases. By the time when this supply
of food was exhausted, autumn was advancing, and the
inhabitants became alarmed lest, should the ravens pro-
long their stay, they should attack their barley, which
was their main stay, as they depended chiefly upon it
for the means of paying their rents, a regular system of
illicit distillation having, for reasons not difficult to be
guessed, been permitted for many years. Various expe-
dients were tried in vain, until at length a scheme was
devised by one Finlay Morison which produced the de-
sired effect. The ravens retired at night to a low cliff
on the east side of the island, where they slept crowded
together on the shelves. Finlay and a few chosen com-
panions, intimately acquainted with the principal fissures
and projections of the rock, made their way after mid-
night to the roosts of the ravens, caught a considerable
number of them, and carried them off alive. They
then plucked off' all their feathers excepting those of the
wings and tail, and in the morning when their com-
panions were leaving their places of repose, let loose
among them these live scare-crows. The ravens, terri-
fied by the appearance of those strange- looking creatures,
which it seems they failed to recognize as their own
kinsfolk, betook themselves to flight in a body, and did
not return to the island. It was in this numerous con-
gregation of ravens that the white individual of which
I have already made mention occurred, and which the
people, considering it as the royal bird, regarded with a
kind of superstitious reverence. On another occasion,
when a whale had been cast ashore on the farm of Big
Scarista, I have seen these birds impatiently waiting on
the rocks around, until the people who were flencing it
went home, carrying creels full of the flesh with them
for domestic consumption, when the ravens descended
to the carcase, and gorged themselves with all haste.
The voice of the raven is a hoarse croak, resembling
the syllable Crock or Cruck / but it also emits a note not
unlike the sound of a sudden gulp, or the syllable Cluck,
which it seems to utter when in a sportive mood; for
although ordinarily grave, the raven sometimes indulges
in a frolic, performing somersets and various evolutions
in the air, much in the manner of the rook.
Taken from the nest when nearly able to fly, the raven
is easily reared, very soon learns to feed by itself, and
becomes an amusing, although occasionally mischievous
pet. It defends itself against dogs and cats with great
courage and success, and may be taught to pronounce
words with considerable accuracy. Numerous stories
are told of its thieving propensities; but let one suffice:
" We have been assured," says Montagu, " by a gentle-
man of veracity, that his butler having missed a great
many silver spoons and other articles, without being able
to detect the thief for some time, at last observed a tame
raven with one in his mouth, and watched him to his
hiding-place, where he found more than a dozen."
I know no British bird possessed of more estimable
qualities than the raven. His constitution is such as to
enable him to brave the fury of the most violent tem-
pests, and to subsist amidst the most intense cold; he
is strong enough to repel any bird of his own size, and
his spirit is such as to induce him to attack eve7i the
eagle; his affection towards his mate and young is great,
although not superior to that manifested by many otlitr
THE CROW.
89
to be found between them lies in the bill of
the rook ; which, by being frequently thrust
into the ground to fetch out grubs and earth-
worms, is bare of feathers as far as the eyes,
birds; in sagacity he is not excelled by any other spe-
cies; and his power of vision is at least equal to that of
most others, not excepting the birds of prey, for he is
generally the first to discover a carcase. To man, how-
ever, he seems to be more injurious than useful, as he is
accused of killing sickly sheep, sometimes destroys
lambs, and frequently carries off' the young and eggs of
domestic poultry. For this reason he is generally pro-
scribed, and in many districts a price is put upon his
head j but his instinct and reason suffice to keep the race
from materially diminishing. As his flesh is not pala-
table, it is not probable that he could be useful in the do-
mestic state. He seems to have fewer feathered ene-
mies than most other birds; for although he may often
be seen pursuing gulls, hawks, and eagles, I have never
observed any species attacking him, with the exception
of the domestic cock, which I have seen give battle to
him, and even drive him off. It has been alleged, how-
ever, that rooks assail him in defence of their young,
and there is nothing incredible in this, for the weakest
bird will often in such a case attack the most powerful
and rapacious.
The carrion-wow is so intimately allied to the raven,
that, without considering its inferior size, and some dif-
ferences in the forms of the feathers, one might be apt
to confound the two species. Its proportions are almost
the same as those of the raven, the body being ovate,
rather full and compact ; the nerk short and strong ; the
head large, oblong, and somewhat convex above.
The carrion-crow is very uncommon in the northern
and middle parts of Scotland ; but in the southern divi-
sion of that country, and in England, is much more nu-
merous than the raven or the hooded-crow. It roosts in
trees and on rocks, betakes itself in search of food to the
open moors, hilly pastures, fields, and shores, and preys
on small quadrupeds, young hares and rabbits, young
birds, eggs, Crustacea, mollusca, worms, grubs, and
grain. Its principal food however is carrion of all kinds ;
and it not unfrequently destroys young lambs and sickly
sheep. Montagu states that he has seen it pursue a
pigeon, and strike one dead from the top of a barn. As
a proof of its being occasionally granivorous, like the
raven, I may mention that I found the stomach of one
that had been trapped in Linlithgowshire in November
1834, filled with oat seeds.
The crow is in general a solitary bird, or rather keeps
in pairs, although, when there is an abundant supply of
food, several individuals may occasionally be seen toge-
ther. Its flight is similar to that of the raven, being
generally sedate and direct, performed by regularly-timed
(laps, the wings stretched out to their full extent, so that
the outer primaries are separated for nearly half their
length. Its mode of walking is also similar, and its cry
is a croak, clearer and less sonorous than that of the
raven. At a distance it is not easily distinguishable
from the rook; but one who attends to small differences
of form and habits may readily distinguish the two spe-
cies. The rook is less compact, and the feathers of its
abdominal region project more, while its mode of walk-
ing is quicker, and it keeps its bill more inclined
towards the ground. At hand, the species are very
easily distinguished, the rook having a bill of a different
form, and the feathers at its base being abraded. Al-
VOIi. II.
arid appears of a w.iitish colour. It differs
also in the purple splendour or gloss of its fea
thers, which in the carrion-crow are of a dirlv
black. Nor is it amiss to make those distinc
though it is said by several ornithologists to breed will;
the carrion-crow, and has even been considered by somv
to be-of the same species, I have never seen it consort-
ing with that bird, even casually.
It nestles in rocks and tall trees, beginning as early as
February to construct or repair its nest, which is bulky,
composed of twigs, and lined with mpss^straws, wool,
hair, and other soft materials. The eggs are from fou;
to six, of a rather elongated ovate form, pale bluish-green.,
spotted and blotched with dark umber or clove-brown and
purplish-grey. Sometimes the eggs are nearly destitute.-
of spots, and occasionally they are closely freckled aL
over with light brown.
This species is easily distinguished from the raven, b}
its inferior size, and the shortness of the anterior cervi-
cal feathers. From the rook it is still more easily dis-
tinguished, the bristly feathers over the bill remaining
entire in it, while in that bird they are abraded ; the
texture and tints of the plumage are also different, as
will be seen on comparing the descriptions. The car-
rion-crow is much more nearly allied to the American
crow, Corvus Americanus, with which it had been con-
sidered identical, until the differences were pointed out
by Mr Audubon; (see Ornith. Biogr. vol. ii. p. 323.) I
have carefully compared skins of the two species, and
am convinced that they are different.
It is easily tamed, and in a state of domestication
shows the same thieving propensities as the raven and
jackdaw, carrying off to some hiding-place whatever
articles strike its fancy. In activity and liveliness he
is intermediate between the birds just mentioned ; like
them he may be taught to imitate the human voice ;
and his actions afford amusement to those who are fond
of feathered pets, as he becomes very familiar with his
friends, repels his canine foes, and contrives to consols
himself for the loss of liberty in the best way he can,
although if his wings are left uncut he generally endea-
vours to regain his freedom.
According to Temminck, the carrion-crow is dispersed
over the whole extent of Western Europe, but is rare in
the eastern parts. It has not been found in America.
The hooded-crow is so closely allied to the carrion-
crow, that, were the colours the same in both, it would
be almost impossible to distinguish them. Some per-
sons indeed have considered the two as probably forming
only a single species ; but in this opinion I do not agree
with them, for reasons to be presently stated. The ge-
neral form and size are about the same as those of the
species just mentioned. The bill is almost precisely
similar, or, if different at all, it is perhaps not quite st
robust.
The hooded-crow is very abundant in the Hebrides,
the Shetland and Orkney Islands, and most parts of the
northern and middle divisions of Scotland ; but is rare
in the southern division, and gradually diminishes as we
proceed southward. It is not confined to the coast, but
is met with in the very centre of the Grampians, and
other inland districts; but in winter few individuals are
found in the interior. Although somewhat more social
than the carrion-crow or the raven, it is not gregarious,
for although four or five individuals may often be seen
together, more than that number seldom convene unless
when attracted by an abundant supply of food. It de-
90
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
(ions, as the rook has but. too frequently suffer-
ed for its similitude to (he carrion-crow ; and
thus a harmless bird, that feeds only upon in-
sects and corn, has been destroyed for another
rives its subsistence from carrion, dead fish, crabs,
echini, mollusca, larvae, grain, and other matters, it
being fully as promiscuous a feeder as the carrion-crow
or the raven, although it certainly prefers fish and mol-
lusca to large carcases, and very rarely feeds upon a
stranded whale, or even a domestic animal. Young
lambs are favourite delicacies, and in severe seasons,
when summer in vain struggles with winter, sometimes
afford an abundant temporary supply. I am not, how-
ever, inclined to believe that the hooded-crow often de-
stroys these animals, nor that it ventures to attack sickly
sheep. It never disputes a prize with the raven, much
less the eagle, nor will it advance so near to a dog as the
former of these birds, which it resembles in vigilance
and cunning, but without showing equal boldness.
Perhaps the most remarkable habit of the hooded-
crow is one which most persons who have observed it
consider as indicative of the approach of rain, but which
I have not found to have any connection with that phe-
nomenon. In quiet, and more especially in dull close
weather, one of them, perched on a stone or crag, con-
tinues to croak for a long time, being responded to at
intervals by another that has taken a station at some dis-
tance. Its voice is not so loud or clear as that of the
carrion-crow, but resolves itself into a rather harsh sound
resembling the syllable Crnn, pronounced by a genuine
Aberdonian. On ordinary occasions, its flight is pecu-
liarly sedate, being performed by regularly-timed slow
heats; but when necessary, it can be greatly accelerated,
although it never equals in rapidity that of the raven.
It also walks in the same staid manner as the carrion-
crow and the rook, and in general wears a grave aspect,
demeaning itself so as if it were not disposed to indulge
in unbecoming levity. It rarely molests other birds,
nor is it often attacked by any.
In districts frequented by it, you commonly find it
along the shore, sometimes among the rocks, searching
for crabs and shell-fish, which it has sagau'ty enough,
when it cannot otherwise open them, to raise in the air
and drop to the ground; sometimes on the sandy beach,
especially if fish or echini have been cast up. The lat-
ter are so frequently devoured by them in the Hebrides
that they have obtained the name of hooded-crow's cups
— cragan-feannaig. Gulls, even the strongest, rarely
dispute with them on such occasions, but impatiently
walk about until they choose to fly off.
Although familiar enough with this species, I have
never observed it mount high into the air like the raven,
for the purpose of sailing. Nor does it scour the hill
tops and sides in the same free and bold manner, but
rather has a skulking habit, and prefers remaining on
the lower grounds, especially in the vicinity of water,
whether fresh or salt. It searches the moors, however,
for eggs and young birds, and commits considerable de-
predations upon those of the golden plover and red
grouse. The eggs of gulls and terns it does not venture
to seize upon, knowing that these birds would join in at-
tacking any intruder.
It is said by some to assemble at times in very large
flocks, apparently for the purpose of settling some im-
portant matter referring to their mutual benefit: but I
liave not observed any such conventions, and am dis-
posed to consider thiiin as merely imaginary. Nor is it
necessary that they should have assemblies for the pur-
pose of choosing partners, for, according to my observa-
tion, they remain paired all the year, and the young in-
dividuals can easily meet without having a general con-
vocation. Several authors talk of their building in trees ;
but I have never seen a hooded-crow's i;est elsewhere
that feeds upon carrion, and is often destruc-
tive among young poultry.
The manners of the raven and the carrion-
crow are exactly similar ; they both feed upon
than on a rock, and generally by the sea. It is large,
composed of twigs, sea-weeds, heath, feathers, and straws,
being similar to that of the carrion-crow and raven. The
eggs, from four to six or seven in number, but generally
five, are of a regular ovate form, from an inch and a
half to an inch and eight twelfths long, and about one
and a twelfth across ; of a pale bluish-green tint, marked
all over, but more thickly at the large end, with oblong
and roundish spots of greenish-brown and pale purplish-
gray. They vary considerably in colour, as is the case
with the other species, and in a cabinet cannot be dis-
tinguished from those of the carrion-crow. The young
are at first covered with blackish-gray down.
According to authors, this species occurs in all parts
of Europe, remaining stationary in the eastern and moun-
tainous districts, but, as M. Temminck alleges, appear-
ing only in September and October in the western coun-
tries. In the whole of Scotland it is stationary all the
year, although many individuals may probably migrate
southward; but in most parts of England it appears in
October, chiefly along the coast, and on the extensive
maritime downs, and departs in March.
The rook is more slender and generally somewhaf
smaller than the carrion-crow, which it greatly resembles
when viewed at a distance. The general form, however,
is moderately full.
All day long you may find the rook in the fields or
pastures, diligently searching for worms and grubs,
breaking up and turning over the dry cow-dung with
its bill, thrusting it deep into the loose soil, or digging
among tufts of grass and clover to extract the larva; that
find harbour amidst their roots. At this season, you
often observe these birds scattered over the moorland
haunts of the curlew and plover, and not unfrequeiitly
on the sandy or muddy beaches exposed by the tide.
Towards evening, collecting into large straggling flocks,
and uttering their loud and not unpleasant cries, they
return to their roosts on the tall trees of some antique
mansion, where for ages, perhaps, their race has fixed
its abode. During long droughts they experience great
difficulty in procuring subsistence, at least in districts
where there is not a diversity of soil and a variety of
scenery, although in most parts of Scotland they have a
choice of ground which renders them less liable to be
seriously incommoded by extremes of weather.
In their distant flights they commonly proceed at a
considerable height, moving with moderate speed, in a
straggling disorderly band, often, especially at the out-
set, with much noise. Their flight is of that kind which
1 call sedate, being performed by regularly-timed rather
slow beats of the expanded wings, direct, without un-
dulations, and capable of being greatly protracted. Some-
times on one of their excursions, when passing over a
field or meadow at a great height, something in it ap-
pears suddenly to attract their attention, and they de,
s.itiid headlong, performing singular evolutions as they
THE JACKDAW.
91
cairion ; they fly only in pairs ; and will des-
troy other birds, if they can take them by
surprise. But it is very different with the rook,
the daw, and the Cornish chough, which may
turn from side to side and wind among each other. In
general, however, they settle with more caution, some-
times flying repeatedly over the ground, often dropping
down one by one, and occasionally perching for -a while
in the neighbouring trees before venturing to alight.
The cry of the rook resembles the syllable Khraa,
more or less harsh or soft according to occasion. There
is great diversity in the voice of individuals, some hav-
ing much louder and clearer notes than others. Al-
though separately their cries are monotonous and dis-
agreeable, yet from a large flock, and at some distance,
they are by no means unpleasant ; and those who have
become'habituated to the noise of a rookery, do not ge-
nerally find it annoying.
Although the staple food of the rook is larvas and
worms, it also eats shell-fish, Crustacea, coleopterous in-
sects, lizards, seeds, especially of cereal plants, acorns,
beech-nuts, portions of roots of grasses, and in winter
even turnips. I have seen rooks picking at a fish on
the beach, but I bolieve they never devour carrion, al-
though they may be seen about a dead horse or cow
searching for larvEe. While feeding, they freely asso-
ciate with jackdaws, and even gulls; and I have seen
starlings, red-wings, fieldfares and missel thrushes ming-
ling with them without much apprehension of danger.
Rooks are not easily shot in the fields unless one come
accidentally upon some that have straggled to the edge,
for they are commonly shy and vigilant. At the same
time they seem to calculate upon the protection which
they usually receive in the neighbourhood of their breed-
ing places, and are less shy on the lawn and in the park
than on the distant pastures and in the ploughed fields.
In the neighbourhood of towns they are always more
wary than in the country, so that holding out a gun or a
stick, or even the arm, or standing stock still, is sure to
make them fly ofl", unless they be several hundred yards
distant.
In form the jackdaw is more compact, and in action
more lively, than any other British bird of the genus.
It is about the size of the domestic pigeon, with the body
ovate, the neck rather short, the head large, the feet,
wings, arid tail of moderate length.
The jackdaw is a remarkably active, pert, and loqua-
cious little fellow, ever cheerful, always on the alert, and
ready either for business or frolic. If not so respectable
as the grave and sagacious raven, he is at least the most
pleasant of the family, and withal extremely fond of so-
oiety, for not content with having a flock of his own folk
about him, he often thrusts himself into the midst of a
gang of rooks, and in winter sometimes takes up his
abode entirely with them.
The flight of this species is similar to that of the rook,
somewhat more rapid, generally extremely wavering,
the bird frequently shifting its direction, now dashing
downwards, then curving up again, shooting obliquely to
either side, and performing as many evolutions as if it
could not follow a direct line, which, however, it some-
be all ranked in this order. They are sociable
and harmless ; they live only upon insects and
grain ; and wherever they are, instead of injur-
ing other birds, they seem sentinels for the whole
times does when in great haste. It is also extremely
clamorous, and its note being loud and clear, resembling
the syllable Kae or Caw, variously modulated, the roiso
emitted by a large flock, although in no degree musical,
is far from being unpleasant.
Jackdaws inhabit deserted buildings, steeples, towers-,
and high rocks, especially those along-the-eoast. Sally-
ing from thence at early dawn, they betake themselves
to the pastures, meadows, or ploughed fields, to search
for larvse, worms, insects, and in general the same sort
of food as the rooks, with which they often associate on
their excursions. They walk gracefully, and much more
smartly than the rooks, often running under excitement,
and frequently quarrelling together, although without
any serious results. They do not despise carrion, and
on the shore will occasionally feed on shell-fish, crusta-
cea and fishes, being nearly as omnivorous as the hooded-
crows, although giving a decided preference to larva;.
They are scarcely less vigilant than the rooks, at least
while in the fields, so that it is not always easy to git
within shot of them; but in the breeding season one
may readily procure specimens by concealing himself in
the midst of their haunts.
This is one of the few birds that habitually or occa-
sionally reside in the heart of cities, where it selects a
steeple, a church tower, or any other high building, in
which it can find a sufficient number of secure retreats.
In Edinburgh, for example, it frequents Heriot's and
Watson's Hospitals, the University, the Infirmary, the
Chapel of Holyroodhouse, and the Castle, although in
the latter it is chiefly in the rock that it takes up its
abode. In the country, ruinous castles are its favourite
places of resort, and it is found, for example, at Dunot-
tar, Rosslyn, and Tantallon Castles, and the buildings
on the Bass. It also not unfrequently finds refuge in
high rocks, as at the Cove near Aberdeen, and in other
places along the coast ; and in defect of more agreeable
lodgings, will sometimes settle in a wood.
In these places also it nestles, as well as not unfre-
quently in the interior of chimneys in which fire is not
kept. The nest is fixed in any convenient recess, on a
cornice or other projecting part of a building, in the
hole of a spout, or, in short, in any place that seems
suitable. It has a base-work of sticks, on which is laid
a quantity of straw, wool, feathers, and other soft ma-
terials. The eggs are from four to seven, generally five,
of a regular oval form, broader in proportion to their
length than those of the other species, much lighter also,
being of a very pale greenish-blue, or rather bluish-
white, covered, more profusely at the larger end,
with small, round, separated spots of dark brown and
pale purplish. They vary in length from an inch and
four twelfths to an inch and six twelfths, in diameter
from eleven and a half twelfths to a twelfth more. The
eggs are generally deposited in May, and the young are
abroad by the end of June.
Jackdaws often obtain a large proportion of their food
in the streets, which they frequent more especially in
the mornings, along with pigeons, and sometimes rooks.
On these occasions they pick up the refuse of whatever
serves as food to man. Like the starling and the mag-
pie, they sometimes alight on sheep and cattle, appa-
rently for the purpose of searching for the sticks and
other animals among their hair. They are not so shy as
rooks when in privileged places, enter a garden with
little fear, and are easily enticed to a particular spot by
placing food for them. Thus in towns, persons, for
amusement, draw them to their windows, along with
pigeons and sparrows ; but they are always more suspi-
92
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
feathered creation. It will be proper, there-
fore, to describe these two sorts according to their
respective appetites, as they have nothing in
common but the very strong similitude they
bear to each other in their colour and forma-
tion.
The raven is a bird found in every region
of the world ; strong and hardy, he is unin-
fluenced by the changes of the weather; and
when other birds seem numbed with cold, or
pining with famine, the raven is active and
healthy, busily employed in prowling for prey,
or sporting in the coldest atmosphere. As the
heats at the line do not oppress him, so he
bears the cold of the polar countries with equal
indifference. He is sometimes indeed seen
milk white; and this may probably be the
effect of the rigorous climates of the north. It
is most likely that this change is wrought
upon him as upon most other animals in that
part of the world, where their robes, particu-
larly in winter, assume the colour of the
country they inhabit. As in old age, when
the natural heat decays, the hair grows gray,
and at last white ; so among these animals the
cold of the climate may produce a similar
languishment of colour, and may shut up those
pores that conveyed the tincturing fluids to
the extremest parts of the body.
However this may be, white ravens are
often shown among us, which I have heard
some say, are rendered thus by art ; and this
we could readily suppose, if they were as easily
changed in their colour, as they are altered in
their habits and dispositions. A raven may
be reclaimed to almost every purpose to which
birds can be converted. He may be trained
up for fowling like a hawk ; he maybe taught
to fetch and carry like a spaniel ; he may be
taught to speak like a parrot ; but the most
extraordinary of all is, that he can be taught
to sing like a man. I have heard a raven
sing the Black Joke with great distinctness,
truth, and humour.
Indeed, when the raven is taken as a do-
mestic, he has many qualities that render him
extremely amusing. Busy, inquisitive, and
impudent, he goes every where ; affronts and
drives off the dogs, plays his pranks on the
poultry, and is particularly assiduous in cul-
cious than these birds, and on obtaining a morsel, rather
than eat it at once, usually fly off with it to some more
secure place.
The jackdaw is generally distributed in England and
Scotland, although there are large tracts, the outer He-
brides for example, in which it does not occur. It is
represented as inhabiting most parts of the continent,
but has not been found in America.
Several species of the genus are very nearly allied to
it, particularly Corvus bengalensis. Taking European
b:rds only into consideration, it forms the transition to
the magpie. — Abridged from MucgiU'tvray' s fffttorv of
British Birds.
tivating the good will of the cook-maid, who
seetns to be the favourite of the family. Hut
then, with the amusing qualities of a favourite,
he often also has the vices and defects. He is
a glutton by nature, and a thief by habit. He
does not confine himself to petty depredations
on the pantry or the larder ; he soars at more
magnificent plunder ; at spoils that he can
neither exhibit nor enjoy ; but which, like a
miser, he rests satisfied with having the satis-
faction of sometimes visiting and contemplat-
ing in secret. A piece of money, a tea-spoon,
or a ring, are always tempting baits to his
avarice ; these he will slily seize upon, and, if
not watched, will carry to his favourite hole.
In his wild state, the raven is an active and
greedy plunderer. Nothing comes amiss to
him ; whether his prey be living or long dead
it is all the same, he falls to with a voracious
appetite ; and, when he has gorged himself, flies
to acquaint his fellows, that they may par-
ticipate of the spoil. If the carcase be already
in the possession of some more powerful ani-
mal, a wolf, a fox, or a dog, the raven sits at a
little distance, content to continue an humble
spectator till they have done. If in his flights
he perceives no hopes of carrion, and his scent
is so exquisite that he can smell it at a vast
distance, he then contents himself with more
unsavoury food, fruits, insects, and the acci-
dental dessert of a dunghill.
This bird chiefly builds its nests in trees,
and lays five or six eggs, of a pale green colour,
marked with small brownish spots. They
live sometimes in pairs, and sometimes they
frequent, in great numbers, the neighbourhood
of populous cities, where they are useful in
devouring those carcases that would otherwise
putrefy and infect the air. They build in
high trees or old towers, in the beginning of
March with us in England, and sometimes
sooner, as the spring is more or less advanced
for the season. But it is not always near
towns that they fix their retreats ; they often
build in unfrequented places, and drive all
other birds from their vicinity. They will
not permit even their young to keep in the
same district, but drive them off when they
are sufficiently able to shift for themselves.
Martin, in his description of the Western
Isles, avers, that there are three little islands
among the number, which are occupied by a
pair of ravens each, that drive off all other
birds with great cries and impetuosity.
Notwithstanding the injury these birds do
in picking out the eyes of sheep and lambs,
when they find them sick and helpless, a vulgar
respect is paid them, as being the birds that
fed the prophet Elijah in the wilderness. This
prepossession in favour of the raven is of
very ancient date, as the Romans themselves,
who thought the bird ominous, paid it, from
THE ROOK.
93
motives of fear, the most profound veneration.1
One of these that had been kept in the
temple of Castor, as Pliny informs us, flew
down into the shop of a tailor, who took much
delight in the visits of his new acquaintance.
He taught the bird several tricks ; but par-
ticularly to pronounce the names of the em-
peror Tiberius, and the whole royal family.
The tailor was beginning to grow rich by those
who came to see this wonderful raven, till an
envious neighbour, displeased at the tailor's
success, killed the bird, and deprived the tailor
of his future hopes of fortune. The Romans,
however, took the poor tailor's part ; they
punished the man who offered the injury, and
gave the raven all the honours of a magni-
ficent interment.
Birds in general live longer than quadrupeds ;
and the raven is said to be one of the most
long-lived of the number. Hesiod asserts,
that a raven will live nine times as long as a
man ; but though this is fabulous, it is certain
that some of them have been known to live
near a hundred years. This animal seems
possessed of those qualities that generally pro-
duce longevity, a good appetite, and great ex-
ercise. In clear weather, the ravens fly in
pairs to a great height, making a deep loud
noise, different from that of their usual croak-
ing.
The carrion-crow resembles the raven in
'ts appetites, its laying, and manner of bring,
ing up its young. It only differs in being
less bold, less docile, and less favoured by
mankind.
The rook leads the way in another, but a
more harmless train, that have no carnivorous
appetites, but only feed upon insects and corn.
The Royston (or hooded) crow is about the
size of the two former. The breast, belly,
back, and upper part of the neck, being of a
pale ash colour; the head and wings glossed
over with a fine blue. He is a bird of pas-
sage, visiting this kingdom in the beginning
of winter, and leaving it in the spring. He
breeds, however, in different parts of the
British dominions ; and his nest is common
enough in trees in Ireland. The jackdaw
is black, like all the former, but ash-coloured
1 In several passages, Shakspeare alludes to the ominous
character of the raven.
" The raven himsplf is bourse
That croaks the fatal entrance of Duncan
Under my battlements."
Macfieth, Act. i. Scene 5.
"It comes o'er my memory,
As doth the raven o'er the infected house,
Boding to all."
OtM/n, Acti Scene 4.
See also The Tempest, Act i. Scene 2.
on the breast and belly. He is not above the
size of a pigeon. He is docile and loquacious.
His head is large for the size of his body,
which, as has been remarked, argues him in-
genious and crafty. He builds in steeples,
old castles, and high rocks, laying five or
six eggs in a season. The Cornish chough
is like a jackdaw, but bigger, and almost the
size of a crow. The bill, feet, and legs, are
long like those of a jackdaw, but of a red
colour; and the plumage is -black all over.
It frequents rocks, old castles, and churches
by the sea side, like the daw; and with the
same noisy assiduity. It is only seen along
the western coasts of England. These are
birds very similar in their manners, feeding
on grain and insects, living in society, and
often suffering general castigation from the
flock for the good of the community.
The rook, as is well known, builds in woods
and forests in the neighbourhood of man, and
sometimes makes choice of groves in the very
midst of cities for the place of its retreat and
security. In these it establishes a kind of
legal constitution, by which all intruders are
excluded from coming to live among them,
and none suffered to build but acknowledged
natives of the place. I have often amused
myself with observing their plan of policy
from my window in the Temple, that looks
upon a grove where they have made a colony
in the midst of the city. At the commence-
ment of spring, the rookery, which during
the continuance of winter seemed to have
been deserted, or only guarded by about five
or six, like old soldiers in a garrison, now
begins to be once more frequented ; and in a
short time all the bustle and hurry of busi-
ness is fairly commenced. Where these
numbers resided during the winter is not
easy to guess ; perhaps in the trees of hedge-
rows, to be nearer their food. In spring, how-
ever, they cultivate their native trees ; and,
in the places where they were themselves
hatched, they prepare to propagate a future
progeny.2
2 Country people suppose that when rooks return from
pasture making a more than usual noise with their
wings, and with a quick flight, it is a sign of rain; and
that, if part of them stay at the rookery, and sport about
the trees, making their cawing note in a softer tone than
usual, three or four times successively, it is a sign of
fine weather.
Rooks appear to have a language amongst themselves,
which is understood by the whole community ; and a
peculiar note from a bird set to watch and to warn them'
of approaching danger, is quite sufficient to make them
take flight, and always in an opposite direction to that
from which the danger is apprehended.
" Their danger well the wary plunderers know.
And place a watch on some conspicuous bough."
As the rook is a favourite, I am always sorry to sej
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
They keep together in pairs; and when
the offices of courtship are over, they prepare
for making their nests and laying. The old
inhabitants of the place are already provided ;
the nest which served them for years before,
with a little trimming and dressing, will
serve very well again ; the difficulty of nest-
ling lies only upon the young ones, who have
it during a hard frost. Instead of being that active,
happy bird which he appears to be in summer, strut-
ting over a meadow, and either flirting with his mate,
or feeding one of his young ones who has had strength
enough to follow him, and who receives the food with
fluttering wings and tremulous note, he is now, on the
contrary, a moping, melancholy bird, appearing to avoid
his old companions, and to be without sufficient energy
even to seek for food, often remaining in one position,
for a considerable length of time.
There is one trait in the character of the rook which
is, I believe, peculiar to that bird, and which does him
no little credit, — it is the distress which is exhibited
when one of them has been killed or wounded by a gun
while they have been feeding in a field or flying over it.
Instead of being scared away by the report of the gun,
leaving their wounded or dead companion to his fate,
they show the greatest anxiety and sympathy for him,
uttering cries of distress, and plainly proving that they
wish to render him assistance, by hovering over him,
or sometimes making a dart from the air close up to
him, apparently to try and find out the reason why he
did not follow them, —
"While circling round and round,
They call their lifeless comrade from the ground."
If he is wounded, and can flutter along the ground,
the rooks appear to animate him to make fresh exer-
tions by incessant cries, flying a little distance before
him, and calling to him to follow them. I have seen
one of my labourers pick up a rook so wounded, which
he had shot at for the puipose of putting him up as
a scare-crow in a field of wheat, and while the poor
wounded bird was still fluttering in his hand, I have
observed one of his companions make a wheel round in
the air, and suddenly dart past him so as almost to
touch him, perhaps with a last hope that he might still
afford assistance to his unfortunate mate or companion.
Even when the dead bird has been hung, in terrorem,
to a stake in the field, he has been visited by some of
his former friends, but, as soon as they found that the
case was hopeless, they have generally abandoned that
field altogether.
When one considers the instinctive care with which
rooks avoid any one carrying a gun, and which is so
evident, that I have often heard country people remark
that they can smell gunpowder, one can more justly
estimate the force of their love or friendship in thus
continuing to hover round a person, who has just de-
stroyed one of their companions with an instrument, the
dangerous nature of which they seem fully capable of
appreciating.
That it is the instrument, and not the man, which
they avoid, is evident from their following the heels of
the peaceable ploughman along the furrow, sometimes
taking short flights after him, and each rook showing
some degree of eagerness to be nearest the ploughman,
and to have the best chance of being the first to pick up
the newly turned up worm, or the grub of the cock-
chafer, of which they are very fond.
Rooks are not easily induced to forsake the trees on
which they have been bred, and which they frequently
revisit after the breeding season is over. This is shown
in Hampton Court Park, where there is an extensive
rookery amongst the fine lime-trees, and where a bar-
barous and unnecessary custom prevails of shooting the
young rooks. As many as a hundred dozen of them
have been killed in one season and yet the rooks build
in the avenue, though there is a corresponding avenue
close by, in Bushy Park, which they never frequent,
notwithstanding the trees are equally high and equally
secure. I never hear the guns go oil' during this annual
slaughter without execrating the practice, and pitying
the poor rooks, whose melancholy cries may be heard to
a great distance, and some of whom may be seen, ex-
hausted by their fruitless exertions, sitting melancholy
on a solitary tree waiting till the sport is over, that they
may return and see whether any of the olispring which
they have reared with so much care and anxiety are
left to them; or, what is more probable, the call for
assistance of their young having ceased, they are aware
of their fate, and are sitting in mournful contemplation
of their loss. This may appear romantic, but it is
nevertheless true : and whoever, like myself, has ob-
served the habits and manners of the rook, and wit-
nessed their attachment to each other and to their
young,— and is convinced, as I am, that they have the
power of communication by means of a language known
to themselves, and are endowed with a knowledge and
foresight most extraordinary, will take as much interest
in them as I have confessed that I do.
Some farmers have a very mistaken notion that
rooks are injurious to them. They certainly now and
then feed on grain, but the damage they may do in this
respect is much more than counterbalanced by the good
they do in destroying the grubs of the cockchafer and
beetles, and other insects which are injurious to the
farmer.
Rooks are known to bury acorns, and I believe wal-
nuts also, as I have observed them taking ripe walnuts
from a tree and returning to it before they could have
had time to break them and eat the contents. Indeed,
when we consider how hard the shell of a walnut is, it
is not easy to guess how the rook contrives to break them.
May they not, by first burying them, soften the shells,
and afterwards return to feed upon them ?
The Reverend W. Binglcy, an amiable naturalist,
has observed, " that as soon as rooks have finished their
nests, and before they lay, the cocks begin to feed the
hens, who receive their bounty with a fondling, tremu-
lous voice arid fluttering wings, and all the little blan-
dishments that are expressed by the young while in a
helpless state, and that this gallant deportment of the
male is continued through the. whole season of incuba-
tion."
I must, however, add that my friends the rooks are
somewhat given to thieving, and I am afraid that if
both the birds left the nest at the same time, some of
the other members of the community would soon deprive
them of those sticks which they had collected with so
much trouble. One of the birds is, therefore, always
left to protect their property.
Rooks feed on various kinds of food, as well as worms.
They are sad depredators on my cherry trees, attacking
them early in the morning, and carrying oft' great quan-
tities. They will also eat potatoes and pears, taking
them away in their beaks. The grub of the cockchafer,
however, seems to be their favourite food, and their
search for it, especially in old mossy grass fields, may
be seen by the little tufts of moss which are pulled up
by them and scattered about. Their power of discover-
ing this caterpillar by the scent is very extraordinary.
A gentleman once showed me a field which had all the
appearance of having been scorched, as if by a burning
sun in dry hot weather. The turf peeled from the
ground as if it had beeii cut with a turfing spade, and
we then discovered that the roots of the grass had been
THE ROOK.
95
no nest, and must therefore get up one as
well as they can. But not only the materials
are wanting, but also the place in which to
fix it. Every part of a tree will not do for
this purpose, as some branches may not be
sufficiently forked ; others may not be suffi-
ciently strong; and still others may be too
eaten away by the larvse of the cockchafer, which were
found in countless numbers at various depths in the soil.
This field was visited by a great quantity of rooks, though
there was no rookery within many miles of the neigh-
bourhood, who turned up and appeared to devour the
grubs with great satisfaction.
Rooks are fond of company, the jackdaw and even
the starling being allowed to associate with them, and a
mutual good B&derstaoding seems to exist amongst them.
Even the sparrow is sometimes allowed to build its nest
under the protection of that of a rook.
Wilson, in his American Ornithology, says that
crows have been employed to catch crows by the follow-
ing stratagem : — A live crow is pinned by the wings
down to the ground on his back, by means of two sharp
forked sticks. Thus situated, his cries are loud and
incessant, particularly if any other crows are within
view. These sweeping down about him, are instantly
grappled and held fast by the prostrate prisoner, with
the same instinctive impulse that urges a drowning per-
son to grasp at every thing within his reach. The
game being disengaged from his clutches, the trap is
again ready for another experiment; and by pinning
down each captive successively, as soon as taken, in a
short time you will probably have a large flock scream-
ing above you, in concert with the outrageous prisoners
below.*
The same author mentions an agreeable instance of
attachment in a crow. " A gentleman, who resided on
the Delaware, a few miles below Easton, had raised
(reared) a crow, with whose tricks and society he used
frequently to amuse himself. This crow lived long in
the family, but at length disappeared, having, as was
then supposed, been shot by some vagrant gunner, or
destroyed by accident. About eleven months after this,
as the gentleman, one morning, in company with
several others, was standing on the river shore, a num-
ber of crows happening to pass by, one of them left the
(lock, and flying directly towards the company, alighted
on the gentleman's shoulder, and began to gabble away
with great volubility, as one long absent friend naturally
enough does on meeting with another. Recovering from
his surprise, the gentleman instantly recognised his old
acquaintance, and endeavoured, by several civil, but sly
manoeuvres, to lay hold of him: but the crow, not alto-
gether relishing quite so much familiarity, having now
had a taste of the sweets of liberty, cautiously eluded all
his attempts ; and suddenly glancing his eye on his dis-
tant companions, mounted hi the air after them, soon
overtook and mingled with them, and was never after-
wards seen to return."
The rook seems to be even more unpopular in America
than he is in this country. Mr Wilson says, that he is
there branded as a thief and a plunderer ; a kind of
black-coated vagabond, who hovers over the fields of the
industrious, fattening on their labours, and, by his vo-
nicity, often blasting their expectations. Hated as he
i; by the farmer, watched and persecuted by almost
every bearer of a gun, who ail triumph in his destruc-
tion, had not heaven bestowed on him intelligence and
sagacity, far beyond what is common in other birds,
there is reason to believe that the whole tribe would
loi-.p ago have ceased to exist.
* This method of catcliiiv,' crows i=, I bclievo, r-artisorl in
f.-.mo parts of England to catch jays, who ir.ake a most violent
outcry when pinned to the ground.
much exposed to the rockings of the wind.
The male and female upon this occasion are,
for some days, seen examining all the trees
of the grove very attentively ; and when they
have fixed upon a branch that seems fit for
their purpose, they continue to sit upon and
observe it very sedulously for two or three
The average number of rooks' nests, during the last
four years, in the avenue of Hampton Court Park, has
been about 750. Allowing three j^oung birds and a
pair of old ones to each nest, the number would amount
to 3750. They are very particular that none of their
society build away from the usual line of trees. A pair
of rooks did so this spring, and when their nest was
nearly finished, at least fifty others came and demolished
it in a few minutes. Rooks may be seen teaching their
young to fly as soon as they leave the nest, advancing a
little way before, and calling upon them to follow. These
short flights are incessantly repeated, till the young ones
have acquired sufficient strength and skill to follow the
old birds.
Rooks sometimes choose odd places to build in, and
where we should have hardly expected to find the nest
of a bird of such social habits. Dr Mitchell says that a
few years ago a pair of rooks built their nest between the
wings of the dragon of Bow Church in London. They
remained there till the stdeple required repairs. He
adds, that the same or another pair have this spring
built their nest out the top of a large plane tree in Wood
Street, close to Cheapside. Last season a hawk built
its nest under the dome of St Paul's, and a similar oc-
currence took place about forty years ago. Another of
the falcon tribe had its nest, a few years ago, in the top
of the steeple of Spitalfields Church.
Colonel Montague mentions an instance of great
sagacity in crows. He observed two of them by the
sea-shore, busy in removing small fish beyond the flux
of the flowing tide, and depositing them just above high-
water mark, under the broken rocks, after having satis-
fied the calls of hunger.
Mr Hone, in his " Every Day Book," has intro-
duced an agreeable anecdote respecting a rookery on
some high trees behind the Ecclesiastical Court, in
Doctor's Commons. " Some years ago there were
several large elm trees in the college garden behind the
Ecclesiastical Court, in Doctor's Commons, in which a
number of rooks had taken up their abode, forming, in
appearance, a sort of convocation of aerial ecclesiastics.
A young gentleman, who lodged in an attic, and was
their close neighbour, frequently entertained himself
with thinning this covey of black game, by means of a
cross-bow. On the opposite side lived a curious old
civilian, who observing from his study that the rooks
often dropped senseless from their perch, or, as it may
be said, without using a figure, hopp'd the twig, making
no sign, nor any sign being made to his vision to ac-
count for the phenomenon, set his wits to work to dis-
cover the cause. It was probably during a profitless
time of peace, and the doctor having plenty of leisure,
weighed the matter over and over, till he was at length
fully satisfied that he had made a great ornithological
discovery, that its promulgation would give wings to his
fame, and that he was fated by means of these rooks to
say —
Volito vivus p«r era viruin.
His goose-quill and foolscap were quickly in requi-
sition, and he actually wrote a treatise, stating circum-
stantially what he himself had seen, and in conclusion,
giving it as the settled conviction of his mind, that rooks
were subject to t\\e. falling sickness 1 "—Jesse's Clean-
ings, Vol. I.
96
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
days longer. The place being thus deter-
mined upon, they begin to gather the materi-
als for their nest; such as sticks and fibrous
roots, which they regularly dispose in the
most substantial manner. But here a new
and unexpected obstacle arises. It often
happens that the young couple have made
choice of a place too near the mansion of an
older pair, who do not choose to be incom-
moded by such troublesome neighbours. A
quarrel therefore instantly ensues, in which
the old ones are always victorious.
The young couple, thus expelled, are ob-
liged again to go through the fatigues of de-
liberating, examining and choosing; and
having taken care to keep their due distance,
the nest begins again, and their industry
deserves commendation. But their alacrity
is often too great in the beginning ; they soon
grow weary of bringing the materials of their
nest from distant places ; and they very easily
perceive that sticks may be provided nearer
home, with less honesty, indeed, but some
degree of address. Away they go, therefore,
to pilfer, as fast as they can ; and whenever
ihey see a nest unguarded, they take care to
rob it of the very choicest sticks of which it
is composed. But these thefts never go un-
punished; and probably upon complaint being
made there is a general punishment inflicted.
i have seen eight or ten. rooks come upon
such occasions, and, setting upon the new
nest of the young couple all at once, tear it
in pieces in a moment.
At length, therefore, the young pair find
the necessity of going more regularly and
honestly to work. While one flies to fetch
the materials, the other sits upon the tree to
guard it; and thus in the space of three or
four days, with a skirmish now and then be-
tween, the pair have fitted up a commodious
nest, composed of sticks without, and of fibrous
roots and long grass within. From the instant
the female begins to lay, all hostilities are at
an end; not one of the whole grove, that a
little before treated her so rudely, will now
venture to molest her ; so that she brings forth
her brood with patient tranquillity. Such is
the severity with which even native rooks are
treated by each other ; but if a foreign rook
should attempt to make himself a denizen of
their society, he would meet with no favour;
the whole grove would at once be up in arms
against him, and expel him without mercy.
In some countries these birds are considered
as a benefit, in others as a nuisance : their
chief food is the worm of the door-beetle, and
corn; thus they may be said to do as much
service by destroying that noxious insect, as
they do injury by consuming the produce of
tUe husbandman's industry.
To this tribe of the crow-kind, some foreign
srrts might be added : I will take notice only
of one, which, from the extraordinary size and
fashion of its bill, must not be passed in
silence.1 This is the Calao, or horned Indian
raven, which exceeds the common raven in
size, and habits of depredation. But what
he differs in from all other birds is the beak,
which by its length and curvature at the end,
appears designed for rapine ; but then it has
a kind of horn standing out from the top,
which looks somewhat like a second bill, and
gives this bird, otherwise fierce and ugly, a
very formidable appearance. The horn springs
out of the forehead, and grows to the upper
part of the bill, being of great bulk; so that
near the forehead it is four inches broad, not
unlike the horn of a rhinoceros, but more
crooked at the tip. Were the body of the
bird answerable in size to the head, the calao
would exceed in magnitude even the vulture or
the eagle. But the head and beak are out of all
proportion, the body being not much larger
than that of a hen. Yet even here there are
varieties ; for in such of those birds as come
from different parts of Africa, the body is pro-
portionable to the beak ; in such as come from
the Molucca islands, the beak bears no pro-
portion to the body. Of what use this extra-
ordinary excrescence is to the bird, is not easy
to determine; it lives, like others of its kind,
upon carrion, and seldom has a living enem\
to cope with. Nature seems to sport in the
production of many animals, as if she were
willing to exhibit instances as well of variety
as economy in their formation.
CHAP. III.
OF THE MAGPIE, AND ITS AFFINITIES.
THERE are such a variety of birds that may
be distributed under this head, that we must
not expect very precise ideas of any. To
have a straight strong bill, legs formed for
hopping, a body of about the size of a mag-
pie, and party-coloured plumage, are the only
marks by which I must be contented to dis-
tinguish this numerous fantastic tribe, that add
to the beauty, though not to the harmony, of
our landscapes. In fact, their chattering every
where disturbs the melody of the lesser warb-
lers; and their noisy courtship notalittledamps
the song of the linnet and the nightingale.
However, we have very few of this kind in
our woods compared to those in the neighbour.
1 There are also the Fish Crow, which lives on dead
fish and other garbage by the river and sea shore, and
Clark's Crow, which resembles somewhat the jackdaw,
both described by Wilson in his Ornithology.
THE MAGPIE.
hood of the line. There they not only paint
the scene with the beauty and the variety of
their plumage, but stun the ear with their vo-
ciferation. In those luxurious forests, the
sina-ino-.birds are scarcely ever heard, but a
hundred varieties of the pie, the jay, the rol-
ler, the chatterer, and the toucan, are contin-
ually in motion, and with their illusive mock-
eries disturb or divert the spectator, as he hap-
pens to be disposed.
The Magpie is the chief of this kind with
us, and is too well known to need a description.
Indeed, were its other accomplishments equal
to its beauty, few birds could be put in com-
petition. Its black, its white, its green, and
purple, with the rich and gilded combination
of the glosses on its tail, are as fine as any
that adorn the most beautiful of the feathered
tribe. But it has too many of the qualities of
a beau to depreciate these natural perfections :
vain, restless, loud, and quarrelsome, it is an
unwelcome intruder every where ; and never
misses an opportunity, when it finds one, of
doing mischief.
The magpie bears a great resemblance to
the butcher-bird in its bill, which has a sharp
process near the end of the upper chap, as well
as in the shortness of its wings, and the form
of the tail ; each feather shortening from the
two middlemost. But it agrees still more in
its food, living not only upon worms and in-
sects, but also upon small birds when they
can be seized. A wounded lark, or a young
chicken separated from the hen, are sure plun-
der ; and the magpie will even sometimes set
upon and strike a blackbird.
The same insolence prompts it to tease the
largest animals, when its insults can be offered
with security. They often are seen perched
upon the back of an ox or a sheep, pecking up
the insects to be found there, chattering, and
tormenting the poor animal at the same time,
and stretching out their necks for combat, if
the beast turns its head backward to repre-
hend him. They seek out also the nests of
birds : and, if the parent escapes, the eggs
make up for the deficiency : the thrush and
the blackbird are but too frequently robbed by
this assassin, and this, in some measure, causes
their scarcity.
No food seems to come amiss to this bird ;
it shares with ravens in their carrion, witi
rooks in their grain, and with the cuckoo ir,
birds' eggs : but it seems possessed of a pro
vidence seldom usual with gluttons; for when
it is satisfied for the present, it lays up the re-
mainder of the feast for another occasion. It
will even in a tame state hide its food when it
has done eating, and after a time return to the
secret hoard with renewed appetite and voci-
feration.
In all its habits it discovers a degree of in
stinct unusual to other birds. Its nest is not
less remarkable for the manner in which it is
composed, than for the place the magpie takes
to build it in. The nest is usually placed
conspicuous enough, either in the middle of
some hawthorn bush, or on the top of some
high tree. The place, however, is always
found difficult of access ; for the tree pitched
upon usually grows in some thick hedge-row
fenced by brambles at the root ; or sometimes
one of the higher bushes is fixed upon for the
purpose. When the place is thus chosen as
inaccessible as possible to men, the next care
is to fence the nest above so as to defend it
from all the various enemies of air. The kite,
the crow, and the sparrow-hawk, are to be
guarded against; as their nests have been
sometimes plundered by the magpie, so it is
reasonably feared that they will take the first
opportunity to retaliate. To prevent this, the
magpie's nest is built with surprising labour
and ingenuity.
The body of the nest is composed of haw-
thorn branches, the thorns sticking outward,
but well united together by their mutual in-
sertions. Within it is lined with fibrous
roots, wool, and long grass, and then nicely
plastered all round with mud and clay. The
body of the nest being thus made firm and
commodious, the next work is to make the
canopy which is to defend it above. This is
composed of the sharpest thorns, wove together
in such a manner as to deny all entrance ex-
cept at the door, which is just large enough to
permit egress and regress to the owners. In
this fortress the male and female hatch and
bring up their brood with security, sheltered
from all attacks but those of the climbing
school-boy, who often finds his torn and bloody
hands too dear a price for the eggs or the
young ones. The magpie layssix or seven eggs,
of a pale green colour, spotted with brown.
This bird, in its domestic state, preserves
its natural character with slrict propriety.
The same noisy mischievous habits attend it
to the cage that marked it in the woods ; and
being more cunning, so it is also a more do-
cile bird than any other taken into keeping.
Those who are desirous of teaching it to speak
have a foolish custom of cutting its tongue,
98
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
wlxich only puts the poor animal to pain, with-
out improving its speech in the smallest de-
gree. Its speaking is sometimes very dis-
tinct; but its sounds are too thin and sharp to
be an exact imitation of the human voice,
which the hoarse raven and parrot can coun-
terfeit more exactly.
To this tribe we may refer the jay, which
is one of the most beautiful of the British
birds. The forehead is white, streaked with
black ; the nead is covered with very long
feathers, which it can erect into a crest at
pleasure ; the whole neck, back, breast, and
belly, are of a faint purple, dashed with gray ;
the wings are most beautifully barred with a
lovely blue, black, and white ; the tail is
black, and the feet of a pale brown. Like
the magpie, it feeds upon fruits, will kill
small birds, and is extremely docile.1
1 The Jays differ from the pies principally in the bill,
which is more hooked, and in having some long loose
feathers on the crown of the head, which are erected
when the birds are excited; the tail, moreover, in these
birds, is longer and more graduated. They may almost
be said to be omnivorous, living in general in the woods,
but occasionally resorting to gardens and cultivated
lands, to both of which they are injurious and destruc-
tive, as well by what they eat at the time, as by what
they carry off to increase their hidden stores. In sum-
mer they live in pairs, but in the opposite season assem-
ble in small groups. They advance on the ground al-
ways by leaps, and seldom or never walk. In disposi-
tion they are very irascible, petulant, and inquisitive,
and take their scientific generic name, garridus, from
their constant loquacity. The nest is built in trees, ge-
nerally at about half-way from the bottom, of sticks, in-
terlaced together on the outside, cased within with mud,
and lined with dry grass and fibres: the entrance to it is
at the side. The eggs are white, spotted with brown
and gray, and are from six to eight in number.
The common jay does not seem to be very generally
or exclusively located, and is partially migratory from
the west and northern parts of Europe to the south-east,
as the islands of the Grecian Archipelago, and also
Egypt, Syria, &c. Though many are thus said to mi-
grate, it is nevertheless clear that some "continue in our
own country and in France the whole year.
The Red-Billed Jay is a very splendid bird. The
bill and feet are red: the neck and breast are black; the
crown of the head lioUed black and white; body, above
and beneath, ashen ; oi the tail feathers, the two interme-
diate are much the longest, and the lateral feathers are
graduated; they are blue, tipt with white, and a black
bar between that colour and the blue. Inhabits China,
».iid is frequently rendered very tame and amusing. Of
The Chatterer also, which is a native of
Germany, may be placed in this rank ; and is
somewhat less than the former. It is varie-
gated with a beautiful mixture of colours; red,
the Blue Jay, an inhabitant of North America, (See
Plate XV. fig. 8.) Wilson has given the following inter-
esting account.
" The blue jay is an almost universal inhabitant of the
woods, frequenting the thickest settlements as well as
the deepestrecesses of the forest, where his squalling voice
often alarms the deer, to the disappointment and morti-
fication of the hunter, — one of whom informed me that
he made it a point, iu summer, to kill every jay he
could meet with. In the charming season of spring,
when every thicket pours forth harmony, the part per-
formed by the jay always catches the .ear. He appears
to be among his i'ellow musicians what the trumpeter is
in a band, some of his notes having no distant resem-
blance to the tones of that instrument. Tiiese he
has the faculty of changing through a great variety of
modulations, according to the particular humour he hap-
pens to be in. When disposed for ridicule, there is
scarce a bird whose peculiarities of song he cannot tune
his notes to. When engaged in the blandishments of
love, they resemble the soft chatterings of a duck, and,
while he nestles among the thick branches of the cedar,
are scarce heard at a few paces distance: but he no sooner
discovers your approach than he sets up a vehement
outcry, flying off, and screaming with all his might, as
if he called the whole feathered tribe of the neighbour-
hood to witness some outrageous usage he had received.
When he hops undisturbed among the high branches of
the oak and hickory, they become soft and musical; and
his calls for the female a stranger would mistake for the
repeated screakings of an ungreased wheel-barrow. All
these he accompanies with various nods, and jerks, and
other gesticulations, for whic.Ii the whole tribe of jays are
so remarkable, that, with some other peculiarities, they
might have very well justified the great Swedish natu-
ralist iu forming them into a separate genus by them-
selves.
" The blue jay builds a large nest, frequently in the
cedar, sometimes on an apple-tree, lines it with dry fib-
rous roots, and lays five eggs, of a dull olive, spotted
with brown. The male is particularly careful of not
being heard near the place, making his visits as silently
and secretly as possible. His favourite food is chestnuts,
acorns, and Indian corn. He occasionally feeds on
bugs and caterpillars, and sometimes pays a plundering
visit to the orchard, cherry rows, and potato patch; and
has been known, in times of scarcity, to venture into the
barn, through openings between the weather boards. In
these cases he is extremely active and silent, and, if sur-
prised in the act, makes his escape with precipitation,
but without noise, as if conscious of his criminality.
" Of all birds he is the most bitter enemy to the owl.
No sooner has he discovered the retreat of one of these,
than he summons the whole feathered fraternity to his
assistance, who surround the glimmering solitaire, and
attack him from all sides, raising such a shout as may
be heard, in a still day, more than half a mile off.
When, in my hunting excursions, I have passed near
this scene of tumult, I have imagined to myself that 1
heard the insulting party venting their respective
charges with all the virulence of a Billingsgate mob; the
owl, meanwhile, returning every compliment with a
broad oggling stare. The war becomes louder and louder,
and the owl at length, forced to betake himself to flight,
is followed by his whole train of persecutors, until driven
beyond the boundaries of their jurisdiction.
" But the blue jay himself is not guiltless of similar
depredations with the owl, and becomes in his turn the
THE TOUCAN.
99
ash-colour, chestnut, and yellow ; but what
distinguishes it from all other birds, are the
horny appendages from the tips of seven of
the lesser quill feathers, which stand bare of
beards, and have the colour and gloss of the
best red sealing wax.
The Roller is not less beautiful than any of
the former. (For Noisy Roller, see Plate XV.
fig. 11 ; for Green Roller, see Plate XVII.
fig. 5.) The breast and belly are blue ; the
head green ; and the wings variegated with
blue, black, and white. But it may be dis-
tinguished from all others by a sort of naked
tubercles or warts near the eyes, which still
farther contribute to increase its beauty.
To this class may be added a numerous list
from all the tropical forests of the east and
west ; where the birds are remarkable for dis-
cordant voices and brilliant plumage. I will
fix only upon one, which is the most singu-
lar of all the feathered creation. This is the
Toucan, a bird of the pie kind, whose bill
very tyrant he detested, when he sneaks through the
woods, as he frequently does, and among the thickets
and hedge-rows, plundering every nest he can find of its
eggs, tearing up the callow young by piecemeal, and
spreading alarm and sorrow around him. The cries of the
distressed parents soon bring together a number of in-
terested spectators (for birds in such circumstances seem
truly to sympathise with each other,) and he is sometimes
attacked with such spirit as to be under the necessity
of making a speedy retreat.
" He will sometimes assault small birds, with the in-
tention of killing and devouring them; an instance of
which I myself once witnessed, over a piece of woods
near the borders of Schuylkill ; where I saw him en-
gaged for more then five minutes pursuing what I took
to be a species of motacilla (m. maculosa, yellow rump,)
wheeling, darting, and doubling in the air, and, at last,
to my great satisfaction, got disappointed in the escape
of his intended prey. In times of great extremity,
when his hoard or magazine is frozen up, buried in snow,
or perhaps exhausted, he becomes very voracious, and
will make a meal of whatever carrion or other animal
substance comes in the way, and has been found regal-
ing himself on the bowels of a robin (turdus migratoriui)
in less than five minutes after it was shot.
•'There are, however, individual exceptions to this
general character for plunder and outrage, a proneness
for which is probably often occasioned by the wants and
irritations of necessity. A blue jay, which I have kept
for some time, and with which I am on terms of famili-
arity, is in reality a very notable example of mildness of
disposition and sociability of manners. An accident in
the «oor!=! first put me in possession of this bird, while
in full plumage, and in high health and spirits ; I carried
him home with me, and put him into a cage already oc-
is nearly as large as the rest of its whole
body.1
Of this extraordinary bird there are four
or five varieties. I will only describe the
red-beaked toucan ; and as the figure of this
bird makes the principal part of its history, I
cupied by a golden-winged woodpecker (picus auratus,)
where he was saluted with such rudeness, and received
such a drubbing from the lord of the manor, for entering
his premises, that, to save his life, I was obliged to take
him out again. I then put him intofmnther cage, where
the only tenant was a female oriolus spurius (bastard
baltimore.) She also put on airs of alarm, as if she con-
sidered herself endangered and insulted by the intrusion;
the jay, meanwhile, sat mute and motionless on the
bottom of the cage, either dubious of his own situation,
or willing to allow time for the fears of his neighbour to
subside. Accordingly, in a few minutes, after displaying
various threatening gestures (like some of those Indians
we read of in their first interviews with the whites,) she
began to make her approaches, but with great circum-
spection, and readiness for retreat. Seeing, however,
the jay begin to pick up some crumbs of broken chest-
nuts, in an humble and peaceable way, she also descended,
and began to do the same; but, at the slightest motion
of her new guest, wheeled round and put herself on the
defensive. All this ceremonious jealousy vanished before
evening; and they now roost together, feed, and play
together, in perfect harmony and good humour. When
the jay goes to drink, his mess-mate very impudently
jumps into the saucer to wash herself, throwing the water
in showers over her companion, who bears it all pa-
tiently ; venturing now and then to take a sip between
every splash, without betraying the smallest token of
irritation. On the contrary, he seems to take pleasure
in his little fellow-prisoner, allowing her to pick (which
she does very gently) about his whiskers, and to clean his
claws from the minute fragments of chestnuts which
happen to adhere to them. This attachment on the one
part, and mild condescension on the other, may, perhaps,
he partly the effect of mutual misfortunes, which are
found not only to knit mankind, but many species of in-
ferior animals, more closely together: and shows that
the disposition of the blue jay may be humanized, and
rendered susceptible of affectionate impressions, even for
those birds which, in a state of nature, he would have
no hesitation in making a meal of.
"He is not only bold and vociferous, but possesses a
considerable talent for mimicry, and seems to enjoy great
satisfaction in mocking and teasing other birds, particu-
larly the little hawk (f. Sparverius,) imitating his cry
wherever he sees him, and squealing out as if caught :
this soon brings a number of his own tribe around him,
who all join in the frolic, darting about the hawk, and
feigning the cries of a bird sorely wounded, and already
under the clutches of its devourer ; while others lie con-
cealed in bushes, ready to second their associates in the
attack. But this ludicrous farce often terminates tragi-
cally. The hawk, singling out one of the most insolent
and provoking, sweeps upon him in the unguarded
moment, and oflers him up a sacrifice to his hunger and
resentment. In an instant the tune is changed; all their
buffoonery vanishes, and loud and incessant screams pro-
claim their disaster."
1 The enormous beak is nearly as long as the body ;
and this circumstance has given rise to the belief that
the toucan is greatly embarrassed by this extraordinary
provision of nature, and rendered incapable of those active
movements which so peculiarly distinguish the feathered
race. If the beak, indeed, were constructed in that solid
manner which we ordinarily observe in birds of prey, and
in those who live upon hard substances, we should not be
surprised to find so considerable an appendage weighing
100
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
will follow Edwards through all the minutias
of its singular conformation. It is about the
size of, and shaped like, a jackdaw, with a
large head to support its monstrous bill ; this
bill, from the angles of the mouth to its point,
is six inches and a half ; and its breadth, in
the thickest part, is a little more than two.
Its thickness near the head, is one inch and
a quarter; and it is a little rounded along the
top of the upper chap, the under side being
round also ; the whole of the bill is extremely
slight, and a little thicker than parchment.
The upper chap is of a bright yellow, except
on each side, which is of a fine scarlet colour;
as is also the lower chap, except at the base,
which is purple. Between the head and the
down the unfortunate bird's head, and unfitting it for up-
ward flight, or even for ordinary vision, excepting in one
direction. In that case the toucan must have been
doomed to a grovelling life upon the earth, perpetually
striving to use its brilliant wings, and longing to search
for food amongst the high branches of fruit-bearing trees,
— but striving and longing in vain. This would not
have been in conformity with the usual harmony of nature ;
and, therefore, in spite of its enormous beak, we find the
toucans flying as nimbly as any other bird from tree to
tree — perching on the summits of the very highest —
searching for fruit with restless activity — pursuing small
birds which, it is now ascertained, form part of their food
— and defending their young with unremitting vigilance
against serpents, monkeys, and other enemies. All
these functions of their existence could not have been
performed if the specific gravity of the beak were equal
to its dimensions. But it is not so. As compared, in
specific gravity, with the beak of a hawk, for instance, the
beak of the toucan may be said to stand in the same rela-
tion to it as a piece of pumice-stone to a piece of granite.
The exterior of the beak is a spongy tissue, presenting a
number of cavities, formed by extremely thin plates, and
covered with a hard coat scarcely thicker. This remark-
able beak forms almost as curious and wonderful an ex-
ample of peculiar organization as the trunk of the ele-
phant. We are not so intimately acquainted with its
uses ; but there can be no doubt that the instrument is
admirably adapted to the necessities of the toucan's exis-
tence.
The toucans, as well as the aracaris, (for aracari tou-
can,see Plate XVII. fig. 15.) which they greatly resemble,
are found in the warmest parts of South America. Their
plumage is brilliant ; and their feathers have been em-
ployed as ornaments of dress by the ladies of Brazil and
Peru. Several specimens have been kept alive in this
country. Mr Broderip, in the Zoological Journal for
January 1825, has given an interesting account of a
specimen in a small menagerie, whose habits he watched
•with great care. By this examination the fact was es-
tablished that the toucan ordinarily feeds on small birds.
The toucan in question, upon a goldfinch being put into
his cage, would instantly kill it by a squeeze of his bill,
and then deliberately pull his prey to pieces, swallow-
ing every portion, not excepting the beak and the legs.
Mr Broderip states that the toucan appeared to derive
the greatest satisfaction from the act of eating, which he as-
cribes to the peculiar sensibility of the internal part of
the beak. He never used his foot except to confine his
prey on the perch : the beak was the only instrument em-
ployed in tearing it to pieces. It appears, also, that this
bird subjects some of its food to a second mastication by
its beak, in a manner somewhat resembling the similar
action in ruminating animals.
bill there is a black line of separation all
round the base of the bill ; in the upper part
of which the nostrils are placed, and are al-
most covered with feathers ; which has occa-
sioned some writers to say, that the toucan ha?
no nostrils. Round the eyes, on each side of
the head, is a space of bluish skin, void of
feathers, above which the head is black, ex-
cept a white spot on each side joining to the
base of the upper chap. The hinder part of
the neck, the back, wings, tail, belly, and
thighs, are black. The under side of the
head, throat, and the beginning of the breast,
are white. Between the white on the breast,
and the black on the belly, is a space of red
feathers, in the form of a new moon, with its
horns upwards. The legs, feet, and claws,
are of an ash-colour; and the toes stand like
those of the parrot, two before, and two be-
hind.
It is reported, by travellers, that this bird,
though furnished with so formidable a beak,
is harmless and gentle, being so easily made
tame, as to sit and hatch its young in houses.
It feeds chiefly upon pepper, which it devours
very greedily, gorging itself in such a man-
ner that it voids it crude and unconcocted.
This, however, is no objection to the natives
from using it again ; they even prefer it be-
fore that pepper which is fresh gathered from
the tree : and seem persuaded that the strength
and heat of the pepper is qualified by the bird,
and that all its noxious qualities are thus ex-
hausted.
Whatever be the truth of this report, no-
thing is more certain than that the toucan
lives only upon a vegetable diet ; and in a
domestic state, to which it is frequently
brought in the warm countries where it is
bred, it is seen to prefer such food to all other.
Pozzo, who bred one tame, asserts, that it
leaped up and down, wagged the tail, and
cried with a voice resembling that of a mag-
pie. It fed upon the same things that parrots
do; but was most greedy of grapes, which,
being plucked off one by one, and thrown into
the air, it would most dexterously catch be-
fore they fell to the ground. Its bill, he adds,
was hollow, and upon that account very light,
so that it had but little strength in so appar-
ently formidable a weapon ; nor could it peck
or strike smartly therewith. But its tongue
seemed to assist the efforts of this unwieldy
machine ; it was long, thin, and flat, not un-
like one of the feathers on the neck of a dung-
hill-cock ; this it moved up and down, and
often extended five or six inches from the bill.
It was of a flesh colour, and very remarkably
fringed on each side with very small filaments,
exactly resembling a feather.
It is probable that this long tongue has
greater strength than the thin hollow beak
THE WOODPECKER.
101
that contains it. It is likely that the beak is
only a kind of sheath for this peculiar instru-
ment, used by the toucan, not only in making
itself a nest, but also in obtaining its provision.
Nothing is more certain, than that this bird
builds its nest in holes of trees, which have
been previously scooped out for this purpose ;
and it is not very likely that so feeble a bill
could be very serviceable in working upon
such hard materials.
Be this as it will, there is no bird secures
its young better from external injury than the
toucan. It has not only birds, men, and ser-
pents, to guard against, but a numerous tribe
of monkeys, still more prying, mischievous,
and hungry, than all the rest. The toucan,
however, scoops out its nest in the hollow of
some trees, leaving only a hole large enough
to go in and out at. There it sits, with its
great beak, guarding the entrance, and if the
monkey venture to offer a visit of curiosity,
the toucan gives him such a welcome, that he
presently thinks proper to pack off, and is
glad to escape with safety.
This bird is only found in the warm clim-
ates of South America, where it is in great
request, both for the delicacy of its flesh,
which is tender and nourishing, and for the
beauty of its plumage, particularly the fea-
thers of the breast. The skin of this part the
Indians pluck off, and, when dry, glue to their
cheeks ; and this they consider as an irresisti-
ble addition to their beauty.1
1 The Rhinoceros Bird is of the order Pica or Pies,
and of the genus, Buceros, consisting of birds of rather
large size, and distinguished by the disproportionate
forms of their beaks, which are often still further re-
markable for some kind of large prominence on the up-
per mandible. The most conspicuous species is the
Buceros Rhinoceros of Linnaeus, commonly called the
rhinoceros bird.
Its general size is that of a turkey, but with a much
more slenderly proportioned body. Its colour is black,
with the tail white, crossed by a black bar : the beak is
of enormous size, of a lengthened, slightly curved, and
pointed shape, and on the upper mandible, towards the
base, is an extremely large process, equal in thickness
to the bill itself, and turning upwards and backwards in
the form of a thick, sharp-pointed horn, somewhat re-
sembling the horn of the rhinoceros. The use of tin's
strange proboscis is by some supposed to be that of en-
abling the bird more easily to tear out the entrails of its
prey ; but others affirm that it is not of a predaceous na-
ture, feeding only on vegetable substances. This bird is
principally found in the East Indian Islands.
The Trogons constitute a family of birds, the members
of which are peculiar to the hotter regions of America,
and of India, and its adjacent islands, Ceylon, Java,
Sumatra, &c., one species only having as yet been dis-
covered in Africa. Among the most conspicuous of the
feathered tribes for beauty and brilliancy of plumage, the
Irogons stand confessedly pre-eminent. The metallic
.golden green of some species is of dazzling effulgence;
in others less gorgeous: the delicate pcncillings of the
plumage, and the contrasted hues of deep scarlet, black,
green, and brown, produce a rich and beautiful effect.
CHAP. IV.
OF THE WOODPECKER, AND ITS AFFINITIES.
WB now come to the numerous tribe of
Woodpeckers : a class easily distinguished
Nor is their shape and contour unworthy of their dress;
were they far less elegantly arrayed they would still be
pleasing birds.
The trogons are zygodactyle, that i»r-th*y have their
toes in pairs, two before and two behind, like parrots
and woodpeckers ; the tarsi are short and feeble, the
beak is stout, and the gape wide ; the general contour
of the body is full and round, and the head large; the
plumage is dense, soft, and deep; the wings are short
but pointed, the quill feathers being rigid ; the tail is
long, ample, and graduated, its outer feathers decreasing
in length ; in some species, and especially in that brilliant
bird the resplendent trogon (trogon resplendens, Gould,)
the tail-coverts are greatly elongated, so as to form a
beautiful pendent plumage of loose wavy feathers.
Of solitary habits, the trogons (or coroucu?) frequent
the most secluded portions of dense forests, remote from
the abodes of man. For hours together they sit motion-
less on some branch, uttering occasionally a plaintive
melancholy cry, especially while the female is brooding
on her eggs. Indifferent during the day to every object,
listless or slumbering on their perch, they take no notice
of the presence of an intruder, and may indeed be often
so closely approached as to be knocked down by a stick;
the bright glare of the sun obscures their sight, and
they wait for evening, the dusk of twilight being their
season of activity.
Fruits, insects and their larvse, constitute their food.
Formed, most of them at least, for rapid but not pro-
tracted flight, they watch from their perch the insects
flitting by, and dart after them with surprising velocity,
returning after their short chase to the same point of
observation. Some, however, are almost exclusively
frugivorous; we allude more especially to those whose
flowing plumes impede the freedom of their flight; such
seek for fruits and berries. Many species are certainly
migratory. M. Natterer observes, respecting the pavo-
nine trogon^ w'lich, in great numbers, inhabits,
during a certain season of the year, the high woods
along the upper part of the Amazon and Rio Negro,
that he found the contents of its stomach to consist
principally of the fruit of a certain species of palm, and
that it arrives in those districts when its favourite food
is ripe, but that when the trees no longer yield an ade-
quate supply, it retires to other districts.
Like the parrots and woodpeckers, the trogons breed
in the hollows of decayed trees, the eggs being deposited
on a bed of wood-dust, the work of insects; they are
three or four in number, and white. The young, when
first hatched, are totally destitute of feathers, which do
not begin to make their appearance for two or three
days; and their head and beak appear to be dispro-
portionately large. They are said to rear two broods in
the year.
The American trogons have their beak of moderate
size, with serrated (or saw-like) edges, and furnished
at its base with bristles ; the upper surface (of the
males at least) is of a rich metallic green, the under
parts being more or less universally scarlet or rich
yellow. The outer tail-feathers in the majority of the
species are more or less barred with black and white.
In the Indian trogons the beak is larger and stouter,
with smooth edges, having a tooth near the tip of the
upper mandible. The eyes are encircled by a large
bare space of richly-coloured skin; the upper surface
102
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
from all others, botli for their peculiar forma-
tion, their method of procuring food, and their
manner of providing a place of safety for their
young. Indeed, no other class of birds seems
more immediately formed for the method of
life they pursue, being fitted by nature, at all
points, for the peculiarity of their condition.
They live chiefly upon the insects contained
in the body of trees ; and for this purpose are
furnished with a straight, hard, strong, angu-
lar, and sharp bill, made for piercing and bor-
ing. They have a tongue of a very great
length ; round, ending in a sharp, stiff, bony
thorn, dentated on each side, to strike ants
and insects when dislodged from their cells.
Their legs are short and strong, for the pur-
poses of climbing. Their toes stand two for-
ward, and two backward ; which is particu-
larly serviceable in holding by the branches
of the trees. They have hard stiff tails to
lean upon when climbing. They feed only
upon insects, and want that intestine which
anatomists call the ccecum; a circumstance
peculiar to this tribe only.
Of this bird there are many kinds, and
many varieties in each kind. They form
large colonies in the forests of every part of
the world. They differ in size, colour, and
appearance ; and agree only in the marks
above mentioned, or in those habits which re-
sult from so peculiar a conformation. Instead,
therefore, of descending into a minute discri-
mination of every species, let us take one for
a pattern, to which all the rest will be found
to bear the strongest affinity. Words can
but feebly describe the plumage of a bird ;
but it is the province of history to enter into
is brown, the lower more or less scarlet, and the outer
tail-feathers exhibit no tendency towards a barred style
of marking, excepting in one species, Diard's trogon,
in which the three outer tail-feathers are finely pow-
dered with black.
The African species (trogon narina, Levaill.) closely
approximates to its American relatives; but its three
outer tail-feathers are unbarred. This species inhabits
the dense forests of Cafiraria; during the day it sits
motionless on a low dead branch, and it is only in the
morning and evening that it displays activity. Locusts
and other insects are its principal food.
Of all the trogons none are so magnificent as the
trogon resplendens, lately introduced to the knowledge
of the scientific world, as a distinct species by Mr Gould,
and admirably figured in his splendid " Monograph "
of the family trogonidae. This bird, as stated by Mr
Gould, " is to be found only in the dense and gloomy
forests of the Southern Slates of Mexico." Little known
to Europeans, except within the last few years, the
brilliant plumes which fall over the tail (and which,
as is the whole of the upper surface of the body of
this bird, are of the richest metallic golden green;)
were made use of by the ancient Mexicans, as orna-
ments on their head-dresses ; and gorgeous must a head-
dress be, composed of such feathers — soft, flowing, of
dazzling lustre, and three feet in length. In later times
they have occasionally been transmitted as curiosities
to Europe.
a detail of every animal's pursuits and occu-
pations.
The Green Woodspile, or Woodpecker, is
called the rainfowl in some parts of the coun-
try; because, when it makes a greater noise
than ordinary, it is supposed to foretell rain.
It is about the size of a jay ; the throat, breast,
and belly, are of a pale greenish colour ; and
the back, neck, and covert feathers of the
wings, are green. But the tongue of this
little animal makes its most distinguished
characteristic, as it serves for its support and
defence. As was said above, the woodpecker
feeds upon insects ; and particularly on those
which are lodged in the body of hollow or of
rotting trees. The tongue is its instrument
for killing and procuring this food ; which
cannot be found in great plenty. This is
round, ending in a stiff, sharp, bony tip, den-
tated on both sides, like the beard of an arrow,
and this it can dart out three or four inches
from the bill, and draw in again at pleasure.
Its prey is thus transfixed, and drawn into the
bill, which, when swallowed, the dart is again
launched at fresh game. Nothing has em-
ployed the attention of the curious in this part
of anatomy, more than the contrivance by
which the tongue of (his bird performs its
functions with such great celerity. The
tongue is drawn back into the bill by the help
of two small round cartilages, fastened in(o
the forementioned bony tip, and running along
the length of the tongue. These cartilages,
from the root of the tongue, take a circuit be-
yond the ears ; and being reflected backwards
to the crown of the head, make a large bow.
The muscular spongy flesh of the tongue in-
closes these cartilages, like a sheath ; and is
so made that it may be extended or contracted
like a worm. The cartilages indeed have
muscles accompanying them along their whole
length backwards. — But there is still another
contrivance ; for there is a broad muscle join-
ing the cartilages to the bones of the skull,
which, by contracting or dilating, forces the
cartilages forward through the tongue, and
then forces the tongue and all through the bill,
to be employed for the animal's preservation
in piercing its prey.
Such is the instrument with which this bird
is provided ; and this the manner in which
this instrument is employed. When a wood-
pecker, by its natural sagacity, finds out a
rotten hollow tree, where there are worms,
ant's eggs, or insects, it immediately prepares
for its operations. Resting by its strong
claws, and leaning on the thick feathers of its
tail, it begins to bore with its sharp strong
beak, until it discloses the whole internal ha-
bitation. Upon this, either through pleasure
at the sight of its prey, or with a desire to
alarm the insect colony, it sends forth a loud
THE WOODPECKER.
103
cry, which throws terror and confusion into the
whole insect tribe. They creep hither and
thither, seeking for safety; while the bird
luxuriously feasts upon them at leisure, dart-
ing its tongue with unerring certainty, and
devouring the whole brood.
The woodpecker, however, does not confine
its depredations solely to trees, but sometimes
lights upon the ground, to try its fortune at an
ant-hill. It is not so secure of prey there as
in the former case, although the numbers are
much greater. They lie generally too deep
for the bird to come at them ; and it is
obliged to make up by stratagem the defect
of power. The woodpecker first goes to their
hills, which it pecks, in order to call them
abroad ; it then thrusts out its long red tongue,
which being like a worm, and resembling
their usual prey, the ants come out to settle
upon, in great numbers ; however, the bird
watching the properest opportunity, withdraws
its tongue at a jerk, and devours the devour-
ers. This stratagem it continues till it has
alarmed their fears ; or till it is quite satisfied.1
As the woodpecker is obliged to make
holes in trees to procure food, so is it also to
make cavities still larger to form its nest, and
to lay in. This is performed, as usual, with
the bill; although some have affirmed that the
animal uses its tongue as a gimblet to bore
with. But this is a mistake; and those that
are curious, may often hear the noise of the
bill making its way in large woods and for-
ests. The woodpecker chooses, however, for
this purpose, trees that are decayed, or wood
that is soft, like beech, elm, and poplar. In
these, with very little trouble, it can make
holes as exactly round as a mathematician
could with compasses. One of these holes the
bird generally chooses for its own use, to nestle
and bring up its young in ; but as they are
easily made, it is delicate in its choice, and
often makes twenty before one is found fit to
give entire satisfaction. Of those which it has
made and deserted, other birds, not so good
borers, arid less delicate in their choice, take
possession. The jay and the starling- lay
their eggs in these holes ; and bats are now
and then found in peaceable possession. Boyf
sometimes have thrust in their hands wilh
certain hopes of plucking out a bird's egg ;
but to their great mortification, have had theii
fingers bitten by a bat at the bottom.
The woodpecker takes no care to line it
nest with feathers or straw ; its eggs are depo-
sited in the hole, without any thing to keep
1 The JJ'ryneck, (See Plate XV. fig. 9.) so called
from a habit of turning the neck, bears a close analog]
to the woodpeckers, in the extensibility of tho tongue
and the position of the toes. This bird darts its long
tongue into an ant hill, and draws it out loaded with ants
which are retained by the viscous liquid which covers it
hem warm, except the heat of the parent's
>ody. Their number is generally five or six ;
Iways white, oblong, and of a middle size.
When the young are excluded, and before
hey leave the nest, they are adorned with a
scarlet plumage under the throat, which adds
;o their beauty.2
2 Ivory billed Woodpecker.* — " This majestic, and for-
midable species, (says Wilson, in his American Ornitho-
ogy) in strength and magnitude stands at the head
of the whole class of woodpeckers hitherto discovered.
He may be called the king or chief of his tribe;
and nature seems to have designed him a dis-
tinguished characteristic in the superb carmine crest
and bill of polished ivory with which she has or-
namented him. His eye is brilliant and daring;
and his whole frame so admirably adapted for his mode
of life, and method of procuring subsistence, as to im-
press on the mind of the examiner the most reverential
ideas of the Creator. His manners have also a dignity
in them superior to the common herd of woodpeckers.
Trees, shrubbery, orchards, rails, fence posts, and old
prostrate logs, are alike interesting to those, in their
humble and indefatigable search for prey; but the royal
hunter now before us, scorns the humility of such situa-
tions, and seeks the most towering trees of the forest ;
seeming particularly attached to those prodigious cypress
swamps, whose crowded giant sons stretch their bare and
blasted, or moss-hung arms midway to the skies. In
these almost inaccessible recesses, amid ruinous piles of
impending timber, his trumpet-like note and loud strokes
resound through the solitary savage wilds, of which he
seems the sole lord and inhabitant. Wherever he fre-
quents, he leaves numerous monuments of his industry
behind him. We there see enormous pine trees with
cart-loads of bark lying around their roots, and chips of
the trunk itself in such quantities as to suggest the idea
that half a dozen of axe-men had been at work there for
the whole morning. The body of the tree is also dis-
figured with such numerous and so large excavations,
that one can hardly conceive it possible for the whole to
be the work of a woodpecker. With such strength, and
an apparatus so powerful, what havoc might he not com-
mit, if numerous, on the most useful of our forest trees !
and yet with all these appearances, and much 01 vulgar
prejudice against him, it may fairly be questioned whe-
ther he is at all injurious; or, at least, whether his ex-
ertions do not contribute most powerfully to the protec-
tion of our timber. Examine closely the tree where he
has been at work, and you will soon perceive, that it is
neither from motives of mischief nor amusement that he
slices off the bark, or digs his way into the trunk. — For
104
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
In our climate, this bird is contented with
such a wainscot habitation as has been des-
cribed for its young ; but in the warmer re-
gions of Guinea and Brazil, they take a very
different method to protect and hatch their
nascent progeny. (For Megellannic Wood-
the sound and healthy tree is the least object of his atten-
tion. The diseased, infested with insects, and hastening
to putrefaction, are his favourites; there the deadly
crawling enemy have formed a lodgement between the
bark and tender wood, to drink up the very vital part of
the tree. It is the ravages of these vermin which the
intelligent proprietor of the forest deplores, as the sole
perpetrators of the destruction of his timber. Would
it be believed that the larvre of an insect, or fly, no
larger than a grain of rice, should silently, and in one
season, destroy some thousand acres of pine trees, many
of them from two to three feet in diameter, and a hun-
dred and fifty feet high ! Yet whoever passes along the
high road from Georgetown to Charleston, in South Ca-
rolina, about twenty miles from the former place, can
have striking and melancholy proofs of this fact. In
some places the whole woods, as far as you can see around
you, are dead, stripped of the bark, their wintry-looking
arms and bare trunks bleaching in the sun, and tumbling
in ruins before every blast, presenting a frightful picture
of desolation. And yet ignorance and prejudice stub-
bornly persist in directing their indignation against the
bird now before us, the constant and mortal enemy of
these very vermin, as if the hand that probed the wound
to extract its cause, should be equally detested with that
which inflicted it; or as if the thief-catcher should be
confounded with the thief. Until some effectual preven-
tive or more complete mode of destruction can be de-
vised against these insects, and their larvse, I would
humbly suggest the propriety of protecting, and receiving
with proper feelings of gratitude, the services of this and
the whole tribe of woodpeckers, letting the odium of
guilt fall to its proper owners.
" In looking over the accounts given of the ivory,
billed woodpecker by the naturalists of Europe, I find it
asserted, that it inhabits from New Jersey to Mexico.
I believe, however, that few of them are ever seen to
the north of Virginia, and very few of them even in that
state. The first place I observed this bird at, when on
my way to the south, was about twelve miles north of
Wilmington in North Carolina. Having wounded it
slightly in the wing, on being caught, it uttered a loudly
reiterated and most piteous note, exactly resembling the
violent crying of a young child ; which terrified my horse
so, as nearly to have cost me my life. It was distressing
to hear it. I carried it with me in the chair, under
cover, to Wilmington. In passing through the streets,
its affecting cries surprised every one within hearing,
particularly the females, who hurried to the doors and
windows with looks of alarm and anxiety. I drove on,
and, on arriving at the piazza of the hotel, where I in-
tended to put up, the landlord came forward, and a num-
ber of other persons who happened to be there, all equally
alarmed at what they heard; this was greatly increased
by my asking, whether he could furnish me with accom-
modations for myself and my baby. The man looked
blank and foolish, while the others stared with still great-
er astonishment. After diverting myself for a minute
or two at their expense, I drew my woodpecker from
under the cover, and a general laugh took place. I took
him up stairs and locked him up in my room, while I
went to see my horse taken care of. In less than an hour
I returned, and, on opening the door, he set up the same
distressing shout, which now appeared to proceed from grief
that he had been discovered in his attempts at escape.
lie had mounted along the side of the window, nearly
pecker, see Plate XVI. fig. 36.) A traveller
who walks into the forests of these countries,
among the first strange objects that excite
curiosity, is struck with the multitude of birds'
nests hanging at the extremity of almosl
every branch. Many other kinds of birds
as high as the ceiling, a little below which he had be-
gun to break through. The bed was covered with large
pieces of plaster ; the lath was exposed for at least fifteen
inches square, and a hole large enough to admit the fist,
opened to the weather-boards ; so that in less than
another hour he would certainly have succeeded in mak-
ing his way through. I now tied a string round his
leg, and, fastening it to the table, again left him. 1
wished to preserve his life, and had gone ofl' in search
of suitable food for him. As I re-ascended the stairs I
heard him again hard at work, and on entering had the
mortification to perceive that he had almost entirely
ruined the mahogany table to which he was fastened, and
on which he had wreaked his whole vengeance. While
engaged in taking a drawing, he cut me severely in
several places, and, on the whole, displayed such a noble
and unconquerable spirit, that I was frequently tempted
to restore him to his native woods. He lived with me
nearly three days, but refused all sustenance, and I wit-
nessed his death with regret."
Gold-winged Woodpecker. — " In rambling through
the woods one day," continues Wilson, "1 happened to
shoot one of these birds, and wounded him slightly on
the wing. Finding him in full feather, and seemingly
but little hurt, I took him home, and put him into a
large cage, made of willows, intending to keep him in
my own room, that we might become better acquainted.
As soon as he found himself inclosed on all sides, he lost
no time in idle fluttering, but, throwing himself against
the bars of the cage, began instantly to demolish the wil-
lows, battering them with great vehemence, and uttering
a loud piteous kind of cackling, similar to that of a hen
when she is alarmed, and takes to wing. Poor Baron
Trenck never laboured with more eager diligence at the
walls of his prison, than this son of the forest in his ex-
ertions for liberty ; and he exercised his powerful bill
with such force, digging into the sticks, seizing and
shaking them so from side to side, that he soon opened
for himself a passage; and though I repeatedly repaired
the breach, and barricaded every opening, in the best
manner I could, yet on my return into the room, I
always found him at large, climbing up the chairs, or
running about the floor, where, from the dexterity of Ins
motions, moving backward, forward, and sidewise, with
the same facility, it became difficult to get hold of him
again. Having placed him in a strong wire cage, he
seemed to give up all hopes of making his escape, and
soon became very tame; fed on young ears of Indian
corn ; refused apples, but ate the berries of the sour gum
greedily, small winter grapes, and several other kinds of
berries; exercised himself frequently in climbing, or
rather hopping perpendicularly along the sides of the
cage; and, as evening drew on, fixed himself in a high
hanging, or perpendicular position, and slept with his
head in his wing. As soon as dawn appeared, even
before it was light enough to perceive him distinctly
across the room, he descended to the bi.ttom of the cage,
and began his attack on the ears of Indian corn, rapping
so loud, as to be heard from every room in the house.
After this he would sometimes resume his former posi-
tion, and take another nap. He was beginning to be-
come very amusing, and even sociable, when, after a
lapse of several weeks, he became drooping, and died,
as I conceived, from the effects of his wound."
Red-headed Woodpecker. — "There is perhaps no
bird in Norih America more universally known than
THE WOODPECKER
105
build in this manner, but the chief of them
are of the woodpecker kind ; and indeed there
is not, in the whole history of nature, a more
singular instance of the sagacity of those little
this. His tri-toloured plumage, red, white, and black,
glossed with steel blue, is so striking, aud characteristic;
and his predatory habits in the orchards and cornfields,
added to his numbers, and fondness for hovering along
the fences, so very notorious, that almost every child is
acquainted with the red-headed woodpecker. In the
immediate neighbourhood of our large cities, where the
old timber is chiefly cut down, he is not so frequently
found ; and yet at this present time, June, 1808, 1 know
of several of their nests within the boundaries of the
city of Philadelphia. Two of these are in button-wood
trees (platanus occidentalism and another in the decayed
limb of a large elm. The old ones, I observe, make
their excursions regularly to the woods beyond the
Schuylkill, about a mile distant; preserving great silence
and circumspection in visiting their nests, — precautions
not much attended to by them in the depth of the woods,
because there the prying eye of man is less to be dread-
ed. Towards the mountains, particularly in the vicinity
of creeks and rivers, these birds are extremely abundant,
especially in the latter end of summer. Wherever you
travel in the interior at that season, you hear them
screaming from the adjoining woods, rattling on the
dead limbs of trees, or on the fences, where they are
perpetually seen flitting from stake to stake, on the road-
side, before you. Wherever there is a tree, or trees, of
tiie wild cherry, covered with ripe fruit, there you see
them busy among the branches; and, in passing orchards,
you may easily know where to find the earliest, sweet-
est apples, by observing those trees, on or near which
the red-headed woodpecker is skulking; for he is so
excellent a connoisseur in fruit, that wherever an apple
or pear tree is found broached by him, it is sure to be
among the ripest and best flavoured: when alarmed, he
seizes a capital one by striking his open bill deep into
it, aud bears it off to the woods. When the Indian corn
is in its rich, succulent, milky state, he attacks it with
great eagerness, opening a passage through the numerous
folds of the husk, and feeding on it with voracity. The
girdled, or deadened timber, so common among corn-
fields in the back settlements, are his favourite retreats,
whence he sallies out to make his depredations. He is
fond of the ripe berries of the sour gum. and pays pretty
regular visits to the cherry trees, when loaded with fruit.
Towards fall he often approaches the barn or farm house,
and raps on the shingles and weather boards; he is of a
gay and frolicsome disposition ; and half a dozen of the
fraternity are frequently seen diving and vociferating
around the high dead limbs of some large tree, pursuing
and playing with each other, and amusing the passenger
with their gambols. Their note or cry is shrill and
lively, and so much resembles that of a species of tree-
Vou ii.
animals in protecting themselves against such
enemies as they have most occasion to fear,
In cultivated countries, a great part of th«<
caution of the feathered tribe is to hide or de-
frog, which frequents the same tree, that it is some-
times difficult to distinguish the one from the other.
" Such are the vicious traits, if I may so speak, in the
character of the red-headed woodpecker; and I doubt
not but, from what has been said on this subject, that
some readers would consider it meritorious to exter.
miliate the whole of this tribe as a wiisance: and, iit
fact, the legislature of some of our provinces, in formei
times, offered premiums to the amount of twopence pei
head for their destruction. But let us not condemn the
species unheard: they exist; they must therefore bo
necessary. If their merits and usefulness be found, on
examination, to preponderate against their vices, let us
avail ourselves of the former, while we guard as well as
we can against the latter.
" Though this bird occasionally regales himself on
fruit, yet his natural and most usual food is insects, par-
ticularly those numerous and destructive species that
penetrate the bark and body of the tree to deposite their
eggs and larvae, the latter of which are well known to
make immense havoc. That insects are his natural
food is evident from the construction of his wedge-formed
bill, the length, elasticity, and figure of his tongue, and
the strength and position of his claws; as well as from
his usual habits. In fact, insects form at least two-
thirds of his subsistence ; and his stomach is scarcely
ever found without them. He searches for them with
a dexterity and intelligence, I may safely say, more than
human ; he perceives, by the exterior appearance of
the bark, where the) luik below; when he is dubious,
he rattles vehemently on the outside with his bill, and
his acute ear distinguishes the terrified vermin shrink-
ing within to their inmost retreats, where his pointed
and barbed tongue soon reaches them. The masses of
bugs, caterpillars, and other larvae, which I have taken
from the stomachs of these birds, have often surprised
me. These larvae, it should be remembered, feed not
only on the buds, leaves, and blossoms, but on the very
vegetable life of the tree, the alburnum, or newly form-
ing bark and wood ; the consequence is, that whole
branches and whole trees decay under the silent ravages
of these destructive vermin ; witness the late destruc-
tion of many hundred acres of pine trees, in the north-
eastern parts of South Carolina; and the thousands of
peach trees that yearly decay from the same cause.
Will any one say, that, taking half a dozen, or half a
hundred, apples from a tree is equally ruinous with cut-
ting it down ? or, that the services of a useful animal
should not be rewarded with a small portion of that
which it has contributed to preserve ? We are told, in
the benevolent language of the scriptures, not to muzzle
the mouth of the ox that treadeth out the corn; and
why should not the same generous liberality be extended
to this useful family of birds, which forms so powerful
a phalanx against the inroads of many millions of des-
tructive vermin?
" Notwithstanding the care which this bird, in com-
mon with the rest of its genus, takes to place its young
beyond the reach of enemies, within the hollows of trees,
yet. there is one deadly foe, against whose depredations
neither the height of the tree, nor the depth of the cavity,
is the least security. This is the black snake (coluber
constrictor), who frequently glides up the trunk of the
tree, and, like asculking savage, enters the woodpecker's
peaceful apartment, devours the eggs or helpless young,
in spite of the cries and flutterings of the parents; and
if the place be large enough, coils himself up in the spot
they occupied, where he will sometimes remain for
several days. The eager school-boy, after hazarding his
106
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
fend their nests from the invasions of man ;
as he is their most dreaded enemy. But in
the depth of those remote and solitary forests,
where man is but seldom seen, the little bird
neck to reach the woodpecker's hole, at the triumphant
moment when he thinks the nestlings his own, and
strips his arm, launching it down into the cavity, and
grasping what he conceives to be the callow young, starts
with horror at the sight of a hideous snake, and almost
drops from his giddy' pinnacle, retreating down the tree
with terror and precipitation. Several adventures of
this kind have come to my knowledge ; and one of them
that was attended with serious consequences, where both
snake and boy fell to the ground ; and a broken thigh,
and long confinement, cured the adventurer completely
of his ambition for robbing woodpeckers' nests."
Downy Woodpecker. — " This is the smallest of our
woodpeckers, and so exactly resembles the former (the
hairy woodpecker) in its tints and markings, and in
almost every thing except its diminutive size, that I
wonder how it passed through the Count do Button's
hands without being branded as a " spurious race, de-
generated by the influence of food, climate, or some un-
known cause." But, though it has escaped this infamy,
charges of a much mere heinous nature have been
brought against it, not only by the writer above men-
tioned, but by the whole venerable body of zoologists in
Europe, who have treated of its history, viz. that it is
almost constantly boring and digging into apple-trees ;
and that it is the most destructive of its whole genus to
the orchards. The first part of this charge I shall not pre-
tend to deny; how far the other is founded in truth will
appear in the sequel. Like the two former species.it re-
mains with us the whole year. About the middle of May,
the male and female look out for a suitable place for the re-
ception of their eggs and young. An apple, pear, or cherry
tree, often in the near neighbourhood of the farm-house,
is generally pitched upon for this purpose. The tree is
minutely reconnoitred for several days previous to the
operation, and the work is first begun by the male, who
cuts out a hole in the solid wood, as circular as if described
with a pair of compasses. He is occasionally relieved by
the female, both parties working with the most indefatig-
able diligence. The direction of the hole, if made in
the body of the tree, is generally downwards, by an
angle of thirty or forty degrees, for the distance of six or
eight inches, and then straight down for ten or twelve
more; within roomy, capacious, and as smooth as if po-
lished by the cabinet-maker; but the entrance is judi-
ciously left just so large as to admit the bodies of the
owners. During this labour, they regularly carry out
the chips, often strewing them at a distance to prevent
suspicion. This operation sometimes occupies the chief
part of a week. Before she begins to lay, the female
often visits the place, passes out and in, examines every
has nothing to apprehend from man. The
parent is careless how much the nest is expos-
ed to general notice ; satisfied if it be out of
the reach of those rapacious creatures that live
part both of the exterior and interior, with great atten-
tion, as every prudent tenant of anew house ought to do,
and at length takes complete possession. The eggs are
generally six, pure white, and laid on the smooth bottom
of the cavity. The male occasio»al!y supplies the female
with food while she is sitting ; and about the last week
in June the young are perceived making their way up
the tree, climbing with considerable dexterity. All this
goes on with great regularity where no interruption is
met with; but the house wren, who also builds in the
hollow of a tree, but who is neither furnished with the
necessary tools nor strength for excavating such an apart-
ment for himself, allows the woodpeckers to go on, till
he thinks it will answer his purpose, then attacks them
with violence, and generally succeeds in driving them
on". I saw some weeks ago a striking example of this,
where the woodpeckers we are now describing, after
commencing in a cherry-tree within a few yards of the
house, and having made considerable progress, were
turned out by the wren ; the former began again on a
pear tree in the garden, fifteen or twenty yards ofi',
whence, after digging out a most complete apartment,
and one egg being laid, they were once more assaulted
by the same impertinent intruder, and finally forced to
abandon the place.
"The principal characteristics of this little bird are
diligence, familiarity, perseverance, and a strength and
energy in the head and muscles of the neck, which are
truly astonishing. Mounted on the infected branch of
an old apple-tree, where insects have lodged their cor-
roding and destructive brood in crevices between the
bark and wood, he labours sometimes for half an hour
incessantly at the same spot, before he has succeeded in
dislodging and destroying them. At these times you
may walk up pretty close to the tree and even stand im-
mediately below it, within five or six feet of the bird,
without in the least embarrassing him ; the strokes of
his bill are distinctly heard several hundred yards on";
and I have known him to be at work for two hours to-
gether on the same tree. Butlbn calls this " incessant
toil and slavery," their attitude "a painful posture,"
and their life " a dull and insipid existence;" expres-
sions improper, because untrue ; and absurd, because
contradictory. The posture is that for which the whole
organization of his frame is particularly adapted; and
though, to a wren or a humming-bird, the labour would
be both toil and slavery, yet to him it is, I am convinced,
as pleasant and as amusing, as the sports of the chase
to the hunter, or the sucking of flowers to the humming-
bird. The eagerness with which he traverses the upper
and lower sides of the branches; the c.heerfuliisss of his
cry, and the liveliness of his motions while digging into
the tree and dislodging the vermin, justify this belief.
He has a single note, or chinck, which, like the former
species, he frequently repeats. And when he flies off",
or alights on another tree, he utters a rather shriller cry,
composed of nearly the same kind of note, quickly reiter-
ated. Tn fall and winter, he associates with the titmouse,
creeper, &c. both in their wood and orchard excursions ;
and usually leads the van. Of all our woodpeckers,
none rid the apple-trees of so many vermin as this, dig-
ging ofi' the moss which the negligence of the proprietor
had suffered to accumulate, and probing every crevice.
In fact, the orchard is his favourite resort in all seasons;
and his industry is unequalled, and almost incessant,
which is more than can be said of any other species we
have. Tn fall, he is particularly fond of boring the apple-
trees for insects, digging a circular hole through the bark
just sufficient to admit his bill, after that a second, third,
THE WOODPECKER.
107
by robbery and surprise. If the monkey or
the snake can be guarded against, the bird has
no other enemies to fear ; for this purpose its
nest is built upon the depending points of the
most outward branches of a tall tree, such as
the banana, or the plantain. On one of (hose
immense trees, is seen the most various and
the most inimical assemblage of creatures that
can be imagined. The top is inhabited by
&c., in pretty regular horizontal circles round the body
of the tree ; these parallel circles of holes are often
not more than an inch or an inch and a half apart, and
sometimes so close together, that I have covered eight
or ten of them at once with a dollar. From nearly the
surface of the ground up to the first fork, and sometimes
far beyond it, the whole bark of many apple-trees is per-
forated in this manner, so as to appear as if made by
successive discharges of buck-shot ; and our little Wood-
pecker, the subject of the present account, is the principal
perpetrator of this supposed mischief. I say supposed,
for so far from these perforations of the bark being
ruinous, they are not only harmless, but, I have good
reason to believe, really beneficial to the health and fer-
tility of the tree. I leave it to the philosophical botanist
to account for this ; but the fact I am confident of. In
more than fifty orchards which I have myself carefully
examined, those trees which were marked by the wood-
pecker (for some trees they never touch, perhaps because
not penetrated by insects,) were uniformly the most
thriving, and seemingly the most productive ; many of
these were upwards of sixty years old, their trunks com-
pletely covered with holes, while the branches were
broad, luxuriant, and loaded with fruit. Of decayed
trees, more than three-fourths were untouched by the
woodpecker. Several intelligent farmers, with whom I
have conversed, candidly acknowledge the truth of these
observations, and with justice look upon these birds as
beneficial ; but the most common opinion is, that they
bore the trees to suck the sap, and so destroy its vegeta-
tion ; though pine and other resinous trees, on the juices
of which it is not pretended they feed, are often found
equally perforated. Were the sap of the tree their object,
the saccharine juice of the birch, the sugar maple, and
several others, would be much more inviting, because
more sweet and nourishing than that of either the pear
or apple-tree ; but I have not observed one mark on the
former for ten thousand that may be seen on the latter ;
besides, the early part of spring is the season when the
sap flows most abundantly ; whereas it is only during
the months of September, October, and November, that
woodpeckers are seen so indefatigably engaged in orchards,
probing every crack and crevice, boring through the
bark, and what is worth remarking, chiefly on the south
and southwest sides of the tree, for the eggs and larvae
deposited there by the countless swarms of summer
insects. These, if suffered to remain, would prey upon
the very vitals, if I may so express it, of the tree, and in
the succeeding summer give birth to myriads more of
their race, equally destructive. — Wilson's American Ornith.
THE GREEN WOOD-PECKER (Brachylophus viridis). The
most common of our native wood-peckers, but is seldom seen
north of Yorkshire. Its scream or cry is remarkable and
startling. In England and on the Continent it frequents
the woods where the trees are low. PL 57, fig. 2.
THE GREAT SPOTTED WOOD-PBCKER (Piciet Major)-
The only specimen of the Picidae found in the northern part
of Britain. It is abundant on the Continent, and in Russia.
Tt feeds on insects, seeds, and nuts. PL 57, fig. 3.
THE LESSER SPOTTED WOOD-PECKER (Picifs Minor)
is chiefly found in a few of the southern and western
counties of England, and is seen in the parks .and woods
around London. PL 57, fig. 4.
monkeys of some particular tribe, that drive
oft' all others ; lower down twine about the
great trunk numbers of the larger snakes,
patiently waiting till some unwary animal
comes within the sphere of their activity, and
at the edges of the tree hang these artificial
nests, in great abundance, inhabited by birds
of the most delightful plumage.
The nest is usually formed in this manner:
when the time of incubation approaches, they
fly busily about, in quest of— a kind of moss,
called by the English inhabitants of those
countries, old man's beard- It is a fibrous
substance, and not very unlike hair, which
bears being moulded into any form, and suf-
fers being glued together. This therefore
the little woodpecker, called by the natives
of Brazil, the guiratemga, first glues, by some
viscous substance gathered in the forest, to
the extremest branch of a tree ; then building
downward, and still adding fresh materials to
those already procured, a nest is formed, that
depends, like a pouch, from the point of the
branch : the hole to enter at, is on the side ;
and all the interior parts are lined with the
finer fibres of the same substance, which com-
pose the whole.
Such is the general contrivance of these
hanging nests ; which are made, by some
other birds, with still superior art. A little
bird of the Grosbeak kind, in the Philippine
islands, makes its nest in such a manner that
there is no opening but from the bottom. At
the bottom the bird enters, and goes up
through a funnel like a chimney, till it comes
to the real door of the nest, which lies on one
side, and only opens into this funnel.
Some birds glue their nest to the leaf of
the banana tree, which makes two sides of
their little habitation ; while the other two
are artificially composed by their own indus-
try. * But these, and all of the kind, are
built with the same precautions to guard the
young against the depredations of monkeys
and serpents, which abound in every tree.
The nest hangs there before the spoilers, a
tempting object, which they can only gaze
upon, while the bird flies in and out, without
danger or molestation from so formidable a
vicinity.1
1 The characters of the Nut-hatch tribe are, a bill for
the most part straight, having on the lower mandible a
small angle: small nostrils, covered with bristles: a
short tongue, horny at the end, and jagged : toes placed
three forwards, and one backwards ; the middle toe
joined closely at the base to both the outer, and the back
toe as large as the middle one. In the habits and man-
ners of the different species of the nut-hatch, we observe
a very close alliance to the woodpeckers. Most of them
feed upon insects ; and some on nuts, whence their
English appellation has been acquired. For Slender
Nut- hatch, see Plate XV. fig. 17.
The European Nut-hatch. The length of this bird
is five inches and three quarters. The bill is strong
108
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
CHAP. V.
OF THE BIRD OF PARADISE AND ITS
VARIETIES.
THERE are few birds that have more de
ceived and puzzled the learned than this
Some have described it as an inhabitant of the
air, living only upon the dew of heaven, anc
and straight, about three quarters of an inch long ; the
upper mandible is black, and the lower white. All the
upper parts of the body are of a bluish gray : the cheeks
and chin are white: the breast and belly pale orange
colour; and the quills dusky: the tail is short, and con-
sists of twelve feathers ; the two middle ones of which
are gray, the two outer spotted with white, and the rest
dusky. The legs are pale yellow ; the claws are large,
and the back one very strong. The nut-hatch, the
squirrel, and the field-mouse, which all live much
on hazel nuts, have each a curious way of getting at the
kernel. Of the two latter, the squirrel, after rasping
off the small end, splits the shell in two with his long
fore-teeth, as a man does with his knife ; the field-
mouse nibbles a hole with his teeth, as regular as if
drilled with a wimble, and yet so small that one would
wonder how the kernel could be extracted through it ;
while the nut-hatch picks an irregular ragged hole with
his bill. But as this last artist has no paws to hold the
nut firm while he pierces it, he, like an adroit work-
man, fixes it as it were in a vice, in some cleft of a
tree, or in some crevice, when standing over it he per-
forates the stubborn shell. On placing nuts in the
chink of a gate-post, where nut-hatches have, been
known to haunt, it has always been found that these
birds have readily penetrated them. While at work
they make a rapping noise, which may be heard a con-
siderable distance. Dr Plott informs us, that this bird,
by putting his bill into a crack in the bough of a tree,
sometimes makes a violent sound, as if the branch was
rending asunder. Besides nuts it feeds also on cater-
pillars, beetles, and various other insects. The female
deposits her egg?, six or seven in number, in some hole
of a tree, frequently in one that has been deserted by
the woodpecker, on rotten wood mixed with moss. If
the entrance be too large, she nicely stops up part of it
with clay, leaving only a small hole for herself to pass
in and out. When the hen is sitting, if a stick be put
in the hole, she hisses like a snake ; and she is so much
attached to her eggs, that she will sooner suffer any one
to pluck off her feathers than fly away. During the
time of incubation, she is assiduously attended by the
male, who supplies her with food. If the barrier of
plaster at the entrance of the hole be destroyed, while
these birds have eggs, it is speedily replaced ; a peculiar
instinct, to prevent their nest from being destroyed by
woodpeckers, and other birds of superior size and strength,
which build in similar situations. The nut-hatch is not
supposed to sleep perched, like most other birds, on a
never resting below ', others have acquiesced in
the latter part of its history, but have given
it flying insects to feed on. Some have as-
serted that it was without feet, and others have
ranked it among the birds of prey.
The great beauty of this bird's plumage,
and the deformity of its legs, seem to have
given rise to most of these erroneous reports.
The native savages of the Molucca Islands, of
which it is an inhabitant, were very little
twig ; for it has been observed, that when kept in a cage1,
notwithstanding it would perch now and then, yet at
night it generally crept into some hole or corner to
sleep. And it is remarkable, when perched, or other-
wise at rest, it had mostly the head downwards, or at
least even with the body, and not elevated like other
birds.
Allied to the Nut-hatch are the Creepers and Hoopoes.
(For Black and White Creeper, see Plate XV. fig. 18;
Azure Creeper, Plate XVI. fig. 16; Wall Creeper,
ib. fig. 43. For Hoopoe, see Plate XV. fig. 31.)
Creepers scale trees in the same manner as woodpeck-
ers, and, like them, are supported behind by their stiff
deflected tail. They feed entirely on insects. The
hoopoe is widely spread over Europe in the summer
months, and is abundant in the South. Sweden is men-
tioned by some as its northern limit, where the country
people are said to consider its appearance as ominous:
and in Great Britain it was formerly looked- upon by the
same class as the harbinger of some calamity. Montagu
relates that it is plentiful in the Russian and Tartarian
deserts ; and Sonnini saw it on the banks of the Nile :
Africa indeed and Asia are supposed to be its winter
quarters. In a state of nature moist localities are the
chosen haunts of the hoopoe. There it may be seen on
the ground, busily searching with its long bill for its
favourite insects, (chiefly coleopterous) which it often
finds in cow-dung, and in the droppings of other animals;
and sometimes it may be observed hanging from the
branches of trees, examining the under side of the leaves
"or those which there lie hid. The hole of a decayed
;ree is the locality generally preferred for the nest, which
s made of dried grass lined with feathers, wool or other
soft materials, and is generally very fetid from the re-
mains of the insects, &c., with which the parent-birds
lave supplied their young. This offensive odour most
>robably gave rise to the story adopted by Aristotle, that
he nest of the hoopoe was formed of the most disgusting
materials. When a hollow tree is not to be found, the
)laces selected are sometimes the fissures of rocks, and
lie crevices of old buildings. The eggs are generally
bur or five in number, of a grayish-white spotted with
deep gray or hair-brown.
Few birds are more entertaining in captivity : its
>eautiful plumage, droll gesticulations and familiar ha-
>its, soon make it a favourite. When it perceives that
t is observed it begins to tap with its bill against the
ground, (which, as Bechstein observes, gives it the ap
>earance of walking with a stick,) at the same time often
.halving its wings and tail, and elevating its crest. This
atter feat, which is performed very frequently and es-
>ecially when the bird is surprised or angry, is effected
iy a muscle situated on the upper part of the head for
he purpose. Its note of anger or fear is harsh and
grating, something like the noise made by a small saw
vhen employed in sawing, or the note of a jay, but not
o loud. It gives utterance to a soft note of complacency
iccasionally, and is not without other intonations. The
[rating note is not always indicative of anger or fear, for
lie bird generally exerts.it when it flies up, and setiles
n its perch.
THE BIRD OF PARADISE.
109
studious of natural history; and, perceiving
the inclination the Europeans had for this
beautiful bird, carefully cut off its legs before
they brought it to market; thus concealing its
greatest deformity, they considered themselves
entitled to rise in their demands when they
offered it for sale. One deceit led on to
another; the buyer finding the bird without
legs, naturally inquired alter them ; and the
seller as naturally began to assert that it had
none. Thus far the European was imposed
upon by others ; in all the rest he imposed
upon himself. Seeing so beautiful a bird
without legs, he concluded that it could live
only in air, where legs were unnecessary.
The extraordinary splendour of its plumage
assisted this deception ; and, as it had heavenly
beauty, so it was asserted to have a heavenly
residence. From thence its name, and all the
false reports that have been propagated con-
cerning it.1
Error, however, is short lived ; and time has
discovered that this bird not only has legs, but
very large strong ones for its size. Credulity,
when undeceived, runs into the opposite ex-
treme ; and soon after this harmless bird was
branded with the character of being rapacious,
of destroying all those of smaller size, and
from the amazing rapidity of its flight, as
qualified peculiarly for extensive rapine. The
real history of this pretty animal is at present
tolerably well known ; and it is found to be
as harmless as it is beautiful.
There are two kinds of the bird of Para-
dise,2 one about the size of a pigeon, which is
more common ; the other not much larger than
a lark, which has been described more imper-
fectly. They are both sufficiently distin-
guished from all other birds, not only by the
superior vivacity of their tints, but by the fea-
thers of the tail, there being two long slender
filaments growing from the upper part of the
rump; these are longer than the bird's body,
and bearded only at the end. By this mark
the bird of Paradise may be easily known,
but still more easily by its gaudy livery, which,
being so very brilliant, demands to be min-
utely described.
This bird appears to the eye as large as a
pigeon, though in reality the body is not much
greater than that of a thrush. The tail, which
is about six inches, is as long as the body ;
the wings are large, compared with the bird's
1 The natives of the New Guinea islands, in prepar-
ing the skins of the birds of paradise, removed the true
wings, which are not so brilliant as the other feathers,
and cut off the legs. Hence, the absence of feet in all
the specimens brought to Europe, gave rise to the fable
that these birds had no power of alighting, and were al-
ways on the wing.
* Nearly a dozen species have been discovered. See
succeeding note.
other dimensions. The head, the throat, and
the neck, are of a pale gold colour. The base
of the bill is surrounded by black feathers, as
also the side of the head and throat, as soft as
velvet, and changeable like those on the neck
of a mallard. The hinder part, of the head
is of a shining green, mixed with gold. The
body and wings are chiefly covered with
beautiful brown, purple^ and gold feathers.
The uppermost part of the tail-feathers are of
a pale yellow, and those under Them white,
and longer than the former ; for which reason
the hinder part of the tail appears to be ali
white. But what chiefly excites curiosity are,
the two long naked feathers above mentioned,
which spring from the upper part of the rump
above the tail, and which are usually about
three feet long. These are bearded only at
the beginning and the end; the whole shaft,
for about two feet nine inches, being of a deep
black, while the feathered extremity is of a
changeable colour, like the mallard's neck.
This bird, which for beauty exceeds all
others of the pie kind, is a native of the Mo-
lucca islands, but found in greatest numbers
in that of Aro. There, in the delightful and
spicy woods of the country, do these beautiful
creatures fly in large flocks ; so that the groves
which produce the richest spices produce the
finest birds also. The inhabitants themselves
are not insensible of the pleasure these afford,
and give them the name of God's birds, as
being superior to all others that he has made.
They live in large flocks, and at night gene-
rally perch upon the same tree. They are
called by some, the swallows of Ternate, from
their rapid flight, and from their being con-
tinually on the wing in pursuit of insects,
their usual prey.
As the country where they are bred has its
tempestuous season, when rains and thunders
continually disturb the atmosphere, these birds
are then but seldom seen. It is thought that
they then fly to other countries, where their
food appears in greater abundance ; for, like
swallows, they have their stated times of re-,
turn. In the beginning of the month of
August, they are seen in great numbers fly-
ing together; and as the inhabitants would
have us believe, following their king, who is
distinguished from the rest by the lustre oi
his plumage, and that respect and veneration
whjch is paid him.3 In the evening they
" They always migrate in flocks of thirty or forty, and
have a leader, which the inhabitants of Aro call the king.
He is said to be black, to have red spots, and to fly far
above the flock, which never desert him, but always
settle in the same place that he does. They never fly
with the wind, as in that case their loose plumage would
be ruffled, and blown over their heads ; and a change of
wind often compels them to alight on the ground, from
which they cannot rise without great difficulty. When
110
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
perch upon the highest trees of the forest, par-
ticularly one which bears a red berry, upon
which they sometimes feed, when other food
fails them. In what manner they breed, or
what may be the number of their young, as
yet remains for discovery.
The natives, who make a trade of killing
and selling these birds to the European, ge-
nerally conceal themselves in the trees where
they resort, and having covered themselves up
from sight in a bower made of the branches,
they shoot at birds with reedy arrows ; and,
as they assert, if they happen to kill the king,
they then have a good chance for killing the
greatest part of the flock. The chief marks
by which they know the king is by the ends
to the feathers in his tail, which have eyes
they are surprised by a heavy gale, they instantly soar to
a higher region, beyond the reach of the tempest. There,
in a serene sky, they float at ease on their light flowing
feathers, or pursue their journey in security. During
their flight they cry like starlings; but when a storm
blows in their rear, they express their distressed situa-
tion by a note somewhat resembling the croaking of a
raven. In calm weather, great numbers of these birds
may be seen flying, both in companies and singly, in pur-
suit of the large butterflies and other insects on which
they feed. The general colour of these birds is chest-
nut, with a neck of a golden green, beneath. The fea-
thers of the back and sides are considerably longer than
those of the body. They have two long tail feathers,
which are straight, and taper at the tip.
There have been ten species of this bird lately dis-
covered. (For the red-tailed bird of Paradise, see Plate
XV. fig. 16; for the gorget bird of Paradise, see Plate
XVI. fig, 4.)
The Grakle bird of Paradise. — It has a triangular
naked space behind the eyes; the head and neck are
brown; the bill and legs are yellow; the body brownish;
the first quill feathers white, from the base to the middle;
the tail feathers, except the middle one, are tipt with
white. It inhabits the Philippine islands ; is nine and
a half inches long; feeds on fruit, insects, mice, and
every kind of grain. It builds twice a year, in the
forked branches of trees, and lays four eggs. When
young it is easily tamed, and becomes docile and imita-
tive. This bird has a great affinity in all its habits to
the grakle genus ; yet, on account of the downy feathers
at the base of the bill, it is placed here.
The magnificent Bird of Paradise. — This elegant spe-
cies, so remarkable for the splendour and variety of its
colours, is principally found in the Molucca islands, and
is somewhat smaller than the common bird of paradise.
The bill is surrounded at the base with velvet-like fea-
thers; the chin is green, with golden lunules; crown
with a tuft of yellow feathers ; the first quill feathers
are brown, and the secondaiy of a deep yellow; the mid-
dle tail feathers are very long, with a very short fringe ;
its legs and bill are yellow, the latter black at the tip.
This beautiful bird inhabits New Holland, and is nine
inches long.
The Lyre bird, or Superb Menura. — New Holland,
which affords so rich a harvest to the student of nature,
and which produces the most singular and anomalous
beings with which we are at present acquainted, is the
native country of this rare and beautiful bird, the habits
and manners of which are yet but little known. (See
Plate XVII. fig. 3.) Considered by many naturalists as
allied to the paradisese, or birds of Paradise, it exhibits
in its general form, and especially in the figure of its
like those of a peacock. When they have
taken a number of these birds, their usual
method is to gut them, and cut off their legs ;
(hey then run a hot iron into the body, which
dries up the internal moisture; and filling the
cavity with salts and spices, they sell them to
the Europeans for a perfect trifle.
CHAP. VI.
THE CUCKOO, AND ITS VARIETIES.1
FROM a bird of which many fables have
been reported, we pass to another that has not
large elongated nails, which are evidently adapted for
scratching up the soil, a certain degree of approximation
to the gallinaceous tribe, to which others are inclined to
refer it ; but there is, however, a group of ground thrushes
as they are expressively called, to which, in the charac-
ters of the plumage and in habits, it would appear, we
think, to be still nearer related.
In size, the menura is about equal to a pheasant. Its
general plumage is of a dull brown, inclining to rufous
on the quill-feathers ; the tail, which is much longer
than the body, consists of feathers so arranged, and of
such different sorts, as to form, when elevated, a figure
bearing no unapt resemblance to an ancient lyre ; the
position of these feathers will be better conveyed by
the figure in the plate than by description : the bill is com-
pressed, the nostrils forming a longitudinal slit, covered
with bristle-like feathers ; the legs are strong, the toes
completely divided, and armed with powerful blunted
nails, those of the hind claws being especially developed.
1 Perhaps few birds have excited more curiosity amongst
naturalists than the Cuckoo, and some rather contradic-
tory accounts have from time to time been published re-
specting it. Dr Jenner was the first who threw any
light on the natural history of this extraordinary bird:
and his account is most interesting and satisfactory.
The fact of the young cuckoo turning out its weaker
companions, the natural inmates of the nest, is now un-
disputed. This operation is, I believe, generally per-
formed on the second day after the birds are hatched, —
at least, I have found it to be so in the cases which have
come under my own observation. The young intruder
seems to confine his dislike to his nestling companions
to the act of discharging them from the nest. In one
instance, which I had an opportunity of observing, the
young birds, which had only been hatched two days,
were so little hurt by a fall of four feet from the nest to
the ground, that two of them contrived to crawl a dis-
tance of eight or nine feet from the place on which they
had fallen. Sometimes the young cuckoo is hatched he-
fore the other birds: in which case he proceeds to dis-
card the eggs, which he is enabled to do by means of a
depression in the middle of his back. It seems, how-
THE CUCKOO.
given less scope to fabulous invention. The
note of the cuckoo is known to all the world;
the history and nature of the bird itself still
remains in great obscurity. That it devours
its parent, that it changes its nature with the
season, and becomes a sparrow-hawk, were
fables invented of this bird, and are now suf-
ficiently refuted. But where it resides in
winter, or how it provides for its supply dur-
ever, to have escaped the notice of those to whom we
are most indebted for the agreeable information we al-
ready possess of the habits of the cuckoo, that the parent
bird, in depositing her egg, will sometimes undertake
the task of removing the eggs of those birds in whose
nest she is pleased to place her own.* I say sometimes,
because I am aware that it is not always the case ; and
indeed I have only one fact to bring forward in support
of the assertion ; it is, however, connected with another
relating to the cuckoo, not a little curious. The circum-
stance occurred at Arbury, in Warwickshire, the seat
of Francis Newdigate, Esq., and was witnessed by se-
veral persons residing in his house. The particulars
were written down at the time by a lady, who bestowed
much time in watching the young cuckoo, and I now
give them in her own words: — "In the early part of
the summer of 1828, a cuckoo, having previously turned
out the eggs from a water-wagtail's nest, which was
built in a small hole in a garden-wall at Arbury, depo-
sited her own egg in their place. When the egg was
hatched, the young intruder was fed by the water-wag-
tails, till he became too bulky for his confined and nar-
row quarters, and in a fidgetty fit he fell to the ground.
tn this predicament he was found by the gardener, who
picked him up, and put him into a wire-cage, which
was placed on the top of a wall, not far from the place
of its birth. Here it was expected that the wagtails
would have followed their supposititious offspring with
food, to support it in its imprisonment — a mode of pro-
ceeding which would have had nothing very uncommon
to recommend it to notice. But the odd part of the
story is, that the bird which hatched the cuckoo never
came near it ; but her place was supplied by a hedge-
sparrow, who performed her part diligently and punc-
tually, by bringing food at very short intervals from
morning till evening, till its uncouth foster-child grew
large, and became full feathered, when it was sulfered
to escape, and was seen no more: gone, perhaps, to the
country to which he migrates, to tell his kindred cuckoos
(if he was as ungrateful as he was ugly when I saw him
in the nest) what fools hedge-sparrows and water-wag-
tails are in England. It may possibly be suggested,
that a mistake has been made with regard to the sort of
bird which hatched the. cuckoo, and that the same bird
which fed it, namely, the hedge-sparrow, f hatched the
egg. If this had been the case, there would have been
nothing, extraordinary in the circumstance; but the wag-
tail was too often seen on her nest, both before the egg
was hatched, and afterwards feeding the young bird, to
leavo room for any scepticism on that point ; and the
sparrow was seen feeding it in the cage afterwards by
many members of the family daily."
This account (the accuracy of which no one can doubt,
* May she not do this in consequence of not being able to
find a nest fit for her purpose, and therefore, from some extra-
ordinary and powerful instinct, slio removes eggs which would
be hatched before her own, and the young birds from which
might become too strong- and heavy to be ejected from the nest
by the young; cuckoo ? It requires all the exertions and ac-
tn it y of a pair of water-wagtails or hedge-sparrows to provide
for a young cuc.k. >o If there were other birds in the nest, some
must starve, iho female cuckoo, by ejecting the e«(rs pre-
vents this.
t It could not have been the hedge-sparrow, as those birds
are nuver kiiown to build in a hole in a wall.
ing that season, still continues undiscovered.
This singular bird, which is somewhat less
than a pigeon, shaped like a magpie, and of
a grayish colour, is distinguished from all
other birds by its round prominent nostrils.
Having disappeared all the winter, it discovers
itself in our country early in the spring, by
its well-known call. Its note is heard earlier
or later, as the season seems to be more or less
who is acquainted with the party frtrtw- uiiom it comes)
seems to prove the assertion which some persons have
made, of cuckoos having introduced their eggs into the
nest of the wren, or into nests built in holes in the wall;
or, as Dr Jenner asserts, in a wagtail's nest in a hoie
tinder the eaves of a cottage. Some doubt has been
thrown on the accuracy of this statement of Dr Jenner'»,
in a new and very agreeable edition of Colonel Monta-
gue's Ornithological Dictionary: at least, a hint is given
that it was rather a singular place for a wagtail to build
in. I have, however, found them in similar situations;
and one wagtail built amongst the rough bricks which
formed some rock-work in my garden. If the fact,
therefore, is undoubted, that the egg of the cuckoo is
found in the nest of a bird built in so small a hole in a
wall that a young cuckoo could no longer remain in it,
by what means could she contrive to introduce her egg
into the nest ? It appears quite impossible that she
could have sat on the nest while she deposited her egg;
and it is not easy, therefore, to form a probable conjecture
how the operation was performed. Spurzheim, however,
asserts in his lectures, that he actually saw an instance
of a cuckoo having dropped her egg near a nest so placed
that she could not possibly gain admittance to it: and
that after removing the eggs which were already in the
nest, she took up her own egg in one of her feet, and in
that way placed it in it.
The following communication from a gentleman in
Sussex will throw some new and interesting light on the
natuitil history of the cuckoo. He says, that on firing
at a bird sitting on a fir tree in his garden, and which
he took for a hawk, it fell with a broken wing. Oi;
picking it up, it proved to be a cuckoo, and being in
beautiful plumage, and very lively, he tied up the wing,
and sent it to a friend at Chichester, who being captiv-
ated by the bird's quiet demeanour, determined on try.
ing to keep it alive. On being put into a cage, the bird
soon fed, and appeared perfectly reconciled to its loss of
freedom. It eat fresh meat of any sort, cut small and
mixed with bread scalded and broken, and a raw egg.
On this diet the bird did well for three months. At
this time a lad brought some yellow-hammer's eggs, in-
tending them as a treat, one of which the bird unex-
pectedly seized, and attempted to swallow. It stuck,
however, in its throat, and killed it in a short time.
This would seem to prove that these birds feed some-
times on eggs. A cuckoo was kept at Guodwood-house
for nearly two years. The persons who had the care of
it never heard its natural note of "Cuckoo." It is not
unfrequent soon after the arrival of these birds, to see
four or five, or more of them in animated sportiveness
on the branches of an oak. If the spectator is attentive,
he will soon hear the notes repeated thus, — Hoo-hoo
— hoo- — — — ~~n~~~~ " — h~ hooho-hoo — which, proba-
bly, are "p ^ - - P- - J~ notes °f exultation from the
favour -- 1 -- 1 - 9—\ -- •— ed suitor. When a cuc-
koo is -I — 1^ -- V-
- — ~ seen in a straight flight, it
will often give utterance to a beautiful sound, more like
a delicate and lengthened shake on the flute than any-
thing else it can be compared to. As the bird is
always alone when this note is heard, we may con-
clude that it is a call for its mate.- — Jesse's Gleanings.
Vol. I.
112
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
forward, and the weather more or less inviting.
From the cheerful voice of this bird the farmer
may be instructed in the real advancement of
the year. The fallibility of human calendars
is but too well known ; but from this bird's
note, the husbandman may be taught when to
sow his most useful seeds, and to do such work
as depends upon a certain temperature of the
air. These feathered guides come to us hea-
ven-taught, and point out the true commence-
ment of the season.
The cuckoo, that was silent some time after
its appearance, begins and at first feebly, at
very distant intervals, to give its call, which
as the summer advances, improves both in its
frequency and loudness. This is an invitation
to courtship, and used only by the male, who
sits generally perched upon some dead tree, or
bare bough, and repeats his song, which he
loses as soon as the genial season is over. His
note is pleasant, though uniform ; and, from
an association of ideas, seldom occurs to the
memory without reminding us of the sweets of
summer. Custom too has affixed a more ludi-
crous association to this note ; which, however,
we that are bachelors need be in no pain about.
This reproach seems to arise from this bird's
making use of the bed or nest of another (o
deposit its own brood in.
However this may be, nothing is more cer-
tain than that the female makes no nest of her
own. She repairs for that purpose to the
nest of some other bird, generally the water-
wagtail or hedge-sparrow, and having de-
voured the eggs of the owner, lays her own
in their place. She usually lays but one,
which is speckled, and of the size of a black-
bird's. This the fond foolish bird hatches
with great assiduity, and, when excluded,
finds no difference in the great ill-looking
changeling from her own. To supply this vo-
racious creature, the credulous nurse toils with
unusual labour, no way sensible that she is
feeding up an enemy to her race, and one of
the most destructive robbers of her future pro-
geny.
It was once doubted whether these birds
were carnivorous; but Reaumur was at the
pains of breeding up several, and found that
they would not feed upon bread or corn ; but
flesh and insects were their favourite nourish-
ment. He found it a very difficult task to
teach them to peck ; for he was obliged to feed
them a full month after they were grown as
big as the mother. Insects, however, seemed
to be their peculiar food when young; for they
devoured flesh by a kind of constraint, as it
was always put into their mouths ; but meal-
worm insects they flew to, and swallowed of
their own accord most greedily. Indeed, their
gluttony is not be wondered at, when we con-
sider the capacity of their stomach, which is
enormous, and reaches from the breast-bone
to the vent. It is partly membranous, partly
muscular, and of a prodigious capacity ; yet
still they are not to be supposed as birds of
prey, for they have neither the strength nor
the courage. On the contrary, they are natu-
rally weak and fearful, as appears by their
flying from small birds, which every where
pursue them. The young birds are brown,
mixed with black ; and in that state they have
been described by some authors as old ones.
The cuckoo, when fledged and fitted for
flight, follows its supposed parent but for a
little time ; its appetite for insect food increas-
ing, as it finds no great chance for a supply
in imitating its little instructor, it parts good
friends, the step-child seldom offering any
violence to its nurse. Nevertheless, all the
little birds of the grove seem to consider the
young cuckoo as an enemy, and revenge the
cause of their kind by their repeated insults.
They pursue it wherever it flies, and oblige it
to take shelter in the thickest branches of some
neighbouring tree. All the smaller birds form
the train of its pursuers; but the wryneck, in
particular, is found the most active in the
chase ; and from thence it has been called by
many, the cuckoo's attendant and provider.
But it is very far from following with a
friendly intention ; it only pursues as an in-
sulfer, or a spy, to warn all its little compan-
ions of the cuckoo's depredations.
Such are the manners of this bird while it
continues to reside, or to be seen amongst us.
But early, at the approach of winter, it totally
disappears, and its passage can be traced to no
other country. Some suppose that it lies hid
in hollow trees ; and others that it passes into
warmer climates. Which of these opinions is
true is very uncertain, as there are no facts re-
lated on either side that can be totally relied
on.1 To support the opinion that they remain
torpid during the winter at home, Willoughhy
introduces the following story, which he deli-
vers upon the credit of another. " The ser-
vants of a gentleman, in the country, having
stocked up in one of their meadows some old,
dry, rotten willows thought proper, on a cer-
tain occasion, to carry them home. In heat-
ing a stove, two logs of this timber were put
into the furnace beneath, and fire applied as
usual. But soon, to the great surprise of the
family, was heard the voice of a cuckoo, sing-
ing three times from under the stove. Won-
dering at so extraordinary a cry in the winter
time, the servants ran and drew the willow
logs from the furnace, and in the midst of one
of them saw something move; wherefore,
i It is now perfectly ascertained thut the cuckoo is B
migratory bird. It comes to us late in spring l'ron>
Northern Africa or Asia Minor, iincl returns in July or
early in autumn.
THE PARROT.
113
taking an axe, they opened the hole, and
thrusting- in their hands, first they plucked
out nothing but feathers ; afterwards they got
hold of a living animal ; and this \vas the
cuckoo that had waked so very opportunely
for its own safety. It was indeed," continues
our historian, " brisk and lively, but wholly
naked and bare of feathers, and without any
winter provision in its hole. This cuckoo the
boys kept two years afterwards alive in the
stove; but whether it repaid them with a se-
cond song, the author of the tale has not
thought fit to inform us."
The most probable opinion on this subject
is, that as. quails and woodcocks shift their
habitations in winter, so also does the cuckoo;
but to what country it retires, or whether it
has ever been seen on its journey, are ques-
tions that I am wholly incapable of resolving.
Of this bird there are many kinds in
various parts of the world, not only differing
in their colours, but their size. Brisson
makes not less than twenty-eight sorts of
them ; but what analogy they bear to our
English cuckoo, I will not take upon me to
determine. He talks of one, particularly of
Brazil, as making a most horrible noise in
the forests; which, as it should seem, must
be a very different note from that by which
our bird is distinguished at home.1
CHAP. VII.
OF THE PARROT, AND ITS AFFINITIES.
THE Parrot is the best known among us of
all foreign birds, as it unites the greatest
beauty with the greatest docility. Its voice
1 In Europe we possess but one species of the Cuckoo.
In Africa there are several species, not the least remark-
able of which is called the Honey-guide Cuckoo, or In-
dicator. Its colour is rusty gray, and white beneath ;
the eyelids are naked, black ; shoulders with a yellow
spot; the tail is wedged, rusty; the bill is brown at the
base, and surrounded with bristles, yellow at the tip ;
feathers of the thighs white, with a longitudinal black
streak; the quill feathers above brown, beneath gray
brown; first tail feathers very narrow, and rusty; the
next sooty, the inner edge whitish ; the rest brown at
the tip on the inner web. The honey-guide cuckoo in-
habits the interior parts of Africa ; is six inches long ;
is fond of honey; and not being able to procure it from
the hollows of trees, by its note it is said to point it out
to the inhabitants, who leave it a part for its services,
and so highly value it on this account, that it is criminal
to destroy it. The accuracy of this statement has been
called in question both by Bruce and Le Vaillant, but
it is now fully confirmed. There are several varieties
of indicators. (For the Great Honey-guide, see Plate
XVI. fig. 23; Cupreous Cuckoo, ib. fig. 28; Blue
Cuckoo, ib. fig. 29; Senegal Coucal, ib. fig. bO; Mal-
coho, ib. fig. 31; African Cuckoo, ib. fig. 32; Lorig-
belh'ed Cuckoo, ib. fig. 19.)
VOL. II.
also is more like a man's than that of any
other ; the raven is too hoarse, and the jay
and magpie too shrill, to resemble the truth;
the parrot's note is of the true pitch, and
capable of a number of modulations that even
some of our orators might wish in vain to
imitate.
The ease with which this bird is taught to
speak, and the great number of words which
it is capable of repeating, are no less surpris-
ing. We are assured by a~gfave writer,
that one of these was taught to repeat a whole
sonnet from Petrarch ; and that I may not
be wanting in my instance, I have seen a
parrot belonging to a distiller who had suf-
fered pretty largely in his circumstances from
an informer who lived opposite him, very
ridiculously employed. This bird was taught
to pronounce the ninth commandment, Thou
shalt not bear false witness against thy neigh-
bour, with a very clear, loud, articulate voice.
The bird was generally placed in its cage
over against the informer's house, and de-
lighted the whole neighbourhood with its per-
severing exhortations.
Willoughby tells a story of a parrot, which
is not so dull as those usually brought up
when this bird's facility of talking happens
to be the subject. " A parrot belonging to
King Henry VII. who then resided at West-
minster, in his palace by the river Thames,
had learned to talk many words from the
passengers as they happened to take the
water. One day, sporting on its perch, the
poor bird fell into the water, at the same time
crying out, as loud as he could, A boat !
twenty pounds for a boat! A waterman, who
happened to be near, hearing the cry, made
to the place where the parrot was floating,
and taking him up, restored him to the king.
As it seems the bird was a favourite, the man
insisted that he ought to have a reward rather
equal to his services than his trouble : and, as
the parrot had cried twenty pounds, he said the
king was bound in honour to grant it. The
king at last agreed to leave it to the parrot's
own determination, which the bird hearing,
cried out, Give the knave a groat."
The parrot, which is so common as a
foreign bird with us, is equally so as an in-
digenous bird in the climates where it is pro-
duced. The forests swarm with them ; and
the rook is not better known with us than
the parrot in almost every part of the East
and West Indies. It is in vain that our
naturalists have attempted to arrange the
various species of this bird ; new varieties
daily offer to puzzle the system-maker, or to
demonstrate the narrowness of his catalogues.
Linnasus makes the number of its varieties
amount to forty-seven ; while Brisson doubles
the number, and extends his catalogue to
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
ninety-five.1 Perhaps even this list might be
increased, were every accidental change of
colour to be considered as constituting a new
species. But, in fact, natural history gains
J The parrot genus includes about one hundred and
seventy known species. All the species are confined to
warm climates, but their range is wider than Buffbn
considered, when he limited them to within 23° on
each side of the equator ; for they are known to extend
as far south as the Straits of Magellan, and are found
on the shores of Van Dieman's Land; and the Carolina
parrot of the United States is resident as far to the
north as 42°. Wilson saw them, in the month of
February, along the banks of the Ohio, in a snow-storm,
flying about like pigeons, and in full cry. And another
time he saw them, about thirty miles above the mouth
of the Kentucky river, as they came in great numbers,
screaming through the wood, about an hour after sun-
rise, to drink the salt water, of which they are remark-
ably fond.
Parrots live together in families, and seldom wander
to any considerable distance ; these societies admit with
difficulty a stranger among them, though they live in
great harmony with each other. They are fond of
scratching each other's heads and necks ; and, when
they roost, nestle as closely as possible together, some-
times as many as thirty or forty sleeping in the hollow
of the same tree. There they sleep in a perpendicular
posture, clinging to the sides by their claws and bills.
They are fond of sleep, and seem to retire into their
holes several times in the day as if to enjoy a regular
siesta.
The young shoots of various plants, tender buds,
fruits, grains, and nuts, which they open with much
adroitness to obtain the kernel, are the chief aliments
which the parrots use when in a state of liberty. We
know that, in a state of domestication, they eat almost
everything that is offered to them ; but it has been re-
marked that certain substances, such as parsley for in-
stance, which have no sensible effect on other creatures,
are to parrots mortal poisons. In the forests, which are
their favourite retreats, the parrots assemble in troops,
and cause much devastation by the vast quantity of food
which they consume, not merely for their subsistence,
but to gratify that mania for destruction for which,
even in their domestic state, they are noted. The
loud cries of these bands are heard a great way off,
when they seek their last repast before the setting of
the sun. By these cries the planter has timely warn-
ing to employ some means of preventing those hosts
of destroyers from alighting on his newly-sown fields,
where, in a short time, they would not leave a vestige
of grain.
The description which Wilson gives of the flight of
the Carolina parrot is probably applicable to many other
species which have not, in their wild state, been noticed
hy an equally intelligent observer. "There is a re-
markable contrast between their elegant manner of
flight and their lame and crawling gait among the
branches. They fly very much like the wild pigeon,
in close compact bodies, and with great rapidity, mak-
ing a loud and outrageous screaming. Their flight is
sometimes in a direct line, but most usually circuitous,
making a great variety of elegant and serpentine mean-
ders, as if for pleasure."
The Carolina parrot seems to have been a favourite
with Wilson. He carried one with him in one of his
most laborious journeys in the Western States ; by day
it rode in his pocket, and at night it rested on the
baggage, dosing and gazing into the fire. Happening
to catch another, which he had slightly wounded, he
placed it in the cage with this, who was delighted to
gain the accession to her society ; she crept up to the
little by these discoveries ; and as its do-
minions are extended it becomes more barren.
It is asserted, by sensible travellers, that the
natives of Brazil can change the colour of a
parrot's plumage by art. If this be true, and
I am apt to believe the information, they can
make new species at pleasure, and thus cut
out endless work for our nomenclators at home.
Those who usually bring these birds over
are content to make three or four distinctions,
to which they give names; and with these
distinctions I will content myself also. The
large kind, which are of the size of a raven,
are called maccaivs ; ihe next size are simply
called parrots; those which are entirely white,
are called lories; and the lesser size of all are
called parrakeets. The difference between
even these is rather in size than any other
peculiar conformation, as they are all formed
alike, having toes, two before and two be-
hind, for climbing and holding; strong hooked
bills Jbr breaking open nuts, and other hard
substances, on which they feed; and loud
harsh voices, by which they fill their native
woods with clamour.
But. there are further peculiarities in their
conformation; and first, their toes are con-
trived in a singular manner, which appears
when they walk or climb, and when they are
eating. For the first purpose they stretch
two of their toes forward, and two backward;
but when they take their meat, and bring it
to their mouths with their foot, they dexter-
ously and nimbly turn the greater hind toe
forward, so as to take a firmer grasp of the
nut or the fruit they are going lo feed on,
standing all the while upon the other leg.
Nor even do they present their food in the
usual manner; for other animals turn their
meat inwards to the mouth ; but these, in a
seemingly awkward position, turn their meat
outwards, and thus hold the hardest nuts, as
if in one hand, till with their bills they break
the shell, and extract the kernel.
The bill is fashioned with still greater pe-
culiarities; for the upper chap, as well as the
lower, are both movable. In most other
birds the upper chap is connected, and makes
but one piece with the skull ; but in these,
and in one or two species of the feathered
stranger, chattering in a melancholy tone, as if express-
ing sympathy for its misfortunes, stroked its head and
neck with her bill, and at night they nestled as close as
possible to each other. On the death of her companion,
she appeared inconsolable, till he placed a looking-glass
near her, by which she was completely deceived. She
seemed delighted with the return of her companion, and
often during the day, and always at night, she lay close
to the image in the glass, and began to dose with great
composure and satisfaction. He was so unlucky as tr
lose this interesting bird in the Gulf of Mexico, where
she made her way through the cage, left the vessel, and
perished in the waves.
THE PARROT.
115
tribe more, the upper chap is connected to the
bone of the head by a strong membrane,
placed on each side, that lifts and depresses it
at pleasure. By this contrivance they can
open their bills the wider; which is not a
little useful, as the upper chap is so hooked
and so over-hanging, that, if the lower chap
only had motion, they could scarcely gape
sufficiently to take any thing in for their
nourishment.
Such are the uses of the beak and the toes,
when used separately ; but they are often em-
ployed both together, when the bird is exer-
cised in climbing. As these birds cannot
readily hop from bough to bough, their legs
not being adapted for that purpose, they use
both the beak and the feet ; first catching
hold with the beak, as if with a hook, then
drawing up the legs and fastening them, then
advancing the head and beak again, and so
putting forward the body and feet alternate-
ly, till they attain the height they aspire to.
The tongue of this bird somewhat resem-
bles that of a man ; for which reason some
pretend that it is so well qualified to imitate
the human speech ; but the organs by which
these sounds are articulated lie farther down
in the throat, being performed by the great
motion which the oshyoides has in these birds
above others.
The parrot, though common enough in
Europe, will not, however, breed here. The
climate is too cold for its warm constitution ;
and though it bears our winter when arrived
at. maturity, yet it always seems sensible of
its rigour, and loses both its spirit and appe-
tite during the colder part of the season. It
then becomes torpid and inactive, and seems
quite changed from that bustling loquacious
animal which it appeared in its native forest,
where it is almost ever upon the wing. Not-
withstanding, the parrot lives even with us a
considerable time, if it be properly attended
to ; and indeed, it must be owned, that it em-
ploys but too great a part of some people's
attention.
The extreme sagacity and docility of the
bird may plead as the best excuse for those
who spend whole hours in teaching their par-
rots to speak ; and, indeed, the bird, on those
occasions, seems the wisest animal of the two.
It at first obstinately resists all instruction ; but
seems to be won by perseverance, makes a
few attempts to imitate the first sounds, and
when it has got one word distinct, all the suc-
ceeding come with greater facility. The bird
generally learns most in those families where
the master or mistress have the least to do ;
and becomes more expert, in proportion as its
instructors are idly assiduous. In going
through the towns of France some time since,
I could not help observing how much plainer
their parrots spoke than ours, and how very
distinctly I understood their parrots speak
French, when I could not understand our
own, though they spoke my native language.
I was at first for ascribing it to the different
qualities of the two languages, and was for
entering into an elaborate discussion on the
vowels and consonants: but a friend that was
with me solved the difficulty at once, by as.
suring me that the French w_omen scarcely
did any thing- else the whole day than sit and
instruct their feathered pupils ; and that the
birds were thus distinct in their lessons in con-
sequence of continual schooling.
The parrots of France are certainly very
expert, but nothing to those of the Brazils,
where the education of a parrot is considered
as a very serious affair. The history of Prince
Maurice's parrot, given us by Mr Locke, is
too well known to be repeated here ; but
Clusius assures us that the parrots of that
country are the most sensible and cunning oi
all animals not endued with reason. The
great parrot, called the aicurous, the head of
which is adorned with yellow, red, and violet,
the body green, the ends of the wings red, the
feathers of the tail long and yellow; this bird,
he asserts, which is seldom brought into Eu-
rope, is a prodigy of understanding. " A
certain Brazilian woman, that lived in a vil-
lage two miles distant from the island on
which we resided, had a parrot of this kind
which was the wonder of the place. It seemed
endued with such understanding as to discern
and comprehend whatever she said to it. As
we sometimes used to pass by that woman's
house, she used to call upon us to stop, promis-
ing, if we gave her a comb, or a looking-glass,
that she would make her parrot sing and dance
to entertain us. If we agreed to her request,
as soon as she had pronounced some words to
the bird, it began not only to leap and skip en
the perch on which it stood, but also to talk
and to whistle, and imitate the shoutings and
exclamations of the Brazilians when they pre
pare for battle. In brief, when it came into
the woman's head to bid it sing, it sang; to
dance, it danced. But if, contrary to our pro-
mise, we refused to give the woman the little
present agreed on, the parrot seemed to sym-
pathize in her resentment, and was silent and
immovable ; neither could we, by any means,
provoke it to move either foot or tongue."
This sagacity, which parrots show in a do-
mestic state, seems also natural to them in
their native residence among the woods. They
live together in flocks, and naturally assist
each other against other animals, either b)
their courage or their notes of warning. They
generally breed in hollow trees, where they
make a round hole, and do not line their nests
within. If they find any part of a tree be-
HISTORY OF DIRDS.
ginning to rot from the breaking off ot a
branch, or any such accident, this they take
care to scoop, and to make the hole sufficiently
wide and convenient; but it sometimes hap-
pens that they are content with the hole which
a woodpecker has wrought out with greater
ease before them ; and in this they prepare to
hatch and bring up their young.
They lay two or three eggs ; and probably
the smaller kind may lay more ; for it is a
rule that universally holds through nature,
that the smallest animals are always the most
prolific ; for being, from their natural weak-
ness, more subject to devastation, Nature finds
it necessary to replenish the species by supe-
rior fecundity. In general, however, the
number of their eggs is stinted to two, like
those of the pigeon, and they are about the
same size. They are always marked with
little specks, like those of a partridge; and
some travellers assure us, that they are always
found in the trunks of the tallest, straightest,
and the largest trees. The natives of those
countries, who have little else to do, are very
assiduous in spying out the places where the
parrot is seen to nestle, and generally come
with great joy to inform the Europeans, if
there be any, of the discovery. As those birds
have always the greatest docility that are
taken young, such a nest is often considered
as worth taking some trouble to be possessed
of; and, for this purpose, the usual method of
coming at the young is, by cutting down the
tree. In the fall of the tree it often happens
that the young parrots are killed ; but if one
of them survives the shock, it is considered as
a sufficient recompence.
Such is the avidity with which these birds
are sought when young ; for it is known they
always speak best when their ear has not been
anticipated by the harsh notes of the wild ones.
But as the natives are not able upon all occa-
sions to supply the demand for young ones,
they are contented to take the old ; and for
that purpose shoot them in the woods with
heavy arrows, headed with cotton, which
knock down the bird without killing it. The
parrots thus stunned are carried home : some
die, but others recover, and, by kind usage
and plentiful food, become talkative and noisy.
But it is not for the sake of their conversa-
tion alone that the parrot is sought after among
the savages; for though some of them are but
tough and ill-tasted, yet there are other sorts,
particularly of (he small parakeet tribe, that
are very delicate food. In general it obtains,
that whatever fruit or grain these birds mostly
i'eed upon, their flesh partakes of the flavour,
and becomes good or ill-tasted, according to
the quality of their particular diet. When
the guava is ripe, they are at that season fat
and tender; if they feed upon the seed of the
acajou, their flesh contracts an agreeable fla-
vour of garlic; if they feed upon the seed of
the spicy trees, their flesh then tastes of cloves
and cinnamon ; while, on the contrary, it is
insupportably bitter if the berries they feed
on are of that quality. The seed of the cot-
ton-tree intoxicates them in the same manner
as wine does man ; and even wine itself is
drunk by parrots, as Aristotle assures us, by
which th«y are thus rendered more talkative
and amusing. But of all food, they are fond-
est of the carthamus, or bastard saffron; which,
though strongly purgative to man, agrees per-
fectly with their constitution, and fattens them
in a very short time.
Of the parakeet kind in Brazil, Labat as-
sures us, that they are the most beautiful in
their plumage, and the most talkative birds in
nature. They are very tame, and appear
fond of mankind ; they seem pleased with
holding parley with him ; they never have
done ; but while he continues to talk, answer
him, and appear resolved to have the last
word : but they are possessed of another qua-
lity, which is sufficient to put an end to this
association ; their flesh is the most delicate
imaginable, and highly esteemed by those who
are fonder of indulging their appetites than
their ears. The fowler walks into the woods,
where they keep in abundance, but as they
are green, and exactly the colour of the leaves
among which they sit, he only hears their
prattle, without being able to see a single
bird ; he looks round him, sensible that his
game is within gun-shot in abundance, but is
mortified to the last degree that it is impossi-
ble to see them. Unfortunately for these little
animals, they are restless, and ever on the
wing, so that in flying from one tree to an-
other, he has but too frequent opportunities of
destroying them ; for as soon as they have
stripped the tree on which they sat of all its
berries, some one of them flies off to another ;
and if that be found fit for the purpose, it
gives a loud call, which all the rest resort to.
That is the opportunity the fowler has long
been waiting for ; he fires in among the flock,
while they are yet on the wing; and he sel-
dom fails of bringing down a part of them.
But it is singular enough to see them when
they find their companions fallen. They set
up a loud outcry, as if they were chiding their
destroyer, and do not cease till they see him
preparing for a second charge.
But though there are so many motives for
destroying these beautiful birds, they are in
very great plenty ; and in some countries on
the coast of Guinea, they are considered by
the negroes as their greatest tormentors. The
flocks of parrots persecute them with their un-
ceasing screaming, and devour whatever fruits
they attempt to produce by art in their little
THE PARROT.
117
gardens. In other places they are not so des-
tructive, but sufficiently common ; and, indeed,
there is scarce a Country of the tropical cli-
mates that has not many of the common kinds,
as well as some peculiarly its own. Travel-
lers have counted more than a hundred differ-
ent kinds on the continent of Africa only:
fhere is one country in particular, north of the
Cape of Good Hope, which takes its name
from the multitude of parrots which are seen
in its woods. There are white parrots seen
in the burning regions of Ethiopia : in the
East Indies they are of the largest size; in
South America they are docile and talkative;
in all the islands of the Pacific sea and the
Indian ocean, they swarm in great variety
and abundance, and add to the splendour of
those woods which Nature has dressed in eter-
nal green.1
1 The family of parrots are divided by some modern
naturalists into six different groups.
I. The Macaws. Tail long and pointed ; cheeks
naked.
II. The Parrakeets. Tail long and graduated ; cheeks
feathered.
III. The Psittacules. Tail very short, and rounded
at its termination; cheeks feathered,
IV. The Parrots proper. Tail equal and squared ;
head destitute of movable crest.
V. The Cockatoos. Tail equal and squared; head
with a movable crest.
VI. Probosciger. Tail equal and squared; naked
cheeks, and tuft on head.
In the cuts which follow, representations are given of
some of the more interesting individuals of these differ-
ent groups.
The Great Green Macaw. This species is now ascer-
tained to be a native of Mexico and Peru, inhabiting the
warmer districts of the Andean chain, which attain an
elevation of about 3000 feet. According to Wagler,
its habits differ considerably from those of its congeners,
AS it does not confine itself to the recesses of the forests,
or its food to the fruits there produced, but attacks in
congregated flocks the fields of maize, and other cultiva-
ted grain and fruits. Upon these it frequently commits
serious depredations, to such an extent, indeed, as to re-
So generally are these birds known at pre-
sent, and so great is their variety, that no-
thing seems more extraordinary than that
there was but one sort of them known among
quire the constant attention and watching of the inhabi-
tants during the period of maturation. When engaged in
their predatory excursions, a guard is constantly left by
the flock in some elevated station, generally the summit
of a tree, from whence, should danger be apprehended,
an alarm is given by a loud and peculiar cry, which is
responded to by the immediate flight of the wary depre-
dators. They are also said to feed upon the flowers of
the Erythinfe, and some species of Thibaudse, before the
ripening of the grains, but whether this is merely to
obtain the nectarious juice, as practised by the Asiatic
Lories and Australian Trichoglossi, or for the thick and
fleshy substance of the flower and embryo pod or seed-
vessel, does riot appear from Wagler's account. During
the period of the rains, which commence in October, the
great body of these birds migrate to other districts, and
do not return till the maize begins to ripen, which takes
place in January arid February. It is easily tamed, and
of a docile disposition, but can rarely be taught to articu-
late more than a few words. It appears to have been a
favourite among the ancient Peruvians, as we are told it
was frequently presented to the Incas, by their subjects,
as an acceptable gift. In size, it is inferior to several of
the Macaws, its extreme length being about twenty-
nine inches. The bill is strong, typical in form, its co-
lour blackish-brown. The orbits and cheeks are naked,
and of a flesh colour, with striae of small blackish-brown
feathers ; the irides are composed of two rings, the outer
of a rich yellow, the inner grayish- green. The forehead
is of a rich crimson, the chin feathers reddish-brown, and
passing rapidly into the green of the neck. The rest of
the head, the neck, lesser wing-coverts, the mantle, and
all the under parts of the body, are of a fine and lively
green, in some lights showing tints of azure blue on the
hack of the neck and head. The lower back and upper
tail coverts, as well as the greater wing-coverts and
quills, are of a fine blue. The tail feathers on the upper
surface are scarlet, with blue tips, the under surface and
that of the wings orange-yellow. The legs and toes are
red, tinged with gray. The claws are strong, hooked,
and black.
The Alexandrine Ring-Parakeet, This parrot is ge-
nerally supposed to have been the first, and by many the
only one known to the ancient Greeks, having been dis-
covered during the expeditions of the Macedonian con-
queror, by whose followers it was brought to Europe from
the ancient Taprobane, now the Island of Ceylon. At
all events, it is evident, from the concurrent testimony oi
various ancient authors, that whatever parrots were
i known, either to the Greeks or Romans, previous
118
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
the ancients, and that at a time when they
pretended to be masters of the world. If no-
thing else could serve to show the vanity of a
Roman's boast, the parrot-tribe might be an
to the time of Nero, were exclusively brought from In-
dia or its islands, and that the species, if more than one
had been introduced, also belonged to the genus now
under consideration, the description they have given
of the plumage of these birds pointing distinctly to this,
and possibly one or two other nearly allied species, as not
only the prevailing colour of the body, but that of the
bill, and the distinguishing characteristic, the neck-col-
lar, are particularly mentioned. The Alexandrine, as
well as its congener the Rose-ring Parakeet, are still
highly prized, and frequently brought from the East In-
dies, as, in age, they possess great docility, and a facility
of pronunciation inferior to none of the race. Of their
habits in a state of nature we remain comparatively ig-
norant.
The Ash-coloured or Grey Parrot. The Grey Par-
rot is a native of western Africa, whence it appears to
have been imported from a very early period ; but com-
mon and well known as it is in a state of captivity, its
peculiar habits and economy in a state of nature are still
but little and imperfectly known. Like most of its kind,
it is said to breed in the hollows of decayed trees; and
the instinctive propensity for such situations does riot ap-
pear to desert it even in a state of captivity; for Builun
mentions a pair in France, that, for five or six years suc-
cessively, produced and brought up their young, and
the place they selected for this purpose was a cask partly
filled with saw-dust. Its eggs are stated to be generally
four in number, their colour white, and in size equal to
those of a pigeon. In its native state, the food of the
Parrot consists of the kernels of various fruits, and the
seeds of other vegetables; but when domesticated, or
kept caged, its principal diet is generally bread and
milk, varied with nuts, almonds, &c., and even pieces of
dressed meat. When feeding, it often holds its food
clasped in the foot, and, before swallowing, masticates or
reduces it to small pieces by its powerful bill arid palatial
cutters. This member, so unlike that of other frugivo-
rous birds, is admirably calculated for the principal offi-
ces it has to perform, viz. breaking the shells of the
hardest fruits and seeds, and as a strong and powerful
organ of prehension and support ; for few of our readers
but must have observed that the bill is always first used,
and chiefly depended upon when a Parrot is caged, in
climbing or moving from one position to another. The
longevity of the feathered race, we believe, in general
far exceeds what is commonly supposed, at least if we
may judge from the age attained by various birds, even
when subjected to captivity and confinement. Thus, we
have instances of eagles living for half a century : the
same of ravens, geese, and other large birds, as well as
among the smaller kinds usually kept caged. The Par-
rot appears to yield to none of these, and several instan-
ces are upon record of their having reached the remark-
able age of sixty or seventy years. Among these, none
is more interesting than that of an individual mentioned
by M. Le Vaillant, which lu.d lived in a state of domes-
instance, of which there are a hundred kinds
now known ; not one ot which naturally breeds
in the countries that acknowledged the Roman
power. The green parakeet, with a redneck,
ticity for no less than ninety-three years. At the time
that eminent naturalist saw it, it was in a state of entire
decrepitude, and in a kind of lethargic condition, its sight
and memory being both gone, and was fed at intervals
with biscuit soaked in Madeira wine. In the time of its
youth and vigour it had been distinguished for its collo-
quial powers, and distinct enunciation, and was of so
docile and obedient a disposition, as to fetch its master's
slippers when required, as well as to call. the servants,
&c. At the age of sixty, its memory began to fail, and,
instead of acquiring any new phrase, it began to lose
those it had before attained, and to intermix, in a dis-
cordant manner, the words of its former language. It
moulted regularly every year till the age of sixty-five,
when this process grew irregular, and the tail became
yellow, after which, no farther change of plumage took
place. The day Parrot is subject to variety, some-
times the ground colour being mixed with red. In
size it measures about twelve inches in length. The
bill is black, strong, and much hooked, and the orbits,
and space between them and the eyes, covered with a
naked and white skin. The whole of the plumage, with
the exception of the tail, which is of a bright deep scar-
let, is of an a-h-gray colour, deepest upon the back, and
the feathers finely relieved and margined with paler
gray. The iridus are of a pale yellowish-white, the ieet
and toes gray, tinged with flesh-red.
The Tri-colov.red crrstpd Cockatoo. This Cockatoo is
a native of Australia. The bill is of a pale grayish-
white; the npper mandible strongly sinuated and toothed;
the irides of a deep brown; the naked orbits whitish.
The feathers at the immediate base of the bill are crim-
son, forming a narrow band or fillet: those of the fore-
head are white, tinged with red. The feathers forming
the proper crest are long and acuminate, the tips bend-
fug forwards, their basal half crimson, divided by a bar
of rich yellow, the remainder pure white. The whole of
the body is white, tinged deeply with crimson upon the
neck, breast, flanks, and under tail-coverts. The under
surface of the wings is rich crimson-red. Its legs and
toes are deep gray, the scales distinctly marked by lighter
lines. Of its peculiar habits and economy we are un-
able to give any detailed account. Another Australian
species is the Helmeted Cockatoo, Plyctolophus galeri-
tus, enumerated by Mr Vigors and Dr Horsfield in their
description of the Australian birds in the collection of the
Limiffian Society; and as its habits are presumed to re-
semlile in many respects those of the other species, wo
THE PARROT.
119
was the first of this kind that was brought into
Europe, and the only one that was known to
the ancients, from the time of Alexander the
Great to the age of Nero : this was brought
from India ; and when afterwards the Romans
began to seek and rummage through all their
dominions, for new and unhea-rd-of luxuries,
quote their observations, as extracted from M. Caley's
Notes. " This bird is called by the natives Car-away
and Cur-iang. I have often met with it in large flocks
at the influx of the Grose and the Hawkesbury rivers,
below Mulgo'ey on the former river, and in the long
meadow near the Nepean river. They are shy, and
not easily approached. The flesh of the young ones is
accounted good eating. I have heard from the natives
that it makes its nest in the rotten limbs of trees, of no-
tliing more than the vegetable mould iormed by the de-
cayed parts of the bough ; that it has no more than two
young ones at a time ; and that the eggs are white, with-
out spots. The natives first find where the nests are,
by the bird making co'tora in an adjoining tree, which
lies in conspicuous heaps on the ground. Co'tora is the
bark stripped od' the smaller branches, and cut into small
pieces. When the young ones are nearly fledged, the
old birds cut a quantity of small branches from the ad-
joining trees, hut never from that in which the nest is
situated. They are sometimes found to enter the hollow
limb as far as two yards. The nests are generally found
in a black-butted gum-tree, and also in Coroy'bo, Cajim-
bora, and Yarrowar'ry trees (species of Eucalyptus)."
ffoliah Aratoo. This is one of the largest of the
Fsittacules. It 5? a native of the eastern Australasian
islands. The whole of the plumage is black. Little is
known of its habits.
Purple Capped Lory. This bird is a native of the
Moluccas and other Eastern islands, from whence we
occasionally receive it, being held in high estimation, not
only on account of its elegant plumage, but for the doci-
lity it evinces, and its distinct utterance of words and
sentences. It is also lively and active in its disposition,
and fond of being caressed. In size it is amongst the
lir^est of the group, measuring upwards of eleven inches
they at last found out others in Gaganda, an
island of Ethiopia, which they considered as
an extraordinary discovery.
Parrots have usually the same disorders
with other birds ; and they have one or two
peculiar to their kind. They are sometimes
struck by a kind of apoplectic blow, by which
in length. The general or ground colour of the plu-
mage is rich scarlet, this tint occupying all the lower
parts of the body, with the exception^ a-rnllar of yellow
upon the upper part of the breast. The neck, back, up-
per tail-coverts, and basal part of the tail, are also of the
same colour. The crown of the head is blackish-purple
in front, passing into violet-purple on the hinder part.
The wings on the upper surface are green, the flexure
and margins violet blue, as are also the under wing-co-
verts. The feathers of the thighs are azure-coloured ex-
teriorly, their basal parts being greenish. The bill is
orange yellow; the under mandible conic, and narrow to-
wards the tip.
Blue-bellied Lorikeet. This species is a native of
New Holland, where it is found in large flocks, wher-
ever the various species of Eucalypti abound, the flowers
of those trees affording an abundant supply of food to
this as well as to other species of the Nectivorous Par-
rots. According to the observations of Mr Caley, as
quoted by Messrs Vigors and Horsfield in their descrip-
tion of the Australian birds in the collection of the Lin-
n;ean Society, " Flocks of the^e birds may be seen in the
eucalypti-trees, when in flower, in different parts of the
country, but in the greatest number near their breeding
places." They do not, he adds, eat any kind of grain,
even in a domesticated state ; a fact curiously illustrative
of their peculiar habits, and the situation they hold in
the family of the Psittacules. It appears that they sel-
dom live long in confinement, and that when caged they
are very subject to fits. This in all probability arises
from a deficiency of their natural food ; and the instinc-
tive feeling or appetite for its favourite diet is strongly
exemplified In the fact, that one kept by Mr Caley
being shown a figure of a coloured plant, used to put its
tongue to the flowers, as if with the intent of sucking
them, and this it even did when shown a figured piece
of cotton furniture. By the natives it is called War-
rin ; the settlers call it by the name of the Blue Moun-
tain Parrot, though the term seems to be misapplied, as
it is a frequenter of the plains, and not of the hilly dis-
tricts. Its flesh is excellent, and highly esteemed.
The Ground Parrot. The Ground Parrot is also s
native of New Holland and Van Dieman's Land, jvhere
it inhabits the scrubs or ground partially covered with
120
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
they fall from their perches, and for a while
seem ready to expire.1 The other is the grow-
ing of the beak, which becomes so very much
hooked as to deprive them of the power of eat-
ing. These infirmities, however, do not hin-
der them from being long-lived; for a parrot,
well kept, will live five or six and twenty
years.
CHAP. VIII.
THE PIGEON, AND ITS VARIETIES.2
THIS is one of the birds which, from its
great fecundity, we have, in some measure,
low underwood. It is very rarely seen perched, and
when flushed, Mr Caley observes, takes a short flight,
and then alights among the bushes, but never upon them.
Jf its mode of nidification, and other matters connected
with its history, we are unable to give any further ac-
r.ount. (For the materials of this note we are mainly in-
debted to a volume on Parrots, by Air Selby, in the Na-
turalist's Library.)
1 Bleeding in the foot is recommended as a remedy
for this.
2 The birds of this genus, which contains more than
one hundred species, inhabit all the warm and temperate
regions of the globe. The species with short and robust
bill are found throughout the whole extent of Africa, in
the islands of the Indian archipelago, in New Holland,
and in the islands of the South sea. The common
pigeons, with moderate bill, are the most generally ex-
tended through both continents. Those with slender
bill and long legs are proper to the climates of the new
world, of Africa, and of Asia, but are not found in
Europe. Only four species of the common pigeons are
found wild in this last part of the globe ; from one of
them, the biset or wild rock pigeon, as is supposed, are
descended all the various races which we find in a state
of domestication. Whether under the name of pigeons
or doves, these birds are uniformly quiet and harmless
in their nature. They live almost exclusively on fruits,
berries, seeds, and grains, and very seldom consume
insects or snails, or other animal food. In their mode
of living together, they are understood to be strict mono-
gamists, each attaching itself to a single mate, and ad-
hering to it alone ; but to this there are exceptions, as
we happen to have witnessed amongst the domesticated
species, in all of whom the bond of attachment is very
slight. The female seldom lays more than two eggs,
and it is remarkable that they almost invariably produce
b male and a female. Nature has assigned to pigeons
>u» important office in the economy of creation. Their
reclaimed from a state of nature, and taught
to live in habits of dependence. Indeed, its
fecundity seems to be increased by human
cultivation ; since those pigeons that live in a
stomachs do not digest the seeds of certain fruits, and
these seeds being voided in the course of the animal's
flight, trees are thus disseminated and planted in situa-
tions which could never otherwise be reached by the
parent vegetables. The power of flight which pigeons
generally possess, seems to be only a feature in the ani-
mal's character subordinate to this beautiful and provi-
dential design.
With a general resemblance of character, pigeons dif.
fer very materially in external appearance, both in re-
spect of shape and colour of plumage. In all countries
of the temperate zones they resemble the common house
pigeons of Britain, and are of a grayish or bluish tinge
of feather. In the warm countries within the tropics,
they shine forth with all the brilliancy of plumage of
parrots and other gay-feathered animals. The vinago
aromatico, (see Plate XV. fig. 29.) as one of the Indian
varieties of pigeons is called, is a beautiful creature with
bright light-green feathers from the breast to the tail,
with a darkish-coloured back, and wings striped with
yellow and brown. The ptilinopus purpuratus, a
variety found in India and Australia, is still more of a
bright green all over, here and there patched with bits
of a golden hue, and having a light purple crest. Green,
light blue, white, and cream colour, seem to be the pre-
dominating tints of the other varieties. The turtur
risorius, which is the pigeon referred to in the scrip-
tures, under the name of the turtle dove, is of a cream
colour, lighter on the breast than on the back, with a
stripe of green round the neck, and eyes of a red hue.
The most beautiful and handsome shaped pigeon is the
turtur lophotes, a native of Australia. This elegant
bird is of a very light gray colour on the head and
breast, brown along the back, wings with green, red,
brown, and cream-coloured feathers, and tail black, ex-
cept round the edges, which are white ; from the back
of the head grows a long slender tuft pointed gracefully
upward, and giving the animal an appearance somewhat
like the tufted cockatoo.
The American continent is famed for the prodigious
number of its pigeons, the vast extent of forest aflbrding
them at once a place of safe resort and an abundance of
food for their subsistence. Audubon describes the habits
and geographical distribution of six varieties of pigeons
which frequent the United States: the Passenger pigeon,
the Carolina dove, the Ground dove, the White-headed
pigeon, the Zen aid a dove, and the Key West pigeon.
The Passenger pigeon possesses, as is well known, an
extraordinary power of flight, and this is seconded by as
great a power of vision. Though flying high and swiftly,
THE PIGEON.
121
wild state, in the woods, are by no means so
fruitful as those in our pigeon- houses nearer
home. The power of increase in most birds
depends upon the quantity of their food ; and
it is seen, in more than one instance, that
man, by supplying food in plenty, and allow-
ing the animal at the same time a proper
share of freedom, has brought some of those
kinds which are known to lay but once a year,
to become much more prolific.
The tame pigeon, and all its beautiful
varieties, derive their orgin from one species,
they can inspect the country below them with facility,
and easily perceive the food they are in quest of. In
Ohio, Kentucky, and Indiana, the largest flocks of these
wild pigeons are seen. Wilson's description of the my-
riad flocks of these pigeons has often been quoted. His
successor, Audubon, in a paper read before the Royal
Society of Edinburgh, gives the following description
of them.
The most important facts, he says, connected with the
habits of these birds relate to their extraordinary associa-
tions and migrations. No other species known to natur-
alists is more calculated to attract the attention of either
the citizen or the stranger, as he has opportunities of
viewing both of these characteristic habits while they
are passing from north to south, east and west, and vice
versa, over and across the whole extent of the United
States of America.
Their great power of flight enables them when in
need, to survey and pass over an astonishing extent of
country in a very short time. This is proved by facts
known to the greater number of observers in America.
Pigeons, for example, have been killed in the neigh-
bourhood of New York, with their crops still filled with
rice, collected by them in the fields of Georgia and
Carolina, the nearest point at which this supply could
possibly have been obtained ; and as it is well ascer-
tained that, owing to their great power of digestion,
they will decompose food entirely in twelve hours, they
must have travelled between three hundred and four
hundred miles in six hours, making their speed at an
average of about one mile in a minute, and this would
enable one of these birds, if so inclined, to visit the
European continent, as swallows undoubtedly are able to
do, in a couple of days.
Their multitudes in our woods are astonishing: and,
indeed, after having viewed them so often, and under so
many circumstances, for years, and, I may add, in many
different climates, I even now feel inclined to pause,
and assure myself afresh that what I am going to relate
is fact. That I have seen it is most certain ; and I
have seen it all in the company of hundreds of other
persons looking on, like myself, amazed, and wondering
if what we saw was really true.
In the autumn of 1813, I left my house at Hender-
son, on the banks of the Ohio, on my way to Louisville.
Elaving met the pigeons flying from north-east to south-
west, in the barrens or natural wastes a few miles be-
yond Hardensburgh, in greater apparent numbers than I
thought I had ever seen them before, I felt an inclina-
tion to enumerate the flocks that would pass within the
reach of my eye in one hour. I dismounted, and, seat-
ing myself on a tolerable eminence, took my pencil to
mark down what I saw going by and over me, and made
a dot for every flock which passed. Finding, however,
that this was next to impossible, and feeling unable to
record the flocks, as they multiplied constantly, I rose,
and counting the dots then put down, discovered that a
hundred and sixty-three had been made in twenty-one
minutes. I travelled on, and still met more the farther
vox., n.
the stock-dove only ; the English name, imply-
ing its being the stock or stem from whence
the other domestic kinds have been propa-
^ted.1 This bird, in its natural state, is of a
deep bluish ash-colour ; the breast dashed with
a fine changeable green and purple ; its wings
marked with two black bars; the back white,
and the tail barred near the end with black.
These are the colours of the pigeon in a state
of nature ; and from these jdrnple tints has
man by art propagated a variety that words
cannot describe, nor even fancy suggest. How-
I went. The air was literally filled with pigeons; the
light of noon-day became dim, as during an eclipse ; the
pigeons' dung fell in spots, not unlike melting flakes
of snow; and the continued buzz of their wings over
me had a tendency to incline my senses to repose.
Whilst waiting for my dinner at Young's Inn, at the
confluence of Salt river with the Ohio, I saw, at my
leisure, immense legions still going by, with a front
reaching far beyond the Ohio on the west, and the beech
wood forests directly on the east of me. Yet not a single
bird would alight; for not a nut or acorn was that year
to be seen in the neighbourhood. They consequently flew
so high, that different trials to reach them with a capital
rifle proved ineffectual, and not even the report disturbed
them in the least. But I cannot describe how beautiful
their aerial evolutions were if a black hawk appeared in
their rear. At once, like a torrent, and with a thunder-
like noise, they formed themselves into almost a solid
compact mass, pressing each on each towards the centre ;
and when in such solid bodies they zig-zagged to escape
the murderous falcon, now down close over the earth,
sweeping with inconceivable velocity, then ascending
perpendicularly, like a vast monument ; and when high
were seen wheeling and twisting within their continued
lines, resembling the coils of a gigantic serpent. Before
sunset I reached Louisville, distance from Hardensburgh
fifty-five miles, where the pigeons were still passing;
and this continued for three days in succession. The
people were indeed all up in arms, and shooting on all
sides at the passing flocks. The banks of the river were
crowded with men and children, for here the pigeons flew
rather low as they passed the Ohio. This gave a fair
opportunity to destroy them in great number. For a
week or more the population spoke of nothing but pigeons,
and fed on no other flesh but that of pigeons. The
whole atmosphere during this time was strongly impreg-
nated with the smell appertaining to their species.
It may not, perhaps, be out of place to attempt an
estimate of the number of pigeons contained in one of
those mighty flocks, and the quantity of food daily con-
sumed by its members. The inquiry will show the asto-
nishing bounty of the Creator in his works, and how
universally this bounty has been granted to every living
thing on that vast continent of America.
We shall take, for example, a column of one mile in
breadth, which is far below the average size, and suppose
it passing over us without interruption for three hours, at
the rate mentioned above, of one mile per minute. This
will give us a parallelogram of one hundred and eighty
miles by one, covering one hundred and eighty square
miles, and allowing two pigeons to the square yard, we
have one billion one hundred and fifteen millions one
hundred and thirty-six thousand pigeons in one flock ;
and as every pigeon consumes fully half a pint of food
per day, the quantity must he eight millions seven .hun-
dred and twelve thousand bushels per day which is re-
quired to feed such a flock.
1 The British domestic pigeons are now supposed to
have their origin in the wild rock-pigeon. See Note, antt,
122
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
ever, Nature still perseveres in her great out-
line ; and though the form, colour, and even
the fecundity, of these birds, may be altered
by art, yet (heir natural manners and inclina-
tions continue still the same.1
1 The Ring Pigeon or Cushat is a bird widely dis-
seminated throughout Europe, either as a permanent
resident, or as a periodical visitant; in the first state, in
all those countries where the climate and temperature
are such as to ensure a constant supply of food, and in
the latter, in those higher latitudes where the rigour
of winter is severely felt, and the ground for a long period
remains covered with snow. Of its geographical distri-
bution in other quarters of the globe, we can only speak
with uncertainty, as it is evident, that species, bearing a
resemblance in form and colour, have been mistaken for
it, and as such recorded in the relations of various tra-
vellers. Temminck mentions it in his History of the
pigeons, as inhabiting parts of northern Asia and Africa,
and it is known to be a native of Madeira, as well as
another nearly allied species, lately described in the
" Illustrations of Ornithology," under the title of the
Columba Trocaz. In America it has not yet been re-
cognized, neither does it appear among the species which
abound within the tropical latitudes of the ancient world.
In Britain it is distributed from one extremity of the
kingdom to the other, residing permanently with us ; for,
though subject to a partial movement upon the approach
ot winter, when the various individuals scattered over
the country collect together, and form extensive flocks,
no actual migration takes place, but these congregated
masses still keep within their respective districts. The
magnitude of these winter flocks has no doubt suggested
the idea, that a migration from distant climes to this
country annually takes place at this season of the year,
and that the numbers of our native stock are thus aug-
mented. We see no necessity, however, for supposing
this to be the case, nor is it authorised by any observed
or established fact. The species in districts favourable
to its increase appears to be sufficiently numerous to ac-
count for the largest bodies ever seen assembled toge-
ther.
This congregating of the Ring pigeons takes place to-
wards the end of October or beginning of November, at
which time all the autumnal broods have become fully
fledged, and they remain thus united till the beginning
of February, when the first mild days and the genial
influence of the ascending sun again call forth those in-
stinctive feelings which urge them to separate and pair,
and each to seek an appropriate retreat for the rearing
of a future brood. At first when thus congregated, they
haunt the stubbles, or, in districts producing an abun-
dance of beech-mast or acorns, the woods and frees ; but
BS these resources become exhausted, they resort to the
turnip fields, th« leaves and tops of which root they
greedily devour. This food now constitutes their prin-
cipal support during the winter and early spring months,
or until the clover begins to sprout, and the seed-corn is
(jommitted to the earth, and it has been observed that the
The stock-dove, in its native woods, differs
from the ring-dove, a bird that has never been
reclaimed, by its breeding in the holes of rocks
and the hollows of trees. All other birds of
the pigeon kind build, like rooks, in the top-
increase of the species has been progressive with that of
the culture of this valuable root. The numerous and
extensive plantations that of late years have been so gen-
erally made throughout the island, and which, in a young
and close growing state, are peculiarly favourable to its
habits, must also be taken into account, and perhaps
these tend, in an equal degree to the cause above assigned,
to the rapid increase of its numbers. When thus
united, they repair to their feeding-ground early in the
morning, and again in the afternoon before they retire
to roost, the middle of the day being passed in repose or
digesting their first meal, upon the nearest trees. When
thus perched, some are always upon the watch, and so
great is their vigilance, that it is almost impossible, Ity
any device, to get within gun-shot. In the evening
they retire to the woods to roost, preferring those of the
fir tribe and the ash to any other, and in those nocturnal
retreats great slaughter is sometimes committed, by wait-
ing in concealment their arrival, which regularly takes
place immediately after sunset.
The first mild weather in February produces an im-
mediate effect upon these congregated pigeons, and we
may almost calculate to a day when their cooing arid
plaintive murmurs will again be heard in their wonted
summer haunts. The flocks are now seen daily to de-
crease in magnitude, and in a short time every wood
and copse becomes peopled with the numerous pairs of
this lovely bird. The male soon after commences a
flight peculiar to the season of courtship and love, this
is a rising and falling in the air, by alternate move-
ments, in which flight, and when at the greatest eleva-
tion, the upper surfaces of the wings are brought sc
forcibly into contract, as to be heard at a considerable
distance. Nidification soon follows this well-known
signa), and by the end of April the young in many in-
stances are fully fledged, and ready to quit the nest
Few, however, of the early brood, comparatively speak-
ing, attain maturity, as the eggs at this season, from the
naked state of the woods, are easily discovered by the
prying eye and inquisitive habits of the cunning magpie
and predacious carrion-crow.
The nest of the cushat is a flimsy fabric, being a mere
platform of twigs loosely interwoven, so open, indeed,
that the eggs, in one newly built, and before it becomes
thickened by the droppings of a previous brood, may be
seen through it from beneath; and so slight is the cen-
tral depression, that it frequently happens, where the
incubating bird is suddenly disturbed, the eggs, in the
hurry to escape, are tumbled from the nest, and perish
upon the ground. The site selected for nidification is
various, and no tree or bush seems to come amiss at
certain periods of the year. In early spring, however,
and before the deciduous trees acquire their umbrageous
and leafy covering, firs, and other evergreens, are pre-
ferred, on account of the better concealment and protec-
tion they afford. From this diversity of site, the nest
is necessarily placed at various elevations, at one time
being far removed from the ground, as when it is built
near the summit of a lofty spruce, or in the thick foliage
of a beech or sycamore, at another scarcely out of reach,
and but a few feet from the earth, as we find it in the '
holly, the young fir, the thorn, or other bushy trees.
The eggs, always two in number, are white, of an oblong
form, and rounded nearly equally at both ends. Incuba-
tion lasts from eighteen to twenty days, and both sexes
sit alternately, the male taking the place of his mate
when hunger compels her to quit the nest and so vice
THE PIGEON.
123
most branches of the forest, and choose their j provision and numerous society, easily submits
to the tyranny of man. Still, however, it
preserves its native colour for several genera-
tions, and becomes more variegated only in
habitation as remote as possible from man.
But this species soon takes to build in artificial
cavities ; and, from the temptation of a ready
I't'rsa. When first excluded, the young are blind, their
skin of a blue or livid colour, thinly covered with a harsh
yellow down. In this tender state they are long and as-
siduously brooded over by the parent birds, and are fed
with a milky pulp, ejected from the crop, where the food
undergoes a partial digestion, preparatory to its being
given to them. As they gain strength and become
fledged, food is more frequently supplied, and, con-
sequently, from its not remaining so long in the craw of
the old bird, in a less and less comminuted form, till at
length, previous to their finally quitting, the nest, it is
administered in a state but little altered from that in
which it is first swallowed by the old bird*.
The Ring Pigeon breeds twice in the year, viz. in
spring, and again in autumn, a cessation taking place
during the greater part of June and July, being a period of
comparative scarcity, the seeds of such plants as they
principally subsist on not having then ripened or attained
perfection. The autumnal brood, on account of the more
effectual concealment of the nests by the now matured
and thick foliage of the woods, is always more abundant
than that of spring, and, in favourable districts, great num-
bers annually escape. In certain seasons, the young pro-
duce in autumn are subject to a peculiar disease, which des-
troys many of them even after they have quitted the nest.
It appears in the form of large swellings or impostumes,
upon the feet and head, which, rapidly increasing, at
length deprives them of sight and the power of perching,
and they perish upon the ground, emaciated by hunger
and disease. This complaint, for many years past, has
been observed in the northern districts of the kingdom,
but whether it prevails to an equal extent in other parts,
we have had no opportunity of ascertaining. The flesh
of both young and old is of good flavour, that of the latter
being little inferior to the moor-game or grouse, which it
s thought by many to resemble in taste. This, however,
can only be said of it, so long as the bird derives its sup-
p(."-t from the stubbles, or the produce of the forest; for
as soon as a deficiency of their food compels it to resort
to the turnip field, the flesh becomes imbued so thorough-
ly with the strong flavour of the plant, as no longer to be
fit for the table. Though the Ring Pigeon frequently
approaches our habitations during the breeding season
in search of a site for its nest, and almost seems to court
the vicinity of man, it always evinces a timorous disposi-
l:on, and is startled and alarmed by the slightest motion
or noise. In the winter, and when congregated, it be-
comes still more impatient of approach, and is then one
of the most wary and watchful of the feathered race.
Various attempts have been made tp domesticate the
Ring Pigeon, but hitherto without success, for although
they may be rendered very tame when in confinement,
they show no disposition to breed even by themselves,
much less with the common pigeon, and upon being set
&t liberty, soon lose any little attachment they may have
shown to the place in which they were reared, and betake
themselves to their natural haunts to return no more.
The Wood Pigeon till of late years, by most of our
writers, was confounded with the rock pigeon, the
original stock of our common pigeon, or at least had its
history so mixed up with the descriptions of that bird,
as to render its individuality and specific distinction a
matter of considerable doubt. Brisson appears to have
been the first who accurately pointed out the distinctions
between the two, and he has since been followed by
Temminck, who, in bis general history of the pigeons,
and his excellent and useful Manual of Ornithology, had
so clearly marked its distinctive characters, and des-
cribed its habits, as to render it almost impossible
even for a very tyro to confound or mistake the unt with
the other.
Like the previously described species, it is indigeuous,
but its distribution is much more limited in extent,
being confined to the southern and midland counties of
England, aud to such districts only as are well clothed
with wood; for, possessing arboreal habits, it is never
found inhabiting those localities affected by the Columba
livia (rock pigeon,) such as the caverns of rocks, ruin-
ous edifices, &c. During the spring and summer, it is
distributed in pairs throughout the woods, where it breeds;
sometimes in the decayed hollows of the ivy-mantled
trunks, at others on the forks or amidst the higher
branches of the trees. The nest is similar to that of the ring
pigeon, and its two white eggs, though inferior in size,
present the same oblong form. Two broods are annually
produced, the first in spring, the second after midsum-
mer, a period of rest or recruiting of the vital forces tak-
ing place between the end of May and the middle of
July. As autumn advances, the various broods begin
to congregate, and soon form flocks of great magnitude,
which continue assembled during the winter, and are
sometimes seen commingled with bodies of their larger
congener, the cushat. In parts of France, Germany,
and the northern kingdoms of Europe, it is a migratory
species, and a summer or polar visitant, the late autumnal
and winter months being passed in warmer latitudes,
where a due supply of food can then be found. In dis-
position it shows a timidity and watchfulness equal to
that, of any other species, particularly during the winter
months, when associated in troops. Its food consists of
grain of all kinds, pulse, acorns, beechmast, &c., and
like the cushat, when pressed by hunger, it frequently
resorts to the turnip fields to devour the tender leaves
and tops of that plant. Its flesh by Temminck is said
to be of exquisite flavour, and far superior to that of the
ring pigeon, but this perhaps may only be at certain pe-
riods, and when feeding upon some peculiar food.
Near as it approaches the common pigeon in size and
form, no mixed breed that we are aware of has ever been
obtained between them, although repeated attempts to
effect an intercourse have been made. This in our
mind appears a strong and convincing proof, that all the
varieties, generally known by the name of Fancy Pigeons,
have originated from one and the same stuck, and not
from crosses with other species, as some have supposed,
the produce of which, even could it be occasionally obtained
we have no doubt would prove to be barren, or what are
generally termed mules.
The Bisetor Wild Rock-Pigeon. Rocky and precipi-
tous dirts, particularly those of the sea-coast perforated by
caverns, either originating in the nature of the rock itself,
or woni and hollowed out by the action of the waves, are tho
appropriate retreats of the pigeon in its wild or natural
state. In this condition it possesses a very extensive
geographical distribution throughout the maritime dix-
124
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
proportion as it removes from the original
simplicity of its colouring in the wood.
The dove-house pigeon, as is well known,
breeds every month ; but then it is necessary
tricts of the world, being abundant in most of the Rocky
Hands belonging to Africa and Asia, and in those of the
Mediterranean, where it swarms in incredible numbers.
Upon our own coasts it is found wherever the nature of
the barrier suits its habits, extending as far as the
Orkneys, where Low describes it as the inhabitant of
all their numerous and extensive caves, retiring to their
inmost recesses, and generally beyond the situations se-
lected for nidification by the auks, gulls, and other aquatic
fowl. It is also met with upon the northern and west-
ern coasts of Sutherland, the perforated and cavernous
rocks which gird the eastern side of Loch Eriboll,
and those of the limestone districts of Durness, furnish-
ing suitable places of retreat, and again upon the eastern
coasts of Scotland, it is seen about the rocky steeps of
the Isle of Bass, and the bold promontory of St Abb's
Head.
The supposition of many of our ornithologists that this
and the preceding species were identical, has led to con-
siderable confusion in their writings, and produced a
mixed sort of description strictly applicable to neither.
The distinctions, however, between the species, even in
regard to plumage, are such, that, i f attended to, no mistake
can well arise, and if accompanied by a corresponding
attention to their respective habits, the difference be-
comes still more apparent and convincing. In one we
have a bird the frequenter and inhabitant of the woods,
where it roosts, breeds, and perches with security and
ease upon the trees, like the ring pigeon and other arbo-
real species; in the other, an inhabitant of caves and the
holes of rocks, and which is never known, under any cir-
cumstance, to affect the forest or perch upon a tree.
But the rock or wild pigeon is better known to our
readers as the inhabitant of the pigeon-house, or, as it is
frequently called, the dove-cot, buildings erected ex-
pressly for the purpose of containing colonies of these
birds. In this state, where they enjoy a perfect freedom
of action, and are nearly dependent upon their own exer-
tions for support, they can scarcely be called reclaimed,
much less domesticated. Man, indeed, has only taken
ail vantage of certain habits natural to the species, and by
the substitution of an artificial for a real cavern, to which
the pigeon-house may be compared, has, without violat-
ing or at least greatly infringing upon its natural condi-
tion, brought it into a kind of voluntary subjection, and
rendered it subservient to his benefit and use. Vast
numbers of young pigeons in various parts of the world
are by this system annually produced and rendered avail-
able as a wholesome and nutritious food, as well as a
source of considerable profit to the proprietors of these
edifices.
to supply it with food when the weather is
severe, or the fields are covered with snow.
Upon other occasions, it may be left to provide
for itself, and it generally repays the owner
Various practical treatises upon the management of
the dove-cot, and ether details connected with it, are
already before the public, and to them we must refer our
readers for further information, as the limited nature of
the present work will not admit of such copious extracts
as would be necessary to embrace all the respective de-
tails. It may not, however, be out of place to advert
to a few of the principal objects to be considered, by
those who contemplate the erection of a pigeon-house;
and first in regard to the form of the building. The
most approved is that of a circular tower, as it affords
advantages not possessed by the square, giving an easier
access to the breeding birds to their nests, and a
greater facility of taking the young, and inspecting and
clearing out the holes, by means of a ladder turning upon
an axis. Around the interior of the tower, about three or
four feet from the bottom, a horizontal ledge of eight or
ten inches in width ought to project, in order to prevent
rats, weasels, and other vermin, destructive to the eggs
and young, from scaling the walls and entering the
pigeon-holes, and if this ledge be covered on its under
surface with tin or sheet-iron, it will the more effectually
prevent the entrance of such intruders. A second ledge
of less width, and about midway up in a pigeon-house of
considerable height, may also be of advantage, not only
for additional security against enemies, but as a resting-
place for the pigeons when they enter the house. The
holes or nests are best built in quincunx order, and not
directly over one another, and they ought to be suffi-
ciently large to allow the old birds to move in them with
freedom, and to stand upright, in which position they
always feed their young.
Frequent attention to the state of the holes is neces-
sary, and they ought regularly to be inspected and cleansed
after each great flight, that is, towards the end of May,
and again before winter. The dung accumulated at
the bottom of the house should also be removed every
three or four months, as the effluvium which arises from
it when in a large mass, and in a state of fermentation,
is injurious to the health of the birds, and also prevents
them making use of the lower tiers of nest-holes. In
point of situation, a gentle acclivity, exposed to the south,
and open to the rays of the sun, in which the pigeon de-
lights to bask and repose, is the most favourable. It
ought not to be too far removed from a plentiful supply
of water, as the pigeon is a great and frequent drinker;
neither too closely surrounded by trees, as, when near,
they interfere with the free egress and ingress of the
birds, and are supposed to be disagreeable to them, from
the noise they make in winds and storms. The pigeon
being a bird of a timid nature, and easily alarmed, the
house should stand at such a distance from all the other
offices, as not to be incommoded by any noise or move-
ments about them. From a pigeon-house of tolerable
dimensions, a produce of many dozens of young may annu-
ally be procured, and that for nearly eight months out of
the twelve, as they are in full breeding from March till
the end of May, and again from August till the close of
November ; and all that is required to keep up the breed-
ing stock, is to permit a limited portion of the latter
hatchings to escape.
In its natural state, the plumage of the pigeon is as
follows: — Bill blackish-brown: the nostril membrane
red, sprinkled, as it were, with a white powder. The
irides pale reddish-orange. The head and throat are
bluish-gray. The sides of the neck and upper part of
the breast are dark lavender-purple, glossed with shades
of green and purplish-red. The lower part of the breast
and abdomen are bluish-gray. The upper mandible arid
THE PIGEON.
125
for its protection. The pigeon lays two white
eggs, which most usually produce young ones
of different sexes. For the laying of each
egg, it is necessary to have a particular con-
wing-coverts are blue-gray. The greater coverts and
secondaries are barred with black, and form two broad
and distinct bars across the closed wings. The lower
part of the back is white ; the rump and tail-coverts
bluish-gray. The tail is of a deep gray, with a broad
black bar at the end. The legs and feet are pale purplish-
red. When closed, the wings reach within half an inch
of the end of the tail.
It is under this species that w-e include not only the
common pigeon, or inhabitant of the dove-cot, but all
those numerous varieties, or, as they are frequently
termed, races of domesticated pigeons, so highly prized,
and fostered with such care and attention by the amateur
breeder or pigeon fancier ; for, however diversified their
forms, colour, or peculiarity of habit may be, we con-
sider them all as having originated from a few accidental
varieties of the common pigeon, and not from any cross
of that bird with other species, no signs or marks what-
ever of such being apparent in any of the numerous
varieties known to us.
The Jacobine Pigeon. Tliis curious variety, which,
as transmitting to its posterity a form precisely similar,
with all the peculiar characters undiminished, comes
under the designation, among pigeon fanciers, of a pure
or permanent race, is distinguished by a remarkable ruff
or frill of raised feathers,which, commencing behind the
head, and proceeding down the neck and breast, form a
kind of hood, not unlike that worn by a monk ; and from
its resemblance to which it has obtained its Gallic trivial
name of Nonnain capucin. In size it is one of the
smallest of the domestic pigeons, but its form is light
and elegant. The bill is very short; the eyes surrounded
with a moderate circle of naked red skin. The legs
are unplumed. The head, the wings, and the tail, are
always white. The usual colour of the hood is reddish-
brown, with iridescent tints. The mantle, the wing-
coverts, and the breast, are reddish-brown. It is also
sometimes seen with the mantle and wing-coverts of a
very deep red, spotted with black. Another variety, of
a uniform pale fawn-colour, is not unfrequent; but that
most highly prized is entirely of a pure and glossy white.
It is a very productive species, and, having us flight
considerably impeded by the size and form of its hooded
pile, keeps much at home, and is well adapted for the
aviary or other buildings where pigeons are kept con-
fined.
The Collared Turtle. From a very remote period this
species appears to have been domesticated, or rather
kept in that state of captivity in which it is retained at
the present day; for there is every reason to suppose
that the turtle dove adverted to in Holy Writ may be
rei'erred to the same bird, as it is still abundant in Egypt
and other parts of the East, where it is fostered and cul-
tivated with care, and it is certain that many of the re-
presentations in the works of ancient art, where the dove
figures as the emblem of tenderness and affection, or
where it is depicted as the appropriate attendant t>f
gress with the male ; and the egg is usually
deposited in the afternoon. When the eggs
are thus laid, the female, in the space of lif-
teen days, not including the three days dur-
Venus, are accurate delineations of the Collared or domes-
tic Turtle. This bird does not appear to be susceptible
of that attachment to its home or place ot birth, for
which the common or Dove-cot Pigeon is remarkable,
and which peculiar quality renders that species so service-
able to man. On the contrary, like its congener the
common or wild European turtle ( Turtur communis,} it
cannot be left to range at perfect liberty, without the
danger of its flying away to return no more, and must
therefore be kept constantly confined either in cages or
in aviaries adapted for the purpose. In this state of
captivity, if properly attended to, it breeds with facility,
sometimes producing as many as eight broods within the
year; but, being a native of warm climates, and very
impatient of cold, it is seldom cultivated to the same
extent in this country as it is in those where the tem-
perature is better adapted to its constitution. The male
shows great tenderness and affection to his mate, and is
constantly by her side, soothing her with caresses, or
paying his court by soft cooing notes, and that peculiar
cry so expressive of laughter, and from which it takes its
specific name. In its wild or natural state, it is found
in various parts of Africa, and we have by us specimens
from the southern part of that continent, a description
of which, as varying in depth and intensity of colour
from the domestic variety, is here subjoined. The length
is about ten inches. The chin is whitish ; from the cor-
ners of the mouth to the eyes, is a narrow streak of black.
The forehead is pale bluish-gray; the crown darker ; the
cheeks, neck, breast, and belly gray, tinged with vina-
ceous or pale purplish-red ; the hind neck with a demi-
collar of black, some of the side feathers composing it
being tipped with white. The back scapulars and rump
are of a pale clove-brown, with a greenish tinge. The
margins of the wings, the greater coverts, and other wing-
coverts, are blue-gray. The greater quills are hair-brown,
delicately edged with grayish-white. The tail is slightly
rounded, the two middle feathers entirely clove-brown,
the remainder on each side with the basal half black, the
tips bluish-gray, except those of the two outermost, which
are white. The vent and under tail-coverts are white;
the legs and feet gray; the inner toe a little longer than
the outer. In its natural state, it inhabits the woods,
where it breeds, making a nest similar to that of the
common turtle, and lays two white eggs. It seeks its
food in the open grounds, and subsists upon grain, grass-
seeds, pulse, &c. It is easily distinguished, and the
place of its retreat soon discovered by its cooing-notes,
one of which we have already stated to resemble the
human laugh.
A mixed breed is sometimes obtained between this
species and the common wild turtle, but the progeny are
invariably mules, and incapable of further increase, — a
fact that has been established by many careful and oft-
repeated experiments, and one which affords a strong
126
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
ing which she is employed in laying, continues
to hatch, relieved at intervals by the male.
The turns are usually regulated with great
exactness. From three or four o'clock in the
evening till nine the next day, the female
continues to sit; she is then relieved by the
male, who takes his place from ten till three,
while his mate is feeding abroad. In this
manner they sit alternately till the young are
excluded. If, during this term, the female
delays to return at the expected time, the
male follows, and drives her to the nest; and
should he in his turn be dilatory, she retaliates
with equal severity.
The young ones, when hatched, require no
food for the three first days, only wanting to
be kept warm, which is an employment the
lemale takes entirely upon herself. During
this period, she never stirs out, except for a
few minutes to take a little food. From this
they are fed for eight or ten days with corn
or grain of different kinds, which the old ones
gather in the fields, and keep treasured up in
their crops, from whence they throw it up
again into the mouths of their young ones, who
very greedily demand it.
As this method of feeding the young from
the crop is different in birds of the pigeon-
kind from all others, it demands a more de-
tailed explanation. Of all birds, for its size,
the pigeon has the largest crop, which is also
made in a manner quite peculiar to the kind.
In two of these that were dissected by a
member of the Royal Academy of Sciences,
argument against the supposition, that many of the varie-
ties of the common pigeon, or of the domestic fowl, are
the result of a mixture of different species.
The Ferruginous Ground Dove. This diminutive
species, which only measures about six inches and a
• quarter in length, is pretty widely distributed throughout
Brazil, Paraguay, and other districts of South America.
It lives in the open grounds, but generally near to the
confines of woods, as it roosts and breeds upon the lower
bushes or underwood, but never upon the larger trees, or
far from the ground. It is generally observed in pairs,
sometimes in families of four or six, but never associated
in large flocks. It appears to be of a tame disposition,
as it is seen constantly about the confines of the houses
or in the farm-yards, and readily admits of a near ap-
proach. Wagler observes, that, in Europe, it is easily
kept and propagated in the aviary. It is active upon
the ground, and feeds upon the smaller cerealia, berries,
&(•„ (For the materials of this Note, we are indebted to
Mr Selhy's volume on Pigeons, in the Naturalist's
Library, Edinburgh, 1835.)
it was found that if the anatomist blew air
into the wind-pipe, it distended the crop or
gullet to a prodigious size. This was the
more extraordinary, as there seemed to be no
communication whatever between these two
receptacles; as the conduit by which we
breathe, as every one knows, leads to a very
different receptacle from that where we put
our food. By what apertures the air blown
into the lungs of the pigeon makes its way
into the crop, is unknown; but nothing is
more certain than that these birds have a
power of filling the crop with air ; and some
of them, which are called croppers, distend it
in such a manner, that the bird's breast seems
bigger than its body. The peculiar mechan-
ism of this part is not well known ; but the
necessity for it in these animals is pretty ob-
vious. The pigeon, as we all know, lives
entirely upon grain and water: these are
mixed together in the crop ; and in the ordi-
nary way are digested in proportion as the
birds lays in its provision. But to feed its
young, which are very voracious, it is neces-
sary to lay in a store greater than ordinary
and to give the food a kind of half macera-
tion, to suit their tender appetites. The heal
of the bird's body, assisted by air, and nume
rous glands separating a milky fluid, are the
most necessary instruments for this operation :
but, in proportion as the food macerates, it
begins to swell also; and the crop must, of
consequence, be considerably dilated. Still,
however, the air which is contained in it
gives the bird a power of contracting it at
pleasure ; for if it were filled with more solid
substances, the bird could have no power to
compress it. But this is not the case, the
bird can compress its crop at pleasure ; and
driving out the air, can thus drive out the
food also, which is forced up the gullet, like
a pellet from a pop-gun. The young ones,
open-mouthed, receive this tribute of affection,
and are thus fed three times a-day. In feed-
ing, the male usually supplies the young
female, while the old female supplies the
young of the opposite sex. The food with
which they are supplied, is more macerated
at the beginning ; but as they grow older,
the parents give it less preparation, and at
last drive them out to shift for themselves.
When well fed, however, the old ones do not
wait for the total dismission of their young ;
but in the same nest are to be found young
ones almost fit for flight, and eggs hatching
at the same time.
The fidelity of the turtle-dove is proverbial,
and makes the usual comparison of such poets
as are content to repeat what others have said
before them ; but the pigeon of the dove-
house is not so faithful ; and having been
subjected to man, it puts on licentiousness
THE PIGEON.
J27
among its other domestic habits. Two males
are often seen quarrelling for the same mis-
tress ; and when the female admits the ad-
dresses of a new gallant, her old companion
seems to bear the contempt with some marks
of displeasure, abstaining from her company ;
or if he approaches, it is only to chastise her.
There have been instances when two males,
being displeased with their respective mates,
have thought proper to make an exchange,
and have lived in great harmony with their
new companions.
So great is the produce of this bird in its
domestic state, that near fifteen thousand may,
in the space of four years, be produced from
a single pair. But the stock-dove seldom
breeds above twice a year ; for when the
winter months come, the whole employment
of the fond couple is rather for self-preserva-
tion, than transmitting a posterity. They
seem, however, to have a stronger attachment
to their young than those who are found to
breed so often ; whether it be that instinct
acts more powerfully upon them in their state
of nature, or that their affections are less di-
vided by the multiplicity of claims.
It is from a species of these, therefore, that
those pigeons which are called Carriers, and
are used to convey letters, are produced. These
are easily distinguished from all others by
their eyes, which are compassed about with
a broad circle of naked white skin, and by
being of a dark blue or blackish colour. It
is from their attachment to their native place,
and particularly where they have brought up
their young, that these birds are employed in
several countries as the most expeditious car-
riers. They are first brought from the place
where they were bred, and whither it is in-
tended to send them back with information.
The letter is tied under the bird's wing, and
it is then let loose to return. The little ani-
mal no sooner finds itself at liberty, than its
passion for its native spot directs all its mo-
tions. It is seen, upon these occasions, fly-
ing directly into the clouds to an amazing
height; arid then, with the greatest certainty
and exactness, directing itself, by some sur-
prising instinct, towards home, which lies
sometimes at many miles distance, bringing
its message to those to whom it is directed.
By what marks they discover the place, by
what chart they are guided in the right way,
is to us utterly unknown ; certain it is, that
in the space of an hour and a half they per-
form a journey of forty miles ; which is a
degree of despatch three times greater than
the fleetest quadruped can perform. These
birds are not brought up at present with as
much care as formerly, when they were sent
from governors in a besieged city to generals
that were coming to relieve it without ; when
they were sent from princes to their subjects
with the tidings of some fortunate event ; or
from lovers to their mistresses with expres-
sions of their passion. The only use we now
see made of them is to be let fly at Tyburn,
when the cart is drawn away ; pretty much
as when some ancient hero was to be interred,
an eagle was let off from the funeral pile, to
complete his apotheosis.1
1 The Carrier Pigeon is larger triun "the ordinary
pigeon, being fifteen inches in length from the biil to
the tail, and weighing about twenty ounces. It is gener-
ally black or dun, and occasionally blue or blue piebald,
and has a very large cere hanging down by the sides of
its bill, like the male turkey. The sper'es is supposed
to have been indigenous to Persia, though it is now to
be found in many other countries. The instinct which
has rendered the carrier pigeon so serviceable, is one
manifested, under various modification?, by many other
animals — an instinct by which the creature, if it be-
comes attached to any place as a home, as a scene of
habitual gratification, or as the place where it has re-
cently brought forth young, is able to find its way thither
from any distance to which it may have been removed,
if no physical obstructions of an absolutely insurmount-
able character should intervene. Though the carrier
pigeon is naturally prompted to revert to the place of its
ordinary residence, man has adopted various precau-
tionary measures in order to make its return on particular
occasions more certain. A male and female are usually
kept together and treated well ; and one of these, when
taken elsewhere, is supposed to have the greater induce-
ment to come back. It is even considered necessary by
some that the bird should have left eggs in the process
of incubation, or unfledged young ones, at home, in order
to make the return certain ; but probably these are
superfluous precautions. It is obvious that the carrier
pigeon can only be put to use in conformity with some
contemplated plan, for which the proper preparations
have been made. It must have been taken from a place
to which it is wished that it should return, and it must,
at the moment when its services are wanted, be tem-
porarily at the place from which the intelligence is to
be conveyed. It is usually taken to that, place hood-
winked, or in a covered basket: the instinct by which
it finds its way back upon its own wings, must of course
be independent of all knowledge of the intermediate loca-
lities. When the moment for employing it has arrived,
the individual requiring its services writes a small billet
upon thin paper, which is placed lengthwise under the
wing, and fastened by a pin to one of the feathers, with
some precautions to prevent the pin from pricking, and
the paper from filling with air, so as to retard and weary
the bird. On being released, the carrier ascends to a
great height, takes one or two turns in the air, and then
commences its forward career. According to one ac-
count, it can fly a thousand parasangs, or about 2700
English miles, in a day; but several experiments of re-
cent date seem to concur in establishing forty miles in
the hour, or about a thousand a-day, as the average
flight. This last computation, we may remark, gives
inferior results to some which have been ascertained in
reference to other birds. The common swift has been
known to fly sixty, and the wild duck ninety, miles in
an hour. A swallow was once found to traverse twenty
miles in thirteen minutes.
Allusions to carrier pigeons are very frequent in the
ancient classic writers, and in the Arabic poets. Ana-
creon informs us that he held a correspondence with his
lovely Bathillus by means of a dove. It is related by
Julian, that Taurosthenes, a victor in the Olympic
games, dispatched a pigeon stained with purple, to an-
128
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
The varieties of the tame pigeon are so
numerous, that it would be a vain attempt to
mention them : so much is the figure and
colour of this bird under human control, that
pigeon-fanciers, by coupling a male and fe-
male of different sorts, can breed them, as
they express it, to a feather. From hence
nonnce his triumph to his father, then residing in the
inland of ^Egina, Pliny also narrates that a correspond-
ence by means of pigeons was carried on, during the
siege of Modena, between Decimus Brutus and Ilii tins.
'• Of what avail," says he, "were sentinels, circumval-
lations, or nets obstructing the rivers, when intelligence
could be conveyed by aerial messengers ?" In the
crusades, the practice was tried by the besieged inhabi-
tants of Tyre, but with less success. The besiegers
had observed pigeons frequently hovering over the city,
and began to suspect that these birds were messengers.
Having contrived to seize one, they loaded it with false
intelligence, in consequence of which they obtained pos-
session of the place. A regular system of posting by
means of carrier pigeons was established in the twelfth
century by the Sultan Noureddiii Mahmoud. It was
afterwards improved and extended, and continued till
Bagdad fell into the hands of the Mongols in 1258. Sir
John Mandeville, who travelled in the fourteenth cen-
tury, alludes to such a system as practised by the Turkish
government. It was described at a somewhat later
period as being carried on by means of lofty towers,
erected at the distance of about thirty miles asunder, and
provided with a proper number of pigeons. Sentinels
kept watch in these towrrs, to receive the birds, and
transmit the intelligence which they had biought by
others. The notice was inscribed on a thin slip of paper,
enclosed in a gold box of small dimensions, and as thin
as the paper itself, suspended to the neck of the bird;
the hour of arrival and departure was marked at each
successive tower, and, for greater security, a duplicate
was always dispatched two hours after the first. No
such regular system now exists in the Turkish do-
minions, but carrier pigeons are still much used there.
In Aleppo, during the last century, carrier pigeons
were in constant employment for the purpose of ac-
quainting the merchants with the arrival of their vessels
at Scandaroon. The impatience of the animal to see
its young was here taken advantage of, as an additional
stimulus to procure its quick return. They would travel
from Alexandretta in ten hours, and from Bagdad
(thirty days' journey) in two days. From Scandaroou,
which was distant forty leagues, they required only from
two hours and a half to four hours. An anecdote is
related of an Aleppo merchant, who, having acciden-
tally killed one of these feathered messengers, was the
first to learn that a scarcity of galls prevailed in Eng-
land, and, profiting by the intelligence, made a speedy
transaction, by which he gained ten thousand crowns.
Towards the end of the last century, the employment of
pigeons from Alexandretta and Bagdad was laid aside,
on account of the frequent destruction of them by the
Curd robbers. The practice was more recently in
vogue among the Dutch merchants, for the purpose of
anticipating the ordinary means of conveyance in the
receipt of stock intelligence, by which they often real-
ised considerable sums. For this reason, there is no
European country, besides Turkey, in which earner
pigeons are so numerous as in Holland and Belgium.
Two inferior varieties, called the dragoon and the horse-
man, have also been cultivated to a considerable extent
in England, but chiefly for the gratification of the
national propensity to betting, or as a department of
sport.
OH the llth of July 1819, a great experiment was
we have the various names of croppers, cnr-
rierSjjacobiiies, poivters, runts, turbits : all birds
that at first might have accidentally varied
from the stock-dove; and then, by having
these varieties still heightened by food, cli-
mate, and pairing, different species have been
produced.1 But there are many species of
performed with these animals between London and
Antwerp. Thirty-two pigeons, with the word Ant-
werp marked on their wings, and which had been
reared in that city, were let loose in London at seven
o'clock in the morning, after having their wings counter-
marked with the name of the British metropolis. The
same day, towards noon, one arrived at home, and ob-
tained the first prize: a quarter of an hour after,
another arrived, and gained the second prize. The fol-
lowing day, twelve others arrived, making fourteen in
all. Of the fate of the rest no record has come under
our notice. In July 1829, another experiment was
made, in consequence of wagers laid at Maestricht be-
tween some merchants there, that pigeons taken to
London would, when let loose, return in six hours.
Forty-two pigeons were brought to London, and after
being properly marked, were thrown up at twenty-six
minutes past eight in the morning. If any one of the
number had arrived at Maestricht within six hours, the
principal wager, which was for ten thousand guilders,
would have been gained ; but, in consequence, it was
supposed, of a heavy rain, the first did not arrive till six
hours and a quarter from the time when it left London,
having, nevertheless, travelled at the rate of forty-five
miles an hour, assuming that the journey was performed
in a straight line. The second arrived in seven hours,
the third in seven hours and ten minutes, the fourth in
seven hours and a half, and, in four days, more than
twenty had reached Maestricht.
1 Of the common domesticated pigeon there are now
innumerable breeds, all less or more differing from each
other, and known by the name of fancy pigeons. The
eastern suburbs of London, we believe, is the chief seat
of this extravagant fancy-pigeon cultivation, which has
been reduced to as regular a branch of science as that
of crossing the breeds of horses, sheep, or oxen. The
individuals who there carry on the trade of pigeon rear-
ing and dealing, are able, by their skill and experience,
to produce an animal coloured exactly to a feather.
Certain forms, qualities, and colours of birds, are ac«
cordingly esteemed, while the smallest departure from
the established fashion in any of these points renders the
pigeons valueless to the fancier. Inasmuch as a single
streak of yellow, though only the thickness of a hair, in
a certain kind of tulip, will reduce its price from twenty
guineas to half-a-crown, so will a single improperly
coloured feather in the tail of a particular kind of
pigeon lower its value in the same proportion. The
leading varieties of fancy pigeons are known by the
names of the English pouter, the Dutch cropper, the
horseman, the unloper, the dragoon, the tumbler, the
Leghorn and Spanish runt, the trumpeter, the nun, the
fan-tail, and the capuchin. The peculiarities of some
of these breeds are very odd. The tumbler, for instance,
derives its name from a practice of tumbling in the air
while on the wing. Instead of pursuing a steady
straightforward flight, it turns over, or casts somersets
backward, whirling round heels over head as expertly
as a first-rate rope-dancer does when he makes the back
spring. The fan-tail derives its name from the circum-
stance of its having a remarkably broad tail, which it
has the power of spreading out like the tail of a turkey-
cock. The prime quality of the bird consists in its
ability to make its tail touch its head, and surround it
with a wide glory of feathers. If it caunot do this, it is
THE PIGEON.
129
the wild pigeon, which, though bearing a
strong affinity to the stock-dove, are, never-
theless, sufficiently different from it to deserve
a distinct description. — The ring-dove is of
this number; a good deal larger than the
former ; and building its nest with a few dry
sticks, in the boughs of trees. This seems a
bird much fonder of its native freedom than
the former; and attempts have been fre-
quently made to render it domestic ; but they
have hitherto proved fruitless, for though their
eggs have been hatched by the tame pigeon
in a dove-house, yet, as soon as they could
fly, they always betook themselves to the
woods where they were first produced. In
the beginning of winter these assemble in
great flocks in the woods, and leave off coo-
ing ; nor do they resume this note of court-
ship till the beginning of March, when the
valueless to the fancier, no matter how excellent are its
other properties. The English pouter, which is a cross
between a horseman and a cropper, possesses the re-
markable property of blowing out its breast or crop to
such an extent that it rises to a level with its beak, and
the bird appears to look over the top of an inflated
bladder. This monstrosity is highly esteemed, and,
according to the rules laid down by the fancy, it ought
to be large and circular, rising behind the neck, so as to
cover and run off at the shoulders. There is a pre-
cise point beyond which the pouting must not be car-
ried ; for if the inflation goes too far, it upsets the bird,
and causes it to tumble backward ; and, therefore, to
bring the pouting to the utmost pitch to which equili-
brium will be preserved, is reckoned a matter of first
importance.
genial season, by supplying them with food,
renews their desires.
The turtle-dove is a smaller, but a much
shyer bird, than any of the former. It may
easily be distinguished from the rest by the
iris of the eye, which is of a fine yellow, and
by a beautiful crimson circle that encompasses
the eye-lids. The fidelity of these birds is
noted; and a pair being put in a cage, if one
dies the other will not survive it. The tur-
tle-dove is a bird of passage, and~1ew , or none,
remain in our northern climates in winter.
They fly in flocks when they come to breed
here in summer, and delight in open, moun-
tainous, sandy countries. But they build
their nests in the midst of woods, and choose
the most retired situations for incubation.
They feed upon all sorts of grain, but are
fondest of millet seed.
To this short list might be added a long
catalogue of foreign pigeons, of which we
know little more than the plumage and the
names. Indeed, the variety of their plumage
is as beautiful, as the names by which they
are known are harsh and dissonant. The
ocotzimtzcan, for instance, is one of the most
splendid tenants of the Mexican forests; but
few, I believe, would desire to learn the
name, only to be informed that it is covered
with purple, green, and yellow plumage. To
describe such birds, the historian's pen is not
half such a useful implement as the painter's
pencil.
VOL. II.
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
BOOK V.
OF BIRDS OF THE SPARROW KIND.
CHAP. I.
OF BIRDS OF THE SPARROW KIND.
STILL descending from the larger to the smaller,
we come to birds of the sparrow kind ; or that
class of beautiful little animals that, being
less than the pigeon, go on diminishing till
we arrive at the humming-bird, the smallest
of the feathered creation.
The birds which compose this class chiefly
live in the neighbourhood of man, and are his
greatest favourites. The falcon may be more
esteemed, and the turkey more useful; but
these he considers as servants, not as friends;
as animals reclaimed merely to supply him
with some of the conveniences of life: but
these little painted songsters have his affec-
tions, as well from their beauty as their me-
lody; it is this delightful class that fill his
groves with harmony, and lift his heart to
sympathize with their raptures. All the
other classes are either mute or screaming; it
is this diminutive tribe only that have voices
equal to the beauty of their figures ; equally
adapted to rejoice man, and delight each
other.
As they are the favourites of man, so they
are chiefly seen near him. All the great
birds dread his vicinity, and keep to the thick-
est darkness of the forest, or the brow of the
most craggy precipice : but these seldom re-
sort to the thicker parts of the wood; they
keep near its edges, in the neighbourhood of
cultivated fields, in the hedge-rows of farm-
grounds, and even in the yard, mixing with
the poultry.
It must be owned, indeed, that their living
near man is not a society of affection on their
part, as they approach inhabited grounds
merely because their chief provision is to be
found there. In the depth of the desert, or
the gloom of the forest, there is no grain to be
picked up; none of those tender buds that are
so grateful to their appetites : insects them-
selves, that make so great a part of their food,
are not found there in abundance ; their na-
tures being unsuited to the moisture of the
place. As we enter, therefore, deeper into
uncultivated woods, the silence becomes more
profound ; every thing carries the look of
awful stillness; there are none of those war-
blings, none of those murmurs, that awaken
attention, as near the habitations of men ;
there is nothing of that confused buzz, formed
by the united, though distant voices of quad-
rupeds and birds ; but all is profoundly dead
and solemn. Now and then, indeed, the tra-
veller may be roused from this lethargy 01
life, by the voice of a heron, or the scream of
an eagle ; but his sweet little friends and
warblers have totally forsaken him.
There is still another reason for these little
birds avoiding the depths of the forests ; which
is, that their most formidable enemies usually
reside there. The greater birds, like robbers,
choose the most dreary solitudes for their re-
treats; and if they do not find, they make a
desert all around them. The small birds fly
from their tyranny, and take protection in the
vicinity of man, where they know their more
unmerciful foes will not venture to pursue
them.
All birds, even those of passage, seem con-
tent with a certain district to provide food and
centre in. The red -breast or the wren seldom
leaves the field where it has been brought up,
or where its young have been excluded ; even
though hunted it flies along the hedge, and
seems fond of the place with an imprudent
perseverance. The fact is, all these small
birds mark out a territory to themselves,
which they will permit none of their own
species to remain in ; they guard their doini-
OF THE SPARROW KIND.
131
nions with (he most watchful resentment ; and
we seldom find two male tenants in the same
hedge together.
Thus, though fitted by Nature for the most
wandering life, these little animals do not
make such distant excursions, during the sea-
son of their stay, as the stag or the leveret.
Food seems to be the only object that puts
them in motion, and when that is provided for
them in sufficient plenty, they never wander.
But as that is seldom permanent through the
year, almost every bird is then obliged to
change its abode. Some are called birds of
passage, because they are obliged to take long
journeys for this purpose ; but, strictly speak-
ing, almost every other kind are birds of pas-
sage, though their migration may not be to
places so remote. At some particular season
of the year all small birds migrate either from
one country to another, or from the more in-
land provinces towards the shore.
There are several persons who get a liveli-
hood by watching the seasons when our small
birds begin to migrate from one country to
another, and by taking them with nets in
their passage. The birds are found to fly, as
the bird-catchers term it, chiefly during the
month of October, and part of September and
November. There is also another flight in
March, which is much less considerable than
that in autumn. Nor is it less remarkable,
that several of these species of flight-birds
make their appearance in regular succession.
The pippet, for instance, begins his flight
every year about Michaelmas, when they are
caught in greatest number. To this the wood-
lark succeeds, and continues its flight till to-
wards the middle of October ; other birds fol-
low, but are not so punctually periodical ; the
greenfinch does not begin till the frost obliges
it to seek for a change. These birds, during
those months, fly from day-break till twelve
noon ; and there is afterwards a small flight
from two till night Such are the seasons of
the migration of the birds, which have been
usually considered as stationary, and on these
occasions they are caught in great abundance,
as they are on their journey. But the same
arts used to allure them upon other occasions
would be utterly fruitless, as they avoid the
nets with the most prudent circumspection.
The autumnal flight probably consists of the
parents conducting their new-fledged young to
(hose places where there is sufficient provision,
and a proper temperament of the air during
the winter season ; and their return in spring
is obviously from an attachment to the place
which was found so convenient before for the
purposes of nestling and incubation.
Autumn is the principal season when the
bird-catcher employs his art to catch these
wanderers. His nets are a most ingenious
piece of mechanism, being generally twelve
yards and a half long, and two yards and a
half wide, and so contrived as from a flat po-
sition to rise on each side, and clap over the
birds that are decoyed to come between them.
The birds in their passage are always ob-
served to fly against the wind ; hence there is
a great contention among the bird-catchers
which shall gain the wind ; for example, if it is
westerly, the bird-catcher who lays his nets to
the east is sure of the most plentiful sport, if
his call-birds are good. For this purpose he
generally carries five or six linnets, two gold-
finches, two green-finches, one wood-lark, one
red-poll, and perhaps a bull-finch, a yellow-
hammer, a tit-lark, and an aberdavine: these
are placed at small distances from the nets in
little cages. He has besides what he calls his
flur-btrds, which are placed upon a movable
perch, which the bird-catcher can raise at
pleasure by means of a string ; and these he
always lifts gently up and down as the wild
bird approaches. But this is not enough to
allure the wild bird down ; it must be called
by one of the call-birds in the cages ; and
these, by being made to moult prematurely in
a warm cage, call louder and better than those
that are wild and at freedom. There even ap-
pears a malicious joy in these call-birds to
bring the wild ones into the same state of
captivity, while at the same time their call is
louder, and their plumage brighter, than in a
state of nature. Nor is their sight or hearing
less exquisite, far exceeding that of the bird-
catcher; for the instant the wild birds are
perceived, notice is given by one to the rest of
the call-birds, who all unite in the same tu-
multuous ecstacy of pleasure. The call-birds
do riot sing upon these occasions as a bird
does in a chamber, but incite the wild ones by
short jerks, which, when the birds are good,
may be heard at a great distance. The al-
lurement of this call is so great that the wild
bird hearing it, is stopped in its most rapid
flight ; and, if not already acquainted with the
nets, lights boldly within twenty yards per-
haps of the bird-catcher, and on a spot which
it would otherwise have quite disregarded.
This is the opportunity wished for, and the
bird-catcher pulling a string, the nets on each
side rise in an instant, and clap directly down
on the poor little unsuspecting visitant. Nay,
it frequently happens, that if half a flock only
are caught, the remaining half will immedi-
ately afterwards light between the nets, and
share the fate of their companions. Should
only one bird escape, this unhappy survivor
will also venture into danger till it is caught;
such a fascinating power have the call-birds.
Indeed, it is not easy to account for the na-
ture of this call, whether it be a challenge 1o
combat, an invitation to food, or a prelude to
132
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
courtship. As the call-birds are all males,
and as the wild birds that attend to their voice
are most frequently males also, it does not
seem that love can have any influence in their
assiduity. Perhaps the wild females, in these
flights, attend to and obey the call below, and
their male companions of the flight come down
to bear them company. If this be the case,
and that the females have unfaithfully led
their mates into the nets, they are the first
that are punished for their infidelity : the
males are only made captives for singing ;
while the females are indiscriminately killed,
and sold to be served up to the tables of the
delicate.
Whatever be the motives that thus arrest
a flock of birds in their flight, whether they
be of gallantry or of war, it is certain that the
small birds are equally remarkable for both.
It is, perhaps, the genial desire that inspires
the courage of most animals ; and that being
greatest in the males, gives them a greater
degree of valour than the females. Small
birds being extremely amorous, are remark-
ably brave. However contemptible these
little warriors are to large creatures, they are
often but too formidable to each other; and
sometimes fight till one of them yields up his
life with the victory. But their contentions
are sometimes of a gentler nature. Two male
birds shall strive in song till, after a long
struggle, the loudest shall entirely silence the
other. During these contentions, the female
sits an attentive silent auditor, and often re-
wards the loudest songster with her company
during the season.
Singing among birds is almost universally
the prerogative of the male.1 With them it is
the reverse of what occurs in the human kind.
1 White, in his charming Natural History of Selborne,
gives the following list of the time of song of British
soft-billed birds.
Woodlark, (Alauda arborea). In January, and con-
tinues to sing through all the summer and autumn.
Song-thrush, (Turdus simpliciter dictus}. In Febru-
ary, and on to August; resume their song in Autumn.
Wren, (Passer troglodytes). All the year, hard frost
excepted.
Red-breast, (Rubecula}. Ditto.
Hedge-sparrow, (Curuca). Early in February, to
July the 10th.
Yellow-hammer, (Emberiza flava) . Early in Febru-
ary, and on through July to August the 21st.
Skylark, (Alauda vulgaris}. In February, and on to
October.
Swallow, (Hirundo domestica}. From April to Sep-
tember.
Black-cap, (Atricapilla). Beginning of April, to
July 1 3th.
Titlark, (Alauda pratorum}. From middle of April,
to July 16th.
Blackbird, (Merula vulgaris}. Sometimes in Febru-
ary and March, and so on to July the 23rd ; re-assumes
in autumn.
White-throat, 'Ficedulce ajfinis}. In April, and to
July 23.
Among the feathered tribe, the heaviest cares
of life fall to the lot of the female. Hers is
the fatigue of incubation, and to her devolves
the principal fatigue of nursing the helpless
brood. To alleviate these fatigues, and to
support her under them, Nature has given the
Goldfinch, (Carduelis). April, and through to Sep-
tember 16.
Greenfinch, (Chloris). On to July and August 2nd.
Less reed-sparrow, (Passer arundinaceus minor.)
May, on to beginning of July.
Common linnet, (Linaria vulgaris). Breeds and
whistles on till August ; re-assumes its note when they
begin to congregate, in October, and again early before
the flocks separate.
Birds thai cease to be in full sony, and are usually
silent at or before Midsummer : —
Middle willow-wren, (Regulus nun cristatus). Middle
of June ; begins in April.
Redstart, (Ruticilla). Ditto ; begins in May.
Chaffinch, (Fringilla}. Beginning of June, sings
first in February.
Nightingale, (Luscinia). Middle ot June; sings
first in April.
Birds that sing for a short time, and very early in
the spring : —
Missel-bird, (Turdus viscivorus). January the 2nd,
1770, in February. Is called in Hampshire and Sussex
the storm-cock, because its song is supposed to forebode
windy, wet weather. Is the largest singing bird we have.
Great titmouse, or ox-eye, (Fringillago). In Febru-
ary, March, and April; re-assumes for a short time in
September.
Birds that have somewhat of a note or song, and yet
are hardly to be called singing birds : —
Golden-crowned wren, (Regulus cristatus). Its note
as minute as its person: frequents tops of high oaks and
firs: the smallest British bird.
Marsh titmouse, (Parus Palustrit). Haunts great
woods; two harsh, sharp notes.
Small willow-wren, (Regulus non cristatus). Sings
in March, and on to September.
Largest willow-wren. Cantat voce stridula locusta; ;
from end of April to August.
Grasshopper lark, (Alauda minima voce locustcs).
Chirps all night, from the middle of April to the end of
July.
Marten, (Hirundo agrestis). All the breeding time;
from May to September.
Bullfinch, (Pyrrhula).
Bunting, (Emberiza alba). From the end of Janu-
ary to July.
Birds that sing as they fly are but few : —
Skylark, (Alauda vulgaris). Rising, suspended, and
falling.
Titlark, (Alauda pratorum). In its descent; also
sitting on trees, and walking on the ground.
Woodlark, (Alauda arborea). Suspended ; in hot
summer nights all night long
Blackbird, (Merula}. Sometimes from bush to bush.
White-throat, (Ficeduia; affinis). Uses, when sing-
ing on the wing, odd jerks and gesticulations.
Swallow, (Hirundo dumestica). In soft, sunny wea-
ther.
Wren, (Passer troglodytes}. Sometimes from busli
to bush.
Birds that breed most early in these parts :• —
Raven, (Corvus). Hatches in February and March.
Song-thrush, (Turdus). In March.
Blackbird, (Merula). In March.
Rook, (Comix frugilega). Builds in the beginning
of March.
Woodlark, (Alauda arborea). Hatches in April.
OF THE SPARROW KIND.
133
song to the male. This serves as a note of
blandishment at first to attract her affections ;
it serves as a note to delight her during the
time of her incubation ; but it serves still
farther as a note of security, to assure her that
Ringdove, (Palumbus torquatus). Lays in the be-
ginning of April.
To this list we may add the following beautiful pas-
sage on the voices of birds, by a brother naturalist, Mr
Knapp.
We note birds in general more from their voices than
their plumage ; for the carols of spring may be heard
involuntarily, but to observe the form and decoration of
these creatures requires an attention not always given.
Yet we have some native birds beautifully and con-
spicuously feathered ; the goldfinch, the chaffinch, the
wagtails, are all eminently adorned, and the fine grada-
tions of sober browns in several others are very pleasing.
Those sweet sounds, called the song of birds, proceed
only from the male ; and with a few exceptions, only
during the season of incubation. Hence the compara-
tive quietness of our summer months, when this care is
over, except from accidental causes, where a second
nest is formed; few of our birds bringing up more than
one brood in the season. The red-breast, blackbird,
and thrush, in mild winters, may continually be heard,
and form exceptions to the general procedure of our
British birds; and we have one little bird, the woodlark
(alauda arborea), that, in the early parts of the autum-
nal months, delights us with its harmony, and its carols
may be heard in the air commonly during the calm
sunny mornings of this season. They have a softness
and quietness, perfectly in unison with the sober, almost
melancholy stillness of the hour. The skylark also sings
now, and its song is very sweet, full of harmony, cheer-
ful as the blue sky and gladdening beam in which it
circles and sports, and known and admired by all ; but
the voice of the woodlark is local — not so generally
heard — from its softness, must almost be listened for, to
be distinguished, and has not any pretensions to the
hilarity of the former. This little bird sings likewise in
the spring ; but at that season, the contending songsters
of the grove, and the variety of sound proceeding from
every thing that has utterance, confuse and almost render
inaudible the placid voice of the woodlark. It delights
to fix its residence near little groves and copses, or quiet
pastures, and is a very unobtrusive bird, not uniting in
companies, but associating in its own little family-parties
only, feeding in the woodlands on seeds and insects.
Upon the approach of man, it crouches close to the
ground, then suddenly darts away, as if for a distant
flight, but settles again almost immediately. This lark
will often continue its song, circle in the air, a scarcely
visible speck, by the hour together; and the vast dis-
tance from which its voice readies us in a calm day is
almost incredible. In the scale of comparison, it stands
immediately below the nightingale in melody and plain-
tiveness ; but compass of voice is given to the linnet, a
bird of very inferior powers. The strength of the larynx
and of the muscles of the throat in birds is infinitely
greater than in the human race. The loudest shout of
the peasant is but a feeble cry, compared with that of
the golden-eyed cluck, the wild goose, or even this lark.
The sweet song of this poor little bird, with a fate like
that of the nightingale, renders it an object of capture
and confinement, which few of them comparatively sur-
vive. I have known our country bird-catchers take
them by a very simple but effectual method. Watching
them to the ground, the wings of a hawk, or of the
brown owl stretched out, are drawn against the current
of air by a string, as a paper kite, and made to nutter
and vibrate like a kestrel over the place where the wood-
lark has lodged; which so intimidates the bird, that it
no danger threatens to molest her. The male,
while his mate is hatching, sits upon some
neighbouring tree, continuing at once to
watch and to sing. While his voice is heard,
the female rests in confident security; and, as
remains crouching and motionless as a stone on the
ground ; a hand net is brought over it, and it is caught.
From various little scraps of intelligence scattered
through the sacred and ancient writings, it appears cer-
tain, as it was reasonable to conclude, that the notes now
used by birds, and the voices of animals^are the same
as uttered by their earliest progenitors. The language
of man, without any reference to the confusion accom-
plished at Babel, has been broken into innumerable
dialects, created or compounded as his wants occurred,
or his ideas prompted ; or obtained bj intercourse with
others, as mental enlargement or novelty necessitated
new words to express new sentiments. Could we find
a people from Japan or the Pole, whose progress in mind
has been stationary, without increase of idea, from
national prejudice or impossibility of communication
with others, we probably should find little or no altera-
tion in the original language of that people ; so, by
analogy of reasoning, the animal having no idea to
prompt, no new want to express, no converse with
others, (for a note caught and uttered merely is like a
boy mocking the cuckoo,) so no new language is ac-
quired. With civilized man, every thing is progres-
sive ; with animals, where there is no mind, all is
stationary. Even the voice of one species of birds,
except in particular cases, seems not to be attended to
by another species. That peculiar call of the female
cuckoo, which assembles so many contending lovers, and
all the various amatorial and caressing language of
others, excites no influence generally, that I am aware
of; with all hut the individual species it is a dialect
unknown. I know but one note which animals make
use of, that seems of universal comprehension, and this
is the signal of danger. The instant that it is uttered,
we hear the whole flock, though composed of various
species, repeat a separate moan, and away they all
scuttle into the bushes for safety. The reiterated
" twink twink" of the chaffinch is known by every
little bird as information of some prowling cat or weasel.
Some give the maternal hush to their young, and momit
to inquire into the jeopardy announced. The wren,
that tells of perils from the hedge, soon collects about
her all the various inquisitive species within hearing, to
survey and ascertain the object, and add their separate
fears. The swallow, that shrieking darts in devious
flight through the air when a hawk appears, not only
calls up all the hirundines of the village, but is instantly
understood by every finch and sparrow, and its warning
attended to. As nature, in all her ordinations, had a
fixed design and foreknowledge, it may be that each
species had a separate voice assigned it, that each might
continue as created, distinct and unmixed: and the very
few deviations and admixtures that have taken place,
considering the lapse of time, association, and oppor-
tunity, united with the prohibition of continuing acci-
dental deviations, are very remarkable, and indicate a
cause and original motive. That some of the notes of
birds are as language designed to convey a meaning, is
obvious from the very different sounds uttered by these
creatures at particular periods: the spring voices become
changed as summer advances, and the requirements of
the early season have ceased ; the summer excitements,
monitions, informations, are not needed in autumn, and
the notes conveying such intelligences are no longer
heard. The periodical calls of animals, croaking ol-
frogs, &o. afford the same reasons for concluding that
t.he somid of their voices by elevation, depression, or
modulation, conveys intelligence equivalent to an uttered
134
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
the poet expresses it, appears most bless d when
most unseen ; but if any appearance of danger
offers to intrude, the male, that a moment
before was so loud and sportive, stops all of a
sudden ; and this is a most certain signal to
his mate to provide for her own security.
The nest of little birds seems to be of a more
delicate contrivance than that of the larger
sentence. The voices of birds seem applicable, in most
instances, to the immediate necessities of their con-
dition: such as the sexual call, the invitation to unite
when dispersed, the moan of danger, the shriek of alarm,
the notice of food. But there are other notes, the de-
signs and motives of which are not so obvious. One sex
only is gifted with the power of singing, for the purpose,
as Billion supposed, of cheering his mate during the
period of incubation ; but this idea, gallant as it is, has
such slight foundation in probability, that it needs no
confutation: and after all, perhaps, we must conclude,
that listened to, admired, and pleasing, as the voices of
many birds are, either for their intrinsic melody, or
from association, we are uncertain what they express, or
the object of their song. The singing of most birds
seems entirely a spontaneous effusion produced by no
exertion, or occasioning no lassitude in muscle, or re-
laxation of the parts of action. In certain seasons and
weather, the nightingale sings all day, and most part of
the night; and we never observe that the powers of song
are weaker, or that the notes become harsh and untun-
able, after all these hours of practice. The song-thrush,
in a mild, moist April, will commence his tune early
in the morning, pipe unceasingly through the day, yet,
at the close of eve, when he retires to rest, there is no
obvious decay of his musical powers, or any sensible
effort required to continue his harmony to the last.
Birds of one species sing in general very like each other,
with different degrees of execution. Some countries
may produce finer songsters, hut without great varia-
tion in the notes. In the thrush, however, it is remark-
able, that there seems to be no regular notes, each in-
dividual piping a voluntary of his own. Their voices
may always be distinguished amid the choristers of the
copse, yet some one performer will more particularly
engage attention by a peculiar modulation or tune ; and
should several stations of these birds be visited in the
same morning, few or none probably will be found to
preserve the same round of notes ; whatever is uttered
seeming the effusion of the moment. At times a strain
will break out perfectly unlike any preceding utterance,
and we may wait a long time without noticing any re-
petition of it. During one spring, an individual song-
thrush frequenting a favourite copse, after a certain
round of tune, trilled out most regularly some notes that
conveyed so clearly the words, lady-bird ! lady-bird !
that every one remarked the resemblance. He survived
the winter, and in the ensuing season, the lady-bird !
lady-bird ! was still the burden of our evening song ; it
then ceased, and we never heard this pretty modulation
more. Though merely an occasional strain, yet I have
noticed it elsewhere — it thus appearing to be a favourite
utterance. Harsh, strained, and tense, as the notes of
this bird are, yet they are pleasing from their variety.
The voice of the blackbird is infinitely more mellow,
hut has much less variety, compass or execution; and
he too commences his carols with the morning light,
persevering from hour to hour without effort, or any
sensible faltering of voice. The cuckoo wearies us
throughout some long May morning with the unceasing
monotony of its song, and though there are others as
vociferous, yet it is the only bird I know that seems to
suffer from the use of the organs of voice. Little exer-
tion as the few notes it makes use of seem to require..
kinds.1 As the volume of their bodies is
smaller, the materials of which their nests are
composed are generally warmer. It is easy
to conceive that small things keep heat a
shorter time than those that are large. The
eggs, therefore, of small birds require a place
ot more constant warmth than those of great
ones, as being liable to cool more quickly ;
and accordingly their nests are built warmer
and deeper, lined on the inside with softer
substances, and guarded above with a better
covering. But it sometimes happens that the
little architects are disturbed in their opera-
tions, and then they are obliged to make a
nest, not such as they wish, but such as they
can. The bird whose nest has been robbed
several times, builds up her last in a very
slovenly manner, conscious that, from the near
approach of winter, she must not take time to
give her habitation every possible advantage
it is capable of receiving. When the nest
is finished, nothing can exceed the cunning
which the male and female employ to conceal
it. If it is built in bushes, the pliant branches
are so disposed as to hide it entirely from the
view ; if it be built among moss, nothing out-
wardly appears to show that there is a habi-
tation within. It is always built near those
places where food is found in greatest abun-
dance ; and they take care never to go in or
out while there is any one in sight. The
greater birds continue from their nest for some
time, as their eggs take no damage in their
absence; but the little birds are assiduous
while they sit, and the nest is always occu-
pied by the male when the female is obliged
to seek for sustenance.
The first food of all birds of the sparrow
kind is worms and insects. Even the sparrow
arid the goldfinch, that when adult feed only
upon grain, have both been fed upon insects
while in the nest. The young ones, for some
time after their exclusion from the shell, re-
quire no food; but the parent soon finds, by
their chirping and gaping, that they begin to
feel the approaches of hunger, and flies to
provide them a plentiful supply. In her
absence they continue to lie close together,
and cherish each other by their mutual warmth.
, by the middle or end of June, it loses its utterance,
secomes hoarse, and ceases from any further essay of it.
The croaking of the nightingale in June, or the end of
May, is not apparently occasioned by the loss of voice,
jut a change of note, a change of object ; 'his song ceases
when his mate has hatched her brood ; vigilance, anxiety,
caution, now succeed to harmony, and his croak is the
hush, the warning of danger or suspicion to the infant
charge and the mother bird.
1 Nests On this subject we may refer here gener-
ally to Professor Rennie's work on the Architecture of
Birds, published in the Library of Entertaining Know,
edge, to which we have been already indebted iu the
course of our notes.
OF THE SPARROW KIND.
135
During this interval also they preserve a per-
fect silence, uttering not the slightest note,
till the parent returns. Her arrival is always
announced by a chirrup, which they perfectly
understand, and which they answer all to-
gether, each petitioning for its portion. The
parent distributes a supply to each by turns,
cautiously avoiding to gorge them, but to give
them often, though little at a time. The
wren will in this manner feed seventeen or
eighteen young ones without passing over one
of them.
Such is the manner in which these birds
bring forth and hatch their young ; but it re-
mains to usher them from the nest into life,
and this they very assiduously perform. When
they are fully fledged, and fitted for short
flights, the old ones, if the weather be fair,
lead them a few yards from the nest, and then
compel them to return. For two or three
succeeding days they are led out in the same
manner, but each day to seek more distant
adventures. When it is perceived that they
can fly, and shift for themselves, then the
parents forsake them for ever, and pay them
no more attention than they do to other birds
in the same flock. Indeed, it would seem
among these little animals that, from the
moment their young are set out, all future
connection ceases between the male and female;
they go separate ways, each to provide for
itself during the rigours of winter; and, at
the approach of spring, each seeks for a new
associate.
In general, birds, when they come to pair
in the spring, associate with those of their
own age and place of abode. Their strength
or courage is generally in proportion to their
age : the oldest females first feel the accesses
of desire, and the oldest males are the boldest
to drive off all younger pretenders. Those
next in courage and desire become pretenders,
fill they are almost all provided in turn. The
youngest corne last ; as, in fact, they are the
latest in their inclinations. But still there are
several, both males and females, that remain
unprovided for ; either not happening to meet
with each other, or at least not during the
genial interval. Whether these mix with
small birds of a different species, is a doubt
which naturalists have not been able thorough-
ly to resolve. Addison, in some beautiful
Latin lines, inserted in the Spectator, is en-
tirely of opinion that birds observe a strict
chastity of manners, and never admit the
caresses of a different tribe.
" Chaste arc their instincts, faithful is their fire,
No foreign beauty tempts to false desire :
The snow-white vesture, and the glittering crown.
The simple plunge, or the glossy down,
Prompt not their love. The patriot bird pursues
Hi s well acquainted tints, and kindred hues :
Hence thr.i' their tribes no mix'd polluted flame,
No monster-breed to mark the groves with shame:
But the chaste blackbird, to its partner true,
1 hink's black alone is Beauty's fav'rite hue:
The nightingale, "fith mutual passion bless d
Sings to its mate, and nightly charms the nest
While the dark owl, to court his partner flies,
And owns his oft'opring in their yellow eyes."
But whatever may be the poet's opinion,
the probability is against this fidelity among
the smaller tenants of the grove. The great
birds are much more true to thetf species than
these ; and, of consequence, the varieties among
them are more few. Of the ostrich, the casso-
wary, and the eagle, there are but few species ;
and no arts that man can use could probably
induce them to mix with each other.
But it is otherwise with the small birds we
are describing ; it requires very little trouble
to make a species between a goldfinch and a
canary-bird, between a linnet and a lark.
They breed frequently together ; and produce
a race, not like the mules among quadrupeds,
incapable of breeding again ; for this motley
mixture are as fruitful as their parents. What
is so easily done by art, very probably hap-
pens in a state of nature ; and when the male
cannot find a mate of his own species he flies
to one of another, that, like him, has been left
out in pairing. This, some historians think,
may have given rise to the great variety of
small birds that are seen among us ; some un-
common mixture might first have formed a
new species, and this might have been con-
tinued down, by birds of this species choosing
to breed together.
Whether the great variety of our small
birds may have arisen from this source cannot
now be ascertained ; but certain it is that they
resemble each other very strongly, not only in
their form and plumage, but also in their
appetites and manner of living. The gold-
finch, the linnet, and the yellow-hammer,
though obviously of different species, yet lead
a very similar life ; being equally an active,
lively, salacious tribe, that subsist by petty
thefts upon the labours of mankind, and repay
them with a song. Their nests bear a
similitude ; and they are all about the same
time in hatching their young, which is usually
fifteen days. Were I, therefore, to describe
the manners of these with the same minute-
ness that I have done the greater birds, I
should only present the reader with a repeti-
tion of the same accounts; animated neither
by novelty nor information. Instead, there-
fore, of specifying each sort, I will throw them
into groups ; uniting those together that prac-
tise the same manners, or that are remarkable
for similar qualifications.
Willoughby has divided all the smaller
birds into those that have slender bills, and
those that have short and thick bills. Those
136
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
with slender bills, chiefly live upon insects ;
those with short strong bills, live mostly upon
fruits and grain. Among slender-billed birds
lie enumerates the thrush, the blackbird, the
field-fare, the starling, the lark, the titmouse,
the water-wagtail, the nightingale, the red
start, the robin-redbreast, the beccafigo, the
stone-chatter, the whin-chat, the gold-finch,
the white-throat, the hedge-sparrow, the petti-
chaps, the golden-crowned wren, the wren,
the humming-bird, and several other small
birds of the sparrow-kind, unknoAvn in this
part of the world.
All these, as was said, live for the most part
upon insects ; and are consequently of parti,
cular benefit to man. By these are his
grounds cleared of the pernicious swarms of
vermin that devour the budding leaves and
flowers; and that even attack the root itself,
before ever the vegetable can come to maturi-
ty. These seek for and destroy the eggs of
insects that would otherwise propagate in
numbers beyond the arts of man to extirpate ;
they know better than man where to seek for
them ; and thus at once satisfy their own ap-
petites, and render him the most essential
1 The Sparrow. — \Ve have no bird more generally
known, thought of, or mentioned with greater indiffer-
ence, perhaps contempt, than the common sparrow (frin-
gitta domestica), " that sitteth alone on the house-top;"
yet it is an animal that Nature seems to have endowed
with peculiar characteristics, having ordained for it a
very marked provision, manifested in its increase and
maintenance, notwithstanding the hostile attacks to
which it is exposed. A dispensation that exists through-
out creation is brought more immediately to our notice
by the domestic habits of this bird. The natural ten-
dency that the sparrow has to increase, will often enable
one pair of birds to bring up fourteen or more young
ones in the season. They build in places of perfect
security from the plunder of larger birds and vermin.
Their art and ingenuity in commonly attaching their
nests beneath that of the rook, high in the elm, a bird
whose habits are perfectly dissimilar, and with which
they have no association whatever, making use of their
structure only for a defence to which no other bird re-
sorts, manifest their anxiety and contrivance for the
safety of their broods. \Vith peculiar perseverance and
boldness, they forage and provide for themselves and
their offspring; will filch grain from the trough of the
pig, or contend for its food with the gigantic turkey; and,
if scared away, their fears are those of a moment, as
they quickly return to their plunder; and they roost pro-
tected from all the injuries of weather. These circum-
But this is not the only merit of this tribe :
in it we have the sweetest songsters of the
grove ; their notes are softer, and their man-
ner more musically soothing, than those of
hard-billed birds. The foremost in musical
fame are the nightingale, the thrush, the
blackbird, the lark, the red-breast, the black-
cap, and the wren.
Birds of the sparrow-kind, with thick and
short bills, are the gross-beak, the green-
finch, the bull-finch, the crossbill, the house-
sparrow, the chaffinch, the brambling, the
gold-finch, the linnet, the siskin, the bunting,
the yellow-hammer, the ortlan, the wheat ear,
and several other foreign birds, of which we
know rather the names than the history.
These chiefly feed upon fruits, grain, and
corn. — They are often troublesome to man, as
stances tend greatly to increase the race, and in some
seasons their numbers in our corn-fields towards autumn
are prodigious; and did not events counteract the in-
crease of this army of plunderers, the larger portion of our
bread-corn would be consumed by them. But their re-
duction is as rapidly accomplished as their increase, their
love of association bringing upon them a destruction which
a contrary habit would not tempt. They roost in troops in
our ricks, in the ivy on the wall, &c., and are captured by
the net : they cluster on the bush, or crowd on the chall
by the barn door, and are shot by dozens at a time, or will
rush in numbers, one following another, into the trap.
These and various other engines of destruction so reduce
them in the winter season, that the swarms of autumn
gradually diminish, till their numbers in spring are in
no way remarkable. I have called them plunderers, and
they are so ; they are benefactors likewise, seeming to
be appointed by Nature as one of the agents for keeping
from undue increase another race of creatures, and by
their prolificacy they accomplish it. In spring and the
early part of the summer, before the corn becomes ripe,
they are insectivorous, and their constantly-increasing
families require an unceasing supply of food. We see
them every minute T>f the day in continual progress, fly-
ing from the nest for a supply, and returning on rapid
wing with a grub, a caterpillar, or some reptile ; and
the numbers captured )>v them in the course of these
travels are incredibly numerous, keeping under the in-
crease of these races, and making ample restitution for
their plunderings and thefts. When the insect race be-
comes scarce, the com and seeds of various kinds are
ready ; their appetite changes, and they feed on these
with undiminished enjoyment.
We have scarcely another bird, the appetite of which
is so accommodating in all respects as thai of the house
sparrow. It is, I believe, the only bird that is a volun-
tary inhabitant with man — lives in his society, and is
his constant attendant, following him wherever he fixes
his residence. It becomes immediately an inhabitant of
the new farm-house, in a lonely place or recent inclo-
sure, or even in an island ; will accompany him into the
crowded city, and build and feed there in content, un-
mindful of the noise, the smoke of the furnace, or the
steam-engine, where even the swallow and the martin,
that flock around him in the country, are scared by the
tumult, and leave him: but the sparrow, though be-
grimed with soot, does not forsake him; feeds on his
food, rice, potatoes, or almost aity other extraneous sub-
stance he may find in the street ; looks to him for his
support, and is maintained almost entirely by the indus-
try and providence of man. It is not known in a soli-
tary and independent state. — Journal of a Naturalist.
THE THRUSH.
137
they are a numerous tribe; the harvest often
suffers from their depredations; and while
they are driven off from one end of the field, they
fly round, and come in at the other. But
these also have their uses: they are frequently
the distributors of seeds into different districts ;
those grains which they swallow are some-
times not wholly digested ; and these, laid
upon a soil congenial to them, embellish the
lace of nature with that agreeable variety,
which art but vainly attempts to imitate. The
mistletoe plant, which we often see growing
on the tops of elm and other trees, has been
thought to be propagated in this manner; yet,
as it is often seen growing on the under side
of the branch, and sometimes on a perpendi-
cular shoot, it seems extraordinary how a seed
could be deposited in that situation. How-
ever this be, there are many plants propaga-
ted from the depositions of birds ; and some
seeds are thought to thrive the better for first
having undergone a kind of maceration in the
stomach of the little animal, before it is voided
on the ground.
There are some agreeable songsters in this
tribe also; and those who like a loud piercing
pipe, endued with great variety and perseve-
rance, will be pleased most with their sing-
ing. The songsters of this class are the ca-
nary-bird, the linnet, the chaffinch, the gold-
finch, the green-finch, the bull-finch, the
brambling, the siskin, and the yellow-ham-
mer. The note of these is not so generally
pleasing as that of the soft-billed birds, but it
usually holds longer; and, in a cage, these
birds are more easily fed, and more hardy.
This class of small birds, like all the greater,
has its wanderers, that leave us for a season,
and then return, to propagate, to sing, or
to embellish the landscape here. Some of
this smaller kind, indeed, are called birds of
passage, that do not properly come under that
denomination ; for though they disappear in
one place they never leave the kingdom, but
are seen somewhere else. But there are
many among them that take longer flights,
and go to a region colder or warmer, as it
suits their constitutions. The fieldfare and
the red-wing breed pass their summers in
Norway, and other cold countries, and are
tempted hither to our mild winters, and to
those various berries which then abound with
us, and make their principal food. The haw-
finch and the crossbill are uncertain visitants,
and have no stated times of migration. Swal-
lows of every species disappear at the ap-
proach of winter. The nightingale, the black-
cap, the fly-catcher, the willow-wren, the
wheat-ear, the whin-chat, and the stone-chat-
ter leave us long before the approach of win-
ter : while the siskin and the linnet only for-
sake us when our winters are more than usu-
VOL. II.
ally severe. All the rest of the smaller tribe
never quit this country : but support the se-
verest rigours of the climate.
Yet it must not be supposed that the man-
ners of our little birds prevail in all other
countries ; and that such kinds as are station-
ary with us never wander in other parts of
Europe ; on the contrary, it happens that
many of those kinds which are birds of pas-
sage in England are seen, in other places,
never to depart, but to make-ene-country their
fixed residence the whole year round. It is
frequent, that some birds, which with us are
faithful residents, in other kingdoms put on
the nature of birds of passage, and disappear
for a season.
The swallow, that with us is particularly
remarked for being a bird of passage, in Upper
Egypt, and in the island of Java, breeds and
continues the whole year, without ever disap-
pearing. Larks, that remain with us the
year throughout, are birds of passage in Swe-
den ; and forsake that climate in winter to re-
turn again with the returning spring. The
chaffinch, that with us is stationary, appears
during the winter in Carolina and Virginia ;
but disappears totally in summer to breed in
the northern regions. In Sweden, also, these
little birds are seen returning, at the approach
of spring, from the warmer climates, to pro-
pagate; Avhich being accomplished by the
latter end of autumn, the males and females
separate; the males to continue among their
native snows, the females to seek a warmer
and gentler winter. On this occasion, they
are seen in flocks, that darken all the air,
without a single male among them, making
their way into the more southern regions ol
Denmark, Germany, and Holland. In this
Amazon-like retreat thousands fall by the
way; some by fatigue, some by want ; but the
greatest number by the nets of the fowler ; the
taking them being one of the chief amuse-
ments among the gentry where they pass. In
short, the change of country with all this
little tribe, is rather a pilgrimage than a jour-
ney : a migration rather of necessity than of
choice.
Having thus given a general idea of the
birds of this class, it will be proper to give
some account of the most remarkable among
them.
CHAP. II.
OF THE THRUSH, AND ITS AFFINITIES.
WITH the Thrush we may rank the red-
wing, the field-fare, the blackbird, the ring-
1 Thrushes proper. In all systems of ornithology tl:e
138
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
ouzel, and the water-ouzel. These are the
largest of the sparrow-kind, and may be dis-
tinguished from all others of this class, as well
by their size, which is well known, as by their
thrushes and blackbirds have been united in the same
genus, according to the generic characters common to
both.
Four species of the thrush live in our climates : the
thrush properly so called, the missel, the redwing, and
the fieldfare. The two former pass the entire year in
France, and also in the southern parts of this country.
They have a very agreeable song, especially the thrush
proper, which is also called the song-thrush and mavis.
Dr Latham seems to think that this bird shifts its
quarters in winter, in the north of England and Scot-
land. It probably leaves the country, or retires to the
thick and solitary woods. Both these species are distin-
guished by never uniting in flocks for the purposes of
migration. Their plumage has many traits of conformity
in colour and distribution.
The redwings and fieldfares seldom appear among us
until autumn, remain during the winter, and live in
large flocks. They scarcely ever nestle here, and de-
part in spring, as they arrived in autumn, in numerous
assemblages. As they quit us at the epoch of pairing,
we are not acquainted with their love-notes. Often,
previously to their departure, they are heard chirping all
together, but in this loud noisy concert it would be vain
to seek for harmony.
In all the species the males and females are of the
same size, and their livery is pretty similar. The co-
lours, however, are more lively and better defined in the
males. Berries, fruit, and insects constitute the food of
all. To these aliments they join earth-worms, in the
pursuit of which they are observed to be very eager after
rain. They also feed on snails, which, during winter,
they seek in those places most exposed to the sun.
Their flesh is excellent for eating, especially that of
the thrush, and the redwing when fat. In the vintage
time, in the southern countries, it especially acquires
that delicacy and exquisite flavour which occasion this
small game to be much sought after by gourmands.
Among the Romans it was in high esteem. It is said
to possess qualities which, if real, should render it still
more estimable. It excites, says its eulogizers, the ap-
petite, fortifies the stomach, improves the juices, and is
easy of digestion. It is, therefore, considered as pecu-
liarly wholesome for convalescent subjects. It never
produces any bad effect, provided it be not eaten to ex-
cess. It has been also thought in medicine to be an ex-
cellent anti-epileptic; this quality it is said to derive
from the bird feeding on mistletoe, to which the same
virtue has been attributed.
It may not be unamusing to our readers to notice the
manner in which the Romans, with whom thrushes held
the first rank among the feathered game, preserved these
birds throughout the entire year, and fattened them in
their extensive aviaries.
Each of these contained many thousands jf thrushes,
blackbirds, and other birds good for eating. They were
so numerous in the neighbourhood of Rome, that thrush's
dung was employed as manure to fertilize the land. It
was also employed to fatten oxen and pigs. The thrushes
were kept very closely confined, and considerably crowded.
But their food was abundant and well chosen, and they
prow fat rapidly. These aviaries were vaulted pavilions,
furnished within with a great quantity of roosts. The
doors were very low, there were but few windows, and
Always so turned, that the prisoners could see neither the
M'oods nor country, nor even the birds which hovered
outside, so that nothing might hinder them from growing
fat. They were only left as much light as was necessary
to enable them to distinguish what they chiefly wanted.
bills, which are a little bending at the point ;
a small notch near the end ot the upper chap :
and the outmost toe adhering as far as the first
joint of the middle toe. To this tribe may be
They were fed with millet, which was peeled and pounded
and formed into a kind of paste with bruised fie*
and flour; besides which they received berries of the
mastic-tree, of myrtle, and of ivy, and every thing
which could render their flesh succulent and high fla-
voured. A small rivulet of running water traversed the
aviary, for them to drink from. Those which were in-
tended to be eaten in succession, received for twenty
days before they were taken for that purpose an augmen-
tation of the best nutriment. Particular care was taken
to make such as seemed fit for the table pass very quietly
into a particular place which communicated with the
aviary, and they were not taken until the communication
had been closely shut, to prevent the others from being
disturbed. To make them support their captivity with
greater patience, the aviary was carpeted with green
branches, and fresh turf, often renewed, and in fact, the
better the proprietor understood his own interests the
better the birds were treated. This method succeeded
almost invariably in taming birds, however recently they
might have been imprisoned. Those, however, which
had been newly taken were kept for some time in small
separate aviaries: and the better to accustom them to
captivity, they were given as companions those who had
been already habituated to their prison.
On the approach of vintage time innumerable flocks of
thrushes quit the northern regions of Lapland and Sibe-
ria, and their abundance is so great on the southern coast
of the Baltic, that Klein assures us that the city of
Dantzic alone consumes every year eighty thousand pairs
of them. The different species do not all arrive at the
same time. The thrushes proper, cr the song-thrushes,
make their appearance first, then come the redwings, and
finally the fieldfares and missels. They stop in various
places, especially where they find the most abundant food,
and the most easily obtained. They thus continue their
route southward, arrive in certain countries sooner or
later, in greater or less numbers according to the direc-
tion of the winds and the changes of temperature. This
is universally the case with all the birds which are driven
from the north, by the severity of the weather. Of the
migratory thrushes, some nestle in the islands of the
Mediterranean, and others continue their course even
into Africa. They arrive, Sonnini tells us, in Egypt in
the month of October, arid do not leave that country
until March. They remain at no great distance from
habitations, and seek the shades of the oraiige and citron
groves which adorn some districts of Lower Egypt.
They do not all, however, proceed so far south. Many
•emain during the winter in our more northern climates,
where tolerably numerous flocks of redwings and field-
fares are to be seen during this season. They frequent
the meadows, and the green borders of woods, of which
they quit the interior.
There are more snares laid, perhaps, for thrushes than
for any other birds, and the pursuit of them is very pro-
fitable. Those which are most easily taken in snares
or nooses are the song-thrush and the redwing. These
snares are, as every body knows, composed of a few
horsehairs twisted together and forming a running knot.
They are set around juniper trees, &<'., in the neigh-
bourhood of some fountain or pond. If the snares are
properly set, in a well-chosen place, many hundreds of
:hrushes may be caught in a day, while they are on their
jassage. Snares are also employed baited with different
iinds of berries, and placed along the hedges. Thrushes
are also caught in nets. The net should always be
jlaced as nearly as possible on the side on which the
wind blows upon the hedges and bushes ; for it is ob-
THE THRUSH
139
also added the stare or starling, which, though
with a flat bill, too much resembles these
birds to be placed any where else.
The missel-thrush is distinguished from all
served, that birds never sleep but with their heads with
the wind. Autumn and spring, when the thrushes and
blackbirds are on their passage, are the proper periods for
catching them in great quantities, because they then re-
pose in large flocks, in the hedges sheltered from the
wind. Fowlers in France also make use of movable
huts, which are very convenient for killing numbers of
thrushes during the vintage time. These birds never
repose in the vineyards, but retire into the neighbouring
woods and thickets ; and generally rest once or twice on
the most exposed trees. The hunters have each a hut,
which they place near the tree which they judge most
advantageous, arid there each awaits his game, which he
kills easily. It is remarked that the riper the grapes
are, the more frequently the birds repose themselves:
they appear, as it were, intoxicated ; and every kind of
snare succeeds in taking them at this time.
The St<ng-Thrush or Mavis. This bird is well
known among us, and is one of the commonest species
in the wine-countries in France ; its flesh is the most
delicate of any. It frequents the vineyards when the
grapes are ripe, disappears after the vintage, and makes
its appearance again in March or April. All the birds
of this species, however, do not migrate ; they are some-
times seen in winter in our climates, but few in num-
ber. They approach habitations and sojourn in hedges ;
hut as soon as the spring expands its genial influence,
they retire into the woods, and announce the return of
this delightful season by their varied song. Accord-
ingly, both here and in many other countries, they are
called song-thrushes, or some equivalent name. 'The
male usually perches on the summit of some lofty tree,
on a thick branch, and- remains singing there for hours.
It continues its notes from the early days of spring to
the month of August and sometimes later; it is often
heard with us as early as February. At other times
these thrushes have only a little whistling note, which
may be expressed by the syllables zipp, zipp. In fly-
ing away, they particularly utter this cry, which may be
perfectly imitated by placing the end of the finger in
tile mouth, pressing it strongly with the lips, and draw-
ing it quickly away. In this manner they are driven
into snares, and attracted within reach of gun-shot.
This thrush makes its nest in bushes, and sometimes on
a branch of a tree against the trunk, about ten or a dozen
feet high: the exterior is composed of dry herbs and
moss, and the interior of straw, cemented with clay and
rotten wood. The eggs are five or six in number, of a
pale blue, with a slight greenish cast, and some reddish
and black spots. The male and female share the incu-
bation. Alter the first brood is hatched, the latter re-
commences a second, and sometimes even a third,
of the kind by its superior size, being much
larger than any of them. It differs scarcely
in any other respect from the throstle, except
that the spots on the breast are larger. It
especially when the first has not thriven. Each brood
goes separately, and the little ones disperse when they
are strong enough to take care of themselves. These
thrushes do not fly in flocks ; still many are found to-
gether, or at no great distance from each other. The
species is extended through all -Europe, is fonder of
woods than other places, especially of such as abound in
maple trees. These thrushes possess no great degree
of cunning, and suffer themselves easily to be taken
with snares and bird-calls. When they cannot find
fruits and berries, they subsist on snails, insects, and
worms. This is the reason that they are found on the
ground so frequently iu the woods, and at the foot of
hedges and bushes, especially those which border suit-
merged meadows. When they are looked at, they
manifest their displeasure by a gnashing of the bill. To
bring up this bird in a cage, it must be taken young, so
that it will sing all the better. It is fed with a sort of
paste such as is made for nightingales, or it may be
made with crumbs of bread, rape-seed, or hemp-seed
bruised, and meat cut small. This aliment is varied
with grapes or other fruits of which the bird is fond.
This thrush is susceptible of education, learns even to
speak, and whistles very agreeably many airs of the
bird-organ and flageolet. It will live in captivity
generally from seven to eight years. There are many
varieties of this thrush, but all of them accidental.
Among these may he remarked the white thrush, whose
plumage, however, is not in general of a pure white.
On some parts of the body spots of a feeble shade and
undefined form are observable. In other individuals
the plumes of the back are mixed with brown, and some
red is observable on the breast. Sometimes the top of
the head alone is white, and at others there is only seen
a demi-collar of this hue.
The Chochi, or thrush of Paraguay, utters a singular
sound towards the setting of the sun during the hatch-
ing season: it cries in a melancholy tone like the mew-
ling of a cat, yet during the day, at the same epoch, its
song is varied, frequent, and agreeable. It preludes
with the syllables chochi-chochi-toropi, repeated three or
four times, from which M. Vieillot has given it its
name. The chochi composes its nest of small and very
flexible branches, furnished with slips of roots, and
covered with an extremely thick coating of cow-dung,
mixed with sand.
The Missel is the largest of all the European thrushes.
It is like many other birds that people our woods and
orchards, partly migratory, and partly sedentary. In
Lorraine, according to l)r Lottinger, the missels quit
the mountains at the approach of winter, always fly in
flocks in spring and autumn, return in March, and
nestle in the forests with which these mountains are
covered. In Brie, according to Hebert, the correspon-
dent of Button, they do not unite in flocks at any sea-
son of the year. If those two observers speak of the
same species of thrush, it would appear that its habits
are riot the same in all countries. The greater number
of the missels quit our northern climates on the approach
of winter, but some remain. Those certainly do not
live in flocks like the fieldfares, but in families. They
pair in the month of January, and once coupled, each
pair lives separately.
The missel is one of the first of our sedentary bird?
which announce the return of spring ; for even so early
as the fine days of February the male perches on the top
of a very lofty tree, and puts forth a varied song, which,
though remarkably loud, is not destitute of harmony,
The female makes her nest even previously to the
HO
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
builds its nest in bushes, or on the side of
some tree, as all of this kind are found to do,
and lays four or five eggs in the season. Its
song is very fine, which it begins in spring,
setting in of spring, atid places it on large trees, but
more generally on those of a middling height. She
constructs it in the bifurcations of the principal branches,
employs moss, leaves, and large weeds outside, cemented
with earth, and carpets the nest with fine plants within,
horsehair, and wool, and covers the exterior very art-
fully with moss like that which grows on the tree itself.
She seldom lays more than four eggs, of obscure white,
spotted with brown, and the male partakes the incuba-
tion. They feed the young ones with caterpillars,
small worms, slugs, and snails, whose shells they break.
A second brood is generally hatched after the first, and
when both are ended the families unite, and add to the
aliments just mentioned various kinds of berries,
cherries, grapes, and other fruits. In winter they feed
on flax-seed, hops, ivyberries, buckthorn, and particu-
larly mistletoe ; from which our name of missel-thrush
is given to them. In Burgundy they are called Draines,
from a peculiar cry which they continually repeat, either
as a rallying or a warning signal, and which has some
fancied resemblance to this word. Montbeillard tells us
that the missel-thrushes are very pacific in their man-
ners; but Le Vaillant, with more appearance of truth,
declares that his observation is without foundation.
They are, in fact, of a quarrelsome nature, and often
fight either for food or the choice of a companion. The
males are more numerous than the females, and it is not
rare to see two or three of them disputing so bitterly,
tnat they forget their natural distrust, and suffer them-
selves to be approached very closely. The combat does
not cease until the most feeble have abandoned both the
object of their quarrel, and the district which she in-
habits. Those which establish themselves in orchards
prove very vigilant sentinels for our poultry, which they
always warn of the approach of birds of prey. They
seek to take under their protection all the little birds
which nestle in the same quarter with themselves. If
a kestrel, a hawk, a crow, or a jay should appear in the
neighbourhood, the male directly announces its presence
by a cry of uneasiness; the female joins him, and on
their united cries, repeated with every tone and accent
of anger, an entire cohort of little birds, especially
finches, join with them in pursuit of the common enemy,
and succeed in terrifying him, and obliging him to take
to Might before his feeble adversaries.
The missels are very distrustful, much more so than
the blackbirds. It is very difficult to surprise them,
except at hatching time; then they can be approached
more easily: they are so much absorbed in the care of
incubation, that they will allow themselves sometimes
to be taken on the nest. They generally escape all
kinds of snares, and can never be caught with the bird-
call. They are sometimes observed to join with the
finches in insulting the howlers, which daylight has
surprised out of their retreat. The missel may be some-
times taken by the noose, but not so frequently as the
song-thrush and the redwing. Their flesh is not so
much in estimation as that of other thrushes, at least
in our more northern climates, which is attributable
to the sort of aliment on which they subsist. When
they live on grapes, olives, and other succulent fruits, its
flavour must be equal to that of the flesh of the others ;
but hips, flax-seed, and berries in general, which are
deficient in nutritive qualities, impart to it a disagree-
able taste, and cannot produce the delicate fat which
renders the other thrushes so highly esteemed in some
places as an article of game. These birds must be taken
in the nest, when they are first covered with feathers,
if they are meant to be tamed. Crumbs of bread steeped
sitting on the summit of a high tree. It is
the largest bird of all the feathered tribe that
has music in its voice ; the note of all greater
birds being either screaming, chattering, or
in water, and the yolks of eggs, constitute a proper food
for them at this season ; when they will eat of their own
accord they may have worms, snails, berries of various
kinds, and minced apples.
The Fieldfare of Canada is a well-tempered and
familiar bird. Its song is more varied and melodious
than that ot the missel, and has equal compass; its
throat is more flexible: it is heard to utter the short
interrupted cry of our blackbird, which it accompanies
with a gnashing of the beak, a vertical motion of the
tail, and slight tremor of the wings. It generally places
its nest on trees of middling size, and composes it of
small roots and dried herbs, bound together with a
cement of clay. This nest perfectly resembles that of
our song-thrush ; the eggs are four or five in number,
of a clear blue, varied with obscure spots.
The fieldfares come among us from the north of
Europe, in November and December. They delight in
fallow-lands, in places where flax-seed is found. To-
wards the end of winter they prefer humid meadows,
and do not frequent woods, except to pass the night
there. During this entire season they live in society,
travel together, and remain all the winter without
separating, perch all on the same or the most neighbour-
ing trees ; it is not rare to see them assembled to the
number of two or three thousand, in places where the
lotus grows, the fruit of which they eat with avidity.
The fieldfares also subsist on slugs and worms, which
they are observed to pursue eagerly after rain in humid
soils, or grounds newly ploughed. When these aliments
are wanting, they eat mistletoe, and various berries,
among which are those of the whitethorn. They dis-
appear in spring, but a few remain to the end of April.
Then they are found in pairs, as this is the coupling
time. The male is easily distinguished at this epoch
from the female; the gray of his head and nerk assumes
a bluish tint, tolerably brilliant; the beak is of a fine
yellow, and its extremity of a decided black. These
couples may be sometimes observed, after a long winter,
on the borders of thickets, far remote from habitations,
but they are seen no longer when May sets in. Those
fieldfares which are late go then to rejoin their com-
panions, and pass the summer in the north, where they
hatch their young. We can affirm nothing respecting
the song of these birds, as we do not see them during
the love season. The male and female with us utter
the same cries, whether for warning or rallying. It is
said that in Poland and Lower Austria, and Linnasus
and Meyer add in Sweden, they nestle on high trees,
and lay four or six eggs, of a sea-green, pointed with
reddish-brown. M. Vieillot says they never nestle in
our climates. This may be true of France, but Dr
Latham mentions an instance or two of the fieldfare's
nest being found in this country. Their flesh is not so
THE THRUSH.
141
croaking. It feeds on insects, holly, and
mistletoe-berries; and sometimes sends forth
a very disagreeable scream when frighted or
disturbed.
The blackbird, which in cold countries,
much esteemed as that of other thrushes; some say it
acquires a good flavour when the birds feed on flax-seed,
others that it is never better or more succulent than
when they live on worms or insects. In general, how-
ever, it is insipid enough. The fieldfares may be taken
by net, bird-call, or snares of any kind ; shooting them
is an easy sport. There are many accidental varieties
of this species, in which white predominates more or
less.
The Redwing has been sometimes confounded with
the song-thrush ; but besides that its plumage is some-
what different, its habits and mode of life are analogous
to those of the fieldfare. Like the latter, it only ap-
pears among us twice a year, unites in numerous flocks
at certain hours of the day, to chirrup all together. The
redwing has some conformity with the song-thrush in
the delicacy of its flesh, and fondness for grapes, and
they sometimes travel in company, especially in spring.
The redwing generally arrives after the song-thrush,
and before the fieldfare, from the north. They are seen
in considerable flocks in November, which usually dis-
appear before Christmas. It re-appears towards spring,
in the month of March, and is not seen alter April. Its
cry is tan, tan, kan, kan. In constantly repeating this
cry it leads the fox, its natural enemy, to a considerable
distance after it. It has been remarked that it does not
sing in our climate, and has only a chirrup very analo-
gous to that of the linnet: it is said, however, that in its
native country its song is very agreeable in the spring
season, especially when it perches on the summit of
lofty trees. It makes its nest in the woods in the neigh-
bourhood of Dantzic; it nestles also, according to Noze-
inann, in some parts of Holland, and chooses those
which are covered with elder and service-trees, of the
berries of which it is very fond. It has two broods
every year, in the months of April, May and June: each
consists of from four to six eggs, of a greenish-blue, and
spotted with blackish. It nestles also in Sweden, and
places its nest on the small shrubs and in the hedges.
While the female hatches, the male hunts, and brings
her her food. From the analogy between this bird and
the song-thrush, it would seem probable that the male
also partakes the care of incubation. Nozemann says
that the male and female of this species swallow the
excrement of the young while they remain in the nest.
This habit is common to them with many other birds,
but the excrements remain at the entrance of their
oesophagus, and they eject them in some spot away from
the nest, so as to remove all suspicion of the place where
their young family is concealed. The usual aliment of
these birds consists of the small worms, which they pro-
cure by scraping up the earth, of berries, of turnips, and
caterpillars. When these are wanting, they have re-
course to cherries, grapes, and other kinds of tender
fruits. Then it is that their flesh acquires the delicacy
which renders it in equal estimation with that of the
song-thrush. They are not mistrustful, and are more
easily ensnared than almost any bird.
The Punctated Thrush is a native of New Holland,
and has been well described by Mr Vigors and Dr
Horsefield, in the fifteenth volume of the Linnsean
Transactions. The general colour of the plumage is
brown, inclining to olive; breast ash-colour, and belly
rnfous-bufl'; a white streak over the eye, and chin
and throat white ; tail greatly wedged, and legs pale-
yeliow.
We shall now speak of the Blackbirds.
Rome naturalists distinguish the blackbirds generally
and particularly upon the Alps, is sometimes
seen all over white, is a beautiful and canor-
ous bird, whistling all the spring and summer
time with a note, at a distance, the most
pleasing of all the grove. It is the deepest
from the thrushes by the vertical motion of the tail ;
but this is found among some species of the latter.
The Blackbird is solitary, living either alone or in
company with its temaje. Though naturally wild, it is
more easily tamed than the thrushes. It sojourns and
nestles near inhabited places ; it is more distrustful and
subtle, and is said to have a more piercing sight, which
enables it to discover the fowler at a great distance: it
is therefore approached with much more difficulty. The
male has a powerful voice, but hardly supportable, ex-
cept in the woods, or champaign country. It commences
its notes from the first fine days in the month of Febru-
ary, and continues to sing until the fine season is pretty
well advanced; it sings one of the longest of any of our
birds. The love season begins early with the blackbird,
and it is not rare to see young ones at the commence-
ment of May. This species has two or three broods
every year; it builds its nest in thick bushes, at a
moderate height, or in the old trunks of headless trees,
covered with ivy; it is composed of moss, small roots,
and dried herbs, bound together with clay, and the
interior is furnished with the softest materials. The
male and female work together at its construction with
so much assiduity, that we are assured that eight days
are sufficient for the finishing of the work. When it is
finished, the female deposits in it from four to five eggs,
of a bluish-green, with rusty-coloured spots, frequent,
and not very distinct. She hatches them with so much
ardour, that she sometimes suffers herself to be caught
with the hand on the nest.
These birds are sought after, and brought up in cap-
tivity for their song, and more especially for their power
of improving it, of retaining the airs which they are
taught, and imitating those which they hear. Those
who are desirous of bringing them up should take them
in the nest, when they are feathered, and feed them at
first with a liquid paste, composed of steeped bread,
yolk of egg, and bruised hempseed, and afterwards with
sheep's-heart, minced meat, crumbs of bread, and dif-
ferent fruits and berries. They must not be shut up
with other birds, for, naturally uneasy and petulant,
they will pursue and torment them continually, unless in
veiy large aviaries, filled with shrubs and bushes. In
this way, indeed, they may have the pleasure of making
their own nests, and bringing up their young, if they
are provided with a sufficient quantity of the proper
aliment. To succeed completely, it is necessary to
abstain from approaching the brood while the little ones
are not entirely fledged, for otherwise the old ones will
either abandon or devour them. The blackbirds are
very fond of bathing themselves ; they must, therefore,
142
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
toned warbler of the woods; but it is rather
unpleasant in a cage, being loud and deafen-
ing. It lays four or five bluish eggs, in a
nest usually built at the stump of some old
have plenty of water, which contributes not a little to
their gaiety. Their moulting commences at the end of
slimmer, aud is so complete, that some are frequently
seen at that period with the head entirely divested of
feathers. At this epoch they cease to sing, and, gener-
ally, near its termination they proceed to migrate. Some
few, however, are observed to remain the winter: they
then inhabit hedges and the thickest woods, seeking
those where there are warm springs and evergreen
trees, as much for a shelter from the cold, as for the
purpose of procuring sustenance. They come at this
season into gardens, and feed on snails ; they even seek
them in the holes of walls, and know very well how to
break the shell and extract the animal. Their flesh is
considered very delicate during the vintage time in wine
countries, and is as much in request as that of thrushes;
but it grows bitter when they feed only on juniper-
berries, ivy-berries, and other such fruits. It is said to
have some medicinal properties, and to be good in fluxes
and dysenteries. Nevertheless, ulcerated and hemorr-
hoidal patients should abstain from it ; the oil in which
blackbirds are cooked is much recommended by foreign
physicians, in cases of sciatica ; and the dung of these
birds, dissolved in vinegar, is said to clear the skin, and
disperse redness and blotches, if constantly used.
Though these birds are very distrustful and subtle,
they give easily into the snares that are laid for them,
provided the fowler be invisible. A method of taking
them, well known to shepherds and the inhabitants of
the country, consists in making a little hole in the
ground, about five inches broad, eight long, and nine
deep. In the bottom are placed various berries, or
earth-worms, attached to a little stick with a thread, or
transfixed through the body with long horns. If other
birds are wanted to be taken, grains and other aliments
are cast into the bottom of the hole, especially those of
which they eat in preference. They then take a piece
of turf, a tile, or a stone of the size of the hole, and
place them on a sort of figure of 4, so arranged on the
hole that the bird cannot come to the bait without touch-
ing the stick, and making the coverlet fall, which shuts
them up in the hole. To draw the blackbirds more
effectually, a tame one is sometimes fixed at the side of
the snare, either on a stick, or otherwise. This method
succeeds well in winter, when the birds are pressed for
food, and will go any where in search of it.
Nothing so opposite as white and black ; yet we see
the first colour pass abruptly into the second, without
going through the intermediate shades. Blackbirds,
crows, and other birds of the same hue, present examples
of this every day. Among the accidental varieties of
this species, we find some completely white, including
even the bill and feet. Some have these parts yellow,
others have the bill red. Individuals have been ob-
served, whose entire plumage was of a yellowish-rose
colour, with the bill and feet yellow. On some speci-
mens the head alone is white, with three oblong black
spots placed behind the eyes; the iris, the beak, and the
feet are yellow. Others are varied with black and
white, in transversal spots on the upper parts, and
longitudinal underneath; some have the wings and tail
only as white as snow: all the rest of the plumage is a
fine black. Finally, young ones are sometimes seen
which have the alar and caudal quills white from their
origin, arid for half their length.
The Ring-Ouzel is decidedly a different species from
the last. To say nothing of the plumage, &c., its habits
and manners are different; its usual cry is cr, c-r, cr.
In spring its song is less loud than tl.at of the common
hawthorn, well plastered on the inside with
clay, straw, and hair.
Pleasing, however, as this bird may be,
the blue-bird, described by Bellonius, is in
blackbird, and varied with sweet and melodious sounds.
It is a bird of passage with us, and is never seen but in
spring and autumn. It does not always pursue in its
migrations a regular route; it usually follows the chains
of mountains, and particularly seeks hedges, where ivy
is abundant, of the berries of which it is especially fond.
It is seen regularly enough in the months of April and
October, on the mountains in the neighbourhood of
Rouen. It sometimes remains there during the entire
summer, hut very rarely. These blackbirds appear to
travel in families only, for seldom more than eight or
twelve are seen together. They do not quit the hedges,
and prefer those which are on the summit of mountains,
and on the borders of woods. In both seasons, their
passage does not continue for more than from fifteen to
twenty days ; for all this time they are excessively fat,
and their flesh is very delicate eating. These birds have
this peculiarity, that they are as fat in spring as in
autumn, while the reverse is altogether the case with the
other blackbirds and thrushes, and indeed with all other
small birds, which are very fat iu autumn, and quite
lean in spring. Less distrustful than the common
blackbirds, the ouzels suffer themselves to be approached
without difficulty. It is said, however, that they are
not very easily caught in snares. Still it would appear
that they might be taken without much trouble in th*
spider-nets that we have described ; as whenever they
are pursued they stick constantly to the hedges, prefer-
ring those which are in a right line, and quitting one
only, cast themselves into the succeeding.
This species is common in all the high mountains of
England and Scotland, of Sweden, Auvergne, Savoy,
Switzerland, and Greece. It also inhabits the moun-
tain chain of the Vosges, where it nestles on the fir-
trees. It also places its nest at times, at a small dis-
tance from the ground, either on a rock covered with
bushes and large briars, cr at the foot of a very thick
bush ; branches, roots of htath, and moss heaped to-
gether without order form the basis of the nest, the out-
side of which is furnished with thick weeds, and the
inside with clay mixed with filaments of roots and dried
leaves: fine and soft plants form the bed, on which the
female lays four eggs, of the same size and colour with
those of the common blackbird, but very remarkable for
the large reddish spots with which they are marked.
The Rock-thrushes (as their name indicates) are in-
habitants of the rocks and mountains, and must be sought
for in the wildest and most solitary retreats: continually
on their guard, they do not hestitate to stand in exposed
places. They are frequently seen at some distance from
their haunts, perched on large stones; but they are very
difficult to approach, and very rarely stop within range
of gun-shot. When they are advanced upon a little too
much, they are off to another stone, and always choose
one where they can have a full, commanding view of all
that surrounds them. These birds are not a bad eat-
able, but they are still more in estimation for their voice,
which is sweet and varied, approaching the tones of the
black-headed warbler. Their throat is so flexible, that
they quickly appropriate the song of other birds, and the
airs of music. A little before sunrise, and at sunset,
they utter the loudest sounds. During the day their
song amounts to little more than chirping; but in tie
middle of the night, if their cage be approached with a
light, they begin to sing directly. The extreme dis-
trustfulness of these birds naturally leads them to choose
the most inaccessible places for the security of their
young family. They make their nests in the holes of
rocks and attach them also to the roofs of caverns. It is
THE THRUSH
143
erery respect far superior. This beautiful
animal entirely resembles a blackbird in all
but its blue colour. It lives in the highest
parts of the Alps, and even there chooses the
not without much risk and labour that their young brood
can be got at; and even when the robber arrives at the
place, a sure danger awaits him of having his eyes
plucked out by these birds, which are not less courage-
ous than distrustful, and will defend their young with
desperate obstinacy. Their eggs are four or five in num-
ber, of a greenishiblue.
The rose-coloured Rlackbird pleases the eye by the
beauty and brilliancy of its plumage, but it also possesses
other qualities far more valuable. It is a great destroyer
of grasshoppers, locusts, &c. of which it devours an in-
credible number every day in the various parts of the
east. It was regarded by the ancients, who called it
Seleucida, as a favour of the gods, when these scourges,
more destructive to the productions of the earth than
hail and tempest, devastated the country. Even at
present, the Arabs, the Indians, and the inhabitants of
Aleppo are accustomed by superstitious practices to
invoke this bird, which they call the Samarmar, to
come to the succour of the crops, which are attacked by
myriads of locusts. The Turks esteem it a sacred bird,
and will not suffer it to be killed in their presence. It
would be well if their example was more generally
imitated with respect to all birds that render similar
services to mankind. It would appear that this black-
bird has no song, at least ornithologists and travellers
make no mention of it. According to Forskel, its cry
is heard at a great distance, and may be expressed thus:
tr, tr, tr. This species appears spread through the
hottest and coldest parts of the old continent. Forskel
has seen it on the burning sands of Arabia, and in the
plains of Aleppo, in July and August. Le Vaillant has
met with it in Africa, as high as 24° south latitude.
It has been sent into this country from Bengal. Pallas
has found it in the north of Siberia, in the mountainous
vicinity of the Irtish, where it nestles. Very nume-
rous flocks of these birds traversed Provence and Pied-
mont, in the autumn of 1817. They are found in the
mountains of Lapland, are common on the shores of the
Caspian, near Astracan, and along the entire extent of
the Volga. They pass every year in large flocks into
the southern part ol Russia. The rose-coloured black-
birds, which are seen on the continent, come only dur-
ing the passage time of other birds; at this period many
are observed in Burgundy. Klein assures us, that they
have a name in Spanish, which indicates that they are
known in Spain. Aldrovandus, the first naturalist who
has mentioned these birds, informs us, that they some-
times appear in the plains of Bologna, where the fowlers
call them sea-starlings. They perch on dunghills,
grow very fat, and their flesh is good eating. They
have been sometimes seen in this country.
The Mocking -thrush, properly so called, or Mocking-
bird, derives its name from the peculiar talent which il
possesses of imitating the cries and a part oi' the song of
most craggy rocks and the most frightful
precipices lor its residence. As it is rarely
caught, it is in high estimation even in the
countries where it breeds, but still more valu-
other birds: but it does not give a caricatured imita-
tion of those foreign sounds its denomination would
appear to indicate ; on the contrary, if it imitates it is
only to embellish. The cries and half-phrases with which
it enriches its own naturally varied song, have occa-
sioned the aborigines of Mexico to give it a name far
more appropriate and more justly applicable, that of
Cencontlatolli, which means four hundred languages.
This bird not only sings with taste, and without mono-
tony, but also with action and animation. It is, perhaps,
one of the first of singing birds; but to place it above
the nightingale, with Fernandez^ Kieremberg, and
others, can only be done by those who have never heard,
or who have entirely forgotten the song of that delight-
ful bird. The voice of the mocking-thrush is more loud
and powerful, hut by no means so agreeable within a
certain distance. Its song has little of the softness, •
delicacy, and plaintive tenderness that so peculiarly
characterize the nightingale during the season of love. *"
As there is no bird among the Americans at all to be
compared to the mocking-bird, it is not astonishing that
they should have exalted it into so extraordinary a
character, and raised it. above all other birds. They
have, however, exaggerated its talents, in stating that it
can imitate completely, and in all their parts, the song
of other birds, the cries of different quadrupeds, the
cryiug of infants, the laughter of a young girl, and in
being able to repeat entire airs on the same key in
which it has heard them. It does not possess the
imitative talent to this degree, even in captivity. The
mewing of the cat, however, it takes on" so completely
as to deceive any ear. (See note at page 14ti.)
This bird is very common in St Domingo, where
it is called the nightingale ; but there it possesses none
of those qualities so much vaunted in North America.
Its song, however, is the same. It frequents the
savannahs, delights to be near habitations, and seems to
love the society of man, the sight of whom is alone suffi-
cient to excite it to sing. This bird moves the tail up
and down, and often carries it in a raised position: at
such times its wings are pendant. Bold and courage-
ous, the mocking-thrush is frequently at war with the
pipiris, and forces the little birds of prey to quit the
places which it has adopted for its own abode, especially
during the hatching-time. It places its nest on trees
of middle size, or in thick bushes, gives it a similar
form to that of the missel, and furnishes the base with-
out with thorny branches. It lays four or five eggs,
spotted with red points on a white ground, which points
are larger towards towards the thick end than elsewhere.
It feeds on insects and different berries. It is brought
up in cages, but to preserve it, it must be taken in the
nest, and its tastes and wants be carefully studied and
administered to. When this is done, it will continue
to sing many years. It is about the size of the redwing,
and the female is of the same dimensions with the male.
We pass on to the LOBIOTS or ORIOLES.
The Oriole, properly so called, and golden Oriole of
Latham, comes into France about the middle of spring,
and quits in autumn to pass the winter in Africa. It
migrates at uncertain periods into England and Sweden.
On their arrival, the male and female soon couple, and
place their nest at the extremity of the branches of very
elevated trees. This nest is constructed with much art
and industry: it is attached to the bifurcation of two
small branches : the birds enlace around the two branches,
which form this bifurcation, long threads of straw, flax,
or wool, some of which going right from one branch to
another, form the edge of the nest in front, and the
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
able when carried from home. It not only
whistles in the most delightful manner, but
speaks with an articulate distinct voice. It
is so docile, and observes all things with such
diligence, that though waked at midnight by
any of the family, it will speak and whistle at,
the word of command. Its colour, about the
beginning of winter, from blue becomes black,
which changes to its original hue on the first
approaches of spring. It makes its nest in
deep holes, in very high and inaccessible
solitudes, and removes it not only from the
accesses of man, but also hides it with sur-
prising cunning from the shammoy and other
wild beasts that might annoy its young.
The manner of taking this beautiful bird
is said to be this. The fowlers, either by
chance or by lying in wait, having found out
the place where it builds, take with them a
strong stilt or stake, such as the climbers of
rocks make use of to assist them in their
ascent. With the assistance of this, they
mount where an indifferent spectator would
think it impossible to ascend, covering their
heads at the same time to ward off any
danger of the falling of pebbles or stones from
above. At length, with extreme toil and
danger, having arrived at the nest, they draw
others penetrating into the tissue of the nest, or passing
underneath and rolling over the opposite branch, give
solidity to the work. Between the exterior and interior,
there are moss, lichens, and other similar matters. The
interior is furnished with wool, spiders'-webs, the silky
nests of caterpillars, and feathers, the whole united and
tissued most intimately and ingeniously together. The
eggs are four or five in number, of a dirty white,
sprinkled with little spots of a blackish-brow n, and more
numerous towards the thick end. Incubation lasts about
one-and-twenty days.
The song of the oriole is tolerably well known, and
has given rise to the different names imposed upon the
bird, according as the hearers have thought proper to
express it, or as they believed that they heard it. Some
believe that it always cries Yo, yo, yo, syllables which
are always preceded or followed by a sort of mewing,
like that of a cat. Others that it pronounces Oriot or
Loriot.
The oriole is not easily reared in captivity: this,
however, may be achieved, and even the old ones taken
with the young may be preserved for some time, if they
receive plenty of those fruits of which they are particu-
larly fond. As to the young taken from the nest, they
are fed at first with the same paste which is given to
nightingales, and afterwards with fruits. These birds
seldom live more than two years in captivity; they most
generally perish, from a species of gout which attacks
them in the feet. The oriole is extremely distrustful,
and very difficult of approach. Precaution must be
u«ed when it is intended to shoot them, as they fly from
tree to tree for a long time, without suffering themselves
to remain to be aimed at. They can be attracted by
whistling like them, but it must be well done, and ex-
actly like their voice, as, otherwise, they will fly off
immediately. In the fruit season they may be caught
with various kinds of snares. — All that we have said of
the habits of this oriole is applicable to the other species
of the genus as far as they are known. — Supplement to
the English Edition of Cuvier't Animal Kingdom..
it up from the hole in which it is usually
buried, and cherish the young with an assi-
duity equal to the pains they took to obtain
them. It produces for the most part five
young, and never more; it seldom descends
into the plain country, flies swifter than a
blackbird, and uses the same food.
The fieldfare and the redwing make but a
short stay in this country. With us they are
insipid tuneless birds, flying in flocks, and
excessively watchful to preserve the general
safety. All their season of music and plea-
sure is employed in the more northern cli-
mates, where they sing most delightfully,
perched among the forests of maples, with
which those countries abound. They build
their nests in hedges; and lay six bluish-green
eggs spotted with black.
The stare, distinguishable from the rest of
this tribe by the glossy green of its feathers in
some lights, and the purple in others, breeds in
hollow trees, eaves of houses, towers, ruins,
cliffs, and often in high rocks over the sea. It
lays four or five eggs of a pale greenish ash-
colour, and makes its nest of straw, small fibres
of roots, and such like. Its voice is rougher than
the rest of this kind : but what it wants in the
melody of its note, it compensates by the faci-
lity with which it is taught to speak. In
winter these birds assemble in vast flocks, and
feed upon worms and insects. At the approach
of spring they assemble in the fields as if in
consultation together, and for three or foui
days seem to take no nourishment : the greater
part leave the country ; the rest breed here,
and bring up their young.1
1 The Starling is widely dispersed through Greal
Britain, occurring as numerously in the Orkney and
Shetland isles as in the southern parts of the kingdom.
In the autumnal and hyemal months, these birds gather
in immense flocks, and are particularly abundant in the
fenny parts of Nottinghamshire and Lincolnshire, where
they roost among the reeds. Before they retire to rest,
they perform various manoeuvres in the air, the whole
frequently describing rapid revolutions round a common
centre. This peculiar flight will sometimes continue
for nearly half an hoar, before they become finally settled
for the night. Upon the approach of spring they pair,
and spread themselves over the country. — They build in
the holes of trees, or in ruinous buildings, making an
THE THRUSH
145
To this tribe might be added above a hun-
dred other birds of nearly the thrush size, arid
living like them upon fruits and berries.
Words could not afford variety enough to des-
cribe all the beautiful lints that adorn the
foreign birds of the thrush kind. The bril-
liant green of the emerald, the flaming red ot
artless nest of dry grass or hay, on which four or five
eggs of a bluish-green colour, are deposited. — Their food
principally consists of worms and other insects; but they
also eat grain and various seeds. The starling is a very
imitative bird, and, when tamed, may be taught to arti-
culate very distinctly, and to whistle tunes with mud
precision. In its wild state even, it may frequently be
heard endeavouring to imitate the cries of different birds
and animals. Its own peculiar notes are a shrill whistle,
and chattering kind of noiso. It is found throughout
Europe ; and the same species appeal's to be common
also in Asia, as I have seen specimens from Nupaul that
are precisely similar. — Starlings are often seen >n com-
pany with rooks, pigeons, and jackdaws.
The red-winged Starlings of America, though gener-
ally migratory in the States north of Maryland, are found
during winter in immense flocks, sometimes associated
with the purple grakles, and often by themselves, along
the whole lower parts of Virginia, both Carolinas,
'ieorgia, and Louisiana, particularly near the sea coast,
ami in the vicinity of large rice and corn fields. In
toe months of January and February, (says Wilson,)
while passing through the former of these countries, I
was frequently entertained with the aerial evolutions of
these great bodies of starlings. Sometimes they appeared
driving about like an enormous black cloud carried
before the wind, varying its shape every moment. Some-
times suddenly rising from the fields around me with a
noise like thunder ; while the glittering of innumerable
wings of the brightest vermilion amid the black cloud
they formed, produced on these occasions a very striking
and splendid eflect. Then descending like a torrent, and
covering the branches of some detached grove, or clump
of trees, the whole congregated multitude commenced
one general concert or chorus, that I have plainly dis-
tinguished at the distance of more than two miles; and,
when listened to at the intermediate space of about a
quarter of a mile, with a slight breeze of wind to swell
and soften the flow of its cadences, was to me grand,
and even sublime. The whole season of winter, that,
with most birds, is past in struggling to sustain life in
silent melancholy, is, with the red-wings, one continued
carnival. The profuse gleanings of the old rice, corn,
and buckwheat fields, supply them with abundant food,
at once ready and nutritious; and the intermediate time
is spent either in aerial manoeuvres, or in grand vocal
performances, as if solicitous to supply the absence of
all the tuneful summer tribes, and to cheer the dejected
face of nature with their whole combined powers of har-
mony. Before the beginning of September, these flocks
have become numerous and formidable ; and the young
ears of maize, or Indian corn, being then in their soft
succulent, milky state, present a temptation that cannot
be resisted. Reinforced by numerous and daily flocks
from all parts of the interior, they pour down on the low
countries in prodigious multitudes. Here they are seen,
like vast clouds, wheeling and driving over the mea-
dows and devoted corn fields, darkening the air with
their numbers. Then commences the work of destruc-
tion on the corn, the husks of which, though composed
of numerous envelopements of closely wrapt leaves, are
soon completely or partially torn ofl'; while from all
quarters myriads continue to pour down like a tempest,
blackening half an acre at a time; and, if not disturbed,
repeat their depreciations till little remains but the cob
and the shrivelled skins of the grain ; what little is left
VOL. II.
the ruby, the purple of the amethyst, or the
bright blue of the sapphire, could not, by the
most artful combination, show any thing so
truly lively or delightful to the sight, us the
feathers of the chilcoqui or the tautotal.
Passing, therefore, over these beautiful, but
little known, birds, I will only mention the
of the tender ear, being exposed to the rains and wea-
ther, is generally much injured. All the attacks and
havoc made at this time among them with the gun,
and by the hawks, — several species of which are their
constant attendants, — has little effect on the remainder.
When the hawks make a sweep among them, they sud-
denly open on all sides, but rarely in time to disappoint
them of their victims; and, though repeatedly fired at,
with mortal eflect, they only remove from one field to
an adjoining one, or to another quarter of the same in-
closure. From dawn to nearly sunset, this open and
daring devastation is carried on, under the eye of the
proprietor; and a farmer, who has any considerable ex-
tent of corn, would require half-a-dozen men at least,
with guns, to guard it ; and even then, all their vigi-
lance and activity would not prevent a good tithe of it
from becoming the prey of the blackbirds. The Indians,
who usually plant their corn in one general field, keep
the whole young boys of the village all day patrolling
round and among it; and each being furnished with bow
and arrows, with which they are very expert, they gener-
ally contrive to destroy great numbers of them. To
compensate their consumption of corn in autumn, their
general food in spring, as well as during the early part
of summer, consists of grub-worms, caterpillars, and
various other Jar vie, the silent, but deadly enemies of
all vegetation, and whose secret and insidious attacks are
more to be dreaded by the husbandman than the com-
bined forces of the whole feathered tribes together. For
these vermin, the starlings search with great diligence;
in the ground, at the roots of plants, in orchards, and
meadows, as well as among buds, leaves, and blossoms ;
and, from their known voracity, the multitudes of these
insects which they destroy must be immense. Let me
illustrate this (continues Wilson) by a short computation ;
If we suppose each bird, on an average, to devour fifty
of these larvte in a day (a very moderate allowance), a
single pair, in four months, the usual time such food is
sought after, will consume upwards of twelve thousand.
It is believed, that not less than a million pair of these
birds are distributed over the whole extent of the United
States in summer ; whose food being nearly the same,
would swell the amount of vermin destroyed to twelve
thousand millions. But the number of young birds
may be fairly estimated at double that of their parents ;
and, as these are constantly fed on larvae for at least three
weeks, making only the same allowance for them as for
the old ones, their share would amount to four thousand
two hundred millions ; making a grand total of sixteen
thousand two hundred millions of noxious insects de-
stroyed in the space of four months by this single species !
The combined ravages of such a hideous host of vermin
would be sufficient to spread famine and desolation over
a wide extent of the richest and best cultivated country
on earth. All this, it may be said, is mere supposition.
It is, however, supposition, founded on known and ac-
knowledged facts. I have never dissected any of these
birds in spring without receiving the most striking and
satisfactory proofs of these facts ; and though, in a mat-
ter of this kind, it is impossible to ascertain precisely
the amount of the benefits derived by agriculture from
this, and many other species of our birds, yet in the
present case, I cannot resist the belief, that the services
of this species, in spring, are far more important and
beneficial than the value of all that portion of corn which
a careful and active farmer permits himself to lose by it
146
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
American mock-bird, the favourite songster
of a region, where the birds excel rather in
the beauty of their plumage than the sweet-
ness of their notes.
This valuable bird does not seem to vie
with the feathered inhabitants of that country
in the beauty of its plumage, content with
qualifications that endear it to mankind much
more. It is but a plain bird to the eye, about
the size of a thrush , of a white and gray colour,
and a reddish bill. It is possessed not only
of its own natural notes, which are musical
and solemn, but it can assume the tone of
every other animal in the wood, from the wolf
to the raven. It seems even to sport itself in
leading them astray. It will, at one time,
allure the lesser birds with the call of their
males, and then terrify them, when they have
come near, with the screams of the eagle.
There is no bird in the forest but it can
mimick ; and there is none that it has not, at
times, deceived by its call. But, not like
such as we usually see famed for mimicking
with us, and which have no particular merit
of their own, the mock-bird is ever surest to
please when it is most itself. At those times
it usually frequents the houses of the Ameri-
can planters; and, sitting all night on the
chimney-top, pours forth the sweetest and the
most various notes of any bird whatever. It
would seem, if accounts be true, that the
deficiency of most other song-birds in that
country, is made up by this bird alone. They
often build their nests in the fruit-trees about
houses, feed upon berries and other fruits, and
are easily rendered domestic.1
1 Wilson's description of the American vwching-bird
is extremely animated ; but, in his enthusiasm, he is
supposed to have somewhat exaggerated the qualities of
the little mimic. (Seepage 143, ante, Note.) "The
voice of the mocking-bird," says the great American
ornithologist, " is full, strong, and musical, and capable
of almost every modulation, from the clear mellow tones
of the wood-thrush to the savage scream of the bald
eagle. In measure and accents he faithfully follows his
originals, while in force and sweetness of expression he
greatly improves upon them. In his native woods, on a
dewy morning, his song rises above every competitor,
tor the others seem merely as inferior accompaniments.
His own notes are bold and full, and varied seemingly
beyond all limits. They consist of short expressions of
two, three, or at most five or six syllables, generally ex-
pressed with great emphasis and rapidity, and continued
with undiminished ardour, for half an hour or an hour
at a time. While singing, he expands his wings and
his tail, glistening with white, keeping time to his own
music, and the buoyant gaiety of his action is no less
fascinating than his song. He sweeps round with
enthusiastic ecstasy, he mounts and descends as his song
swells or dies away ; he bounds aloft, as Bartram says,
with the celerity of an arrow, as if to recover or recal
his very soul, expired in the last elevated strain. A
bystander might suppose that the whole feathered tribes
had assembled together on a trial of skill ; each striving
to produce his utmost etlect, so perfect are his imitations.
He often deceives the sportsman, and even birds them-
CHAP. III.
OF THE NIGHTINGALE, AND OTHER SOFT-
BILLED SONG- BIRDS.
THE Nightingale is not only famous among
the moderns for its singing, but almost every
one of the ancients, who undertook to de-
scribe beautiful nature, has contributed to
raise its reputation. " The nightingale," says
Pliny, " that, for fifteen days and nights, hid
in the thickest shades, continues her note
without intermission, deserves our attention
arid wonder. How surprising that so great a
voice can reside in so small a body! such per-
severance in so minute an animal! With
what a musical propriety are the sounds it
produces modulated ! The note at one time
drawn out with a long breath, now stealing
oft' into a different cadence, now ititerrupted
by a break, then changing into a new note by
an unexpected transition; now seeming to
renew the same strain, then deceiving expec-
tation! She sometimes seems to murmur
within herself; full, deep, sharp, swift, draw-
ling, trembling; now at the top, the middle,
and the bottom of the scale ! In short, in
that little bill seems to reside all the melody
which man has vainly laboured to bring from
a variety of musical instruments. Some even
seem to be possessed of a different song from
the rest, and contend with each other with
great ardour. The bird overcome is then seen
only to discontinue its song with its life."
This most famous of the feathered tribe
visits England in the beginning of April, and
leaves us in August. It is found but in some
of the southern parts of the country, being
selves are sometimes imposed upon by this admirable
mimic. In confinement he loses little of the power or
energy of his song. He whistles for the dog ; Ca^ar
starts np, wags his tail, and rims to meet his master.
He cries like a hurt chicken, and the hen hurries about,
with feathers on end, to protect her injured brood. He
repeats the tune taught him, though it be of considerable
length, with great accuracy. He runs over the notes ot
the canary, and of the red bird, with such superior exe-
cution and effect, that the mortified songsters confess
his triumph by their silence. His fondness for variety,
some suppose to injure his song. His imitations of the
brown thrush are often interrupted by the crowing o!
cocks; and his exquisite warbling^ after the blue bird,
are mingled with the screaming of swallows, or the
cackling of hens. During moonlight, both in the wild
and tame state, he sings the whole night long. The
hunters, in their night excursions, know that the moon
is rising the instant they begin to hear his delightful
solo. Alter Shakspeare, Barrington attributes in part
the exijuisiteness of the nightingale's song to the silence
of the night; but if so, what are we to think of the bird
which, in the open glare of day, overpowers and often
silences all competition ? His natural notes partake
of a character similar to those of the brown thrush, bnt
they are more sweet, more expressive, more varied, and
uttered with greater rapidity.''
THE NIGHTINGALE.
H7
totally unknown in Scotland, Ireland, or
North Wales. They frequent thick hedges
arid low coppices, and generally keep in the
middle of the bush, so that they are rarely
seen. They begin their song in the evening,
and generally continue it for the whole night.
For weeks together, if undisturbed, they sit
upon the same tree; and Shakspeare rightly
describes the nightingale sitting nightly in the
same place, which I have frequently ob-
served she seldom departs from.1
1 The Nightingale. — " The nightingale, whose plum-
age is very ordinary, is scarcely five inches long, two
and a half of which belong to the tail. But in confine-
ment, when it is well fed, and especially when it has
been bred from the nest, it is commonly larger, reach-
ing sometimes the size of a lark. VVhen wild, nightin-
gales are found throughout Europe, as far as the north of
England, and the middle of Sweden ; in all Asia, as far
as the temperate regions of Siberia; and in Africa, on
the banks of the Nile. They every where choose for
their residence places which are shady, cool, but not
cold, such as woods, thickets, and even mere hedges in
the fields. Groves, thick brambles, tufted bushes near
fields and meadows, are their favourite abodes. They
also like gardens planted with untrimmed elm-hedges,
which are consequently thick and bushy down to the
ground. Their principal food is insects, especially
green caterpillars, of which they clear the bushes and
trees, butterflies, flies, and beetles, and the .grubs of
insects hid among moss or in the earth. At their de-
parture, towards the end of summer, they also eat elder-
berries and currants. They build their nests in a grove
or orchard, among a heap of branches, or in a thorn
bush, or the trunk of a tree surrounded by briars. They
are easily caught with limed twigs, or nooses and
springs. When allowed to fly freely in rooms, they do
not sing so well as in cages, which should be of an ordi-
nary size, and formed of osiers.
The first good quality of a nightingale is undoubtedly
its fine voice, and notes which 1 shall endeavour to de-
scribe. The nightingale expresses his different emo-
tions by suitable and particular tones. The most un-
meaning cry when he is alone appears to be a simple
\\hist\ejitt, but if the syllable err is added, it is then the
call of the male to the female. The sign of displeasure
or fear is jilt repeated rapidly and loudly before adding
the terminating err; whilst that of satisfaction and
pleasure, such, for example, a? conjugal endearments,
or, on the occasion of finding a delicate morsel, is a
deep tack, which may be imitated by smacking the
tongue. In anger, jealousy, rivalry, or any extra-
ordinary event, he utters hoarse disagreeable sounds,
somewhat like a jay or a cat. Lastly, in the season of
paring, when the male and female entice and pursue
From Pliny's description, we should be led
to believe this bird possessed of a persevering
strain ; but though it is in fact so with the
nightingale in Italy, yet, in our hedges in
England, the little songstress is by no means
so liberal of her music. Her note is soft,
various, and interrupted ; she seldom holds it
without a pause above the time that one can
count twenty. The nightingale's pausing
song would be the proper epithet for this bird's
music with us, which is more pleasing than
each other, from the top of a tree to its base, and thence
again to the top, a gentle subdued warbling is all that
is heard.
Nature has granted these tones to both sexes; hut the
male is particularly endowed with so very striking a
musical talent, tiiat in this respect he surpasses all birds,
and has acquired the name of the king of songsters. The
strength of his vocal organ is indeed wonderful ; and it
has been found that the muscles of his larynx are much
more powerful than those of any other bird. But it is
less the strength than the compass, flexibility, pro-
digious variety, and harmony of his voice, which make
it so admired by all lovers of the beautiful. Sometimes
dwelling for minutes on a strain composed of only two
or three melancholy tones, he begins in an under voice,
and swelling it gradually by the most superb crescendo
to the highest point of strength, he ends it by a dying
cadence ; or it consists of a rapid succession of more
brilliant sounds, terminated, like many other strains of
his song, by some detached ascending notes. Twenty-
four different strains or couplets may be reckoned in
the song of a fine nightingale, without including its
delicate little variations; for among these, as among
other musicians, there are some great performers and
many middling ones. This song is so articulate, so
speaking, that it may be very well written. The fol-
lowing is a trial which I have made on that of a night-
ingale in my neighbourhood, which passes for a very
capital singer: —
Tiou, tiou, tiou, tiou.
Spe, tiou, syua.
Tio, tio, tio, tio, tio} tio, tio, tit.
Coutio, coutia, coutio, coutio.
Squo, squo, squo, squo.
Tzu, tzu, tzu, tzu, tzu, tzu, tzu, tzu, Izu, tzi.
Corror, tiou, squa pipiqui.
Zozozozozozozozozozozozo, zirrhading !
Tsissisi, tsissisisisisisisis.
Dzorre, dzorre, dzorre, dzorre, hi.
Tzatu, tzatu, tzatu, tzatu, tzatu, tzatu. txalu, del.
Dlo, dlo, dlo, dlo, dlo, dlo, dlo, dlo, dlo.
Quio tr rrrrrrrr itz.
Lu, lu, lu. lu. h/, ly, ly, ly, lie, lie, lie, M.
Quio, didl li lulylie.
Hagurr, gurr quipio !
Coui, coui, coin, and, qui, qui, qui, qui, yai, yuit gui, gui.
Gott gott aoU gott guia hadadoi.
Couigui, norr, IM diadia dUl si !
Ilezezezezezezezezezezezezezezezezc couar !io dze Jtoi.
Quia, quia} quia, quia, quia, quiet,, quia, quia, ti.
Ki, ki, ki, io, 'io, io, iijioioio la,
Lu, ly li le lai la leu Io, didl 'io quia.
Kigaigaigaigaigaifiaigaigaigaigaigai candor dzio dzio pi.
If we could understand the sense of these words, we
should doubtless discover the expression of the sensa-
tions of this delightful songster. It is true that the
nightingales of all countries, the south as well as the
north, appear to sing in the same manner ; there is,
however, as has been already observed, so great a dif-
ference in the degree of perfection, that we cannot help
acknowledging that one has a great superiority over
another. On points of beauty, however, where the
H8
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
the warbling of any other bird, because it is
heard at a time when all the rest are silent.
In the beginning of May, the nightingale
prepares to make its nest, which is formed of
the leaves of trees, straw and moss. The nest
being very eagerly sought after, is as cun-
ningly secreted ; so that but very few of them
are found by the boys when they go upon
these pursuits. It is built at the bottom of
hedges, where the bushes are thickest and
best covered. While the female continues
sitting, the male at a good distance, but al-
ways within hearing, cheers the patient hour
with his voice, and, by the short interruption
of his song, often gives her warning of ap
proaching danger. She lays four or five eggs;
of which but a part in our cold climate come
to maturity.
The delicacy, or rather the fame, f this
bird's music, has induced many to abridge its
liberty, to be secured of its song. Indeed,
(he greatest part of what has been written
concerning it in our country consists in direc-
tions how to manage it for domestic singing ;
while the history of the bird is confined to
dry receipts for fitting it for the cage. Its
song, however, in captivity, is not so very
alluring; and the tyranny of taking it from
those hedges where only it is most pleasing,
senses are the judges, each has his peculiar taste. If
one nightingale lias the talent of dwelling agreeably on
his notes, another utters his with peculiar brilliancy, a
third lengthens out his strain in a particular manner,
and a fourth excels in the silveriness of his voice. All
four may excel in their style, and each will find his
admirer; and, truly, it is very difficult to decide which
merits the palm of victory. There are, however, in-
dividuals so very superior as to unite all the beauties of
power and melody ; these are generally birds of the first
breed, which, having been hatched with the necessary
powers, in a district well peopled with nightingales,
appropriate what is most striking in the song of each,
whence results this perfect compound, so worthy of our
admiration. As the return of the males in spring al-
ways precedes that of the females by seven or eight days,
they are constantly heard to sing before and after mid-
night, in order to attract their companions on their
journey during the fine nights. If their wishes are
accomplished, they then keep silence during the night,
and salute the dawn with their first accents, which are
continued through the day. Some persist in their first
season in singing before and after midnight, whence
they have obtained the name of nocturnal nightingales ;
but they cannot be distinguished till after some time,
when they are established in their district, and have the
society of their females. After repeated experiments
for many successive years, I think I am authorised in
affirming that the nocturnal and diurnal nightingales
form distinct varieties, which propagate regularly: for
if a young bird is taken from the nest of a night singer,
he in his turn will sing at the same hours as his father,
not the first year, but certainly in the following; while,
on the other hand, the young of a day nightingale will
never sing in the night, even when it is surrounded by
uocttirnal nightingales.
It is a pity that the tSme for this delightful bird's
song should be so short, that is to say, when wild. It
endures hardly three months j and during this short
still more depreciafes its imprisoned efforts,
Gesner assures us, that it is not only the most
agreeable songster in a cage, but that it. is
possessed of a most admirable faculty of talk-
ing. He tells the following story in proof of
his assertion, which he says was communi-
cated to him by a friend. " Whilst I was at
Ratisbon," says his correspondent, " I put up
at an inn, the sign of the Golden Crown,
where my host had three nightingales. What
I am going to repeat is wonderful, almost
incredible, and yet is true. The nightingales
were placed separately, so that each was shut
up by itself in a dark cage. It happened at
that time, being the spring of the year, when
those birds are wont to sing indefatigably,
that I was so afflicted with (Tie stone, that I
could sleep but very little all night. It was
usual then about midnight, when there was
no noise in the house, but all still, to hear the
two nightingales jangling and talking with
each other, and plainly imitating men's dis-
courses. For rny part I was almost astonished
with wonder; for at this time, when all was
quiet else, they held conference together, and
repeated whatever they had heard among the
guests by day. Those two of them that were
most notable, and masters of this art, were
scarcely ten feet distant from one another-
interval it is not maintained with equal power. At it*
first arrival it is the most beautiful, continued, and im-
passioned ; when the young are hatched, it liecome?,
more rare ; the attentions which they require occupying
considerable time. If from time to time the nightin-
gale's song is heard, it is evident that the fire which
animated it is much weakened. After midsummer all
is ended, nothing is heard but the warbling of the young,
which seem to study their father's song, and try to
imitate it. The nightingale sings much longer in con-
finement : birds which are caught full grown sometimes
sing from November to Easter; those which are bred
from the nest sing much longer, sometimes as long as
seven months; but in order that they may sing well,
they must he put under the instruction of an old night-
ingale which is a good singer, otherwise they will he
only stammerers, mutilating their natural song, and
inserting in a confused manner tones and passages
which they have caught from other birds. If, however,
they have a good instructor, and a good memory, they
imitate perfectly, and often add to their instructor's song
some beauties of their own, as is nsual among young
birds.
Independent of these talents, the nightingale pos-
sesses a quality very likely to augment the number of
his fi'ipnds; he is capable, after some time, of forming
attachments. When once he has made acquaintance
with the person who takes care of him, he distinguishes
his step before seeing him; he welcomes him by a cry of
joy; and, during the moulting season, he is seen making
vain efforts to sing, and supplying, by the gaiety of his
movements, and the expression of his looks, the demon-
strations of joy which his throat refuses to utter. When
he loses his benefactor, he sometimes pines to death; if
he survives, it is long before he is accustomed to
another. His attachments are long, because they are
not hasty, as is the case with all wild and timid disposi-
tions."— liechslein on Cage Birds.
THE NIGHTINGALE.
149
The third hung more remote, so (hat I could
not so well hear it as I lay a-bed. But it is
wonderful to tell how those two provoked
each other ; and by answering, invited and
drew one another to speak. Yet did they
not confound their words, or (alk both together,
but rather utter them alternately and of
course. Besides the daily discourse of the
guests, they chaunted out two stories, which
generally held them from midnight till morn-
ing; and that with such modulations and in-
flections, that no man could have taken to
come from such little creatures. When I
asked the host if they had been taught, or
whether he observed their talking in the
night, he answered, no: the same said the
whole family. But 1, who could not sleep
for nights together, was perfectly sensible of
their discourse. One of their stories was
concerning the tapster and his wife, who re-
fused to follow him to the wars, as he desired
her : for the husband endeavoured (o persuade
his wife, as far as I understood by the birds,
that he would leave his service in that inn,
and go to the wars in hopes of plunder. But
she refused to follow him, resolving to stay
either at Ratisbon, or go to Nuremberg.
There was a long and earnest contention be-
tween them ; and all this dialogue the birds
repeated. They even repeated the unseemly
words which were cast out between them,
and which ought rather to have been sup-
pressed and kept a secret. But the birds,
not knowing the difference between modest,
immodest, honest, and filthy words, did out
with them. The other story was concerning
the war which the emperor was then threaten-
ing against the Protestants ; which the birds
probably heard from some of the generals that
had conferences in the house. These things
did they repeat in the night after twelve
o'clock, when there was a deep silence. But
in the day-time, for the most part they were
silent, and seemed to do nothing but meditate
and revolve with themselves upon what the
guests conferred together as they sat at table,
or in their walks. I verily had never be-
lieved our Pliny writing so many wonderful
things concerning these little creatures, had I
not myself seen with my eyes, and heard
them with my ears uttering such things as I
have related. Neither yet can I of a sudden
write all, or call to remembrance every parti-
cular that I have heard."
Such is the sagacity ascribed to the night-
ingale ; it is but, to have high reputation for
any one quality, and the world is ready
enough to give, us fame for others to which
we have very small pretensions. But there
is a little bird, rather celebrated for its affec-
tion to mankind thin its singing, which,
however, in our climate, has the sweetest note
of all others. The reader already perceives
that I mean the RED BREAST, the well known
friend of man, that is found in every hedge,
and makes it vocal. The note of other birds
is louder, and their inflexions more capricious,
but this bird's voice is soft, tender, and well
supported; and the more to be valued, as we
enjoy it the greatest part of the winter. If
the nightingale's song has been compared to
the fiddle, the red-breast's voice has all the
delicacy of the flute.
The red.breast, during the spring, haunts
the wood, the grove, and the garden; it re-
tires to the thickest and shadiest hedge-rows
to breed in.1 But in winter it seems to be-
1 The Red-breast. — The statement given in most
books of natural history, that the red-breast, during
summer, flies from the habitation of man, which he has
haunted during the winter, to nestle in wild and solitary
places, is far from being strictly correct. I readily
admit that many of these birds may be found in woods
and forests ; but I am equally certain th;,t a greater
number do not go farther from their winter haunts than
the nearest hedge-rows. Even hi the near vicinity of
London, in Copenhagen fields, Chelsea, Battersea fields,
Peckham, wherever, indeed, there is a field and a few
trees, I have heard red-breasts singing the whole sum-
mer. One has been in song all the summer, not a gun-
shot from my house at Lee, where this paragraph was
written ; and I have remarked another singing for
several months among some elms at Lewisham Bridge,
though there are houses all round, and the bustle of the
public road just below. The red-breast does not come,
indeed, usually to the cottage for crumbs during summer,
because then insects are plentiful ; and this may have
given rise to the common opinion. I once saw an in-
stance, hdwever, at (Jompton Basset, in Wiltshire, in
which a red-breast made a daily visit, in summer, within
a cottage door, to pick up what he could find. It is
worthy of remark, that Graham's poetical sketch of the
red-breast is much more true to nature than the state-
ments of our professed naturalists: —
" High is his perch, but humble is his home,
And well c»ncoal'd, sometimes within the sound
Of heartsorae mill-clack, where the spacious duor,
White-dusted, tells him plonty reigns around ;
Close at the root of brier- bush that o'erhangs
The narrow stream, with shealings bedded white,
He fixes his abode and lives at will.
Oft near some single cottage he prefers
To rear his little home ; there, pert and spruoe,
He shares the refuse of the good wife's churn ;
Nor seldom does he neighbour the low roof
Where tiny elves are taught."
Birds of Scotland.
It is a constant inhabitant of the greater part of the
European continent. About Barnholm, it is called
Tomne-Leden ; in Norway, Peter Ronsmad ; in Gur-
150
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
come more domestic, and often to claim pro-
tection from man. Most of the soft-billed
birds, the nightingale, the swallow, and the tit-
mouse, leave us in the winter, when their insect
food is no longer offered in plenty ; but the red-
breast continues with us the year round, and
endeavours to support the famine of winter by
chirping round the warm habitations of man.
kind ; by coming into those shelters where
the rigour of the season is artificially expelled,
and where insects themselves are found in
greater numbers, attracted by the same cause.
This bird breeds differently in different
places : in some countries its nest is usually
ibund in the crevice of some mossy bank, or
at the foot of a hawthorn in hedge rows ; in
others it chooses the thickest coverts, and hides
its nest with oak leaves. The eggs are from
four to five, of a dull white, with reddish
streaks.
The Lark, whether the sky-lark, the wood,
or the tit-lark,' being all distinguishable from
many, Thomas Gierdet ; with us, Robin Red-breast and
R uddock. — Rennie.
1 The song of the Lark is cheerful, and imparts a gaiety
to the mind of even the most serious. His joyous matins
arid heavenward flight have been aptly compared to
hymns and acts of adoration and praise. No bird sings
with more method: there is an overture performed vivace
crescendo, while the singer ascends ; when at the full
height, the song becomes moderate, and distinctly divided
into short passages, each repeated three or four times over,
like & fantasia, in the same key and time. If there be
any wind, lie rises perpendicularly by bounds, and after-
wards poises himself with breast opposed to it. If calm,
he ascends in spiral circles ; in horizontal circles during
the principal part of his song, and zigzagly downwards
during the performance of i\\ejinale. Sometimes, after
descending about half way, he ceases to sing, and drops
with the velocity of an arrow to the ground. Those ac-
quainted with the song of the sky-lark can tell without
looking at them whether the birds be ascending or station-
ary in the air, or on their descent ; so different is the
style of the song in each case. In the first, there is an
expression of ardent impatience ; in the second, an an-
dante composure, in which rests of a bar at a time fre-
quently occur ; and, in the last, a graduated sinking of
the strains, often touching the subdominant before the
final close. The time and number of the notes often
correspond with the vibrations of the wings ; and though
they sometimes sing while on the ground, as they are
seen to do in cages, their whole frame seems to be agi-
tated by their musical efforts.
The Crested-Lark (so called from the tuft on its head)
is pretty well spread throughout Europe, from Russia to
Greece. It seems very doubtful, whether it is ever
found in this country. It neither flies in flocks like the
common lark, nor rises so high ; and it continues in
flight a longer time without alighting. It is by no means
wild, noi- does it dread the appearance of man, but com-
mences to sing at his approach. The males sing infin-
itely better than the females, and their voice is very
sweet and agreeable. During fine weather there is no
cessation to their strains ; but they become silent' w-hen
the sky is overcast, and rain descends ; they forget their
gaiety and their music until the re-appearance of a bril-
liant sun re-animates their vivacity. They usually sing
until the month of September. In captivity they also
bing, and retain more readily the airs which are taught
other little birds by the length of tneir heel,
are louder in their song than either of the
former, but not so pleasing. Indeed the music
of every bird in captivity produces no very
them from the bird-organ, than almost any other bird.
But they seldom survive the loss of their liberty, and it
requires much care and difficulty to preserve them any
time in cages. The female places her nest on the
ground, like the common species. She lays twice a year,
about four or five eggs of a clear ash-colour, thick set
with brown and blackish spots.
The Wood-Lurk is smaller than the crested-lark, and
its tuft can hardly be considered as a genuine one, being
only a little greater elongation of the feathers of the head
than in the common lark. The male is more frequently
observed to elevate these than this female. This lark is
found in Germany, France, Holland, Siberia, Poland,
and Italy. When these birds perch they sing agreeably.
They are heard to warble in great numbers together, in
the commencement of spring ; but when these assem-
blages disperse in amorous couples, the male then dis-
plays all his vocal powers, and produces very melodious
sounds, especially after sunset. In many respects, both
of hiibit and appearance, these birds differ from the sky-
lark. They perch as well in trees as on the ground ;
but this they do only on the largest branches, where they
are able to secure their hold with positively embracing
the stems with their toes. The sky-lark forms its nest
amongst grass or corn ; and the wood lark usually at the
foot of a bush, near the bottom of a hedge, or it lays where
thegrass is rank and dry. The fabric is of loose texture,
and constructed of withered herbs and fibrous roots, with
a few horse hairs in the inside.
The Short-toed Lark is met with in the Canaries, in
the southern provinces of France, and especially in
Champagne, where the species is remarkably numerous.
This lark can run with the rapidity of a field mouse,
especially when disturbed, and on the point of taking to
flight. All the larks are pulverating birds ; but this
one is so particularly attached to powdering itself with
dust, that, on being supplied with some in a state of cap-
tivity, it will immediately testify its joy by a little soft
cry, frequently repeated, and by precipitate movements
of the wings, and bristlings of all the feathers. It will
plunge instantly into sand crashes, as other birds do into
water, remains there a long time, wallowing in all
sorts of ways, and does not come out of it until it is so
covered with it, that its plumage is scarcely to be dis-
tinguished.
The Clapper Lark is of South Africa. It usually
makes its nest in some small grass, and lays from four
to five eggs, of a greenish gray. It seldom rises more
than from fifteen to twenty feet above the ground, and
makes a particular noise, occasioned by the precipitate
motion of its wings, which is heard at a great distance.
The Red backed iMrk chiefly delights in plains
abounding with bushes. It perches readily on these,
THE LARK.
151
pleasing sensations ; it is but the mirth of a
little animal, insensible of its misfortunate
situation : it is the landscape, the grove, the
golden break of day, the contest upon the
and even on the trees which are at the edges of woods.
Us song is agreeable.
The Alpine Lark inhabits the most northern portions
of the two continents. In both quarters of the globe
these larks, whose flesh is wholesome food, though with-
out flavour, like that of most American birds, qnit their
winter retreat in the early days of spring, to withdraw
into the countries which are nearest to the pole, where
in perfect security from the aggressions of man, they
may deliver themselves without disturbance to the edu-
cation of their young families.
The Calandre is larger than the common lark, but
yet has many points of resemblance to it, not only in
(•(information and colour, but also in habits and manners.
It is found in the south of France, in Italy and the
inland of Sardinia, where it pas=es the entire year. The
ralandres are not observed to congregate in flocks, but
usually remain single ; in autumn they grow very fat,
and are then good eating; they are taken in nets, laid
near the waters where they are accustomed to drink.
The Sirli, a species of lark, is remarkable for its long
and arched beak. It is found in the southern parts of
Africa, and even in Barbary, usually inhabiting the
Bandy downs ; from its peculiar song, which it gener-
ally puts forth from some little eminence, its name is
derived.
The Double-crested Lark is distinguished chiefly by
the double crest, from which its name is derived.
TITMICE. — The majority of the Titmice, particularly
those which frequent woods, thickets, and orchards, are
courageous, and even ferocious; they will attack the
owl with greater boldness than any other bird, heing
always foremost in darting on him, and trying to pick
out his eyes. They express their little rage and fury
by the swelling of their plumes, by violent attitudes,
and precipitate motions; they peck sharply the hand
which holds them, strike it repeatedly with the bill, and
.^tem by their cries to call others to their assistance,
which usually attracts them in crowds, and produces
abundant sport to the fowler, for a single individual can
take them all. There are many traits of conformity in
their manners and disposition with those of the crows,
chrikes, arid pies; they have- the same appetite for flesh,
and the same custom of tearing their food in pieces to
eat it.. These birds being of a lively and active charac-
ter, are incessantly in motion; they are continually
fluttering from tree to tree, hopping from branch to
branch, climbing up the trunk, crooking themselves to
walls, and suspending themselves in all fashions, some-
times with the head downwards. Though fierce, they
are social, seek out the company of their own species,
and form little flocks, more or less numerous; and if
any accident should separate them, they recall each
other mutually, and are soon reunited. They then seek
their food in common, visit the clefts of rocks and walls,
and tear with their bills the lichens and the moss of
trees, to find insects or their eggs. They also feed on
seeds ; but though in many species the bill is strong
enough, they do not break them, like the bullfinches
and linnets ; they place them under their claws, and
pierce them with their bills, like the nuthatches, with
"Inch they sometimes seem to associate during the
winter. If a nut be suspended at the end of a string,
they will hook themselves to it, and follow all its oscilla-
tions without letting go, and keep incessantly picking
at it. Such manoeuvres indicate much strength in the
muscles; it has accordingly been observed that the bill
is moved by very robust and vigorous muscles and liga-
ments, as well as the neck, and that the cranium is re-
hawthorn, the fluttering from branch to branch,
the soaring in the air, and the answering of
its young, that gives the bird's song its true
relish. These, united, improve each other,
markably thick. They will eat not only grains, but
insects, as above hinted, and butterfly-eggs, and peck
the growing buds. The largest species (the great tit-
mouse) joins to its other aliments bees, and even little
birds, if it finds them enfeebled by illness, or entangled
in snares, but it usually eats only the head. Almost all
the species of titmice are very productive, even more so
than any other birds, in proportion to their size ; their
brood is said sometimes to consist of eighteen or twenty
eggs. Some make their nests in the trunks of trees,
others on shrubs, and give it the form of a ball, of a
volume greatly disproportioned to their size; some sus-
pend it at the end of a branch, in reeds or rushes. The
materials which they employ are small plants, little roots,
moss, flax, cattle hair, wool, the down of plants, cotton,
and feathers; they tend their numerous family with the
most indefatigable zeal and activity, are very much
attached to it, and defend it with courage against tin;
birds which attack it. They rush on the enemy with
such intrepidity as to force him to respect tfieir weak-
ness. The titmice are extended over the old continent,
from the north to the south of Europe, through Africa,
India, and China: they are also found in North America,
but are as yet unknown in the southern part of that
continent. Within these few years, several have been
discovered in New Holland. Among the titmice, those
which are most easily caught in snares, &c. are the
great, the black, and blue-headed species; the crested,
the long-tailed, the bearded, and the penduline are not
so easily managed.
BUNTINGS. — The Buntings are distinguished princi,
pally by their conical, short, and straight bill, and by
the addition of a knob in the roof of the upper mandible,
which is made use of by the bird as an anvil on which
to break and comminute its food. This apparatus is
sufficient to lead the observing naturalist per saltum, as
it were, to the conclusion that this gonus of birds must
be granivorous. It is true, indeed, that very many
birds are enabled to crack and open nuts and hard seeds,
without the aid of that extra provision with which the
buntings are furnished : and this is one of the countless
instances which might be adduced to display the various
means employed by Nature to attain one and the same
end. How different, for instance, are the means by
which the several classes of animals attain the common
object of locomotion, and how various are the modifica-
tions of those means in the respective genera. The
buntings, however, do not feed exclusively on vegetable
matter; like most of their order, they subsist also par-
tially on insects and worms.
The Yellow Buntinij is known in England under the
name of yellow- hammer ; in Scotland under that of
152
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
and raise (lie mind to a state of the highest,
yet most harmless, exultation. Nothing can,
in this situation of mind, be more pleasing
than to see the lark warbling upon the wing;
raising its note as it soars, until it seems lost
in the immense heights above us ; the note
continuing, the bird itself unseen ; to see it
then descending with a swell as it comes from
the clouds, yet sinking by degrees as it ap-
proaches its nest, the spot where all its affec-
tions are centred, the spot that has prompted
all this joy.
The lark builds its nest upon the ground,
beneath some turf that serves to hide and
shelter it. The female lays four or five eggs,
of a dusky hue in colour, somewhat like those
of a plover. It is while she is sitting that
the male thus usually entertains her with his
singing; and while he is risen to an imper-
ceptible height, yet he still has his loved
partner in his eye, nor once loses sight of the
nest, either while he ascends or is descending.
This harmony continues several months, be.
yMow-ycldring . The yellow on the crown of the head
is sometimes replaced by olive-green: and this, as well
as other occasional deviations from the ordinary gam-
boge yel'.ow of this bird, would in all probability have
induced the erroneous multiplication of species, had the
yellow bunting and its incidents been less universally
known. This bird builds in a careless manner, on the
ground, or towards the bottom of a small bush. The
exterior of the nest consists of straw, moss, dried leaves,
and stalks; and within is a little wool. Notwithstand-
ing the carelessness of its nidification, however, few birds
display stronger attachment to the young and to their
eggs, than this ; so much so, as to be not unfrequently
taken by the hand, on the nest, rather than abandon its
ollspring in time to save itself. The eggs are in
general about five in number, and are whitish, with red
streaks.
The Feoliah Bunting frequents the warmer situations
of Europe, and lives solitary in mountainous districts.
It is said to have gained deservedly its epithet, from
the ease with which it falls into every kind of snare.
The Ctrl Bunting may be considered a British
species, as it is not uncommon in company with the
yellow bunting and the chaffinch on the southern coast
of Devonshire. A straggler has been killed in Scotland.
The Reed Bunting is about the size of the yellow
bunting, and is common in this country. It constructs
its nest in grass or furze, near the ground, and has been
said to attach it to three or four reeds above the water,
whence its name. The eggs are four or five in num-
ber, bluish-white, spotted, and varied with brown.
The Common Bunting is rather larger than the
yellow bunting, and is much less common here. While
in France, they are merely occasional residents, and
arrive there in the spring, from the south, shortly after
the swallows, and quit that country again in the begin-
ning of autumn, they are found here during the whole
year, and congregate in winter in large flocks, when
they are frequently caught in numbers, and sold under
the name of bunting lark, ebbs, or corn bunting. They
nestle on or near the ground, have four dirty-white eggs,
spotted and streaked with brown ; and the young have a
reddish tinge. During incubation, the male is gener-
ally found perched on a branch not far distant from his
mate, constantly uttering a tremulous kind of shriek,
several times repeated with short intervals. Their un.
ginning early in the spring on pairing. In
winter, they assemble in flocks, when their
song forsakes them, and the bird catchers de-
stroy them in great numbers for the tables ol
the luxurious.
The black-cap and the wren, though so
very diminutive, are yet prized by some for
(heir singing. The former is called by some
the mock nightingale ; and the latter is ad-
mired for the loudness of its note, compared
to the little body from whence it issues. It
must be confessed, that this disproportion be-
tween the voice of a bird and its size, in some
measure demands our wonder. Quadrupeds
in this respect may be considered as mutes to
them. The peacock is louder than the lion,
and the rabbit is not so loud as the wren.
But. it must be considered, that birds are very
differently formed ; their lungs in some mea-
sure are extended through their whole body,
while in quadrupeds they lie only in the
breast. In birds there are a variety of cells
which take in the air, and thus pour forth
availing anxiety to protect their eggs and young, fre-
quently leads to the spot where they are deposited, which
the simple birds are so unwilling to forsake, ard, in
their anxiety, so easily betray.
The Ortolan Bunting is never known to visit this
country. This bird, whose flesh is very highly esteemed,
and which is consequently much sought utter, appears
to be confined to the southern parts of Europe, where it
is found at all seasons. When these birds first arrive
in France, they are far from fat ; but human ingenuity
soon makes them fit for the table: they are fatted by
inclosing a number of them in a dark chamber, in which
is placed a lanthorn, surrounded plentifully with oats
and millet. The darkness seems to have the efiect of
confining the whole attention of the birds to their favour-
ite food, thus placed within view ; and it is said they will
thus die of sutibcaUon from their own fat, if left entirely
to themselves. Another mode is, by confining them in
cages, which admit a little light only to the box con-
taining the food. In this state, the ortolan bunting is
said to be one of the most exquisite morsels knowrn for
the table.
Among the buntings, distinguished by an elongated
claw to the thumb, is the Snow Bunting, as it is found
in the northern parts of Great Britain, and is called in
Scotland the snow flake. These birds appear there in
large flocks, at the commencement of frost, and are
feared by many as the harbingers of hard weather; they
are about the size of the chaffinch, black above, with a
white rump, crown, and forehead. They nestle in holes
in rocks, and produce five white eggs, with dusky spots.
They are found in all the northern latitudes, as high as
navigators have penetrated; nor is it at all apparent by
what means they find food in these inhospitable regions.
The higher the degree of latitude in which they are
found, the whiter, as it appears, becomes their plumage;
this tendency, which we have had frequent occasion to
notice, among the mammalia, as well as in the present
class, has led to the conclusion that there are many
varieties of this species. It breeds in Greenland, visits
this country in harvest, and retires in spring. As the
winter advances, it approaches the corn-yards, and feeds
with the sparrows and finches. In Zetland it is called
oat-fowl, from the preference which it gives to that kind
of grain.
THE NIGHTINGALE.
153
their contents at the little animal's command.
The black-cap and the wren, therefore, are as
respectable for their voices as they might be
deemed inconsiderable for their size.1
1 The Bl(ick-cap is somewhat above five inches in
length. It visits us about, the middle of April, and
retires in September; it frequents gardens, and builds
its nest near the ground. The female lays five eggs, of
a pale reddish brown, sprinkled with spots of a darker
colour. During the time of incubation the male attends
the female, and sits by turns ; he likewise procures her
food, such as flies, worms, and insects. The black-cap
sings sweetly, and so like the nightingale, that in Nor-
folk it is called the mock nightingale. Black-caps feed
chiefly on flies and insects, and not unfrequently on ivy
and other berries.
The If run is found throughout Europe. Its nest is
rnriously constructed, being composed chiefly of moss,
and lined with feathers ; and in shape almost oval, with
only one small entrance. This is generally found in
some corner of an out-house, stack of wood, or hole in a
wall, near our habitations ; but when the wren builds in
the woods, it is often in a bush near the ground, on the
stump of a tree, or even with the ground. The female
lays from ten to eighteen eggs.
The Golden- Crested Wren is said to be the smallest
bird found in this kingdom, not weighing more than
three drachms. It has an exceedingly beautiful small
row of feathers on the top of the head, of a gold or orange
colour, which it has a power of drawing together, in such
a manner as entirely to conceal the little crest, hy laying
the feathers all flat upon the head ; and likewise to raise
them at pleasure. This is a beautiful, but rather rare
bird ; it is found in some of the woods near Oxford, also
in Warwickshire, and several places in Wales : k has
sometimes been seen in the southern parts of Scotland.
The female lays six or seven very small eggs, not larger
than peas, and feeds upon small insects.
The Willow-Wren. — This bird is little bigger than the
common wren. It is migratory, visiting us annually about
the middle of April, and taking its departure towards the
end of September. The female constructs her nest in
holes at the roots of trees, in hollows of dry banks, and
other similar places. This is round, and not unlike
that of the wren. The eggs are dusky white, and marked
with reddish spots, and are five in number.
The Wood- Wren is a distinct species from the willow
wren, with which it has been often confounded. It is
distinguished by a more vivid plumage, and by frequent-
ing natural woods and plantations. Among other bird
belonging to this class may be mentioned the White-
throat, the Rcdtail, and the Greater and Lesser Petty-
chaps.
WARBLKRS. — The Pensile Warbler is neatly five
inches long. The bill is dusky ; the head grayish black;
and the back deep gray. The sagacity displayed by this
bird, in building and placing its nest, is truly remark-
able. She does not fix it at the forking of the branches,
as is usual with most other birds, but suspends it to
cinders hanging from the netting which she forms from
VOL. 1J.
All these soft-billed birds, thus prized for
their singing, are rendered domestic, and
brought up with assiduity by such as are fond
of their voices in a cage. The same method
tree to tree, especially those which fall from branches that
hang over rivers and deep ravines. The nest consists of
dry blades of grass, the ribs of leaves, and exceedingly small
roots, interwoven with the greatest art ; it is fastened on,
or rather is worked into, the pendant strings. It is, in
fact, a small bed rolled into a ball, so thick and com-
pacted as to exclude the rain ; and it rocks in the wind
without receiving any harm. But the elements are not
the only enemies against which this bird has to struggle ;
with wonderful sagacity it provides for the protection of
its nest from other accidents. The opening is neither
made on the top nor side of the nest, but at the bottom:
nor is the entrance direct. After the bird has made its
way into the vestibule, it must pass over a kind of par-
tition, and through another aperture, before it descends
to the abode of its family. This lodgment is round and
soft, being lined with a species of lichen, which grows on
the trees, or with the silky down of plants. The birds
of this species have a very delicate song, which is con-
tinued throughout the year. They are natives of St
Domingo, and some other of the West Indian islands,
where they feed chiefly upon insects and fruit.
THE LESSER BED-POLE (Sylvicola Petechia), belongs to
the tribe of Warblers, inhabits Pennsylvania, makes its
appearance in March, and retires in autumn. It frequents
bushy places, and is a solitary bird. It has the red-cap only
in summer. PI. LIX. fig. 1.
CHATS. — The Chat genus ( which embraces the Wheat
Ear, the Stone Chat, and the Whin Chat) are all com-
mon in Europe, and frequent moors and other open wastes.
They live solitary, or in pairs, and are wild in disposition.
They run with much celerity, and their food consists ot
insects and worms, which they take chiefly upon the
ground.
The /Pinter Fau-vette is somewhat more than five
inches. It is frequently seen in hedges, from which
circumstance it has been called the hedge sparrow, but
it has no other relation to the sparrow than in the dingi-
ness of its colours ; in every other respect it differs en-
tirely. It remains with us the whole year, and builds
its nest near the ground ; it is composed of moss and
wool, and lined with hair. The female generally lays
four or five eggs, of a uniform pale blue, without any
spots ; the young are hatched about the beginning of
May. During the time of sitting, if a cat or other vor-
acious animal come near the nest, the mother endea-
vours to divert it from the spot by a stratagem similar
to that by which the partridge misleads the dog : she
springs up, and flutters from spot to spot, by which means
allures her enemy to a safe distance. In France the
hedge sparrow is rarely seen but in winter ; it arrives
generally in October, and departs in the spring for more
northern regions where it breeds. It is supposed to brave
the rigours of winter in Sweden, and that it assumes the
white plumage common in these severe climates in that
season. Its song is little varied, but pleasant, especially
in a season when all other warblers are silent : its usual
strain is a sort of quivering, frequently repeated some-
thing like the following tit -tit tititit ; from which, in
some places, it is called the titling.
Wagtails and Pipits.— All these birds frequent mea-
dows, and humid and marshy places, delighting in the
borders of rivulets and rivers. Most of them have an
undulating flight. They all run rather than walk; sel-
dom perch, sing, or cry, during the flight ; and construct
their nest on the ground. That of the white wagtail is,
however, sometimes found in a pile of wood, alongside ol
the banks, or in the hole of some wall whose base is washed
by wateis. Insects and small worms are their only aD-
u
15-i
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
of treatment serves for all, as their food and
tlieir habits are nearly (he same. The man-
ner of taking and treating them, particularly
the nightingale, is this : A nightingale's nest
may be found by observing the place- where
the male sings, and then by sticking two or
three meal-worms (a kind of maggot found
it) flour) on some neighbouring thorn, which
when he sees he will infallibly bear away to
his young. By listening, he then may be
heard with the female chirping to the young
ones while they are feeding. When the nest
is found, if the young ones are not fledged
enough to be taken, they must not be touched
with the hands, for then the old ones will per-
ceive it, and entice them away. They should
not be taken till they are almost as full fea-
thers as the old ones ; and, though they refuse
their meat, yet, by opening their bills, you
may give them two or three small bits at a
lime, which will make them soon grow tame,
inent. These iitsectivora, as useful as the fly-catchers and
swallows, sometimes in the flight, but more frequently
on the ground, amidst the herbage, seize upon the flies
fciid gnats which have escaped the murderous bills of
their other pursuers in the air. All the insect population of
ponds and marshes constitute the nutriment of these
volatiles. Their slight forms, little head, delicate feet, and
long tails, perpetually balanced, cause them to be at once
distinguishable from all other birds with slender bills.
The wagtails are not distrustful, and are less fearful
of man than of the birds of prey. They are not even
much frightened by fire-arms, for, on being aimed at,
they do not fly far, and frequently return and place them-
selves within a short distance of the fowler. They give
into all kinds of snares which are laid for them, quite
easily ; but if taken when-adult, they cannot be preserv-
ed in cages, but will die in four-and-twenty hours. For
this purpose, they must be taken from the nest, and
reared like the nightingales. Of the species which fre-
quent Britain are the Pied Wagtail, the Gray or Water
Wagtail, and the Yellow Wagtail.
The Pipits, or Field Larks, have much analogy with
those of the larks proper, though they differ in certain
details of conformation. Like the larks, they sing in
flying, and elevate themselves to a certain height in the
air. They seek their nutriment, nestle, and sleep on the
ground. Some frequent cultivated fields and meadows;
others delight, during the summer season, in the borders
of woods, in glades, in furze, and brushwood, thinly scat-
tered ; many prefer mountains, steep shores, rocks, and
maritime pastures. Some few, in fine, inhabit, during
Rummer, the little hills in sandy and stony situations,
and during the alter season, sojourn on the hanks of rivers,
and seek their food upon the strand. A very small num-
ber have the power of perching constantly upon trees.
There is a considerable trouble in distinguishing them
specifically. Of those common to Britain are the Rock
or Shore Pipit, the Meadow Pipit, or Tit, and the Tree
Pipit.
Jiottle Tit or Long Tailed Titmouse. — This elegant
little animal is about five inches and a half in length.
The bill is very short, the head round and covered
with rough erect feathers ; it has a very long tail, whence
its specific name. It is of a brownish colour, with black
leathers, in the tail edged with white. It is most com-
monly found in low moist situations that are covered
•with underwood and interspersed with lofty oaks or elms.
Us nest is generally placed in the forked branch of a large
when they will feed themselves. They should
be put, nest and all, into a little basket, which
should be covered up warm ; and they should
be fed every two hours. Their food should
be sheep's hearts, or other raw flesh-meat,
chopped very fine, and all the strings, skins,
and fat, taken away. But it should always
lie mixed with hard hen's eggs, upon which
they will feed and thrive abundantly.
They should then be put in cages like the
nightingale's back cage, with a little straw or
dry moss at the bottom ; but when they are
grown large, they should have ant's mould.
They should be kept very clean, as indeed
should all singing-birds whatsoever; for other-
wise they will have the cramp, and perhaps the
claws will drop off. In autumn they will
sometimes abstain from their food for a fort-
night, unless two or three meal-worms be
given them twice or thrice a-week, or two or
three spiders in a day ; they must likewise
tree overhanging the water, and it lays from twelve to
eighteen white eggs, spotted with rust colour at the
larger end, which are smaller than those of any other
British bird, with the exception of the golden-crested
wren.
This bird, says Graves, " is almost incessantly in mo-
tion, running up and down the branches of trees in search
of food, which consists of the smaller species of insects,
also the larva; and eggs of those that deposit them in the
crevices of the bark. In the winter they associate in
small flocks of from eight to twelve, and sometimes
more, and are kept together by their continual chirping.
Like the nest, their colours assimilate so nearly with the
white moss, abundant on trees at that season of the year,
that, were it not for their note, it would be difficult to
find them. Owing to the length of its tail, its flight is
undulating and irregular, but most usually very quick,
seeming to pass through the air like an arrow." Jesse
remarks that the bill becomes harder in the winter than
in the summer, as it is then more worn in the act of
obtaining food from the frozen ground and hard wood.
The sight of this bird is remarkably acute. It flits with
the greatest quickness among the branches of trees, and
its food consists in a great measure of small inserts only
to be discerned with a microscope. '
Its nest is one of the most delicate and curiously con-
structed of all those of our British birds. It is much in
the form of a bottle (whence the provincial name of the
bird has been derived), with an opening at the side near
the top. The outer portion is composed of white and
gray tree lichens, in minute pieces, intermixed with the
egg-nests of spiders, which are composed of a kind of
gossamer or down-like envelope, of a small size, but
somewhat resembling the cocoon of a silk-worm, and are
found attached to the branches of trees, &c., enclosing
the eggs of the insect. A very interesting description
is given of them in the volume on Insect Transforma-
tion in the " Library of Entertaining Knowledge." With
these gossamer envelopes it joins and binds the different
leaves and mosses forming the exterior of the nest ; and
when the filaments become loosened it has very much
the appearance of having been worked with spiders'-
webs, an opinion entertained by the early naturalists.
The greater portion of the interior is formed of green
mosses nicely felted together with fine wool, lined with
a number of soft feathers, the upper part being composed
of strong broad moss, so closely woven together as to be
impervious to the wet.
' CANARY.
155
have a little saffron in their water. Figs
chopped small among their meat will help
them to recover their flesh. When their legs
are cramped, they should be anointed with
fresh butter, or capon's i'at, three or four days
together. I f they grow melancholy, put white
sugar-candy into their water, and feed them
with sheep's hearts, giving them three or four
meal-worms in a day, and a few ants with
their eggs.
With regard to adult birds, those that are
taken before the twenty-third of April are
counted the best, because after that they begin
to pair. They usually haunt woods, coppices,
and quickset hedges, where they may be taken
in trap-cages baited with meal-worms. They
should be placed as near the spot where the
bird sings as possible ; and before you fix the
trap, turn up the earth twice the breadth of the
cage, because they will there look for food.
They are also taken with lime twigs, placing
them upon the hedge where they usually sing ;
and there should be meal-worms stuck at pro-
per places to draw them into the snare. After
they are taken, their wings should be gently
tied with thread, to prevent their beating them-
selves against the cage. This should be first
hung in a private place, that the bird may
not be disturbed ; and it should be fed every
two hours, at farthest, with sheep's hearts and
eggs minced very fine, mixing it with meal-
worms. However, the first food must be
worms, ants, caterpillars, and flies. You must,
to feed the bird, take it in your hand, and
open the bill with a stick made thick at one
end, giving it the insects, or four or five bits
of food as big as peas, to entice it to eat. Its
common food should be mixed with ants, so
that when the bird goes to pick up the ants,
it may pick up some of that also. The night-
ingale, when caged, begins to sing about the
latter end of November, and continues its song
till June.
CHAP. VI.
OF THE CANARY-BIRD, AND OTHER HARD-
BILLED SINGING BIRDS.1
THE Canary bird is now become so common,
and ^as-continued so long in a domestic state,
that its native habits, as well as its native coun-
try, seem almost forgotten. Though by the
name it appears that these birds came origin-
ally from the Canary islands, yet we have it
originally from Germany, where they are bred
u pin great numbers, and sold into different
parts of Europe. At what period they were
1 The Canary is a delightful cage-bird, and is, unques-
tionably, one of the sweetest of singers. Its form is
brought into Europe is not well known ; but
it is certain that about a century ago they
were sold at very high prices, and kept only
for the amusement of the great. They have
since been multiplied in great abundance :
and their price is diminished in proportion to
their plenty.
perfect in symmetry, and its hue " beautiful exceed-
ingly," through all the varieties of yellow, white, black-
ish, and chestnut. The primitive race, as it came from
the Canary isles, is supposed to have had the upper part
of the body of a linnet brown, and the under part of a
yellowish green, with dark-brown eyes. The little
foreigner takes kindly to mates of another race, and hence
the various species now in existence. With the gold-
finch, the linnet, and the greeu-bird, in particular, the
canary readily enters into the ties of wedlock. The
nest which the canary builds is remarkable for its ne^t-
ness: and when different materials are supplied to it for
this end, it evinces great discrimination in selecting the
best. The eggs are of a sea-green colour, spotted at one
end more or less with maroon or violet. What the pro.
per food for the canary is, has been the subject of much
dispute. Dr Bechstein, in his work on cage-birds, has
some excellent observations upon the head. Summer
rapeseed he has found to answer best, mixing with it
now and then, for the sake of variety, a little hempseed
or canary. Green food, such as duckweed, is given in
spring, and fresh water daily, both for drinking and bath-
ing. All complicated mixtures of food are noxious,
though too often used. Canaries not only have fine
notes of their own, but are possessed of excellent memor-
ies, and repeat musical sounds which they hear, with
ease and precision. Among the novelties exhibiting this
season (1839) in London is a canary, which is said to
articulate words as distinctly as a parrot. The manner
of training them to the imitation of instruments, or the
whistling of tunes, is thus described by Bechstein :—
" No sooner have the young canaries reached the 'thir-
teenth or fourteenth day, than they begin to warble;
and as these pretty birds are so docile as to neglect en-
tirely their natural song, and imitate the harmony of our
instruments, it is necessary immediately to separate from
his companions, and from every other bird, the young
one which is to be instructed, by putting him aside in a
cage which is at first covered with a piece of linen, and
afterwards with a darker cover. The air which is to
be taught should be performed five or six times a-day,
especially in the evening and morning, either by whistl-
ing or on a flageolet or bird-organ : he will acquire it
more or less readily in from two to six months, accord-
ing to his abilities and memory; if his separation from
the other birds is delayed beyond the fourteenth day, he
will retain some part of his father's song, which he will
always intermingle with his acquired air, and corisa-
quently never perform it perfectly."
156
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
la its native islands, a region equally noted
for the beauty of its landscapes and the har-
mony of its groves, the canary bird is ot a
dusky gray colour, and so different from those
The Bullfinch is another of our finest cage-birds. His
beautiful velvet black head and chin, his deep vermilliou
neck and breast, and liis dark gray back and shoulders,
conjoined with the strength of his make, and full rounded
appearance, render the bullfinch a favourite with all bird-
fanciers. It is besides a bird of a peculiarly strong affec-
tion, and can hardly endure life when absent from its
mate. Unfortunately, they do not breed well in confine-
ment. In the wild state, the female, twice a-year, lays
from three to six eggs, of a bluish-white colour, and spotted
with violet and brown, at the large end. In feeding bull-
finches, it has been found that they thrive particularly
well when the rapeseed is given to them soaked in water.
This bird, which can be trained to a high degree of per-
fection in singing, is fortunately one of the most easy to
be procured. A decoy, or any of the common modes of
snaring, effects his capture at once, when his haunt is
discovered. Regarding his vocal powers, Bechstein
remarks; — " Although the song of the male and female
bullfinch, in their wild state, is very harsh and disagree-
able, yet, if well taught while young, as they are in
Hesse and Fulda, where there are schools of these little
musicians, for all Germany, Holland, and England, they
learn to whistle all kinds of airs and melodies with so
soft and flute-like tone, that they are great favourites
with amateurs, and particularly with the ladies. There
are some of these little birds which can whistle distinctly
three different airs, without spoiling or confusing them in
the least. Added to this attraction, the bullfinch becomes
exceedingly tame, sings whenever it is told to do so, and
is susceptible of a most tender and lasting attachment,
which it shows by its endearing actions; it balances its
body, moves its tail from right to left, and spreads it
like a fan. It will even repeat words, with an accent
and tone which indicates sensibility, if one could believe
that it understood them ; but its memory must not be
overloaded. A single air, with a prelude or a short
flourish to begin with, is as much as the bird can lean
and remember, and this it will execute to the greatest
perfection. These little prodigies would be more inter-
esting and agreeable, if their Hessian instructors possessed
a little musical taste, but these are generally trades-
people, employed about the house with their different
occupations and trades; and hymns, airs, minuets of a
hundred years old, and public-house songs, in general
compose the whole of their music. This, however, is
not the little bird's fault. The bullfinch can also imi-
tate the songs of other birds: but in general it is not
permitted to do so, that it may only learn to repeat the
airs which are taught it. Different degrees of capacity
are shown here, as well as in other animals. One young
bullfinch learns with ease and quickness, another with
di/ficulty and slowly ; the former will repeat, without
hesitation, several parts of a song ; the latter will be
hardly able to whistle one, after nine months uninter-
usually seen in Europe, that some have even
loubte-d whether it be of the same species.
With us, they have that variety of colouring
usual in all domestic fowls ; some white, some
rupted teaching. But it has been remarked that those
jirds which learn with most difficulty, remember the
songs which have once been well learnt, better and longer,
and rarely forget them, even when moulting. Tame bull-
finches have been known (says Buflbn) to escape from the
aviary, and live at liberty in the woods for a whole year,
and then to recollect the voice of the person who had
reared them, return to her, never more to leave her.
Others have been known, which, when forced to leave
their first master, have died of grief. These birds remem-
very well, and often too well, any one who has injured
Jiem. One of them having been thrown down, with its
cage, by some of the lowest order of people, did not seem
at first much disturbed by it, but afterwards it would fall
into convulsions as soon as it saw any shabbily dressed
person, and it died in one of these fits eight months after
the first accident. A bullfinch, belonging to a lady
being subject to very frightful dreams,.which made it fall
from its perch, and beat itself in the cage, no sooner heard
the affectionate voice of its mistress, than notwithstand-
ing the darkness of the night, it became immediately
tranquil, and re-ascended its perch, to sleep again. It
was very fond of chickweed, and as soon as it perceived
one bringing it to him, however much care was taken to
prevent its finding it easily, it would show its joy by its
actions and cries."
The Chaffinch is one of the sprightliest warblers of
pring. It is black in the forehead, grayish-blue on the
top of the head and nape of the neck ; the back is of a
linnet-green, and the whole under part of the body of
reddish chestnut brown ; the quill feathers are black,
edged with white on the outer side, while the tail is
almost pure black. Such is the chaffinch ; that is to
say, the male bird; for the male being always preferred
for singing qualities, it is that sex which we have preferred
throughout to describe. The nest of the chaffinch is a
model of ingenuity. The female deposits in it, twice a-
year, from three to five eggs, of a pale bluish-gray, spotted
and streaked with brown. Young chaffinches are ex-
ceedingly quick in the ear; and if it is intended to train
them to artificial song, they must be removed from the
nest as soon as the tail-feathers begin to appear. As to
their food, they should be treated much in the same way
as the birds already noticed, with the addition of insects
to their diet, in accordance with their diet in the wild
state. Rapeseed soaked in water, and the crumbs of
white bread, will be the proper food for young birds
taken early from the nest for the purpose of training.
In Germany, the song of the chaffinch is admired almost
to idolatry, and, in truth, its clear and trilling tones ap-
proach much more closely to articulate sounds than the
notes of any other bird. The Germans have distin-
guished the most admired variations of the chaffinch's
strains by different names, expressive of a fanciful meau-
THE CANARY.
157
mottled, some beautifully shaded with green ;
but they are more esteemed for their note than
their beauty, having a high piercing pipe, as
indeed all those of the linch tribe have, con-
ing attached to the sounds. Dr Bechstei'n mentions the
Wine song, the Bridegroom's song, the Aider's song,
and several others, which are, no douht, in a great mea-
sure, the result .of the art employed in the education of
the bird, being perfect as pieces of music. That the
chaffinch should be able to execute such things, how-
ever, indicates the possession of very superior capabili-
ties. " Indeed," says Dr Bechstein, " the chaffinch has
so great a facility in learning, that it not only imitates
perfectly the song of another chaffinch near which it has
been placed from youth, but being hung near a nightin-
gale or canary, it learns several parts of their songs, and
would no doubt give them completely, if its larynx were
so formed that it could render notes so long and sus-
tained ; in fine, a great difference in memory is observed
in these birds, as well as in all others of the singing spe-
cies. Some require six months to learn an air that
others catch on first hearing, and can repeat almost im-
mediately ; these can scarcely retain cue of the songs
given above; those can imitate three, four, and, should
you wish it, five different ones. There are also some
that cannot give one song without a fault, and we find
others that will add to it, perfect it and embellish it.
One thing peculiar to chaffinches, is the necessity of
teaching them their song every year, and. this in the
manner proper for them, during the four or five weeks
this exercise lasts. They first utter a murmur, or weak
warbling, to which they add, at first in an under voice,
one or two, and afterwards several syllables of their song ;
they are then said to record. A chaffinch that takes
only a week or a fortnight to repeat this lesson for fully
bringing out its voice, is reckoned among the geniuses
of its species. It is known that other birds whose
power of singing is confined to a particular season, also
warble feebly, and mingle with their warbling some
foreign notes, especially harsh and confused sounds ; but
none produce sounds so peculiar, and that have so little
relation to their own song. If we pay a little attention,
however, we shall find that this exercise is intended less
to awaken the memoiy than to render the throat, stif-
fened by a tolerable long state of inaction, more pliant,
and to bring hack its natural flexibility."
The, Goldfinch is one of the best known, and most
beautiful of our native birds. The seed of the thistle is
its favourite food, hence its French name (Chardonneret]
is derived. It is also sometimes called, in our language,
the Thistle -Jinch. The fowlers, accordingly, who lay
various snares for these birds, make use of thistle-seer
as their bait. Though the goldfinches do not construe!
their nests until the middle of spring, they have yet
three broods, the last of which takes place in August,
The young cannot suffice for themselves for some time,
even after quitting the nest ; accordingly there is much
patience requisite to rear them artificially. The bes
are said to be those which are born in thorny bushes aiu
inuing for some time in one breath without
ntermission, then raising it higher and higher
)y degrees, with great variety.
It is this that has rendered the canary bird,
>elong to the last brood. They are, it is said, more
gay, and sing better than the others. The goldfinch is
very easily reconciled to captivity, and even becomes
quite familiar. From its activity and docility it may
>e taught a wonderful degree of precision in its move-
ments; it will counterfeit death, and perform a great
ariety of other movements with the greatest dexterity;
t can be taught to fire a cracker, and draw up small
cups, containing its food and drink. Some years ago,
Sieur Roman exhibited in this country the wonder-
:ul performances of his birds. These were goldfinches,
jnnets, and canary birds. One appeared dead, and was
neld up by the tail, or claw, without exhibiting any signs
of life. A second stood on its head, with its claws in
the air. A third imitated a Dutch milkmaid going to
market, with pails on her shoulders. A fourth mimicked
a Venetian girl, looking out at a window. A fifth ap-
peared as a soldier, and mounted guard as a centinel.
The sixth was a cannonier, with a cap on its head, a
firelock on its shoulder, and a firelock in its claw, and
discharged a small cannon. The same bird also acted
as if it had been wounded ; it was wheeled in a little
barrow, to convey it (as it were) to the hospital, after
which it flew away, before the company. The seventh
turned a kind of wind mill ; and the last bird stood in
the midst of some fire-works, which were discharged all
around it, and this without exhibiting the least sign of
fear. The goldfinch, naturally active and laborious, is
fond of occupation in its prison, and if it has not some
poppy-heads, hemp-stalks, and those of lettuce, to peck,
for the purpose of keeping it in action, it will remove
every thing that it finds. A single goldfinch, in an
aviary where canaries are hatching, if he be without a
female, is sufficient to make all the broods fail ; he will
fight with the males, disturb the females, destroy the nests,
and break the eggs. These birds, however, though so
lively and petulant, live in peace with each other, ex-
cepting a few quarrels about the perc-li and their food ; all
of them try to get possession of the highest perch in the
aviary, for the purpose of sleeping, and the first who ob-
tains it will not suffer the others to approach. It is neces-
sary to place all the perches at a similar height, to isolate
each from the other, and make every one only of length
sufficient for a single bird. The mules from the goldfinch
and canary are more robust than the latter, and live longer.
Their song is also more brilliant; but Buffbn says, that
they imitate airs with difficulty. Others, on the contrary,
pretend that they can very easily be taught by the bird-
organ and flageolet. These mules resemble the male in
the form of the bill, and the colours of the head and
wings, and the female in the rest of the body. Some
beautiful varieties result from this alliance. In autumn
the goldfinches assemble together, live, during winter,
in numerous flocks, and frequent those places where
thistles and wild endive grow. During the severe cold,
they shelter themselves in thick bushes; but they sel-
dom recede far from the place where their food is found.
Sometimes they mingle with other granivorous birds.
Hempseed is the grain given to familiarize them with
the cage ; but it would be better to mingle millet and
rape-seed with it, and to vary their aliment ; thus the
maladies might be avoided which attack them in cap-
tivity. The species of the goldfinch is extended
throughout the whole of Europe nearly, and through
some parts of Asia and Africa. Few species present
more varieties than this; besides those which proceed
from forced alliances, there are others attributable to
aliment, to age, and to domestication. There is one
which is white where tho others are red, namely, on Uia
158
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
next to the nightingale, the most celebrated
songster ; and as it is more easily reared than
any of the soft-billed birds, and continues its
song throughout the year, it is rather the most
forehead and eyebrows, which colour also prevails on the
top of the head, instead of black. On some the red is
shaded with yellow, and the black appears through these
colours. A goldfinch, with the head striped with red
and yellow, has been found in America. One with the
cap altogether black has but a few red spots on the fore-
head ; the back and chest are of a yellowish brown ; the
iris yellowish, and the bill and feet flesh-colour. The
whitish goldfinch has the tail and wings of an ashen
brown, the upper and under parts of the body whitish,
and the yellow of the wings pale. Some varieties are
totally white, and others, among which are the hand-
somest races, have the head red and the wings bordered
with yellow. On the bodies of many the tints are more
or less mingled with white. Among the black gold-
finches some are entirely black; others more or less
varied with this colour. These last varieties are chiefly
attributable to food, especially to the exclusive use of
hempseed.
The Linnet. Several naturalists have made two
species of the linnet, properly so called, under the de-
nominations of gray and red ; others have no doubt of
the identity of the red and gray linnet ; and this opinion
is confirmed by repeatedly multiplied and indefatigable
observation. Both kinds, young and old male and
female, are gray in the back season, and resemble each
other so much, that the sexes cannot be distinguished,
except by the white border on the primary alar quills,
which is more broad and brilliant in the male than in
the female. The red colour, which characterizes the
male during summer, commences to appear towards the
end of autumn ; but at this time it is tarnished, and
occupies only the middle portion of the feathers, the
extremity of which is of a reddish gray, so that it can
only be perceived by raising them up. In proportion as
the spring approaches, this colour extends and grows
brighter, and towards the month of May becomes very
brilliant in the male of two years old ; less pure and less
extended in the bird of the first year ; and among the
old ones it sometimes assumes an orange shade. Of
course, the linnets which remain gray must be only
females ; and it does not appear that any well-authenti-
cated instance of a male of this hue at such periods has
been found. There is a great analogy between the
linnet and the canary. Their habits and nature are
extremely similar, and of all birds the linnet is that
which most readily couples with the canary. Although
the linnet is one of the commonest of our small granivo-
rous birds, and though it preserves no brilliant colours
in captivity to render its possession desirable, it is not
loss in request than the brilliant goldfinch and charming
bullfinch. Its natural disposition is docile, and suscep-
common in our houses. Rules, therefore, have
been laid down, and copious instructions given,
for breeding these birds in a domestic state ;
which, as a part of them may conduce towards
tible of attachment ; its song is agreeable, and the flexi-
bility of its throat enables it to imitate with facility the
different airs which it is attempted to be taught. It
can even be taught to repeat many words distinctly, in
different languages, and it pronounces them with an
accent that would actually lead one to suppose that it
understood their meaning. The tender attachment of
which these birds are susceptible is astonishing; so
much so, that they often become troublesome in their
caresses. They can perfectly well distinguish the per-
sons who take care of them. They will come and
perch upon them, overwhelm them with caresses, and
even seem to express their affection by their looks.
They can also imitate and unite to the varied modula-
tions of their own voice, the strains of other birds, which
they are in the habit of hearing. If a very young linnet
be brought up with a chaffinch, a lark, or a nightingale,
it will learn to sing like them. But it will in most
cases totally lose its native song, and preserve nothing
hut its little cry of appeal. The linnets intended to he
instructed in foreign strains, should be taken from the
nest when the feathers begin to shoot. If taken adult,
they will seldom profit by their lessons, though they will
become both familiar and caressing. Different modes
of instruction have been pointed out for them — such as
whistling to them in the evening by candle light, taking
care to articulate the notes distinctly. Sometimes, to
put them in train, they are taken on the finger, a mirror
is presented to them in which they think that they sea
another bird of their own species, which illusion is said
to produce a sort of emulation, making them sing with
more animation, and expediting their progress ; but
these precautions are not absolutely necessary, for the
best instructed linnets are often brought up by cobblers,
who whistle to them without interrupting their work.
It has been remarked of the linnets, and it is true oi
many other singing birds, that they sing more in a small
cage than a large one. This bird lives a long time in
captivity, if well taken care of. Sonnini quotes an
instance of one that lived forty years, and might have
lived longer had it not perished by accident. This was
a bird of the most extraordinary amiableness and docility.
It was in the habit of calling many persons of the house
by their name, and very distinctly. It whistled five
airs perfectly, from the bird-organ. The linnets have
the advantage of singing all the year round, and they
may be taught a variety of tricks, like the siskin, and
the goldfinch. The nest of the linnet is generally built
in furze, or some other low bush, and is formed of moss
and stalks of grass interwoven with wool, and lined with
hair and feathers. In winter linnets assemble in large
flocks, and descend to the sea-coasts, where they con-
tinue to reside, till spring again urges them to pair and
seek their upland haunts. They feed upon the seeds of
flax, thistle, dandelion, &c.
The Siskins are birds of passage, and fly so high that
they may be heard before they are seen. They are very
numerous in the southern provinces of Russia, and com-
mon enough in this country during the winter; they
are fond of places where the alder-tree abounds. They
arrive in France about the time of the vintage, then
proceed farther south, and re-appear when the trees are
in flower; but in summer they are not seen. In all
probability they then voyage northwards, or return into
thick forests on the lofty mountains. The siskins, in
their habits, have very considerable relations with the
linnet: they give a preference to the seeds of the alder-
tree; they often dispute with the goldfinches for the seed
of the thistle. Hempseed is for them an aliment of
THE CANARY.
159
the natural history of the bird, I will take
leave to transcribe.
In choosing the canary bird, those are best
that appear with life and boldness, standing
upright upon the perch like a sparruw-hawk,
and not apt to be frighted at every thing that
stirs. If its eyes look cheerful, and not drowsy,
it is a sign of health ; but, on the contrary, if
it hides its head under the wing, and gathers
its body up, these are symptoms of its being
out of order. In choosing them, the melody
of the song should also be minded ; some will
choice; but they appear, especially in captivity, to be
greater consumers of it than they really are, from a
habit which they have got of breaking more grains than
they eat. In their passage in Germany, in October,
they considerably damage the hop-grounds, by eating
the seeds. In France, also, they do considerable pre-
judice to the apple-trees, by picking at the flowers. The
song of the siskin is by no means disagreeable, but very
inferior to that of the goldfinch: it is said to possess the
faculty of imitating the song of the canary, linnet, &c.
if taken very young, and placed within hearing of these
birds, it lias, moreover, a note of appeal peculiar to it-
self. Even when taken adult, it is easily tamed, and
becomes almost as mild as a canary.
The Citril Finch is found in all Italy, Greece, Tur-
key, Austria, Provence, Languedoc, Spain, Portugal,
and sometimes in Lorraine. The male has an agree-
able and varied song, but not so fine and clear as that of
the canary. In Italy tin's species makes its nest not
only in the country, but oftentimes in gardens on tufted
trees, particularly on the cypress, and constructs it of
wool, horse hair, and feathers. The eggs are four or
live: the male easily pairs with the female canary, and
the mules have been found productive. The Count de
Riocourt had for many years several of these mules,
which coupled with female canaries, and the young pro-
duced new generations. The siskin, the goldfinch, and
the linnet, are those respecting which the production of
the female with the male canary is best authenticated.
If mules are desired from these birds, they must be
taken on the nest, brought up by hand with the canaries,
fed on the same aliment, and kept in the same aviary.
The goldfinch, for example, which is generally chosen
in preference, should be kept from hempseed, and ac-
customed, as soon as he. is able to eat alone, to millet
and rape-seed, the ordinary food of the canaries. With-
out this, a risk is run of losing one or the other, in chang-
ing their iliot. If hempseed be suddenly taken from a
goldfinch accustomed to it, to give him the ordinary food
of canaries, the change will make him ill, and may
cause his death. If, on the contrary, you leave him the
hempseed, the female canary will eat so much of it, that
she will get a fever, and probably die. What is said of
the goldfinch is applicable to all other birds destined for
the same purpose. It is also recommended, in the case
of the goldfinch, to cut the extremity of his bill dexter-
ouMy, for about this thickness of a halfpenny, or not
quite so much. If some drops of blood should follow,
there is no occasion for apprehension. It may be
stanched with a little saliva, mixed with pulverized
sugar. This operation, however, should only be per-
formed on those goldfinches whose bill is very pointed,
which often happens in captivity. This is absolutely
necessary, because this bird, pursuing the female, may
wound her with his sharp bill, and prick the little ones
in disgorging to them their food, which will destroy
them. This inconvenience never takes place with gold-
finches at liberty, for their bills are never so pointed, as
the bills of the caged birds. If a female goldfinch is
paired with a male canary, she should be two years old,
open with the notes of the nightingale, and,
running through a variety of modulation, end
like the tit-lark. Others will begin like the
sky-lark, and, by a soft melodious turn, fall
into the notes of the nightingale. These are
lessons taught this bird in its domestic state,
and generally taught it by others ; but its
native note is loud, shrill, piercing, and enough
to deafen the hearers. There are persons who
admire each of these songs, but the second is
in the most general estimation.
Canary birds sometimes breed all the year
for it is seldom that she lays in the first year. These
birds, naturally wild, should be rendered as tame and
familiar as the canaries, which may be accomplished by
putting them in a low place, where there is plenty of
company. It must not he imagined that all the mules
which result from this alliance will be handsome. Of
some, the plumage is of a very common kind, and the
song very inferior. It would be useless to give any de-
scription of them, for they vary, ad infinitum, and no
description would suitiny but the individual described.
It is sufficient to .say, that it is constantly observed that
the mules resulting from these mixtures resemble the
father in the head, tail, and limbs, and the mother in
the rest of the body; and that the mules which come
from the male linnet and female canary, have neither
the white colour of the mother, nor the red of the lather,
as some have pretended. The union of canaries with
siskins, whether males or females, requires less atten-
tion. It is enough to let loose one or many of these
birds, but always of the same sex, in a chamber, or large
aviary, with canaries, and they will soon be seen to
couple. We have said, of the same sex, because when
the sexes are different the birds will naturally prefer
their own species. The goldfinch, on the contrary, will
only pair with the canary in a cage; to the linnet, green-
finch, and bullfinch, the cage and the aviary are indif-
ferent. The commonest mules are produced from the
linnet, the greenfinch, and the siskin, and the most
esteemed of these, for song and beauty, are those from
the male canary and a strange female. The mules from
the greenfinch are in general of a bluish colour, and the
males sing very badly, especially if the father be a green-
finch. The male mules from a linnet sing much better,
but their plumage is very ordinary. Those of the siskin
are small, and sing badly. Those from the bullfinch are
susceptible of a perfect education, and theii plumage is
singular; but this alliance rarely thrives. The male
feeds, it is true, like the canary, and pays much atten-
tion to the female. But she dislikes and flies from him.
His cry, and the opening of his wide bill, frightens her.
It is necessary to choose a vigorous female or male,
which has been brought up with bullfinches, and has
never coupled with a bird of its own species.
The Mountain.Jinch or Brambling is a native of
northern climates, where it spreads into various parts of
Europe: it arrives in this country in the latter end of
summer, and is the most common in the mountainous
parts of our island. Vast flocks of them sometimes come
together ; they fly very close, and on that account great
numbers of them are frequently killed at one shot. The
length of this bird is somewhat above six inches. Bill
yellow at the tip ; eyes hazel ; the feathers on the head,
neck, and back, are black, edged with rusty brown;
sides of the neck, just above the wings, blue ash ; rump
white ; the throat, fore-part of the neck, and breast, are
of a pale orange ; belly white; lesser wing-coverts black,
tipped with pale yellow; quills dusky, with pale yellow-
ish edges; the tail is forked, the outermost feathers
edged with white, the rest black, with whitish edges;
le£s pale brown.
160
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
round ; but they most usually begin to pair
in April, and to breed in June and August.
Those are said to be the best breeders that
are produced between the English and the
French.
Towards the latter end of March, a cock
and a hen should be put together in a small
cage where they will peck at each other in
the beginning, but will soon become thoroughly
reconciled. The room where they are kept to
breed should be so situated as to let the birds
have the benefit of the morning sun, and the
windows should be of wire, not glass, that they
may enjoy the benefit of the air. The floor
of the room should be kept clean, and some-
times there should be dry gravel or sand sifted
upon it. There should also be two windows,
one at each end, and several perches at proper
distances for the birds to settle on, as they fly
backwards and forwards. A tree in the middle
of the room would be the^nost convenient to
divert the birds, and sometimes to serve for
building their nests upon.
In Germany they prepare a large room,
and build it in the manner of a barn, being
much longer than broad, with a square place
at each end, and several holes to go into those
square places. In those outlets they plant
several sorts of trees, in which the birds take
great delight to sing and breed. The bottom
of the place they strew with sand, and upon
it cast rape-seed, chick-weed, and groundsel,
which the old birds feed upon while breeding.
In the body of the house they put all sorts of
stuff for building the nest, and brooms, one
under the other, in all the corners-, for the
birds to build in. These they separate by
partitions from each other, to prevent those
above flying down upon, or otherwise incom-
moding, such as breed below. The light also
is excluded, for no bird is fond of having light
come to its nest.
With us the apparatus for breeding is less
expensive ; a little breeding-cage sometimes
suffices, but seldom any thing more exten-
sive than a small room. While the birds are
pairing, it is usual to feed them with soft
meat; that is, with bread, maw-seed, a little
scalded rape-seed, and near a third part of
an egg. The room should be furnished with
stuff lor making their nests ; such as fine hay,
wool, cotton, and hair. These materials
should be thoroughly dry, and then mixed
and tied together in such a manner that the
birds may readily pull out what they want.
This should be hung in a proper part of the
room, and the male will take his turn in
building the nest, sitting upon the eggs, and
feeding the young. They are generally two
or three days in building their nests ; the hen
commonly lays five eggs: and in the space of
fourteen days the young will be excluded.
So prolific are these birds sometimes, that the
furnale will be ready to hatch a second brood
before the first are able to quit the nest. On
these occasions she leaves the nest and the
young, to provide herself with another to lay
her new brood in. In the mean time the
male, more faithful to the duties of his trust,
breeds up the young left behind, and fits them
for a state of independence.
When the young ones are excluded, the
old ones should be supplied with a sufficiency
of soft food every day, likewise with fresh
greens, such as cabbage, lettuce, and chick-
weed ; in June, shepherd's purse ; and in
July and August, plantain. They are never
to have groundsel after the young are ex-
cluded. With these different delicacies the
old ones will take particular care to feed and
bring up their young ; but it is usual when
they can feed themselves, to be taken from
the nest and put into cages. Their meat then
is the yolk of an egg boiled hard, with an
equal quantity of line bread, and a little
scalded rape-seed : this must be bruised till
it becomes line, and then it may be mixed
with a little maw-seed ; after which blend all
together ; which is to be supplied them fresh
every day.
The canary bird, by being kept in com.
pany with the linnet or the gold-finch, pairs
and produces a mixed breed more like the
canary bird, and resembling it chiefly in its
song. Indeed, all this tribe with strong bills
and piercing notes, and feeding upon grain,
have the most strong similitude to each other,
and may justly be supposed, as Mr Buffon
imagines, to come from the same original.
They all breed about the same time ; they
frequent the same vegetables ; they build in
the same hedges and trees; and are brought
up for the cage with the same food and
precautions. The linnet, the bullfinch, and
the goldfinch, when we know the history
of the canary bird, have scarcely any peculi-
arities that can attract our curiosity or re-
quire our care. The only art necessary with
all those that have no very fine note, is to
breed them up under some more pleasing
harmonist. The goldfinch learns a fine song
from the nightingale ; and the linnet and
bullfinch may be taught, forgetting the wild
notes of nature, to whistle a long and regular
tune.
CHAP. V.
OF THE SWALLOW, AND ITS AFFINITIES.
AN idea of any one bird in the former
classes will give us some tolerable conception
THE SWALLOW.
161
of the rest. By knowing the linnet or the
canary bird, we have some notion of the man-
ners of the goldfinch ; by exhibiting the history
of the nightingale, we see also that of the
black-cap or the tit-mouse. But the swallow
tribe seems to be entirely different from all
the former; different in their form, different in
their habits, and unlike in all the particulars
of their history.
In this tribe is to be found the goat-sucker,
which may be styled a nocturnal swallow ; it
is the largest of this kind, and is known by
its tail, which is not forked, like that of the
common swallow. It begins its flight at
evening, and makes a loud singular noise,
like the whur of a spinning-wheel. To this
also belongs the house-swallow, which is too
well known to need a description : the mar.
tin, inferior in size to the former, and the tail
much less forked; it differs also in its nest,
which is covered at top, while that of the
house- swallow is open : and the swift, rather
larger than the house-swallow, with all the
toes standing forward ; in which it differs
from the rest of its kind. All these resemble
each other so strongly, that it is not with-
out difficulty the smaller kinds are known
asunder.
These are all well known by their very
large mouths, which, when they fly, are al-
ways kept open ; they are not less remarkable
tor their short slender feet, which scarcely are
able to support the weight of their bodies ;
their wings are of immoderate extent for their
bulk ; their plumage is glossed with a rich
purple; and their note is a slight twittering,
which they seldom exert but upon the wing.
— This peculiar conformation seems attended
with a similar peculiarity of manners. Their
food is insects, which they always pursue fly-
ing. For this reason, during fine weather,
when the insects are most likely to be abroad,
the swallows are for ever upon the wing, and
seem pursuing their prey with amazing swift-
ness and agility. All smaller animals, in
some measure, find safety by winding and
turning, when they endeavour to avoid the
greater, the lark thus evades the pursuit of
the hawk, and man the crocodile. In this
manner, insects upon the wing endeavour to
avoid the swallow; but this bird is admirably
fitted by nature to pursue them through their
shortest turnings. Besides a great length of
wing, it is also provided with a long tail,
which like a rudder turns it in its most rapid
motions; and thus, while it is possessed of the
greatest swiftness, it is also possessed of the
most extreme agility.
Early, therefore, in the spring, when 'the
returning sun begins to rouse the insect tribe
from their annual state of torpidity ; when the
gnat and the beetle put off their earthly robes.
and venture into air; the swallow then is seen
returning from its long migration beyond the
ocean, and making its way feebly to the shore.
At first, wilh the timidity of a stranger, it ap-
pears but seldom, and flies but slowly and
heavily along. As the weather grows warm-
er, and its insect supply increases, it then
gathers greater strength and activity. But it
sometimes happens that a rainy season, by re-
pelling the insects, stints the swallow in its
food ; the poor bird is then seen slowly skim-
ming along the surface of the ground, and
often resting after a flight of a few minutes.
In general, however, it keeps on the wing,
and moving with a rapidity that nothing can
escape. When the weather promises to be
fair, the insect tribe feel the genial influence,
and make bolder flights ; at which time the
swallow follows them in their aerial journeys,
and often rises to imperceptible heights in the
pursuit. When the weather is likely to be
foul, the insects feel the first notices of it; and
from the swallow's following low we are often
apprized of the approaching change.
When summer is fairly begun, and more
than a sufficient supply for sustaining the
wants of nature every where offers, the swal
low then begins to think of forming a progeny.
The nest is built with great industry and art,
particularly by the common swallow, which
builds it on the tops of chimneys. The mar-
tin sticks it to the eaves of houses. The
goatsucker, as we are told, builds it on the
bare ground. This nest is built with mud
from some neighbouring brook, well tempered
with the bill, moistened with water, for the
better adhesion ; and still farther kept firm,
by long grass and fibres; within it is lined
with goose-feathers, which are ever the warm-
est and the neatest. The martin covers its
nest at top, and has a door to enter at; the
swallow leaves hers quite open.1 But our
The chimney-swallow differs from the window-swal-
low, according to Montbeillard, in not occupying tlio
same nest more than one season, building annually H
new nest, and, if the spot admits, it, fixing it above that
occupied the preceding year. " I have found them,"
says he, " in the shaft of a chimney, thus ranged in tiers,
and have counted four, one above another, and all oi
equal size, plastered with mud mixed with straw and
hair. There were some of two difierent sizes and
shapes, — the largest resembled a shallow half- cylinder,
open above, a foot in height, and attached to the sides of
162
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
European nests are nothing to be compared
with those the swallow builds on the coasts
of China and Coromandel; the description of
which I will give in the plain honest phrase
of Willoughby. " On the sea-coast of the
kingdom of China," says he, " a sort of party-
coloured birds, of the shape of swallows, at a
certain season of the year, which is their
breeding time, come out of the midland coun-
try to the rocks, and from the foam or froth
of the sea- water, dashing against the bottom
of the rocks, gather a certain clammy glutin-
ous matter, perchance the spawn of whales
the chimney ; the smallest were stuck in the corners of
the chimney, forming only a fourth of a cylinder, or al-
most an inverted cone. The first nest, which was the
lowest, had the same texture at the bottom as at the
sides; but the two upper tiers were separated from the
lower by their lining only, which consisted of straw, dry
herbs, and feathers. Of the small nests, built in the
corners, I could find only two in tiers, and I inferred
that they were the property of young pairs, as they were
nut so compactly built as the larger ones. In habits, in-
stincts, appearance, and migration, the Swift resembles
the swallow. The common swift is seldom seen in the
northern parts of England before the end of May, or the
beginning of June; in the south it arrives a week or
two earlier. It leaves us again for warmer climates in
August, a month or six weeks previous to the departure
of the swallows. In this country it haunts cathedrals,
towers, churches, and other buildings not constantly in-
habited, in the holes, and under the eaves of which it
finds a safe retreat, and proper situation to build in.—
The nest is formed of straw and other suitable materials,
which it collects with great dexterity in its flight. It
never alights on the ground, as it is unable to rise from
a flat surface.
The Goatsuckers are so named from an absurd notion,
that they suck the mamma) of goats, a notion which may
perhaps have originated in the enormous depth and aper-
ture of the gape. This vulgarism is by no means mo-
dern, for it appears, by the Greek appellative, to have
existed in the time of Aristotle, though it seems pro-
bable, that the first application of the name might have
had rather a figurative than a literal meaning. Many of
the insectivorous birds, it is true, are found frequently
near the persons of cattle and sheep while grazing. — for
the purpose, doubtless, of preying on the numerous in-
sects which feed on the excretions from these animals:
but this habit is common to many genera of birds, and
gives no reasonable support to the notion in question,
which is incompatible with the organization of the whole
class. These birds are inhabitants of Europe, and, in-
deed, are found in almost all parts of the world ; but
they are rare here, and more so in appearance than
reality, from their crepusculous habits. It is in the
new world, especially South America, that they most
abound, and are divisible into many species. Asia, and
New Holland, moreover, are not without them. Un-
fitted, like the owls, for full day-light, the goatsuckers
hide themselves in some obscure retreat. Twilight is
their short period of activity, but the rapidity of their
flight, and the size of the mouth, enable them to make
the most of this limited time in procuring food. They
devote no time to nidification, but deposit their eggs in
simple concavities on the ground, and thus the time
necessary for the two great objects of animal existence,
self-support and propagation, are proportioned to the
comparative short periods of their activity. In the day,
they sometimes utter a plaintive cry, repeated rapidly
three or four times, and indicative of the then negative
and other young fishes, of which they build
their nests, wherein they lay their eggs and
hatch their young. These nests the Chinese
pluck from the rocks, and bring them in great
numbers info the East Indies to sell. They
are esteemed, by gluttons, as great delicacies;
who, dissolving them in chicken or mutton
broth, are very fond of them ; far before
oysters, mushrooms, or other dainty and
liquorish morsels."1 What a pity this luxury
hath not been introduced among us, and then
our great feasters might be enabled to eat a
little more '
character of their desires, for they seem to want nothing
but retirement and repose.
The European Goatsucker is the only species known
here. This bird has received a variety of popular
names, which have been, many of them, adopted by
naturalists; such as flying-toad, square-tailed swallow,
night-raven, night-hawk, door-hawk, churn and fern
owl, &c. Its food, mode of taking it, and style of
flying caused it to receive the name of square-taili'd
swallow.
1 The substance of these nests, according to some, is
a sort of froth of the sea, or of the spawn of fish, which
is strongly aromatic, though others assert that it has no
taste at all ; some pretend that it is a kind of gum, col-
lected by the bird on the tree called Calambone ; others,
a viscous humour, which they discharge through the
bill at the season of reproduction. The commercial
history of these singular nests is much better understood
than their composition. " The best nests," says Mi-
Crawford, "are those obtained in deep, damp caves, and
such as are taken before the birds have laid their eggs.
The coarsest are those obtained after the young have
been fledged. The finest nests are the whitest; that
is, those taken before the nest has been rendered im-
pure by the food and faeces of the young birds. The
best are white, and the inferior dark-coloured, streaked
with blood, or intermixed with feathers. It may be
remarked, however, that some of the natives describe
the purer nests as the dwelling of the cock-bird, and
always so designate them in commerce. Birds' nests
are collected twice a-year; and, if regularly collected,
and no unusual injury be oflered to the caverns, will pro-
duce very equally, the quantity being very little, if at
all, improved by the caves being left altogether unmo-
lested for a year or two. Some of the caverns are ex-
tremely difficult of access, and the nests can only be
collected by persons accustomed frum their youth to the
office. The most remarkable and productive caves in
Java, of which I superintended a moiety of the collec-
tion for several years, are those of Karang-bolang, in the
province of Baglen, on the south coast of the island.
There the caves are only to be approached by a per-
pendicular descent of many hundred feet, by ladders of
bamboo and ratan, over a sea rolling violently against
the rocks. When the mouth of the cavern is attained,
the perilous office of taking the nests must often be per-
formed with torch-light, by penetrating into recesses ot
the rock, when the slightest trip would be instantly
fatal to the adventurers, who see nothing below them
but the turbulent surf making its way into the chasms of
the rock. The only preparation which the birds' nests
undergo is that of simple drying, without direct exposure
to the sun, after which they are packed in small boxes,
usually of a picul, (about 135 pounds.) They are
assorted for the Chinese market into three kinds, ac-
cording to their qualities, distinguished into first or best-,
second, and third qualities. Caverns that are regulaily
managed will afford, in 100 parts, 53 3-1 Oth parts of
THE SWALLOW.
The swallow usually lays from five to six
eggs, of a white colour, speckled with red ;
and sometimes breeds twice a year. When
the young brood are excluded, the swallow
supplies them very plentifully, the first brood
particularly, when she finds herself capable of
producing two broods in a year. This hap-
pens when the parents come early, when the
season is peculiarly mild, and when they be-
gin to pair soon. Sometimes they find a dif-
ficulty in rearing even a single nest, particu-
larly when the weather has been severe, or
their nests have been robbed in the beginning
of the season. By these accidents, this im-
portant task is sometimes deferred to the mid-
dle of September.
At the latter end of September they leave
us ; and for a few days previous to their de-
parture assemble in vast flocks, on house-tops,
as if deliberating on the fatiguing journey
that lay before them. This is no slight un-
dertaking, as their flight is directed to Congo,
Senegal, and along the whole Morocco shore.
There are some, however, left behind in this
general expedition, that do not depart till
eight or ten days after the rest. These are
chiefly the latter weakly broods, which are
not yet in a condition to set out. They are
sometimes even too feeble to venture till the
those of the first quality, 35 parts of those of the second,
11 7-10th parts of those of the third. The common
prices for birds' nests at Canton are, for the first sort,
3,500 Spanish dollars the picul, or £5. 18s. l.fd. per
pound ; for the second, 2,800 Spanish dollars per picul ;
and, for the third, no more than 1,600 Spanish dollars.
In the Chinese markets a still nicer classification of the
edible nests is often made than in the island. The
whole are frequently divided into three great classes,
under the commercial appellation of Paskat, Chikat, and
Tung-tung, each of which, according to quality, is sub-
divided into three inferior orders, and we have, conse-
quently, prices varying from 1,200 Spanish dollars per
picul to 4,200. These last, therefore, are more valu-
able than their weight of silver. Of the quantity of
birds' nests exported from the Indian islands, although
we cannot state the exact amount, we have data for
hazarding some probable conjectures respecting it. From
Java there are exported about 200 piculs, or 27,000
Ibs , the greater part of which is of the first quality.
The greatest quantity is from the Suluk archipelagos,
and consists of 530 piculs. From Macassar there are
sent about 30 piculs of the fine kind. These data will
enable us to offer some conjectures respecting the whole
quantity; for the edible swallows' nests being univer-
sally and almost equally diffused from Junk, Ceylon, to
New Guinea, and the whole produce going to one mar-
ket, and only hy one conveyance, the junks, it is proba-
ble that the average quantity taken by each vessel is not
less than the sum taken from the ports just mentioned.
Taking the quantity sent from Batavia as the estimate,
we know that this is conveyed by 5,300 tons of ship-
ping, and, therefore, the whole quantity will be 1,818
piculs, or 242,400 Ibs., as the whole quantity of Chinese
shipping is 30,000 tons. In the archipelago, at the
prices already quoted, this property is worth 1,263,519
Spanish dollars, or £284,290. The value of this im-
mense property to the country which produces it, rests
upon the capricious wants of a single people. From its
setting in of winter : while their parents vainlv
exhort them to efforts which instinct assures
them they are incapable of performing. Thus
it often happens that the wretched little fami-
lies, being compelled to stay, perish the first
cold weather that comes ; while the tender
parents share the fate of their offspring, and
die with the new-fledged brood.
Those that migrate are first observed to ar-
rive in Africa, as Adanson assures us, about
the beginning of October. They are thought
to have performed their fatiguing journey in
the space of seven days. They are sometimes
seen, when interrupted by contrary winds,
wavering in (heir course far off at sea, and
lighting upon whatever ship they find in their
passage. They then seem spent with famine
and fatigue ; yet still they boldly venture,
when refreshed by a few hours' rest, to renew
their flight, and continue the course which
they had been steering before.
These are facts proved by incontestable au-
thority ; yet it is a doubt whether all swallows
migrate in this manner, or whether there may
not be some species of this animal that, though
externally alike, are so internally different as
to be very differently affected by the approach
of winter. We are assured from many, and
these not contemptible witnesses, that swal-
nature, it necessarily follows that it is claimed as the
exclusive property of the sovereign, and everywhere
forms a valuable branch of his income, or of the revenue
of the state. This value, however, is, of course, not
equal ; and depends upon the situation and the circum-
stances connected with the caverns in which the nests
are found. Being often in remote and sequestered
situations, in a country so lawless, a property so valuable
and exposed is subject to the perpetual depredations of
freebooters ; and it not unfrequeritly happens that an
attack upon them is the principal object of the warfare
committed by one petty state against another. In such
situations, the expense of affording them protection is so
heavy, that they are necessarily of little value. In si.
tuations where the caverns are difficult of access to stran-
gers, and where there reigns enough of order and tran-
quillity to secure them from internal depredation, and to
admit of the nests being obtained without other expense
than the simple labour of collecting them, the value of
the property is very great. The caverns cf Karang-bo-
lang, in Java, are of this description. These annually
afford 6,810 Ibs. of nests, which are worth, at the Ba-
tavia prices of 3,200, 2,500, and 1,200 Spanish dollars
the picul, for the respective kinds, nearly 139,000
Spanish dollars; and the whole expense of collecting,
curing, and packing, amounts to no more than 11 per
cent, on this account. The price of birds' nests is ot
course a monopoly price, the quantity produced being by
nature limited and incapable of being augmented. The
value of the labour expended in bringing birds' nests to
market is but a trifling portion of their price, which
consists of the highest price which the luxurious Chinese
will aflbrd to pay for them, and which is a tax paid by
that nation to the inhabitants of the Indian islands.
There is, perhaps, no production upon which human in-
dustry is exerted, of which the cost of production bears
so small a proportion to the market price." — Crawford' t
Indian Archipelago.
164
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
lows hide themselves in holes under ground,
joined close together, bill against bill, and feet
against feet. Some inform us, that they have
seen them taken out of the water, and even
from under the ice, in bunches, where they
are asserted to pass the winter, without mo-
tion. Reaumur, who particularly interested
himself in this inquiry, received several ac-
counts of bundles of swallows being thus found
in quarries, and under the water.1 These
» ~~
1 In the 51st vol. of the " Philosophical Transactions"
(for 1760), there is a letter addressed by Mr Collinson
in answer to the German naturalist Klein, who had ad-
vocated the opinion that swallows and other birds do not
migrate, but remain torpid during the winter. Subse-
quent naturalists have added little to the arguments and
facts which this letter brings against the opinion ; though
they have since been supported by collateral and nega-
tive testimony.
The opinion that swallows at the time of their disap-
pearance retire under the water and remain there, says
this writer, is contrary to nature and reason ; for as
they cannot live in that state without some degree of
breathing, this requires the circulation of the blood
however weak and languid. Now as to respiration, is
it possible that it should be carried on for so many
months under the water without the risk of suffocation ?
If it were really the case, there must be some particular
contrivance in the structure of the organs of the heart to
enable it to undergo so remarkable a change of element;
but Klein had not even attempted to show that such a
peculiar organization existed. This remark of Collinson
probably led John Hunter to interest himself on the
subject. He states "that he had dissected several
swallows, hut found nothing in them different from
other birds as to the organs of respiration ;" and he
consequently concludes " that they could not remain
for any time under water without being drowned.
Collinson then asks why the opinion is never tested by
taking a swallow at a time when the species usually dis-
appear, and observing the result of confining it under
water in a tub for a week or two. Still proceeding with
his negative evidence, he states that towards the end of
September the swallows assemble among the reeds in
the islands of the Thames, and have done so for ages
past; yet he had never heard or read of any fishermen
or other person who had ever found a swallow under
water in a torpid state ; and if so strange a thing had
ever happened, it would doubtless have been communi-
cated to the public. Besides, the reeds and willows on
those islands are annually cut down for several uses, and
yet no swallow has been discovered in his aquatic abode ;
and considering the multitudes which might be seen on
these reeds and willows in the autumn, is it credible
that some should not have been found in so frequented
a river, during the course of so many years, if the swal-
lows really took up their residence under the water. He
adds that in great towns remote from water, where
rivers and reeds are not near, he had frequently observed,
a little before the swallows disappeared, that they assem-
bled every morning early on the roofs of large houses
exposed to the morning sun : this was doubtless in order
to collect their numbers before taking their flight.
In the way of positive testimony for the migration cf
swallows, he says he had often heard Sir Charles Wager,
first lord of the Admiralty, relate, that in one of his
voyages home, in the spring of the year, as he came
into sounding in the channel, a great flock of swallows
came and settled on all his rigging ; every rope was
covered ; they hung on one another like a swarm oi
bees ; the deck was filled with them : they seemed almost
men, therefore, have a right to some degree
of assent, and are not to lose all credit from
our ignorance of what they aver.
All, however, that we have hitherto dis-
pent and famished, and were only feathers and bones ;
hut being recruited with a night's rest, they took their
flight in the morning. Collinson adds that a similar
circumstance had been related to hjm by the captain of
a merchant vessel, on whose statements he could entirely
depend. Pennant remarks, on this incident, that the ex-
treme fatigue of the swallows proves that the journey
must have been very great, considering the amazing
swiftness of these birds. In all probability they had
crossed the Atlantic, and were returning from the shores
of Senegal or other parts of Africa ; so that this account,
from that most able and honest seaman, confirms the
following later information of M. Adanson, as adduced
hy Collinson himself, who considers the testimony the
more valuable, as coming from a professed naturalist,
who went to Africa for the express purpose of collecting
information. Adanson says, — " On the sixth of the
same month (October), at half-past six in the evening,
being about fifty leagues from the coast (between the
island of Goree and Senegal) four swallows came to take
up their night's lodging on the ship, and alighted on the
shrouds. This lucky accident confirmed me in the
opinion I had formed, that these birds pass the seas to
get into the countries of the torrid /one at the approach
of winter in Europe ; and accordingly I have since
remarked that, they do not appear in Senegal but in that
season. A circumstance no less worthy of note is that
the swallows do not build nests as in Europe, but lie
every night by pairs, or single, in the sand upon the sea-
shore, where they rather choose to fix their habitation
than up in the country." To this quotation from Adan-
son, we may add another, relating to an observation
which he made on the subject at Senegal, in the month
of February: — " The hut where I lodged was large and
commodious, but as dark as a subterraneous cavern, even
at noon day, because it had no other opening than a door
pierced at each end. Here I may observe that a great
number of our European swallows resort hither every
evening, and pass the night upon the rafters ; for, as I
have elsewhere mentioned, they do not build their nests
in this country, but only come to spend the winter."
Collinson also informs us that he was anxious to test
the position of Klein that the sand-martins retire at tho
approach of winter into the holes in which they had re-
sided during the summer, and there remain in a dormant
state. But the sandy precipices in which these birds
build are generally so inaccessible, that some years had
passed before he could find a situation in which the ex-
periment might be made without difficulty or danger.
At last such a situation was found atByfleet, in Surrey,
and the clergyman of the parish, being his friend, and
well qualified to . assist in the experiment, under-
took it at his request. This clergyman in his communi-
cation states, that he took a square of about twelve feet,
over that part of the cliff where the holes were the thick-
est, which, in going down from the surface, would, as lie
judged, take in about forty holes. He set to work, and
came to the holes, but found no martins- — nothing but
old nests at the inner extremity of the holes, which was
from a foot and a half to two feet from the entrance.
Forty holes were carefully searched without finding any
birds ; but thirty of them had nests, which were com-
posed of straws and grasses rudely put together, and
were sunk almost an inch arid a half below the level of
the passage.
That the migrations of swallows and other birds should
ever have been doubted, can only be accounted for by
the fact that these migrations generally take place by
night, and in the higher regions of the atmosphere. An
THE HUMMING-BIRD.
165
sccted, are formed within like other birds ;
and seem to offer no observable variety. In-
deed, that they do not hide themselves under
water, has been pretty well proved by the
noted experiment of Frisch, who tied several
threads, dyed in water colours, round the legs
of a great number of swallows that were pre-
paring for their departure ; these, upon their
return the ensuing summer, brought their
threads back with them, no way damaged in
their colour ; which they most certainly would,
if, during the winter, they had been steeped
in water : yet still this is a subject on which
we must suspend our assent, as Klein, the
naturalist, has brought such a number of
proofs in defence of his opinion, that swallows
are torpid in winter, as even the most credu-
lous must allow to have some degree of pro-
bability.
CHAP. VI.
THE HUMMING -BIHD, AND ITS VARIETIES.1
HAVING given some history of the manners
of the most remarkable birds of which ac-
observant naturalist, however, may sometimes hear them
when he cannot see them. Their departures may also
occasionally be witnessed, and their preparations for de-
parture still more frequently. In a note to his " Sacred
History of the World,' Mr Sharon Turner, some other
of whose quotations in illustration of the general subject
we have adopted, quotes the following from the " Berks
Chronicle," descriptive of the migratory movement
which took place in October, 1829: —
" We have had sharp frosts during the week, and
large flights of plovers and teams of wild ducks and
geese have passed hence in a northern direction. On
Wednesday morning last the roofs of all the higher
ranges of houses in Prospect Street in this town (Read-
ing) were covered with thousands of the swallow tribe,
which had there assembled preparatory to their annual
migration to a warmer climate. From this chirping
and fluttering about, they seemed to be in grand debate;
and about nine o'clock the larger division departed in a
south-west direction, and was afterwards followed by the
nthers. The morning was remarkably fine and cheer-
ing, and the little emigrants were pluming their wings
soon after sunrise, preparing, as it were, for their long
voyage and still dubious destination."
1 Birds of South Amtrica. — Though least in size, the
glittering mantle of the humming-bird entitles it to the
first place in the list of the new world. It may truly be
called the bird of Paradise; and had it existed in the
old world, would have claimed the title, instead of the
bird which has now the honour to bear it. See it dart-
ing through the air, almost as quick as thought ! — now
it is within a yard of your fire ! — in an instant it is
gone ! — now it flutters from flower to flower to sip the
silver dew — it is now a ruby — now a topaz — now an
emerald — now all burnished gold. Cayenne and Deme-
rara produce the same humming-birds. Perhaps you
would wish to know something of their haunts. Chiefly
in the months of July and August the tree called Bois
Immortel, very common in Demerara, bears abnndarce
jounts can be obtained, I might now go to a
very extensive tribe, remarkable for the splen-
dour and the variety of their plumage : but
the description of the colours of a beautiful
of red blossoms, which stays on the trees some weeks:
;hen it is that most of the humming-birds are very
plentiful. The wild red sage is also their favourite
shrub, and they buzz like bees round the blossom of the
Wallaba tree. Indeed, there is scarce a flower in the
nterior or on the sea-coast, but what receives frequent
visits from one or other of the species. On entering the
forest on the rising land in the interior, the blue and
jreen, the smallest brown, no bigger than the humble
liee, with two long feathers in the tail, are to be seen.
As you advance towards the mountains of Demerara,
other species of humming-birds present themselves. It
seems to be an erroneous opinion that the humming-
bird lives entirely on the honey-dew. Almost every
flower of the tiwpical climates contains insects of one
kind or other; now the humming-bird is most busy
about the flowers an hour or two before sunrise, and
after a shower of rain j and it is just at this time that
the insects come out to the edge of the flower, in order
that the sun's rays may dry the nocturnal dew and rain
which they have received. On opening the stomach of
the humming-bird, dead insects are found there.
Next to the humming-birds, the cotingas display the
gayest plumage. They are of five species. Perhaps
the scarlet cotinga is the richest of the five, and is one
of those birds which are found in the deepest recesses
of the forest. His crown is flaming red; to this ab-
ruptly succeeds a dark shining brown, reaching half way
down the bark ; the remainder of the bark, the rump,
and tail, the extremity of which is edged with black,
are a lovely red ; the belly is somewhat lighter red ; the
breast reddish black ; the wings brown. He has no
song, is solitary, and utters a monotonous whistle which
sounds like " quet." He is fond of the seeds of the
hitia tree, and those of the siloaboli trees. The purple-
throated cotinga has black wings, and every other part
a light and glossy blue, save the throat, which is purple.
The pompadour cotinga is entirely purple, except his
wings, which are white, their first five feathers tipped
with brown. The fifth species is the celebrated cam-
panero of the Spaniards, called dara by the Indians, and
bell-bird by the English. He is about the size of the
jay. His plumage is white as snow. On his forehead
rises a spiral tube nearly three inches long. It is jet
black, dotted all over with small white feathers. It has
a communication with the palate, and, when filled with
air, looks like a spire; when empty, it becomes pen-
dulous. His note is loud and clear, like the sound of a
bell, and may be heard at the distance of three mile?.
In the midst of these extensive wilds, generally on the
dried top of an aged mora, almost out of gun reach, you
will see the campaneros. No sound or song from any
of the winged inhabitants of the forest, not even the
clearly pronounced "whip-poor-wills" from the goat-
sucker, cause such astonishment as the toll of the cam-
panero. With many of the feathered race, he pays the
tribute of a morning and evening song, and even when
the meridian sun has shut in silence the mouth of almost
the whole of animated nature, the campanero still cheers
the forest. You hear his toll, and then a pause again,
and then a toll again, and again a pause. Then he is
silent for six or eight minutes, and then another toll,
and so on. He is never seen to feed with the other
cotingas, nor is it known in what part of Guiana he
makes his nest.
Whilst the cotingas attract your attention by their
superior plumage, the singular form of the toucan makes
a lasting impression on your memory. There are three
species of toucans in Demerara, and three diminutives,
166
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
bird, has nothing in it that can inform or
entertain ; it rather excites a longing, which
it is impossible for words to satisfy. Natural-
ists, indeed, have endeavoured to satisfy this
which may be called toucanets. The largest of the first
species frequents the mangrove trees on the sea-coast.
He is never seen in the interior till yon reach Macou-
shia, where he is found in the neighbourhood of the
river Tacatore. The other two species are very com-
mon. They feed entirely on the fruits of the forest, and,
though of the pie kind, never kill the young of ether
birds, or touch carrion. They are very noisy in rainy
weather. The sound which the bouradi or the larger
makes, is like the clear yelping of a puppy dog, and you
fancy he says " pia-po-o-co," and thus the South Ameri-
ean Spaniards call him piapoco. All the toucanets feed
on the same trees on which the toucan feeds, and every
species of this family, of enormous bill, lays its eggs in
the hollow trees. They are social, but not gregarious.
You may sometimes see eight or ten in company, and
from this you may suppose they are gregarious; but
upon closer examination, you will find it has only been
a dinner party, which breaks up and disperses towards
roosting time. The flight of the toucan is by jerks; in
the action of flying it seems incommoded by its huge
dispropr.-tioned bill ; if the extraordinary form and size
of the bill expose the toucan to ridicule, its colours make
it amends.
The houtou ranks high in beauty amongst the birds of
Demerara ; his whole body is green, with a bluish cast
in the wings and tail; his crane, which he erects at
pleasure, consists of black in the centre, surrounded with
lovely blue of two different shades ; he has a triangular
black spot, edged with blue, behind the eye, extending
to the ear; and on his breast a sable tuft, consisting of
nine feathers edged also with blue. This bird seems to
suppose that its beauty can be increased by trimming the
tail, which undergoes the same operation as our hair in
a barber's shop, only with this difference, that it uses its
own beak, which is serrated, in lieu of a pair of scissors ;
as soon as his tail is full grown, he begins about an inch
from the extremity of the two largest feathers in it, and
cuts away the web on both sides of the shaft, making a gap
about an inch long. Both male and female Adonise their
tails in this manner, which gives them a remarkable
appearance amongst other birds. The thick and gloomy
forests are the places preferred by the houtou. In those
far-extending wilds, about day-break, you hear him
articulate, in a distinct and mournful tone, " houtou,
houtou." Move cautiously on where the sound proceeds
from, and you will see him sitting in the underwood,
and very rarely is he seen in the lofty trees, except the
bastard siloaboli tree, the fruit of which is grateful to
him. He makes no nest, but rears his young in a hole
in the sand, generally on the side of a hill.
The cassique, in size, is larger than the starling; he
covets the society of man, but disdains to live by his
labours. When nature calls for support, he repairs to
the neighbouring forest, and there partakes of the store
of fruits and seeds which she has produced for her aerial
tribes. When his repast is over, he returns to man,
and pays the little tribute which he owes him for his
protection ; he takes his station on a tree close to his
house, and there for hours together pours forth a succes-
sion of imitative notes. His own song is sweet, but very
short. If a toucan be yelping in the neighbourhood, he
drops it, and imitates him. Then he will amuse his
protector with the cries of different species of the wood-
pecker; and when the sheep bleat, he will distinctly
imitate them. Then comes his own song again, and if
a puppy dog or a guinea-fowl interrupt him, he takes
them off admirably; and by his different gestures during
the time, you would conclude that he enjoys the sport.
desire by coloured prints ; but, beside that
these at best give only a faint resemblance of
nature, and are a very indifferent kind of
painting, the bird itself has a thousand beau-
The cassique is gregarious, and imitates any sound he
hears with such exactness, that he goes by no other name
than that of mocking-bird amongst the colonists. At
breeding time, a number of these pretty choristers re-
sort to a tree near the planter's house, and from its out-
side branches weave their pendulous nests. So conscious
do they seem that they never give offence, and so little
suspicious are they of receiving any injury from man,
that they will choose a tree within forty yards from his
house, and occupy the branches so low down that he
may peep into the nests. The proportions of the cas-
sique are so fine, that he may be said to be a model of
symmetry in ornithology. On each wing he has a
bright yellow spot, and his rump, belly, and half the tail,
are of the same colour. All the rest of the body is
black. His beak is the colour of sulphur, but it fades in
death, and requires the same operation as the bill of the
toucan to make it keep its colours.
You would not be long in the forests of Demerara
without noticing the woodpeckers. You may meet
with them feeding at all hours of the day. Well may
they do so. Were they to follow the example of most
of the other birds, and only feed in the morning and
evening, they would be often on short allowance, for
they sometimes have to labour three or four hours at the
tree before they get at the food. The sound which the
largest kind makes in hammering against the bark of
the tree, is so loud, that you would never suppose it to
proceed from the efforts of a bird. You would take it
to be the woodman, with his axe, trying, by a sturdy
blow often repeated, whether the tree was sound or not.
There are fourteen species here; the largest the size ol
a magpie, the smallest not bigger than the wren. They
are all beautiful, and the greater part of them have theii
heads ornamented with a fine crest, movable at pleasure.
It is said if you once give a dog a bad name, whether
innocent or guilty, he never loses it. It sticks close to
him wherever he goes. He has many a kick and many
a blow to bear on account of it, and there is nobody to
stand up for him. The woodpecker is little better oti.
The proprietors of woods in Europe have long accused
him of injuring their timber, by boring holes in it, and
letting in the water, which soon rots it. The colonists
in America have the same complaints against him.
Had he the power of speech, he could soon make a de-
fence. " Mighty lords of the woods," he would say to
man, " why do you wrongfully accuse me ? 'Why do you
hunt me up and down to death for an imaginary offence ?
I have never spoiled a leaf of your property, much less
your wood. Your merciless shot strikes me at the very
time I am doing you a service. But your shortsighted-
ness will not let you see it, or your pride is above
examining closely the actions of so insignificant a little
jird as I am. If there be that spark of feeling in yonr
jreast, which they say man possesses, or ought to possess,
above all other animals, do a poor injured creature a
ittle kindness, and watch me in your woods only for
one day. I never wormed your healthy trees. I should
perish for want in the attempt. The sound bark would
easily resist the force of my bill ; and were I even tc
pierce thrtfugh it, there would be nothing inside that 1
;ould fancy, or my stomach digest. I often visit them,
t is true, but a knock or two convinces me that I must
go else\vhere for support ; and were you to listen atten-
ively to the sound which my bill causes, you would
uiow whether I am upon a healthy or an unhealthy tree.
Wood and bark are not my food. 1 live entirely upon
he insects which have already formed a lodgement in
he distempered tree. When the sound informs me that
THE HUMMING-BIRD.
167
lies that the most exquisite artist is incapable
of imitating. They, for instance, who imagine
they have a complete idea of the beauty of
the little tribe of manikin birds, from the pic-
tures we have of them, will find themselves
deceived, when they compare their draughts
with nature. The shining greens, the change-
able purples, and the glossy reds, are beyond
the reach of the pencil ; and very far beyond
the coloured print, which is but a poor sub-
stitute to painting. I have therefore de-
clined entering into a minute description of
foreign birds of the sparrow kind ; as sounds
would never convey an adequate idea of
colours.
There is one species, however, that I will
conclude the history of this class with ; as,
though the least, it will certainly be allowed
the most beautiful of all others. In quadru-
peds, the smallest animals are noxious, ugly,
and lothesome ; the smallest of birds are the
most beautiful, innocent, and sportive. Of
all those that flutter in the garden, or paint
the landscape, the humming-bird is the most
delightful to look upon, and the most inoffen-
sive.
Of this charming little animal there are
six or seven varieties,1 from the size of a small
my prey is there, I labour for hours together till I get
at it; and, by consuming it, for my own support, I pre-
vent its further depredations in that part. Thus I dis-
cover for you a hidden and unsuspected foe, which has
been devouring your wood in such secrecy, that you had
not the least suspicion it was there. The hole which I
make, in order to get at the pernicious vermin, will be
seen by you as you pass under the tree. I leave it as a
signal to tell you, that your tree has already stood too
long. It is past its prime. Millions of insects, engen-
dered by disease, are preying upon its vitals: ere long
it will fall a log in useless ruins. Warned by this loss,
rut down the rest in time, and spare, O spare, the un-
offending woodpecker." — Wanderings of Charles fPater-
ton in South America.
1 The family of humming-birds (Trochilidee) is divid-
ed into numerous genera. Upwards of 100 species are
now known to naturalists. Recent discoveries have
proved that their range of habitation is more extended
than was once imagined ; for though they chiefly abound
in the intertropical latitudes of America, many visit the
temperate and colder portions of that continent. The
ruby-throated humming-bird (Trochilux Colubris}, passes
north as far as the interior of Canada, migrating like the
swallow. Nor is this the only species which extends
into a colder climate. Captain King, while on his sur-
vey of the southern toasts, met with numerous species
flying about in a snow-storm near the Straits of Magel-
lan, and discovered two species (Trochilus Fernandensis,
and T. Stokesii) in the island of Juan Fernandez. Still,
however, the central regions of the continent, and the
islands adjacent, are their chief resort. There they
people the woods and the gardens, glancing in the sun
like meteors as they flit by with inconceivable rapidity,
or, suspended on their burnished and quivering wings,
explore the nectary of some scented blossom. These
birds may be almost said to live upon the wing. There
is no bird that equals them in power of flight, and they
are quick as lightning in their motions. Their wings
are of extraordinary length, and this, with their shape
wren down to that of an humble-bee. A
European could never have supposed a bird
existing so very small, and yet completely
furnished out with a bill, feathers, wings,
and the character of the feathers composing them, con-
tributes to their efficiency. The feet and legs, on the
contrary, are small and feeble ; they are, in fact, of
merely second-rate importance in the economy of the
humming-bird. The ground and the trees are not its
element. It sometimes, indeed, settles on a twig, while
it preens its plumage of glittering scale-like feathers, or
arranges the moss and down of its nest ; but the air is
its abiding place, where it feeds and passes the whole of
its active existence. Wilson observes that " the hum-
ming-bird is extremely fond of tubular flowers, and I have
often stopped with pleasure to observe his manoeuvres
among the blossoms of the trumpet flower. When
arrived before a thicket of those that are full blown, he
poises or suspends himself on the wing, for the space of
two or three seconds, so steadily, that his wings became
invisible, or only like a mist, and you ran plainly dis-
tinguish the pupil of his eye looking round with great
quickness and circumspection." With respect, then, to
the shape of these powerful organs of flight, we may
notice that they are narrow-pointed, and more or less
curved inwards, a good deal resembling those of the
swift,; — and are mainly composed of the primary quill
feathers, beautifully graduated, the first or outer one
being the longest. The secondary quill feathers are
very short, and occupy the inner edge at the base of the
primaries, taking up little room, and adding nothing to
the breadth of the wing as in birds in general. The
structure of these feathers must not be overlooked ; they
consist of a strong and peculiarly elastic shaft, which in
many species is very thick at its commencement. On
each side of this shaft is a vane, composed of narrow,
closely set, springy plumets, so compacted together, as
to give the idea of a thiu metallic or horny web, and
which, cutting the air at every stroke, produces that
humming noise which is heard while the bird hovers
over the flower, or darts arrow-like along. Of the im-
mense strength of the pectoral muscles by whose actions
these long pointed wings are thus rapidly agitated, we
can scarcely form an adequate conception.
Next to the wings, the tail is the most important
agent as an organ of aerial progression. It is not only
the rudder by which a bird directs its course, or turns
and wheels, but it adds to the superficies of the body
without increasing its weight. In this group the tail is
ample, but varies extremely in shape ; in some species
it is square, in others forked, in some pointed, but in all
it is composed of feathers closely resembling those of the
wing in texture. Thus is the humming-bird consti-
tuted for flight ; nor is this extremely rapid merely,
but it is capable of long continuance. The flitting pro-
gress of the humming-bird from flower to flower resem-
bles that of a bee, — but is infinitely more quick. When,
however, the bird is journeying, it sweeps through the
air in long undulations, rising and sinking alternately.
It has been supposed by many that the nectar of
flowers constitutes the sole food of this charming race,
but such is not the fact. Nectar is no doubt a part of
their diet, but by no means the whole: they feed on the
small insects which lurk in the nectary, or wander over
the petals, — nay, they even take insects on the wing,
as was observed by Wilson, who also found their frag-
ments in the stomach of such as he examined ; and
Audubon states, in confirmation, that insects, especially
those of the coleopterous order, are the principal food of
the humming-bird. The bill, fitted for penetrating into
the recesses of flowers, is long and slender, but varies in
shape. According to Brisson arid others, the tongue
consists of two muscular tubes. This organ, which in
lb'8
HIS'IORY OF BIRDS.
and intestines, exactly resembling those of the
largest kind. A bird not so big as the end of
one's little finger would probably be supposed
but a creature of imagination, were it not
seen in infinite numbers, and as frequent as
the humming-bird is mainly instrumental in procuring
food, Is capable of being protruded to a considerable
distance, as we see in the wryneck, woodpecker, &c.
Audubon says, that the double-tubed tongue of the
humming-bird is covered with a glutinous saliva, so
that the insect adheres to it when touched ; hence the
bird has only to dart its tongue at its prey, and retract
it into its mouth.
Diminutive as they are, these beautiful creatures are
bold and intrepid, and defend their nests against intru-
ders with the greatest spirit. Their powers of flight
give them every advantage in these aerial combats over
birds much larger than themselves, at whose eyes they
tilt with their sharp-pointed beak, uttering, at the same
time, a shrill piercing shriek. Two males seldom meet
without a battle: and while the female is sitting her
mate attacks indiscriminately every bird that approaches,
exhibiting the utmost fury. The nest of the humming-
bird varies in different species. We have seen some
built on the branch of a tree, others attached to the ex-
treme twigs, so as to wave in the breeze. The mate-
rials with which they are constructed are for the most
part, the cotton or down of various plants, beautifully
interwoven ; some species add an outside layer of moss
or lichen. It appears that the number of eggs laid by
the female is usually two, and their colour pure white.
That these beautiful and elegant birds should not be
kept in captivity will not surprise those who know the
difficulty of preserving them, even in their own regions,
for any length of time, in imprisonment. Several at-
tempts have, however, been made; and, on one occa-
sion, two nestlings of a species termed the Mango hum-
rning-bird were actually brought alive to England, and
lived for a short time in the possession of Lady Ham-
mond ; they were very docile, a«d fed on honey, but we
do not know whether insects were offered them or not.
Audubon states that he has seen many humming-birds
in partial confinement ; and that, when fed with honey
or syrup exclusively, they soon died in a state of emacia-
tion, but that, when duly supplied with fresh flowers
^abounding with insects), and surrounded with gauze-
netting, through which insects could enter, they lived
in health and were active. Indeed, he mentions an in-
stance in which several were thas kept for the space of
twelve months, when they were restored to liberty, the
person who attended to them having a lon^ voyage to
perform.
" I remember," says a corresponded of the Maga-
zine of Natural History, " a pair of these beautiful little
creatures busily building a nest in the branch of an
orange-tree, which was close to the outer side of the
open piazza of a house in Spanish Town, Jamaica : in
this apartment, situated on the north side of the house,
the family breakfasted and lunched. I spent three days
there ; and, while taking my meals, had at least an
equal treat, in seeing these smallest of the feathered
tribes gaily and actively employed in their building
process. I have now in my possession a nest of the bee
humming bird, which I removed from the end of a
mango-tree (Mangiferia indica), which was not a foot
above my head, and close to the doer of a dwelling-
house. I cannot quit this article without speaking of the
delight that was afforded me, in Jamaica, by seeing
humming-birds feeding on honey, in the florets of the
great aloe (Agave ainericana, L.) On the side of a
hill upon Sutton's estate were a considerable number of
aloe plants, of which about a dozen were in full blossom.
They were spread over a space of about twenty yards
butterflies in a summer's day, sporting in
the fields of America, from flower to flower,
and extracting their sweets with its little
bill.
The smallest humming-bird is about the
square. The spikes bearing bunches of flowers in a
thyrsus, were from twelve to fifteen feet high ; on each
spike were many hundred flowers, of a bright yellow
colour, each floret of a tubular shape, and containing a
good-sized drop of honey. Such an assemblage of floral
splendour was in itself most magnificent and striking ;
but it may be imagined how much the interest caused
by this beautiful exhibition was increased, by vast num-
bers of humming-birds, of various species, fluttering at
the opening of the flowers, and dipping their bills, first
into one floret, and then into another — the sun, as
usual, shining bright upon their varied and beautiful
plumage."
The following cut represents the Bar -tailed Hum-
ming-bird.
This splendid species seems to have been first noticed
by Dr Shaw, in his General Zoology, and figured from
a specimen in Bullock's museum. It is most remark-
able for the splendid colouring and development of its
tail, which Lesson compares to that of the New Holland
menura. It is composed often broad feathers, gradually
exceeding each other by about half an inch, three quar-
ters, &<•,., and the last by above one inch and a half
longer than the others. The colour may be said to be a
brilliant reddish orange, with a brazen or metallic lustre
of the greatest clearness, according to the various lights
in which it is placed assuming a greater tinge of rt'd or
yellow. The tip of each feather has a broad black bar,
and the lower part of the web of the outer feather is ol
the same colour. When the tail is closed, the appear-
ance is as if regularly barred with black. The upper
>arts of the plumage are of a golden green, except the
rump, which is of a fine madder tint, but without any
metallic lustre. The feathers upon this part are more
tufted, and thicker than usual. The whole of the under
urfare, as far as the upper part of the belly, is of a
jright emerald green, brightest on the fore part of '.he
throat. The lower belly is dull brownish green, the
vent whitish. Lesson has represented another state of
this bird, which he thinks is that of the female. All the
upper parts are of a uniform green. The throat and
)reast, instead of the emerald -coloured scaly gorget, are
of a dull yellowish gray, whict colou^ orcupies also the
THE HUMMING-BIRD.
169
size of a hazel-nut The feathers on its wings
and tail are black ; but those on its body, and
under its wings, are of a greenish brown,
with a fine red cast, or gloss, which no silk or
velvet can imitate. It has a small crest on
its head, green at the bottom, and, as it were,
gilded at the top; and which sparkles in the
sun like a little star in the middle of its fore-
head. The bill is black, straight, slender,
and of the length of a small pin. The larger
humming-bird is nearly half as big as the com-
mon wren, and without a crest on its head;
but, to make amends, it is covered, from the
throat half way down the belly, with change-
able crimson-coloured feathers, that, in dif-
ferent lights, change to a variety of beautiful
colours, much like an opal. The heads of
both are small, with very little round eyes, as
black as jet.
It is inconceivable how much these add to
the high finishing and beauty of a rich luxu-
rious western landscape. As soon as the sun
is risen, the humming-birds, of different kinds,
rest of the under parts. The tail is about only half the
length, the feathers of the same broad form ; the outer
one of a yellowish, the others of a reddish coppery
lustre, with a slight indication of a darker shade at the
tips, but without any distinct bar.
There seems a little uncertainty regarding the native
country of this bird. Shaw's specimens were said to
come from Peru ; and Lesson mentions the interior of
Brazil for those from which he took his drawings and
descriptions.
The following represents the Topax-throated Hum-
ming-bird.
This species is without any exception one of the most
splendid of the whole race ; the plumage in every part
is composed of the scaly formed feathers, which are al-
ways present when a metallic lustre prevails; and in
every position, its brilliant colours receive a variation oi
tint differing from that last seen, and superior in splen-
dour to any thing with which we could compare it. It
is a large species also, and in many ways is a most
interesting bird. The African form is naturally called
to our remembrance by the general appearance of it to
the Cyniridte, in which the shape of the gorget and tail
VOL. II.
are seen fluttering about <he flowers, without
ever lighting upon them. Their wings are
in such rapid motion, that it is impossible to
discern their colours, except by their glitter-
ing. They are never still but continually in
motion, visiting flower after flower, and ex-
tracting its honey as if with a kiss. For this
purpose they are furnished with a forky
tongue, that enters the cup of the flowers,
and extracts its nectared tribute. Upon this
alone they subsist. The rapid motion of
their wings brings out a humming sound,
from whence they have their name ; for what-
ever divides the air swiftly, must thus produce
a murmur.
The nests of these birds are not less curious
than the rest ; they are suspended in the air,
at the point of the twigs of an orange, a
pomegranate, or a citron-tree ; sometimes even
in houses, if they find a small and convenient
twig for the purpose. The female is the
architect, while the male goes in quest of
materials; such as cotton, fine moss, and the
leads still nearer. In its habits it is also curious, being
said to frequent the banks of rivers, skimming along
their surface after insects, and often perching on dried
twigs along their margins : in this there is an approxi-
mation to several groups. The length of this bird, not
including the long centre tail feathers, is five inches and
a half, these exceed the others by nearly three inches ;
the colours of the whole plumage of the body may be said
to be a rich brownish orange, in some lights appearing of
the deepest lake, and in others of a brilliant ruby colour,
tinted with golden; on the lower surface the golden
lustre is most prevalent, above, the deep shade and ruby
tint; the gorget is alternately of a topaz-yellow or
emerald green, and it is surrounded by a shade of nearly
velvet black, which gradually assumes a purple tint, and
shades into the colour of the body; the wings are very
long and powerful; the tail is above of a golden green
shaded with red, below of a bright chestnut; in form it
is rather rounded, and the two centre feathers make it
appear sometimes very lengthened, sometimes forked,
according to their position; the tarsi are feathered to the
division of the toes. The young differ in wanting the
long feathers in the tail, the two centre plumes of which
exceed the others by about one-eighth of an inch ; the
plumage of the upper parts is of a bright green, with the
ruby tints appearing at intervals; the under part has
more of the red colour, and is shaded with green and
bright orange; the gorget has not appeared, though the
space for it is clearly seen. The female is somewhat
less than the young males; the centre tail feathers are
slightly longer; the prevailing colour of the plumage is
brilliant emerald green, with metallic lustre, but which
is somewhat diminished by a gray tint which pervades
the whole; the gorget is marked by brown feathers,
which have a golden lustre when placed in the light,
but is not very distinctly defined; the vent is gray: the
outer tail feathers are of a dull green, the next pair are
of a brilliant violet, the others of a bright chestnut.
These beautiful birds are found in Cayenne and Guiana.
For works on humming-birds, the reader is referred
to three beautiful volumes by Lesson, containing 219
plates, and to the Naturalist's Library, by Sir William
Jardine, vols. I. and II. Edinburgh, 1833. Both
Wilson and Audubon have written well on the northern
humming-bird.
170
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
fibres of vegetables. Of these materials a
nest is composed, of about the size of a hen's
egg cut in two, admirably contrived, and
warmly lined with cotton. They lay two
eggs at a time, and never more, about the
size of small peas, and as white as snow, with
here and there a yellow speck. The male
and the female sit upon the nest by turns;
but the female takes to herself the greatest
share. She seldom quits the nest, except a
few minutes in the morning and evening,
when the dew is upon the flowers, and their
honey in perfection. During this short in-
terval, the male takes her place ; for, as the
egg is so small, the exposing it ever so short
a time to the weather would be apt to injure
its contents, the surface exposed being so great
in comparison to the bulk. The time of in-
cubation continues twelve days ; at the end
of which the young ones appear, much about
the size of a blue-bottle fly. They are at
first bare ; by degrees they are covered with
down ; and at last feathers succeed, but less
beautiful at first than those of the old ones.
" Father Labat's companion in the mission
to America, found the nest of a humming-
bird in a shed that was near the dwelling,
house, and took it in at a time when the
young ones were about fifteen or twenty days
old ; he then placed them in a cage at his
chamber-window, to be amused by their spor-
tive flutterings ; but he was soon surprised to
see the old ones, that came and fed their
brood regularly every hour in the day. By
these means they themselves soon grew so
tame that they seldom quitted the chamber ;
but without any constraint came to live with
their young ones. All four have frequently
come to perch upon their master's hand,
chirruping as if they had been at liberty
abroad. He fed them with a very fine clear
paste, made of wine, biscuit, and sugar; they
thrust their tongues into this paste, till they
were satisfied, and then fluttered and chir-
ruped about the room. I never beheld any
thing more agreeable," continues he, " than
this lovely little family that had taken posses-
sion of my companion's chamber, and that flew
out and in just as they thought proper; but
were ever attentive to the voice of their
master, when he called them. In this man-
ner they lived with him for above six months;
but at a time when he expected to see a new
colony formed, he unfortunately forgot to tie
up their cage to the ceiling at night to pre-
serve them from the rats, and he found they
were devoured in the morning."
These birds on the continent of America,
continue to flutter the year round ; as their
food, which is the honey of flowers, never for-
sakes them in those warm latitudes where
they are found. But it is otherwise in the
islands of the Antilles, where, when the
winter season approaches, they retire, and, as
some say, continue in a torpid state during
the severity of that season. At Surinam and
Jamaica, where they constantly have flowers,
these beautiful birds are never known to dis-
appear.
It is a doubt whether or not these birds
have a continued note of singing. All travel-
lers agree, that, beside the humming noise
produced by their wings, they have a little
interrupted chirrup ; but Labat asserts, that,
they have a most pleasing melancholy melody
in their voices, though small, and proportioned
to the organs which produce it. It is verv
probable that, in different places, their notes
are also different; and as there are some that
continue torpid all the winter, there may like-
wise be some with agreeable voices, though
the rest may in general be silent.
The Indians formerly made great use ot
this bird's plumage, in adorning their belts
and head-dress. The children take them in
the fields upon rings smeared with bird-lime:
they approach the place where the birds are
flying, and twirling their rings in the air, to
allure them, either by the colour or the sound,
that the simple little creature comes to rest
upon the ring, and is seized. They are then
instantly killed and gutted, and hung up in
the chimney to dry. Those who take greater
care, dry them in a stove, which is not so
likely to injure the plumage as the foregoing
method. Their beautiful feathers were once
the ornament of the highest rank of savage
nobility ; but at present they take the bird
rather for the purpose of selling it as a curio-
sity to the Europeans, than that of ornament
for themselves. All the taste for savage finery
is wearing out fast, even among the Ameri-
cans. They now begin to adopt, if not the
dresses of Europe, at least the materials of
which they are composed. The wandering
warrior is far from thinking himself fine at
present with his bow and his feathered crown:
his ambition reaches to higher ornaments ; a
gun, a blue shirt, and a blanket.
A
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
BOOK VI.
OF BIRDS OF THE CRANE KIND.
CHAP. I.
OF BIRDS OF THE CRANE KIND IN GENERAL.
THE progressions of Nature from one class of
beings to another, are always by slow and al-
most imperceptible degrees. She has peopled
the woods and the fields with a variety of the
most beautiful birds ; and, to leave no part of
her extensive territories untenanted, she has
stocked the waters with its feathered inhabi-
tants also : she has taken the same care in
providing for the wants of her animals in this
element, as she has done with respect to those
of the other; she has used as much precaution
to render water-fowl fit for swimming, as she
did in forming land-fowl for flight ; she has
defended their feathers with a natural oil, and
united their toes by a webbed membsane : by
which contrivances they have at once security
arid motion. But between the classes of land-
birds that shun the water, and of water fowl
that are made for swimming and living on it,
she has formed a very numerous tribe of birds,
that seem to partake of a middle nature: that,
with divided toes, seemingly fitted to live upon
land, are at the same time furnished with ap-
petites that chiefly attach them to the waters.
These can properly be called neither land-
birds nor water-fowl, as they provide all their
sustenance from watery places, and yet are
unqualified to seek it in those depths where it
is often found in greatest plenty.1
This class of birds, of the crane kind, are
to be distinguished from others rather by their
appetites than their conformation. Yet even
in this respect they seem to be sufficiently dis-
criminated by nature : as they are to live
among the waters, yet are incapable of svvim-
1 The term waders is now applied to this description
rf birds.
ming in them, most of them have long legs,
fitted for wading in shallow waters, or long
bills proper for grouping in them.
Every bird of this kind, habituated to mar-
shy places, may be known, if not by the length
of ils legs, at least by the scaly surface of
them. Those who have observed the legs of
a snipe or a woodcock, will easily perceive
my meaning ; and how different the surface
of the skin that covers them is from that of the
pigeon or the partridge. Most birds of this
kind also, are bare of feathers half way up the
thigh ; at least, in all of them, above the knee.
— Their long habits of wading in the waters,
and having their legs continually in moisture,
prevents the growth of feathers on those parts;
so that there is a surprising difference between
the legs of a crane, naked of feathers almost
up to the body, and the falcon, booted almost
to the very toes.
The bill is also very distinguishable in most
of this class. It is, in general, longer than
that of other birds, and in some finely fluted
on every side ; while at the point it is posses-
sed of extreme sensibility, and furnished with
nerves, for the better feeling their food at the
bottom of marshes, where it cannot be seen.
Some birds of this class are thus fitted with
every convenience ; they have long legs, for
wading; long necks, for stooping : long bills,
for searching ; and nervous points, for feeling.
Others are not so amply provided for ; as some
have long bills, but legs of no great length ;
and others have long necks, but very short
legs. It is a rule which universally holds,
that where the bird's legs are long, the neck
is also long in proportion. It would indeed
be an incurable defect in the bird's conforma-
tion, to be lifted upon stilts above its food,
without being furnished with an instrument to
reach it
If we consider the natural power of this
172
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
class, in a comparative view, they will seem
rather inferior to those of every other tribe.
Their nests are more simple than those of the
sparrow ; and their methods of obtaining food
less ingenious than those of the falcon ; the
pie exceeds them in cunning ; and though
they have all the voraciousness of the poultry
tribe, they want their fecundity. None of
this kind, therefore, have been taken into
man's society, or under his protection ; they
are neither caged, like the nightingale ; nor
kept tame, like the turkey ; but lead a life of
precarious liberty, in fens and marshes, at the
edges of lakes, and along the sea-shore. They
all live upon fish or insects, one or two only
excepted ; even those that are called mud-
suckers, such as the snipe and the woodcock,
it is more than probable, grope the bottom of
marshy places only for such insects as are de-
posited there by their kind, and live in a ver-
micular state, in pools and plashes, till they
take wing, and become flying insects.
All this class, therefore, that are fed upon
insects, their food being easily digestible, are
good to be eaten ; while those who live en-
tirely upon fish, abounding in oil, acquire in
their flesh the rancidity of their diet, and are,
in general, unfit for our tables. To savages,
indeed, and sailors on a long voyage, every
thing that has life seems good to be eaten ;
and we often find them recommending
those animals as dainties, which they them-
selves would spurn at after a course of good
living. Nothing is more common in their
journals than such accounts as these
;' This day we shot a fox — pretty good eating :
this day we shot a heron — pretty good eating :
and this day we killed a turtle" which
they rank with the heron and the fox, as
* pretty good eating." Their accounts, there-
fore, of the flesh of these birds, are not to be
depended upon ; and when they cry up the
heron or the stork of other countries as luxuri-
ous food, we must always attend to the state
of their appetites who give the character.
In treating of this class of birds, it will be
best to observe the simplest method possible ;
neither to load the memory with numerous
distinctions, nor yet confuse the imagination
by a total want of arrangement. I will,
therefore, describe some of the larger sorts
separately; as, in a history of birds, each of
these demands peculiar distinction. The
crane, the stork, the Balearic crane, the he-
ron, the bittern, with some others, may require
a separate history. Some particular tribes
may next offer, that may very naturally be
classed together ; and as for all the smaller
and least remarkable sorts, they may be
grouped into one general description.
CHAP. II.
THE CKANE.1
THERE is something extraordinary in the
different accounts we have of this bird's size
and dimensions. Willoughby and Pennant
make the crane from five to six feet long, from
the tip to the tail. Other accounts say that it
is above five feet high ; and others, that it is
as tall as a man. From the many which I
myself had seen, I own this imputed magni-
tude surprised me ; as from memory I was
convinced they could neither be so long nor
1 The above Cut represents the Common Crane.
For Numidian Crane, see Plate XX. fig. ]. and for
Collared Crane, fig. 6. same Plate. The Gigantic
Crane, or, as it is called in India, the Adjutant (see
Plate XX. fig. 12.) is a very large species, which
belongs to the stork genus, measuring, from tip to tip of
the wings, nearly fifteen feet. The bill is of vast size,
nearly triangular, and sixteen inches round at the base.
The legs and half the thighs are naked, and the naked
parts are full three feet in length. This bird is an in-
habitant of Bengal arid Calcutta, and is sometimes found
on the coast of Guinea. It arrives in the internal parts
of Bengal before the period of the rains, and retires as
soon as the dry season commences. Its aspect is filthy
and disgusting ; yet it is one of the most useful birds of
these countries, in clearing them of snakes and noxious
reptiles and insects. It seems to finish the work began
by the jackal and vulture — the clearing away the flesh
of animals, and these birds removing the bones, and
swallowing them entire. They sometimes feed on fish ;
and one of them will generally devour as much as would
serve four men. On opening the body of a gigantic
crane, a land -tortoise, ten inches long, and a large black
male cat, were found entire within it ; the former in the
craw, and the latter in the stomach. Being altogether
undaunted at the sight of mankind, they are soon ren-
dered familiar; and when fish or other food are thrown
to them, they catch them very nimbly, and immediately
swallow them whole. The gigantic cranes are believed
by the Indians to be animated by the souls of the Brah-
mins, and consequently to be invulnerable. Mr Ives,
in attempting to kill some of them with his gun, missed
his shot several times, which the by-standers observed
with the greatest satisfaction, telling him triumphantly
that he might shoot at them as long as he pleased, but
he never would be able to kill them.
THE CRANE.
173
so tali. Indeed, a bird, the body of which is
not larger than that of a turkey-hen, and ac-
knowledged on all hands not to weigh above
ten pounds, cannot easily be supposed to be
almost as long as an ostrich. Brisson, how-
ever, seems to give this bird its real dimen-
sions, when he describes it as something less
than the brown stork, about three feet high,
and about four from the tip to the tail. Still,
however, the numerous testimonies of its su-
perior size are not to be totally rejected ; and,
perhaps, that from which Brisson took his di-
mensions, was one of the smallest of the kind.
The crane, taking its dimensions from him,
is exactly three feet four inches from the tip
to the tail, and four feet from the head to the
toe. It is a tall slender bird, with a long
neck and long legs. The top of the head is
covered with black bristles, and the back of
it is bald and red, which sufficiently distin-
guishes this bird from the stork, to which it
is very nearly allied in size and figure. The
plumage in general, is ash-coloured ; and
there are two large tufts of feathers, that
spring from the pinion of each wing. These
bear a resemblance to hair, and are finely
curled at the ends, which the bird has a power
of erecting and depressing at pleasure. Ges-
ner says, that these feathers, in his time, used
lo be set in gold, and worn as ornaments in
caps.
Such are the dimensions of a bird, concern-
ing which, not to mention modern times, there
have been more fables propagated than of any
other. It is a bird with which all the ancient
writers are familiar; and, in describing it,
they have not failed to mix imagination with
history. From the policy of the cranes, they
say, we are to look for an idea of the most
perfect republic amongst ourselves ; from their
tenderness to their decrepit parents, which
they take care to nourish, to cherish, and sup-
port when flying, we are to learn lessons of
filial piety ; but particularly from their con-
duct in fighting with the pigmies of Ethiopia,
we are to receive our maxims in the art of
war. In early times, the history of Nature
fell to the lot of poets only, arid certainly none
could describe it so well ; but it is a part of
their province to embellish also ; and when
this agreeable science was claimed by a more
sober class of people, they were obliged to
take the accounts of things as they found
them; and, in the present instance, fable ran
down blended with truth to posterity.
In these accounts, therefore, there is some
foundation of truth; yet much more has been
added by fancy. The crane is certainly a
very social bird, and they are seldom seen
alone. Their usual method of flying or sit-
ting is in flocks of fifty or sixty together; and
while a part feed, the rest stand like sentinels
upon duty. The fable of their supporting
their aged parents, may have arisen from their
strict connubial affection ; and as for their
fighting with the pigmies, it may not be im-
probable but that they have boldly withstood
the invasions of monkeys coming to rob their
nests : for in this case, as the crane lives upon
vegetables, it is not probable that it would be
the first aggressor.
However this be, the crane is a wandering,
sociable bird, that for the most part, subsists
upon vegetables ; and is known in every coun-
try of Europe, except our own. There is no
part of the world, says Bellonius, where the
fields are cultivated, that the crane does not
come in with the husbandman Tor a share in
the harvest. As they are birds of passage,
they are seen to depart, and return regularly
at those seasons when their provision invites
or repels them. They generally leave Eu-
rope about the latter end of autumn, and re-
turn in the beginning of summer. In the in-
land parts of the continent, they are seen
crossing the country in flocks of fifty or a
hundred, making from the northern regions
towards the south. In these migrations, how-
ever, they are not so resolutely bent upon
going forward, but that if a field of corn offers
in their way, they will stop awhile to regale
upon it : on such occasions they do incredible
damage, chiefly in the night ; and the hus-
bandman, who lies down in joyful expectation,
rises in the morning to see his fields laid en-
tirely waste by an enemy, whose march is too
swift for his vengeance to overtake.
Our own country is free from their visits ;
not but that they were formerly known in this
island, and held in great estimation for the
delicacy of their flesh ; there was even a pe-
nalty upon such as destroyed their eggs ; but,
at present, they never go so far out of their
way.1 Cultivation and populousness go hand
in hand; and though our fields may offer
them a greater plenty, yet it is so guarded
that the birds find the venture greater than
the enjoyment ; and probably we are much
better off by their absence than their company.
Whatever their flesh might once have been,
when, as Plutarch tells us, cranes were blinded
and kept in coops, to be fattened for the tables
of the great in Rome ; or, as they were
brought up, stuffed with mint and rue, to the
tables of our nobles at home ; at present, they
are considered all over Europe as wretched
eating. The flesh is fibrous and dry, requir-
ing much preparation to make it palatable;
and even after every art, it is fit only for the
stomachs of strong and labouring people.
i They are still, though very rarely, to be seen in this
country. A crane was killed in Oxfordshire, in De-
cember, 1S30.
174
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
The cold Arctic region seems to be this
bird's favourite abode. They come down in
the more southern parts of Europe, rather as
visitants than inhabitants : yet it is not well
known in what manner they portion out their
time, to the different parts of the world. The
migrations of the fieldfare or thrush, are ob-
vious and well known ; they go northward or
southward, in one simple track ; when their
food fails them here, they have but one region
to go to. But it is otherwise with the crane ;
he changes place, like a wanderer : he spends
the autumn in Europe; he then flies off, pro-
bably to some more southern climate, to en-
joy a part of the winter ; returns to Europe
in the spring ; crosses up to the north in sum-
mer ; visits those lakes that are never dry ;
and then comes down again, to make depre-
dations upon our cultivated grounds, in au-
tumn. Thus, Gesner assures us, that the
cranes usually begin to quit Germany, from
about the eleventh of September to the seven-
teenth of October ; from thence they are seen
flying southward by thousands ; and Redi
tells us, they arrive in Tuscany a short time
after. There they tear up the fields, newly
sown, for the grain just committed to the
ground, and do great mischief. It is to be
supposed, that, in the severity of winter, they
go southward, still nearer the line. They
again appear in the fields of Pisa, regularly
about the twentieth of February, to anticipate
the spring.
In these journeys, it is amazing to conceive
the heights to which they ascend when they
fly. Their note is the loudest of all other
birds ; and that is often heard in the clouds,
when the bird itself is entirely unseen. As it
is light for its size, and spreads a large ex-
panse of wing, it is capable of floating at the
greatest height, where the air is lightest ; and
as it secures its safety, and is entirely out of
the reach of man, it flies in tracts which
would be too fatiguing for any other birds to
move forward in.
In these aerial journeys, though unseen
themselves, they have the distinctest vision of
every object below. They govern and direct
their flight by their cries; and exhort each
other to proceed or to descend, when a fit op-
portunity offers for depredation. Their voice,
as was observed, is the loudest of all the fea-
thered tribe ; and its peculiar clangour arises
from the very extraordinary length and con-
tortion of the windpipe. In quadrupeds, the
windpipe is short, and the glottis, or cartilages
that form the voice, are at that end of it which
is next the mouth ; in water-fowl, the wind-
pipe is longer, but the cartilages that form the
vv.ice are at the other end, which lies down in
their belly. By this means they have much
louder voices, in proportion to their size, than
any other animal whatever ; for the note when
formed below, is reverberated through all the
rings of the windpipe, till it reaches the air.
But the voice of the duck or the goose, is no-
thing to be compared to that of the crane,
whose windpipe is not only made in the same
manner with theirs, but is above twenty times
as long. Nature seems to have bestowed
much pains in lengthening out this organ.
From the outside, it enters through the flesh
into the breast-bone, which hath a great ca-
vity within to receive it. There being thrice
reflected, it goes out again at the same hole,
and so turns down to the lungs, and thus en-
ters the body a second time. The loud clan-
gorous sound which the bird is thus enabled
to produce, is, when near, almost deafening :
however, it is particularly serviceable to the
animal itself, either during its migrations, or
its stay ; by it the flock is encouraged in their
journeys ; and if, while they are feeding,
which is usually performed in profound silence,
they are invaded on any side, the bird that
first perceives the danger is sure to sound the
alarm, and all are speedily upon the wing.
As they rise but heavily, they are very shy
birds, and seldom let the fowler approach
them. Their depredations are usually made
in the darkest nights ; at which time thev
enter a field of corn, and trample it down, as if
it had been crossed over by a regiment of sol-
diers. On other occasions, they choose some
extensive solitary marsh, where they range
themselves all day, as if they were in delibe-
ration ; and not having that grain which is
most to their appetites, wade the marshes fot
insects and other food, which they can procure
with less danger.
Corn is their favourite food ; but there is
scarcely any other that comes amiss to them.
Redi, who opened several, found the stomach
of one full of the herb called dandelion; that
of another was filkd with beans ; a third had
a great quantity of clover in its stomach:
while that of two others was filled with earth-
worms and beetles ; in some he found lizards
and sea-fish; in others, snails, grass, and peb-
bles, swallowed perhaps for medicinal pur-
poses. It seems, therefore, that these birds
are easily supplied ; and that they are noxious
to corn-fields but on some particular occasions.
In general it is a peaceful bird, both in its
own society, and with respect to those of the
forest. Though so large in appearance, a little
falcon pursues, and often disables it. The
method is, with those who are fond of hawk-
ing, to fly several hawks together against it ;
which the crane endeavours to avoid, by fly-
ing up perpendicularly, till the air becomes too
thin to support it any higher. The hawk,
however, still bears it company ; and though
less fitted for floating in so thin a medium,
THE STORK.
175
ye(, possessed of greater rapidity, it still gains
the ascendancy. They both often rise out ot
sight ; but soon the spectator, who keeps his
eye fixed above, perceives them, like two
specks, beginning to appear: they gather on
his eye for a little space, and shortly after
come tumbling perpendicularly together, wit!
great animosity on the side of the hawk, and
a loud screaming on that of the crane. Thus
driven to extremity, and unable to fly, the
poor animal throws itself upon its back, and,
in that situation, makes a most desperate de-
fence, till the sportsman coming up, generally
puts an end to the contest with its life.
It was once the barbarous custom to breed
up cranes to be thus baited ; and young ones
were taken from the nest, to be trained up for
this cruel diversion. It is an animal easily
tamed ; and, if we can believe Albertus Mag-
nus, has a particular affection for man. This
quality, however, was not sufficient to guard
Lt from being made the victim of his fierce
amusements. The female, which is easily
distinguished from the male, by not being
bald behind as he is, never lays above two
eggs at a time; being like those of a goose,
but of a bluish colour. The young ones are
soon fit to fly, and then the parents forsake
them to shift for themselves; but, before this
time, they are led forth to the places where
their food is most easily found. Though yet
unfledged, they run with such swiftness that
a man cannot easily overtake them. We are
told, that as they grow old, their plumage be-
oomes darker ; and as a proof of their lon-
gevity, Aldrovandus assures us, that a friend
of his kept one tarne for above forty years.
Whatever may have been the disposition of
the great, the vulgar of every country, to this
day, bear the crane a compassionate regard.
It is possible the ancient prejudices in its fa-
vour, which once having been planted are
eradicated but slowly, may still continue to
operate. In some countries, it is considered
as a heinous offence to kill a crane ; and though
the legislature declines to punish, yet the
people do not fail to resent the injury. The
crane, they, in some measure, consider as the
prophet of the season : upon its approach or
delay they regulate the periods of their rural
economy. If their favourite bird comes early
in the season, they expect a plentiful summer;
if he is slow in his visits, they then prepare
for an unfavourable spring. Whatever wis-
dom there may be in despising the prejudices
of the vulgar, there is but little in condemning
them. They have generally had their origin
in good motives ; and it should never be our
endeavours to suppress any tender emotions of
friendship or pity in those hard breasts that
are, in general, unsusceptible of either.
CHAP. III.
TUB ST011K.
IF we regard the Stork externally only, we
shall be very apt to confound it with the crane..
1 In the methodical arrangements of Ray and Brisson
the Storks formed a distinct genus from the herons and
the cranes, with which, and with various other less
closely allied groups, they were united in the Linnean
system of classification. Later naturalists have, how-
ever, seen the necessity of reverting to the older method
and of again separating these groups, which form in the
arrangement proposed by Mr Vigors two families, dis-
tinguished by well marked characters, and each compre-
hending several genera of considerable numerical ex-
tent. The first of these families is the Gruda, which
comprise the cranes, the trumpeter, and other nearly re-
lated genera, distinguished by the comparative shortness
and cbtuseii'iss of their bill, and the slight degree of pal-
mation exhibited by their feet, which are smaller in pro-
portion and consequently better adapted to the terrestrial
habits of these birds, as the bill is to their vegetable food.
The second is the Ardeidse, whuse produced and gene-
rally pointed bill, and long, slender and more deeply
webbed toes, are equally well suited to their aquatic
habits, and to the nature of the food, chiefly fishes and
reptiles, on which they subsist. In the latter family are
comprehended not only the Storks and the Herons, but
also the spoonbills, the Ibis, and several other groups re-
markable as well for the singularity of their forms, as for
the peculiarity of their manners, and the interesting na-
ture of many of the facts connected with their history,
both as regards themselves and with reference to the
services which they actually render, or have been sup-
posed to render to mankind.
The distinguishing characters of the genus which at
present engages our attention consist in a long straight
beak, broad at the base, regularly narrowing to the point,
opening to a moderate extent, and unimpressed on its
upper surface either with lateral furrows or with a nasal
pit; nostrils in the form of a longitudinal fissure, situ-
ated near the base of the bill and directed upwards ;
tongue extremely short; eyes surrounded by a naked
skin ; wings broad, expanding to a great extent, and
prolonged posteriorly beyond the extremity of the tail;
legs reticulated with hexagonal scales, of which the up-
permost are the largest ; web between the two outer ot
the anterior toes much more developed than that which
is found at the base of the inner; posterior toe on the
same level with the anterior ones ; and claws broad, flat,
and obtuse, approaching in form to the nails of man, and
scarcely overlapping the extremities of the toes.
The species thus characterised are especially remark-
able for the extent and regularity of their migrations,
which are chiefly determined by the nature of their food.
This consists of various kinds of garbage, of worms and
insects, fishes and reptiles, and among the latter more
particularly of frogs. At the approach of the colder sea-
son, when these animals begin to conceal themselves in
holes, in order to pass the winter in a state of torpor, the
storks are driven by the failure of their usual means of
subsistence to seek a more temperate climate, in which
the same scarcity of food is not likely to be felt; but
they constantly return northwards with the return of
pring. The most common and the most celebrated
among them is the White Stork, (see Plate XIX. fig. 7.)
which generally passes its winters in the north of Africa,
and more particularly in Egypt, and migrates during the
summer season to France and Holland, Sweden, Ger-
many, Poland, and sometimes even Russia, but ia very
176
It is of the same size ; it has the same forma-
tion as to the bill, neck, legs, and body, ex-
cept that it is something more corpulent. Its
differences are but very slight ; such as the
colour, which, in the crane, is ash and black,
rarely met with in England. It is rather larger than
the black stork, measuring more than three feet from
the extremity of the bill to the tip of the tail, and stand-
ing about the same height from the ground to the top of
its head. Its bill, which is usually of an orange red,
measures from seven to eight inches in length ; the
naked and wrinkled skin surrounding its eyes is nearly
of the same colour, hut generally of a duskier hue ; and
its legs are also red. The greater part of its plumage is
of a clear white, which is however relieved by the strik-
ing contrast of the feathers covering the lower part of
the shoulders, the larger wing-coverts, and the quill-fea-
thers, thirty in number, all of which are of a glossy black,
with a slight metallic reflection. When fully expanded
the extent of the wings exceeds six feet, and in this
state the eight or nine primary quill-feathers offer a very
singular and indeed unique disposition, being separated
from each other so as to leave a vacant space between.
The feathers of the lower part of the neck are long, pen-
dulous, and pointed. There is little distinction in any
of these particulars between the male and the female ;
but the young have a browner tinge in their wings, and
their bills are of a duskier red.
These birds have in all ages been regarded with pe-
culiar favour, amounting, in some countries, almost to
Veneration, partly on account of the services which they
perform in the destruction of noxious animals, and in
removing impurities from the surface of the earth, and
partly on account of the mildness of their temper, the
harmlessness of their habits, and the moral virtues with
which imagination has delighted to invest them. Among
the ancient Egyptians the stork was regarded with a
reverence inferior only to that which, for similar causes,
was paid to the sacred Ibis, considered, and with some
show of reason, as one of the tutelary divinities of the
land. The same feeling is still prevalent in many parts
of Africa and the East ; and even in Switzerland and in
Holland something like superstition seems to mingle, in
the minds of the common people, with the hospitable
kindness which a strong conviction of its utility disposes
them to evince towards this favourite bird. In the latter
country more particularly, the protection which is ac-
corded to it is no more than it fairly deserves as the un-
conscious instrument by which the dikes and marshes
are relieved from a large portion of the enormous quan-
tity of reptiles engendered by tiie humidity and fertility
of the soil.
On the other hand, the white stork appears to be in-
fluenced by the same friendly feelings towards man.
Undismayed by his presence, it builds its nest upon the
house-top, or on the summits of the loftiest trees in the
immediate neighbourhood of the most frequented places.
It stalks perfectly at its ease along the busy streets of the
most crowded town, and seeks its food on the banks of
rivers or in fens in close vicinity to his abode. In
numerous parts of Holland its nest, built on the chimney-
top, remains undisturbed for many succeeding years, and
the owners constantly return with unerring sagacity to
the well known spot. The joy which they manifest on
again taking possession of their deserted dwelling, and
the attachment which they testify towards their bene-
volent hosts, are familiar in the mouths of every one.
Their affection for their young is one of the most remark-
able traits in their character. It is almost superfluous to
repeat the history of the female which, at the conflagra-
tion of Delft, after repeated and unsuccessful attempts to
carry off her young, chose rather to perish with them in
tin- general ruin than to leave them to their fate: and
HISTORY OF BIIIDS.
but in the stork is white and brown. The
nails of the toes of the stork also are very pe-
culiar, not being clawed like those of other
birds, but flat like the nails of a man.
These, however, are but very slight differ-
there are many other and well authenticated proofs of a
similar disposition. They generally lay from two to
four eggs, of a dingy yellowish white, rather longer than
those of the goose, but not so broad. The incubation
lasts for a month, the male sharing in the task during
the absence of the female in search of food. When the
young birds are hatched, they are carefully fed by their
parents, who watch over them with the closest anxiety.
As soon as they become capable of flying, the parents
exercise them in it by degrees, carrying them at first
upon their own wings, and then conducting them in
short circular flights around their nest. When in search
of food, the stork is commonly seen in its usual attitude
of repose, standing upon one leg, with its long neck bent
backwards, its head resting 011 its shoulder, and its eye
steadily fixed. Its motions are slow and measured, the
length of its steps corresponding with that of its legs. In
flight its head and neck are directed straight forwards,
and its legs extended backwards ; an awkward and ap-
parently constrained position, but that which is best cal-
culated for enabling it to cleave the air with rapidity.
The large extent of its wings and the comparative light-
ness of its body are also admirably adapted to the lofty
pitch at which it flies, and to its long continuance upon
the wing. The storks generally migrate about the be-
ginning of August, and the preparations • for their de-
parture usually occupy several weeks. They appear
gradually to assemble in one spot from the whole of the
surrounding district to the number of many hundreds,
making when they meet that peculiar clattering with
their beaks, which appears to serve them in the place of
voice. As soon as their number is completed, the entire
body mount at once into the air, without noise or con-
fusion, and are speedily lost sight of in the loftiness of
their flight. Their departure has rarely been witnessed
by scientific observers ; and many incredible stories have
consequently been told respecting it. They return to
Europe in smaller bands in March and April.
The Black Stork resembles the White in form and
proportions, but is somewhat smaller in size ; and tho hue
of its plumage, as might be gathered from the epithets
applied to the two birds, is very different. But these
appl
epithets, if taken strictly, are far from being correct :
the White Stork having, as we have seen, a portion o!
its plumage black ; and the Black exhibiting a variety
of shades, of which, however, that from which it derives
its name is the most predominant. Its bill, like that of
the former bird, is full seven inches in length, and of a
dusky red, approaching to orange ; as are also the legs
and toes. The colour of the naked skin surrounding
the eyes is dull red, and that of the irides hazel. On
the head, neck, upper surface of the body and wings,
THE STORK.
177
ences ; and its true distinct ions are to be taken
rather from its manners than its form. The
crane has a loud piercing voice; the stork is
silent, and produces no other noise than the
clacking of its under-chap against the upper :
the crane has a strange convolution ot the
wind-pipe through the breast-bone; the stork's
is formed in the usual manner : the crane feeds
mostly upon vegetables and grain ; the stork
preys entirely upon frogs, h'shes, birds, and
serpents : 4he crane avoids towns and popu-
lous places ; the stork lives always in or near
them : the crane lays but two eggs ; and the
stork generally four. These are distinctions
fully sufficient to mark the species, notwith-
standing the similitude of their form.
Storks are birds of passage, like the former;
but it is hard to say whence they come, or
whither they go. When they withdraw from
Europe, they all assemble on a particular day,
and never leave one of their company behind
them. They take their flight in the night ;
which is the reason the way they go has never
been observed. They generally return into
Europe in the middle of March, and make
their nests on the tops of chimneys and houses,
as well as of high trees. The females lay
from two to four eggs, of the size and colour
of those of geese ; and the male and female
the feathers are of a deep glossy black, intermingled
with varying shades and reflections of violet and green,
which becomes more strongly marked on the back and
wings. Those of the whole under surface from the bot-
tom of the neck to the hase of the tail are white. The
tail itself is black. The wings are extremely long, and
so powerful as to raise the bird, in its flights and migra-
tions, to such a height in the air as to be almost invisi-
ble to the human eye. Like the foregoing species, the
black stork is a migratory bird, seeking the more southern
parts of Europe during the inclemency of winter. In the
spring it advances to a much higher latitude than the
white, visiting even Russia and Siberia, and passing
over Sweden towards the north in considerable num-
bers. But it seldom comes so far westward as the
other, being almost unknown in Holland, although
common in the eastern departments of France and
throughout the whole of Germany. A solitary instance
of its occurrence in Great Britain fell under the
notice of the late Colonel Montagu, and forms the
subject of an interesting paper in the twelfth volume
of the Linnean Transactions. The character of the
black stork is in one respect diametrically opposed to
that of the white. Instead of domesticating itself as it
were with man, it shuns his society and makes its tem-
porary dwelling in the most secluded spots, frequenting
impenetrable morasses or the hanks of such rivers and
lakes as are seldom disturbed by the presence of in-
truders, and building its nest on the summits of the
loftiest pines. Its food is exactly similar to that of its
more social fellow; and their manners, except in this
peculiar sullenness on the part of the black stork, closely
correspond. It submits itself with perfect resignation
to captivity, never using its powerful bill as a weapon
of offence against its companions. It appears to have no
other voice than the clattering sound which it produces
by the snapping of its mandibles. — Zoological Society
Gardens.
VOL. u.
sit upon them by turns. They are a month
in hatching ; and when their young are ex-
cluded, they are particularly solicitous for
their safety.
As the food of these birds consists, in a
great measure, of frogs and serpents, it is not
to be wondered at that different nations have
paid them a particular veneration. The Dutch
are very solicitous for the preservation of the
stork in every part of their republic. This
bird seems to have taken refuge among their
towns ; and builds on the tops of their houses
without any molestation. There it is seen
resting familiarly in the streets, and protected
as well by the laws as the prejudices of the
people. They have even got an opinion that
it will only live in a republic ; and that story
of its filial piety, first falsely propagated of
the crane, has, in part, been ascribed to the
stork. But it is not in republics alone that the
stork is seen to reside, as there are few towns
on the continent, in low marshy situations,
but have the stork as an inmate among them;
as well the despotic princes of Germany, as
the little republics of Italy.1
The stork seems a general favourite even
among the moderns ; but with the ancient
Egyptians their regard was carried even to
adoration. This enlightened people, who wor-
shipped the Deity in his creatures, paid di-
vine honours to the ibis, as is universally
known. It has been usually supposed that
the ancient ibis is the same with that which
1 In Bagdad, and some other of the more remote citie;
of Asiatic Turkey, the nests of storks present a very re-
markable appearance. The minors, or towers of the
mosques, at Constantinople, and most other parts of Tur-
key, are tall, round pillars, surmounted by a very pointed
cone; but at Bagdad, the absence of this cone enables
these birds to build their nests upon the summit ; and as
the diameter of the nest generally corresponds with that
of the minar, it appears as a part of it, and a regular ter-
mination to it. The curious effect is not a little in-
creased by the appearance of the bird itself in the nest,
which thus, as part of the body and its long neck are
seen above the edge, appears the crowning object of the
pillar. The Turks hold the bird in more than even the
usual esteem, which may be partly attributed to its ges-
ticulations, which they suppose to resemble some ot their
own attitudes of devotion. Their name for the stork is
Hadji Lug -lug : theformer word, which is the honorary title
of a pilgrim, it owes to its annual migrations, and its ap-
parent attachment to their sacred edifices. The latter
portion of the denomination, "lug-lug," is an attempt
to imitate the noise which the bird makes. The regard
of the Turks is so far understood and returned by the in-
telligent stork, that, in cities of mixed population, it
rarely or never builds its nest on any other than a Tur-
kish house. The Rev. J. Hartley, in his " Researches
in Greece and the Levant," remarks : — "The Greeks
have carried their antipathy to the Turks to such a pitch,
that they have destroyed all the storks in the country.
On inquiring the reason, I was informed ' The stork is
a Turkish bird : it never used to build its nest on the
house of a Greek, but always on that of a Turk !' The
tenderness which the Turks display towards the featherou
tribe is indeed a pleasing trait in their character."
Z
178
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
£oes at present by the same name ; a bird of |
tte stork kind, of about the size of a curlew,
all over black, with a bill very thick in the
beginning, but ending- in a point, for the better
seizing its prey, which is caterpillars, locusts,
and serpents. But however useful the mo-
dern ibis may be in ridding Egypt, where it
resides, of the vermin and venomous ani-
mals that infest it; yet it is much doubled
whether this be the same ibis to which
the ancients paid their adoration. Mail-
let, the French consul at Cairo, observes,
that it is very hard to determine what bird
the ancient ibis certainly was, because there
are cranes, storks, hawk?, kites, and falcons,
that are all equally enemies to serpents, and
devour a vast number. He farther adds, that
in the month of May, when the winds begin
to blow from the internal parts of Africa,
there are several sorts of birds that come down
from Upper Egypt, from whence they are
driven by the rains, in search of a better
habitation, and that it is then they do this
country such signal services. Nor does the
figure of this bird, hieroglyphically repre-
sented on their pillars, mark it sufficiently to
make the distinction. Besides, the modern
ibis is not peculiar to Egypt, as it is to be
seen but at certain seasons of the year ;
whereas we are informed by Pliny, that this
bird was seen no where else. It is thought,
therefore, that the true ibis is a bird of the
vulture kind, described above, and called by
some the capon of Pharaoh, which not only is
a devourer of serpents, but will follow the
caravans that go to Mecca, to feed upon the
oft'al of the animals that are killed on the
journey.1
1 Perrftult first introduced the erroneous notion that
the ibis of antiquity was a species of Tantalus, in which
he WR.S followed implicitly by naturalists throughout the
whole of the last century. Brisson, Burton, Linnaeus,
and Latham, all united to give it currency ; and the
Tantalus ibis of the two latter authors was universally
regarded as the sacred bird. Our adventurous country-
man Bruce was the first to throw a doubt upon the
authenticity of this determination, and to point out the
identity between the figures represented on the ancient
monuments, the mummies preserved in the Egyptian
tombs, and a living bird common on the banks ot' the
Nile and known to the Arabs by the name of Abou
Hannes. But it was not until after the return of the
French expedition from Egypt that the question was
definitely settled by a careful anatomical comparison of
the ancient mummies and recent specimens then brought
home by Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire and Savigny. From
the examination of these materials, M. Cuvier was
enabled to verify Bruce's assertion, and to restore to
science a bird which after having formed for centuries
the object of a nation's adoration, had fallen into obli-
vion, and was wholly unknown to modern naturalists.
At the same time he pointed out those distinctive
characters on which M. Lacepede founded the genus
ibis, formally established by M. Cuvier himself in the
first edition of his Regne Animal.
The ibis genus is characterized by a long and slender
CHAP. IV.
OF THE BALEARIC AND OTHER FOREIGN
CRANES.
HAVING ended the last chapter with doubts
concerning the ibis, we shall begin this with
bill, nearly square at its base, where it is oLless breadth
than the head, almost straight for about one half of its
length, and having the remaining part gradually curved
downwards, blunt at its point and without any notch;
nostrils situated near the base of the bill at the com-
mencement of a groove which is continued along each
side of its upper surface as far as to its point; the head,
and sometimes the neck, devoid of feathers to an extent
varying in the different races; wings of moderate
length; tarsi slender; and toes webbed at the base, the
hinder one placed somewhat above the level of the
others but being of sufficient length to rest upon the
earth. In many of these characters we observe a con-
siderable deviation from those of the storks and other
typical examples of the family with which the ibis is
associated, and a marked approach to the curlews.
From the natural habits and organization of the ibis,
confirmed by analogy, and further corroborated by the
testimony of the modern Egyptians, it does not appear
that it feeds upon reptiles. We must, then, look for
other reasons than the destruction of serpents, for the
veneration paid to the ibis by the ancient Egyptians,
who admitted it even into their temples, and prohibited
the killing of it, under pain of death. In a country,
where the people, very ignorant, were governed only
by superstitious ideas, it was natural that fictions should
have been imagined, to express with energy the happy
influences of that phenomenon which every year at-
tracts the ibis into Egypt, and retains it thece. Its
constant presence at the epoch of that inundation, which
annually triumphs over all the sources of decay, and
assures the fertility of the soil, must have appeared to
the priests and the persons at the head of government
admirably calculated to make a lively impression on the
minds of the people, to lead them to suppose super-
natural and secret relations between the movements of
the Nile and the sojourn of these inoffensive birds, and
to consider the latter as the cause of effects exclusively
owing to the overflow of the river. Besides the white
and black ibis, another ibis, entirely black, was equally
reverenced in Egypt, and embalmed in a similar man-
ner. This one is more elegant and slender than the
other in its external form, and its internal organs are
also more contracted. M. Savigny has opened about
twenty individuals of this species, and has found nothing
in their very narrow gizzard, but small fluviatile shells,
with some debris of vegetables, which probably enveloped
the shells at the moment in which they were swallowed,
and cannot he considered as properly constituting any
part of the aliment of these birds. The two species
have a powerful and elevated flight. In this action
the neck and feet are extended horizontally, and from
time to time, the birds, all together, send forth deep and
hoarse cries, more powerful in the white ibis than in the
black. When these birds alight on lands which they
have newly discovered, they remain crowded against
each other, and may be seen for entire hours, occupied
in searching the mud with their bills, advancing slowly,
step by step, and never springing with rapidity like the
curlews. The ibis does not nestle in Egypt.
The Scarlet Ibis (see Plate XIX fig. 21.) is a native
of America. These birds live almost always in flocks,
and the old ones most frequently form distinct and sepa-
THE CRANE.
179
doubts concerning the Balearic Crane. Pliny
has described a bird of the crane kind with a
topping resembling that of the green wood-
pecker. This bird for a long time continued
unknown, till we became acquainted Avith
the birds of tropical climates, when one of the
crane kind with a topping was brought into
Europe, and described by Aldrovandus as
Pliny's Balearic crane. Hence these birds,
which have since been brought from Africa
and the east in numbers, have received the
name of Balearic cranes, but without any just
foundation. The real Balearic crane of Pliny
seems to be the lesser ash-coloured heron,
with a topping of narrow white feathers ; or
perhaps the egret, with two long feathers that
fall back from the sides of the head. The
bird that we are about to describe under the
name of the Balearic crane, was unknown
to the ancients, and the heron or egret ought
to be reinstated in their just title to that
name.
When we see a very extraordinary ani-
mal, we are naturally led to suppose that
there must be something also remarkable in
its history, to correspond with the singularity
of its figure. But it often happens that his-
tory tails on those occasions where AVC most
desire information. In the present instance,
in particular, no bird presents to the eye a
more whimsical figure than this, which we
must be content to call the Balearic Crane.
It is pretty nearly of the shape and size of
the ordinary crane, with long legs and a long
rate hands. Their flight is rapid and sustained, but
they do not put themselves in motion, except in the
morning and evening, for the purpose of seeking their
food, which consists of insects, shell animals, and small
fishes, collected in the slime along the sea-coast, or at
the mouths of rivers. During the greatest heat of the
day and at night, they remain in sheltered places. The
broods commence in January, and are concluded in
May. They deposit their eggs, which are greenish, in
large tufts of grass, or on little piles collected in the
brush-wood. These ibides are spread throughout the
warmest countries of America, and being not at all wild
they are easily accustomed to live in houses. M. de la
Borde mentions his having kept one for more than two
years. It was fed with bread, raw or cooked meat, and
fish ; but it gave the preference to the entrails of fish
and fowl. It would frequently occupy itself in seeking
for earth-worms around the house, or following the
labours of a negro gardener. In the evening, this bird
\vould retire of itself into a poultry-house, where it re-
posed in the midst of a hundred fowl. H would perch
on the highest bar, awake very early in the morning, fly
round the house, and sometimes proceed to the sea-shore.
It would attack cats with great intrepidity. It would
have lived longer, had it not been accidentally killed,
by a fowler, who mistook it for a wild curlew, when it
was on a pond. All this shows the possibility of rear-
ing in the warmer climates of Europe a bird which,
according to the testimony of Laet, has already pro-
duced in a domestic state, and may, perhaps, one day
he turned to good account. (For Wood Ibis, see Plate
XIX. fig. 12.)
neck, like others of the kind ; but the bill is
shorter, and the colour of the feathers of a
dark greenish gray. The head and throat
form the most striking part of this bird's
figure. On the head is seen, standing up, a
thick round crest, made of bristles, spreading
every way, and resembling rays standing out
in different directions. The longest of these
rays are about three inches and a half, and
they are all topped with a kind of black
tassels, which give them a beautiful appear-
ance. The sides of the head and cheeks are
bare, whitish, and edged with red ; while
underneath the throat hangs a kind of bag or
wattle, like that of a cock^ but not divided
into two, to give this odd composition a higher
finishing, the eye is large and staring; the
pupil black and big, surrounded with a gold-
coloured iris, that completes the bird's very
singular appearance.
From such a peculiar figure, we might be
led to wish for a minute history of its man-
ners; but of these we can give but slight
information. This bird comes from the coast
of Africa and the Cape de Verd islands. As
it runs, it stretches out its wings, and goes
very swiftly, otherwise its usual motion is
very slow. In their domestic state, they walk
very deliberately among other poultry, and
suffer themselves to be approached (at least
it was so with that I saw) by every spectator.
They never roost in houses ; but about night,
when they are disposed to go to rest, they
search out some high wall, on which they
perch in the manner of a peacock. Indeed,
they so much resemble that bird in manners
and disposition, that some have described
them by the name of the sea peacock: and
Ray has been inclined to rank them in the
same family. But though their voice and
roosting be similar, their food, which is en-
tirely upon greens, vegetables, and barley,
seems to make some difference.
In this chapter of foreign birds of the
crane kind, it will be proper to mention the
Jabiru and the Jabiru Guacu, both natives of
Brazil. Of these great birds of the crane
kind we know but little, except the general
outline of their figure, and the enormous bills
which we often see preserved in the cabinets
of the curious. The bill of the latter is red,
and thirteen inches long; the bill of the for-
mer is black, and is found to be eleven.
Neither of them, however, are of a size pro-
portioned to their immoderate length of bill.
The jabiru guacu is not above the size of a,
common stork, while the jabiru with the
smallest bill exceeds the size of a swan.
They are both covered with white feathers,
except the head and neck, that are naked:
and their principal difference is in the size of
the body and the make of the bill ; the lower
180
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
chap of the jabiru guaca being broad, and
bending upwards.1
A bird still more extraordinary may be
added to this class, call the anhima, and, like
the two former, a native of Brazil. This is
a water-fowl of the rapacious kind, and bigger
than a swan. The head, which is small for
the size of the body, bears a black bill, which
is not above two inches long ; but what dis-
tinguishes it in particular is a horn growing
from the forehead as long as the bill, and
bending forward like that of the fabulous uni-
corn of the ancients. This horn is not much
thicker than a crow-quill, as round as if it
were turned in a lathe, and of an ivory-colour.
But this is not the only instrument of battle
this formidable bird carries ; it seems to be
armed at all points; for at the fore-part of
each wing, at the second joint, spring two
straight triangular spurs, about as thick as
one's little finger : the foremost of these goads
or spurs is above an inch long ; the hinder is
shorter, and both of a dusky colour. The
claws also are long and sharp ; the colour is
black and white ; and they cry terribly loud,
sounding something like Vyhoo, Vyhoo. They
are never found alone, but always in pairs;
the cock and hen prowl together ; and their
fidelity is said to be such, that when one dies,
the other never departs from the carcase, but
dies with its companion. It makes its nest of
clay, near the bodies of trees, upon the ground,
of the shape of an oven.
1 The American Jabiru is described by Azara under
the name of Collier Rouge, and is called in Paraguay
,4iaiui. It also inhabits Brazil, where it is named
Jabiru Guam, and is found in some other parts of
South America. It is the Negro of the Hollanders, and
the Touyouyou of the native tribes of French Guiana.
It is one of the largest and strongest of shore-birds. It
is mounted on very high stilts, and its body is as bulky
and more elongated than that of the swan. The skin
of the neck is wrinkled, and so flaccid that it depends
like the dew-lap of a cow. This circumstance has given
rise to the name of Jabiru, which in the language of the
Guaranis signifies any thing inflated by the wind. The
legs, very robust, are covered with large scales, and de-
nuded of feathers for about the space of six inches. The
jabirus constantly inhabit the humid grounds of South
America, and are found in considerable abundance in
the inundated savannahs of Guiana. They never quit
their sojourn but to rise slowly into the heights of the
atmosphere, where they support themselves for a veiy
long time. These birds are voracious, and live only on
fish and reptiles. They construct, on lofty trees, with
long branches carefully interlaced, a spacious nest, in
which the female deposits but one or two eggs. 1 ha
young are fed with fish until they are strong enough to
descend from the nest, and are defended by the parents
t with great courage. This nest is said to serve for seve-
ral broods. The jabirus appear to be less wild in Guiana
than in Paraguay. Hajon tells us that in 1773 a little
negro contrived, by merely concealing his face with the
branch of a tree, to approach a young one that had al-
most acquired its full growth, sufficiently near to seize
it by the legs and catch it. The flesh of the old is hard
and oily: but that of the young is tender, and tolerably
good eating. ( For Senegal Jabirus. see Plate XX. fig. 2.)
One bird more may be subjoined to this
class, not for the oddity of its figure, but the
peculiarity of its manners. It is vulgarly
called by our sailors the buffoon bird, and by
the French the demoiselle, or lady. The same
qualities have procured it these different ap-
pellations from two nations, who, on more oc-
casions than this, look upon the same objects
in very different lights. The peculiar ges-
tures and contortions of this bird, the proper
name of which is the Numidian Crane, (see
Plate XX. fig. 1.) are extremely singular ; and
the French, who are skilled in the arts of ele-
gant gesticulation, consider all its motions as
lady-like and graceful. Our English sail-
ors, however, who have not entered so deeply
into the dancing art, think, that while thus in
motion, the bird cuts but a very ridiculous
figure. It stoops, rises, lifts one wing, then
another, turns round, sails forward, then back
again ; all which highly diverts our seamen ;
not imagining, perhaps, that all these contor-
tions are but the awkward expression, not of
the poor animal's pleasures, but its fears.
It is a very scarce bird ; the plumage is of
a leaden gray ; but it is distinguished by fine
white feathers, consisting of long fibres, which
fall from the back of the head, about four
inches long ; while the fore-part of the neck is
adorned with black feathers, composed of very
fine, soft, and long fibres, that hang down
upon the stomach, and give the bird a very
graceful appearance. The ancients have des-
cribed a buffoon bird ; but there are many
reasons to believe that theirs is not the Numi-
dian crane. It comes from that country from
whence it has taken its name.2
CHAP. V.
OF THE HERON AND ITS VARIETIES.3
BIRDS of the Crane, the Stork, and the He-
ron kind, bear a very strong affinity to each
2 M. de Savigny, in his observations on the system of
the birds of Egypt and Syria, demonstrates, with much
acumen, that the bird in question here is the Crex of
the Greeks: and he also mentions that it is the Bilio, or
Grus, or Balearica, and Grus Minor, of the Latins,
though ornithologists place these denominations in the
synonymy of the preceding species. These birds are
found in various parts of Africa and Asia, in the inte-
rior of th e countries of the Cape of Good Hope, but more
particularly in the ancient Numidia; and they are ob-
served to arrive in Egypt at the epochof the inundation
of the Nile. Some are also found on the southern coasts
of the Black Sea and the Caspian, but it is invariably
marshy places which thpy frequent. They feed indiffe-
rently on grains, insects, worms, shell-mollusca, and
even small fishes, which they catch with great dex-
terity. Their cry resembles the clamorous tones of
the rrnne, but is much more feehie. and sharper.
* Cranes are distinguished by having the head bald.
THE HERON
181
other: and their differences are not easily dis-
cernible. As for the crane and the stork, they
differ rather in their nature and internal confer-
mation, than in their external figure ; but still
Storks have the orbits round the eyes naked ; and Herons
have the middle daw serrated internally. Herons com-
prehend the species known under the names of Egrets.
Bitterns, Crab-eaters, &c. In the genus Ardea, now
limited to the Herons and Bitterns, the bill is consider-
ably longer than the head, sharp at the point, straight or
very slightfy curved, compressed laterally, cleft to the
very base, and frequently armed at the edges with sharp
denticulations ; the upper mandible is marked on either
side by a longitudinal groove, in which the linear nostrils
are perforated near the base of the bill ; from the bill to
the eyes extends a space destitute of feathers ; the tarsi
are long and covered with large scales ; the legs naked
tor some distance above the knee-joints ; the toes long
and slender, the outer one united to the middle by a
membranous expansion, and the posterior attached so low
down as to allow of its resting its whole length upon the
ground ; the anterior claws of moderate length, slightly
curved and pointed, with a denticulated dilatation on the
inner side of that of the middle toe ; the posterior claw
very long, arched, and pointed; and the wings long,
with the first qnill-feathers shorter than the two
succeeding ones, which are the longest of the series.
Thus restricted, the genus is extremely numerous, for
M. Vioillot states it to be composed of no fewer than
eighty species. These are distributed by M. Cuvier
into six sections or subdivisions, among which the
true herons are principally distinguished by the great
length of their legs and neck, the long pendant
plumes of the lower part of the neck, and the per-
fectly straight direction of the bill.
The Common Heron is, as its name implies, one of
the most frequent and best known species of the group.
It is about 3 feet 4 inches in length, measuring
from the end of the anterior toes to the extremity ol
the bill ; from the bill to the tail it measures nearly 3
feet, of -which the tail forms about 8 inches ; and the
expanse of its wings exceeds 5 feet. It does not, how-
ever, weigh more than 3j Ibs., and its buoyancy in Might
is consequently very considerable. The general colour
of the whole upper surface of the bird is an ashy gray
with somewhat of a bluish tinge. This is deeper on tiie>
hack of the head, which is likewise ornamented with a
dependant crest of narrow blackish feathers, 3 inches
or more in length, overshadowing the back of the neck.
The upper part and bides of the neck are of a lighc
gray, running into the pure ash-colour of the back,
and the latter passing into a deeper shade of ashy-gray
upon the tail. The wing-coverts are nearly of the same
colour, with a slight tinge of reddish; arid the quill-fea-
thers black, with a bluish gloss. On the under parts tho
ground-colour ot the plumage is a pure white, marked
they may be known asunder, as well by their
colour as by the stork's claws, which are very
peculiar, and more resembling a man's nails
than the claws of a bird. The heron may be
on the fore part of the neck and breast with large longi-
tudinal black drops. The abdomen, upper part of the
throat, and legs, are pure white. The naked space be-
tween the bill and eyes is of a grayish yellow ; the iris is
yellow ; the bill bluish above and yellow beneath ; the
legs, which are bare of feathers for two or three inches
above the knees, are somewhat flesh-coloured in their
upper part and grayish brown below ; and the claws
black. The middle toe, with the addition of its claw,
does not measure more than four inches ; and is conse-
quently much shorter than the tarsus, which exceeds six
inches in length. Beneath the anterior half of the bill,
which is about five inches long, the-skiti is capable of
considerable distention. There is little difference in
the colours of the female ; but the young bird has no
crest on the head, and its back and wings are of a darker
gray.
The herons may be regarded as birds of passage, but
their stay and departure seems everywhere to be regu-
lated by their means of procuring food. They are no
where very abundant, although they are met with in.
almost every part of the northern and temperate regions
of the old continent, and perhaps also in the new. In
Europe they migrate as far northward as Drontheim,
and are found even in Russia and Poland, but they are
most common in England, France, and Holland. They
build their nests, in numerous companies, on lofty trees,
and more especially oaks, in the immediate neighbour-
hood of streams and marshes. The nest is of large
dimensions, constructed externally of twigs, dry herbs,
and reeds, and lined internally with feathers and wool.
In this the female deposits her eggs, three or four in
number, about the size of those of the common hen, but
more elongated, and of a greenish brown colour without
spots. The male does not share in the task of incuba-
tion ; but flies abroad in search of food, while the female
tends her charge at home. They are particularly fond
of the society of ravens, but the latter often carry off
their eggs ; and the falcons, weasels, and martens, are
dangerous enemies to their young. When the young
are hatched, both parents assist in providing them with
food until they are able to fly, and bring them abund-
ance of fish for their support. But as soon as they be-
come capable of a continued flight they are driven from
the nest, and proceed each in a separate direction to
seek its own subsistence wherever it may be most plenti-
fully procured. The old birds quit their nests about the
middle of August, and wander from stream to stream,
and from lake to lake, forming themselves into gradually
increasing bands as the colder season approaches. To-
wards the beginning of September they are olten met
with in companies of from twenty to thirty in a spot;
but as soon as the frost sets in, they begin their migra-
tion to the southward, taking their flight by moonlight,
like the cranes, but not with the same order and regu-
larity. They return about the latter end of March, when
the severity of the season is no longer to be dreaded.
Some few, however, remain throughout the winter, espe-
cially when the weather is variable, and are occasion-
ally seen, in company with the wild ducks, at the com-
mencement of a sudden thaw. They usually disappear
with the return of frost. Their food consists principally,
like that of most of the birds of the wading order, of fresh-
water fishes, but more particularly of the young fry of
carp and trout. In pursuit of these they wade gently
into the water, where the fish abound, and stand in it
up to their knees, (or rather to their knee, for they rest
only on one foot,) with their heads drawn in by the fold-
ing of their long necks upon the breast, quietly watching
182
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
distinguished from both, as well by its size,
which is much less, as by its bill, which in
proportion is much longer ; but particularly
by the middle claw on each foot, which is
toothed like a saw, for the better seizing and
holding its slippery prey. Should other
marks fail, however, there is anatomical dis-
tinction, in which herons differ from all other
birds ; which is, that they have but one
coecum, and all other birds have two.
Of this tribe, Brisson has enumerated not
less than forty-seven sorts, all differing in
their size, figure, and plumage; and with ta-
lents adapted to their place of residence, or
the approach of their prey. It has been remarked, not
merely by the vulgar, but by observers deserving of' im-
plicit confidence, that the fish generally swarm around
them in sufficient numbers to afford them a plentiful sup-
ply ; and this has been commonly accounted for on the
supposition that their legs communicate a peculiar odour
to the water, which entices the fish to their destruction.
But M Bechtein, who vouches for the fact as one which
he had seen innumerable times, suspects that the source
of attraction is in the excrements of the bird, which it
lets fall into the water, and which the fish, as is proved
by experiment, devour with the utmost avidity. The
time of fishing is usually before sunrise or after sunset.
They generally swallow their prey entire, and many
stories are current of eels escaping alive through their
intestines, and being a second time Devoured by the
voracious birds. Besides fishes, frogs form a consider-
able portion of their food, and in winter they are fre-
quently compelled to content themselves with snails
and worms, or. according to M. de Salerne, even with
the duck-weed that floats upon the stagnant waters.
At such times they occasionally become so emaciated
as to appear to consist of little else than feathers and
bones.
Herons are taken in various ways. Sometimes they
are shot while fishing, or sweeping leisurely along the
banks; but they are so shy that the sportsman can rare-
ly get within gunshot of them. Occasionally a living
fish is attached to a hook at the end of a line, and left
to swim in the waters which they ere known to fre-
quent; and they are thus caught as it were by angling.
When falconry was in fashion, hawking at the heron
was regarded as the most noble of its branches; the
powerful wings of the heron, unequalled by any bird of
its size, enabling it to mount in the air to an almost in-
rredible height, and thus to put the powers of the falcon
to their proof. For this purpose it was customary to es-
tablish the herons in a proper situation, to which they
were attached by precautions taken for providing them
with necessaries. These heronries, as they were called,
have now become extremely rare ; but one of them may
still be seen at Didlington in Norfolk, the seat of Colo-
nel Wilson.
The heron, when taken young, readily becomes habi-
tuated to captivity ; but the old birds generally refuse
all sustenance, and perish of inanition. In former days,
when it was necessary to procure such for the training
of the hawks, it was usual, according to Sir J. Sebright,
" to cram them with food, and to tie a piece of mat
round their necks to prevent them from throwing it up
again." Sometimes, however, the old birds have been
known to become tame and even domesticated ; and the
same distinguished authority to whom we have just re-
ferred, mentions an instance that occurred within his
own knowledge, in which, after recourse had been had
to the operation of cramming and tying down the food,
Uiu bird " became so tame as to follow its master on the
their peculiar pursuits. But, how various so'-
ever the heron kind may be in their colours
or their bills, they all seem possessed of the
same manners, and have but one character of
cowardice, rapacity, and indolence, yet insa-
tiable hunger. Other birds are found to grow
fat by an abundant supply of food ; but these,
though excessively destructive and voracious,
are ever found to have lean and carrion bodies,
as if not even plenty were sufficient for their
support.
The common heron is remarkably light, in
proportion to its bulk, scarcely weighing three
pounds and a half, yet it expands a breadth
wing to the distance of some miles, to come into the
house when called, and to take food from the hand."
The Night Heron, so called from the hoarse croaking
which it utters during the night, is about twenty inches
in length. The bill'is three inches and three quarters
long, slightly arched, strong, and black, inclining to yel-
low at the base ; the skin from the beak round the eyes
is bare, and of a greenish colour; irides yellow. A
white line is extended from the beak over each eye ; a
black patch, glossed with green, covers the crown of the
head and nape of the neck, from which three long nar-
row white feathers, tipped with brown, hang loose and
waving ; the hinder part of the neck, coverts of the
wings, the sides and tail, are a?h-coloured ; throat white ;
fore part of the neck, breast, and belly, yellowish white
or bufl"; the back black ; the legs a greenish yellow.
The female is nearly of the same size as the male ; but
she differs considerably in her plumage, which is less
bright and distinct, being more blended with clay or
dirty white, brown, gray, and rusty ash-colour ; and she
has not the delicate plumes that flow from the head of
the male. The night-heron frequents the sea-shores,
rivers, and inland marshes; and lives upon insects,
slugs, frogs, reptiles, and fish. It remains concealed
during the day, and does not roam abroad until the ap-
proach of night, when it is heard and known by its harsh,
rough, and disagreeable cry, which is by some compared
to the noise made by a person straining to vomit. Some
ornithologists affirm, that the female builds her nest in
trees ; others, that she builds it on rocky cliffs ; probably
both accounts are right. She lays three or four white
eggs.
Crested Purple Heron. — It inhabits Asia, and is two
feet ten inches in length. The bill is brown, tipt with
dusky brown, and is yellowish beneath ; the crest is of a
black colour ; the orbits naked and yellowish ; from the
angle of the mouth to the hind head it has a black streak ;
the chin is white; upper half of the neck rufous, with
three longitudinal black lines ; the rest olive behind,
and rufous at the sides, and reddish on the fore-part ;
the feathers are long, narrow, each marked with a black
spot : a black band passes from the middle of the breast
to the vent ; the lower tail coverts are white, mixed
with rufous and tipt with black; angles of the wings
rufous; the quill feathers dusky; and the legs greenish;
hind-head black ; the crest pendant, consisting of two
long feathers ; the body is of an olive colour, and be-
neath it is purplish.
The smaller herons with shorter feet have been called
Crab-eaters. The Egrets are herons, whose plumes on
the lower part of the back are, at a certain period, long
and attenuated. These plumes were formerly used to
decorate the helmets of warriors ; they are now applied
to a gentler and better purpose, in ornamenting the
head-dres«es of the European ladies, and the turbans of
the Persians and Turks. The LITTLE EGRET (JSorett-
gurzetla) is figured iu coloured Plate LX1. ii;f. 4.
THE HERON.
183
of wing, which is five feet from tip to tip. Its
bill is very long, being five inches from the
point to the base; its claws are long, sharp,
and the middlemost toothed like a saw. Yet,
thus armed as it appears for war, it is indo-
lent and cowardly, and even flies at the ap-
proach of a sparrow-hawk. It was once the
amusement of the great to pursue this timor-
ous creature with the falcon : and heron-hawk,
ing was so favourite a diversion among our
ancestors, that laws were enacted for the pre-
servation of the species ; and the person who
destroyed their eggs was liable to a penalty
of twenty shillings for each offence.
At present, however, the defects of the ill-
judged policy of our ancestors, is felt by their
posterity; for, as the amusement of hawking
has given place to the more useful method of
stocking fish-ponds, the heron is now become
a most formidable enemy. Of all other birds,
this commits the greatest devastation in fresh
waters ; and there is scarce a fish, though
never so large, that he will not strike at and
wound, thougli unable to carry it away. But
the smaller fry are his chief subsistence ; these,
pursued by their larger fellows of the deep,
are obliged to take refuge in shallow waters,
where they find the heron a still more formid-
able enemy. His method is to wade as far as
he can go into the water, and there patiently
wait the approach of his prey, which, when it
comes within sight, he darts upon with inevit-
able aim. In this manner he is found to des-
troy more in a week than an otter in three
months. " I have seen a heron," says Wil-
loughby, " that had been shot, that had seven-
teen carps in its belly at once, which he will
digest in six or seven hours, and then to fish-
ing again. I have seen a carp," continues
he, " taken out of a heron's belly, nine inches
and a half long. Several gentlemen who
kept tame herons, to try what quantity one of
them would eat in a day, have put several
smaller roach and dace in a tub : and they have
found him eat fifty in a day, one day with
another. In this manner a single heron will
destroy fifteen thousand carp in half a year."
So great are the digestive powers of this
fresh-water tyrant, and so detrimental to those
who stock ponds with fish. In general, he is
seen taking his g-loomy stand by the lake's
side, as if meditating mischief, motionless,
and gorged with plunder. His usual attitude
on this occasion is to sink his long neck be-
tween his shoulders, and keep his head turned
on one side, as if eyeing the pool more in-
tently. When the call of hunger returns, the
toil of an hour or two is generally sufficient
to fill his capacious stomach ; and he retires
long before night to his retreat in the woods.
Early in the morning, however, he is seen
assiduous at his usual occupation.
But, though in seasons of fine weather the
heron can always find a plentiful supply ; in
cold or stormy seasons, his prey is no longer
within reach : the fish that before came into
the shallow water, now keep in the deep ; as
they find it to be the warmest situation. Frogs
and lizards also seldom venture from their
lurking places ; and the heron is obliged to
support himself upon his long habits of pa-
tience, and even to take up with the weeds
that gro*w upon the water. At those times he
contracts a consumptive disposition, which
succeeding plenty is not able to remove ; so
that the meagre glutton spends his time be-
tween want and riot, and feels, alternately the
extremes of famine and excess. Hence, not-
withstanding the care with which he takes
his prey, and the amazing quantity he devours,
the heron is always lean and emaciated ; and
though his crop be usually found full, yet his
flesh is scarcely sufficient to cover the bones.
The heron usually takes his prey by wading
into the water; yet it must not be supposed
that he does not also take it upon the wing.
In fact, much of his fishing is performed in
this manner ; but he never hovers' over deep
waters, as there his prey is enabled to escape
him by sinking to the bottom. In shallow
places he darts with more certainty ; for
though the fish at sight of its enemy instantly
descends, yet the heron, with his long bill and
legs, instantly pins it to the bottom, and thus
seizes it securely. In this manner, after hav-
ing been seen with his long neck for above a
minute under water, he rises upon the wing,
with a trout or an eel struggling in his bill to
get free. The greedy bird, however, flies to
the shore, scarcely gives it time to expire, but
swallows it whole, and then returns to fishing
as before.
As this bird does incredible mischief to
ponds newly stocked, Willoughby has given
a receipt for taking him.— " Having found his
haunt, get three or four small roach or dace,
and having provided a strong hook with a
wire to it, this is drawn just within-side the
skin of the fish, beginning without-side the
gills, and running it to the tail, by which the
fish will not be killed, but continue for five
or six days alive. Then having a strong line
made of silk and wire, about two yards and
a half long, it is tied to a stone at one end,
the fish with the hook being suffered to swim
about at the other. This being properly dis-
posed in shallow water, the heron will seize
upon the fish to its own destruction. From
this method we may learn, that the fish must
be alive, otherwise the heron will not touch
them, and that this bird, as well as all those
that feed upon fish, must be its own caterer ;
for they will riot prey upon such as die natu-
rally, or are killed by others before them."
184
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
Though this bird lives chiefly among pools
and marshes, yet its nest is built on the tops
of the highest trees, and sometimes on cliffs
hanging over the sea. They are never in
6ocks when they fish, committing their depre-
dations in solitude and silence ; but in mak-
ing their nests they love each other's society;
and they are seen, like rooks, building in
company with flocks of their kind. Their
nests are made of sticks, and lined with wool ;
and the female lays four large eggs of a pale
green colour. The observable indolence of
their nature, however, is not less seen in their
nestling than in their habits of depredation.
Nothing is more certain, and I have seen it
a hundred times, than that they will not be
at the trouble of building a nest, when they
can get one made by the rook, or deserted by
the owl, already provided for them. This
they usually enlarge and line within, driving
off the original possessors, should they happen
to renew their fruitless claims.
The French seem to have availed them-
selves of the indolence of this bird in making
its nest ; and they actually provide a place
with materials fitted for their nestling, which
they call heronries. The heron, which with
us is totally unfit for the table, is more sought
for in France, where the flesh of the young
ones is in particular estimation. To obtain
this the natives raise up high sheds along
some fishy stream ; and furnishing them with
materials for the herons to nestle with, these
birds build and breed there in great abun-
dance. As soon as the young ones are sup-
posed to be fit, the owner of the heronry
comes, as we do into a pigeon-house, and car.
ries off such as are proper for eating ; and
these are sold for a very good price to the
neighbouring gentry. " These are a delicacy
which," as my author says, " the French are
very fond of, but which strangers have not yet
been taught to relish as they ought." Never-
theless, it was formerly much esteemed as
food in England, and made a favourite dish
at great tables. It was then said that the flesh
of a heron was a dish for a king ; at present
nothing about the house will touch it but a cat.
With us, therefore, as the heron, both old
and young, is thought detestable eating, we
seldom trouble these animals in their heights,
which are for the most part sufficiently inac-
cessible. Their nests are often found in great
numbers in the middle of large forests, and in
some groves nearer home, where the owners
have a predilection for the bird, and do not
choose to drive it from its accustomed habita-
tions. It is certain that by their cries, their
expansive wings, their bulk, and wavy motion,
they add no small solemnity to the forest, and
give a pleasing variety to a finished improve-
ment.
When the young are excluded, as they are
numerous, voracious, and importunate, the old
ones are for ever upon the wing to provide
them with abundance. The quantity of fish
they take upon this occasion is amazing, arid
their size is not less to be wondered at. I re-
member a heron's nest that was built near a
school-house ; the boys, with their usual ap-
petite for mischief, climbed up, took down the
young ones, sewed up their vents, and laid
them in the nest as before. The pain the
poor little animals felt from the operation in-
creased their cries ; and this but served to in.
crease the diligence of the old ones in enlar-
ging their supply. Thus they heaped the
nest with various sorts of fish, and the best of
their kind; and as their young screamed, they
flew off for more. The boys gathered up the
fish, which the young ones were incapable of
eating, till the old ones at last quitted their
nest ; and gave up their brood, whose appetites
they found it impossible to satisfy.
The heron is said to be a very long-lived
bird ; by Mr Keysler's account, it may ex-
ceed sixty years : and by a recent instance of
one that was taken in Holland, by a hawk
belonging to the Stadtholder, its longevity is
again confirmed, the bird having a silver plate
fastened to one leg, with an inscription, im-
porting that it had been struck by the elector
ot Cologne's hawks thirty-five years before.
CHAP. VI.
OF THE BITTERN, OR MIRE-DRUM.
THOSE who have walked in an evening by
the sedgy sides of unfrequented rivers, must
remember a variety of notes from different
water-fowl : the loud scream of the wild-goose,
the croaking of the mallard, the whining of
the lapwing, and the tremulous neighing of
the jack-snipe. But of all those sounds, there
is none so dismally hollow as the booming of
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
185
the bittern. It is impossible for -words to give
those who have not heard this evening-call an
adequate idea of its solemnity. It is like the
interrupted bellowing of a bull, but hollower,
and louder, and is heard at a mile's distance,
as if issuing from some formidable being that
resided at the bottom of the waters.
The bird, however, that produces this ter- j
rifying sound, is not so big as a heron, with a
weaker bill, not above four inches long. It
differs from the heron chiefly in its colour,
which is in general of a paleish yellow, spotted
and barred with black. Its windpipe is fitted
to produce the sound for which it is remark-
able ; the lower part of it dividing into the
lungs, is supplied with a thin loose membrane,
that can be filled with a large body of air, and
exploded at pleasure. These bellowing ex-
plosions are chiefly heard from the beginning
of spring to the end of autumn ; and however
awful they may seem to us, are the calls to
courtship, or of connubial felicity.
From the loudness and solemnity of the
note, many have been led to suppose, that the
bird made use of external instruments to pro-
duce it, and that so small a body could never
eject such a quantity of tone. The common
people are of opinion, that it thrusts its bill
into a reed, that serves as a pipe for swelling
the note above its natural pitch ; while others,
and in this number we find Thomson the poet,
imagine that the bittern puts its head under
water, and then violently blowing produces its
boomings. The fact is, that the bird is suffi-
ciently provided by nature for this call ; and
it is often heard where there are neither reeds
nor waters to assist its sonorous invitations.
It hides in the sedges by day, and begins
its call in the evening, booming six or eight
times, and then discontinuing for ten or twenty
minutes, to renew the same sound. This is
a call it never gives but when undisturbed,
and at liberty. When its retreats among the
sedges are invaded, when it dreads or expects
the approach of an enemy, it is then perfectly
silent. This call it has never been heard to
utter when taken or brought up in domestic
captivity ; it continues under the control of
man a mute forlorn bird, equally incapable of
attachment or instruction. But though its
boomings are always performed in solitude, it
has a scream which is generally heard upon
the seizing its prey, and which is sometimes
extorted by fear.
This bird, though of the heron kind, is yet
neither so destructive nor so voracious. It is
a retired timorous animal, concealing itself in
the midst of reeds and marshy places, and
living upon frogs, insects, and vegetables;
and though so nearly resembling the heron in
figure, yet differing much in manners and ap-
petites. As the heron builds on the tops of
vor,. n.
the highest trees, the bittern lays its nest in a
sedgy margin, or amidst a tuft of rushes.
The heron builds with sticks and wool; the
bittern composes its simpler habitation of
sedges, the leaves of water-plants, and dry
rushes. The heron lays four eggs ; the bittern
generally seven or eight, of an ash-green
colour. The heron feeds its young for many
days ; the bittern in three days leads its little
ones to their food. In short, the heron is lean
and cadaverous, subsisting chiefly upon ani-
mal food ; the bittern is plump and fleshy, as
it feeds upon vegetables, when more nourish-
ing food is wanting.
It cannot be, therefore, froriL its voracious
appetites, but its hollow boom, that the
bittern is held in such detestation by the
vulgar. I remember, in the place where I
was a boy, with what terror this bird's note
affected the whole village ; they considered it
as the presage of some sad event; and gene-
rally found or made one to succeed it. I do
not speak ludicrously ; but if any person in
the neighbourhood died, they supposed it could
not be otherwise, for the night-raven had fore-
told it; but if no body happened to die, the
death of a cow or a sheep gave completion to
the prophecy.
Whatever terror it may inspire among the
simple, its flesh is greatly esteemed among
the luxurious. For this reason, it is as eager-
ly sought after by the fowler, as it is shunned
by the peasant ; and, as it is a heavy-rising
slow-winged bird, it does not often escape
him. Indeed, it seldom rises but when al-
most trod upon, and seems to seek protection
rather from concealment than flight. At the
latter end of autumn, however, in the evening,
its wonted indolence appears to forsake it.
It is then seen rising in a spiral ascent, till it
is quite lost from the view, making at the
same time a singular noise,- very different from
its former boomings. Thus the same animal
is often seen to assume different desires ; and
while the Latins have given the bittern the
name of the star-reaching bird, (or the stellar-
is,) the Greeks, taking its character from its
more constant habits, have given it the title ol
the o*;»'oe, or the lazy bird.
CHAP. VII.
OF THE SPOONBILL, OB SHOVELLER.
As we proceed in our description of the
crane kind, birds of peculiar forms offer, not
entirely like the ijrane, and yet not so far dif-
ferent as to rank more properly with any
other class. Where the long neck and stilt,
legs of the crane are found, they make too
2 A
186
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
striking a resemblance not to admit such birds
of the number ; and though the bill, or even
the toes, should entirely differ, yet the outlines
of the ligure, aud the natural habits and dis-
positions, being the same, these are sufficient
to mark their place in the general group of
nature.
The Spoonbill is one of those birds which
differs a good deal from the crane, yet ap-
proaches this class more than any other.
The body is more bulky for its height, and
the bill is very differently formed from that
of any other bird whatever. Yet still it is a
comparatively tall bird ; it feeds among waters ;
its toes are divided; and it seems to possess
the natural dispositions of the crane. The
European spoonbill is of about the bulk of a
crane; but as the one is above four feet high,
the other is not more than three feet three
inches. The common colour of those of Europe
is a dirty white ; but those of A merica are of
a beautiful rose colour, or a delightful crim-
son. Beauty of plumage seems to be the pre-
rogative of all the birds of that continent ; and
we here see the most splendid tints bestowed
on a bird, whose figure is sufficient to destroy
the effects of its colouring ; for its bill is so
oddly fashioned, and its eyes so stupidly star-
ing, that its fine feathers only tend to add
splendour to deformity. The bill, which in
this bird is so very particular, is about seven
inches long, and running out broad at the end,
as its name justly serves to denote, it is there
about an inch and a half wide. This strangely
fashioned instrument in some is black; in others
of a light gray; and in those of America, it
is of a red colour, like the rest of the body.
All round the upper chap there runs a kind
of rim, with which it covers that beneath ;
and as for the rest, its cheeks and its throat
are without feathers, and covered with a black
skin.1 A bird so oddly fashioned might be
1 The Spoonbills are voyaging birds, not very wild,
and show no aversion to living in a state of captivity.
They are found in almost all countries of the old world.
In Europe they are seen but seldom in the interior parts,
and are only passagery on some lakes or the banks of
rivers. They frequent the marshy coasts of Holland,
of Brittany, and of Picardy. They are also seen in
Prussia, in Silesia, and in Poland, and hi summer they
advance as far as West Bothnia and Lapland. They
are again to be found on the coasts of Africa, in Egypt,
and at the Cape of Good Hope, where they are called
Slangen-wreeter, that is, serpent-eaters. Commerson has
seen them at Madagascar, where the islanders give them
the name of Funguli-am-bava, which means spade-bill.
The negroes in some districts call them Pang-van, and
in others Vaurou-Doulou, or birds of the devil.
The White Spoonbill is an occasional, but rare visitor
of this country. They rise veiy high, and fly in waving
lines. Their flesh is tolerably good eating, and is des-
titute of the oily taste which is peculiar to most shore
birds.
The Roseate Spoonbill is an American species, and is
expected to possess some very peculiar appe-
tites ; but the spoonbill seems to lead a life
entirely resembling all those of the crane
kind ; and Nature, when she made the bill
of this bird so very broad, seems rather to have
sported with its form, than to aim at any final
cause for which to adapt it. In fact, it is but
a poor philosophy to ascribe every capricious
variety in nature to some salutary purpose :
in such solutions we only impose upon each
other, and often wilfully contradict our own
belief. There must be imperfections in every
being, as well as capacities of enjoyment. Be-
tween both, the animal leads a life of moderate
felicity ; in part making use of its many na-
tural advantages, and in part necessarily con-
forming to the imperfections of its figure.
The shoveller chiefly feeds upon frogs, toads,
and serpents; of which, particularly at the
Cape of Good Hope, they destroy great num-
bers. The inhabitants of that country hold
them in as much esteem as the ancient Egypt-
the Ajaja of Brazil (Marcgrave,) and the Tlauhquecul
of Fernandez, and Guirapita of the natives of Paraguay.
Its dimensions ane not so great as those of the spoonbill
of the ancient continent. Tlie plumage, in general, is
of a beautiful rose colour, while the upper part of the
wing and the tail-coverts, are of a lively red. Age,
however, operates the same changes of colour in these
spoonbills, as in the red curlew, and in the flamingo,
which in their first years are almost completely white
or gray. The bill and its membrane are of a yellowish-
green, which becomes white when the bird is terrified.
The beak of the spoonbills is longer than that of the
storks, and perfectly straight. Towards the extremity
it expands into an oval disk of greater breadth than the
remainder of the bill, and rounded at the point. In the
adult bird, the cheeks are naked, and a tuft of long
narrow feathers forms a crest on the back of the head.
The tongue is short, triangular, and pointed ; the throat
capable of being dilated into a pouch ; the legs long and
covered with large reticulated scales; the toes four in
number; and the claws short, narrow, and pointed.
The spoonbills usually frequent wooded marshes near
the mouths of rivers, building in preference upon the
taller trees, but where these are wanting taking up their
abode among the bushes, or even among the reeds. The
females usually lay three or four whitish eggs. They
associate together, but not in any considerable numbers,
and feed upon the smaller fishes and their spawn, shell-
fish, reptiles, and other aquatic or amphibious animals.
The form and flexibility of their bills are well adapted
for burrowing in the mud after their prey ; and the tuber-
cles which are placed on the inside of their mandibles
serve both to retain the more slippery animals and to
break down their shelly coverings. Their internal con-
formation, which is in nearly every respect similar to
that of the stork, is admirably suited to this kind of food.
They have no proper voice, the lower larynx being des-
titute of the muscles by which sounds are produced, and
their only means of vocal expression consist in the snap-
ping of their mandibles, which they clatter with much
precipitation when under the influence of anger or
alarm. In captivity they are perfectly tame, living in
peace and concord with the other inhabitants of the
farm-yard, and rarely exhibiting any symptoms of wild-
ness or desire of change. They feed on all kinds of
garbage,,
THE FLAMINGO.
187
lans did their bird ibis: the shoveller runs
tamely about their houses ; and they are con-
tent with its society , as a useful, though a home-
ly, companion. They are never killed ; and,
indeed, they are good for nothing when they
are dead, for the flesh is unfit to be eaten.
This bird breeds, in Europe, in company
with the heron, in high trees ; and in a nest
formed of the same materials. Willoughby
tells us, that in a certain grove, at a village
called Seven Huys, near Leyden, they build
and breed yearly in great numbers. In this
grove, also, the heron, the bittern, the cormor-
ant, and the shag, have taken up their resi-
dence, and annually bring forth their young to-
gether. Here the crane kind seem to have
formed their general rendezvous ; and, as the
inhabitants say, every sort of bird has its
several quarter, where none but their own
tribe are permitted to reside. Of this grove,
the peasants of the country make good profit.
When the young ones are ripe, those that
farm the grove, with a hook at the end of a
long pole, catch hold of the bough on which
the nest is built, and shake out the young
ones ; but sometimes the nest and all tumble
down together.
The shoveller lays from three to five eggs,
white, and powdered with a few sanguine or
pale spots. We sometimes see, in the cabinets
of the curious, the bills of American shovellers,
twice as big and as long as those of the com-
mon kind among us ; but these birds have
not yet made their way into Europe.
CHAP. VIII.
THT: FLAMINGO.
THE Flamingo has the justest right to be
placed among cranes, and though it happens
to be web-footed, like birds of the goose kind,
yet its height, figure, and appetites, entirely
remove it from that grovelling class of animals.
With a longer neck and legs than any other of
the crane kind, it seeks its food by wading
among waters, and only differs from all of
this tribe in the manner of seizing its prey ;
for as the heron makes use of its claws, the
flamingo uses only its bill, which is strong
and thick for the purpose, the claws being
useless, as they are feeble, and webbed like
those of water-fowl.
The flamingo is the most remarkable of all
the crane kind, the tallest, bulkiest, and the
most beautiful. The body,_which is of a
beautiful scarlet, is no bigger than that of a
swan ; but its legs and neck are of such an
extraordinary length, that, when it stands
erect, it is six feet six inches high. Its wings,
extended, are five feet six inches from tip to
tip ; and it is four feet eight inches from tip
to tail. The head is round and small, with
a large bill, seven inches long, partly red,
partly black, and crooked like a bow. The
legs and thighs, which are not much thickei
than a man's finger, are about two feet eight
inches high ; and its neck near three feet long.
The feet are not furnished with sharp claws,
as in others of the crane kind ; but feeble, and
united by membranes, as in those of the goose.
Of what use these membranes are does not
appear, as the bird is never seen swimming,
its legs and thighs being sufficient for bearing
it into those depths where it seeks for prey.
This extraordinary bird is now chiefly
found in America ; but it was once known on
all the coasts of Europe. Its beauty, its size,
and the peculiar delicacy of its flesh, have been
such temptations to destroy or take it, that it
has long since deserted the shores frequented
by man, and taken refuge in countries that
are as yet but thinly peopled. In those de-
sert regions, the flamingos live in a state of
society, and under a better polity than any
other of the feathered creation.
When the Europeans first came to America,
and coasted down along the African shores,
they found the flamingos on several shores on
either continent, gentle, and no way distrust-
ful of mankind.1 They had long been used
to security, in the extensive solitudes they had
chosen ; and knew no enemies but those they
could very well evade or oppose. The ne-
groes and the native Americans were posses-
sed but of few destructive arts for killing them
at a distance ; and when the bird perceived
the arrow, it well knew how to avoid it. But
it was otherwise when the Europeans first
came among them ; the sailors, not consider-
ing that the dread of fire-arms was totally uri-
Albin's New History of Birds.
188
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
known in that part of the world, gave the
flamingo the character of a foolish bird, that
suffered itself to be approached and shot at.
When the fowler had killed one, the rest of
the flock, far from attempting to fly, only re-
garded the fall of their companion in a kind
of fixed astonishment; another and another
shot was discharged ; and thus the fowler often
levelled the whole flock, before one of them
began to think of escaping.
But at present it is very different in that
part of the world ; and the flamingo is not
only one of the scarcest, but of the shyest birds
in the world, and the most difficult of ap-
.proach. They chiefly keep near the most de-
serted and inhospitable shores ; near salt-water
lakes and swampy islands. They come down
to the banks of rivers by day; and often retire
to the inland mountainous parts of the country
at the approach of night. When seen by
mariners in the day, they always appear
drawn up in a long close line of two or three
hundred together; and, as Dampier tells us,
present at the distance of half a mile, the ex-
act representation of a long brick wall. Their
rank, however, is broken when they seek for
food ; but they always appoint one of the
number as a watch, whose only employment is
to observe and give notice of danger, while
the rest are feeding. As soon as this trustv
centinel perceives the remotest appearance of
danger, he gives a loud scream, with a voice
as shrill as a trumpet, and instantly the whole
cohort are upon the wing. They feed in si-
lence ; but upon this occasion, all the flock
are in one chorus, and fill the air with intoler-
able screamings.
From this it appears, that the flamingos
are very difficult to be approached at present,
and that they avoid mankind with the most
cautious timidity ; however, it is not from any
antipathy to man that they shun his society,
for in some villages, as we are assured by
Labat, along the coasts of Africa, the flamin-
gos come in great numbers to make their re-
sidence among the natives. There they as-
semble by thousands, perched on the trees,
within and about the village ; and are so very
clamorous, that the sound is heard at near a
mile's distance. The negroes are fond of
their company ; and consider their society as
a gift of Heaven, as a protection from acci-
dental evils. The French, who are admitted
to this part of the coast, cannot, without some
degree of discontent, see such a quantity of
game untouched, and rendered useless by the
superstition of the natives : they now and then
privately shoot some of them, when at a con-
venient distance from the village, and hide
them in the long grass, if they perceive any
of the negroes approaching ; for they would
probably stand a chance of being ill used, if
the blacks discovered their sacred birds thus
unmercifully treated.
Sometimes, in their wild state, they are
shot by mariners ; and their young, which run
excessively fast, are often taken. Labat has
frequently taken them with nets, properly ex-
tended round the places they breed in. When
their long legs are entangled in the meshes,
they are then unqualified to make their es-
cape : but they still continue to combat with
their destroyer; and the old ones, though
seized by the head, will scratch with their
claws ; and these, though seemingly inoffen-
sive, very often do mischief. When they
are fairly disengaged from the net, they
nevertheless preserve their natural ferocity :
they refuse all nourishment; they peck, and
combat with their claws, at every opportunity.
The fowler is, therefore, under a necessity of
destroying them, when taken ; as they would
only pine and die, if left to themselves in
captivity.
The flesh of the old ones is black and hard ;
though, Dampier says, well tasted : that of the
young ones is still better. But of all other
delicacies, the flamingo's tongue is the most ce-
lebrated. " A dish of flamingos' tongues,"
says our author, " is a feast for an emperor."
In fact, the Roman emperors considered them
as the highest luxury ; and we have an ac-
count of one of them, who procured fifteen
hundred flamingos' tongues to be served up
in a single dish. The tongue of this bird,
which is so much sought after, is a good deal
larger than that of any other bird whatever.
The bill of the flamingo is like a large black
box, of an irregular figure, and filled with a
tongue which is black and gristly ; but what
peculiar flavour it may possess, I leave to be
determined by such as understand good eating
better than I do. It is probable, that the
beauty and scarcity of the bird might be the
first inducements to studious gluttony to fix
upon its tongue as meat for the table. What
Dampier says of (he goodness of its flesh, can-
not so well be relied on; for Dampier was
often hungry, and thought any thing good
that could be eaten: he avers, indeed, with
Labat, that the flesh is black, tough, and
fishy ; so that we can hardly give him credit,
when he asserts, that its flesh can be formed
into a luxurious entertainment.
These birds, as was said, always go in
flocks together ; and they move in rank, in the
manner of cranes. They are sometimes seen,
at the break of day, flying down in great
numbers from the mountains, and conducting
each other with a trumpet cry, that sounds
like the word Tococo, from whence the sava-
ges of Canada have given them the name. In
their flight, they appear to great advantage;
for they then seem -of as bright a red as a
THE AVOSETTA.
189
burning coal. When they dispose themselves
to feed , their cry ceases ; and then they dis-
perse over a whole marsh, in silence and as-
siduity. Their manner of feeding is very
singular : the bird thrusts down its head, so
that the upper convex side of the bill shall
only touch the ground ; and in this position
the animal appears, as it were, standing upon
its head. In this manner it paddles and
moves the bill about, and seizes whatever fish
or insect happens to offer. For this purpose
the upper chap is notched at the edges, so as
to hold its prey with the greater security.
Catesby, however, gives a different account of
their feeding. According to him, they thus
place the upper chap undermost, and so work
about, in order to pick up a seed from the
bottom of the water, that resembles millet:
but as in picking up this they necessarily also
suck in a great quantity of mud, their bill is
toothed at the edges in such a manner as to
let out the mud while they swallow the grain.
Their time of breeding is according to the
climate in which they reside: in North Ame-
rica they breed in our summer ; on the other
side of the line, they take the most favourable
season of the year. They build their nests in
extensive marshes, and where they are in no
danger of a surprise. The nest is not less
curious than the animal that builds it: it is
raised from the surface of the pool about a
foot and a half, formed of mud scraped up to-
gether, and hardened by the sun, or the heat
of the bird's body ; it resembles a truncated
cone, or one of the pots which we see placed
in chimneys ; on the top it is hollowed out to
the shape of the bird, and in that cavity the
female lays her eggs without any lining but
the well-cemented mud that forms the sides of
the building. She always lays two eggs, and
no more ; and. as her legs are immoderately
long, she straddles on the nest, while her legs
hang down, one on each side, into the water.
The young ones are a long while before
they are able to fly ; but they run with amaz-
ing swiftness. They are sometimes caught ;
and, very different from the old ones, suffer
themselves to be carried home, and are tamed
very easily. In five or six days they become
familiar, eat out of the hand, and drink a sur-
prising quantity, of sea-water. But though
they are easily rendered domestic, they are
not reared without the greatest difficulty ; for
they generally pine away, for want of their
natural supplies, and die in a short time.
While they are yet young, their colours are
very different from those lively tints they ac-
quire with age. In their first year they are
covered with plumage of a white colour,
mixed with gray : in the second year the
whole body is white, with here and there
a slight tint of scarlet ; and the great co-
vert feathers of his wings are black ; the
third year the bird acquires all its beauty;
the plumage of the whole body is scarlet, ex-
cept some of the feathers in the wings, that
still retain their sable hue. Of these beauti-
ful plumes the savages make various orna-
ments; and the bird is sometimes skinned by
the Europeans, to make muffs. But these
have diminished in their price, since we have
obtained the art of dying feathers of the
brightest scarlet.
CHAP.
THE AVOSETTA, OR SCOOPER ; AND THE
COURIRA, OR RUNNER.
THE extraordinary shape of the Avosetta's
bill might incline us to wish for its history ;
and yet in that we are not able to indulge the
reader. Natural historians have hitherto, like
ambitious monarchs, shown a greater fondness
for extending their dominions, than cultivat-
ing what they possess. While they have
been labouring to add new varieties to their
catalogues, they have neglected to study the
history of animals already known.
The avosetta is chiefly found in Italy, and
now and then comes over into England.' It
is about the size of a pigeon, is a pretty up-
right bird, and has extremely long legs for
its size. But the most extraordinary part of
its figure, and that by which it may be distin-
guished from all others of the feathered tribe,
is the bill, which turns up like a hook, in an
opposite direction to that of the hawk or the
parrot. This extraordinary bill is black, flat,
sharp, and flexible at the end, and about three
inches and a half long. From its being bare
a long way above the knee, it appears that it
lives and wades in the waters. It has a chirp-
ing pert note, as we are told ; but with its
other habits we are entirely unacquainted. I
have placed it, from its slender figure, among
the cranes ; although it is web-footed, like the
duck. It is one of those birds of whose his-
tory we are yet in expectation.1
1 The Avosets of Europe and America prefer cold and
temperate climates to hot countries. Their migration!
190
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
To this bird of the crane kind, so little
known, I will add another, still less known
the Corrira, or runner, of Aldrovandus. Al
we are told of it is, that it has the longest legf
of all web-footed fowls, except the flamingo
and avosetta; that the bill is straight, yellow,
and black at the ends ; that the pupils of the
eyes are surrounded with two circles, one oi
which is bay, and the other white; below
near the belly, it is whitish ; the tail, with
two white feathers, black at the extremities ;
and that the upper part of the body is of the
colour of rusty iron. It is thus that we are
obliged to substitute dry description for in-
structive history ; and employ words to ex-
press those shadings of colour which the pen-
cil alone can convey.
CHAP. X.
SMALL BIKDS OF THE CRANE KIND, WITH
THE THIGHS PARTLY BARE OF FEATHERS.
As I have taken my distinctions rather from
the general form and manners of birds, than
from their minuter though perhaps more pre-
cise discriminations, it will not be expected
that I should here enter into a particular his-
tory of a numerous tribe of birds, whose man-
ners and forms are so much alike. Of many
of them we have scarcely any account in our
historians, but tedious descriptions of their
dimensions, and the colour of their plumage ;
and of the rest, the history of one is so much
that of all, that it is but the same account re-
peated to a most disgusting reiteration. I will
therefore group them into one general draught ;
in which the more eminent, or the most whimsi
cal, will naturally stand forward on the canvass.
In this tribe we find an extensive tribe of
native birds, with their varieties and affinities ;
and we might add a hundred others, of distant
climates, of which we know little more than the
colour and the name. In this list is exhibited
the Curlew, a bird of about the size of a duck,
with a bill four inches long: the Woodcock,
are determined by the want or abundance of food. In
winter they assemble in small flocks of six or seven, and
frequent our shores, especially the mouths of large muddy
rivers, in search of worms and marine insects. These
they scoop out of the mud with their recurved bills,
which are admirably adapted for that purpose, being
tough and flexible like whalebone. The feet seem cal-
culated for swimming, but they are never observed to
take the water: it is therefore probable, that they are
furnished with a web merely to prevent their sinking
into the mud. The female lays two eggs, about the
size of those of a pigeon, of a white colour tinged with
green, and marked with large black spots. It is said to
be very tenacious of its young, and when disturbed at
this season, will fly round in repeated circles, uttering
a note that resembles the word tteit-twit.
about the size of a pigeon, with a bill three
inches long : the Godwit, of the same size ;
the bill four inches : the Green Shank, longer
legged; the bill two inches and a half: the
Red Shank, differing in the colour of its feet
from the former: the Snipe, less by half,
with a bill three inches. Then with shorter
bills — The Ruff, with a collar of feathers
round the neck of the male : the Knot, the
Sandpiper, the Sanderling, the Dunlin, the
Purre, and the Stint. To conclude: with
bills very short — The Lapwing, the Green
Plover, the Gray Plover, the Dottrel, the
Turnstone, and the Sea-lark. These, with
their affinities, are properly natives or visi-
tants of this country ; and are dispersed along
our shores, rivers, and watery grounds. Tak-
ing in the birds of this kind, belonging to
other countries, the list would be very widely
extended; and the whole of this class, as
described by Brisson, would amount to near
a hundred.1
All these birds possess many marks in
common ; though some have peculiarities that
1 The Curlew. — There are two species of the curlew
to he found in Europe — the Common Curlew and the
Little Curlew, but there are various other species, in
Asia, Africa, and America, differing very much in size,
the longest measuring about twenty-five inches, and
sometimes weighing thirty-six ounces. These birds
fly in considerable flocks, and are well known upon the
sea-coasts in moist parts, where, and in the marshes,
hey frequent in winter. They feed on worms, frogs,
and all kinds of marine insects. In April, or the be
'inning of May, they retire into mountainous and un.
requerited parts on the sea-shore, where they breed ;
,nd do not return again till the approach of winter.
There have Bfeen some advocates in favour of the flesh
of this bird, but in general it is strong and fishy. It
ias a long black bill, much curved or arched, about eight
ingers long, and beginning to bend a little downwards
about three fingers from the head. The middle parts of
he feathers on the head, neck, and bark, are black ;
.he borders or outsides ash-coloured, with an inter-
mixture of red; and those between the wings and back
re of a most beautiful glossy blue, and shine like silk.
The vent and belly are white. The feet are divided,
ut joined by a little membrane at the root. The
ongue is very short, considering the length of the bill,
and bears some resemblance to an arrow. The female
s somewhat larger than the male, which is commonly
called the jack-curlew; and the spots with which her
'ody is covered almost overs is more inclining to a red.
THE CRANE KIND.
191
deserve regard. All these birds are bare of
feathers above the knee, or above the heel, as
some naturalists choose to express it. In fact,
that part which I call the knee, if compared
The Woodcock. — During the summer time the wood-
cock is an inhabitant of Norway, Sweden, Lapland, and
other northern countries, where it breeds. As soon,
however, as the frosts commence, it retires southward
to milder climates. These birds arrive in Great
Britain in flocks ; some of them in October, but not in
great numbers till November and December. . They
generally take advantage of the night, being seldom
seen to come before sun-set. The time of their arrival
depends considerably on the prevailing winds ; for
adverse gales always detain them, they not being able
to struggle with the boisterous squalls of the Northern
ocean. After their arrival in bad weather, they have often
been seen so much exhausted as to allow themselves to
be taken by the hand, when they alighted near the coast.
They live on worms and insects, which they search for
with their long bills in soft ground and moist woods,
feeding and flying principally in the night. They go
out in the evening; and generally return in the same
direction, through the same glades, to their day-retreat.
The greater part of them leave this country about the
latter end of February, or the beginning of March,
always pairing before they set out. They retire to the
coast, and, if the wind be fair, set out immediately ; but
if contrary, they are often detained in the neighbouring
woods and thickets for some time. In this crisis the
sportsmen are all on the alert, and the whole surround-
ing country echoes to the discharge of guns ; seventeen
brace have been killed by one person in a day. But if
they are detained long on the dry heaths, they become
so lean as to be scarcely eatable. The instant a fail-
wind springs up, they seize the opportunity; and where
the sportsman has seen hundreds in one day, he will not
find even a single bird the next. Very few of them
breed in England; and perhaps with respect to those
that do, it may be owing to their having been wounded
by the sportsman in the winter, so as to be disabled from
taking their long journey in the spring. They build
their nests on the ground, generally at the root of some
tree, and lay four or five eggs about the size of those of
a pigeon, of a rusty colour, and marked with brown spots.
They are remarkably tame during incubation. A person
who discovered a woodcock on its nest, often stood
over, and even stroked it; notwithstanding it hatched
the young ones, and in due time, disappeared with
then:.
The Snipes, though agreeing very much in external
resemblance with the woodcocks, differ from them in
natural habits. They do not inhabit woods, but remain
in the marshy parts of meadows, in the herbage, and
amongst the osiers which are on the banks of rivers.
They are still more generally spread than the woodcocks,
and there are no portions of the globe in which some of
them have not been found. They are observed to be
incessantly employed in picking the ground, and Aldro-
vandus has remarked that they have the tongue termin-
vvith the legs of mankind, is analogous to the
heel ; but as it is commonly conceived other-
wise, I have conformed to the general ap-
prehension. I say, therefore, that all these
ating in a sharp point, proper for piercing the small
worms, which, probably, constitute their food ; for
though nothing is found in their stomachs but liquid,
and an earthy sediment, it must be that such soft bodies
as worms, &c. dissolve there very quickly, and that the
earth which enters along with them, is the only sub-
stance unsusceptible of liquefaction. Autumn is the
season for the arrival of the common snipe in most
of the southern and western countries of Europe. It
then extends through meadows, marshes, bogs, and
along the banks of streams and rivers. When it walks,
it carries the head erect, without either__hopping or flut-
tering, and gives it a horizontal movement, while the
tail moves up and down. When it takes flight, it rises
so high as often to be heard after it is lost sight of. Its
cry has been sometimes likened to that of the she-goat.
The snipes for the most part, migrating northwards, in
the spring, nestle in Germany, Switzerland, Silesia, &c.
Some, however, continue in their more southern stations,
making their nest in the month of June, under the root
of some alder or willow, in a sheltered place. This
nest is composed of dry plants and feathers, and the fe-
male lays four or five oblong eggs, of a whitish tint,
spotted with red. If the female be disturbed during in-
cubation, she rises very high, and in a right line, then
utters a particular cry, and re- descends with great ra-
pidity. While the female is hatching, the male is fre-
quently observed to hover around her, uttering a kind
of hissing noise. The young quit the nest on issuing
from the shell, and then appear very ugly and deformed.
Until their bill grows firm, the mother continues her
care of them, and does not leave them until they can do
without her. The snipe usually grows very fat, both
in Europe and North America ; but much less so in
warm climates. Its flesh, after the early frosts, acquires
a fine and delicate flavour. It is cooked, as well as the
woodcock, without being drawn, and is in universal esti-
mation as an exquisite game. It is caught in various
ways, and is well known to be a difficult shot, when
turned and winding in the air ; though by no means
so when suffered to proceed in a right line, especially as
the smallest grain of lead is sufficient to bring it down,
and the slightest touch will make it fall.
The Double Snipe was considered by Buffbn as a
mere variety of the common, as that naturalist proba-
bly took into consideration only its superior size, and the
trifling difference of the plumage. It has, however,
since his time, been ascertained to be a different species.
It differs from the common snipe in its cry, in its flight,
which is generally direct, and with few or no circlings,
and in its habits, preferring to marshy and muddy
grounds, those places where there is but little water,
and where it is clear. There is little else worth re-
marking concerning it.
The Little Snipe is not larger than a lark. It is less
generally extended than the common species. In France,
it remains in the marshes almost during the whole year,
where it nestles and lays eggs, like those of the common
snipe. Concealed in reeds and rushes, it remains there
so pertinaciously that it is necessary almost to walk upon
it to make it rise. Its flight is less rapid and more
direct than that of the common snipe. Its fat is equally
fine, and its flesh similarly well-flavoured. It is not
very common in this country. For Variegated Snipe,
see Plate XIX. fig. 18. ; for JFiUon's Snipe, see
fig. 19.
There is a number of other species of woodcock and
snipe, but there is nothing in their habits to induce us
to exceed the limits to which we are necessarily pro-
192
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
birds are bare of feathers above the knee ; and
in some they are wanting half way up the
thigh. The nudity in that part, is partly
natural, and partly produced by all birds of
scribed in this portion of our work. The following cut
represents the Common Snipe.
The Godwits are to be distinguished from the forego-
ing. The woodcocks, properly so called, inhabit woods.
The snipes live in fresh water marshes; but the god-
wits prefer the sea-shore. The passage of the last into
the temperate climates of Europe takes place in Septem-
ber, and, for their short stay, they frequent salt marshes,
where like the snipes, &c. they live on small worms,
which they draw out of the mud. Those which are
sometimes to be met with in island places, have doubt-
less been driven there by the wind. 'Mauduyt, who ob-
served some of them exposed for sale in the Parisian
markets, in spring, concluded, and justly, that they
moke a second passage in spring, and not that they ever
nestle on the French coasts. These timid birds, whose
sight moreover is weak, remain in the shade during the
day-time, and it is only by evening twilight, or early
dawn, that they proceed in search of food, for the dis-
crimination of which their bill is particularly fitted.
Little stones are sometimes found in their gizzard, but
A e cannot conclude that these hard substances answer
with them, as with the gallinas, for the trituration of
their food, which is too soft to require any thing of the
kind, but rather that they have been taken in along with
it. These birds are particularly wild, and fly precipi-
tately from the slightest appearance of danger, uttering
a cry which Belon compares to the smothered bleating
of a she-goat. At the time of their arrival they are
seen in flocks, and often heard, passing veiy high, in the
evening or by moonlight. But the moment they alight,
they are so much fatigued that they resume their flight
with much difficulty ; at such times, though they run
with swiftness, they can be easily turned, and sufficient
numbers driven together to enable the fowler to kill seve-
ral of them with a single shot. They remain but a short
time at one place, and it is not uncommon to find them
no longer in the morning, in those marshes, where, the
preceding evening, they had been extremely numerous.
For marbled Godwit, see Plate XX. fig. 17.
The Sanderlings are found in Europe, in Asia, in
North America, and in New South Wales. They in-
habit the sea- shores, and abound, in spring and autumn,
both on the coasts of Holland and of this country. They
are only seen accidentally in countries remote from the
sea. There is but one species ; but as these birds,
which undergo two moultings, are most frequently seen
in their summer plumage, in which red, or reddish, is
the predominant colour, while in the winter it is gray,
it is not wonderful that naturalists .have made a distinct
species under the title of Charadrius Rubidus. The
sanderlings traverse in their periodical migrations a
large portion of the globe. But they are only seen ac-
cidentally along rivers, which leads to the presumption
that their aliment consists of small marine worms and
this kind habitually wading in water. The
older the bird, the barer are its thighs ; yet
even the young ones have not the same downy
covering reaching so low as the birds ot any
insects. They breed in the North. The following
cut represents a Common Sanderling.
The Sea Larks, a name exceedingly improper, as
tending to the confusion of two genera so widely remote,
never quit the edge of waters, and especially prefer the
sea-shore, although they occasionally remove to a con-
siderable distance from it, since they are frequently seen
around the lakes and along the rivers of the Vosges and
the Pyrenees. They are birds of passage, at least in
many countries of Europe. They proceed very far to
the north ; for they are found in Sweden, on the borders
of the Caspian sea, and throughout the whole of Siberia.
During winter they are very common both in France
and England. The species is named by Latham, Purre
Sandpiper. Except during the nestling time, these
birds unite in flocks, often so crowded, that a great
number of them may be killed by a single shot. Noth-
ing, says Belon, is more wonderful concerning this little
bird, than to see five or six hundred dozens of them
brought, on a single Saturday, in winter, to the Paris
market. They constitute an excellent game, but must
be eaten fresh ; they are not, however, destitute of that
oily taste which appertains to almost all species of
aquatic birds.
The Plovers habitually frequent the sea-coast, the
mouths of rivers, and salt marshes. They feed upon
Crustacea, and small molluscous animals, which they
catch in the sand along the line of waters, over which
they are seen continually flying, uttering a little cry.
Many species live solitarily, or in couples; some others
in small flocks. These birds are to be found in almost
all the countries of the globe, from the equator to the
coldest latitudes of the northern and southern hemi-
spheres. They are all clad in sombre colours, the dis-
tribution of which is, however, not unpleasing. Most
of them undergo a double moulting, and are vested in
various liveries, according to age and sex. Some
species have spines, which serve as defensive weapons,
attached to their wings ; some others have fleshy ap-
pendages at the base of the bill. The plovers emigrate
every year, in flocks of greater or less numbers, and
this principally takes place in autumn, during the rainy
season, whence their French name (pluviers) is derived,
and of which our word plover is an obvious corruption.
At this time they are seen in the greatest abundance.
They do not remain quiet when on the ground, but are
seen in incessant motion. They fly in an extended
file, or in transverse zones, very narrow and of a great
length. Their flesh is delicate and much esteemed.
They are frequently taken, in great quantities, in the
countries where they are common, by means of nets
variously fabricated.
Of these, the first and most common is the Golden
Plover. This bird frequents humid and marshy grounds.
In winter it is very common on the coasts of France and
Holland. It is found in England during the entire
THE CRANE KIND.
193
other class. Such a covering there would
rather be prejudicial, as being continually
liable to get wet in the water.
As these birds are usually employed rather
year; it is also very abundant in the Highlands of Scot-
land, in the Western islands, and iu the Isle of Man.
in running than in flying, and as their food
lies entirely upon the ground, and not on trees
or in the air, so they run with great swiftness
for their size, and the length of their
It is again found in America, in Asia, and in the
islands of the South sea. Throughout the north of
Europe it is common, and in all parts of Germany,
Italy, and Spain. From the latter country we trace it
into Barbary, and other parts of Africa; and it is to be
found as far to the south-east of Asia, as India, China,
and the Archipelago of the Eastern ocean. These birds
lay from three to five eggs, of rather an olive-green
colour, with black spots. They live on worms, insects,
and larvae. There is very little difference in appear-
ance bstween the male and female. These plovers
strike the earth with their feet to cause the worms, &c.,
to issue from their retreat. In the morning, like the
lapwings and the snipes, they visit the water side to
wash their bills and feet. They are rarely seen longer
than twenty-four hours in the same place, which doubt-
less proceeds from their numbers, which cause a rapid
exhaustion of their means of subsistence in any given
spot. They migrate from the districts which they in-
habit when the snow falls and the frost begins to be
intense, as their resources of provision are then cut off,
and they are deprived of the water, which their consti-
tution renders indispensable to them. It is very rare to
see a golden plover alone, and Belon tells us that the
smallest flocks in which they fly amount at least to fifty
each. When they are seeking their food, several of
them act as sentinels, and on the appearance of any
danger, set up a shrill cry, as a warning to the others,
and a signal for flight. These flocks disperse in the
evening, and each individual passes the night apart ;
but at the dawn of day, the first that awakes gives a
cry of appeal to the rest, which immediately re-assemble
on this call. This cry is imitated by the fowlers to
draw these birds into their nets. The flesh of these
plovers is in high estimation, in general, though the
peculiarity of its flavour does not equally please every
palate. It is best when the birds are rather fat than
otherwise.
The Dotterel Plover. — The length of this bird is about
nine inches. Its bill is black; the cheeks and throat
are white ; the back and wings are of a light brown, in-
clining to olive ; the breast is of a dull orange : the
belly, thighs and vent are of a reddish white ; the tail
is of an olive brown, and tipped with white ; the legs
are of a dark olive colour. The dotterel is common in
various parts of Great Britain.
THE EUROPEAN OYSTER-CATCHER (Hcemalopus ostra-
legus). This is au European bird, and one species abounds
ou the western coasts of England. As its name imports, it
VOL II.
feeds on marine animals. It builds no nest, but deposits its
eggs ou the bare ground above high-water mark. Other
species of this bird are found ou the shores of Asia and
America. PL LXII. fig. 1.
GREYPHALAROPE(P/(aZarop«MFuZi'canas). A compara-
tively rare bird in the United States. It swims actively, dip-
ping the bill very frequently, as if feeding. PL LXII. fig. 2.
The Redshank — This bird weighs about five ounces
and a half; its length is twelve inches, and the breadth
twenty-one. The bill, from the tip to the corners of the
mouth, is more than an inch and three quarters long,
black at the point, and red towards the base: the fea-
thers on the crown of the head are dark brown, edged
with pale rufous ; a light or whitish line passes over,
and encircles each eye, from the corners of which a dark
brown spot is extended to the beak : irides hazel : the
hinder part of the neck is obscurely spotted with dark
brown, or a rusty ash-coloured ground ; the throat and
fore-part are more distinctly marked in streaks of the
same colour : on the breast and belly, which are white,
tinged with ash, the spots are thinly distributed, and
are shaped something like the heads of arrows or darts.
The Spotted Redshank.- — The length of this bird, from
the tip of the bill to the end of the tail, is twelve inches,
and to the end of the toes fourteen inches and a half; its
breadth twenty-one inches and a quarter; and its weight
above five ounces avoirdupois. The bill is slender, mea-
sured two inches and a half from the corners of the
mouth to the tip, and is, for half its length nearest the
base, red; the other part black: irides hazel; the head,
neck, breast, and belly, are spotted in streaks, mottled
and barred with dingy ash brown and dull white, darker
on the crown and hinder part of the neck ; the throat is
white ; and lines of the same colour pass from the upper
sides of the beak over each eye, from the corners of
which two hrown ones are extended to the nostrils. The
ground colour of the shoulders, scapulars, lesser coverts,
and tail, is a glossy olive brown ; the feathers on all
these parts are indented on the edges, more or less, with
triangular-shaped white spots. The back is white ; the
rump barred with wave lines of ash-coloured brown,
and dingy white ; the vent feathers are marked nearly
in the same manner, but with a greater portion of
white: the tail and coverts are also barred with narrow
waved lines of a dull ash-colour, and, in some speci-
mens, are nearly black and white. Five of the primary
quills are dark brown, tinged with olive ; the shaft of
the first quill is white ; the next six are, in the male,
rather deeply tipped with white, and slightly spotted
and barred with brown: the secondaries, as far as they
are unconverted when the wings are extended, are of
the same snowy whiteness as the back. The feathers
which cover the upper part of the thighs, and those near
them, are blushed with a reddish or vinous colour; the
legs are of a deep orange red, and measure, from the
end of the middle toe-nail to the upper bare part of the
thigh, five inches and a half.
The Green Sandpiper. — This bird measures about
ten inches in length, to the end of the toes nearly twelve,
and weighs about three ounces and a half. The bill is
black, and an inch and a half long: a pale streak ex-
tends from it over each eye ; between which, and the
corners of the mouth, there is a dusky patch. The
crown of the head, and the hinder part of the neck, are
of a dingy, brownish ash-colour; in some specimens
narrowly streaked with white. The throat is white ;
fore-part of the neck mottled or streaked with brown
spots on a white or pale ash-coloured ground. The
whole upper part of the plumage is of a glossy bronze,
91
194
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
assists their velocity. But, as in seeking
their food, they are often obliged to change
their station ; so also are they equally swift
of wing, and traverse immense tracts of
country without much fatigue.
It has been thought by some, that a part
of this class lived upon an oily slime, found
in the bottoms of ditches and of weedy pools ;
they were thence termed, by Willoughby,
Mudsuckers. But later discoveries have shown
that, in these places, they hunt for the cater-
pillars and worms of insects. From hence,
therefore, we may generally assert, that all
birds of this class live upon animals of one
kind or another. The long-billed birds suck
up worms and insects from the bottom ; those
furnished with shorter bills, pick up such
insects as lie nearer the surface of the mea-
dow, or among the sands on the sea-shore.
Thus the curlew, the woodcock, and the
snipe, are ever seen in plashy brakes, and
under covered hedges, assiduously employed
in seeking out insects in their worm state ;
or olive brown, elegant marked on the edge of each fea-
ther with small roundish white spots: the quills are
without spots, and are of a darker brown: the secondaries
and tertials are very long : the insides of the wings are
dusky, edged with white gray ; and the inside coverts
next the body are curiously barred, from the shaft of each
feather to the edge, with narrow white lines, formed
nearly of the shape of two sides of a triangle. The belly,
rent, tail coverts, and tail, are white ; the last broadly
barred with black, the middle feathers having four bars,
and those next to them decreasing in the number of
bars towards the outside feathers, which are quite plain:
the legs are green.
The Dunlin (see Plate XIX. fig. 14.) This is the
size of a jack snipe. The upper parts of the plumage
are ferruginous, marked with large spots of black and a
little white; the lower parts are white, with dusky
streaks. It is found in all the northern parts of Europe.
The Lapwing or Peewit. — This bird is about the size
of a common pigeon, and is covered with very thick
plumes, which are black at the roots, but of a different
colour on the outward part. The feathers on the belly,
thighs, and under the wings, are most of them white as
snow ; and the under part on the outside of the wings
white, but black lower. It has a great liver divided
into two parts; and, as some authors affirm, no gall.
Lapwings are found in most parts of Europe, as far
northward as Iceland. In the winter they are met with
in Persia, and Egypt. Their chief food is worms ; and
sometimes they may be seen in flocks nearly covering
the low marshy grounds in search of these, which they
draw with great dexterity from their holes. When the
bird meets with one of these little clusters of pellets, or
rolls of earth that are thrown out by the worm's perfora-
tions, it first gently removes the mud from the mouth
of the hole, then strikes the ground at the side with its
foot, and steadily and attentively waits the issue; the
reptile, alarmed by the shock, emerges from its retreat,
and is instantly seized. These birds make a great noise
with their wings when flying; and are called pee-wits,
in Scotland and the north of England, from their parti-
cular cry. In other parts of the island, they are called
green plovers. They remain here the whole year.
The female lays two eggs on the dry ground, near some
marsh, upon a little bed which it prepares of dry grass.
She sits about three weeks ; aud the young, are able to
and it seems, from their fatness, that they
find a plentiful supply. Nature, indeed, has
furnished them with very convenient instru-
ments for procuring their food. Their bills
are made sufficiently long for searching ; but
still more they are endowed with an exquisite
sensibility at the point, for feeling their provi-
sion. They are furnished with no less than
three pair of nerves, equal almost to the optic
nerves in thickness ; which pass from the roof
of the mouth, and run along the upper chap
to the point.
Nor are those birds with shorter bills, and
destitute of such convenient instruments, with-
out a proper provision made for their subsis-
tence. The lapwing, the sandpiper, and the
redshank, run with surprising rapidity along
the surface of the marsh or the sea-shore,
quarter their ground with great dexterity,
arid leave nothing of the insect kind that hap-
pens to lie on the surface. These, however,
are neither so fat nor so delicate as the former,
as they are obliged to toil more for a subsis-
run two or three days after they are hatched. The follow
ing cut represents a cresterl or Green Lapwing,
The Turnstone — Is about the size of a thrush ; the
bill is nearly an inch long, a?id turns a little upwards.
The head, throat, and belly, are white: the breast black ;
and the neck encircled with a black colour. The upper
parts of the plumage are of a pale reddish brown. These
birds take their name from their method of finding their
food, which is by turning up small stones with their bills
to get the insects that lurk under them.
The rrhimbrel (see Plate XIX. fig. 13.) The whim-
brel is only about half the size of the curlew, which it
very nearly resembles in shape, the colours of its plum-
age, and manner of its living. It is about seventeen
inches in length, and twenty-nine in breadth : and weighs
about fourteen ounces. The bill is about three inches
long; the upper mandible black, the under one pale red.
The upper part of the head is black, divided in the
middle of the crown by a white line from the brown to
the hinder part; between the bill and the eyes there is
a darkish oblong spot ; the sides of the head, the neck,
and breast, are of a pale brown, marked with narrow
dark streaks pointing downwards ; the belly is of the
same colour, but the dark streaks upon it are larger ;
about the vent it is quite white ; the lower part of the
back is also white. The rump and tail feathers are
barred with black and white ; the shafts of the quills
are white, the outer webs totally black, but the inner
ones marked with large white spots: the secondary quills
are spotted in the same manner on both the inner and
outer webs. The legs and feet are of the same shape
arid colour as those of the curlew.
THE CRANE KIND.
195
tence, they are easily satisfied with whatever
offers ; and their flesh often contracts a relish
of what has been their latest, or their prin-
cipal food.
Most of the birds formerly described, have
stated seasons for feeding and rest : the eagle
kind prowl by day, and at evening repose ;
the owl by night, and keeps unseen in the
day-time : but these birds, of the crane kind,
seem at all hours employed ; they are seldom
at rest by day ; and, during the whole night-
season, every meadow and marsh resounds
with their different calls, to courtship or to
food.
This seems to be the time when they least
fear interruption from man ; and though they
fly at all times, yet at this season, they ap-
pear more assiduously employed, both in pro-
viding for their present support, and continu-
ing that of posterity. This is usually the
season when the insidious fowler steals in
upon their occupations, and fills the whole
meadow with terror and destruction.
As all of this kind live entirely in waters,
and among watery places, they seem provided
by nature with a warmth of constitution to fit
them for that cold element. They reside, by
choice, in the coldest climates : and as other
birds migrate here in our summer, their mi-
grations hither are mostly in the winter.
Even those that reside among us the whole
season, retire in summer to the tops of our
bleakest mountains : where they breed, and
bring down their young, when the cold
weather sets in.
Most of them, however, migrate, and retire
to the polar regions ; as those that remain
behind in the mountains, and keep with us
during summer, bear no proportion to the
quantity which in winter haunt our marshes
and low grounds. The snipe sometimes builds
here ; and the nest of the curlew is sometimes
found in the plashes of our hills ; but the num-
ber of these is very small ; and it is most pro-
bable that they are only some stragglers who,
not having strength or courage sufficient for
the general voyage, take up from necessity
their habitation here.
In general, during the summer, this whole
class either choose the coldest countries to
retire to, or the coldest and the moistest part
of ours to breed in. The curlew, the wood-
cock, the snipe, the godwit, the gray plover,
the green and the long-legged plover, the
knot, and the turnstone, are rather the guests
than the natives of this island. They visit
us in the beginning of winter, and forsake us
in the spring. They then retire to the moun-
tains of Sweden, Poland, Prussia, and Lap-
land, to breed. Our country, during the sum-
mer season, becomes uninhabitable to them.
The ground parched up by the heat; the
springs dried away ; and the vermicular in-
sects already upon the wing; they have no
means of subsisting. Their weak and deli-
cately pointed bills are unfit to dig into a
resisting soil ; and their prey is departed,
though they were able to reach its retreats.
Thus, that season when nature is said to teem
with life, and to put on her gayest liveries, is
to them an interval of sterility and famine.
The coldest mountains of the north are then
a preferable habitation ; the marshes there
are never totally dried up; and the insects
are in such abundance, that both above
ground and underneath, the country swarms
with them. In such retreats., therefore, these
birds would continue always ; but that the
frosts, when they set in, have the same effect
upon the face of the landscape, as the heats
of summer. Every brook is stiffened into
ice ; all the earth is congealed into one solid
mass ; and the birds are obliged to forsake a
region where they can no longer find subsis-
tence.
Such are our visitants. With regard to
those which keep with us continually, and
breed here, they are neither so delicate in
their food, nor perhaps so warm in their con-
stitutions. The lapwing, the ruff, the red-
shank, the sand-piper, the seapie,the Norfolk
plover, and the sea-lark, breed in this coun-
try, and for the most part reside here. In
summer they frequent such marshes as are
not dried up in any part of the year ; the
Essex hundreds, and the fens of Lincolnshire.
There, in solitudes formed by surrounding
marshes, they breed and bring up their young.
In winter they come down from their retreats,
rendered uninhabitable by the flooding of the
waters, and seek their food about our ditches
and marshy meadow-grounds. Yet even of
this class, all are wanderers upon some occa-
sions ; and take wing to the northern cli
mates, to breed and find subsistence. This
happens when our summers are peculiarly
dry ; and when the fenny countries are not
sufficiently watered to defend their retreats.
But though this be the usual course of na-
ture, with respect to these birds, they often
break through the general habits of their kind ;
and as the lapwing, the ruff, and the sand
piper, are sometimes seen to alter their man.
ners, and to migrate from hence, instead of
continuing to breed here ; so we often find the
wood-cock, the snipe, and the curlew, reside
with us during the whole season, and breed
their young in different parts of the country.
In Casewood, about two miles from Tun
bridge, as Mr Pennant assures us, some wood
cocks are seen to breed annually. The young
have been shot there in the beginning of Au-
gust ; and \vere as healthy and vigorous as
they are with us in winter, though not so \velJ
196
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
tasted. On the Alps, and other high moun-
tains, says Willoughby, the woodcock conti-
nues all summer ; I myself have flushed them
on the top of Mount Jura, in June and July.
The eggs are long, of a pale red colour, and
stained with deeper spots and clouds. The
nests of the curlew and the snipe are fre-
quently found ; and some of these perhaps
never entirely leave this island.
It is thus that the same habits are, in some
measure, common to all ; but in nestling, and
bringing up their young, one method takes
place universally. As they all run and feed
upon the ground, so they are all found to nes-
tle there. The number of eggs generally to
be seen in every nest, is from two to four ;
never under, and very seldom exceeding.
The nest is made without any art ; but the
eggs are either laid in some little depression
of the earth, or on a few bents and long grass,
'hat scarcely preserve them from the moisture
below. Yet such is the heat of the body of
these birds, that the time of incubation is
shorter than with any other of the same size.
The magpie, for instance, takes twenty-one
days to hatch its young ; the lapwing takes
but fourteen, Whether the animal oil, with
which these birds abound, gives them this su-
perior warmth, I cannot tell ; but there is no
doubt of their quick incubation.
In their seasons of courtship, they pair as
other birds ; but not without violent contests be-
tween the males, for the choice of the female.
The lapwing and the plover are often seen to
light among themselves ; but there is one little
bird of this tribe, called the Rttjf, that has got
the epithet of the fighter, merely from its
great perseverance and animosity on these oc-
casions. In the beginning of spring, when
these birds arrive among our marshes, they
are observed to engage with desperate fury
against each other : it is then that the fowlers,
seeing them intent on mutual destruction'
spread their nets over them, and take them in
great numbers. Yet even in captivity their
animosity still continues : the people that fatten
them up for sale, are obliged to shut them up
in close dark rooms ; for if they let ever so
little light in among them, the turbulent pri-
soners instantly fall to fighting with each
other, and never cease till each has killed its
antagonist, especially, says Willoughby, if
any body stands by. A similar animosity,
though in a less degree, prompts all this tribe;
but when they have paired, and begun to lay,
their contentions are then over.
The place these birds chiefly choose to
breed in, is in some island surrounded with
sedgy moors, where men seldom resort ; and
in such situations I have often seen the ground
so strewed with eggs and nests, that one could
scarcely take a step, without treading upon
some of them. As soon as a stranger intrudes
upon these retreats, the whole colony is up,
and a hundred different screams are heard
from every quarter. The arts of the lapwing,
to allure men or dogs from her nest, are per-
fectly amusing. When she perceives the
enemy approaching, she never waits till they
arrive at her nest, but boldly runs to meet
them : when she has come as near them as she
dares to venture, she then rises with a loud
screaming before them, seeming as if she were
just flushed from hatching ; while she is then
probably a hundred yards from the nest.
Thus she flies with great clamour and an-
xiety, whining and screaming around the in-
vaders, striking at them with her wings, and
fluttering as if she were wounded. To add
to the deceit, she appears still more clamo-
rous, as more remote from the nest. If
she sees them very near, she then seems
to be quite unconcerned, and her cries cease,
while her terrors are really augmenting. If
there be dogs, she flies heavily at a little
distance before them, as if maimed; still
vociferous and still bold, but never offering to
move towards the quarter where her treasure
is deposited. The dog pursues, in hopes
every moment of seizing the parent, and by
this means actually loses the young ; for the
cunning bird, when she has thus drawn him
off to a proper distance, then puts forth her
powers, and leaves her astonished pursuers to
gaze at the rapidity of her flight. The eggs
of all these birds are highly valued by the
luxurious; they are boiled hard, and thus
served up without any further preparation.
As the young of this class are soon hatched,
so, when excluded, they quickly arrive at
maturity. They run about after the mother
as soon as they leave the egg; and being
covered with a thick down, want very little
of that clutching which all birds of the poultry
kind, that follow the mother, indispensably
require. They come to their adult state long
before winter; and then flock together till
the breeding season returns, which for a
while dissolves their society.
As the flesh of almost all these birds is in
high estimation, so many methods have been
contrived for taking thorn. That used in
THE WATER-HEN
197
taking the ruff, seems to be most advantage-
ous ; and it may not be amiss to describe it.
The Ruff, which is the name of the male, the
Reeve that of the female, is taken in nets
about forty yards long, and seven or eight
feet high. These birds are chiefly found in
Lincolnshire and the Isle of Ely, where they
come about the latter end of April, and dis-
appear about Michaelmas. The male of this
bird, which is known from all others of the
kind by the great length of the feathers round
his neck, is yet so various in his plumage,
that it is said, no two ruffs were ever seen
totally of the same colour. The nets in
which these are taken, are supported by
sticks, at an angle of near forty-five degrees,
and placed either on dry ground, or in very
shallow water, not remote from reeds : among
these the fowler conceals himself, till the
birds, enticed by a stale or stuffed bird, come
under the nets; he then, by pulling a string,
lets them fall, and they are taken ; as are
godwits, knots, and gray plovers, also in the
same manner. When these birds are brought
from under the net, they are not killed imme-
diately, but fattened for the table, with bread
and milk, hemp-seed and sometimes boiled
wheat; but if expedition be wanted, sugar is
added, which will make them a lump of fat
in a fortnight's time. They are kept, as ob-
served before, in a dark room ; and judgment
is required in taking the proper time for kill-
ing them, when they are at the highest pitch
of fatness: for if that is neglected, the birds
are apt to fall away. They are reckoned a
very great delicacy ; they sell for two shil-
lings, or half-a-crown, a piece ; and are served
up to the table with the train, like woodcocks,
where we will leave them.
CHAP. XI.
OF THE WATER-HEN, AND THE COOT.1
BEFORE we enter upon water-fowls, pro-
perly so called, two 'or three birds claim our
1 As bearing some affinity to this genus of birds, we
may here notice the Rails, so called from the rattling
sound of their cry. These birds, which remain during
the day concealed in the grass, seek their food morning
and evening in the reeds and plants of marshes and
meadows. They fly very far, and walk with great
agility. They never join in families and flocks. They
raise their neck like hens when they are disturbed, and
the young quit the nest immediately after birth, and
seize of their own accord the food which is indicated to
them by the mother. To the Land-rail or Corn-crake,
these remarks are not perhaps applicable in all respects.
The Water-rail runs along stagnant waters as fast as
the corn-crake does over the fields. Sometimes, instead
of traversing the water by swimming, it sustains itself
attention, which seem to form the shade be-
tween the web-footed tribe and those of the
crane kind. These partake rather of the form
than the habits of the crane ; alid though
furnished with long legs and necks, rather
swim than wade. They cannot properly be
called web-footed ; nor yet are they entirely
destitute of membranes, which fringe their
toes on each side, and adapt them for swim-
ming. The birds in question are, the Water-
Hen and the Bald- Coot.
These birds have too near an affinity, not
to^be ranked in the same description. They
are shaped entirely alike, their legs are long,
and their thighs partly bare ; their necks are
proportionable, their wings~short, their bills
short and weak, their colour black, their
foreheads bald and without feathers, and their
habits entirely the same. These, however,
naturalists have thought proper to range in
different classes, from very slight distinctions
in their figure. The water-hen weighs but
fifteen ounces ; the coot twenty-four. The
bald part of the forehead in the coot is black ;
in the water-hen it is of a beautiful pink
colour. The toes of the water-hen are edged
with a straight membrane ; those of the coot
have it scolloped and broader.
The differences in the figure are but
slight ; and those in their manner of living
still less. The history of the one will serve
for both. As birds of the crane kind are fur-
nished with long wings, and easily change
place, the water-hen, whose wings are short,
on the broad leaves of aquatic plants. Its food consists
of insects, snails, and shrimps. It makes its nest in
the midst of plants, by the side of ponds and streams,
and the female lays from six to ten yellowish eggs,
marked with spots of reddish-brown. The flesh of this
bird has a marshy taste, but is, notwithstanding, in some
estimation.
The Land-rail, or Corn-crake, is in the genus Galli-
nule of Latham. In the more southern countries this
is a bird of passage. It arrives among us and in France
abont April or May, and disappears in the commence-
ment of October. By its short and sharp cry, crik, crik,
we recognize its return. On approaching the qnarter
whence this cry proceeds, the sound is not discontinued,
but heard a little farther on, which is occasioned by the
bird, which can fly away but with difficulty, running
with extreme swiftness through the tufted grass. In
consequence of the coincidence between the return and
departure of the quails and this bird, the latter has been
sometimes deemed the conductor of the former. These
birds are insectivorous when young, but the adult add
grains, &c. of various kinds to this aliment.
198
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
i.s obliged to reside entirely near those place
where her food lies : she cannot take those
long journeys that most of the crane kind
are seen to perform ; compelled by her na-
tural imperfections, as well perhaps as by
inclination, she never leaves the side of the
pond or the river in which she seeks for pro-
vision. Where the stream is selvaged with
sedges, or the pond edged with shrubby trees,
the water-hen is generally a resident there:
she seeks her food along the grassy banks,
and often along the surface of the water.
With Shakspeare's Edgar, she drinks <Jie
green mantle of the standing pool ; or, at
least seems to prefer those places where it is
seen. Whether she makes pond-weed her
food, or hunts among it for water-insects,
which are found there in great abundance, is
not certain. I have seen them when pond-
weed was taken out of their stomach. She
builds her nest upon low trees and shrubs, of
sticks and fibres, by the water-side. Her
eggs are sharp at one end, white, with a tinc-
ture of green, spotted with red. She lays
twice or thrice in a summer; her young ones
swim the moment they leave the egg, pursue
their parent, and imitate all her manners.
She rears, in this manner, two or three
broods in a season : arid when the young are
grown up, she drives them off to shift for
themselves.
As the Coot is a larger bird, it is always
seen in larger streams, and more remote from
mankind. The water-hen seems to prefer
inhabited situations : she keeps near ponds,
moats, and pools of water near gentlemen's
houses; but the coot keeps in rivers, and
among rushy margined lakes. It there makes
a nest of such weeds as the stream supplies,
and lays them among the reeds, floating on
the surface, and rising and falling with the
water. The reeds among which it is built
keep it fast ; so that it is seldom washed into
the middle of the stream. But if this hap-
pens, which is sometimes the case, the bird
sits in her nest, like a mariner in his boat,
and steers with her legs her cargo into the
nearest harbour: there, having attained her
port, she continues to sit in great tran-
quillity, regardless of the impetuosity of the
current; and though the water penetrates
her nest, she hatches her eggs in that wet
condition.
The water-hen never wanders ; but the coot
sometimes swims down the current, till it
even reaches the sea. In this voyage these
birds encounter a thousand dangers : as they
cannot fly far, they are hunted by dogs and
men; as they never leave the stream, they
are attacked and destroyed by otters; they
are preyed upon by kites and falcons ; and
they are taken in still greater numbers in
weirs made for catching fish ; for these birds
are led into the nets, while pursuing small
fish and insects, which are their principal
food. Thus animated nature affords a picture
of universal invasion ! Man destroys the otter,
the otter destroys the coot, the coot feeds upon
fish, and fish are universally the tyrants of
each other !
To these birds, with long legs and finny
toes, I will add one species more, with short
legs and finny toes ; I mean the Grebe. The
entire resemblance of this bird's appetites and
manners to those of the web- footed class,
might justly induce me to rank it among
them ; but as it resembles those above des-
cribed, in the peculiar form of its toes, and
bears some similitude in its manners also, I
will for once sacrifice method to brevity. The
grebe is much larger than either of the former,
and its plumage white and black ; it differs
also entirely in the shortness of its legs,
which are made for swimming, and not walk-
ing : in fact, they are from the knee upward
hid in the belly of the bird, and have conse-
quently very little motion. By this mark,
and by the scolloped fringe of the toes, may
this bird be easily distinguished from all
other.
As they are thus, from the shortness of
their wings, ill formed for flying, and from
the uncommon shortness of their legs utterly
unfitted for walking, they seldom leave the
water, and chiefly frequent those broad shal-
low pools where their faculty of swimming
can be turned to the greatest advantage, in
fishing and seeking their prey.
They are chiefly, in this country, seen to
frequent the meres of Shropshire and Che-
shire ; where they breed among reeds and
flags, in a floating nest, kept steady by the
weeds of the margin. The female is said to
be a careful nurse of her young, being ob-
served to feed them most assiduously with
small eels ; and when the little brood is tired,
ihe mother will carry them either on her back
or under her wings. This bird preys upon
ish, and is always perpetually diving. It
does not show much more than the head above
water; and is very difficult to be shot, as it
darts down on the appearance of the least
THE WATER-HEN.
199
danger. It is never seen on land ; and,
(hough disturbed ever so often, will not leave
that lake, where alone, by diving and swim-
ing, it can find food and security. It is
chiefly sought for the skin of its breast, the
plumage of which is of a most beautiful
silvery white, and as glossy as satin. This>
part is made into tippets ; but the skins are
out of season about February, losing their
bright colour ; and in breeding-time their
breasts are entirely bare.
HISTOEY OF BIRDS.
BOOK VII.
OF WATER-FOWL.
CHAP. I.
WATER-FOWL IN GENERAL.
IN settling the distinctions among the other
classes of birds, there was some difficulty ; one
tribe encroached so nearly upon the nature
and habitudes of another, that it was not easy
to draw the line which kept them asunder :
but in water-fowl, nature has marked them
for us by a variety of indelible characters ; so
that it would be almost as unlikely to mistake
a land-fowl for one adapted for living and
swimming among the waters, as a fish for a
bird.
The first great distinction in this class ap-
pears in the toes, which are webbed together
for swimming. Those who have remarked
the feet or toes of a duck, will easily conceive
how admirably they are formed for making
way in the water. When men swim, they
do not open the fingers, so as to let the fluid
pass through them ; but closing them toge-
ther, present one broad surface to beat back
the water, and thus push their bodies along.
What man performs by art, nature has sup-
plied to water-fowl; and, by broad skins, has
webbed their toes together, so that they ex-
pand two broad oars to the water; and thus,
moving them alternately, with the greatest
ease paddle along. We must observe also, that
the toes are so contrived, that as they strike
backward, their broadest hollow surface beats
the water; but as they gather them in again,
for a second blow, their front surface con-
tracts, and does not impecTe the bird's progres-
sive motion.
As their toes are webbed in the most con-
venient manner, so are their legs also made
most fitly for swift progression in the water.
The legs of all are short, except the three
birds described in a former chapter ; namely,
the flamingo, the avosetta,and the corrira: all
which, for that reason, I have thought proper
to rank among the crane kind, as they make
little use of their toes in swimming. Except
these, all web-footed birds have very short
legs ; and these strike, while they swim, with
great facility. — Were the leg long, it would
act like a lever whose prop is placed to a dis-
advantage; its motions would be slow, and
the labour of moving it considerable. For
this reason, the very few birds whose webbed
feet are long, never make use of them in
swimming : the web at the bottom seems only
of service as a broad base, to prevent them
from sinking while they walk in the mud ;
but it otherwise rather retards than advances
their motion.
The shortness of their legs in the web-footed
kinds, renders them as unfit for walking on
land, as it qualifies them lor swimming in
their natural element. Their stay, therefore,
upon land, is but short and transitory ; and
they seldom venture to breed far from the
sides of those waters where they usually re-
main. In their breeding seasons, their young
are brought up by the water-side ; and they
are covered with a warm down, to fit them for
the coldness of their situation. The old ones,
also, have a closer, warmer plumage, lhan
birds of any other class. It is of their feath-
ers that our beds are composed ; as they nei-
ther mat, nor imbibe humidity, but are fur-
nished with an animal-oil that glazes their
surface, and keeps each other separate. In
some, however, this animal-oil is in too great
abundance, and is as offensive from its smell,
as it is serviceable for the purposes of house-
hold economy. The feathers, there fore, of all
the penguin kind are totally useless for do-
mestic purposes ; as neither boiling nor bleach,
ing can divest them of their oily rancidity,
Indeed, the rancidity of all new feathers, of
THE PELICAN.
201
whatever water-fowl they be, is so disgusting,
that our upholsterers give near double the
price for old feathers that they afford for new :
to be free from smell, they must all be lain
upon for some time ; and their usual method
is to mix the new and the old together.
This quantity of oil, with which most
water-fowl are supplied, contributes also to
their warmth in the moist element where they
reside. Their skin is generally lined with
fat ; so that, with the warmth of the feathers
externally, and this natural lining more in-
ternally, they are better defended against the
changes or the inclemencies of the weather,
than any other class whatever.
As, among land-birds, there are some found
fitted entirely for depredation, and others for
a harmless method of subsisting upon vegeta-
bles, so also, among these birds, there are
tribes of plunderers that prey, not only upon
fish, but sometimes upon water-fowl them-
selves. There are likewise more inoffensive
tribes, that live upon insects and vegetables
only. Some water-fowls subsist by making
sudden stoops from above, to seize whatever
fish come near the surface ; others again, not
furnished with wings long enough to fit them
for flight, take their prey by diving after it
to the bottom.
From hence all water-fowl naturally fall
into three distinctions. Those of the Gull
kind, that, with long legs and round bills, fly
along the surface to seize their prey : those of
the Penguin kind, that, with round bills, legs
hid in the abdomen, and short wings, dive
after their prey : and, thirdly, those of the
Goose kind, with flat broad bills, that lead
harmless lives, and chiefly subsist upon in-
sects and vegetables.
These are not speculative distinctions, made
up for the arrangement of a system ; but they
are strongly and evidently marked by nature.
The gull kind are active and rapacious ; con-
stantly, except when they breed, keeping upon
the wing ; fitted for a life of rapine, with
sharp straight bills for piercing, or hooked at
the end for holding their fishy prey. In this
class we may rank the Albatross, the Cormo-
rant, the Gannet or Solan Goose, the Shag,
the Frigate-bird, the Great Brown Gull, and
all the lesser tribe of gulls and sea-swallows.
The Penguin kind, with appetites as vora-
cious, bills as sharp, and equally eager for
prey, are yet unqualified to obtain it by flight.
Their wings are short, and their bodies large
and heavy, so that they can neither run nor
fly. But they are formed for diving in a very
peculiar manner. Their feet are placed so far
backward, and their legs so hid in the abdo-
men, that the slightest stroke sends them head
foremost to the bottom of the water. To this
class we may refer the Penguin, the Auk,
the Skout, the Sea-turtle, the Bottlenose, and
the Loon.
The Goose kind are easily distinguishable,
by their flat broad bills covered with a skin,
and their manner of feeding, which is mostly
upon vegetables. In this class we may place
the Swan, the Goose, the Duck, the Teal, the
Widgeon, and all their numerous varieties.
In describing the birds of these three clas-
ses, I will put the most remarkable of each
class at the beginning of their respective tribes,
and give their separate history ; then, after
having described the chiefs of the tribe, the
more ordinary sorts will naturally fall in a
body, and come under a general description,
behind their leaders. But before I offer to
pursue this methodical arrangement, I must
give the history of a bird, that, from the sin-
gularity of its conformation, seems allied to no
species ; and should, therefore, be separately
described — I mean the Pelican.
CHAP. IL
THE PELICAN.
THE Pelican of Africa is much larger in
the body than a swan, and somewhat of the
same shape and colour. Its four toes are all
webbed together; and its neck, in some mea-
sure, resembles that of a swan : but that sin-
gularity in which it differs from all other birds
is in the bill and the great pouch underneath,
which are wonderful, and demand a distinct
description.1 This enormous bill is fifteen
1 The Pelican is one of the largest water-birds, consi-
derably exceeding the size of the swan, and frequently
measuring from five to six feet between the extremity of
the bill and that of the tail, and from ten. to twelve be-
tween the tips of the expanded wings. Its bill is nearly
a foot and a half in length, and from an inch and a half
to two inches broad ; and its pouch is capable of contain-
ing, when stretched to its utmost extent, two or three
gallons of water. The quantity of fish which it some-
times accumulates in the same serviceable repository is
spoken of as enormous. Notwithstanding their great
2c
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
inches from the point to the opening of the
mouth, which is a good way back behind the
eyes. At the base, the bill is somewhat
greenish, but varies towards the end, being of
a reddish-blue. It is very thick in the be-
ginning, but tapers off to the end, where it
hooks downwards. The under chap is still
more extraordinary; for to the lower edges of
it hangs a bag, reaching the whole length of
the bill to the neck, which is said to be capa-
ble of containing fifteen quarts of water. This
bag the bird has a power of wrinkling up into
the hollow of the under-chap : but by opening
the bill, and putting one's hand down into the
bag, it may be distended at pleasure. The
skin of which it is formed will then be seen
of a bluish ash-colour, with many fibres and
veins running over its surface. It is not co-
vered with feathers, but a short downy sub
stance, as smooth and as soft as satin, and is
attached all along the under edges of the chap,
to be fixed backward to the neck of the bird
by proper ligaments, and reaches near half
way down. When this bag is empty it is
not seen ; but when the bird has fished with
success, it is then incredible to what an extent
it is often seen dilated. For the first thing
the pelican does in fishing is to fill up the
bag ; and then it returns to digest its burden
at leisure. When the bill is open to its
widest extent, a person may run his head into
the bird's mouth, and conceal it in this mon-
strous pouch, thus adapted for very singular
purposes. Y*t this is nothing to what Ruysch
assures us, who avers, that a man has been
seen to hide his whole leg, boot and all, in the
monstrous jaws of one of these animals. At
first appearance this would seem impossible,
as the sides of the under chap, from which the
bag depends, are not above an inch asunder
when the bird's bill is first opened ; but then
they are capable of great separation ; and it
must necessarily be so, as the bird preys upon
the largest fishes, and hides them by' dozens
in its pouch. Tertre affirms, that it will hide
bulk and apparent clumsiness, the large extent of their
wings, and the extreme lightness of their bones, which
are so thin as to be almost transparent, enable these birds
to rise to a lofty pitch in the air, to hover at a moderate
elevation, or to skim rapidly along the surface of the
water with as much facility as they dive into its depths
in pursuit of their prey. They sometimes assemble in
large numbers, and in this case are said by Buffbn to
act in concert, and to show no little skill in manoeuvring
with the view of securing a plentiful quarry, forming
themselves into a circular line, and gradually narrowiri"
the extent of the space enclosed, until they have driven
the fishes- into so. small a compass as to render them a
certain prey ; when at a given signal they all at once
plunge into the water and seize upon their terrified vic-
tims, filling their pouches with the spoil, and flying to
the land, there to devour it at their leisure. This fish-
ti-j is carried on both at sea and in fresh water.
as many fish as will serve sixty hungry men
for a meal.
Such is the formation of this extraordinary
bird, which is a native of Africa and Ameri-
ca. The pelican was once also known in Eu-
rope, particularly in Russia ; but it seems to
have deserted our coasts. This is the bird
of which so many fabulous accounts have been
propagated ; such as its feeding its young
with its own blood, and its carrying a provi-
sion of water for them in its great reservoir in
the desert. But the absurdity of the first ac-
count answers itself; and as for the latter, the
pelican uses its bag for very different purpo-
ses than that of filling it with water.
Its amazing pouch may be considered as
analogous to the crop in other birds, with this
difference, that as theirs lies at the bottom of
the gullet, so this is placed at the top. — Thus,
as pigeons and other birds macerate their food
for their young in their crops, and then supply
them, so the pelican supplies its young by a
more ready contrivance, and macerates their
food in its bill, or stores it for its own particu-
lar sustenance.
The ancients were particularly fond of giv-
ing this bird admirable qualities and parental
affections ; struck, perhaps, with its extraordi-
nary figure, they were willing to supply it
with as extraordinary appetites ; and having
found it with a large reservoir, they were
pleased with turning it to the most tender and
parental uses. But the truth is, the pelican
is a very heavy, sluggish, voracious bird, and
very ill fitted to take those flights, or to make
those cautious provisions for a distant time,
which we have been told they do. Father
Labat, who seems to have studied their man-
ners with great exactness, has given us a mi-
nute history of this bird, as found in America;
and from him I will borrow mine.
The pelican, says Labat, has strong wings,
furnished with thick plumage of an ash-co-
lour, as are the rest of the feathers over the
whole body. Its eyes are very small when
compared to the size of its head; there is a
sadness in its countenance, and its whole air
is melancholy. It is as dull and reluctant in
its motions, as the flamingo is sprightly and
actiye. It is slow of flight ; and when it rises
to fly, performs it with difficulty and labour.
Nothing, as it would seem, but the spur of
necessity could make these birds change their
situation, or induce them to ascend into the
air ; but they must either starve or fly.
They are torpid and inactive to the last de-
gree, so that nothing can exceed their indol-
ence but their gluttony ; it is only from the
stimulations of hunger that they are excited to
labour ; for otherwise they would continue al-
ways in fixed repose. When they have raised
themselves about thirty or forty feet above the
THE PELICAN.
203
surface of the sea, they turn their head with
one eye downwards, and continue to fly in
that posture. As soon as they perceive a fish
sufficiently near the surface, they dart down
upon it with the swiftness of an arrow, seize it
with unerring certainty, and store it up in
their pouch. They then rise again, though
not without great labour, and continue hover-
ing and fishing, with their head on one side
as before.
This work they continue with great effort
and industry till their bag is full, and then
they fly to land to devour and digest at
leisure the fruits of their industry. This,
however, it would appear, they are not long
in performing ; for towards night they have
another hungry call, and they again reluc-
tantly go to labour. At night, when their
fishing is over, and the toil of the day
crowned with success, these lazy birds retire
a little way from the shore ; and, though with
the webbed feet and clumsy figure of a goose,
they will be contented to perch no where but
upon trees, among the light and airy tenants
of the forest. There they take their repose
for the night ; and often spend a great part of
the day, except such times as they are fish,
ing, sitting in dismal solemnity, and, as it
would seem, half asleep. Their attitude is,
with the head resting upon their great bag,
and that resting upon their breast. There
they remain without motion, or once chang-
ing their situation, till the calls of hunger
break their repose, and till they find it indis-
pensably necessary to fill their magazine for
a fresh meal. Thus their life is spent be-
tween sleeping and eating ; and our author
adds, that they are as foul as they are vora-
cious, as they are every moment voiding ex-
crements in heaps as large as one's fist.
The same indolent habits seem to attend
them even in preparing for incubation, and
defending their young when excluded. The
female makes no preparation for her nest, nor
seems to choose any place in preference to lay
in ; but drops her eggs on the bare ground to
the number of five or six, and there continues
to hatch them. Attached to the place, with-
out any desire of defending her eggs or her
young, she tamely sits, and suffers them to be
taken from under her. Now and then she
just ventures to peck, or to cry out when a
person offers to beat her off.
She feeds her young with fish macerated
for some time in her bag ; and when they
cry, flies off for a new supply. Labat tells
us, that he took two of these when very young,
and tied them by the leg to a post stuck into
the ground, where he had the pleasure of
seeing the old one for several days come to
feed them, remaining with them the greatest
part of the day, and spending the night on
the branch of a tree that hung over them.
By these means they were all three become
so familiar, that they suffered themselves to
be handled ; and the young ones very kindly
accepted whatever fish he offered them. These
they always put first into their bag, and then
swallowed at their leisure.
It seems, however, that they are but disagree-
able and useless domestics ; their gluttony can
scarcely be satisfied ; their flesh smells very
rancid ; and tastes a thousand times worse
than it smells. The native Americans kill
vast numbers ; not to eat, for they are not fit
even for the banquet of a savage ; but to con.
vert their large bags into purses and tobacco
pouches. They bestow ~no~small pains in
dressing the skin with salt and ashes, rubbing
it well with oil, and then forming it to their
purpose. It thus becomes so soft and pliant,
that the Spanish women sometimes adorn
it with gold and embroidery to make work-
bags of.
Yet with all the seeming habitudes of this
bird, it is not entirely incapable of instruction
in a domestic state. Father Raymond assures
us, that he has seen one so tame and well edu-
cated among the native Americans, that it
would go off in the morning at the word of
command, and return before night to its
master, with its great pouch distended with
plunder ; a part of which the savages would
make it disgorge, and a part they would per-
mit it to reserve for itself.
" The pelican," as Faber relates, " is not
destitute of other qualifications. One of
these which was brought alive to the duke of
Bavaria's court, where it lived forty years,
seemed to be possessed of very uncommon
sensations. It was much delighted in the
company and conversation of men, and in
music both vocal and instrumental : for it
would willingly stand," says he, " by those
that sung, or sounded the trumpet; and
stretching out its head, and turning its ear to
the music, listened very attentively to its
harmony ; though its own voice was little
pleasanter than the braying of an ass." Ges-
ner tells us, that the emperor Maximilian had
a tame pelican, which lived for above eighty
years, and that always attended his army on
their march. It was one of the largest of the
kind, and had a daily allowance by the
emperor's orders. As another proof of the
great age to which the pelican lives, Aldro-
vandus makes mention of one of these birds
that was kept several years at Mechlin,
which was verily believed to be fifty years
old. — We often see these birds at our shows
about town.
204
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
CHAP. III.
OF THE ALBATROSS, THE FIRST OF THE
GUL1L KIND.1
THOUGH this is one of the largest and most
formidable birds of Africa and America, yet
we have but few accounts to enlighten us in
its history. The figure of the bird is thus de-
1 The ocean has its own peculiar birds as well as the
land. Compelled to traverse incessantly its solitudes to
obtain their subsistence, they are endowed with a won-
derful power of flight, so that in a few hours they are
able to cross immense distances, and to betake them-
selves to those places to which their instinct directs them.
Among these numerous tribes there exist distinctions
of manners as decided as the physical characters by
which they are classified ; and this induces us to give
the name of birds of the ocean (piseatu? pelayiens), pro-
perly so called, to the petrels and the albatrosses. The
former are found in every sea, under every meridian,
and in almost every latitude. Except the short time
which they devote to rearing their young1, all the rest of
their life is occupied in traversing the ocean, and
laboriously seeking, in the midst of storms, a scanty
sustenance, almost as soon digested as procured ; which
seems to place them under subjection to a single duty,
that of obtaining nourishment.
Boobies (Sula Bassana), noddies (Sterna), men of
war birds (Pelecanus Aquilus, L.), and tropic birds
(Phaeton erubescens) — although they occasionally take
long flights over the sea, do not deserve the name of
birds of the ocean : they simply make excursions ; and
preferring their lonely cliffs to the rocking of the waves,
they generally return to them every evening.
The discrimination of the several species of albatross
has become a matter of great difficulty, from the many
different names that successive travellers have bestowed
upon them, and from the difference between the sexes,
as well as from the change which takes place in the
same individual at different ages and at different seasons
of the year.
The greatest number of albatrosses are met with
between the 55th and 59th parallel of latitude; and
probably in that direction they may have no boundary
but the polar ice. Although they are to be met with
over the whole of this vast space, there are some places
for which they have a preference, and in which they
are found in greater numbers than elsewhere. They
are most abundant about the Cape_ of Good Hope and
about Cape Horn, and both these places are well known
to be almost constantly the scenes of very violent storms.
The petrels are more numerous, and more widely dif-
fused, since they are to be met with from pole to pole,
and they vary very much in size. The albatross is
distinguishable by its great size ; but one species of the
petrel (Procellaria giganted) is nearly as large, while
another species is as different from this as a sparrow
from a goo?e.
It is certain that fish do serve for food to the albatross
and petrel, although they were never seen pursuing the
flying-fish, which are said to fall a prey to them when
they leave the deep, and, betaking themselves to their
wings to avoid the enemy in the water, only encounter
» new danger in the albatross; nor were any remains,
either of these or of the mollusca — which, as it were,
cover these seas, and would alone be sufficient to satisfy
one of these birds for a whole day — ever found in their
stomachs. We have seen them surrounded with sea-
blubbers, physalize, Salpse, &c., but these afforded them
no nourishment; they invariably sought other food.
scribed by Edwards : " The body is rather
larger than that of a pelican ; and its wings,
when extended, ten feet from tip to tip. The
bill, which is six inches long, is yellowish,
and terminates in a crooked point. The top
of the head is of a bright brown ; the back is
of a dirty deep spotted brown ; and the belly
and under the wings is white ; the toes,
which are webbed, are of a flesh colour."
Such are the principal traits in this bird's
This was not the case with cuttlefish and calmar?,
fragments of which were constantly found in their
stomachs.
One circumstance which could not escape notice
during our long voyages, is the habit — we should almost
say the necessity — which these birds are under of fre-
quenting rough seas. The tempest itself does not
alarm them: and when the wind is blowing most
furiously, they may be seen wheeling about without
appearing at all affected by it. — When, on the other
hand, the face of the ocean is smoothed by a calm, they
fly to other regions, again to appear with the return of
winds and storms. No doubt the reason of this is, that
the agitation of the waves brings to their surface those
marine animals which serve for food to these birds. It
is from the same reason that they keep near the eddying
and disturbance occasioned by the passing of a vessel
through the water. This design was clearly demon-
strated to us when approaching the Cape of Good Hope.
We were accompanied by a great number of small
petrels, of the size of kingfishers, who were busy skim-
ming the surface of the water in a line of exactly the
width o'f our track. None were to be seen anywhere
else. We took great care that nothing should be
thrown from the corvette, and yet we saw them every
instant darting their bills into the water to seize some
object which we were unable to distinguish.
The duration, the rapidity, the strength, and the
manner of flight of these birds in general, has been a
subject of study and astonishment to us. Their agility
in casting themselves, like a harpoon, on their prey, in
raising it with their beak, their activity in striking the
backs of the waves with their foot, or in traversing their
long unsteady ridges, were sometimes the only spec-
tacle which the solitudes of the ocean had to offer to us.
One of the peculiar characters of these palmipedes
(web-footed birds) is, that their flight is effected almost
entirely by sailing as it were through the air. If they
do sometimes flap their wings, it is in order to raise
themselves more quickly; but such instances are rare.
In the albatross, which was principally remarked upon,
both from its great size and from its approaching nearer
to the ships, it was observed that their long wings were
concave underneath, and that they did not show any
apparent vibration in whatever position the bird might
be ; whether when skimming the surface of the wave
they regulated their flight by its undulations, or when
rising into the air they described wide circles around
the vessel.
Land birds of prey who fly in this way without mov-
ing their wings, are generally descending towards the
earth when they adopt this mode of flight; while the
petrel and the albatross easily raise themselves up into
the air, turn quickly round by means of their tail, and
go on in the face of the highest wind without their pro-
gress appearing to be at all diminished by its force, and
without any apparent motion being imparted to their
wings. But still we must admit that some impulse is
given to the air which sustains them — although we can-
not perceive it, it is true, since it probably is exerted at
the end of very long levers (at the extremities of their
wings); for, otherwise, we cannot conceive ,';ow the pro-
THE ALBATROSS
205
figure : but these lead us a very short way
in its history; and our naturalists have thought
fit to say nothing more. However, I am apt
to believe this bird to be the same with that
described by Wicquefort, under the title of
the Alcatraz; its size, its colours, and its
prey, incline me to think so. He describes
it as a kind of great gull, as large in the
body as a goose, of a brown colour, with a
long bill, and living upon fish, of which they
kill great numbers.
This bird is an inhabitant of the tropical
climates, and also beyond them as far as the
Straits of Magellan in the South seas. It is
one of the most fierce and formidable of the
aquatic tribe, not only living upon fish, but
also such small water-fowl as it can take by
surprise. It preys, as all the gull kind do,
upon the wing ; and chiefly pursues the
flying-fish, that are forced from the sea by the
dolphins. The ocean in that part of the
world presents a very different appearance
from the seas with which we are surrounded.
In our seas we see nothing but a dreary
expanse, rufiled by winds, and seeming for-
saken by every class of animated nature.
But the tropical seas, and the distant southern
latitudes beyond them, are all alive with birds
and fishes, pursuing and pursued. Every
various species of the gull kind are there seen
hovering on the wing, at a thousand miles' dis-
tance from the shore. The flying fish are every
moment rising to escape from their pursuers
of the deep, only to encounter equal dangers
in the air. Just as they rise the dolphin is
seen to dart after them, but generally in vain ;
the gull has more frequent success, and often
takes them at their rise ; while the albatross
pursues the gull, and obliges it to relinquish
gressive motion of the animal is accomplished. The
exceedingly long wings which many of these birds pos-
sess, spoil the beauty of their figure when closed, as
they produce a thickness in the posterior part of the
body. It is when flying that they display themselves
to the greatest advantage; and they are endowed with
a wonderful strength to enable them to perform their
flights. When in 59° south latitude, where there is
scarcely any night as long as the sun is under the tropic
of Capricorn, we have seen the same petrels sailing on
the wing several days together without interruption.
The petrels do not dive after their food, but if it lies
only at a certain depth, they endeavour to seize it by
forcing part of their body under water.
From what has been said, it appears, that the mere
presence of these birds is not a sure sign of the approach
of land.
With respect to the incubation of these pelagic birds,
the French naturalists observe that the petrels flock in
immense numbers to the "Isles Malouines," along the
shores of which their eggs are deposited in such abun-
dance as to be a source of subsistence to the seamen
employed in the seal-fishery. They were also informed
Hiat these birds arrange their eggs with much order,
and, living as it were in a republic, exercise by turns
the function of incubation in this kind of temporary
establishment. — Zoological Magazine,
its prey ; so that the whole horizon presents
but one living picture of rapacity and eva-
sion.
So much is certain ; but how far we are to
credit Wicquefort, in what he adds concern-
ing this bird, the reader is left to determine.
" As these birds, except when they breed,
live entirely remote from land, so they are
often seen, as it should seem, sleeping in the
air. At night, when they are pressed by
slumber, they rise into the clouds as high as
they can ; there, putting their head under one
wing, they beat the air with the other, and
seern to take their ease. After a time, how-
ever, the weight of their bodies, only thus
half supported, brings them down ; and they
are seen descending, with a pretty rapid
motion, to the surface of the sea. Upon this
they again put forth their efforts to rise ; and
thus alternately ascend and descend at their
ease. But it sometimes happens," says my
author, " that in these slumbering flights,
they are off their guard, and fall upon deck,
where they are taken."
What truth there may be in this account I
will not take upon me to determine : but
certain it is, that few birds float upon the air
with more ease than the albatross, or support
themselves a longer time in that element.
They seem never to feel the accesses of
fatigue ; but night and day upon the wing,
are always prowling, yet always emaciated^
and hungry.
But though this bird be one of the most
formidable tyrants of the deep, there are some
associations which even tyrants themselves
form, to which they are induced either by
caprice or necessity. The albatross seems to
have a peculiar affection for the penguin, and
a pleasure in its society. They are always
seen to choose the same places for breeding ;
some distant uninhabited island, where the
ground slants to the sea, as the penguin is
not formed either for flying or climbing. In
such places their nests are seen together, as if
they stood in need of mutual assistance and
protection. Captain Hunt, who for some time
commanded at our settlement upon Falk-
land islands, assures me, that he was often
amazed at the union preserved between these
birds, and the regularity with which they
built together. In that bleak and desolate
spot, where the birds had long continued un-
disturbed possessors, and no way dreaded the
encroachment of men, they seemed to make
their abode as comfortable as they expected it
to be lasting. They were seen to build with
an amazing degree of uniformity; their nests
covering fields by thousands, and resembling
a regular plantation. In the middle, on high,
the albatross raised its nest, on heath, sticks,
and long grass, about two feet above the sur-
206
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
face: round this the penguins made their
lower settlement, rather in holes in the
ground, and most usually eight penguins to
one albatross. Nothing is a stronger proof of
Mr Buffon's fine observation, that the presence
of man not only destroys the society of meaner
animals, but their instincts also. These nests
are now, I am told, totally destroyed ; the
society is broke up ; and the albatross and
penguin have gone to breed upon more desert
shores, in greater security.1
CHAP. V.
TUB CORMORANT.
THE Cormorant is above the size of a large
JVluscovy duck, and may be distinguished
from all other birds of this kind, by its four
toes being united by membranes together ;
and by the middle toe being toothed or notched
like a saw, to assist it in holding its fishy
prey. The head and neck of this bird are of
a sooty blackness; and the body thick and
1 The Albatross is also called the man-of-war bird.
la the West Indies these birds are said to foretell the
arrival of ships ; which is frequently true, and may arise
from a very natural cause. They always fish in fine
weather; so that, when the wind is rough at sea, they
retire into the harbours, where they are protected by
the land ; and the same wind that blows them in, brings
likewise whatever vessels may be exposed to its fury, to
seek a retreat from it. They devour fish with great
gluttony and are often so gorged as to be unable to fly.
Their cry resembles the braying of an ass.
The Chocolate Albatross. — This bird inhabits the
Pacific Ocean, and is three feet long. The bill is
whitish ; the body of a deep chestnut brown colour;
belly pale; face and wings beneath whitish. The irides
are brown ; the legs bluish white, with white claws.
Yellow-Nosed Albatross. — The colour is white ; the
bill is black; keel of the upper mandible, and base
of the lower one yellow ; the body above is of a black-
blue colour ; beneath it is white. It inhabits the Pacific
ocean, and is about three feet long. The irides are
brown; the nape of the neck and rump, white; the legs
are pale yellow; the fore-part and connected mem-
brane dusky.
2 Although the cormorant appears to have been always
common upon our coasts, and of known extensive dis-
tribution throughout the maritime districts of the north
of Europe, it is only within the last few years that the
heavy, more inclined in figure to that of the
goose than the gull. The bill is straight, till
near the end, where the upper chap bends
into a hook.
changes of plumage to which it is subject, have been
perfectly investigated, and that the mistakes of earlier
writers have been corrected by the observations of
Montagu, Temminck, and other eminent ornithologists.
It has been described by several as a distinct species
when in its summer or nuptial plumage. Some have
considered this state as indicative only of the male bird,
whilst others have regarded it as a common or an ac-
cidental variety. It is now, however, well ascertained,
that, on the approach of spring, both sexes invariably
undergo the change that assimilates them to the Crested
Cormorant of Bewick and others, and which garb they
retain till after reproduction has been effected. This I
have had repeated opportunities of verifying from my
own observations, and by the dissection of many speci-
mens from a colony that annually breed at the Fern
islands on the Northumbrian coast. This bird is per-
haps generally looked on with dislike, from an associa-
tion of ideas produced by the extravagant descriptions
of different authors, and from the prominent part it is
made to perform in the sublime poem of " Paradise
Lost." As naturalists, however, and believers in the
unerring wisdom so greatly and wonderfully displayed
throughout the animated creation, we are not to judge
of its qualities from the exaggerations of fancy, but to
consider whether its powers are not fitly and beautifully
adapted to the place it is destined to fill in the great
chain of the universe. Viewed in this, the only true
light, we shall find much to admire, since its instincts
and habits are in such perfect accordance with, arid so
ably support, the economy of its being, So far, indeed,
from possessing the bad qualities attributed to it, it
seems, from the testimony of Montagu, to be endowed
with a nature directly the reverse; for he states, that
he found it extremely docile, of a grateful disposition,
and without the smallest tincture of a savage or vindic-
tive spirit. This character I can confirm, from having
kept it in a domesticated state; and the very fact, in-
deed, of these birds having been trained to fish, as many
of the Fulconidte are to fowl, is a further proof of its
docility and tractable nature. Like other piscivorous
birds, its digestion is rapid, and its consumption of food
consequently great, but the epithet of glutton, and the
accusation of unrelenting cruelty, are no more applicable
to it, than to any other bird destined by its Creator to
prey on living matter. In Britain, where it is numer-
ous and widely dispersed, the Cormorant breeds upon
rocky shores and islands, selecting the summits of the
rocks for the situation of the nest, and not (like the Green
Cormorant) the clefts or ledges. In some countries it
breeds upon trees, possessing, as I have before observed,
the power of grasping firmly with its feet. Upon the
Fern islands, its nest is composed entirely of a mass of
sea-weed, frequently heaped up to the height of two
feet, in which are deposited from- three to five eggs, of
a pale bluish-white, with a rough surface, from the un-
equal deposition of the calcareous matter. The young,
when first hatched, are quite naked and very ugly, the
skin being of a purplish-black; this in six or seven days
becomes clothed with a thick black down, but the fea-
thered plumnge is not perfected in less than five or six
weeks. Instinct, that powerful substitute for reason, is
no where more beautifully exemplified than in the young
of this bird ; for I have repeatedly found, that, upon
being thrown Into the sea, even when scarcely half-
fledged, they immediately plunge beneath the surface,
and endeavour to escape by diving. This they will do
to a great distance, using their imperfect wings, and
pursuing their submarine flight in the same manner.
THE CORMORANT.
207
But notwithstanding the seeming heaviness
of its make, there are few birds more power-
fully predaceous. As soon as the winter ap-
proaches, they are seen dispersed along the
sea-shore, and ascending up the mouths of
fresh-water rivers, carrying destruction to all
the tinny tribe. They are most remarkably
voracious, and have a most sudden digestion.
Their appetite is for ever craving, and never
satisfied. This gnawing sensation may pro-
bably be increased by the great quantity of
small worms that fill their intestines, and
which their unceasing gluttony contributes to
engender.
Thus formed with the grossest appetites,
this unclean bird has the most rank and dis-
agreeable smell, and is more fetid than even
carrion, when in its most healthful state. Its
form, says an ingenious modern, is disagree-
able ; its voice is hoarse and croaking ; and
all its qualities obscene. No wonder then
that Milton should make Satan personate this
bird, when he sent him upon the basest pur-
poses, to survey with pain the beauties of
Paradise, and to sit devising death on the tree
of life.1 It has been remarked, however, of
and with almost as much effect, as their parents. When
unfledged in the nest, the young of this species, if alarmed
by an approach, raise the head and neck to the full stretch,
at the. same time gaping wide, and vibrating in a curi-
ous manner the loose skin of the neck and throat, accom-
panied by a constant and querulous cry. In winter, cor-
morants are frequently seen in our rivers and lakes at a
considerable distance from the sea, where they occasion-
ally perch and roost in such trees as grow upon the im-
mediate banks. They feed entirely on fish, which they
ill/tain by active pursuit beneath the surface of the water,
and having the gullet very large and dilatable, they are
enabled to swallow those of considerable size. The prey
is killed by being squeezed in their powerful and hooked
bill, and always swallowed head foremost; and should the
fish happen to have been awkwardly captured for this
operation, it is tossed into the air, and in descending
caught in a more favourable position. In swimming,
the body of this bird is almost entirely submerged, the
head and part of the neck only being visible. Montagu
also observes, that when in the act of looking for its
prey, it always carries the head under water, being able
thus to discover it at a greater distance than if the eyes
were kept above the surface, which is generally in some
degree agitated. It may frequently be observed stand-
ing upon the shore or rocks, with the wings expanded,
for several minutes at a time, in order to dry the feathers
and bring them to the proper state for preening, as
they are apt to become wet from long continued div-
ing, causing the gradual loss of the oily matter that
partly defends them from the action of the water.
This species is a native of the new as well as of the
ancient continent, being found in various parts of North
America ; it is also met with in Northern Asia, and
in Europe its distribution is wide, extending to high
latitudes. The bronchi in this bird are of great length,
and of equal diameter, issuing from the lower larynx,
which is formed of a single cartilaginous ring. Im-
mediately below the glottis, the tube is enlarged, but
soon contracts, and remains of the same diameter through
the rest of its course. — Selbu's British Ornithology,
Vol. II.
1 Vide Pennant's Zoology, p. 477.
our poet, that the making a water-fowl perch
upon a tree, implied no great acquaintance
with the history of nature. In vindication
of Milton, Aristotle expressly says, that the
cormorant is the only water-fowl that sits
on trees. We have already seen the pelican
of this number ; and the cormorant's toes
seem as fit for perching upon trees as for
swimming ; so that our epic bard seems to
have been as deeply versed in natural history
as in criticism.
Indeed this bird seems to be of a multiform
nature ; and wherever fish are to be fbund,
watches their migrations. It is seen as well
by land as sea ; it fishes in fresh-water lakes,
as well as in the depths of the ocean ; it builds
in the cliffs of rocks, as well as on trees; and
preys not only in the day-time, but by night.
Its indefatigable nature, and its great
power in catching fish, were probably the
motives that induced some nations to breed
this bird up tame, for the purpose of fishing ;
and Willoughby assures us, it was once used
in England for that purpose. The descrip-
tion of their manner of fishing is thus delivered
by Faber.
" When they carry them out of the rooms
where they are kept, to the fish-pools, they
hoodwink them, that they may not be frighted
by the way. When they are come to the
rivers, they take off their hoods; and having
tied a leather thong round the lower part of
their necks, that they may not swallow down
the fish they catch, they throw them into
the river. They presently dive under water,
and there for a long time, with wonderful
swiftness, pursue the fish ; and when they
have caught them, rise to the top of the water,
and pressing the fish lightly with their bills,
swallow them ; till each bird hath, after this
manner, devoured five or six fishes. Then
their keepers call them to the fist, to which
they readily fly ; and, one after another,
vomit up all their fish, a little bruised with
the first nip, given in catching them. When
they have done fishing, setting their birds on
some high place, they loose the string from
their necks, leaving the passage to the sto-
mach free and open ; and, for their reward,
they throw them part of their prey ; to each
one or two fishes, which they will catch most
dexterously, as they are falling in the air.
At present the cormorant is trained in
every part of China for the same purpose,
where there are many lakes and canals.
" To this end,'' says Le Compte, " they are
educated as men rear up spaniels or hawks,
and one man can easily manage a hundred.
The fisher carries them out into the lake,
perched on the gunnel of his boat, where
they continue tranquil, and expecting his
orders with patience. When arrived at the
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
proper place, at the first signal given each
flies a different way to fulfil the task assigned
it. It is very pleasant, on this occasion, to
behold with what sagacity they portion out
the lake or the canal where they are upon
duty. They hunt about, they plunge, they
rise a hundred times to the surface, until they
have at last found their prey. They then
seize it with their beak by the middle, and
carry it without fail to their master. When
the fish is too large, they then give each other
mutual assistance : one seizes it by the head,
the other by the tail, and in this manner carry
it to the boat together. There the boatman
stretches out one of his long oars, on which
they perch, and being delivered of their bur-
den, they fly off to pursue their sport. When
they are wearied, he lets them rest for a
while ; but they are never fed till their work
is over. In this manner, they supply a very
plentiful table ; but still their natural gluttony
cannot be reclaimed even by education. They
have always while they fish the same string
fastened round their throats, to prevent them
from devouring their prey, as otherwise they
would at once satiate themselves, and discon-
tinue their pursuit the moment they had filled
their bellies."
As for the rest, the cormorant is the best
fisher of all birds ; and though fat and heavy
with the quantity it devours, is nevertheless
generally upon the wing. The great activity
with which it pursues, and from a vast height
drops down to dive after its prey, offers one
of the most amusing spectacles to those who
stand upon a cliff on the shore. This large
bird is seldom seen in the air, but where there
are fish below ; but then they must be near
the surface, before it will venture to souse upon
them. If they are at a depth beyond what
the impetus of its flight makes the cormorant
capable of diving to, they certainly escape
him ; for this bird cannot move so fast under
water, as the fish can swim. It seldom, how-
ever, makes an unsuccessful dip ; and is often
seen rising heavily, with a fish larger than it
can readily devour. It sometimes also hap-
pens, that the cormorant has caught the fish
by the tail ; and consequently the fins prevent
its being easily swallowed in that position.
In this case, the bird is seen to toss its prey
above its head, and very dexterously to catch
it, when descending, by the proper end, and
BO swallow it with ease.
CHAP. V.
OF THE GANNET, OK SOLAN GOOSE.
-'
THE Gannet is of the size of a tame goose,
but its wings much longer, being six feet
1 Although the Gannet (or, as it is more frequently
called in Scotland, the Solan Goose) deserts its breeding
stations and the northern coasts of the kingdom upon the
approach of autumn, it is occasionally found throughout
the winter in the English channel, where it keeps at a
distance from the land, feeding upon the pilchards and
herrings, which at that season retire to the deeper parts
of the ocean. The main body of these birds, however,
appears to seek more southern latitudes, as they are met
with in great numbers during winter in the Bay of Bis-
cay, on the coasts of Spain arid Portugal, and in the Me-
diterranean; and here they find an abundant supply of
the anchovy and sardine, both species of Clupea (her-
ring). They generally make their appearance about the
end of March or beginning of April, in the vicinity of
their breeding stations : these are ttie isle of Ailsa, at
the mouth of the Frith of Clyde; St Kilda; Souliskerry
near the Orkneys; the Skelig isles upon the Irish coast,
and the Bass Rock at the entrance of the Frith of Forth.
Upon the precipitous rocks of these islands they breed
in innumerable multitudes, occupying .all the ledges
and summits wherever they find sufficient space for the
nest, which is formed of a mass of sea-weed, and other
materials, which they either find on the rocky clifis, or
gather from the surface of the sea as they pass on the
wing. They lay but one egg each (not two, as stated
jy Temminck), exceeding in size that of the cormo-
'ant, but much less than the egg of the common goose,
with which it has been compared. Its colour, when first
laid, is white, but it soon becomes soiled, and as incu-
jatiou proceeds, acquires a yellowish or clay-coloured ap-
aearance. The young, when hatched, are naked, their
skin smooth and of bluish-black, but covered in a few
days with a white down, which, growing rapidly, soon
jecomes very thick, giving them in this state the ap-
pearance of large powder-pufls, or masses of cotton.
Dver this warm clothing, the regular plumage gradually
extends ; and after about two months they are fully
fledged and able to take wing. Great numbers of the
/oung birds are annually taken upon the Bass Rock, not
merely on account of the feathers and down, for the
bodies are also sold in the neighbouring towns, and in
.he Edinburgh market, at the rate of Is. 8d, each,
)eing much esteemed, when roasted, as a relish
a short time before the hour of dinner. Their flesh
s very oily and rank, and though habit has recon-
ciled the Scotch to such an unusual whet, few stran-
gers would find their appetites increased, after par-
ng of such a dish. 'This precipitous rock (the
Bass) is rented from the proprietor at £60 or £10
THE
209
over. The bill is six inches long, straight
almost to the point, where it inclines down,
and the sides are irregularly jagged, that it
may hold its prey with greater security. It
differs from the cormorant in size, being
larger ; and its colour, which is chiefly white ;
and by its having no nostrils, but in their
place a long furroAV that reaches almost to the
end of the bill. From the corner of the mouth
is a narrow slip of black bare skin, (hat ex-
tends to the hind part of the head ; beneath
the skin is another that, like the pouch of the
pelican, is dilatable, and of size sufficient to
contain five or six entire herrings, which in
the breeding season it carries at once to its
mate or its young.
These birds, which subsist entirely upon
fish, chiefly resort to those uninhabited islands
where their food is found in plenty, and men
seldom come to disturb them. The islands to
the north of Scotland, the Skelig islands off
the coasts of Kerry in Ireland, and those that
lie in the north sea off Norway, abound with
them. But it is on the Bass island, in the
Frith of Edinburgh, where they are seen in
per annum,* and as the proceeds chiefly depend upon
the produce of the gannets, great care is taken to pro-
tect the old birds, which the tenant is enabled to do from
the privilege possessed by the proprietor, of preventing
any person from shooting or otherwise destroying them
within a certain limited distance of the island. From
the accounts I have received from the resident there,
it appears that the gannet is a very long-lived bird, as
he has recognised, from particular and well-known
marks, certain individuals for upwards of forty years,
that invariably returned to the same spot to breed. He
also confirmed to me the time required for this bird to
attain maturity, viz. four years; arid pointed out several
in the different garbs they assume during that period,
stating also, that until fully matured, they have never
been known to breed. During incubation, in conse-
quence of being unmolested, they become very tame;
and, where the nests are easily accessible upon the flat
surface of the rock on the south-west side of the island,
will allow themselves to be stroked by the hand without
resistance, or any show even of impatience, except the
low guttural cry of grog, grog. Upon the other breed-
ing stations above mentioned, th'e produce of the gannet
is equally prized, and immense numbers, both of the
eggs and young, are annually taken, and preserved by
the inhabitants for winter's consumption. From the
great development of the wings, and the peculiar appa-
ratus of air-cells distributed over different parts of the
body, the flight of this bird is powerful and buoyant,
and can be supported- for any length of time. When in
search of prey, it soars usually at a considerable eleva-
tion, as it thus obtains a sufficient impetus in its fall to
reach the fish beneath the surface ; at other times, when
making its way to any distant point, or in dark and
stormy weather, it flies comparatively low. Its food
consists almost entirely of the different species of her-
ring, which it always takes by plunging vertically upon
them as they rise within a certain distance of the top of
the water. The force with which it descends in this
operation, may be conceived from the fact of gannets
having been taken by a fish fastened to a board sunk to
* Other statements ir.ake the rental only £30.
VOL. ii.
the greatest abundance. " There is a small
island," says the celebrated Harvey, " called
the Bass, not more than a mile in circum-
ference. The surface is almost wholly co-
vered during the months of May and June
with their nests, their eggs, and young. It
is scarcely possible to walk without treading
on them : the flocks of birds upon the wing,
are so numerous, as to darken the air like a
cloud; and their noise is such, that one can-
not without difficulty be heard by the person
next to him. When one looks down upon
the sea from the precipice, its whole surface
seems covered with infinite numbers of birds
of different kinds, swimming and pursuing
their prey. If, in sailing round the island,
one surveys its hanging cliffs, in every crag,
or fissure of the broken rocks, may be seen
innumerable birds, of various sorts and sizes,
more than the stars of heaven, when viewed
in a serene night. If they are viewed at
a distance, either receding, or in their ap-
proach to the island, they seem like one vast
swarm of bees."
They are not less frequent upon the rocks
the depth of two fathoms, in which cases the neck has
either been found dislocated, or the bill firmly fixed in
the wood. Pennant, and some other writers, describe
this bird as having a gular pouch similar to that of the
pelican, and capable of containing five or six herrings ;
this, however, is not correct, as that part is not more
dilatable than the rest of the gullet, which, as well as
the skin of the neck, can occasionally stretch to much
extent, readily allowing a passage to the largest herring,
or even to a fish of still greater dimensions. Montagu
observes, that he was not able to keep the gannet alive
in confinement; but this probably arose from the want
of a due supply of fish, as I have known them to live fin
a long time in a domesticated state, and my friend Mi
Neill of Canonmills, near Edinburgh, (well known to
the scientific world as a botanist and a lover of natural
history), has at present, or at least within a very late
period had, one in the full enjoyment of health for many
years past. This bird, when herrings could not be pro-
cured, was fed with flounders, which it swallowed with
the greatest apparent ease, the gape readily accomodat-
ing itself to their greater breadth. It is almost un-
necessary to add, that all fish are swallowed with the
head foremost. Sometimes the gannet becomes so
gorged with food, as to be compelled to alight on the
water, and to repose there in a lethargic state; and
when thus situated, it may, by being advanced upon in
a boat from the windward, be easily run down and cap-
tured. This arises from its being unable to leave the
water except when breasting the wind, and it never
makes any attempt to dive, of which power it seems to
be totally divested. This species is widely distributed
throughout the northern parts of Europe, and is also
common to North America. The body of this bird is
long and much flattened, with the neck elongated, and
thick and muscular, in order to support its powerful
bill ; the wings are of great length, the radius (or second
joint) measuring fully eight inches; and the legs are not
placed so far behind as in the cormorants, so that the
horizontal position is preserved in walking. In its
affinities it seems to connect the true pelicans with the
genera Tachypetes and Phaeton — Selby's British Orni-
thology.
2 o
210
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
of St Kilda. Martin assures us, that the
inhabitants of that small island consume
annually near twenty-three thousand young-
birds of this species, besides an amazing
quantity of their eggs. On these they prin-
cipally subsist throughout the year; and from
the number of these visitants, make an esti-
mate of their plenty for the season. They
preserve both the eggs and fowls in small
pyramidal stone buildings, covering them with
turf ashes, to prevent the evaporation of their
moisture.
The gannet is a bird of passage. In win-
ter it seeks the more southern coasts of Corn-
wall, hovering over the shoals of herrings and
pilchards that then come down from the nor-
thern seas ; its first appearance in the northern
islands is in the beginning of spring ; and it con-
tinues to breed till the end of summer. But,
in general, its motions are determined by the
migrations of the immense shoals of herrings
that come pouring down at that season through
the British Channel, and supply all Europe,
as well as this bird, with their spoil. The
gannet assiduously attends the shoal in their
passage, keeps with them in their whole cir-
cuit round our island, and shares with our fish-
ermen this exhaustless banquet. As it is
strong of wing, it never comes near the land ;
but is constant to its prey. Wherever the
gannet is seen, it is sure to antiounce to the
fishermen the arrival of the finny tribe ; they
then prepare their nets, and take the herrings
by millions at a draught; while the gannet,
who came to give the first information, comes,
though an unbidden guest, and often snatches
its prey from the fisherman even in his boat.
While the fishing season continues, the gan-
nets are busily employed ; but when the pil-
chards disappear from our coasts, the gannet
takes its leave to keep them company.
The cormorant has been remarked for the
quickness of his sight; yet in this the gannet
seems to exceed him. It is possessed of a
transparent membrane under the eye-lid, with
which it covers the whole eye at pleasure,
without obscuring the sight in the smallest
degree. This seems a necessary provision for
the security of the eyes of so weighty a crea-
ture, whose method of taking its prey, like
that of the cormorant, is by darting headlong
down from a height of a hundred feet or more
into the water to seize it. — These birds are
sometimes taken at sea, by fastening a pil-
chard to a board, which they leave floating.
The gannet instantly pounces down from
above upon the board, and is killed or maimed
by the shock of a body where it expected no
resistance.
These birds breed but once a year, and lay
but one egg, which being taken away, they
lay another; if that is also taken, then a
third ; but never more for that season. Their
egg is white, and rather less than that of the
common goose ; and their nest large, composed
of such' substances as are found floating on the
surface of the sea. The young birds, during
the first year, differ greatly in colour from the
old ones ; being of a dusky hue, speckled with
numerous triangular white spots ; and at that
time resembling the colours of the speckled
diver.
The Bass island, where they chiefly breed,1
belongs to one proprietor ; so that care is
taken never to fright away the birds when
laying, or to shoot them upon the wing. By
that means, they are so confident as to alight
and feed their young ones close beside you.
They feed only upon fish, as was observed ;
yet the young gannet is counted a great dainty
by the Scots, and is sold very dear ; so that
the lord of the islet makes a considerable an-
nual profit by the sale.
CHAP. VI.
OF THE SMALLER GULLS AND PETRELS.
HAVING described the manners of the great
ones of this tribe, those of the smaller kinds
may be easily inferred. They resemble the
more powerful in their appetites for prey, but
have not such certain methods of obtaining it.
In general, therefore, the industry of this
tribe, and their audacity, increase in propor-
tion to their imbecility ; the great gulls live
at the most remote distance from man ; the
smaller are obliged to reside wherever they
can take their prey ; and to come into the
most populous places, when solitude can no
longer grant them a supply. In this class
we may place the Gull, properly so called, of
which there are above twenty different kinds;
the Petrel, of which there are three ; and the
Sea-swallow, of which there are as many.
The gulls may be distinguished by an angu-
lar knob on the lower chap ; the petrels by
their wanting this knob ; and the sea-swallow
by their bills, which are straight, slender, and
sharp-pointed. They all, however, agree in
.heir appetites, and their places of abode.2
Solan Geese also frequent Ailsa Craig, an insulated
rock in the Frith of Clyde, somewhat similar in appear-
ance to the Bass, but nearly double its size in circum-
ference and height.
2 Besides the faculty of swimming, Petrels possess
that of supporting themselves on the water, by striking
very rapidly with their feet, which has caused them to
be compared to St Peter walking upon the water.
Hence the name. The petrels are to be seen in all
seas of the globe from one pole to the other. They are
tlie inseparable companions of mariners, during their
long navigations. The flight of these birds is almost al-
THE GULL.
211
The gull, and all its varieties, is very well
known in every part of the kingdom. It is
seen with a slow-sailing flight, hovering over
rivers to prey upon the smaller kinds of fish ;
ways performed by hovering, and without presenting ap-
parent, vibrations. They rise with facility, and can fiy
Hgainst the strongest winds, which never slacken their
movements. The tempest not only does not affright
them, but they are almost necessitated to seek those seas
where the agitation of the waves brings to the surface
those marine animals which constitute their food. In
consequence of this, they are frequently seen in all wea-
thers, in the vortices which are formed by the track of
vessels. The following cut represents the common
St'irrny Petrel.
it is seen following the ploughman in fallow
fields to pick up insects; and when living
animal food does not offer, it has even been
known to eat carrion, and whatever else of
Tne Little Stormy Petrel breeds in the Orkneys.
Mr Scarth states that, in passing over a tract of peat-
moss, near the shore, in a small uninhabited island in
Orkney, one evening in the month of August, he
was surprised to hear a low, purring noise, somewhat
resembling the sound of a spinning-wheel in motion ;
and, on inquiry, he was informed by one of the boatmen
who accompanied him, that it was the noise commonly
emited by the Alimonty (the Orkney name for the
stormy petrel), that frequented the island when hatch-
ing. On examining a small hole in the ground, he
found the bird and its nest, which was very simple,
being little more than a few fragments of shells laid on
the bare turf. It contained two round, pure-white eggs,
which were very large in comparison with the size of
the bird. [One egg is the more usual production of the
Petrel.] When he seized the bird, she squirted out of
her mouth an oily sub.-tance of a very rancid smell. He
took her home, and having put her into a cage, he
offered her various kinds of worms to eat j but, as far
as he could observe, she ate nothing till after the expira-
tion of four days, when he observed that she occasionally
'drew the feathers of her breast singly across, or rather
through her bill, and appeared to suck an oily substance
from them. This induced him to smear her breast with
common train oil ; and, observing that she greedily
.sucked the feathers, he repeated the smearing two or
three times in each day for about a week. He then
placed a saucer containing oil in the cage, and observed
that she regularly extracted the oil by dipping her breast
in the vessel, and then sucked the feathers as before.
In this way he kept her for three months. After feed-
ing, she sat quietly at the bottom of the cage, sometimes
making the same purring noise which first attracted his
notice and sometimes whistling very shrilly. " There
are," says Wilson, " few persons who have crossed the
Atlantic that have not observed these solitary wanderers
of the deep, skimming along the surface of the wild and
wasteful ocean ; flitting past the vessel like swallows,
or following in her wake, gleaning their scanty pittance
of food from the rough and whirling surges. Habited
in mourning, and making their appearance generally in
greater numbers previous to or during a storm, they
have long been fearfully regarded by the ignorant and
Euperstitious, not only as the foreboding messengers of
tempests and dangers to the hapless mariner, but as
wicked agents, connected some how or other in creating
them. ' Nobody,' say they, ' can tell any thing of
where they come from, or how they breed, though (as
sailors sometimes say) it is supposed that they hatch
their eggs under their wings as they sit on the water.'
This mysterious uncertainty of their origin, and the
circumstances above recited, have doubtless given rise
to the opinion, so prevalent among this class of men,
that they are in some way or other connected with
the prince of the power of the air. In every country
where they are known, their names have borne some
affinity to this belief. They have been called witches,
stormy petrels, the Devil's birds ond Mother Gary's
chickens, probably from some celebrated ideal hag of
that name ; and their unexpected" arid numerous ap-
pearance has frequently thrown a momentary damp over
the mind of the hardiest seamen. It is the business of
the naturalist, and the glory of philosophy, to examine
into the reality of these things ; to dissipate the clouds
of error and superstition wherever they darken and be-
wilder the human understanding, and to illustrate na-
ture with the radiance of truth." When we inquire,
accordingly, into the unvarnished history oi this ominous
bird, we find that it is by no means peculiar in presag-
ing storms, for many others of very different families
are evidently endowed with an equally nice perception
of a change in the atmosphere. Hence it is that, before
rain swallows are seen more eagerly hawking for flies,
and ducks carefully trimming their feathers, and tossing
up water over their backs, to try whether it will run off
again without wetting them. But it would be as absurd
to accuse the swallows and ducks on that account of
being the cause of rain, as to impute a tempest to the
spiteful malice of the poor petrels. Seamen ought rather
to be thankful to them for the warning which their deli-
cate feelings of aerial change enable them to give of an
approaching hurricane. " As well,*' says Wilson,
" might they curse the midnight light-house that, star-
like, guides them on their watery way ; or the buoy
that warns them of the sunken rocks below, as this harm*
less wanderer, whose manner informs them of the ap-
proach of the storm, and thereby enables them to pre-
pare for it." The petrels are nocturnal birds. When,
therefore, they are seen flying about and feeding by clay,
the fact appears to indicate that they have been driven
from their usual quarters by a storm ; and hence, per-
haps, arose the association of the bird with the tempest.
Though the petrels venture to wing their way over the
wide ocean, as fearlessly as our swallows do over a mill-
pond, they are not, therefore, the less sensible to danger;
and, as if feelingly aware of their own weakness, they
make all haste to the nearest shelter. When they can-
not then find an island or a rock to shield them from the
blast, they fly towards the first ship they can descry,
crowd into her wake, and even close under the stern,
heedless, it would appear, of the rushing surge, so that
they can keep the vessel between them and the unbroken
sweep of the wind. It is not to be wondered at, in such
cases, that their low wailing note of meet, teeet, should
add something supernatural to the roar of waves and
whistling of the wind, and infuse an ominous dread into
minds prone to superstition. The popular opinion
among sailors, that the petrels carry their eggs under
their wings in order to hatch them, is no less unfounded
than the fancy of their causing storms: it is, indeed,
physically impossible. On the contrary, the petrels have
been ascertained to breed on rocky shores, in numerous
communities, like the bank-swallow, making their nests
in the holes and cavities of the rocks above the sea, re-
turning to feed their young only during the night, with
the' superabundant oily food from their stomachs. The
212
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
the kind that offers. Gulls are found in
great plenty in every place ; but it is chiefly
round our boldest rockiest shores that they are
seen in the greatest abundance; it is there
that the gull breeds alid brings up its young ;
it is there that millions of them are heard
screaming with discordant notes for months
together.
Those who have been much upon our
coasts know that there are two different kinds
of shores ; that which slants down to the
water with a gentle declivity, and that which
rises with a precipitate boldness, and seems
set as a bulwark to repel the force of the
invading deeps. It is to such shores as these
that the whole tribe of the gull kind resort, as
the rocks offer them a retreat for their young,
and the sea a sufficient supply. It is in the ca-
vities of these rocks, of which the shore is com-
posed, that the vast variety of sea-fowls retire
to breed in safety. The waves beneath, that
continually beat at the base, often wear the
quantity of this oily matter is so considerable, that, in
the Faro Isles, they use petrels for candles, with no other
preparation than drawing a wick through the body of the
birds from the mouth to the rump.
The Gulls, Bufibn terms the vultures of the sea, for
they feed upon carcasses of every description, which are
either floating on its surface, or cast upon its shores.
They swarm upon the borders of the sea, where they
seek fish, either fresh or corrupted, flesh in the same
states, worms, or mollusca, all t)f which their stomach is
capable of digesting. Spread throughout the entire
globe, they cover with their multitudes the shores, rocks,
and clifls, causing them to re-echo with their clamours.
There- are even some species which frequent the fresh
waters, and some are to be met with at sea, at more
than a hundred leagues distant from land. D'Azara,
who has seen them, in innumerable quantities, near the
slaughter houses of Monte Video, Buenos Ayres, and
even in the squares, where they pick up the offal of the
shambles, &c., and sometimes perch on the roofs, tells
us that they proceed considerably to inland, whither
they are attracted by dead animals. They dart with
such violence on their prey, that they will swallow both
bait and hook, and spit themselves on the point placed
by the fisher under the fish which he presents to them.
In the coloured Plate LXIII. fig. 3, is given the GLAUCOUS
GULL (Lams Glaucus). This bird is a winter visitant to
the Shetlands, hut it is an inhabitant of the Arctic regions.
In Shetland, when allured by carrion, it enters the bays,
and boldly ventures inland. The following cut represents
a Common Gull. Navigators have found Gulls in all lati-
shore into an impending boldness ; so that it
seems to jut out over the water, while the
raging of the sea makes the place inaccessible
from below. These are the situations to
which sea- fowl chiefly resort, and bring up
their young in undisturbed security.
Those who have never observed our boldest
coasts, have no idea of their tremendous sub-
limity. The boasted works of art, the high-
est towers, and the noblest domes, are but
ant-hills when put in comparison : the single
cavity of a rock often exhibits a coping higher
than the ceiling of a Gothic cathedral. The
face of the shore offers to the view a wall of
massive stone, ten times higher than our
tallest steeples. What should we think of a
precipice three quarters of a mile in height ?
and yet the rocks of St Kilda are still higher !
What must be our awe to approach the edge
of that impending height, and to look down
on the unfathomable vacuity below; to ponder
on the terrors of falling to the bottom, where
tudes; they are, however, both more numerous and
larger in the northern regions, where the carcasses of
large fishes and cetacea present them with more abun-
dant food, and it is on the desert islands of the two
polar zonus, where they are undisturbed, that they prefer
to nestle. They deposit their eggs either in a hole upon
the sand, or in the crevices of rocks ; but in less deserted
countries the smaller species seek the borders of waters,
or of the sua, which are covered with plants. The Sea-
mew is a species of gull, distinguished from the rest by
its black and white pie-bald appearance, although the
individuals vary from each other in the colour of their
plumage.
The Te i ns have been also called Sea Swallows, from
the resemblance of their forked tail, long wings, and
their constant habit of shaving the surface of the water
in all directions, in pursuit of small fish. But the term
is objectionable, as tending to confusion. (LESSER
TEEN, Sterna minuta, Plate LXIII. fig. 4; BLACK TERN,
Sterna nigra, Plate LXIII. fig. 5). The terns are con-
tinually on the wing, and, though webfooted, are not
seen to swim; they rest but seldom, and only on the
land ; their food consists, for the most part, of small fish
and mollusca, which they seize upon the surface of the
water; but they also catch aerial insects. In flying
they send forth sharp and piercing cries, especially dur-
ing nestling time. In calm weather tliuy sometime rise
very nigh, and are often seen to come plump down.
The young differ from the adult and aged, only before
the moulting, which is double in the known species, and *
there is no external difference between the two sexes.
The females deposit their eggs, usually two' or three in
number, in a cavity, and these nests are sometimes so
close, that the sitting birds touch each other. Terns
are found in both continents, from the seas, lakes, and
rivers of the north, as far as the vast coasts of the
Austral ocean, and in almost all the intermediate clim-
ates. The above cut represents a Common Tern.
THE GULL.
213
the waves that swell like mountains are
scarcely seen to curl on the surface, anil the
roar of an ocean a thousand leagues broad
appears softer than the murmur of a brook !
it is in these formidable mansions that myriads
of sea-fowls are for ever seen sporting, flying
in security down the depth, half a mile be-
neath the feet of the spectator. The crow
and the chough avoid those frightful preci-
pices ; they choose smaller heights, where
they are less exposed to the tempest ; it is the
cormorant, the gannet, the tarrock, and the
tern, that venture to these dreadful retreats,
and claim an undisturbed possession. To the
spectator from above, those birds, though
some of them are above the size of an eagle,
seem scarcely as large as a swallow; and
their loudest screaming is scarcely percep-
tible.
But the generality of our shores are not so
formidable. Though they may rise two
hundred fathoms above the surface, yet it
often happens that the water forsakes the
shores at the departure of the tide, and leaves
a noble and delightful walk for curiosity on
the beach. Not to mention the variety of
shells with which the sand is strewed, the
lofty rocks that hang over the spectator's head,
and that seem but just kept from falling, pro-
duce in him no unpleasing gloom. If to this
be added the fluttering, the screaming, and
the pursuits of myriads of water-birds, all
either intent on the duties of incubation, or
roused at the presence of a stranger, nothing
can compose a scene of more peculiar solem-
nity. To walk along the shore when the tide
is departed, or to sit in the hollow of a rock
when it is come in, attentive to the various
sounds that gather on every side, above and
below, may raise the mind to its highest and
noblest exertions. The solemn roar of the
waves swelling into and subsiding from the
vast caverns beneath, the piercing note of the
gull, the frequent chatter of the guillemot, the
loud note of the hawk, the scream of the he-
ron, and the hoarse deep periodical croaking
of the cormorant, all unite to furnish out the
grandeur of the scene, and turn the mind to
HIM who is the essence of all sublimity.
Yet it often happens that the contemplation
of a seashore produces ideas of an humbler
kind, yet still not unpleasing. The various
arts of these birds to seize their prey, and
sometimes to elude their pursuers, their so-
cietv among each other, and their tenderness
and care of their young, produce gentler sen-
sations. It is ridiculous also- now and then to
see their various ways of imposing upon each
other. It is common enough, for instance,
with the arctic gull, to pursue the lesser gulls
so long, that they drop their excrements
through fear, which the hungry hunter quick-
ly gobbles up before it ever reaches the water.
In breeding too they have frequent contests ;
one bird who has no nest of her own, attempts
to dispossess another, and puts herself in the
place. This often happens among all the
gull-kind: and I have seen the poor bird,
thus displaced by her more powerful invader,
sit near the nest in pensive discontent, while
the other seemed quite comfortable in her new
habitation. Yet this place of pre-eminence is
not easily obtained ; for the instant the inva-
der goes to snatch a momentary sustenance,
the other enters upon her own, and always
ventures another battle before she relinquishes
the justness of her claim.. The_contemplation
of a cliff thus covered with hatching birds, af-
fords a very agreeable entertainment ; and as
they sit upon the ledges of the rocks, one
above another, with their white breasts for-
ward, the whole group has not unaptly been
compared to an apothecary's shop.
These birds, like all others of the rapa-
cious kind, lay but few eggs ; and hence, in
many places, their number is daily seen to di-
minish. The lessening of so many rapacious
birds may, at first sight, appear a benefit to
mankind ; but when we consider how many
of the natives of our islands are sustained by
their flesh, either fresh or salted, we shall find
no satisfaction in thinking that these poor peo-
ple may in time lose their chief support. The
gull, in general, as was said, builds on the
ledges of rocks, and lays from one egg to
three, in a nest formed of long grass and sea-
weed. Most of the kind are fishy tasted, with
black stringy flesh ; yet the young ones are
better food : and of these, with several other
birds of the penguin kind, the poor inhabi-
tants of our northern islands make their
wretched banquets. They have been long
used to no other food ; and even salted gull
can be relished hy those who know no better.
Almost all delicacy is a relative thing ; and
the man who repines at the luxuries of a well-
served table, starves not for want, but from
comparison. The luxuries of the poor are in.
deed coarse to us, yet still they are luxuries
to those ignorant of better; and it is probable
enough that a Kilda or a Feroe man may be
found to exist, outdoing Apicius himself in
consulting the pleasures of the table. In-
deed, if it be true that such meat as is the
most dangerously earned is the sweetest, no
men can dine so luxuriously as these, as none
venture so hardily in the pursuit of a dinner.
In Jacobson's History of the Feroe islands,
we have an account of the method in which
those birds are taken ; and I will deliver it in
his own simple manner.
" It cannot be expressed with what pains
and danger they take these birds in those high
steep cliffs, whereof many are two hundred
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
fathoms high. But there are men apt by na-
ture, and fit for the work, who take them usu-
ally in two manners ; they either climb from
below into these high promontories, that are
as steep as a wall ; or they let themselves
down with a rope from above. When they
climb from below, they have a pole five or six
ells long with an iron hook at the end, which
they that are below in the boat, or on the
cliff, fasten unto the man's girdle, helping
him up thus (o the highest place where he
can get footing ; afterwards they also help up
another man ; and thus several climb up as
high as they possibly can; and, where they
find difficulty, they help each other up, by
thrusting one another up with their poles.
When the first hath taken footing, he draws
the other up to him, by the rope fastened to
his waist ; and so they proceed, till they come
to the place where the birds build. They
there go about as well as they can in those
dangerous places ; the one holding the rope
at one end, and fixing himself to the rock ;
the other going at the other end from place to
place. If it should happen that he chanceth
to fall, the other that stands firm keeps him
up, and helps him up again. But if he pass-
eth safe, he likewise fastens himself till the
other has passed the same dangerous place
also. Thus they go about the cliffs after birds
as they please. It often happeneth, however,
(the more is the pity) that when one doth not
stand fast enough, or is not sufficiently strong
to hold up the other in his fall, that they both
fall down, and are killed. In this manner
some do perish every year."
Mr Peter Clanson, in his description of
Norway, writes, that there was anciently a
law in that country, that whosoever climbed
so on the cliffs that he fell down and died, if
the body was found before burial, his next
kinsman should go the same way ; but if he
durst not, or could not do it, the dead body
was not then to be buried in sanctified earth,
as the person was too full of temerity, and
his own destroyer.
" When the fowlers are come, in the man-
ner aforesaid, to the birds within the cliffs,
where people seldom come, the birds are so
tame, that they take them with their hands ;
for they will not readily leave their young.
But when they are wild, they cast a net, with
which they are provided, over them, and en-
tangle them therein. In the meantime, there
lieth a boat beneath in the sea, wherein they
cast the birds killed ; and, in this manner,
they can in a short time fill a boat with fowl.
When it is pretty fair weather, and there is
good fowling, the fowlers stay in the cliff se-
ven or eight days together ; for there are here
and there holes in the rocks, where they can
safely rest ; and they have meat let down to
them with a line from the top of Ihe moun-
tain. In the meantime some go every day to
them, to fetch home what they have taken.
" Some rocks are so difficult, that they can
in no manner get unto them from below ;
wherefore they seek to come down thereunto
from above. For this purpose they have a
rope eighty or a hundred fathoms long, made
of hemp, and three fingers thick. The fowler
maketh the end of this fast about his waist,
and between his legs, so that he can sit there-
on ; and is thus let down, with the fcnvling-
staff in his hand. Six men hold by the rope,
and let him easily down, laying a large piece
of wood on the brink of the rock, upon which
the rope glideth, that it may not be worn to
pieces by the hard and rough edge of the
stone. They have, besides, another small
line, that is fastened to the fowler's body ; on
which he pulleth, to give them notice how
they should let down the great rope, either
lower or higher ; or to hold still, that he may
stay in the place whereunto he is come. Here
the man is in great danger, because of the
stones that are loosened from the cliff, by the
swinging of the rope, and he cannot avoid
them. To remedy this, in some measure, he
hath usually on his head a seaman's thick and
shaggy cap, which defends him from the
blows of the stones, if they be not too big ; and
then it costeth him his life ; nevertheless, they
continually put themselves in that danger, for
the wretched body's food sake, hoping in
God's mercy and protection, unto which the
greatest part of them do devoutly recommend
themselves when they go to work : otherwise,
they say, there is no other great danger in it,
except that it is a toilsome and artificial la-
bour ; for he that hath not learned to be so let
down, and is not used thereto, is turned about
with the rope, so that he soon groweth giddy,
and can do nothing ; but he that hath learned
the art, considers it as a sport, swings himself
on the rope, sets his feet against the rock,
casts himself some fathoms from thence, and
shoots himself to what place he will : he
knows where the birds are, he understands
how to sit on the line in the air, and how to
hold the fowling-staff in his hand; striking
therewith the birds that come or fly away :
and when there are holes in the rocks, and it
stretches itself out, making underneath as a
ceiling under which the birds are, he knoweth
how to shoot himself in among them, and
there take firm footing. There, when he is
in these holes, he maketh himself loose of
the rope, which he fastens to a crag of the
rock, that it may not slip from him to the
outside of the cliff. He then goes about in
the rock, taking the fowl either with his
hands or the fowling-staff. Thus, when he
hath killed as many birds as he thinks fit, he
THE PENGUIN.
215
ties them in a bundle, and fastens them to a
little rope, giving a sign, by pulling, that
they should draw them up. When he has
wrought thus the whole day, and desires to
get up again, he sitteth once more upon the
great rope, giving a new sign that they should
pull him up; or else he worketh himself up,
climbing along the rope, with his girdle full
of birds. It is also usual, where there are
not folks enough to hold the great rope, for
the fowler to drive a post sloping into the
earth, and to make a rope fast therefrom, by
which he lets himself down without any
Vody's help, to work in the manner aforesaid.'
Some rocks are so formed that the person can
go into their cavities by land.
" These manners are more terrible and
dangerous to see than to describe ; especially
if one considers the steepness and height of
the rocks, it seeming impossible for a man to
approach them, much less to climb or descend.
In some places, the fowlers are seen climbing
where they can only fasten the ends of their
toes and ringers; not shunning such places,
though there be a hundred fathom between
them and the sea. It is a dear meat for these
poor people, for which they must venture
their lives ; and many, after long venturing,
do at last perish therein.
" When the fowl is brought home, a part
thereof is eaten fresh; another part, when
there is much taken, being hung up for
winter provision. The feathers are gathered
to make merchandise of, for other expenses.
The inhabitants get a great many of these
fowls, as God giveth his blessing and fit
weather. When it is dark and hazy, they
take most; for then the birds stay in the
rocks : but in clear weather, and hot sun-
shine, they seek the sea. When they pre-
pare to depart for the season, they keep them-
selves most there, sitting on the cliffs towards
the sea-side, where people get at them some-
times with boats, and take them with fowling-
staves."
Such is the account of this historian ; but
we are not to suppose that all the birds caught
in this manner are of the gull kind : on the
contrary, numbers of them are of the penguin
kind ; auks, puffins, and guillemots. These
all come, once a. season, to breed in these
recesses: and retire in winter to fish in more
southern climates.1
1 By many of the earlier systematic, the skuas were
included in the gulls, liut as essential characteristics
(not possessed by the former), are developed in their
structure, particularly in the bill, feet, and tail, and as
a marked difference also exists in their habits, it has
been considered necessary to establish a distinct genus
for their reception. They are the determined enemies
of the gulls, whom they unceasingly persecute on the
win«, in order to make them disgorge their half digested
CHAP. VII.
OF THE PENGUIN KIND : AND FIRST, OF THE
GREAT MAGELLAN 1C PENGUIN.
THE gulls are long-winged, swift flyers,
that hover over the most extensive seas, and
or recently swallowed food, and which is then adroitly
caught by the former before it can reach the water.
They also feed upon the flesh of the whale and other
marine animal substances. An approach to the petrels
is seen in their general contour, and in the structure of
their feet, the hind toe in some species consisting of
little more than a nail. Thfiir_wir\£s are long and
pointed, and their flight, which is strong, and at times
astonishingly rapid, is performed by successive jerks
(in each of which a considerable curve is described),
bearing but little resemblance to that of the true gulls.
They are natives of the arctic regions, and are found,
particularly during the season of reproduction, in very
high latitudes. The plumage of both sexes is alike,
but some species undergo great changes in their pro-
gress to maturity.
Common Skua. — Provincial. — Sea-eagle, Bonrie, or
Skui. This bird, which appears to be the largest of its
genus, is of compact form, and bold disposition ; which
latter quality is more especially seen during the season
of reproduction, a period when the instinctive passions
of the feathered race are called into unwonted activity.
It will at that time attack even man without hesitation,
should he happen to approach the site of its nest; and
so impetuous is its attack, that the natives of the Shet-
land isles (its peculiar habitat in this kingdom) are
compelled on such occasions to defend themselves by
holding up a knife, or sharp stick ; upon which the
assailant has frequently been known to transfix and kill
itself, whilst making its pounces upon the head of the
intruder. Dogs, foxes, and other animals, are instantly
attacked, and so severely dealt with by the wings and
beak of the strong and pugnacious skua, as to be soon
driven to a hasty retreat, and no bird is permitted to
approach with impunity; the eagle itself being beaten
off with the utmost fury, should it happen to venture
within the limits of the breeding territory. As above ob-
served, it inhabits the Shetland isle?, breeding in com-
munities upon Foulah, Unst, and Rona's hill in Mainland.
It selects the wild and unfrequented heaths for the site of
its nest, which is formed of afewdried weeds and grasses;
and its eggs, two in number, are of a dark oil-green
colour, blotched with irregular brown spots, with smaller
whitish ones intermixed. After performing the duties
of incubation, it retires to the adjacent seas, where it
leads a solitary life, rarely approaching the land till the
advance of spring again urges it to seek its summer
retreat. It is but seldom found in the southern parts
of Scotland, and the instances of its capture upon the
English coast are of still rarer occurrence, Montagu
only mentioning one, of a bird that was shot at Sand-
wich, in Kent. The food of the skua consists of fish,
the carcasses of cetacta, and other marine animal
matter; a great part of which is obtained from the
larger gulls, whom it attentively watches, and pursues
with unceasing hostility, till they are compelled to dis-
gorge the fish or other substance that they had previously
svi allowed, and which, from its rapid evolutions on the
wing, it generally catches before reaching the surface
of the water. In this, as well as in the other species,
the claws are strong and much houked, particularly that
of the inner toe ; and it is said to make use of them in
holding fast its prey, which is torn in pieces after the
manner of raptorial birds. The skua inhabits also
216
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
dart down upon such fish as approach too near
the surface. The penguin1 kind are but ill
fitted for flight, and still less for walking.
Every body must have seen the awkward
manner in which a duck, either wilder tame,
attempts to change place : they must recollect
with what softness and ease a gull or a kite
waves its pinions, and with what a coil and
flutter the duck attempts to move them ; how
many strokes it is obliged to give, in order to
gather a little air ; and even when it is thus
raised, how soon it is fatigued with the force
of its exertions, and obliged to take rest again.
But the duck is not, in its natural state, half
so unwieldly an animal as the whole tribe of
the penguin kind. Their wings are much
shorter, more scantily furnished with quills,
and the whole pinion placed too forward to
he usefully employed. For this reason, the
largest of the penguin kind, that have a thick
heavy body to raise, cannot fly at all. Their
various parts of the arctic regions, and is well known in
the Feroe islands, in Norway, and Iceland. It is,
moreover, a native of the high latitudes of the southern
hemisphere, and is mentioned by Cook, and other cir-
cumnavigators, under the name of the Port Egmont
hen. For a representation of Richardson's Skua, see Plate
XIX. fig. 43, and coloured Plate LXIII. fig. 1; and for the
Black-toed Gull, which is the bird iu its young state, see
the coloured Plate LXIII. fig. 2.
1 In the "Zoological Proceedings for 1835" is an
account of the penguin, by the late Mr G. Bennett.
That able naturalist, to whom science is indebted for
many original observations, and whose work, entitled
" Wanderings," &c., is well known, paid much atten-
tion to the Patfigoniun, or King Penguin (see Plate XX.
fig. 34.) which he met with in various islands in the
high southern latitudes ; and lie describes particularly
a colony of these birds, which covers an extent of thirty
or forty acres at the north end of Macqnarrie island, in
the South Pacific ocean.
" The number of penguins collected together in this
spot is immense, but it would be almost impossible to
guess at it with any near approach to truth, as, during
the whole of the day and night, 30,000 or 40,000 01
them are continually lauding, and an equal number
going to sea. They are arranged, when on shore, in
as compact a manner and in as regular ranks as a regi-
ment of soldiers ; and are classed with the greatest
order, the young birds being in one situation, the
moulting birds in another, the sitting hens in a third,
the clean birds in a fourth, &c. ; and so strictly do birds
in similar condition congregate, that should a bird that
is moulting intrude itself among those which are clean,
it is immediately ejected from among them.
" The females hatch the eggs by keeping them close
between their thighs ; and, if approached during the
time of incubation, move away, carrying the eggs with
them. At this time the male bird goes to sea and
collects food for the female, which becomes very fat.
After the young is hatched, both parents go to sea,
and bring home food for it ; it soon becomes so fat as
scarcely to be able to walk, the old birds getting very
thin. They sit quite upright in their roosting places,
and walk in the erect position until they arrive at the
beach, when they throw themselves on their breasts in \
order to encounter the very heavy sea met with at their '.
landing-place.
Although the appearance of penguins generally indi-
wings serve them rather as paddles to help them
forward, when they attempt to move swiftly,
and in a manner walk along the surface of
the water. Even the smallest kinds seldom
fly by choice ; they flutter their wings with the
swiftest efforts without making way ; and
though they have but a small weight of body
to sustain, yet they seldom venture to quit the
water, where they are provided with food and
protection.
As the wings of the penguin tribe are un-
fitted for flight, their legs are still more awk-
wardly adapted for walking. This whole
tribe have all above the knee hid within the
belly: and nothing appears but two short legs,
or feet, as some would call them, that seem
stuck under the rump, and upon which the
animal is very awkwardly supported. They
seem, when sitting, or attempting to walk,
like a dog, that has been taught to sit up, or
to move a minuet. Their short legs drive
cates the neighbourhood of land, Mr G. Bennet- cited
several instances of their occurrence at a considerable
distance from any known land.
The observations of Mr Bennet are confirmed by
Lieut. Liardut. They assemble on the shore, herd
together in vast bodies, forming a dense phalanx, all
moving and acting in concert together ; — one party
going off to sea, —another party returning, — another
remaining in array on the beach. They appear to be
very peaceable among each other, but are sometimes
observed to fight, striking with the posterior edge of
the wing. Should a person attempt to lay hold of
them, they not only use their wings, but their beak,
which is a far more formidable weapon, and capable of
inflicting a severe wound. Cuttle-fishes appear to con-
stitute the greater part of their food ; in the stomach of
the specimen dissected was found a considerable num-
ber of the horney parrot-like beaks of these molluscous
animals. Their mode of walking is very singular ; it
is a sort of awkward waddle, the body turning with the
action of the limbs in motion, which cross each other
alternately; — it is, in fact, an " over-handed," mode of
progression, if the word be allowed, producing a strange
and ludicrous effect. We see a tendency to it in the .
waddle of the duck and other swimming-birds. During
the period of incubation the females all assemble to-
gether, sitting upright on a kind of general nest, of
loosely-arranged sticks, which they carry to the selected
spot in their bills, and flourish if then approached, as
if in defiance of the intruder on their secluded haunt.
They Jay but one egg, of a whitish colour, and twice
the size of that of the goose ; this they carry between
their thighs, supporting it beneath by the short stiff tail,
which is bent underneath it. The young are covered
with thick soft down, of a brownish gray; in this state
the bird is the Woolly penguin of Latham, which must
not be regarded as a distinct species, but as the King
Penguin in nestling plumage. . At night they utter
loud moaning noises in concert, the general chorus of
voices resounding to a great distance, and clearly dis-
tinguishable from the roar of the surf or lashing of the
waves. The flesh of the penguin is rank, and unfit
for food ; both the muscles and bones are oily, and the
skin is lined with a thick layer of oleaginous fat ; yet
more than 500 were taken in New Year's island (near
Staten island), as food for the crew, by the sailors in
Captain Cook's ship who found them occupying that
spot in thousands.
THE PENGUIN.
217
the bodyjn progression from side to side; and
were they not assisted by their wings, they
could scarcely move faster than a tortoise.
This awkward position of the legs, which
so unqualifies them for living upon land,
adapts them admirably for a residence in
water. In that, the legs placed behind the
moving body, pushes it forward with the
greater velocity; and these birds, like Indian
canoes, are the swiftest in the water, by hav-
ing their paddles in the rear. Our sailors,
lor this reason, give these birds the very
homely, but expressive, name of arse-feet.
Nor are they less qualified for diving than
swimming. By ever so little inclining their
bodies forward, they lose their centre of
gravity ; and every stroke from their feet only
tends to sink them the faster. In this manner
they can either dive at once to the bottom, or
swim between two waters ; where they con-
tinue fishing for some minutes, and then
ascending, catch an instantaneous breath, to
descend once more to renew their operations.
Hence it is, that these birds, which are so
defenceless, and so easily taken by land, are
impregnable by water. If they perceive
themselves pursued in the least, they instantly
sink, and show nothing more than their bills,
till the enemy is withdrawn. Their very
internal conformation assists their power of
keeping long under water. Their lungs are
fitted with numerous vacuities, by which
they can take in a very large inspiration ;
and this probably serves them for a length of
time.
As they never visit land, except when they
come to breed, their feathers take a colour
from their situation. That part of them which
has been continually bathed in the water, is
white ; while their backs and wings are of
different colours, according to the different
species. They are also covered more warmly
all over the body with feathers, than any
other birds whatever ; so that the sea seems
entirely their element : and but for the neces-
sary duties of propagating their species, we
should scarcely have the smallest opportunity
of seeing them, and should be utterly unac-
quainted with their history.1
1 The Crested Penguin, (see Plate XX. fig. 33.) is
the most beautiful of- the penguin tribe. It is nearly
two feet in length. The female is destitute of the
crest. These birds have also the names of hopping
penguins, and jumping jack, from their action of leaping
quite out of the water, sometimes three or four feet, on
meeting with any obstacle in their course; and, indeed,
they frequently do this without any other apparent
cause than the desire of advancing by that means.
They are inhabitants of several of the South Sea islands.
The Manchots bear a close relation to the penguins,
but are found only in the antarctic seas and islands,
while the penguins inhabit the northern seas. Instead
of wings, they have simple winglets. which perform the
office of oars or fins.
VOL. II.
Of all this tribe, the Magellanic Penguin
is the largest, and the most remarkable. In
size it approaches near that of a tame goose.
It never flies, as its wings are very short, and
covered with stiff hard feathers, and are
always seen expanded, and hanging uselessly
down by the bird's sides. The upper part of
the head, back, and rump, are covered with
stiff black feathers ; while the belly and
breast, as is common with all of this kind,
are of a snowy whiteness, except a line of
black that is seen to cross the crop. The
bill, which from the base to about half way is
covered with wrinkles, is black, but marked
crosswise with a stripe of yellow. They
walk erect, with their heads oTi high, their
fin-like wings hanging down like arms ; so
that to see them at a distance, they look like
so many children with white aprons. From
hence they are said to unite in themselves the
qualities of men, fowls, and fishes. Like
men, they are upright ; like fowls, they are
feathered ; and like fishes, they have fin-like
instruments, that beat the water before, and
serve for all the purposes of swimming, rather
than flying.2
* " This day we visited what they call a ' penguin
rookery. ' The spot of ground occupied by our settlers
is bounded 011 each end by high bluffs, which extend far
into the sea, leaving a space in front, where all their
hogs run nearly wild, as they are prevented going be-
yond those limits by those natural barriers; and the
creatures who, at stated periods, come up from the sea,
remain in undisturbed possession of the beaches beyond
our immediate vicinity. The weather being favour-
able, we launched our boat early in the morning, for the
purpose of procuring a supply of eggs for the consump-
tion of the family. We heard the chattering of the
penguins from the rookery long before we landed, which
was noisy in the extreme, and groups of them were
scattered all over the beach; but the high thick grass ou
the declivity of the hill seemed their grand establish-
ment, and they were hidden by it from our view. As
we could not find any place where we could possibly
land our. boat in safety, I and two more swam on shore
with bags tied round our necks to hold the eggs in, and
the boat with one of the men lay ofl; out of the surf. I
should think the ground occupied by these birds (if I
may be allowed so to call them) was at least a mile in
circumference, covered in every part with grasses and
reeds, which grew considerably higher than my head ;
and on every gentle ascent, beginning from the beach,
on all the large gray rocks, which occasionally appeared
above this grass, sat perched groups of these strange and
uncouth-looking creatures ; but the noise which rose up
from beneath baffles all description ! As our business
lay with the noisy part of this community, we quickly
crept under the grass, and commenced our plundering
search, though there needed none, so profuse was the
quantity. The scene altogether well merits a better
description than I can give — thousands and hundreds of
thousands of these little two-legged erect, monsters hop.
ping around us, with voices very much resembling in
tone that of the human; all opening their throats to-
gether; so thickly clustered in groups, that it was
almost impossible to place the foot without despatching
one of them. The shape of the animal, their curious
motions, and their most extraordinary voices, made mt
2 K
218
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
They feed upon fish ; and seldom come
ashore, except in the breeding season. As
the seas in that part uf the world abound with
a variety, they seldom want food ; and their
extreme fatness, seems a proof of the plenty
in which they live. They dive with great
rapidity, and are voracious to a great degree.
One of them, described by Clusius, though
but very young, would swallow an entire
herring at a mouthful, and often three succes-
sively before it was appeased. In conse-
quence of this gluttonous appetite, their flesh
is rank and fishy; though our sailors say,
that it is pretty good eating. In some the
flesh is so tough, and the feathers so thick,
that they stand the blow of a scimitar without
injury.
They are a bird of society; and, especially
when they come on shore, they are seen
drawn up in rank and file, upon the ledge of
a rock, standing together with the albatross,
as if in consultation. This is previous to
their laying, which generally begins, in that
part of the world, in the month of November.
Their preparations for laying are attended
with no great trouble, as a small depression in
the earth, without any other nest, serves for
this purpose. The warmth of their feathers
and the heat of their bodies is such, that the
progress of incubation is carried on very
rapidly.
But there is a difference in the manner of
this bird's nestling in other countries, which I
can only ascribe to the frequent disturbances
it has received from man or quadrupeds in its
recesses. In some places, instead of content-
fancy myself in a kingdom of pigmies. The regularity
of their manners, their all sitting in exact rows, resem-
bling more the order of a camp than a rookery of noisy
birds, delighted me. These creatures did not move
away on our approach, but only increased their noise,
so we were obliged to displace them forcibly from their
nests; and this ejectment was not produced without a
considerable struggle on their parts; and, being armed
with a formidable beak, it soon became a scene of
desperate warfare. We had to take particular care to
protect our hands and legs from their attacks; and for
this purpose each one had provided himself with a short
stout club. The noise they continued to make during
our ramble through their territories, the sailors said
was, ' cover 'em up, cover 'em up.' And, however
incredible it may appear, it is nevertheless true, that I
heard those words so distinctly repeated, and by such
various tones of voices, that several times I started, and
expected to see one of the men at my elbow. Even
these little creatures, as well as the monstrous sea-
elephant, appear to keep up a continued warfare with
each other. As the penguins sit in rows, forming
regular lanes leading down to the beach, whenever one
of them fuels an inclination to refresh herself by a plunge
into the sea, she has to run the gauntlet through the
whole street, every one pecking at her as she passes
without mercy; and tluugh all are occupied in the
same employment, not the smallest degree of friendship
seems to exist; and whenever we turned one off her
nsst, she was sure to be thrown among foes; and, be-
sides the loss of her eggs, was invariably doomed to re-
ing itself with a superficial depression in the
earth, the penguin is found to burrow two or
three yards deep : in other places it is seen
to forsake the level, and to clamber up the
ledge of a rock, where it lays its egg, and
hatches it in that bleak exposed situation.
These precautions may probably have been
taken, in consequence of dear-bought experi-
ence. In those places where the bird fears
for her own safety, or that of her young, she
may providently provide against danger, by
digging, or even by climbing ; for both
which she is but ill adapted by nature. In
those places, however, where the penguin has
had but few visits from man, her nest is made,
with the most confident security, in the middle
of some large plain, where they are seen by
thousands. In that unguarded situation,
neither expecting nor fearing a powerful
enemy, they continue to sit brooding ; and
even when man comes among them, have at
first no apprehension of their danger. Some
of this tribe have been called by our seamen,
the Booby,1 from the total insensibility which
they show when they are sought to their
destruction. But it is not considered that
these birds have never been taught to know
the dangers of a human enemy: it is against
the fox or the vulture that they have learned
to defend themselves ; but they have no idea
of injury from a being so very unlike their
natural opposers. The penguins, therefore,
when our seamen first came among them,
tamely suffered themselves to be knocked on
the head, without even attempting an escape.
They have stood to be shot at in flocks, with-
ceive a severe beating and pecking from her com-
panions. Each one lays three eggs, and, after a time,
when the young are strong enough to undertake the
journey, they go to sea, and are not again seen till the
ensuing spring. Their city is deserted of its numerous
inhabitants, and quietness reigns till nature prompts
their return the following year, when the same noisy
scene is repeated, as the same Hocks of birds return to
the spot where they were hatched. After raising a
tremendous tumult in this numerous colony, and sus-
taining continued comliat, we came off victorious, mak-
ing capture of about a thousand eggs, resembling in
size, colour, and transparency of shell, those of a cluck ;
and the taking possession of this immense quantity did
not occupy more than one hour, which may serve to
prove the incalculable numbers of birds collected to-
gether. We did not allow them sufficient time, after
landing, to lay all Lheir eggs; for, had the season been
farther advanced, and we had found three eggs in each
nest, the whole of them might probably have proved
addled, the young partly formed, and the eggs of no use
to us ; but the whole of those we took turned out good,
and had a particularly fine and delicate flavour. It
was a work of considerable difficulty to get our booty
safe into the boat — so frail a cargo — with so tremendous
a surf running against us. However, we finally suc-
ceeded, though not without smashing a considerable
number of the eggs." — Earle's ' Narrative of a Resi-
dence in New Zealand and Tristan d'dcunha.'
1 The Booby belongs to the pelican tribe, and not to
the penguins.
THE AUK, &c.
out offering to move, in silent wonder, till
every one of their number has been destroyed.
Their attachment to their nests was still more
powerful; for the females tamely suffered the
men to approach and take their eggs without
any resistance. But the experience of a few
of those unfriendly visits, has long since
taught them to be more upon their guard in
choosing- their situations ; or to leave those re-
treats where they were so little able to oppose
their invaders.
The penguin lays but one egg ; and, in fre-
quented shores, is found to burrow like a rab-
bit : sometimes three or four take possession
of one hole, and hatch their young together.
In the holes of the rocks, where nature has
made them a retreat, several of this tribe, as
Linna- us assures us, are seen together. There
the females lay their single egg, in a common
nest, and sit upon this, their general posses-
sion, bv turns ; while one is placed as a sen-
tinel, to give warning of approaching danger.
The egg of the penguin, as well as of all this
tribe, is very large for the size of the bird,
being generally found bigger than that of a
goose. But as there are many varieties of the
penguin, and as they differ in size, from that
cf a Muscovy duck to a swan, the eggs differ
in the same proportion.
CHAP. VIII.
OF THE AUK, PUFFIN, AND OTHER BIRDS
OF THE PENGUIN KIND.
OF a size far inferior to the penguin, but
with nearly the same form, and exactly of the
same appetites and manners, there is a very
numerous tribe. These frequent our shores,
and, like the penguin, have their legs placed
behind. They have short wings, which are
not totally incapable of flight; with round bills
for seizing their prey, which is fish. They
live upon the water, in which they are conti-
nually seen diving; and seldom venture upon
land, except for the purposes of continuing
their kind.
The first of this smaller tribe is the Great
Northern Diver, -which is nearly the size of
a goose : it is beautifully variegated all over
with many strips, and differs from the pen-
guin, in being much slenderer, and more ele-
gantly formed. The Gray Speckled Diver
does not exceed the size of a Muscovy duck ;
and, except in size, greatly resembles the
former. The Auk, which breeds on the
islands of St Kilda, chiefly differs from the
penguin in size and colour : it is smaller than
a duck; and the whole of the breast and belly,
as far as the middle of the throat, is white.
The Guillemot is about the same size ; it dit
fers from the auk, in having a longer, a slen
derer, and a straighter bill. The Scarlet-
Throated Diver may be distinguished by its
name ; and the Puffin, or Coulterneb, is one
of the most remarkable birds we know.1
1 The Great Northern Diver, (see Plate XIX. fig.
41.) which is the principal of the auk tribe, is nearly
three feet and a half in length. The female is less
than the male. It inhabits chiefly the northern seas,
and is common on some of the coasts oi' Scotland.
Most people, who have exercised any degree of ob-
servation, know that the swimming of birds is nothing
more than a walking in the water, where one foot suc-
ceeds the other, as on the land. ^JJBul no one, as far
as I am aware," says the Rev. Mr White, "lias re-
marked, that diving fowls, while under wafer, impel
and row themselves forward by a motion of their wings,
as well as by the impulse of their feet; yet such is really
the case, as any one may easily be convinced who will
observe ducks when hunted by dogs in a clear pond.
Nor do I know that any one has given a reason why the
wings of diving fowls are placed so forward; doubtless
not for the purpose of promoting their speed in flying,
since that position certainly impedes it ; but probably for
the increase of their motion under water, by the use of
four oars instead of two : and were the wings and feet
nearer together, as in land birds, they would, when in
action, rather hinder than assist one another."
The Speckled Diver is not quite so large as the other.
The Great Auk. (See Plate XX. fig. 32.) — This
bird inhabits Europe and America; is three feet in
length: is very timid ; it has not the power of flying ;
its food is chiefly fishes. The wings are so short as to
appear as only rudiments ; secondary quill feathers tipt
with white ; the legs are black. Its egg is six inches
long, and white, with purplish lines and spots. The
Little Auk also inhabits Europe and America, and mea-
sures nine inches in length.
The Guillemot is about the size of a common duck.
The upper parts of the body are of a dark brown colour,
inclining to a black. These are simple birds, and easily
taken. They generally join company with other birds,
and breed on the inaccessible rocks and steep cliffs in
the Isle of Man; and likewise in Cornwall; on Pries-
holm Island, near Beaumaris, in the isle of Anglesey;
also on the Fern Islauds, near Northumberland : and the
cliffs about Scarborough, in Yorkshire ; and several other
places in England. They lay exceeding large eggs,
being full three inches long, blunt at the one end, sharp
at the other, of a sort of bluish colour, spotted generally
with some black spots or strokes. (For little Guillemot,
see Plate XIX. fig. 23.)
The Black Guillemot. — The length of the black Guil-
lemot is about fourteen inches, breadth twenty-two, and
its weight fourteen dunces. These birds are found in
great numbers in the north sea, in Greenland, Iceland,
Spitzbergen, and the Feroe isles; and when the winter
sets in, they migrate southward along the shores of Scot-
land and England, where some of them remain and
breed. The nest is made in the deep crevices of rocks
which overhang the sea; the eggs are of a gray colour.
Some ornithologists assert, that the female lays only
one : others, that she lays two. They fly commonly in
pairs, and so low that they raise the surface of the sea by
the flapping of their narrow wings. The Greenlanders
eat the flesh of this bird, and use its skin for clothing,
and the legs as a bait for their fishing-lines. Ray, AU
bin, Willoughby, and Edwards have named it the Green-
land dove, or sea-turtle. In the Orkneys it is called
the tyste.
The Grebes belong to this family of birds. They are
220
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
Words cannot easily describe the form of
the bill of the puffin, which differs so greatly
from that of any other bird. Those who have
seen the coulter of a plough, may form some
idea of the beak of this odd-looking animal.
The bill is flat ; but, very different from that
of a duck, its edge is upwards : it is of a
triangular figure, and ending in a sharp
point, the upper chap bent a little downward,
where it is joined to the head ; and a certain
callous substance encompassing its base, as in
parrots. It is of two colours ; ash-coloured
near the base, and red towards the point. It
has three furrows or grooves impressed in it ;
one in the livid part, two in the red. The
eyes are fenced with a protuberant skin, of a
livid colour ; and they are gray or ash-col-
oured. These are marks sufficient to distin-
guish this bird by; but its value to those
in whose vicinity it breeds, renders it still
more an object of curiosity.
The puffin, (see Plate XX. fig. 9.) like
all the rest of this kind, has its legs thrown
so far back, that it can hardly move without
tumbling. This makes it rise with difficulty,
and subject to many falls before it gets upon
the wing : but as it is a small bird, not much
bigger than a pigeon, when it once rises, it
can continue its flight with great celerity.
Both this and all the former build no nest ;
but lay their eggs either in the crevices of
rocks, or in holes under ground near the shore.
They chiefly choose the latter situation ; for
the puffin, the auk, the guillemot, and the
rest, cannot easily rise to the nest when in a
lofty situation. Many are the attempts these
birds are seen to make to fly up to those nests
which are so high above the surface. In ren-
dering them inaccessible to mankind, they
often render them almost inaccessible to them-
selves. They are frequently obliged to make
three or four efforts, before they can come at
the place of incubation. For this reason, the
auk and guillemot, when they have once laid
their single egg, which is extremely large for
the size, seldom forsake it until it is excluded.
The male, who is better furnished for flight,
feeds the female during this interval ; and so
bare is the place where she sits, that the egg
would often roll down from the rock, did not
the body of the bird support it.
But the puffin seldom chooses these inac-
cessible and troublesome heights for its situa-
tion. Relying on its courage and the strength
of its bill, with which it bites most terribly,
it either makes or finds a hole in the ground,
where to lay and bring forth its young. All
the winter these birds, like the rest, are ab-
not weh-footed, out the toes are enlarged as in the coots.
They live on lakes and ponds, and build in the rushes.
Their plumage, which changes much with age, is used
frequently by furriers. The following cut represents
the Oretted Grehe.
This is one of the largest of the genus, and is an in-
digenous species, breeding annually on the pools amidst
the fens, on the moors of Shropshire and Cheshire, and
on a few of the northern Scottish lakes. During the
winter, when the waters of the interior of the country
are frozen, it retires to the mouths of rivers, and to the
line of sea-coast, where it obtains the necessary supply
of fish and small cnistaceous animals, which constitute
its principal food. Being upwards of three years in ac-
quiring maturity, or at least the full development of the
frieze that surrounds the neck and the occipital tufts, it
is much more frequently met with in the young or im-
perfect state of plumage, than in that of the adult ; and
out of more than a dozen specimens, which have at dif-
ferent times come under my observation, not one had
attained the distinguishing characters of the Crested
Grebe. In this immature state it was long supposed to
be a distinct species, and as such was known hy the
name of the Tippet Grebe, adopted from the use to which
the soft and silky plumage of the lower parts of the body
was often applied. When swimming, it moves very
rapidly, and, from the flatness of its body, exhibits little
more than the head and neck above the water. It dives
with remarkable quickness, and is able to avoid the shot
from a fowling-piece fired by flint and steel, though it
cannot so easily escape from the sudden inflammation
of the percussion- lock. Its progress when below the sur-
face, which (as in otiter diving birds) is performed by an
action of the wings somewhat similar to that of flying, is
so speedy, as frequently to baffle the pursuit of a well-
managed boat, and a stretch of 200 yards is sometimes
made, before it rises again to breathe ; and this act of
respiration, before the bird becomes fatigued by continued
pursuit, is commonly effected by merely raising the head
above water. It rarely flies, according to Temminck,
even making its migrations by swimming, which,
however, cannot always be the case, as it is sometimes
found on isolated pieces .of water, where it could not
arrive unless by the use of its wings ; and these, though
short, are not comparatively smaller than in some other
species that are known to fly occasionally. Upon the
continental parts of Europe it is abundant, particularly
in Holland and certain districts of Germany. It is also
known in America, and is mentioned in the Fauna
America Borealis, as having been killed by Dr Richard-
son upon the Saskatshewan — It breeds in the fresh
water, amidst reeds and other rank herbage, and the
nest, which is very large and floats on the surface, is
composed of a mass of decayed vegetable roots, flags,
stems of- water-lily, &c. The eggs, three or four in
number, are of a greenish-white, in size rather bigger
than those of a Teal. The young, when first excluded,
are clothed in a parti-coloured down of reddish-brown
and grayish-white, and are assiduously attended by the
THE AUK.
221
sent ; visiting regions too remote for discovery.
At the latter end of March, or the beginning
of April, come over a troop of their spies or
harbingers, that stay two or three days, as it
were to view and search out for their former
situations, and see whether all be well. This
done, they once more depart ; and about the
beginning of May, return again with the
whole army of their companions. But if the
season happens to be stormy and tempestu-
ous, and the sea troubled, the unfortunate
voyagers undergo incredible hardships : and
they are found, by hundreds, cast away upon
the shores, lean and perished with famine.1
It is most probable, therefore, that this voyage
is performed more on the water than in the
air ; and as they cannot fish in stormy wea-
ther, their strength is exhausted before they
can arrive at their wished-for harbour.
The puffin, when it prepares for breeding,
which always happens a few days after its
arrival, begins to scrape up a hole in the
ground not far from the shore ; and when it
has some way penetrated the earth, it then
throws itself upon its back, and with bill and
claws thus burrows inward, till it has dug a
hole with several windings and turnings, from
eight to ten feet deep. It particularly seeks
to dig under a stone, where it expects the
greatest security. In this fortified retreat it
lays one egg ; which though the bird be not
much bigger than a pigeon, is of the size of
a hen's.
When the young one is excluded, the
parent's industry and courage is incredible.
Few birds or beasts will venture to attack
them in their retreats. When the great sea-
raven, as Jacobson informs us, comes to take
away their young, the puffins boldly oppose
him. Their meeting affords a most singular
combat. As soon as the raven approaches,
the puffin catches him under the throat with
its beak, and sticks its claws into its breast,
which makes the raven, with a loud scream-
ing, attempt to get away ; but the little bird
still holds fast to the invader, nor lets him
go till they both come to the sea, where they
drop down together, and the raven is drowned;
yet the raven is but too often successful ;
and, invading the puffin at the bottom of its
hole, devours both the parent and its family.
But were a punishment to be inflicted for
immorality in irrational animals, the puffin is
justly a sufferer from invasion, as it is often
itself one of the most terrible invaders. Near
the isle of Anglesey, in an islet called
Priesholm, their flocks may be compared,
for multitude, to swarms of bees. In another
parent, who procures food for them, and, according to
Pennant, has often been observed to feed them with
small eels. For Horned Grebe, see Plate XX. fig. 18.
i VVilloughby's Ornith. p. 3£6.
islet, called the Calf of Man, a bird of this
kind, but of a different species, is seen in
great abundance. In both places, numbers
of rabbits are found to breed; but the puffin,
unwilling to be at the trouble of making a
hole, when there is one ready made, dispos-
sesses the rabbits, and it is not unlikely de-
stroys their young. It is in these unjustly
acquired retreats that the young puffins are
found in great numbers, and become a very
valuable acquisition to the natives of the
place. The old ones (I am now speaking of
the Manks puffin) early in the morning, at
break of day, leave their nests and young,
and even the island, nor duthey return till
night-fall. All this time they are diligently
employed in fishing for their young ; so that
their retreat? on land, which in the morning
were loud and clamorous, are now still and
quiet, with tiot a wing stirring till the approach
of dusk, when their screams once more an-
nounce their return. Whatever fish, or other
food, they have procured in the day, by night
begins to suffer a kind of half digestion, and
is reduced to an oily matter, which is ejected
from the stomach of the old ones into the
mouth of the young. By this they are nour-
ished, and become fat to an amazing degree.
When they are arrived to their full growth,
they who are intrusted by the lord of the
island, draw them from their holes; and, that
they may more readily keep an account of the
number they take, cut off one foot as a token.
Their flesh is said to be excessively rank, as
they feed upon fish, especially sprats, and
sea-weed; however, when they are pickled
and preserved with spices, they are admired
by those who are fond of high eating. We
are told, that formerly their flesh was allowed
by the church on Lenten days. They Avere,
at that time, also taken by ferrets, as we do
rabbits. At present, they are either dug out,
or drawn out, from their burrows, with a
hooked stick. They bite extremely hard, and
keep such fast hold of whatsoever they seize
upon, as not to be easily disengaged. Their
noise, when taken, is very disagreeable,
being like the efforts of a dumb person at-
tempting to speak.
The constant depredation which these birds
annually suffer, does not in the least seem to
intimidate them, or drive them away; on the
contrary, as the people say, the nest must be
robbed or the old ones will breed there no
longer. All .birds of this kind lay but one
egg ; yet if that be taken away, they will lay
another, and so on to a third; which seems to
imply, that robbing their nests does not much
intimidate them from laying again. Those,
however, whose nests have been thus de-
stroyed, are often too late in bringing up their
young; who, if they be not fledged and pre-
222
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
pared for migration when all the rest depart
are left at land to shift for themselves. Ir
August the whole tribe is seen to take lea-ve
of their summer residence; nor are they ob-
served any more till the return of the ensuing
spring. It is probable that they sail away to
more southern regions, as our mariners fre-
quently see myriads of water-fowl upon their
return, and steering usually to the north
Indeed the coldest countries seem to be theii
most favoured retreats; and the number o:
water-fowl is much greater in those colder
climates than in the warmer regions near the
line. The quantity of oil which abounds in
their bodies, serves as a defence against cold,
and preserves them in vigour against it
severity; but the same provision of oil is
rather detrimental in warm countries, as it
turns rancid, and many of them die of dis-
orders which arise from its putrefaction. In
general, however, water-fowl can be properly
said to be of no climate ; the element upon
which they live being their proper residence.
They necessarily spend a few months of
summer upon land, to bring up their young;
but the rest of their time is probably consumed
in their migrations, or near some unknown
coasts, where their provision offish is found
in greatest abundance.
Before I go to the third general division
of water-fowls, it may not be improper to
observe, that there is one species of round-
billed water- fowl that does not properly lie
within any of the former distributions. This
is the Gooseander;1 a bird with the body and
1 This is the largest of the Auk kind, weighing about
four pounds. It seldom makes its appearance in the
more southern districts of the country, except in winters
attended by long continued frost ; but in the northern
parts of Scotland, and in the Orkneys and other Scottish
islands, it is a permanent resident ; finding subsistence
throughout the year either in the fresh-water lakes of
the interior, or (when these are frozen) in the deep in-
dentations of the coast, formed by the saline lochs, so
numerous in that part of the kingdoirii It is widely
distributed throughout the arctic regions of both the
ancient and new worlds. In Europe, during its equa-
torial migration, it visits France, Holland, Germany,
and even more southern countries ; and Wilson men-
tions it as a well known winter visitant upon the coasts,
lakes, and rivers of the United States. During the
summer the great body of these birds retires to high
latitudes, for the purpose of reproduction; and at that
time they are found in Iceland, Greenland, and other
northern parts of Europe. In Asia, they visit Siberia,
wings shaped like those of tht penguin kind,
but with legs not hid in the belly. It may
be distinguished from all others by its bill,
which is round, hooked at the point, and
toothed, both upper and under chap, like a
saw. Its colours are various and beautiful;
however, its manners and appetites entirely
resemble those of the diver. It feeds upon
fish, for which it dives ; and is said to build
its nest upon trees, like the heron and the
cormorant. It seems to form the shade be-
tween the penguin and the goose kind ; hav-
ing a round bill like the one ; and unem-
barrassed legs, like the other. In the shape
of the head, neck, and body, it resembles them
both.
CHAP. IX.
OF BIRDS OF TIIF GOOSE KIND, PROPERLY
SO CALLED.
THE Swan, the Goose, and (he Duck, are
leaders of a numerous, useful, and beautiful
tribe of birds, that we have reclaimed from a
state of nature, and have taught to live in
dependence about us. To describe any of
these, would be as superfluous as definitions
usually are when given of things with which
we are already well acquainted. There are
Kamtschatka, &c., and in America, during the above
period, they are distributed through the fur countries of
that vast continent. The nest is constructed (near to
the edge of the water) of a mass of grass, roots, and
other materials, mixed and lined with down. It is
placed sometimes among stones or other debris, and
sometimes in the long grass, or under the cover of
bushes, and (when the locality affords them) in the
«tumps or hollows of decayed trees. The eggs are from
iwelve to fourteen in number, of a cream-yellow colour;
and their form is a long oval, both ends being equally
obtuse.
The gooseander, except when on wing, is almost
always seen upon the water, being unable to make any
reat progress on land, in consequence of the backward
Josition of the legs, and the slight degree of freedom
hat the tibiae possess from their situation within the
nteguments of the abdomen. Its activity, howevi-r, in
he former element, makes ample amends for this
deficiency. In swimming, the body, from its broad
ind flattened shape, is deeply sunk in the water, having
he head, neck, and back only visible. It is an excel-
ent diver, with the power of remaining for a long time
ubmerged, and making its way with great rapidity
leneath the surface. In this manner its food is ob-
ained, consisting entirely of fish : and which, when
once seized, are securely held in its serrated bill. It
ises with difficulty, or at least with much apparent
exertion, from the surface of the water, hut when once
airly on wing, its flight is not only swift, but can be
ustained for a considerable time. By earlier writers,
he females and young males (which resemble that sex
or upwards of a year) were considered and described, as
a distinct species.
THE GOOSE.
223
few that have not had opportunities of seeing
them, and whose ideas would not anticipate
our description. But, though nothing be so
easy as to distinguish these in general from
each other, yet the largest of the duck kind
approach the goose so nearly, that it may be
proper to mark the distinctions.
The marks of the goose are, a bigger body,
large wings, a longer neck, a white ring-
above the rump, a bill thicker at the base,
slenderer towards the tip, with shorter legs
placed more forward on the body. They
both have a waddling walk ; but the duck
from the position of its legs, has it in a greater
degree. By these marks, these similar tribes
may be known asunder ; and though the
duck should be found to equal the goose in
size, which sometimes happens, yet there are
still other sufficient distinctions.
But they all agree in many particulars;
and have a nearer affinity to each other than
the neighbouring kinds in any other depart-
ment. Their having been tamed has pro-
duced alterations in each, by which they
differ as much from the wild ones of their
respective kinds, as they do among them-
selves. There is nearly as much difference
between the wild and the tame duck, as be-
tween some sorts of the duck and the goose;
but still the characteristics of the kind are
strongly marked and obvious ; and this tribe
can never be mistaken.
The bill is the first great obvious distinc-
tion of the goose kind from all of the feathered
tribe. In other birds, it is round and wedge-
like, or crooked at the end. In all the goose-
kind it is flat and broad, made for the purpose
of skimming ponds and lakes of the mantling
weeds that stand on the surface. The bills
of other birds are made of a horny substance
throughout ; these have their inoffensive bills
sheathed with a skin which covers them all
over. The bill of every other bird seems, in
some measure, formed for piercing or tearing;
theirs are only fitted for shovelling up their
food, which is chiefly of the vegetable kind.
Though these birds do not reject animal
food when offered them, yet they can content-
edly subsist upon vegetables, and seldom seek
any other. They are easily provided for ;
wherever there is water, there seems to be
plenty. All the other web-footed tribes are
continually voracious, continually preying.
These lead more harmless lives : the weeds
on the surface of the water, or the insects at
the bottom, the grass by the bank, or the
fruits and corn in cultivated grounds, are
sufficient to satisfy their easy appetites ; yet
these, like every other animal, will not reject
flesh, if properly prepared for them; it is
sufficient praise to them that they do not
eagerly pursue it.
As their food is chiefly vegetables, so their
fecundity is in proportion. We have had
frequent opportunities to observe, that all the
predatory tribes, whether of birds or quadru-
peds, are barren and unfruitful. We have
seen the lion with its two cubs ; the eagle
with the same number ; and the penguin with
even but one. Nature that has supplied them
with powers of destruction, has denied them
fertility. But it is otherwise with these
harmless animals I am describing They
seem formed to fill up the chasms in animated
nature, caused by the voraciousness of others.
They breed in great abundance, and lead their
young to the pool the instant_they are ex-
cluded.
As their food is simple, so their flesh is
nourishing and wholesome. The swan was
considered as a high delicacy among the an-
cients ; the goose was abstained from as totally
indigestible. Modern manners have inverted
tastes ; the goose is now become the favourite ;
and the swan is seldom brought to table, un-
less for the purpose of ostentation. But at
all times the flesh of the duck was in high
esteem ; the ancients thought even more highly
of it than we do. We are contented to eat it
as a delicacy ; they also considered it as a medi-
cine ; and Plutarch assures us,thatCato kept
his whole family in health, by feeding them
with duck whenever they threatened to be
out of order.
These qualities, of great fecundity, easy
sustenance, and wholesome nourishment, have
been found so considerable as to induce man
to take these birds from a state of nature, and
render them domestic. How long they have
been thus dependents upon his pleasure is not
known ; for, from the earliest accounts, they
were considered as familiars about him. The
time must have been very remote ; for there
have been many changes wrought in their
colours, their figures, and even their internal
parts, by human cultivation. The different
kinds of these birds, in a wild state, are sim-
ple in their colourings ; when one has seen a
wild goose or a duck, a description of its
plumage will, to a feather, exactly correspond
with that of any other. But in the tame
kinds, no two of any species are exactly alike.
Different in their size, their colours, and fre-
quently in their general form, they seem the
mere creatures of art ; and having been so
long dependent upon man for support, they
seem to assume forms entirely suited to his
pleasures or necessities.
224
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
CHAP. X.
OF THE SWAN, TAME AND WILD.1
No bird makes a more indifferent figure
upon land, or a more beautiful one in the
1 The extensive family of Swimming Birds to which
these noble ornaments of our rivers and lakes belong,
are at ouce characterized by their straight broad bills,
clothed with a continuation of the common epidermis
instead of the usual horny covering, and armed at the
edges with a regular series of laminated teeth. Their
wings are of moderate length; their legs short; and
their feet divided into four toes, the three anterior
united throughout by a palmated expansion, and the
posterior perfectly distinct from the rest. They are for
the most part inhabitants of fresh water rather than of
the sea ; and subsist more upon vegetable than animal
substances.
In the Linnean system of classification the great
majority of these birds were referred to a single genus,
under the generic name of Anas, derived originally from
the common duck, arid extended from it to the whole of
its tribe. But the vast number of species thus brought
together, and the consequent difficulty of determining
any unknown bird that might be referable to the group,
long giiici. suggested the expediency of its dismember-
ment, and the formation of smaller and more manage-
able subdivisions. Many naturalists, from Ray down
to the present time, have attempted, with more or less
. success, to simplify by these means the study of the
most interesting family among our water-fowl; but
several of the divisions that have been established
among them rest upon such apparently trivial charac-
ters, that we are by no means prepared to adopt them
iu their fullest extent. There are some, however,
such as the swans, the geese, and the ducks, so strik-
ingly distinguished, as to have been separated, in
popular nomenclature, from the earliest times ; and this
separation being confirmed by tangible characters, we
cannot hesitate to consider it as founded upon just and
sufficient principles.
Of the characters by which the swans are distin-
guished from the rest of the family, the most remarkable
are the extreme length of their necks; the oval shape
of their nostrils, which are placed about the middle of
their bill; the nakedness of their cheeks; the equal
breadth of their bills throughout; the great depth of
that organ at the base, where the vertical considerably
exceeds the transverse diameter; and the position of
their legs behind the centre of gravity. They are by
far the largest species of the family ; and there are very
few birds that exceed them in magnitude. They live
almost constantly upon the water, preferring the larger
streams and open lakes ; and feed chiefly upon aquatic
plants, the roots of which they are enabled to reach by
means of their long necks, for they rarely if ever plunge
the whole of their bodies beneath the surface. They
also devour frogs and insects, and occasionally, it is said,
even fishes; but this last assertion is contradicted by
almost every observer who has attended particularly to
their habits, and seems quite at variance with the fact
that the fish-ponds to which they are sometimes confined
do not appear to suffer the smallest diminution in the
number of their inhabitants from the presence of these
inoffensive birds. We are moreover informed by Mr
Yarrell that he has never found in the stomachs of any
of the numerous individuals dissected by him the least
vestige of such a diet. In their habits they are as
peaceable as they are majestic in form, elegant in atti-
tude, graceful in their motions, and, in the two species
water, than the swan. When it ascends from
its favourite element, its motions are awkward,
and its neck is stretched forward with an aii
of stupidity ; but when it is seen smoothly
sailing along the water, commanding a thou-
sand graceful attitudes, moving at pleasure
without the smallest effort ; " when it proudly
that are most commonly known to us, unsullied in the
purity of their white and glossy plumage.
Of these species that which is known, improperly
with reference to a large proportion of the individuals
that compose it, as the tame swan, is probably the
most common, being found in a state of domestication
throughout the greater part of the northern hemisphere.
In a wild state it is met with in almost every country
of Europe, especially towards the east, and is particu-
larly abundant in Siberia. Its distinguishing characters
are found chiefly in its bill, which is throughout of an
orange red, with the exception of the edges of the man-
dibles, the slight hook at the extremity, the nostrils,
and the naked spaces extending from the base towards
the eyes, all of which are black. A large protuberance,
also of a deep black, surmounts the base of the bill;
the iris is brown; and the legs black, with a tinge of
red. All the plumage, without exception, in the adult
bird, is of the purest white. In length the full grown
male measures upwards of five feet, and more than
eight in the expanse of its wings, which reach, when
closed, along two-thirds of the tail. Its weight is
usually about twenty pounds, but it sometimes attains
five and twenty or even thirty; and those which in-
habit the southern coast of the Caspian are said to
reach a still more enormous size. The female is rather
smaller than the male ; her bill is surmounted by a
smaller protuberance ; and her neck is somewhat more
slender. When first hatched the young are of a dusky
gray, vvith lead-coloured bill and legs; in the second
year their plumage becomes lighter, and their bill and
legs assume a yellowish tinge ; in the third year they
put on the adult plumage and colouring of the naked
parts.
The wild birds of this species, like most of the water-
fowl, are migratory in their habits. In the temperate
regions of Europe they begin to absent themselves in
October, and return towards the end of March to the
quarters which they occupied in the preceding year.
But when the winter is not particularly severe, they
frequently remain' through it, seeking for shelter among
the dams and sluices of the rivers, and returning to
their former quarters at the breaking of the frost. To
protect the tame birds from the severity of the season,
it is usual to drive them into the same houses with the
ducks and geese ; but in such strict confinement they
entirely lose their spirits, become melancholy and dis-
eased, and are constantly making attempts to escape.
It is much better, whenever it is possible, both with
them and with the commoner species of water-fowl, to
leave them at liberty upon a piece of water, which, if
their number is at all considerable, they will always
keep open by their continual motion, without any risk
of freezing their feet. Swai\s kept in this manner dur-
ing the winter are generally in much better condition
at the return of spring than those which have been con-,
fined to the house.
The females choose for their nesting-place the least
frequented situations on the banks of the rivers or lakes
which they inhabit, and build their nests in the rudest
manner of twigs and reeds, lined with a comfortable
coating of their breast feathers. They lay six or eight
grayish eggs, and sit for five weeks, generally in April
and May. As soon as the young birds are hatched,
they are carried by both parents to the water, and for
THE SWAN.
225
rows in state," as Milton has it, '• with arched
neck, between its white wings mantling,"
there is not a more beautiful figure in all
nature. In the exhibition of its form, there
are no broken or harsh lines, no constrained
or catching motions ; but the roundest con-
tours, and the easiest transitions; the eye
wanders over every part with insatiable plea-
two or three weeks afterwards are borne upon their
backs, or placed for shelter and warmth beneath their
wings. The attentions of the parent birds are con-
tinued until the next pairing season, when the old males
drive the young from their society, and compel them to
shift for themselves. To prevent the tame ones from
flying away, it is necessary every year to clip their quill-
feathers ; and this mutilation seems to deprive them not
only of the power, but also if the desire, to regain their
liberty. They accustom themselves with ease to the
society of man, and seem even to become attached to
him, probably in consequence of the kindness with which
they are every where treated, and the peculiar privileges
which they enjoy at his hands. Besides their natural
food, consisting of plants, insects, snails, and similar
productions, they eagerly devour bread and all kinds of
grain, and in winter are chiefly kept upon these sub-
stances and the same kind of provender that is given to
ducks and geese.
Although naturally one of the most gentle and inof-
fensive of birds, the large size and great muscular power
of the Swan render it a formidable enemy when driven
to extremity, and compelled to act on the defensive.
In such a case it is said to give battle to the eagle,
and frequently even to repel his attack, forcing him to
seek his safety in flight. It never attempts to molest
any of the smaller water-fowl that inhabit its domains;
but in the season of its amours it will not suffer a rival
to approach its retreat without a sanguinary struggle, in
which one or other is generally destroyed. It is said
to attain a very great age, thirty years being commonly
spoken of as the term of its existence. It is even
asserted that in Alkmar, a town in the north of Hol-
land, there died, in the year 1672, a swan belonging
to the municipality, which bore on its collar the date
of 1573, and must consequently have been a century
old ; and several other instances of a similar nature
have been related by authors. We must confess, how-
ever, that we entertain strong doubts of the authenticity
of such statements, founded merely on popular tradition
and unsupported by any positive evidence.
The IVild Swan. — The wild swan, or, as it is not
unfrequently termed, the hooper, is a native of nearly the
whole northern hemisphere. In the old world it passes
northwards as far as Iceland and Kamtschatka, skirting
the borders of the arctic circle, but rarely entering
within its limits. Those which inhabit Europe gen-
erally pass the winter in its more southern regions, and
even extend their flight to Egypt and Barbary ; while
the Asiatic birds seem rarely to pass much farther south
than the shores of the Caspian and Black seas. In
America the range of their migrations is bounded by
Hudson's bay on the north, and Louisiana and the
Carolinas on the south. They are extremely abundant
in the northern parts of the new continent and in
Siberia; and in many districts of Russia they take the
place of that which is improperly termed the tame
species, submitting themselves with equal readiness to
the process of domestication.
The external differences between these two swans
are not at first sight very obvious ; but, trivial as they
appear, they are uniform and constant. The bill of
the present species is entirely destitute of protuberance
at its base, and its colours are in a great degree
reversed, the black occupying the point and nearly
the whole of the bill, its base alone and the spaces
extending from it beneath the eyes being of a bright
yellow. The legs are black or dusky ; the iris brown;
and the entire plumage, as in the other species, pure
VOL. II.
white, but with an occasional tinge of yellowish gray.
The young pass through similar gradations of colour
with those of the tame swan, and arrive, like them, at
their perfect plumage about the third or fourth year.
Slight as are these outward differences, they are
fully sufficient for the detection of the species; and the
separation founded upon them receives ample confir-
mation from anatomical characters of the highest im-
portance. Not to speak of the difference in the number
of their ribs, which are twelve in the wild swan and
eleven only in the tame, their tracheae or windpipes
afford unquestionable evidence of their distinctness.
This organ, which, in the tame— SWMI, passes directly
from the neck into the cavity of the chest without
forming any previous convolution, enters in the wild
species an appropriate cavity in the keel of the breast-
bone, within which it passes to a considerable depth,
then returns upwards, and is again inflected over the
edge of the sternum before plunging into the chest.
Ray was the first to point out this marked distinction
between the two birds, which had previously been
regarded as doubtful species. It was neglected, how-
ever, by later naturalists, and even Buflbn and Linnseus
were inclined to consider them as mere varieties; but
in these days, when the importance of anatomical cha-
racters is fully recognised, they are universally allowed
to be distinct.
So essential indeed is this character that we have no
hesitation in admitting a third species, lately described
by Mr Yarrel, as equally distinct from the hooper
and the tame swan, although inhabiting the same
localities as the former and apparently by no means of
unfrequent occurrence. This bird, which had been
entirely overlooked by all systematic ornithologists, is
about one third less than the common wild swan; but
its trachea, of smaller comparative calibre, passes still
more deeply into the cavity of the sternum, at the
extremity of which, quitting the keel, it takes a hori-
zontal direction, and occupies the posterior flattened
portion of the bone. The bronchi or subdivisions of
the windpipe are less than half the length of the same
parts in the common hooper. Outwardly the differ-
ences between the two birds are even less strongly
marked than those which distinguish the wild and
tame swans from each other ; consisting principally in
the deep orange colour of the base of the bill, which is
confined to a more limited space than the yellow on
the same part in the hooper, and does not advance
upon the sides ; and in the number of the quill-feathers
of the tail, which are eighteen in the new species and
twenty in the old. To this fine addition to our list
of native birds Mr Yarrell has applied the name of
Bewick's swan, (see a representation of it in Plate XIX.
fig. 25.) in commemoration of an artist whose labours
have done more to render the study of ornithology po-
pular in this country than the works of any writer that
could be named.
The Black Swan. — When the classical writers of
antiquity spoke of the black swan as a proverbial rarity,
so improbable as almost to be deemed impossible, little
did they imagine that in these latter days a region would
be discovered, nearly equal in extent to the Roman em-
pire even at the proudest period of its greatness, in which
their " rara avis" would be found in as great abundance
as the common wild swan upon the lakes of Europe.
Such, however, has been one of the least singular
among the many strange and unexpected results of the
discovery of the great southern continent of Austra-
lia. Scarcely a traveller who has visited its shores
2*
226
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
sure, and every part takes a new grace with
a new motion.
This fine bird has long been rendered do-
mestic ; and it is now a doubt whether there
be any of the tame kind in a state of nature.
The wild swan, though so strongly resembling
this in colour and form, is yet a different bird;
for it is very differently formed within. The
wild swan is less than the tame by almost a
fourth ; for as the one weighs twenty pounds,
the other only weighs sixteen pounds and
three quarters. The colour of the tame swan
is all over white ; that of the wild bird, is
along the back and the tips of the wings, of
an ash-colour. But these are slight differen-
ces compared to what are found upon dissec-
tion. In the tame swan, the windpipe sinks
down into the lungs in the ordinary manner ;
omits to mention this remarkable bird. An early notice
oi its transmission to Europe occurs in a letter from
Witsen to Dr Martin Lister, printed in the twentieth
volume of the Philosophical Transactions ; and Valen-
tyn published in 1726 an account of two living speci-
mens brought to Batavia. Cook, Vancouver, Philip,
and White, mention it incidentally in their Voyages ;
and Labillardiere, in his narrative of the expedition of
D'Entreeasteaux in search of La Perouse, has given
a more particular description, together with a tolerable
figure. Another figure, of no great value, has also been
given by Dr Shaw in his Zoological Miscellany. Since
this period many living individuals have been brought
to England, where they thrive equally well with the
Emeus, the Kanguroos, and other Australian animals,
insomuch that they can now scarcely be regarded as
rarities even in this country. They are precisely
similar inform and somewhat inferior in size to the wild
and tame swans of the old world ; but are perfectly
black in every part of their plumage, with the excep-
tion of the primary and a few of the secondary qnill-fea-
thers, which are white. Their bill is of a bright red
above, and is surmounted at the base in the male by a
slight protuberance, which is wanting in the female.
Towards its anterior part it is crossed by a whitish
band. The under part of the bill is of a grayish white ;
and the legs and feet are of a dull ash-colour. In every
other respect, except in the mode of convolution of its
trachea, this bird perfectly corresponds with its well
known congeners. The black swans are found as
well in Van Dieman's Land as in New South Wales
and on the western coast of New Holland. They
are generally seen in flocks of eight or nine together,
floating on a lake; and when disturbed, flying off
like wild geese in a direct line one after the other.
They are said to be extremely shy, so as to render it
difficult to approach within gunshot of them. — Gar-
dt ns and Alentrgerie of the Zoological Society illustrated,
Vol. II.
but in the wild, after a strange and wonderful
contortion, like what we have seen in the
crane, it enters through a hole formed in the
breast-bone; and being reflected therein, re-
turns by the same aperture ; and being con-
tracted into a narrow compass by a broad and
bony cartilage, it is divided into two branches,
which, before they enter the lungs, are di-
lated, and, as it were, swollen out into two
cavities.
Such is the extraordinary difference be-
tween these two animals, which externally
seem to be of one species. Whether it is in
the power of long-continued captivity and do-
mestication to produce this strange variety,
between birds otherwise the same, I will not
take upon me to determine. But certain
it is, that our tame swan is no where to
be found, at least in Europe, in a state of
nature.
As it is not easy to account for this differ-
ence of conformation, so it is still more diffi-
cult to reconcile the accounts of the ancients
with the experience of the moderns, concern-
ing the vocal powers of this bird. The tame
swan is one of the most silent of all birds ; and
the wild one has a note extremely loud and
disagreeable. It is probable, the convolutions
of the wind-pipe may contribute to increase
the clangour of it. ; for such is the harshness
of its voice, that the bird from thence has been
called the hooper. In neither is there the
smallest degree of melody ; nor have they, for
above this century, been said to give speci-
mens of the smallest musical abilities ; yet,
notwithstanding this, it was the general opi-
nion of antiquity, that the swan was the most
melodious bird : and that even to its death, its
voice went on improving. It would show no
earning to produce what they have said upon
he music of the swan : it has already been
collected by Aldrovandus ; and still more pro-
essedly by the Abbe Gedoyn, in the Trans-
actions of the Academy of Betles Lettres.
Prom these accounts, it appears that, while
Plato, Aristotle, and Diodorus Siculus, be-
ieved the vocality of the swan, Pliny and
Virgil seem to doubt that received 'opinion,
[n this equipoise of authority, Aldrovandus
seems to have determined in favour of the
reek philosophers ; and the form of the
windpipe in the wild swan, so much resem-
)ling a musical instrument, inclined his be-
ief still more strongly. In aid of this also,
came the testimony of Pendasius,whoaffirmed,
hat he had often heard swans sweetly singing
n the lake of Mantua, as he was rowed up
\nd down in a boat ; as also of Olaus Wor-
mius, who professed that many of his friends
and scholars had heard them singing. " There
was/5 says he, " in my family, a very honest
young man, John Rostorph, a student in di-
THE SWAN.
227
vinity, and a Norwegian by nation. This
man did, upon his credit, and with the inter-
position of an oath, solemnly affirm, that once
in the territory 01 Dronten, as he was stand-
ing on the sea-shore, early in the morning, he
heard an unusual and sweet murmur, com-
posed of the most pleasant whistlings and
sounds; he knew not at first whence they
came, or how they were made, for he saw no
man near to produce them ; but looking round
about him, and climbing to the top of a cer-
tain promontory, he there espied an infinite
number of swans gathered together in a bay,
and making the most delightful harmony ; a
sweeter in all his life- time he had never
heard." These were accounts sufficient at
least to keep opinion in suspense, though in
contradiction to our own experience ; but Al-
drovandus, to put, as he supposed, the ques-
tion past all doubt, gives us the testimony of
a countryman of our own, from whom he had
the relation. This honest man's name was
Mr Geo. Braun, who assured him, that no-
thing was more common in England than to
hear swans sing ; that they were bred in
great numbers in the sea near London ; and
that every fleet of ships that returned from
their voyages from distant countries, were met
by swans, that came joyfully out to welcome
their return, and salute them with a loud and
cheerful singing ! It was in this manner that
Aldrovandus, that great and good man, was
frequently imposed upon by the designing
and the needy : his unbounded curiosity drew
round him people of every kind, and his ge-
nerosity was as ready to reward falsehood as
truth. — Poor Aldrovandus ! after having spent
a vast fortune for the purposes of enlightening
mankind ; after having collected more truth,
and more falsehood, than any man ever did
before him, he little thought of being reduced
at last to want bread, to feel the ingratitude of
his country, and to die a beggar in a public
hospital !
Thus it appears that our modern authori-
ties, in favour of the singing of swans, are
rather suspicious, since they are reduced to
this Mr G. Braun, and John Rostorph, the
native of a country remarkable for ignorance
and credulity. It is probable the ancients
had some mythological meaning in ascribing
melody to the swan ; and as for the moderns,
they scarcely deserve our regard. The swan,
therefore, must be content with that share of
fame which it possesses on the score of its
beauty ; since the melody of its voice, without
better testimony, will scarcely be admitted by
even the credulous.
This beautiful bird is as delicate in its ap-
petites, as elegant in its form. Its chief food,
is corn, bread, herbs growing in the water,
and roots and seeds, which are found near the
margin. It prepares a nest in some retired
part of the bank, and chiefly where there is
an islet in the stream, This is composed of
water-plants, long grass, and sticks ; and the
male and female assist in forming it with
great assiduity. The swan lays seven or
eight eggs, white, much larger than those of
a goose, with a hard, and sometimes a tuber-
ous, shell. It sits near two months before its
young are excluded ; which are ash-coloured
when they first leave the shell, and for some
months after. It is not a little dangerous to
approach the old ones when their little family
are feeding round them. Their fears as well
their pride, seem to take the_alarm ; and they
have sometimes been known to give a blow
with their pinion, that has broke a man's leg
or arm.
It is not till they are a twelvemonth old
that the young swans change their colour with
their plumage. All the stages of this bird's
approach to maturity are slow, and seem to
mark its longevity. It is two months hatch-
ing ; a year in growing to its proper size : and
if, according to Pliny's observation, those ani-
mals that are longest in the womb are the
longest lived, the swan is the longest in the
shell of any bird we know, and is said to be
remarkable for its longevity. Some say that
it lives three hundred years ; and Willoughby,
who is in general diffident enough, seems to
believe the report. A goose, as he justly ob-
serves, has been known to live a hundred ; and
the swan, from its superior size, and from its
harder, firmer flesh, may naturally be sup-
posed to live still longer.
Swans were formerly held in such great es-
teem, in England, that by an act of Edward
the Fourth none, except the son of the king,
was permitted to keep a swan, unless posses-
sed of five marks a year. By a subsequent
act, the punishment for taking their eggs was
imprisonment for a year and a day, and a fine
at the king's will. At present, they are but
little valued for the delicacy of their flesh ; but
many are still preserved for their beauty.
We see multitudes on the Thames and Trent;
but no where greater numbers than on the
salt water inlet of the sea, near Abbotsbury,
in Dorsetshire.
CHAP. XI.
OP THE GOOSE, AND ITS VARIETIES.1
THE Goose, in its domestic state, exhibits
a variety of colours. The wild goose always
1 From the concurrent testimony of our old writers,
(says Mr Selliy) it appears that this species was formerly
228
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
retains the same marks; the whole upper part
is ash-coloured ; the breast and belly are of a
dirty white; the bill is narrow at the base,
and at the tip it is black ; the legs are of a
saffron colour, and the claws black. These
very abundant in Britain ; and was also a permanent re-
sident here, breeding annually in great numbers in the
fens of Lincolnshire, and some of the adjoining counties.
The draining and cultivation of these marshy tracts,
under progressive agricultural improvement, and the in-
creasing population of the kingdom, has, however, ba-
nished these birds from their ancient haunts ; and they
are now, comparatively speaking, of rare occurrence,
and, as far as I can ascertain, only met with in small
flocks during the winter. They seem to have given
place, as it were, to the Bean Goose which, as a winter
visitant, is very numerous, and widely spread through-
out the country. According to Temminck, the present
species seldom advances much beyond the fifty-third de-
gree of north latitude ; its geographical distribution ex-
tending over the central and eastern parts of Europe,
Northern Asia, and some parts of Western Africa, where
it inhabits the marshes, and the borders of lakes and in-
land seas. It breeds amongst the rushes and other
coarse herbage, making a large nest of vegetable matter,
and laying from six to twelve eggs of a sullied white.
Its food consists principally of the various grasses of the
moist and marshy tracts it affects, though it eats grain
with avidity. It is also very fond of the tender blades
of wheat, Sic., and often, during its periodical visits,
does considerable damage to rorn fields in an early stage
of growth. Being a bird of great shyness and vigi-
lance, it can only be approached by stealth, and with the
utmost caution ; this is generally effected by that mode
of fowling called stalking, in which a horse is so trained,
as, hiding the person of the fowler, to advance by de-
grees, and in an easy and natural manner, upon the
flock, as they are at rest or feeding on the ground. In
the latter state, which only occurs during the day-
time, sentinels (occasionally relieved) are always on the
watch to give notice of approaching danger, which they
do, on the slightest suspicion, by a cry of alarm ; and
immediately the whole flock take wing, with an alert-
ness and rapidity that could scarcely be expected
in birds of such bulky appearance. At night they
generally i-etire to the water for repose, but the
same watchful attention to safety is maintained by sen-
tinels, that distinguishes their conduct during the
day. They usually fly at a great height in the air,
moving either in a single diagonal line, or in two lines
forming an angle, or inverted V. In this order the
office of leader is taken by turns, the foremost, when
fatigued, retiring to the rear, and allowing the next in
station to lead the flight. It is generally admitted that
our race of domestic geese has originally sprung from
this species, and however altered they may now appear
in bulk, colour, or habits, the essential characters re-
main the same; no disinclination to breed with each
ether is evinced between them, and the offspring of
marks are seldom found in the tame ; whose,
bill is entirely red, and whose legs are en-
tirely brown. The wild goose is rather less
than the tame ; but both invariably retain
a white ring round their tail, which shows
wild and domesticated birds are as prolific as their
mutual parents.
The Bean, or as it is very frequently called, the wild
goose, bears in general appearance, and in the colour of
its plumage, a great resemblance to the preceding
species, and with which it is sometimes confounded. It
may, however, be always distinguished from the ray
lag by the form of its bill, which is comparatively much
smaller, shorter, and more compressed towards the end.
The colour of that member also differs, the basal part
of the under mandible, and that of the upper as far as
the line of the nostrils, with the nails of both mandibles,
being black, and the intermediate part flesh-red, inclin-
ing to orange. It is also generally less. In Britain
it is well known as a regular winter visitant, arriving
in large bodies from its northern summer haunts, dur-
ing September or the beginning of October, and sel-
dom taking its final departure before tho er.d of April
or beginning of May. The various flocks, during
their residence in this country, have each their par-
ticular haunts or feeding districts, to which on each
ensuing season they invariably return, as I have found
to be the case in Northumberland and the southern
parts of Scotland, where wild geese have been known to
frequent certain localities for a continued series of years.
The habits of this and the preceding species are very
similar, and they show the same vigilance, and use the
same means of guarding against surprise : their capture
is therefore proportionably difficult, and it is only by
stratagem that, when at rest on the ground or feeding,
they can be approached within gun-shot. In stormy
weather, when they are compelled to fly lower than they
usually do, they may be sometimes intercepted from a
hedge or bank, situated in the route they are observed
to take early in the morning, in passing to their feed-
ing ground. At night they retire to the water, or else
to some ridge or bar of sand on the sea coast, suffi-
ciently distant from the main land to afford a secure
retreat ; and where the approach of an enemy must be-
come visible, or at least audible to their acute organs,
before it could endanger their safety. The haunts or
feeding grounds of these birds are more frequently in
the higher districts than in the lower and marshy tracts
of the country, and they give the preference to open
land, or where the inclosures are very large. They
feed much upon the tender wheat, sometimes injuring
these fields to a great extent; and they frequent also
the stubbles, particularly such as are laid down with
clover and other grasses. In the early part of spring
they often alight upon the newly sown bean and pea
fields, picking up greedily such of the pulse as is left on
the surface; and I am inclined to think that their
trivial name has been acquired from their apparent pre-
dilection for this kind of food, rather than from the
shape and aspect of the nail of the upper mandible, to
which it has been generally attributed. They usually
fly at a considerable elevation, either in a diagonal line,
or in two such lines, opposed to each other, and form-
ing a leading acute angle, like the other species; and
when on wing they maintain a loud cackling, in which
the voices of the two sexes may be easily distinguished.
The rate at which they move, when favoured by a gentle
breeze, is seldom less than from forty to fifty miles an
hour, a velocity which enables them to have their roost-
ing place far removed from the district they frequent by
day. The principal breeding stations, or summer re-
treats, of the bean goose are in countries within the
arctic circle; it is said, however, that great numbers
THE GOOSE.
229
that they are both descended from the same
original.
The wild goose is supposed to breed in the
northern parts of Europe ; and, in the begin-
ning of winter, to descend into more temperate
regions. They are often seen flying at very
great heights, in flocks from fifty to a hun-
dred, and seldom resting by day. Their cry
is frequently heard when they are at an im-
perceptible distance above us; and this seems
bandied from one to the other, as among
hounds in the pursuit. Whether this be the
note of mutual encouragement, or the neces-
sary consequence of respiration, is doubtful;
but they seldom exert it when they alight in
these journeys.
Upon their coming to the ground by day,
they range themselves in a line, like cranes ;
and seem rather to have descended for rest,
than for otiier refreshment. When they have
sat in this manner for an hour or two, I have
heard one of them, with a loud long note,
sound a kind of charge, to which the rest
punctually attended, and they pursued their
journey with renewed alacrity. Their flight
is very regularly arranged ; they either go in
a line abreast, or in two lines, joining in an
angle in the middle. I doubt whether the
form of their flight be thus arranged to cut
the air with greater ease, as is commonly be-
lieved ; I am more apt to think it is to pre-
sent a smaller mark to fowlers from below.
A bullet might easily reach them if huddled
together in a flock, and the same discharge
might destroy several at once ; but, by their
manner of flying, no shot from below can
affect above one of them ; and from the
height at which they fly this is not easy to
be hit.
The Barnacle differs, in some respects, from
both these ; being less than either, with a
black bill, much shorter than either of the
preceding. It is scarcely necessary to combat
the idle error of this bird's being bred from a
shell sticking to ships' bottoms; it is well
known to be hatched from an egg in the
ordinary manner, and to differ in very few
particulars from all the rest of its kind.
The Brent goose is still less than the for-
mer, and not bigger than a Muscovy duck,
except that the body is longer. The head,
neck, and upper part of the breast, are black ;
but about the middle of the neck, on each
side, are two small spots or lines of white,
which together appear like a ring.
breed annually in Harris, and some of the other outer-
most Western islands. The nest is made in the marshy
grounds, and formed of grasses and other dry vegetable
materials ; the eggs are white, and from eight to twelve
in number. Among the other winter visitants to this
island, are the White-fronted Goose, the Barnacle
Goose, the Brent Goose, and the Red-breasted Goose.
These, and many other varieties, are found
in this kind, which agree in one common
character of feeding upon vegetables, and
being remarkable for their fecundity.1 Of
The Canadian Goose, (see Plate XIX. fig. 26.)
The Canadian goose is somewhat larger than our com-
mon domesticated breed. It is also slenderer in its
make and especially in its neck, which consequently
approaches more nearly to that of the swan. The en-
tire length of the bird is about three feet, and the expanse
of its wings rather more than five. The back and wing-
coverts are of a dull brown, with a whitish tip to each
of the feathers ; the quill-feathers of the wings and tail
black; the sides pale ashy brown ; and the upper part
of the head and neck black, with_a broad patch of white
spreading from the throat on either side over the lower
part of the cheeks. By this latter character, which is
extremely obvious, this species may at all times be
readily distinguished. Its bill is black: its iris dark
zel; and its legs and feet grayish-black, or lead-
coloured. There is little or no distinction in plumage
between the two sexes. Although commonly known by
the name of Canada geese, these birds are by no means
confined to that country, but extend their migrations
from the lowest latitudes of the United States to the
highest parallels that have yet been visited in the nor-
thern regions of America. Throughout the whole of
this vast extent of territory they are familiarly known
as the harbingers of spring when passing to the north,
and the presage of approaching winter on their return.
In the United States it is the popular belief that their
journeys are bounded by the great chain of lakes, in the
islands of which they are supposed to breed ; but even on
the shores of Hudson's bay they are still found to be pro-
ceeding northwards, and they rarely nest further south
than 60 deg. Captain Phipps mentions having seen
wild geese at Spitzbergen, in more than 80 deg. of lati-
tude ; and Wilson deems it " highly probable that they
extend their migrations under the very pole itself, amid
the silent desolation of unknown countries, shut out
since the creation from the prying eye of man by ever-
lasting and insuperable bars of ice."
The passage of the geese to the north commences
with the breaking up of the ice, their first appearance
in Canada and on the shores of Hudson's bay varying
with the forwardness of the spring, from the middle of
April to the latter end of May. Their flight is heavy
and laborious, but moderately swift, in a straight line
when their number is but few, but more frequently in
two lines meeting in a point in front. The van is said
to be always led by an old gander, in whose wake the
others instinctively follow. But should his sagacity fail
in discovering the land -marks by which they usually
steer, as sometimes happens in foggy weather, the whole
flock appear in the greatest distress, and fly about in an
irregular manner, making a great clamour. In their
flights they cross indiscriminately over land or water,
differing in this respect from several other geese, which
prefer making a circuit by water to traversing the land.
They also pass far inland, instead of confining their
course to the neighbourhood of the sea. So important is
the arrival of the geese to the inhabitants of these nor-
thern regions that the month in which they first make
their appearance is termed by the Indians, as we are
informed by Pennant, the goose moon. In fact not only
the Indians, but the English settlers also, depend greatly
upon these birds for their subsistence, and many thou-
sands of them are annually killed, a large proportion of
which are salted and barrelled for winter consumption.
Many too that are killed on their return, after the com-
mencement of the frost, are suffered to freeze, and are
thus kept as fresh provision for several months. Others,
either taken young or wounded, are frequently detained
230
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
these, however, the tame goose is the most
fruitful. — Having less to tear from its ene-
mies, leading a securer and a more plentiful
life, its prolific powers increase in proportion
to its ease ; and though the wild goose seldom
lays above eight eggs, the tame goose is
often seen to lay above twenty. The female
hatches her eggs with great assiduity ; while
the gander visits her twice or thrice a day,
and sometimes drives her off to take her
place, where he sits with great state and com-
posure.
But beyond that of all animals is his pride
when the young are excluded : he seems then
to consider himself as a champion, not only
obliged to defend his young, but also to keep
off the suspicion of danger ; he pursues dogs
and men that never attempt to molest him :
and, though the most harmless thing alive, is
then the most petulant and provoking. When,
in this manner, he has pursued the calf or the
mastiff, to whose contempt alone he. is in-
debted for safety, he returns to his female and
her brood in triumph, clapping his wings,
screaming, and showing all the marks of con-
scious superiority. It is probable, however,
these arts succeed in raising his importance
among the tribe where they are displayed;
in captivity during the winter. They seldom breed in
so low a latitude as Churchhill river ; but Hearne
states that he has occasionally met with their eggs in
that neighbourhood. The females rarely lay more than
four eggs, but the whole number is generally hatched.
They are said usually to select an island in preference
to the mainland, for the performance of the maternal
office in greater safety.
The Spur-winged Goose. — Another species of the
same group, is the Gambo or spur-winged goose, a
native of northern, and more particularly of western,
Africa. This -bird agrees with the Canadian goose in
some of those characters which connect the geese with
the swans, but is much more robust in make and more
anserine in general appearance. Its size and propor-
tions are nearly those of the common goose ; its legs
long and placed beneath the middle of the body ; and
its neck of moderate length and proportionate thickness.
At the base of the bill, which is broad and flat, it has
a tubercle like that of the tame swan, increasing in size
with the age of the individual ; and the bend of its wings
is furnished with a large blunt spur, which appears to be
occasionally doubled. The spur-winged goose was con-
founded by Willoughby, and afterwards by Buflbn, with
a variety of the Egyptian goose, equally distinguished
by the presence of a spur upon the wing, but differing
considerably in the form of its bill, and in its colours.
In the former the entire bill and the tubercle at its
base are of a dull red; the sides of the head are white ;
the upper parts of the body black, with a metallic brilli-
ancy ; a patch of white, mottled with black spots occu-
pies the base of each of the wings ; and the under parts
are white, sometimes marked with indistinct zigzag
lines of gray. The legs have an obscure tinge of red ;
and the spurs of the wings are horn-coloured ; but the
latter are visible only when the wings are expanded,
being concealed at all other times beneath the plumage.
— Gardens and Menageries of the Zoological Gardens
Illustrated, Vol II.
and it is probable there is not a more re-
spectable animal on earth to a goose than a
gander !
A young goose is generally reckoned very
good eating ; yet the feathers of this bird still
farther increase its value. I feel my obliga-
tions to this animal every word I write ; for,
however deficient a man's head may be, his
pen is nimble enough upon every occasion :
it is happy indeed tor us that it requires no
great effort to put it in motion. But the fea-
thers of this bird are still as valuable in
another capacity, as they make the softest and
the warmest Taeds to sleep on.
Of goose-feathers most of our beds in Eu-
rope are composed ; in the countries bordering
on the Levant, and in all Asia, the use of
them is utterly unknown. There they use
mattresses, stuffed with wool, or camel's hair,
or cotton ; and the warmth of their climate
may perhaps make them dispense with cush-
ions of a softer kind. But how it happens
that the ancients had not the use of feather-
beds is to me surprising : Pliny tells us, in-
deed, that they made bolsters of feathers to
lay their heads on ; and this serves as a
proof that they turned feathers to no other
uses.
As feathers are a very valuable commodity,
great numbers of geese are kept tame in the
fens in Lincolnshire, which are plucked once
or twice a year. These make a considerable
article of commerce. The feathers of Somer-
setshire are most in esteem ; those of Ireland
are reckoned the worst. Hudson's bay also
furnishes very fine feathers, supposed to be of
the goose kind. The down of the swan is
brought from Dantzic. The same place also
sends us great quantities of the feathers of the
cock and hen; but Greenland, Iceland, and
Norway, furnish the best feathers of all : and
in this number we may reckon the Eider
down, of which we shall take notice in its
place. The best method of curing feathers is
to lay them in a room, in an open exposure to
the sun ; and when dried, to put them into
bags, and beat them well with poles to get
the dust off. But, after all, nothing will pre-
vent, for a time, the heavy smell which arises
from the putrefaction of the oil contained in
very feather ; no exposure will draw this oft,
bow long so ever it be continued ; they must
3e lain upon, which is the only remedy ; and
for this reason old feathers are much more
valuable than new.
THE DUCK.
231
CHAP. XII.
OF THE DUCK, AND ITS VARIETIES.
THE Tame Duck is the most easily reared
of all our domestic animals. The very in-
stincts of the young ones direct them to their
favourite element ; and though they are con-
ducted by a hen, yet they despise the admoni-
tions of their leader.
This serves as an incontestable proof that
all birds have their manners rather from
nature than education. A falcon pursues the
partridge, not because it is taught by the old
one, but because its appetites make their
importunate call for animal food : the cuckoo
follows a very different trade from that which
its nurse endeavoured to teach it ; and, if we
may credit Pliny, in time destroys its instruc-
tor : animals of the duck kind also follow
their appetites, not their tutor, and come to
all their various perfections without any
guide. All the arts possessed by man are
the result of accumulated experience ; all the
arts of inferior animals are self-taught, and
scarcely one acquired by imitation.
It is usual with the good women to lay
duck-eggs under a hen, because she hatches
them better than the original parent would
have done.1 The duck seems to be a heed-
less inattentive mother ; she frequently leaves
her eggs till they spoil, and even seems to
forget that she is intrusted with the charge :
she is equally regardless of them when ex-
cluded ; she leads them to the pond, and
thinks she has sufficiently provided for her
offspring when she has shown them the water.
1 The rearing of ducks is made an object of great
importance in China. The greater part of them are
hatched by artificial warmth; the eggs being laid in
hoxes of sand, are placed on a brick hearth, to which a
proper degree of heat is given during the time re-
quired for hatching. The ducklings are fed with craw-
fish and crabs, boiled and cut small, and afterwards
mixed with boiled rice; and in about a fortnight they
are able to shift for themselves. The Chinese then
provide them with an old step-mother, who leads them
where they are to find provender, being first put on
board a " sampane " or boat, which is destined for
tlieir habitation, and from which the whole flock, often
300 or 400 in number, go out to feed, and return at
command. This method is used nine months out of
the twelve, for in the colder months it does not suc-
ceed ; and is so far from a novelty that it may be seen
everywhere, more especially about the time of cutting
the rice, when the masters of the duck-boats row up and
down the rivers, according to the opportunity of procur-
ing food, which during that season is found in plenty,
at the ebb of the tide, r>n the rice plantations, which are
overtlowed at high water. It is curious to see how the
ducks obey their master; for some thousands belonging
to different boats will feed at large on the same spot,
and on a signal given, follow the leader to their re-
spective boats, without a stranger being found among
them.
Whatever advantages may be procured by
coming nearer the house, or attending in the
yard, she declines them all ; and often lets
the vermin, who haunt the waters, destroy
them, rather than bring them to take shelter
nearer home. The hen is a nurse of a very
opposite character : she broods with the ut-
most assiduity, and generally brings forth a
young one from every egg committed to her
charge ; she does not lead her younglings to
the water indeed, but she watchfully guards
them when there, by standing at the brink.
Should the rat, or the weasel, attempt to seize
them, the hen can give them protection; she
leads them to the house wlien_ tired with
paddling, and rears up the supposititious
brood, without ever suspecting that they be-
long to another.
The wild ducks differs, in many respects,
from the tame ; and in them there is still
greater variety than among the domestic
kinds. Of the tame duck there are not less
8 The fVild Duck or Mallard is nearly two feet in
length, two feet ten inches in extent of wing, and
weighs from two and a half to three pounds. The bill
is of a greenish yellow colour ; the head and upper part
of the neck are of a glossy changeable green, terminated
in the middle of the neck by a white collar, with which
it is nearly encircled. The scapulars are white, barred
or rather undulated with minute lines of brown ; the
back is brown, and the rump black, glossed with green.
On the wing coverts two transverse white streaks edged
with black enclose a broad stripe of a lucid violet-green
colour. The lower part of the neck and breast is of a
chestnut-colour; the belly is pale gray, crossed with
numerous transverse dusky lines. The tail consists of
twenty feathers and is pointed in shape ; the four mid-
dle are of a greenish black colour and curve upward in a
remarkable manner ; the others as usual of a gray
brown, margined with white. Legs orange. The
female is very plain. The bill is shorter and smaller
than that of the male ; and the ground colour of the
plumage is pale reddish brown, speckled with black,
The violet-green stripe on the wings is as in those of the
male; but none of the tail feathers are curved. The
young male birds, previously to their first moult, resem-
ble rather the female than the male parent. In a
domestic state some individuals appear in nearly the
same plumage as the wild ones; others vary greatly
from them as well as from each other, and are marked
with nearly every colour ; but all the males, or drakes,
still retain the curled feathers of the tail. The tame
duck is, however, of a more dull and less elegant form
and appearance than the wild, domestication having
deprived it of its lofty gait,' long tapering neck, and
sprightly eyes.
232
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
than ten different sorts ; and of the wild,
Brisson reckons above twenty. The most
obvious distinction between wild and tame
ducks is in the colour of their feet : those of
Wild ducks inhabit Europe, Asia, and America, in
summer frequenting the lakes and marshes of the north,
and in autumn migrating southward in large bodies,
and spreading themselves over the lakes and marshes
of more temperate latitudes. Considerable numbers of
them return northward in spring; but many straggling
pairs, as well as former colonists, stay in this country
to rear their young, which become natives, arid remain
throughout the year in the marshy tracts of the British
isies. Large flocks visit Egypt in November after the
inundation of the Nile. In an opposite direction of the
globe, the lakes in the Orkneys form one of their great
resorts in winter; and when the lakes happen to be
frozen, they betake themselves to the shores of the
islands. In these districts they may be seen in great
multitudes, and on the report of a gun they rise like
clouds. They are also known to abound on the lake of
Zirknitz in Carniola, where they are often swallowed
entire by the huge pikes which frequent that remark-
able piece of water. On the approach of a storm they
issue from the caverns in the rocks, and fly about the
country, where they are soon captured by the peasants ;
many of them are killed with clubs at the very open-
ings of the cavities, being dazzled by the light of day.
In England they abound most in the fens of Lincoln-
shire, where prodigious numbers are annually taken in
the decoys.
Wild ducks are naturally very shy birds, and fly at a
considerable height in the air, in the form of a wedge or
triangle. Before they alight on any spot, they describe
several turns round it, as if to reconnoitre it, and then
descend with great precaution. They generally keep
at a distance from the shore when they swim; and when
the greater part of them sleep upon the water, with
their heads under their wings, some of the party are
always awake to watch over the common safety, and to
apprize the sleepers of the approach of danger. The
extreme wariness of these birds renders much patience
and ingenuity necessary on the part of the fowler.
They rise vertically from the water with loud cries ; and
in the night-time their flight over head may be known
by the hissing noise which they make. They are more
active by night than by day ; indeed those that are
seen by day have, in general, been roused either by a
sportsman or by some bird of prey.
Wild ducks breed only once in the year, the pairing-
time commencing about the end of February or be-
ginning of March, and lasting three weeks, during
which period each couple lives apart, concealed among
the reeds and bushes during the greater part of the day.
The female generally selects a thick tuft of bushes,
insulated in a pool or lake, for her breeding station, and
binds, cuts, and arranges the bushes in the form of a
nest; sometimes she makes her nest on heaths at some
distance from the water, scraping together a heap of
the nearest vegetables for the purpose: — a rick of straw
in the fields occasionally serves her purpose. Latham
says, that she has even been known to lay her eggs in
a high tree, in the deserted nest of a magpie or crow ;
and he records an instance of one that was found at
Etchingham, in Sussex, sitting upon nine eggs, in an
oak, at the height of twenty-five feet from the ground,
the eggs being supported by some small twigs placed
crosswise. The female, during the incubation, usually
plucks the down from her breast to line her nest, in
which she frequently deposits sixteen eggs, which she
generally covers when she leaves the nest for the purpose
of feeding. Whenever she returns to it, she alights at
some distance, and approaches it by winding paths ;
the tame duck being yellow, those of the wild
duck black. The difference between wild
ducks among each other, arises as well from
their size as the nature of the place they feed
but when she has resumed her seat she is not easily
induced to quit it. The male keeps watch near the
nest, or accompanies and protects his mate in her tem-
porary excursions in quest of food. All the young are
hatched in one day, and on the following the mother
leads them to the water ; or if the nest lie high, or at a
distance from water, both parents convey them, one
by one, in their bills or between their legs, and they
are no sooner consigned to the water than they begin
to swim about with the greatest ease, and to feed on
insects. The mother-bird is a most attentive and
watchful parent until her young progeny are able to
fly: this is in about three months after their birth, and
in three months more they attain to their full size and
plumage.
The flesh of the wild duck is rrore delicate and juicy,
and of a finer flavour, than that of the domestic. It is
almost every where in high estimation as an article of
food, and hence the ingenuity of man, in all the coun-
tries which it frequents, has been employed in devising
stratagems for the capture of this most cautious and
wily bird. We shall now proceed to furnish our readers
with an account of some of the more remarkable of
these stratagems. Some of the methods of capturing
the wild ducks in America, as described by Wilson
in his " American Ornithology," are among the most
singular resorted to in any country, and claim to be
noticed in this place.
In some ponds frequented by these' birds, five or six
wooden figures, cut and painted so as to represent ducks,
and sunk, by pieces of lead nailed to their bottoms so as to
float at the usual depth on the surface, are anchored in a
favourable position for being raked from a concealment
of brushwood, &c., on shore. The appearance of these
decoys usually attracts passing flocks, which alight and
are shot down. Sometimes eight or ten of these painted
ducks are fixed in a frame in various swimming pos-
tures, and secured to the bow of the gunner's skifl)
projecting before it in such a manner that the weight
of the frame sinks the figures to their proper depth ;
the skiff is then dressed with sedge or coarse grass, in
an artful manner, as low as the water's edge ; and
under cover of this, which appears like a covey of ducks
swimming by a small island, the gunner floats down
sometimes to the very skirts of a whole congregated
multitude, and pours in a destructive and repeated fire
of shot among them. In winter, when detached pieces
of ice are occasionally floating in the river, some of the
fowlers on the Delaware paint their whole skifl' or canoe
white, and laying themselves flat at the bottom, with
their hand over the side silently managing a small
paddle, direct it imperceptibly into or near a flock,
before the ducks have distinguished it from a floating
mass of ice, and generally do great execution amongst
them. A whole flock has sometimes been thus surprised
asleep with their heads under their wings. On laud,
another stratagem is sometimes practised with great
success: — a large tight hogshead is sunk in the flat
marsh or mud, near the place where ducks are ac-
customed to feed at low water, arid where, otherwise,
there is no shelter. The edges and top are artfully
concealed with tufts of long coarse grass and reeds, or
sedge. From within this the fowler, unseen and un-
suspected, watches the collecting party, and, when a
sufficient number offers, sweeps them down with great
effect.
Of the method of capturing wild ducks in the fens of
Lincolnshire, a particular description will be found in
the text, towards the close of the present chapter. See
THE DUCK.
233
in. Sea-ducks, which feed in salt-water, and
dive much, have a broad bill, bending up-
wards, a large hind toe, and a long blunt tail.
Pond-ducks, which feed in plashes, have a
straight and narrow bill, a small hind-toe, and
a sharp-pointed train. The former are called,
by our decoy-men, foreign ducks : the latter
are supposed to be natives of England. It
would- be tedious to enter into the minute
varieties of such a number of birds ; all agree-
ing in the same general figure, the same habits
and mode of living, and differing in little
more than (heir size and the colours of their :
plumage. In this tribe we may rank, as na-
tives of our own European dominions, the
Eider Duck,1 which is double the size of a
also Nos. 183 and 184 of " Penny Magazine," to which
we are indebted for the above Note.
1 In Britain the range of this valuable species extends
to about the 55th degree of north latitude, to the south-
ward of which it becomes of very rare occurrence. Its
limits, however, towards the pole are scarcely ascertained,
a=! it has been found, I believe, in the highest latitudes yet
penetrated by navigators. In Iceland, Spitsbergen, and
other arctic regions of Europe, it is very abundant: and
in those cold countries is highly beneficial to the inhabi-
tants, on account of its feathers, elastic down, eggs, &c.
It is equally common in parallel latitudes of the North ,
American continent, and, in fact, may be considered a '
general inhabitant of the Frigid zone. Upon the Nor-
thumbrian coast many eiders breed upon the group of
Fern islands, situated towards the northern extremity
of that county, and from tw-o to eight miles distant from
the shore, and which, with Coquet island (about ten
miles farther along the coast,) may be reckoned the most
southern breeding-stations of these birds. About April
they are seen assembling in small groups along the shores
of the mainland, from whence they cross over to the
islands in May, soon after which the females begin to
prepare their nests, and they usually commence laying
about the twentieth of that month. The males, as soon
as this takes place, and incubation commences, leave the
females, and again spread themselves along the shore, in
companies of four or five together, and do not (as far as
my observation goes) " continue on watch near the
shore, as long as the females remain sitting," and then
desert both her and the newly hatched brood, as men-
tioned in Shaw's Zoology. The usual number of eggs
is five, of a pale asparagus-green colour, of an oblong
shape, and not much less than those of a goose. The
vest is composed of dried grasses, mixed with a quantity
of the smaller alga;, and as incubation proceeds (and
which lasts for a month) a lining of down, plucked by
the bird from her own body, is added. This addition is
made daily, and at last becomes so considerable in mass,
as to envelope and entirely conceal the eggs, contribut-
ing, perhaps by its effect, as a nonconductor of heat, to
the perfect developement of the fetus, and serving also
as a protection from gulls and other enemies. The
young, as soon as hatched, are conducted to the water,
which in some instances must be effected by the parent
conveying them in her bill, as I have often seen the
nest in such situations as to preclude the possibility of
their arriving at it in any other way ; and indeed, the
keeper of one of the lighthouses (upon the impending
rock close to which an eider duck, for many seasons,
had her nest, and hatched her young) assured me, that
he had seen the bird engaged in this interesting duty.
The down of the eider is remarkably light and elastic,
iiot more so perhaps than that of its congener the King
VOL. 11,
common duck, witli a black bill ; the Velvet
Duck, not so large, and with a yellow bill ;
the Scoter, with a knob at the base of a yel
low bill ; the Tufted Duck, adorned with a
thick crest ; the Scaup Duck, (see Plate XX.
fig. 13.) less than the common duck, with the
bill of a grayish blue colour ; the Golden Eye,
(see Plate XIX. fig. 34.) with a large white
spot at the corners of the mouth, resembling
an eye ; the Sheldrake, with the bill of a
bright red, and swelling into a knob ; the
Mallard, which is the stock from whence our
tame breed has probably been produced ; the
Pintail, with the two middle feathers of the
tail three inches longer thanjthe rest ; the Po-
chard, with the head and neck of a bright
Eider, the Scoter, and some others of the oceanic Ana-
tidae; but as it is procured in greater quantity from this
species, the whole imported from Iceland and other nor-
thern countries (though mixed with that of several others)
is still sold under the denomination of Eider dawn.
From the nest of two or three of these birds, I have fre-
quently procured as much down as would fill a middling-
sized pillow, though the same, when compressed, was
not above two handfuls, and did not weigh above an
ounce. As plucked from the living bird, it is much
more elastic than when taken from the body after death,
— a fact confirmative of what I have formerly advanced,
viz. that the plumage is not mere inert matter, as be-
lieved by Montagu and others, but is endowed with a
kind ol living principle, and influenced by the state and
condition of the bird. In Iceland, Greenland, &c. where
the eider down forms a great branch of their commerce,
and where the birds breed in great numbers near to each
other, the natives wait anxiously for the event. The
first production of eggs, together with the down, is taken
from them, but the next they are allowed to incubate,
and rear the young, though a part of the down is from
time to time removed, the female continuing to supply
it as long as any remains upon the low-er part of her
body. — The food of the eider consists of various species
of shell-fish, crustaceous animals, and the roes of these
and fishes. Such as I have dissected were generally
filled with the triturated remains of mytili, tellineaD, &c ;
and twice I found the subjects gorged with the spawn of
fish. They dive for their food like the Scoters, remain-
ing for a long time submerged, and often in water of six
or eight fathoms deep. They also fly with great strength,
and at the rate (as calculated) of more than ninety miles
in the hour. When approached in a boat they generally
take wing whilst beyond gun-shot, and when suddenly
surprised they dive; but if actively pursued, and com-
pelled to dive repeatedly, they may be so far tired out
as at last to be incapable of submerging with sufficient
quickness to prevent a fatal aim being taken. In this
manner I have often succeeded in procuring specimens;
and the same mode, it appears, is in use amongst the
Greenlanders, who strike them with their darts as they
rise fatigued to the surface alter long-continued pursuit.
The trachea of the male bird is of equal diameter through-
out its length, and composed of hard and perfect rings,
lined with a membrane. The lower larynx, or bone of
divarication, is enlarged in front, and furnished on the
left side with an elevated, flatly globose, bony protuber-
ance, or labyrinth, about the size of a large nut. The
bronchi are large, swelling much toward their middle,
and composed of imperfect rings, united by a membrane.
That on the left side, which proceeds from the tympan-
um, is of much larger diameter than the other, and both
suddenly decrease when they enter the substance of the
2 a
231
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
bay; the Widgeon, (see Plate XX. fig. 36.)
with a lead coloured bill, and the plumage of
the back marked with narrow black and white
undulated lines, but best known by its whist-
ling sound ; lastly, the Teal, which is the
smallest of this kind, with the bill black, the
head and upper part of the neck of a bright
bay. — These are the most common birds of
the duck kind among ourselves : but who can
describe the amazing variety of this tribe if
he extends his view to the different quarters
of the world ? The most noted of the foreign
tribe are the Muscovy Duck, or, more properly
speaking, the Musk Duck, so called from a
supposed musky smell, with naked skin round
the eyes, and which is a native of Africa ; the
Brazilian Duck, that is of the size of a goose,
all over black except the tips of the wings ;
the American Wood Duck, with a variety of
beautiful colours, and a plume of feathers that
falls from the back of the head like a friar's
cowl. — These, and twenty others, might be
added, were increasing the number of names
the way to enlarge the sphere of our compre-
hension.
All these live in the manner of our domes-
tic ducks, keeping together in flocks in the
winter, and flying in pairs in summer, bring-
ing up their young by the water-side, and
leading them to their food as soon as out of
the shell. Their nests are usually built among
heath or rushes, not far from the water, and
they lay twelve, fourteen, or more eggs, before
they sit : yet this is not always their method ;
the dangers they continually encounter from
their ground situation, sometimes obliges them
to change their manner of building ; and their
awkward nests are often seen exalted on the
tops of trees. This must be a very great la-
bour to perform, as the duck's bill is but ill
formed for building a nest, and giving the
materials of which it is composed a sufficient
lungs. Several attempts have been made to domesticate
the eider, but hitherto without much success ; that it
may be done with care and attention, I have no doubt,
as I have twice succeeded iu rearing these birds from the
egg, and preserving them alive till upwards of twelve
months ; but as 1 had no appropriate place for them at
the time, they fell victims to accident, being trodden
upon by horses or cattle. The eider drake is long in reach-
ing the adult state, that plumage not being perfected before
the fourth year. This would seem, analogically reasoning,
to indicate a great longevity, as we find the eagle and some
other birds that do not attain perfection till after two or
three years, endowed with singular length of life. (For
King Eider, a variety of the Eider, see Plate XX. fig. 29.)
—Selby's British Ornithology, Vol. II.
THE HARLEQUIN DUCK (Anas Histrionica). Found
rarely in the Middle and Southern States of America, and
more frequently on the coasts of New England, where it is
known by the title of the lord, probably on account of its
rich plumage and singular markings. At Hudson's Bay,
where it breeds, and is said to frequent the small rivulets
inland, it is called the painted duck. The flesh of this duck
is said to be excellent. Fl. LXIV. fig. 4.
stability to stand the weather. The nest,
whether high or low, is generally composed
of singular materials. The longest grass mixed
with heath, and lined with the bird's own
feathers, usually go to the composition : how-
ever, in proportion as the climate is colder,
the nest is more artificially made, and more
warmly lined. In the Arctic regions, nothing-
can exceed the great care all of this kind
take, to protect their eggs from the intense-
ness of the weather. While the gull and the
penguin kind seem to disregard the severest
cold, the duck, in those regions, forms itself a
hole to lay in, shelters the approach, lines it
with a layer of long grass and clay ; within
that another of moss ; and, lastly, a warm coat
of feathers, or down. The eider duck is par-
ticularly remarkable for the warmth of its
nest. This bird, which, as was said, is above
twice as large as the common duck, and re-
sides in the colder climates, lays from six to
eight eggs, making her nest among the rocks
or the plants along the sea-shore. The exter-
nal materials of the nest are such as are in
common with the rest, of the kind ; but the in-
side lining, on which the eggs are immediately
deposited, is at once the softest, warmest, and
the lightest substance with which we are ac-
quainted. This is no other than the inside
down which covers the breast of the bird in tne
breeding season. This the female plucks off
with her bill, and furnishes the inside of her
nest with a tapestry more valuable than the
most skilful artists can produce. The natives
watch the place where she begins to build,
and, suffering her to lay, take away both the
eggs and the nest. The duck, however, not
discouraged by the first disappointment, builds
and lays in the same place a second time ; and
this they in the same manner take away : the
third time she builds, but the drake must
supply the down from his breast to line the
nest with : and if this be robbed, they both
forsake the place, and breed there no more.
This down the natives take care to separate
from the dirt and moss with which it is mixed :
and though no people stand in more need of
a warm covering than themselves, yet their
necessities compel them to sell it to the more
indolent and luxurious inhabitants of the south
for brandy and tobacco.
As they possess the faculties of flying and
swimming, so they are in general birds of
passage, and, it is most probable, perform
their journeys across the ocean, as well on the
water as in the air. Those that migrate to
this country, on the approach of winter, are
seldom found so well-tasted or so fat as the
fowls that continue with us the year round :
theirflesh is often lean, and still oftener fishy ;
which flavour it has probably contracted in the
journey, as their food in the lakes of Lapland.
THE DUCK.
235
from whence they descend, is generally of the
insect kind.
As soon as they arrive among us, they are
generally seen flying in flocks to make a sur-
vey of those lakes where they intend to take
up their residence for the winter. In the
choice of these they have two objects in view ;
to be near their food, and yet remote from in.
terruptiori. Their chief end is to choose some
lake in the neighbourhood of a marsh, where
there is at the same time a cover of woods, and
where insects are found in great abundance.
Lakes, therefore, with a marsh on one side,
and a wood on the other, are seldom without
past quantities of wild-fowl ; and where a
couple are seen at any time, that is a suffi-
cient inducement to bring hundreds of others.
The ducks flying in the air, are often lured
down from their heights by the loud voice of
the mallard from below. Nature seems to
have furnished this bird with very particular
faculties for calling. The windpipe, where it
begins to enter the lungs, opens into a kind of
bony cavity, where the sound is reflected as in a
musical instrument, and is heard a great way
off. To this call all the stragglers resort; and
in a week or a fortnight's time, a lake, that
before was quite naked, is black with water-
fowl that have left their Lapland retreats, to
keep company with our ducks who never
stirred from home.
They generally choose that part of the lake
where they are inaccessible to the approach
of the fowler, in which they all appear hud-
dled together, extremely busy, and very loud.
What it is can employ them all the day it is
not easy to guess. There is no food for them
at the place where they sit and cabal thus,
as they choose the middle of the lake : and as
for courtship, the season for that is not yet
come ; so that it is wonderful what can so
busily keep them occupied. Not one of them
seems a moment at rest. Now pursuing one
another, now screaming, then all up at once,
then down again ; the whole seems one strange
scene of bustle, with nothing to do.
They frequently go off in a more private
manner by night to feed in the adjacent mea-
dows and ditches, which they dare not ven-
ture to approach by day. In these nocturnal
adventures they are often taken ; for though
a timorous bird, yet they are easily deceived,
and every spring seems to succeed in taking
them. But the greatest quantities are taken
in decoys ; which, though well known near
London, are yet untried in the remoter parts
of the country. The manner of making and
managing a decoy is as follows :
A place is to be chosen for this purpose far
remote from the common highway, and all
noise of people. A decoy is best where there
is a large pond surrounded by a wood, and
beyond that a marshy and uncultivated coun-
try. When the place is chosen, the pool, if
possible, is to be planted round with willows,
unless a wood answers the purpose of shading
it on every side. On the south and north side
of this pool are two, three, or four ditches or
channels, made broad towards the pool, and
growing narrower till they end in a point.
These channels are to be covered over with
nets, supported by hooped sticks bending
from one side to the other ; so that they form
a vault or arch growing narrower and nar-
rower to the point, where it is terminated by
a tunnel-net, like that in which fish are
caught in weirs. Along the_ banks of these
channels so netted over, which are called
pipes, many hedges are made of reeds slant-
ing to the edge of the channel, the acute
angles to the side next the pool. The whole
apparatus, also, is to be hidden from the pool
by a hedge of reeds along the margin, behind
which the fowler manages his operations.
The place being fitted in this manner, the
fowler is to provide himself with a number of
wild ducks made tame, which are called de-
coys. These are always to be fed at the
mouth or entrance of the pipe, and to be ac-
customed to come at a whistle.
As soon as the evening is set in, the decoy
rises, as they term it, and the wild-fowl feed
during the night. If the evening be still, the
noise of their wings, during their flight, is
heard at a very great distance, and produces
no unpleasing sensation. The fowler, when
he finds a fit opportunity, and sees his decoy
covered with fowl, walks about the pool, and
observes into what pipe the birds gathered in
the pool may be enticed or driven. Then
casting hemp-seed, or some such seed as will
float on the surface of the water, at the en-
trance, and up along the pipe, he whistles to
his decoy-ducks, who instantly obey the sum-
mons, and come to the entrance of the pipe,
in hopes of being fed as usual. Thither also
they are followed by a whole flock of wild
ones, who little suspect the danger preparing
against them. Their sense of smelling, how-
ever, is very exquisite ; and they would soon
discover their enemy, but that the fowler al-
ways keeps a piece of turf burning at his nose,
against which he breathes, and this prevents
the effluvia of his person from reaching their
exquisite senses. The wild ducks, therefore,
pursuing the decoy-ducks, are led into the
broad mouth of the channel or pipe, nor have
the least suspicion of the man, who keeps
hidden behind one of the hedges. When
they have got up the pipe, however, finding
it grow more and more narrow, they begin to
suspect danger, and would return back ; but
they are now prevented by the man, who
shows himself at the broad end below. Thi-
236
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
(her, therefore, they dare not return ; and rise
they may not, as they are kept by the net
above from ascending. The only way left
them, therefore, is the narrow-funnelled net
at the bottom ; into this they fly, and there
they are taken.
It often happens, however, that the wild
fowl are in such a state of sleepiness or doz-
ing, that they will not follow the decoy-ducks.
Use is then generally made of a dog, who is
taught his lesson. He passes backward and
forward between the reed-hedges, in which
there are little holes, both for the decoy-man
to see, and for the little dog to pass through.
This attracts the eye of the wild-fowl ; who,
prompted by curiosity, advance towards this
little animal, while he all the time keeps play-
ing among the reeds, nearer and nearer the
funnel, till they follow him too far to recede.
Sometimes the dog will not attract their atten-
tion till a red handkerchief, or something very
singular, be put about him. The decoy-ducks
never enter the funnel-net with the rest,
being taught to dive under water as soon as
the rest are driven in.
The general season for catching fowl in de-
coys is from the latter end of October till Fe-
bruary. The taking them earlier is prohibi-
ted by an act of George the Second, which
imposes a penalty of five shillings for every
bird destroyed at any other season.
The Lincolnshire decoys are commonly let
at a certain annual rent, from five pounds to
twenty pounds a year ; and some even amount
to thirty. These principally contribute to sup-
ply the markets of London with wild-fowl.
The number of ducks, widgeon, and teal, that
are sent thither, is amazing. Above thirty
thousand have been sent up in one season
from ten decoys in the neighbourhood of
Wairifleet. This quantity makes them so
cheap on the spot, that it is asserted, that se-
veral decoy-men would be glad to contract for
years to deliver their ducks at the next town
for ten pence the couple.1
To this manner of taking the wild-fowl in
England, I will subjoin another, still more
extraordinary, frequently practised in China.
Whenever the fowler sees a number of ducks
settled in any particular plash of water, he
sends off two or three gourds to float among
them. These gourds resemble our pompions;
but, being made hollow, they swim on the
surface of the water ; and on one pool there
may sometimes be seen twenty or thirty of
these gourds floating together. The fowl at
first are -a little shy of coming near them ; bat
by degrees they come nearer, and as all birds
at last grow familiar with a scare-crow, the
ducks gather about these, and amuse them-
1 Thuy have now become comparatively rare.
selves by whetting their bills against them.
When the birds are as familiar with the
gourds as the fowler could wish, he then pre-
pares to deceive them in good earnest. He
hollows out one of these gourds large enough
to put His head in ; and making holes to
breathe and see through, he claps it on his
head. Thus accoutred, he wades slowly into
the water, keeping his body under, and no-
thing but his head in the gourd above the
surface ; and in that manner moves imper-
ceptibly towards the fowls, who suspect no
danger. At last, however, he fairly gets in
among them ; while they, having been long
used to see gourds, take not the least fright
while the enemy is in the very midst of them:
and an insidious enemy he is ; for ever as he
approaches a fowl, he seizes it by the legs,
and draws it in a jerk under water. There
he fastens it under his girdle, and goes to the
next, till he has thus loaded himself with as
many as he can carry away. When he has
got his quantity, without ever attempting to
disturb the rest of the fowls on the pool, he
slowly moves off again ; and in this manner
pays the flock three or four visits in a day.
Of all the various artifices for catching fowl,
this seems likely to be attended with the
greatest success, as it is the most practised in
China.
CHAP. XIII.
OF THE KING-FISHER.1
I \\ILL conclude this history of birds with
one that seems to unite in itself somewhat ot
every class preceding. It seems at once pos-
sessed of appetites for prey like the rapacious
kinds, with an attachment to water like the
birds of that element. It exhibits in its form
the beautiful plumage of the peacock, the
shadings of the humming-bird, the bill of the
crane, and the short legs of the swallow. The
bird I mean is the King-fisher, of which
many extraordinary falsehoods have been pro-
pagated ; and yet of winch many extraordinary
things remain to be said that are actually true.
The King-fisher is not much larger than a
swallow; its shape is clumsy; the legs dis-
proportionably small, and the bill dispropor-
tionably long : it is two inches from the
base to the tip; the upper chap black, and
the lower yellow : but the colours of this
bird atone for its inelegant form ; the croAvn
of the head and the coverts of the win^s
are of a deep blackish green, spotted with
1 There are now known forty-two species of king-
fishers, anJ of some of these several varieties.
THE KING-FISHER.
237
bright azure ; the back and tail are of
the most resplendent azure ; the whole under-
side of the body is orange-coloured ; a broad
mark of the same passes from the bill beyond
the eyes ; beyond that is a large white spot :
the tail is short, and consists of twelve fea-
thers of a rich deep blue ; the feet are of a
reddish yellow, and the three joints of the
outmost toe adhere to the middle toe, while the
inner toe adheres only by one.
From the diminutive size, the slender short
legs, and the beautiful colours of this bird, no
person would be led to suppose it one of the
most rapacious little animals that skims the
deep. Yet it is for ever on the wing, and
feeds on fish, which it takes in surprising
quantities, when we consider its size and fig-
ure. It chiefly frequents the banks of rivers,
and takes its prey after the manner of the
osprey, balancing itself at a certain distance
above the water for a considerable space,
than darting into the deep, and seizing the
fish with inevitable certainty. While it re-
mains suspended in the air, in a bright day,
the plumage exhibits a beautiful variety of
the most dazzling and brilliant colours. It
might have been this extraordinary beauty
that has given rise to fable ; for whenever
there is any thing uncommon, fancy is always
willing to increase the wonder.1
Of this bird it has been said, that she built
her nest on the water, and thus, in a few
days, hatched and produced her young. But,
to be uninterrupted in this task, she was said
to be possessed of a charm to allay the fury of
the waves; and during this period the mariner
might sail with the greatest security. The
ancient poets are full of these fables ; their
historians are not exempt from them. Cicero
has written a long poem in praise of the
1 Montague, in his Ornithological Dictionary, says,
that they never suspend themselves on the wing, and
dart on their prey, like the osprey; but that they sit pa-
tiently on a bough over the water, and when a small fish
comes near the surface, they dart on it, and seize it with
their bill. He never could observe the old birds with
any thing in their bills, when they went in to feed their
young: from which he concludes that they eject it from
their stomachs for this purpose. Sticklebacks and min-
nows form the principal food of the king-fisher, but it
will also eat fry or spawn, slugs, worms, and leeches
halcyon, of which there remain but two lines.
Even the emperor Gordian has written a
poem on this subject, of which we have no-
thing remaining. These fables have been
adopted each by one of the earliest fathers of
the church. " Behold," says St Ambrose,
u the little bird, which in the midst of winter
lays her eggs on the sand by the shore. From
that moment the winds are hushed ; the sea
becomes smooth ; and the calm continues tor
fourteen days. This is the time she requires ;
seven days to hatch, and seven days to foster
her young. Their Creator has taught these
little animals to make their nest in the midst
of the most stormy season ,jmly to manifest
his kindness by granting them a lasting calm.
The seamen are not ignorant of this blessing ;
they call this interval of fair weather their
halcyon days ; and they are particularly care-
ful to seize the opportunity, as they then need
fear no interruption." This, and a hundred
other instances, might be given of the credu-
lity of mankind with respect to this bird ; they
enter into speculations concerning the manner
of her calming the deep, the formation of her
nest, and her peculiar sagacity ; at present
we do riot speculate because we know, with
respect to our king-fisher, that most of the
facts are false. It may be alleged, indeed,
with some show of reason, that the halcyon
of the ancients was a different bird from our
king-fisher ; it may be urged, that many birds,
especially on the Indian ocean, build a float-
ing nest upon the sea; but still the history ol
the ancient halcyon is clogged with endless
fable; and it is but an indifferent method to
vindicate falsehood, by showing that a part ol
the story is true.
The king-fisher with which we are ac-
quainted at present, has none of those powers
of allaying the storm, or building upon the
waves ; it is contented to make its nest on the
banks of rivers, in such situations as not to be
affected by the rising of the stream. When
it has found a place for its purpose, it hollows
out with its bill a hole about a yard deep ; or
if it finds the deserted hole of a rat, or one
caused by the root of a tree decaying, it takes
quiet possession. This hole it enlarges at the
bottom to a good size; and lining it with the
down of the willow, lays its eggs there with-
out any further preparation.*
1 Belon, who found the king-fisher plentiful on the
banks of the Hebrus, in Thrace, appears to have been
the first author who correctly stated that it makes its
nest by mining into the sand, and was somewhat fearful
that he should not be credited because he contradicted
the ancients. Up to the present time, however, more
or less misrepresentation has been introduced into the
descriptions of its burrow. Gesner furnished it with a
soft bed of reed flowers; Goldsmith says it lines its hole
with the down of the willow; and colonel Montague,
half reverting1 to the ball of fish bones described by
238
HISTORY OF BIRDS.
Its nest, or rather hole, is very different
from that described by the ancients, by whom
it is said to be made in the shape of a long-
necked gourd of the bones of the sea-needle.
The bones, indeed, are found there in great
quantities, as well as the scales of fishes ; but
these are the remains of the bird's food, and
by no means brought there for the purposes
of warmth or convenience. The king-fisher,
as Bellonius says, feeds upon fish, but is in-
capable of digesting the bones and scales,
which he throws up again, as eagles and owls
are seen to do a part of their prey. These
fill the bird's nest of course; and although they
seem as if designedly placed there, are only
a kind of nuisance.
In these holes, which, from the remains of
fish brought there, are very foetid, the king-
fisher is often found with from five eggs to
nine. There the female continues to hatch,
even though disturbed ; and though the nest
be robbed, she will again return and lay there.
" I have had one of those females brought
me," says Reaumur, " which was taken from
her nest about three leagues from my house.
After admiring the beauty of her colours, I
let her fly again, when the fond creature was
instantly seen to return back to the nest where
she had just before been made a captive.
There, joining the male, she again began to
lay, though it was for the third time, and
though the season was very far advanced. At
each time she had seven eggs. The older the
nest is, the greater quantity of fish-bones and
scales does it contain: these are disposed with"
out any order ; and sometimes take up a good
deal of room."
The female begins to lay early in the sea-
Aristotle, tells us that at the end of the hole there is a kind
of bedding formed of the bones of small fish and some other
substances, evidently the castings of the parent birds,
generally about half an inch thick, and mixed in with
earth. He farther thinks there is every reason to sup-
pose that both the male and the female come to this spot
to eject the refuse of their food for some time before the
latter begins to lay, and that they dry it by the heat of
their bodies, as they are frequently known to continue
in the hole for hours long before laying ; and on this dis-
gorged matter the female deposits and hatches her eggs.
Belon's account is very similar. From the high author-
ity of Montague, the latter description is now copied as
authentic by every modern author, with the exception
of Temminck, who says nothing on the subject, and
Wilson, who says of his belted king-fisher, that " its nest
is neither constructed of glue nor fish-bones." We are
certain, says Mr Rennie, in his Architecture of Birds,
that this contradiction of the general belief will apply
equally to the king-fisher of England. In the bank of a
stream at Lee, in Kent, we have been acquainted with
one of these nests in the same hole for several successive
summers, but so far from the pellets of fish-bones, ejected
as is done by all birds of prey, being dried on purpose to
form the nest, they are -scattered about the floor of the
hole in all directions, from its entrance to its termina-
tion, without the least order or working up with the earth,
and are all moist and fetid. That the eggs may by ac-
son | and excludes her first brood about the
beginning of April. The male, whose fidelity
exceeds even that of the turtle, brings her
large provisions of fish while she is thus em-
ployed ; and she, contrary to most other birds,
is found plump and fat at that season. The
male, that used to twitter before this, now
enters the nest as quietly and as privately as
possible. The young ones are hatched at the
expiration of twenty days ; but are seen to
differ as well in their size as in their beauty.
As the ancients have had their fables con-
cerning this bird, so have the modem vulgar.
It is an opinion generally received among
them, that the flesh of the king-fisher will not
corrupt, and that it will even banish all ver-
min. This has no better foundation than that
which is said of its always pointing, when
hung up dead with its breast to the north.
The only truth which can be affirmed of this
bird, when killed, is, that its flesh is utterly
unfit to be eaten ; while its beautiful plumage
preserves its lustre longer than that of any
other bird we know.
Having thus given a short history of birds,
I own I cannot take leave of this most beauti-
ful part of the creation without reluctance.
These splendid inhabitants of the. air possess
all those qualities than can soothe the heart,
and cheer the fancy, — the brightest colours,
the roundest forms, the most active manners,
and the sweetest music. In sending the
imagination in pursuit of these, in follow-
ing them to the chirping grove, the screaming
precipice, or the glassy deep, the mind natu-
rally lost the sense of its own situation, and
attentive to their little sports, almost forgot
the TASK of describing them. Innocently to
cident be laid upon portions of these fish-bones, is highly
probable, for the floor is so thickly strewed with them,
that no vacant spot might be found ; hut they assuredly
are not by design built into a nest. The hole is from
two to four feet long, sloping upwards, and narrow at
the entrance, but widening in the interior, in order per-
haps, to give the birds room to turn ; and for the same
apparent reason the eggs are not placed at the extrem-
ity. We are somewhat doubtful whether it selects, as
is said, the old hole of a water-rat to save itself trouble,
the water-rat being the deadly enemy of its eggs and
young; hut it seems to indicate a dislike to the labour
of digging, that it frequents the same hole for a series of
years, and will not abandon it, though the nest be re-
peatedly plundered. The accumulation of cast hones in
one of these old holes has perhaps given origin to the
notion of the nest being formed of them.
Our own opportunities, continues Mr Rennie, of care-
fully studying the habits of this bird, lead us to remark,
that it is not so very shy and solitary as it has been re-
presented, for it has more than once allowed us to ap-
proach within a few yards of the bough on which it was
perched. The necessity for obtaining its food from
streams and shallow ponds causes this bird, however, to
frequent secluded places. The belted kingfisher of
America, is partial to mill-dams, in defiance of the clack
of the hopper, because there he finds facilities in watch-
ing for fish.
THE KING-FISHER.
239
amuse the imagination in this dream oflife is
wisdom ; and nothing is useless that, by fur-
nishing mental employment, keeps us for a
while in oblivion of those stronger appetites
that lead to evil. But every rank and state
of mankind may find something to imitate in
those delightful songsters, and we may not
only employ the time, but mend our lives, by
the contemplation. From their courage in
defence of their young, and their assiduity in
incubation, the coward may learn to be
brave, and the rash to be patient. The in-
violable attachment of some to their compan-
ions may give lessons of fidelity ; and the
connubial tenderness of others be a monitor to
the incontinent. Even those (hat are tyrants
by nature never spread capricious destruction;
and, unlike man, never inflict a pain hut
when urged by necessity.
HISTORY OF FISHES.
BOOK I.
OF FISHES IN GENERAL.1
CHAP. I.
INTRODUCTION.
THE ocean is the great receptacle of fishes.
It has been thought, by some, that all fish
1 Fishes (says professsor Blumenbach, in his Manual
of Natural History) are those animals which possess red
cold blood, which moves by means of true fins (with
bony or cartilaginous fibres,; and which breathe by true
yillf lying deep at each side of the neck; and not, as in
tlie larvte of frogs, &c., projecting beyond it. I say
true gills and tme fins, in order to distinguish them
from organs to a certain degree analogous in young
frogs, salamanders, &c.
These gills (branchiae, ,) in fishes, almost perfectly
supply the place of lungs. They are placed on each side
behind the head, for the most part under one or more
large semilunar plates, hence called opercula Iranckialia,
and in most instances connected with the membrane
of the gills, mcmlrana branchiosfega. The gills them-
selves are filled with innumerable very delicate vessels,
and are mostly divided on each side into four layers,
which somewhat resemble the beard of a quill, and
which are attached at their bases to a corresponding
number of little bones.
Respiration, which fishes are nearly as incapable of
dispensing with as those animals which possess lungs, is
in them effected by introducing the air, which the water
holds in solution, through the mouth into the gills, and
then expelling it again through the branchial, (apertura
branchialis y) consequently not by inspiring and expir-
ing through the same passages, as in those animals which
possess lungs.
Not having lungs, it is evident that they cannot have
any voice, although some, as Coitus calaphractcs, Cobitis
fossttis, &c., can make a noise.
The form of the body in fishes, in general, is infinitely
more varied than in quadrupeds and birds. In most,
however, the body has a vertical direction, i. e. is flat-
tened at both sides, (corpus compresswn) ; in some, on
the contrary, as the rays, it is horizontal and extended
laterally (corpus depressum) sive plagioplateum) ; in
others, as the eel, &c., it is more rounded ; in others,
prismatic or quadrangular, &r.. In all, the head and
trunk are connected immediately, without being sepa-
rated by a neck.
With only a few exceptions, fishes are covered with
are naturally of that salt element ; and that
(hey have mounted up into fresh water by
some accidental migration. A few still swim
up rivers to deposit their spawn ; but of the
great body of fishes, of which the size is enor
mous, and the shoals are endless, (hose all
scales ; in the osseous fishes the scales are real, are
formed of a peculiar substance, and in different species
present a great number of varieties in point of form,
marks, and colours, which latter sometimes shine like
gold and silver. On the other hand, the cartilaginous
fishes, in general, are covered with several bone-like
plates, hook-shaped prickles, &c. The scales are cov-
ered externally with a kind of slime, which appears to
be in a great measure excreted from small cavities,
which, in most fishes, are placed in a line along each
side of the body.
The fins, the organs of motion in fishes, in which a
very great power of reproduction lias been remarked,
consist of their bony or cartilaginous spines or rays, con-
nected together by a particular membrane, fastened to
a bone, and set in motion by certain muscles. They are
called, according to their position, the upper dorsal fins;
those at the side, behind the gills, pectoral fins ; those on
the belly in front of the anus, abdominal fins ; those
behind this opening, anal fins ; and lastly, those on the tail,
which always have a vertical direction, caudal fins. The
flying-fish, as they are called, have very long and stiffpec-
toral fins, by means of which they can raise themselves
above the surface of the water, and fly for a short time.
Another auxiliary in the motion of fishes, particularly
in rising and sinking, is the swim-bladder, with which
fresh-water fish in particular are supplied, and which
communicates by a particular canal, (ductns pncumaticus)
generally with the oesophagus, seldom with the stomach.
With regard to their place of abode, fishes in general
are divided into sea-fish and iresh- water fish. Many
can live for some time out of water, as the eel, Mur.Tiia,
&c. Others in hot mineral springs.
Mo«t fishes, especially those of the sea, are nocturnal
animals, that is, they are active during the night, and in
the day remain in a state of repose. Hence the inhabi-
tants of islands and coasts, who live on fish, choose the
night for catching them.
A great many species of fish change their place of
abode at certain seasons of the year. Many sea-fish
ascend the months of rivers and creeks to spawn ; many,
as the herring for instance, in the North Atlantic, make
OF FISHES IN GENERAL.
241
keep to the sea, and would quickly expire in
fresh water. In that extensive and undis-
covered abode, millions reside, whose manners
are a secret to us, and whose very form is
unknown. The curiosity of mankind, indeed,
has drawn some from their depths, and his
wants many more ; with the figure of these
at least he is acquainted ; but for their pur-
suits, migrations, societies, antipathies, plea-
sures, times of gestation, and manner of
bringing forth, these are all hidden in the
turbulent element that protects them.
The number of fish to which we have given
names, and of the figure, at least, of which
we know something, according to Linnaeus,
extensive migrations at certain seasons of the year in
incalculable numbers between the coasts of the west of
Europe, and north-east of America. Fishes are in
great proportion carnivorous animals, and as they have
no feet with which to hold their prey, are supplied with a
variety of other contrivances for mastering it. Some
have long fibrous threads (cirri} about the mouth, for the
purpose of enticing other small marine animals, as with
a bait, as in the stargazer, frog-fish, &c. Others, as
the chaetodon rostratus, have a kind of syringe with which
they strike down the insects flying over the surface of
the water ; others, as the three sea-fish, the electric ray,
the tetrodon clectricus, and trichiurus indicus, and the
two fresh-water fish, the electric eel and silurus electri-
cus, possess a peculiar benumbing paralyzing power, &c.
As to the external senses of fishes, smelling must in
many be veiy acute, from the distance at which they
discover a bait. Their hearing, also, is good, and they
have organs similar to those of the internal ear in other
red-blooded animals. Above all, however, there are
many peculiarities in their eyes, numerous membranes,
parts not found elsewhere, &c. From the deficiency of
correct observations, little can be said decidedly on their
instincts, and other mental faculties. It is known,
however, that many, trout for example, become very
docile ; and that others, as old carp, are very wary and
cunning.
As to their sleep, probably most have a winter sleep,
but only a very few a fixed daily sleep, as is said to be
the case with the gold-fish.
Except the small number of viviparous fishes, such as
the eel, the blennius viviparous, but very few actually
copulate. In most instances, the female lays the unim-
pregnated eggs, the male coming afterwards and sprinkl-
ing them with his semen. Advantage of this circum-
stance has been taken in rural economy, young fish hav-
ing been procured by the artificial mixture of the ova
and semen of trout, &c. Among other peculiarities in
the mode of generation in fishes, many, as the lamprey,
possess the organs of both sexes in perfection: whilst in
oUiers, as the carp, anomalous instances of hermaphro-
dites are found.
The increase in the numbers of most fishes is wonder-
fully great, so that although the ova are in most instances
proportionally much smaller than in any other class of
animals, the ovaria of many are larger than the whole
of the body. Thus, in the herring, there have been
counted from 20,COO to 37,000 ova ; in the carp, up-
wards of 200,000; in the tench, 383,000; in the floun-
der, upwards of a million.
In some cases, the young fish have not their perfect
form when they escape from the egg; but must, as in
the amphibia, undergo a kind of metamorphosis by which
they obtain fins, &c.
In proportion to their size, fishes reach a very ad-
vanced age. Examples are known of carp, pike, &c.,
V0i*ii.
are above four hundred.1 Thus to appear-
ance, indeed, the history of fish is tolerably
copious ; but when we come to examine, it will '
be found that of the greatest part of these we
know very little. Those qualities, singular-
ities, or advantages, that render animals worth
naming, still remain to be discovered. The
history of fishes, therefore, has little in it en-
tertaining : for our philosophers hitherto, in-
stead of studying their nature, have been em.
ployed in increasing their catalogues ; and
the reader, instead of observations or facts, is
presented with a long list of names, that dis-
gust him with their barren superfluity. It
must displease him to see -the- language of
science increasing, while the science itself
has nothing to repay the increasing tax laid
upon his memory.
living 150 years. On the other hand, some small fishes,
as the stickleback, live only a few years.
The utility of fishes to man is not very various; for
the most part only as food, but in this respect of the
utmost importance to a great part of the human race,
who live only on this class of animals. Savage nations,
as the Kamschatkadales, Brazilians, &c., possess the art
of preparing fish in a great variety of ways, even as a
kind of flour, bread, &c. With many, as the islanders
of the Pacific ocean, fishing forms a principal occupation,
and a serious kind of study with reference to the ingen-
ious methods and instruments which they have invented.
To a great part of the cultivated world, the taking of the
herring, the cod, tunny, &c., is of still greater value.
The oil of the shark, cod, and herring, is used for burn-
ing in lamps, &c. The inhabitants of the eastern coasts
of the middle of Asia, clothe themselves with the tanned
skin of the salmon. — Many parts of other fish are em-
ployed for purposes of art, as the scales of the bleak for
making false pearls. — Shagreen is made from the skin
of sharks and rays ; isinglass from the sturgeon, &c.
Fishes of prey are the' most noxious, particularly the
shark in the ocean, and the pike in fresh water. Many
fishes, at least in certain spots, are poisonous, and prove
fatal when eaten. Such, in particular, are certain spe-
cies of the genus tetrodon.
The systematic classification of fishes appears to stand
in need of much improvement. In the mean time they
are arranged in two principal divisions, viz: —
(A.) Cartilaginous fishes (Pisces cartitoginef), without
true bones: and
(B.) Bony fishes (Pisces spinosi), having bones, fishes
properly so called.
The cartilaginous fishes are divided into the following
two Orders, which M. de Lacepede has established, ac-
cording to the presence or absence of the covering of the
gills (operculum), and has divided the genera which they
include accordingly : —
Order I. Chondropten/gii, Without an operculum.
II. Branchiostegi. With an operculum.
Linn&eus has arranged the osseous, or true
fishes, according to the character and posi-
tion of the ventral fins : viz.
III. Apodes. Without ventral fins.
IV. Jugulares. Having the ventral in the front
of the pectoral fins.
V. Thoracici. Having the ventral immediately
below the pectoral fins.
VI. Abdominales. Having the ventral behind
the pectoral fins.
1 About 1500 species of fish are now known, and ot
this number about 200 are found on the coast or in the
inland waters of Britain.
V H
24-2
HISTORY OF FISHES.
Most fish offer us the same external form ;
sharp at either end, and swelling in the mid-
dle; by which they are enabled to traverse the
fluid which they inhabit, with greater celerity
and ease. That peculiar shape which Nature
has granted to most fishes, we endeavour to
imitate in such vessels as are designed to sail
with the greatest swiftness : however, the pro-
gress of a machine moved forward in the water
by human contrivance, is nothing to the ra-
pidity of an animal destined by nature to re-
side there. Any of the large fish overtake a
ship in full sail with great ease, play round it
without effort, and outstrip it at pleasure.
Every part of the body seems exerted in this
despatch ; the fins, the tail, and the motion
of the whole back-bone, assist progression ; and
it is to that flexibility of body at which art
cannot arrive, that fishes owe their great velo-
city.
The chief instrument in a fish's motion, are
the fins, which, in some fish, are much more
numerous than in others. A fish completely
fitted for sailing, is furnished with not less
than two pair ; also three single fins, two above
and one below. Thus equipped, it migrates
with the utmost rapidity, and takes voyages
of a thousand leagues in a season. But it
does not always happen that such fish as have
the greatest number of fins have the swiftest
motion ; the shark is thought to be one of the
swiftest swimmers, yet it wants the ventral or
belly fins; the haddock does not move so swiit,
yet it is completely fitted for motion.
But the fins serve not only to assist the ani-
mal in progression, but in rising or sinking,
in turning, or even leaping out of the water.
To answer these purposes, the pectoral fins
serve, like oars, to push the animal forward ;
they are placed at some little distance behind
the opening of the gills ; they are generally
large and strong, and answer the same pur-
poses to the fish in the water, as wings do to
a bird in the air. With the help of these, and
by their continued motion, the flying fish is
sometimes seen to rise out of the water, and
to fly above a hundred yards ; till, fatigued
with its exertions, it is obliged to sink down
again. These also serve to balance the fish's
head, when it is too large for the body, and
keep it from tumbling down to the bottom, as
is seen in large-headed fishes, when the pec-
toral fins are cut off. Next these are seen the
ventral fins, placed towards the lower part of
the body, under the belly ; these are always
seen to lie flat on the water, in whatever situ-
ation the fish may be; and they serve rather
to raise or depress the fish in its element, than
to assist progressive motion. The dorsal fin
is situated along the ridge of the back ; and
serves to keep it in equilibrio, as also to assist
its progressive motion. In many fishes this
is wanting ; but in all flat fishes it is very
large, as the pectoral fins are proportionabiy
small. The anal fin occupies that part of the
fish which lies between the anus and the tail;
and this serves to keep the fish in its upright
or vertical situation. Lastly, the tail, which
in some fishes is flat, and upright in others,
seerns the grand instrument of motion ; the
fins are but all subservient to it, and give di-
rection to its great impetus, by which the fish
seems to dart forward with so much velocity.
To explain all this by experiment ; a carp is
taken, and put into a large vessel. The fish,
in a state of repose, spreads all its fins, and
seems to rest upon its pectoral and ventral fins
near the bottom ; if the fish folds up (for it has
the power of folding) either of its pectoral fins,
it inclines to the same side ; folding the right
pectoral fin, the fish inclines to the right side ;
folding the left fin, it inclines to that side in
turn. When the fish desires to have a retro-
grade motion, striking with the pectoral fins,
in a contrary direction, effectually produces
it. If the fish desires to turn, a blow from
the tail sends it about ; but if the tail strikes
both ways, then the motion is progressive.
In pursuance of these observations, if the dor-
sal and ventral fins be cut off, the fish reels to
the right and left, and endeavours to supply
its loss by keeping the rest of its fins in con-
stant employment. If the right pectoral fin
be cut oil', the fish leans to that side ; if the
ventral fin on the same side be cut away, then
it loses its equilibrium entirely. When the
tail is cut off, the fish loses all motion, and
gives itself up to where the water impels it.
From hence it appears, that each of these
instruments has a peculiar use assigned it;
but, at the same time, that they all conspire
to assist each other's motions. Some fish are
possessed of all, whose motions are yet not
the swiftest ; others have but a part, and yet
dart in the water with great rapidity. The
number, the size, and the situation of the fins,
therefore, seem rather calculated to correspond
with the animal's figure, than solely to answer
the purposes of promoting its speed. Where
the head is large and heavy, there the pec-
toral tins are large, and placed forward, to
keep it from oversetting. Where the head is
small, or produced out into a long beak, and
therefore not too heavy for the tail, the pec-
toral fins are small, and the ventral fins totally
wanting.
As most animals that live upon land are
furnished with a covering to keep off the in-
juries of the weather, so all that live in the
water are covered with a slimy glutinous mat-
ter, that, like a sheath, defends their bodies
from the immediate contact of the surrounding
fluid. This substance may be considered as a
secretion from the pores of the animal's body :
OF FISHES IN GENERAL.
243
and serving not only to defend, but to assist the
fish's easy progress through the water. Beneath
this, in many kinds, is found a strong covering
of scales, that, like a coat of mail, defend it
still more powerfully; and under (hat, before
we come to the muscular parts of the body, an
oily substance, which supplies the requisite
warmth and vigour.
The fish thus protected and fitted for motion
in its natural element, seems as well furnished
with the means of happiness as quadrupeds or
birds; but if we come to examine its faculties
more nearly, we shall find it very much their
inferior. The sense of touching, which beasts
and birds have in a small degree, the fish,
covered up in its own coat, of mail, can have
but little acquaintance with.
The sense of smelling, which in beasts is
so exquisite, and among birds is not wholly
unknown, seems given to fishes in a very mo-
derate proportion.1 It is true, that all fishes
have one or more nostrils ; and even those
that have not the holes perceptible without,
yet have the proper formation of the bones for
smelling without. But as air is the only me-
dium we know for the distribution of odours,
it cannot be supposed that these animals, re-
siding in water, can be possessed of any power
of being affected by them. If they have any
perception of smells, it must be in the same
manner as we distinguish by our taste; and,
it is probable, the olfactory membrane in fish
serves them instead of a distinguishing pa-
late; and by this they judge of substances,
that, first tincturing the water with their va-
pours, are thus sent to the nostrils of the fish,
and no doubt produce some kind of sensation.
This most probably must be the use of that
organ in those animals, as otherwise there
would be the instruments of a sense provided
for them, without any power in them of en-
joyment.
As to tasting, they seem to make very little
distinction ; the palate of most fish is hard and
bony, and consequently incapable of the
powers of relishing different substances. This
sense among quadrupeds, who possess it in
some degree, arises from the soft pliancy of
the organ, and the delicacy of the skin which
covers the instruments of tasting ; it may be
considered, in them, as a more perfect and de-
licate kind of feeling : in the bony palate of
fish, therefore, all powers of distinguishing
are utterly taken away ; and we have accord-
ingly often seen these voracious animals swal-
low the fisherman's plummet instead of the
bait.
Hearing in fishes is found still more imper-
1 There is now no doubt but that fishes possess the
sense of smelling. Indeed, it seems to be mostly by
their smell that they discover their food.
feet, if it be found at all. Certain it is, that
anatomists have not been able to discover, ex-
cept in the whale kind, the smallest traces of
an organ, either within or without the head
of fishes. It is true, that in the centre of the
brain of some fishes are found now and then
some little bones, the number and situation of
which are entirely accidental. These bones,
Mr Klein has supposed to constitute the or-
gan of hearing ; but if we consider their en-
tire dissimilitude to the bones that serve for
hearing in other animals, we shall be of ano-
ther opinion. The greatest number of fishes
are deprived of these bones entirely: some fish
have them in small numbers,-and others in
abundance ; yet neither testify any excellence
or defect in hearing. Indeed, of what advan-
tage would this sense be to animals that are
incapable of making themselves heard ? They
have no voice to communicate to each other,
and consequently have no need of an organ
for hearing. Mr Gouan, who kept some gold
fishes in a vase, informs us, that whatever
noise he made, he could neither disturb nor
terrify them ; he halloed as loud as he could,
putting a piece of paper between his mouth
and the water, to prevent the vibrations from
affecting the surface, and the fishes still seemed
insensible: but when the paper was removed,
and the sound had its full play upon the
water, the fishes seemed instantly to feel the
change, and shrunk to the bottom. From
this we may learn, that fishes are as deaf as
they are mute ; and that when they seem to
hear the call of a whistle or a bell at the edge
of a pond, it is rather the vibrations of the
sound that affect the water, by which they are
excited, than any sounds that they hear."
Seeing seems to be the sense fishes are pos-
sessed of in the greatest degree ; and yet even
this seems obscure, if we compare it to that of
other animals. The eye, in almost all fish,
is covered with the same transparent skin that
covers the rest of the head ; and which, pro-
bably, serves to defend it in the water, as they
are without eyelids. The globe is more de-
pressed anteriorly, and is furnished behind with
2 It was well ascertained by Dr John Hunter that
fishes possess the sense of hearing, and that water is an
excellent medium for the conveyance of sound. Their
organ of hearing is planed on the sides of the skull, or the
cavity that contains the brain ; but, differing in this
respect from that in quadrupeds and birds, it is entirely
distinct and detached from the skull. In some fishes,
as those of the ray kind, the organ of hearing is wholly
surrounded by the parts containing the cavity of the
skull ; in others, as the salmon and cod, it is in part
within the skull. In structure it is by no means so com-
plicated as in the quadrupeds and other animals who
live in the air. Some genera, as the rays, have the ex-
ternal orifice very small, and placed on the upper sur-
face of the head ; but in others there is no external
opening whatever.
244
HISTORY OF FISHES.
a muscle, which serves to lengthen or flatten
it, according to the necessities of the animal.
The crystalline humour, which in quadrupeds
is flat, and of the shape of a button- mould, in
fishes is round as a pea; or sometimes oblong,
like an egg. From all this it appears that
fish are extremely near-sighted ; and that
even in the water they can see objects at a
very small distance. This distance might
very easily be ascertained, by comparing the
refraction of bodies in the water with that
formed by a lens that is spherical. Those un-
skilled in mathematical calculations, will-have
a general idea of this, from the glasses used
by near-sighted people. Those whose crys-
talline humour is too convex, or, in other
words, too round, are always very near-sighted;
and obliged to use concave glasses, to correct
the imperfections of nature. The crystalline
humour of fish is so round, that it is not in
the power of any glasses, much less of water,
to correct their vision. This crystalline humour
in fishes all must have seen ; being that hitle
hard pea-like substance which is found in
their eyes after boiling. In the natural state
it is transparent, and not much harder than a
jelly.
From all this it appears how far fish fall
behind terrestrial animals in their sensations,
and consequently in their enjoyments.1 Even
their brain, which is by some supposed to be
of a size with every animal's understanding,
shows that fish are inferior even to birds in
this particular. It is divided into three parts,
surrounded with a whitish froth, and gives off
nerves as well to the sense of sight as of smell-
ing. In some fish it is gray, in others white ;
in some it is flatted, in others round ; but in
all extremely small, compared to the bulk of
the animal.
Thus Nature seems to have fitted these ani-
mals with appetites and powers of an inferior
1 Comparison by Baron Cuvitr between fishes and
birds. — " The aerial being discovers with facility an im-
mense horizon : its subtile ear appreciates every sound,
every intonation, which it re-produces with its voice.
If its beak is hard, if its body is covered with a kind of
down, to preserve it from the intense cold of the high
regions which it visits, it finds in its legs all the perfec-
tion of the most delicate touch. It enjoys all the sweets
of conjugal and paternal love, and it fulfils all its duties
with courage. The parents defend each other, and also
their offspring,' — a most surprising art presides in the
construction of their habitations. When the season is
come they work together and without remission ; while
the mother hatches the eggs with an extraordinary pa-
tience, the father from an impetuous lover, becomes the
most tender husband, and delights with his songs the
melancholy of his mate. The bird even in confinement
attaches itself to its master; it submits to him, and exe-
cutes by his order, the most neat and delicate actions ;
it hunts for him like the dog, and returns at his voice
liom the greatest height in the air; it imitates even his
language, and it is with some degree of difficulty that
we are compelled to refuse it a kind of reason.
kind ; and formed them for a sort of passive
existence, in the obscure and heavy element
to which they are consigned. To preserve
their own existence, and to continue it to their
posterity, fill up the whole circle of their pur-
suits and enjoyments ; to these they are im-
pelled rather by necessity than choice, and
seem mechanically excited to every fruition.
Their senses are incapable of making any dis-
tinctions ; but they drive forward in pursuit
of whatever they can swallow, conquer, or
enjoy.
A ceaseless desire of food seems to give the
ruling impulse to all their motions. This ap-
petite impels them to encounter every danger;
and indeed their rapacity seems insatiable.
Even when taken out of the water, and almost
expiring, they greedily swallow the very bait
by which they were allured to destruction.
The maw is, in general, placed next the
mouth, and though possessed of no sensible
heat, is, however, endued with a surprising
facility of digestion. Its digestive power
seems, in some measure, to increase with the
quantity of food it is supplied with ; a single
pike having been known to devour a hundred
roaches in three days. Its faculties also are
as extraordinary ; for it digests not only fish,
but much harder substances ; prawns, crabs,
and lobsters, shells and all. These the cod
or the sturgeon will not only devour, but dis-
solve down, though their shells are so much
harder than the sides of the stomach which
contains them. This amazing faculty in the
cold maw of fishes, has justly excited the cu-
riosity of philosophers ; and has effectually
overturned the system of those who supposed
that the heat of the stomach was alone a suffi-
cient instrument for digestion. The truth
seems to be, and some experiments of the skil-
ful Dr Hunter seem to evince, that there is a
power of animal assimilation lodged in the
"The inhabitant of the water does not attach itself.
It has no language, no affection ; it does not know what
it is to be husband and father, or to make an abode for
itself. In time of danger it hides itself under the rocks
of the ocean, or rushes down into the depths of the sea ;
its life is monotonous; its voracity leads to its sole em-
ployment, and it is only thereby that we are able to direct
its motions by certain signs from above. Yet these
beings who possess so few enjoyments, have been adorned
by nature with all kinds of beauty, variety in their forms,
elegance in their proportions, diversity of colour; they
have everything adapted to attract the attention of man,
and it seems that it was this attention that nature was
desirous to excite. Reflecting the lustre of every metal
and precious stone, refracting the colours of the rainbow,
in bands, in spots, in undulating, angular, but always
regular and symmetrical lines, and always in shades ad-
mirably arranged and contrasted ; for what purpose have
they received these gifts — they who hardly see one
another in depths where light can scarcely penetrate,
and who, could they gaze on one another, can scarcely
l>e supposed to feel any kind of pleasure by relations
thus established ?"
OF FISHES IN GENERAL.
245
stomach of all creatures, which we can neither
describe nor define, converting the substances
they swallow into a fluid fitted for their own
peculiar support. This is done neither by
trituration, nor by warmth, nor by motion,
nor by a dissolving fluid, nor by their united
efforts ; but by some principle in the stomach
yet unknown, which acts in a different man-
ner from all kinds of artificial maceration.
The meat taken into the stomach or maw is
often seen, though very near being digested,
still to retain its original form, and ready
for a total dissolution, while it appears to the
eye as yet untouched by the force of the
stomach. This animal power is lodged in the
maw of fishes, in a greater degree than in any
other creatures ; their digestive powers are
quick, and their appetites are ever craving.
Yet though fish are thus hungry, and for
ever prowling, no animals can sutler the want
of food for so long a time. The gold and silver
fish we keep in vases seem never to want any
nourishment at all : whether it be that they
feed on the water-insects, too minute for our
observation, or that water alone is a sufficient
supply, is not evident ; but they are often
seen for months without apparent sustenance.
Even the pike, the most voracious of fishes,
will live in a pond where there is none but
himself : and what is more extraordinary, will
be often found to thrive there.
Still, however, fishes are of all oilier animals
the most voracious and insatiable. Whatever
any of them is able to swallow, possessed of
life, seems to be considered as the most desir-
able food. Some that have very small mouths
feed upon worms and the spawn of other fish ;
others, whose mouths are larger, seek larger
prey ; it matters not of what kind, whether of
another or their own. Those with the largest
mouths pursue almost every thing that lias
life ; and often meet each other in fierce op-
position, when the fish with the largest swallow
conies off with the victory and devours its an-
tagonist.
Thus are they irritated by the continual
desire of satisfying their hunger ; and the life
of a fish, from the smallest to the greatest, is
but one scene of hostility, violence, and eva-
sion. But the smaller fry stand no chance
in the unequal combat ; and their usual way
of escaping is by swimming into those shal-
lows where the greater are unable, or too
heavy to pursue. There they become inva-
ders in turn, and live upon the spawn of lar-
ger fish, which they find floating upon the
surface of the water ; yet there are dangers
attending them in every place. Even in the
shallows, the mussel, the oyster, and the scal-
lop, lie in ambush at the bottom, with their
shells open, and whatever little fish inadver-
tently approaches into contact, they at once
close their shells upon him, and devour the
imprisoned prey at their leisure.
Nor is the pursuit of fishes, like that of ter-
restrial animals, confined to a single region, or
to one effort : shoals of one species follow those
of another through vast tracks of ocean, from
the vicinity of the pole, even down to the
equator. Thus the cod, from the banks of
Newfoundland, pursues the whiting, which
flies before it even to the southern shores of
Spain. The cachelot is said, in the same
manner, to pursue a shoal of herrings, and to
swallow thousands at a gulp.
This may be one cause of the annual mi-
gration of fishes from one part-of-the ocean to
the other ; but there are other motives which
come in aid of this also. Fishes may be in-
duced to change the place of their residence,
for one more suited to their constitutions, or
more adapted to depositing their spawn. It
is remarkable that no fish are fond of very
cold waters, and generally frequent those
places where it is warmest. Thus, in sum-
mer, they are seen in great numbers in the
shallows near the shore, where the sun has
power to warm the water to the bottom ; on
the contrary, in winter, they are found towards
the bottom in the deep sea ; for the cold of the
atmosphere is not sufficiently penetrating to
reach them at those great depths. Cold pro-
duces the same effect upon fresh-water fishes;
and when they are often seen dead after severe
frosts, it is most probable that they have been
killed by the severity of the cold, as well as
by their being excluded by the ice from air.
A 11 fish live in the water; yet they all stand
in need of air for their support. Those of the
whale kind, indeed, breathe air in the same
manner as we do, and come to the surface
every two or three minutes to take a fresh in-
spiration ; but those which continue entirely
under water are yet under a necessity of being
supplied with air, or they will expire in a very
few minutes. "We sometimes see all the fish
of a pond killed, when the ice every where
covers the surface of the water, and thus keeps
off the air from the sub-adjacent fluid. If a
hole be made in the ice, the fish will be seen
to come all to that part, in order to take the
benefit of a fresh supply. Should a carp, in
a large vase of water, be placed under an air
pump, and then be deprived of its air, during
the operation a number of bubbles will be seen
standing on the surface of the fish's body ;
soon after the animal will appear to breathe
swifter, and with greater difficulty ; it will
then be seen to rise towards the surface, to
get more air ; the bubbles on its surface begin
to disappear ; the belly, that was before swol-
! len, will then fall of a sudden ; and the ani-
mal sinks expiring and convulsed at tho
' bottom.
HISTORY OF FISHES.
So very necessary is air to all animals, hut
particularly to fish, that, as was said, they
can live but a few minutes without it ; yet
nothing is more difficult to be accounted for
than the manner in which they obtain this ne-
cessary supply. Those who have seen a fish
in the water must remember the motion of its
lips and its gills, or at least of the bones on
each side that cover them. This motion in
the animal is, without doubt, analogous to our
breathing ; but it is not air, but water, that
the fish actually sucks in and spouts out
through the gills at every motion. The man-
ner of its breathing is thus : the fish first takes
in a quantity of water by the mouth, which is
driven to the gills : these close and keep the
water so swallowed from returning by the
mouth ; while the bony covering of the gills
prevents it from going through them, until the
animal has drawn the proper quantity of air
from the body of water thus imprisoned : then
the bony-covers open, and give it a free pas-
sage : by which means also the gills again are
opened, and admit a fresh quantity of water.
Should the fish be prevented from the free
play of its gills, or should the bony-covers be
kept from moving, by a string tied round
them, the animal would soon fall into convul-
sions, and die in a few minutes.
But though this be the general method of
explaining respiration in fishes, the difficulty
remains to know what is done with this air,
which the fish in this manner separates from
the water. There seems to be no receptacle
for containing it ; the stomach being the chief
cavity within the body, is too much filled with
aliment for that purpose. There is indeed a
cavity, and that a pretty large one, I mean
the air-bladder or swim, which may serve to
contain it for vital purposes ; but that our phi-
losophers have long destined to a very differ-
ent use. The use universally assigned to the
air-bladder, is the enabling the fish to rise or
sink in the water at pleasure, as that is dilated
or compressed. The use assigned by the an-
cients for it was to come in aid of the lungs,
and to remain as a kind of store-house of air
to supply the animal in its necessities. I own
my attachment to this last opinion ; but let us
exhibit both with their proper share of evi-
dence, and the reader must be left to determine.
The air-bladder is described as a bag filled
with air, sometimes composed of one, some-
times of two, and sometimes of three divisions,
situated towards the back of the fish, and
opening into the maw or gullet. Those who
contend that this bag is designed for raising
or depressing the fish in the water, build
upon the following experiment. A carp being
put into the air-pump, and the air exhaus-
ted, the bladder is said to expand itself to
such a degree, that the fish swells in an ex- !
traordinary manner, till the bladder bursts,
and then the fish sinks, and ever after conti-
nues to crawl at the bottom. On another
occasion, the air-bladder was pricked and
wounded, which let out its air ; upon which
the fish sunk to the bottom, and was not seen
to rise after. From thence it is inferred, that
(he use of the air-bladder must be by swell-
ing, at the will of the animal, thus to increase
the surface of the fish's body, and thence di-
minishing its specific gravity, to enable it to
rise to the top of the water, and keep there at
pleasure. On the contrary, when the fish
wants to descend, it is, say they, but to ex-
haust this bladder of its air; and the fish
being thus rendered slimmer and heavier,
consequently sinks to the bottom.
Such is the account given of the use of the
air-bladder ; no part of which seems to me
well supported. In the first place, though
nothing is more certain than that a carp put
into the air-pump will swell, yet so will a
mouse or a frog ; and these we know to have
no air-bladders. A carp will rise to the sur-
face ; but so will all fish that want air, whe-
ther they have an air-bladder or not. The
air-bladder is said to burst in the experiment ;
but that I deny. The air-bladder is indeed
found empty, but it has suffered no laceration,
and may be distended by being blown into
like any other bladder that is sound. The fish
after the experiment, I grant, continues to
creep at the bottom ; and so will all fish that
are sick and wounded, which must be the
case with this after such an operation. Thus
these facts prove nothing, but that when the
fish is killed in an air-pump the air-bladder
is found exhausted, and that it will naturally
and necessarily be ; for the drain of air by
which the fish is supplied in the natural way
will necessarily oblige it to make use of all
its hidden stores; and, as there is a commu-
nication between the gullet and the air-blad-
der, the air which the latter contains will thus
be obviously drawn away. But still farther,
how comes the air-bladder, according to their
hypothesis, to swell under the experiment of
the air-pump ? What is it that closes the
aperture of that organ in such a manner as
at last to burst it? or what necessity has the
fish for dilating it to that violent degree? At
most, it only wants to rise to the surface; and
that the fish can easily do without so. great
a distention of the air-bladder. Indeed it
should rather seem that the more the air was
wanted without, the less necessity there was
for its being uselessly accumulated within ;
and, to make the modern system consistent,
the fish under the air-pump, instead of per-
mitting its bladder to burst, would readily
give up its contents; which, upon their sup-
position, all can do at pleasure.
OF FISHES IN GENERAL.
247
But the truth is, the fish can neither in-
crease nor diminish the quantity of air in its
air-bladder at will, no more than we can that
which is contained in our stomachs. The
animal has no one muscle, much less a pair of
muscles, for contracting or dilating this or-
gan ; its aperture is from the gullet ; and
what air is put into it must remain there till
the necessities, and not the will of the animal
call it forth as a supply.
But, to put the matter past a doubt, many
fish are furnished with an air-bladder, that
continually crawl at the bottom ; such as the
eel and the flounder ; and many more are en-
tirely without any bladder, that swim at ease
in every depth ; such as the anchovy and
fresh-water gudgeon.1 Indeed, the number
of fish that want this organ is alone a suffi- |
cient proof that it is not so necessary for the
purposes of swimming; and as the ventral
fins, which in all fish lie flat upon the water,
seem fully sufficient to keep them at all
depths, I see no great occasion for this inter-
nal philosophical apparatus for raising and de-
pressing them. Upon the whole, the air-
bladder seems adapted for different purposes
than that of keeping the fish at different depths
in the water ; but whether it be to supply them
with air when it is wanted from without,
or for what other purpose, I will not take
upon me to determine.
Hitherto we have seen fish in everv res-
pect inferior to land animals ; in the simpli-
city of their conformation, in their senses, and
their enjoyments ; but of that humble exis-
tence which they have been granted by na-
ture, they have a longer term than any other
class of animated nature. " Most of the dis-
orders incident to mankind," says Bacon,
" arise from the changes and alterations of the
atmosphere ; but fishes reside in an element
little subject to change ; theirs is a uniform
existence ; their movements are without ef-
fort, and their life without labour. Their
bones also, which are united by cartilages,
admit of indefinite extension ; and the differ-
ent sizes of animals of the same kind, among
fishes, is very various. They still keep grow-
ing ; their bodies, instead of suffering the
rigidity of age, which is the cause of natural
decay in land animals, still continue increas-
ing with fresh supplies ; and as the body
grows, the conduits of life furnish their stores
in greater abundance. How long a fish, that
seems to have scarcely any bounds put to its
growth, continues to live, is not ascertained ;
perhaps the life of a man would not be long
enough to measure that of the smallest."
There have been two methods devised for
determining the age of fishes which are more
1 Redi.
ingenious than certain ; the one is by the cir-
cles of the scales, the other by the transverse
section of the back-bone. The first method is
this : When a fish's scale is examined through
a microscope, it will be found to consist of a
number of circles, one circle within another,
in some measure resembling those which ap-
pear upon the transverse section of a tree, and
supposed to offer the same information. For
as in trees we can tell their age by the num-
ber of their circles, so in fishes we can tell
theirs by the number of circles in every scale,
reckoning one ring for every year of the ani-
mal's existence. By this method, Mr Buflbn
found a carp, whose scales he-examined, to be
not less than a hundred years old ; a thing al-
most incredible, had we not several accounts
in other authors which tend to confirm the
discovery. Gesner brings us an instance of
one of the same age ; and Albertus of one
more than double that period.
The age of the skate and the ray, that want
scales, may be known by the other method :
which is, by separating the joints of the back-
bone, and then minutely observing the num-
ber of rings, which the surface where it has
joined exhibits. By this the fish's age is said
to be known ; and perhaps with as much cer-
tainty as in the former instance.
But how unsatisfactory soever these marks
may be, we have no reason to doubt the great
age of some fishes. Those that have ponds,
often know (he oldest by their superior size.
But the longevity of these animals is nothing
when compared to their fecundity. All sorts,
a few of the larger ones excepted, multiply
their kind, some by hundreds, and some by
millions. There are some that bring forth
their young alive, and some that only produce
eggs : the former are rather the least fruitful ;
yet even these are seen to produce in great
abundance. The viviparous blenny, for in-
stance, brings forth two or three hundred at
a time, all alive, and playing round the pa-
rent together. Those who exclude their pro-
geny in a more imperfect state, and produce
eggs, which they are obliged to leave to
chance, either on the bottom, at the edge of
the water, or floating on the surface where it
is deeper, are all much more prolific ; and
seem to proportion their stock to the dan-
ger there is of its consumption. Of these
eggs thus deposited, scarcely one in a hundred
brings forth an animal; they are devoured by
all the lesser fry that frequent the shores ; by
aquatic birds near the margin ; and by the
larger fish in deep water. Still, however,
there are enough for supplying the deep with
inhabitants ; and, notwithstanding their own
rapacity, and that of the fowls of various
tribes, the numbers that escape are sufficient
to relieve the wants of a very considerable
218
HISTORY OF FISHES.
part of mankind. Indeed, when \ve consider
the numbers that a single fish is capable of
producing, the amount will seem astonishing.
If, for instance, \ve should be told of a being
so very prolific, that in a single season it
could bring forth as many of its kind as there
are inhabitants in England, it would strike us
with surprise; yet a single cod produces full
that number. The cod spawns in one season,
as Lewenhoeck assures us, above nine millions
of eggs or peas, contained in one single roe.
The flounder is commonly known to produce
above one million ; and the raackarel above
five hundred thousand. Such an amazing
increase, if permitted to come to maturity,
would overstock nature, and even the ocean
itself would not be able to contain, much less
to provide for, the half of its inhabitants. But
two wise purposes are answered by this amaz-
ing increase ; it preserves the species in the
midst of numberless enemies, and serves to
furnish the rest with a sustenance adapted to
their nature.
Fishes seem, all except the whale kind,
entirely divested of those parental solicitudes
which so strongly mark the manners of the
more perfect terrestrial animals. How far
they copulate remains as yet a doubt ; for
though they seem to join, yet the male is not
furnished with any external instrument of
generation. It is said, by some, that his only
end in that action is to emit his impregnated
milt upon the eggs that at that time fall from
the female. He is said to be seen pursuing
them as they float down the stream, and care-
fully impregnating them one after another.
On some occasions also the females dig holes
in the bottom of rivers and ponds, and there
deposit their spawn, which is impregnated
by the male in the same manner. All this,
however, is very doubtful ; what we know
with certainty of the matter, and that not dis-
covered till very lately, is, that the male has
two organs of generation, that open into the
bladder of urine, and that these organs do not
open into the rectum as in birds, but have a
particular aperture of their own.1 These
organs of generation in the male are empty at
some seasons of the year ; but before the time
of spawning ihey are turgid with what is
called (he milt, and emit the fluid proper for
impregnation.
Fish have different seasons for depositing
their spawn : some, that live in the depths of
the ocean, are said to choose the winter
months: but, in general, those with which
we are acquainted, choose the hottest months
in summer, and prefer such water as is some-
what tepified by the beams of the sun. They
then leave the deepest parts of the ocean,
2 Vide Gaman de Generatione Piscium.
which are the coldest, and shoal round the
coasts, or swim up the fresh-water rivers,
which are warm, as they are comparatively
shallow. When they have deposited their
burdens they then return to their old stations,
and leave their nascent progeny to shift for
themselves.
The spawn continues in its egg-state in
some fish longer than in others, and this in
proportion to the animal's size. In the salmon.
for instance, the young animal continues in
the egg from the beginning of December till
the beginning of April ; the carp continues in
the egg not above three weeks ; the little gold
fish from China is produced still quicker.
These all, when excluded, at first escape by
their minuteness and agility. They rise, sink,
and turn, much readier than grown fish; and
they can escape into very shallow waters
when pursued. But, with all their advant-
ages, scarcely one in a thousand survives the
numerous perils of its youth. The very male
and female that have given them birth are
equally dangerous and formidable with the
rest, forgetting all relation at their departure.
Such is the general picture of these heedless
and hungry creatures ; but there are some in
this class, living in the waters, that are pos-
sessed of finer organs and higher sensations;
that have all the tenderness of birds or quad-
rupeds for their young, that nurse them with
constant care, and protect them from every in-
jury. Of this class are the cetaceous tribe, or
the fishes of the whale kind. There are
others, though not capable of nursing their
young, yet that bring them alive into the
world, and defend them with courage and
activity. These are the cartilaginous kinds,
or those who have gristles instead of bones.
But the fierce unmindful tribe we have been
describing, that leave their spawn without
any protection, are called the spinous, or bony
kinds, from their bones resembling the sharp-
ness of thorns.
Thus there are three grand divisions in the
fish kind ; the cetaceous, the cartilaginous, and
the spinous : all differing from each other in
their conformation, their appetites, in their
bringing forth, and in the education of their
young. These three great distinctions are
not the capricious differences formed by a
maker of systems, but are strongly and firmly
marked in Nature. These are the distinc-
tions of Aristotle; and they have been adopted
by mankind ever since his time. It will be
necessary, therefore, to give the history of
each of these in particular; and then to ar-
range, under each head, those fisnes whose
history is the most remarkable ; or, more pro-
perly speaking, those of which we have any
history. For we shall find, when we come
to any of the species in particular, how little
OF CETACEOUS FISHES.
249
can be said of their habits, their stations, or
method of propagation.
Much, indeed, can be said of them if con-
sidered relatively to man ; and large books
have been written of the manner of taking
fish, or of dressing them. Apicius is noted
for first having taught mankind to suffocate
fish in Carthaginian pickle ; and Quin, for
giving a sauce to the Johndory : Mrs Glasse
is famous for her eel-pie, and Mr Tull for his
invention of spaying carp, to give it a finer
flavour. In this manner our cooks handle the
subject. On the other hand, our physicians
assure us that the flesh of fishes yields little
nourishment, and soon corrupts ; that it abounds
in a gross sort of oil and water, and hath but
a few volatile particles, which render it less
fit to be converted into the substance of our
bodies. They are cold and moist, and must
needs, say they, produce juices of the same
kind, and consequently are improper to
strengthen the body. In this diversity of
opinion, it is the wisest way to eat our fish
in the ordinary manner, and pay no great at-
tention to cooks or doctors.
I cannot conclude this chapter without put-
ting a question to the learned, which I confess
I am not able to resolve. How comes it that
fish, which are bred in a salt element, have
yet no salt to the taste, or that is capable of
extracted from them.1
CHAP. II.
OF CETACEOUS FISHES IN GENERAL,.
As on land there are some orders of animals
that seem formed to command the rest, with
greater powers and more various instincts, so
in the ocean there are fishes which seem
formed upon a nobler plan than others, and
that, to their fishy form, join the appetites and
the conformation of quadrupeds. These are
all of the cetaceous kind ; and so much raised
above their fellows of the deep, in their appe-
1 Though fishes live in a salt element they do not
subsist on it. All the water they take into their mouths
is again discharged through the gills, after retaining the
air contained in it for'the purposes of life. The medium
of water answers the precise purpose to fishes, that the
medium of air does to man and other land animals. In
inspiration, the element is received into the lungs or
gills, and in expiration is returned deprived of its purer
parts, which are retained for the purpose of animal econ-
omy. And whatever salt maybe taken into the stomachs
of fishes with their food, is decomposed and separated
into its component parts of acid and soda. The sailor
that feeds for twelve months together on salted meats,
has not his own flesh made salt; but a decomposition
taking place during the process of digestion, he becomes
corrupted and scorbutic by the excess of soda and mag-
tites and instincts, that almost all our modern
naturalists have fairly excluded them from
the finny tribes, and will have them called,
not fishes, but great beasts of the ocean. With
them it would be as improper to say men go
to Greenland fishing for whale, as it would
he to say that a sportsman goes to Blackwall
a fowling for mackarel.
Yet, notwithstanding philosophers , mankind
will always have their own way of talking ;
and, for my own part, I think them here in
the right. A different formation of the lungs,
stomach, and intestines ; a different manner
of breathing or propagating ; are not sufficient
to counterbalance the great-ebvious analogy
which these animals bear to the whole finny
tribe. They are shaped as other fishes ; they
swim with fins ; they are entirely naked, with-
out hair; they live in the water, though they
come up to breathe ; they are only seen in the
depths of the ocean, and never come upon
shore but when forced thither. These, sure,
are sufficient to plead in favour of the general
denomination, and acquit mankind of error
in ranking them with their lower companions
of the deep.
But still they are many degrees raised above
other fishes in their nature, as they are in
general in their size. This tribe is composed
of the Whale and its varieties, of the Cachalot,
the Dolphin, the Grampus, and the Porpoise.
All these resemble quadrupeds in their inter-
nal structure, and in some of their appetites
and affections. Like quadrupeds, they have
lungs, a midriff, a stomach, intestines, liver,
spleen, bladder, and parts of generation ; their
heart also resembles that of quadrupeds, with
its partitions closed up as in them, and driving
red and warm blood in circulation through the
body. In short, every internal part bears a
most striking similitude ; and to keep these
parts warm, the whole kind are also covered,
between the skin and the muscles, with a
thick coat of fat or blubber, which, like the
bacon fat of a hog, keeps out the cold, renders
their muscles glib and pliant, and probably
makes them lighter in swimming.
As these animals breathe the air, it is ob-
vious that they cannot bear to be any long
time under water. They are constrained,
therefore, every two or three minutes, to come
up to the surface to take breath, as well as
to spout out through their nostril (for they
have but one) that water which they sucked
in while gaping for their prey. This conduit
by which they breathe, and also throw out
the water, is placed in the head, a little before
the brain. Though externally the hole is but
single, it is internally divided by a bony par-
tition, which is closed by a sphincter muscle
on the inside, that, like the mouth of a purse,
shuts it up at the pleasure of the animal.
2 l
250
HISTORY OF FISHES.
There is also another muscle or valve, which
prevents the water from going down the gul-
let. When therefore, the animal takes in a
certain quantity of water, which is necessary
to be discharged and separated from its food,
it shuts the mouth, closes the valve of the
stomach, opens the sphincter that kept the
nostril closed, and then breathing strongly
from the lungs, pushes the water out by effort,
as we see it rise by the pressure of air in a
fire-engine.
The senses of these animals seem also su-
perior to those of other fishes. The eyes of
other fishes, we have observed, are covered
only with transparent skin that covers the rest
of the head ; but in all the cetaceous kinds, it
is covered by eye-lids, as in man. This, no
doubt, keeps that organ in a more perfect
state, by giving it intervals of relaxation, in
which all vision is suspended. The other
fishes, that are for ever staring, must see, if
for no other reason, more feebly, as their or-
gans of sight are always exerted.
As for hearing, these also are furnished with
the internal instruments of the ear, although
the external orifice no where appears. It is
most probable that this orifice may open by
some canal, resembling the Eustachian tube,
into the mouth ; but this has not as yet been
discovered.
Yet Nature sure has not thus formed a
complete apparatus for hearing, and denied
the animal the use of it when formed. It is
most likely that all animals of the cetaceous
kind can hear, as they certainly utter sounds,
and bellow to each other. This vocal power
would be as needless to animals naturally deaf,
as glasses to a man that was blind.
But it is in the circumstances in which
they continue their kind, that these animals
show an eminent superiority. Other fish de-
posit their spawn, and leave the success to
accident ; these never produce above one
young, or two at the most; and this the female
suckles entirely in the manner of quadrupeds,
her breasts being placed, as in the human
kind, above the navel. We have read many
fabulous accounts of the nursing of the demi-
gods of antiquity, of their feeding on the mar-
row of lions, and their being suckled by
wolves : one might imagine a still more heroic
system of nutrition, if we supposed that the
young hero was suckled and grew strong upon
the breast-milk of a she-whale !
The whale or the grampus are terrible at
any time ; but are fierce and desperate in the
defence of their young. In Waller's beautiful
poem of the Summer Islands, we have a story,
founded upon fact, which shows the maternal
tenderness of these animals for their offspring.
A whale and her cub had got in an arm of
the sea, where, by the desertion of the tide,
they were inclosed on every side. The people
from shore soon saw their situation, and drove
down upon them in boats, with such weapons
as the urgent occasion offered. The two ani-
mals were soon wounded in several places,
and the whole sea round was tinctured with
their blood. The whales made several at-
tempts to escape ; and at last the old one, by
its superior strength, forced over the shallow
into the depths of the ocean. But though in
safety herself, she could not bear the danger
that awaited her young one ; she therefore
rushed in once more where the smaller animal
was imprisoned, and resolved, when she could
not protect, at least to share its danger. — The
story ends with poetical justice ; for the tide
coming in, brought off both in safety from
their enemies, though not without sustaining
an infinite number of wounds on every part.
As to the rest, the distinctive marks of this
tribe are, that the number of their fins never
exceed three ; namely, two pectoral fins, and
one back fin ; but in some sorts the last is
wanting. These fins differ very much from
those of other fishes, which are formed of
straight spines : the fins of the cetaceous tribe
are made up of bones and muscles ; and the
skeleton of one of their fins very much re-
sembles the skeleton of a man's hand. Their
tails also are different from those of all other
fish : they are placed so as to lie fiat on the
surface of the water; while the other kinds
have them, as we every day see, upright or
edgeways. This flat position of the tail in
cetaceous animals, enables them to force them-
selves suddenly to the surface of the water to
breathe, which they are continually con-
strained to do.
Of these enormous animals some are without
teeth, and properly called whales : others have
the teeth only in the lower jaw, and are called,
by the French, cachalots : the narwhal has
teeth only in the upper jaw : the dolphin's
teeth as well as those of the porpoise and
grampus, are both above and below. These
are the marks that serve to distinguish the
kinds of this enormous tribe from each other ;
and these shall serve to guide us in giving
their history.
CHAP. III.
OF THE WHALE PROPERLY SO CALLED, AND
ITS VARIETIES.
IF we compare land animals, in respect to
magnitude, with those of the deep, they will
appear contemptible in the competition. It
is probable, indeed, that quadrupeds once ex-
isted much larger than we find them at pre-
THE WHALE.
251
sent. From the skeletons of some that have
been dug up at different times, it is evident
that there must have been terrestrial animals
twice as large as the elephant ; but creatures
of such an immense bulk required a proper-
tionable extent of ground for subsistence, and,
by being rivals with men for large territory,
they must have been destroyed in the contest.
But it is not only upon land that man has
exerted his power of destroying the larger
tribes of animated nature, he has extended his
efforts even into the midst of the ocean, and
has cut off numbers of those enormous animals,
that had perhaps existed for ages. We now
no longer hear of whales two hundred, and
two hundred and fifty feet long, which we are
certain were often seen about two centuries
ago. They have all been destroyed by the
skill of mankind, and the species is now
dwindled into a race of diminutive animals,
from thirty to about eighty feet long.
The northern seas were once the region to
which the greatest of these animals resorted ;
but so great has been the slaughter of whales
for more than two ages, that they begin to
grow thinner every day ; and those that are
now found there, seem, from their size, not to
come to their full dimensions. The greatest
whales resort to places where they have the
least disturbance ; to those seas that are on the
opposite side of the globe, near the south pole.
In that part of the world there are still to be
seen whales that are above a hundred and
sixty feet long ; and perhaps even longer might
be found in those latitudes near the south
pole, to which we have not as yet ventured.
Taking the whale, however, at the ordinary
size of eighty feet long and twenty feet high,
what an enormous animated mass must it ap-
pear to the spectator! With what amaze-
ment must it strike him, to behold so great a
creature gamboling in the deep, with the ease
and agility of the smallest animal, and mak-
ing its way with incredible swiftness! This
is a sight which is very common to those who
frequent the northern or southern ocean. Yet
though this be wonderful, perhaps still greater
wonders are concealed in the deep, which we
have not had opportunities of exploring.
These large animals are obliged to show them-
selves in order to take breath ; but who knows
the size of those that are fitted to remain for
ever under water, and that have been increas-
ing in magnitude for centuries ! To believe
all that has been said of the Sea-Serpent, or
Ihe Kraken, would be credulity ; to reject
the possibility of their existence, would be
presumption.
The Whale is the largest animal of which
we have any certain information ; and the
various purposes to which, when taken, its
different parts are converted, have brought us
tolerably acquainted with its history. Of the
whale, properly so called, there are no less
than seven different kinds ; all distinguished
from each other by their external figure, or
internal conformation. The Great Greenland
Whale, without a back- fin, and black on the
back ; the Iceland Whale, without a back-
fin, and whitish on the back ; the New-Eng-
land Whale, with a hump on the back ; the
Whale with six humps on the back ; the Fin-
fish, with a fin on the back near the tail ; the
Pike-headed Whale, and the Round-lipped
Whale. All these differ from each other in
figure, as their names obviously imply. They
differ also somewhat in theirjnanner of living;
the fin-fish having a larger swallow than the
rest, being more active, slender, and fierce,
and living chiefly upon herrings. However,
there are none of them very voracious ; and,
if compared to the cachalot, that enormous
tyrant of the deep, they appear harmless and
gentle. The history of the rest, therefore,
may be comprised under that of the Great
Common Greenland Whale, with which we
are best acquainted.
The Great Greenland Whale (see Plate
XIV. fig. 23.) is the fish, for taking which
there are such preparations made in differ-
ent parts of Europe. It is a large heavy
animal, arid the head alone makes a third
of its bulk. It is usually found from sixty
to seventy feet long. The fins on each
side are from five to eight feet, composed of
bones and muscles, and sufficiently strong to
give the great mass of body which they move,
speed and activity. The tail, which lies flat
on the water, is about twenty-four feet broad ;
and, when the fish lies on one side, its blows
are tremendous. The skin is smooth and
black, and, in some places, marbled with
white and yellow ; which, running over the
surface, has a very beautiful effect. This
marbling is particularly observable in the fins
arid the tail. In the figures which are thus
drawn by nature, fancy often forms the pictures
of trees, landscapes, and houses. In the tail
of one that was thus marbled, Ray tells us,
that the number 122 was figured very evenly
and exact, as if done with a pencil.
The whale makes use only of the tail to
advance itself forward in the water. This
serves as a great oar to push its mass along ;
and it is surprising to see with what force and
celerity its enormous bulk cuts through the
ocean. The fins are only made use of for turn
ing in the water, and giving a direction to
the velocity impressed by the tail. The fe-
male also makes use of them when pursued,
to bear off her young, clapping them on her
back, and supporting them by the fins on each
side from falling.
The outward or scarf skin of the whale is no
252
HISTORY OF FISHES.
thicker than parchment ; but this removed,
the real skin appears, of about an inch thick,
and covering the fat or blubber that lies be-
neath ; this is from eight to twelve inches in
thickness; and is, when the fish is in health,
of a beautiful yellow. The muscles lie be-
neath ; and these, like the flesh of quadru-
peds, are very red and tough.
The cleft of the mouth is above twenty feet
long, which is near one-third of the animal's
whole length ; and the upper jaw is furnished
with barbs, that lie like the pipes of an or-
gan, the greatest in the middle, and the small-
est to the sides. These compose the whale-
bone ; the longest spars of which are found to
be not less than eighteen feet; the shortest,
being of no value, are thrown away. The
tongue is almost immovably fixed to the lower
jaw, seeming one great lump of fat; and, in
fact, it fills several hogsheads with blubber.
The eyes are not larger than those of an ox ;
and when the crystalline humour is dried, it
does not appear larger than a pea. They are
placed towards the back of the head, being
the most convenient situation for enabling
them to see both before and behind; as also
to see over them, where their food is princi-
pally found. They are guarded by eye-lids
and eye-lashes, as in quadrupeds ; ar.d they
seem to be very sharp sighted,.
Nor is their sense of hearing in less perfec-
tion ; for they are warned at great distances,
of any danger preparing against them. It
would seem as if nature had designedly given
them these advantages, as they multiply little,
in order to continue their kind. It is true,
indeed, that the external organ of hearing is
not perceptible, for this might only embarrass
them in their natural element: but as soon as
the thin scarf-skin above mentioned is re-
moved, a black spot is discovered behind the
eye, and under that is the auditory canal,
that leads to a regular apparatus for hearing.
In short, the animal hears the smallest sounds
at very great distances, and at all times, ex-
cept when it is spouting water ; which is the
time that the fishers approach to strike it.
These spout holes or nostrils, in all the ce-
taceous tribe, have been already described : in
this whale there are two, one on each side the
head before the eyes, and crooked, somewhat
like the holes on the belly of a violin. From
these holes this animal blows the water very
fiercely, and with such a noise, that it roars j
like a hollow wir.d, and may be heard at three
miles distance. When wounded, it then '
blows more fiercely than ever, so that itj
sounds like the roaring of the sea in a great j
storm.
We have already observed, that the sub-
stance called whale-bone, is taken from the
upper jaw of the animal, and is very different
from the real bones of the whale. The real
bones are hard, like those of great land ani-
mals, are very porous, and filled with mar-
row. Two great strong bones sustain the upper
lip, lying against each other in the shape of a
half moon : some of these are twenty-feet
long ; they are seen in several gardens set
up against each other, and are usually mista
ken for the ribs of this animal.
Such is the general conformation and figuro
of this great inhabitant of the deep, the pre-
cise anatomy of which has not been yet as-
certained. In those places where they are
caught in greatest abundance, the sailors are
not very curious as to the structure of the vis-
cera ; and few anatomists care to undertake a
task where the operator, instead of separating
with a lancet, must cut his way with an axe.
It is as yet doubted, therefore, whether the
whale, that in most points internally resem-
bles a quadruped, may not have one great
bowel fitted entirely for the reception of air,
to supply it, when constrained to keep longer
than usual at the bottom. The sailors uni-
versally affirm that it has; and philosophers
have nothing but the analogy of its parts *«
oppose to their general assertions.
As these animals resemble quadrupeds in
conformation, so they bear a strong resem-
blance in some of their appetites and man-
ners. The female joins with the male, as is
asserted, more humano, and once in two years
feels the accesses of desire.
Their fidelity to each other exceeds what-
ever we are told of even the constancy ot
birds. Some fishers, as Anderson informs us,
having- struck one of two whales, a male and
a female, that were in company together, the
wounded fish made a long and terrible resist-
ance : it struck down a boat with three men
in it, with a single blow of the tail, by which
all went to the bottom. The other still at-
tended its companion, and lent it every assist-
ance ; till, at last, the fish that was struck
sunk under the number of its wounds; while
its faithful associate, disdaining to survive
the loss, with great bellowing stretched itself
upon the dead fish, and shared its fate.
The whale goes with young nine or ten
months, and is then fatter than usual, particu-
larly when near the time of bringing forth.
It is said that the embryo, when first percep-
tible, is about seventeen inches long, and
white ; but the cub, when excluded, is black,
and about ten feet long. She generally pro-
duces one young one, and never above two.
When she suckles her young, she throws her-
self on one side on the surface of the sea, and
the young one attaches itself to the teat. The
breasts are two, generally hid within the bel-
ly ; but she can produce them at pleasure, so
as to stand forward a foot and a half, or two
THE WHALE.
253
feet; and the teats are like those of a cow.
In some, the breasts are white; in others
speckled; in all, filled with a large quantity
of milk, resembling that of land animals.
Nothing can exceed the tenderness of the
female for her offspring ; she carries it with
her wherever she goes, and, when hardest
pursued, keeps it supported between her fins.
Even when wounded, she still clasps her
young one; 'and when she plunges to avoid
danger, takes it to the bottom ; but rises sooner
than usual, to give it breath again.
The young ones continue at the breast for
a year; during which time they are called by
the sailors, short-heads. They are then ex-
tremely fat, and yield above fifty barrels of
blubber. The mother, at the same time, is
equally lean and emaciated. At the age of
two years they are called stunts, as they do
not thrive much immediately alter quitting
the breast ; they then scarcely yield above
twenty, or twenty-four, barrels of blubber :
from that forward, they are called skull-fish,
and their age is wholly unknown.
Every species of whale propagates only
with those of its own kind, and does not at all
mingle with the rest ; however they are ge-
nerally seen in shoals, of different kinds toge-
ther, and make their migrations in large
companies, from one ocean to another. They
are a gregarious animal, which implies their
want of mutual defence against the invasions
of smaller, but more powerful, fishes. It
seems astonishing, therefore, how a shoal of
these enormous animals find subsistence toge-
ther, when it would seem that the supplying
even one with food would require greater
plenty than the ocean could furnish. To in-
crease our wonder, we not only see them herd-
ing together, but usually find them fatter than
any other animals of whatsoever element. We
likewise know that they cannot swallow large
lishes, as their throat is so narrow, that an
animal larger than a herring could not enter.
How then do they subsist and grow so fat? —
A small insect, which is seen floating in those
seas, and which Linnaeus terms the Medusa,
is sufficient for this supply. These insects are
black, and of the size of a small bean, and are
sometimes seen floating in clusters on the sur-
face of the water. • They are of a round form,
like snails in a box, but they have wings,
which are so tender, that it is scarcely possi-
ble to touch them without breaking. These
serve rather for swimming than flying ; and
the little animal is called by the Icelanders,
the Walfishoas, which signifies the whale's
provender. They have the taste of raw mus-
sels, and have the smell of burnt sugar.
These are the food of the whale, which it is
seen to draw up in great numbers with its
huge jaws, arid to bruise between its barbs,
which are always found with several of these
sticking among tliem.
This is the simple food of the great Green-
land whale ; it pursues no other animal, leads
an inoffensive life in its element, and is harm-
less in proportion to its strength to do mis-
chief.1 There seems too an analogy between
1 "Among the cetaceous tribes," says the Edinburgh
Cabinet Library, vol. I. on the Polar Regions, " the
chief place is due to the whale, of all animals ' mightiest
that swim the ocean stream.' Enormous as his bulk
is, rumour and the love of the marvellous have repre-
sented it as being at one time much greater, and the
existing race as only the degenerate remnant of might-
ier ancestors. Mr Scoresby, howeve*^ by collecting va-
rious good authorities, has proved that sixty feet was
always nearly the utmost length of the mysticetus, or
great Greenland whale. Of three hundred and twenty-
two individuals, in the capture of which that gentleman
was concerned, none occurred of a length exceeding
fifty-eight feet; and he gives no credence to any rumour
of a specimen which exceeded seventy feet. Even sixty
feet implies a weight of seventy tons, being nearly that of
three hundred fat oxen. Of this vast mass, the oil of a
rich whale composes about thirty tons, and when, as
was the case some years ago, that article brought £55 or
£60 per ton, we may form some idea of the great value
of the capture; the bones of the head, fins, and tail,
weigh eight or ten ; the carcass, thirty or thirty-two
tons. The oleaginous substance, or blubber, the most
valuable part of the animal, forms a complete wrapper
round the whole body, of the thickness of from eight to
twenty inches. The head is disproportionally large,
forming about a third of the entire bulk. The basis
consists of the crown-bone, from each side of which des-
cend those immense jaw-bones which are sometimes
presented to our wondering eyes, and which the
whalers place on deck as trophies of their success, and
in order that the fine oil contained in them may ooze
from their lower extremities. These jaw-bones are
from sixteen to twenty feet in length, iiiul extend along
the mouth in a curved line, till they meet and form a
species of crescent. The lips, nearly twenty feet long,
display, when open, a cavity capable of receiving a ship's
jolly-boat with her crew. The whale has no external
ear ; but when the skin is removed, a small aperture is
discerned for the admission of sound. This sense ac-
cordingly is very imperfect; yet the animal, by a quick
perception of all movements made on the water, disco-
vers danger at a great distance. The eyes are propor-
tionally small, though the sense of seeing is acute ; more
so, however, through clear water than through an aerial
medium. But the most unique feature in the structure
of this animal consists in the spiracles or blow-holes
placed nearly on the crown of the head. These have
been compared to natural jets cTeau throwing up water
to the height of forty or fifty feet ; but the more careful
scrutiny of Mr Scoresby ascertained that they emit only
a moist vapour, and are neither more nor less than huge
nostrils. When, however, this vehement breathing or
blowing is performed under the surface, a considerable
quantity of water is thrown up into the air. The sound
thus occasioned is the only thing like a voice emitted
by the animal, and, in the case of a violent respiration,
it resembles the discharge of a cannon.
" The tail is the most active lirnb of this mighty ani-
mal, and the chief instrument of his motion. It does
not rise vertically like that of most fishes, being flat
and horizontal, only four or five feet long, but more
than twenty feet broad. It consists of two beds of
muscles connected with an extensive layer surround-
ing the body, and enclosed by a thin covering o*
254
HISTORY OF FISHES.
its manners and those of ihe elephant. They
are both the strongest and the largest animals
in their respective elements; neither offer in-
jury, but are terrible when provoked to resent-
blubber. Its power is tremendous. A single stroke
throws a large boat with all its crew into the air.
Sometimes the whale places himself in a perpendicular
position with the head downwards, and, rearing his
tail on high, beats the water with awful violence.
On these occasions the sea foams, and vapours darken
the air, the lashing is heard several miles off, like
the roar of a distant tempest. Sometimes he makes
an immense spring, and rears his whole body above
the waves, to the admiration of the experienced whaler,
but to the terror of those who see for the first time this
astonishing spectacle. Other motions, equally expres-
sive of his boundless strength, attract the attention of
the navigator at the distance of miles."
There are various kinds of whales. That already
described is the mysticetus, or the right whale, as he
is called by British sailors, on account of his superior
quantity of blubber having pointed him out as the
most proper subject for the fishery. The razor back
(Baltena physalis} is larger, more formidable, but has
much less oil, and is never attacked, unless by mis-
take. The cachalot or spermaceti whales, which chiefly
abound in the Southern Polar ocean, are gregarious;
that is to say, they usually appear in large herds.
Their oil is small in quantity, but is much esteemed.
The narwal is seldom above sixteen feet in length, and
has a tusk projecting above its upper jaw, from which
the sailors call him the sea unicorn.
When we consider the enormous bulk of the most
of cetaceous animals, we shall be surprised at the ra-
pidity of motion which is a general character of the
tribe. It has been computed that some of them are
capable of rushing through thirty-three feet in a se-
cond of time, and that, supposing them to proceed
with an uniform and uninterrupted motion, twenty-
three days would be sufficient for enabling them to
circumnavigate the globe. Though the mouth of the
whale is so large, that, in some individuals several
men have been able to stajid upright in the inside of it,
the throat is in general so very narrow as to admit of
only a small object passing. Some kinds are furnished
with teeth; but the balance, instead of those organs, \
have a curious apparatus, from which the well-known
substance called whalebone is derived. According to
the description given by Baron Cuvier, " the maxil- |
lary (cheek) bones in this tribe, form on their inferior j
surface two inclined planes, which give to the palate the
appearance of the roof of a house reversed, and their
two surfaces are concave. To these are attached a
series of laminae (thin plates) parallel to each other,
and having a transverse direction with regard to the
axis of the body. Several hundred laminae may be
counted on each side, and in the Greenland whale
they often exceed ten feet in length. The laminae
present on their internal sides layers of horny fibres,
growing from the horny plates, but less fine, and which
form a fringe or loose border hanging down upon and
investing the whole bulk of the tongue. The use of
this apparatus seems to be to retain, as with a net,
those small animals which the whales seize and swal-
low for food.
Against these mighty animals man wages a war so ex-
terminating as to have driven them from their ancient
haunts to seek for safety in the more inaccessible
parts of the ocean ; hither, however, they are followed
and killed, in order to obtain the immense quantity of
oil which they yield, and of which we are now to
speak. Fat, or oil, which is lighter than water, is abun-
dantly supplied to fishes, in order to counteract their
ment. The fin-fish indeed, in some measure,
differs from the great whale in this particular,
as it subsists chiefly upon herrings, great
shoals of which it is often seen driving before
tendency to sink in this fluid. The solid parts of
their bodies, as indeed of all other animals, being
heavier than water, it is evident, that, unless pro-
vided with a sufficient supply of some substance lighter
than water, it would have required a constant effort,
on their parts, to keep themselves at any given level.
Now, the quantity of fat with which fishes are in ge-
neral furnished, being very nearly in the same pro-
portion to the solid parts as to bring their body, collec-
tively taken, to about the same specific gravity as that
of the water which they inhabit, supersedes in them
the necessity of making any efforts except for the pur-
pose of changing their position. We all know of how
oleaginous a nature is the flesh of many fishes com-
monly brought to table, as the salmon and the eel ;
and in the internal parts of fishes in general the quan-
tity of fat is still more remarkable. The gall of fishes
is little else than a kind of oil, and it is well known
what large quantities of this may be got from the
livers of the cod, ling, and others in every-day use.
Now, it is for the same purpose of diminishing their
specific gravity that the cetaceous tribes are furnished,
like fishes, with a prodigious quantity of fat ; for it
must be remembered that they require not merely to
be kept at any given level below the water, but to be
raised again to the surface, as often as they have dived
below it. This is the main use of the enormous quan-
tity of oil which is found in these animals, situated
for the most part in what is called the blubber im-
mediately under the skin — as the substance called
lard is under that of the hog — and constituting the
train-oil of commerce. But besides this mass of sub-
cutaneous fat many cetaceous animals, as the bottle-
nosed or spermaceti whale (Physcter macrucephalus),
have a second collection of a similar substance, except
that it is of a purer quality and firmer consistence, in
a large reservoir at the top of the head, near the part
where the pulmonary spiracles open. This is the
substance known in the shops by the name of sperma-
ceti ; and as the oil of the blubber serves to rendei
the body collectively lighter than the water which
these animals inhabit, so the spermaceti serves to
render the top of the head the most buoyant part of
the body, so that it is kept above the surface without
any exertion. The quantity of train-oil procured
from the great northern whale amounts frequently
to one-twelfth of the weight of its enormous carcase ;
the tongue alone, which is said to be "about the size
of a great feather-bed," often yielding five or six bar-
rels; and when we are informed that the cavity in
the skull of the bottle-nosed whale, appropriated to
the reception of the spermaceti, is often sixteen or
eighteen feet long, and of a proportionate breadth, we
may form some idea of the quantity of this substance
which it contains. Such, then, is the source of the
oil for which men endure such privations, and brave
such dangers, and have done so from very ancient
times; for the whale-fishery is of long standing. Al-
though the Norwegians probably captured the whale be-
fore any other European nation engaged in so perilous
an undertaking, the Biscayans were the first to prose-
cute it as a regular commercial pursuit. They carried
it on with great vigour and success in the twelfth, thir-
teenth, and fourteenth centuries. In 1261, we find
from the work of Noel, " Sur 1'AntiquiU? de la Peche
de la Baleine," that a tithe was laid upon the tongues of
whales imported into Bayonne, they being then a highly
esteemed species of food. In 1338, Edward III. relin-
quished to Peter de Puyanne a duty of £6 sterling each
THE WHALE.
255
it. Yet even the swallow of this fish is not
very large, if compared to the cachalot tribe ;
and its ravages are but sports in comparison.
The stomach and intestines of all these ani-
mals, when opened, seldom have any thing in
them, except a soft unctuous substance of a
brownish colour ; and their excrements are of
a shining red.
As the whale is an inoffensive animal, it is
not to be wondered that it has many enemies
willing to take advantage of its disposition,
and inaptitude for combat. There is a small
animal, of the shell-fish kind, called the
Whale-louse, that sticks to its body, as we see
shells sticking to the foul bottom of a ship.
This insinuates itself chiefly under the fins ;
and whatever efforts- the great animal makes,
it still keeps its hold, and lives upon the fat,
which it is provided with instruments to ar-
rive at.
The sword-fish rhowever, is the whale's most
terrible enemy. " At the sight of this little
animal," says Anderson, " the whale seems
agitated in an extraordinary manner ; leaping
from the water as if with affright : wherever
it appears, the whale perceives it at a distance,
and flies from it in the opposite direction. I
have been myself," continues he, " a spectator
whale, laid on those brought into the port of Biarritz, to
indemnify him for the extraordinaiy expenses he had
incurred in fitting out a fleet for the service of his ma-
jesty. The Biscayans, however, soon gave up the whale-
fishing, from the want of fish, which ceased to come
southward, no longer leaving the icy seas. The voyages
of the Dutch and English to the Northern ocean, in
order to discover a passage through it to India, though
they failed in their primary object, laid open the remote
haunts of the whale. The Muscovy company now ob-
tained a royal charter, prohibiting all vessels but theirs
from fishing in the seas round Spitzbergen, under pre-
tence that it was discovered by Sir Hugh Willoughby.
The fact, however, was, that Barentz discovered it in
1596; and the company, after several severe and bloody
encounters, soon found themselves beaten from the
ground by the Dutch, who being left quietly and undis-
turbed to prosecute the fishery, soon acquired a decided
superiority over other nations, and towards the year 1680
employed in it about two hundred and sixty ships and
fourteen thousand sailors. The Muscovy company was
soon succeeded by another association no less fortunate.
In 1725, the South sea company embarked largely in
the trade, and prosecuted it for eight years, when, having
lost a large sum, they gave it up. The legislature now
resolved to support the trade : in 1732, a bounty of 20s.
a ton was granted to ships engaged in it. In 1749,
this was raised to 40s., when, observes Mr Macculloch,
as many ships were fitted out for catching the bounty as
for catching fish. In 1777, this bounty was reduced to
30s.; the consequence of which was, that during the next
five years the number of ships employed in the trade was
reduced from one hundred and five to thirty-nine! In
1781, the bounty was raised again to its old level; and
an inducement being thus held out for making money in
an easy but factitious way, the trade was soon restored
to its apparent prosperous state. The American war
now impeded thefisheries, and in 17S7, 1792, and 1795,
*he bounty was again decreased ; in 1S24, it ceased al-
together.
of their terrible encounter. The whale has
no instrument of defence except the tail ; with
that it endeavours to strike the enemy ; and a
single blow taking place, would effectually
destroy its adversary : but the sword-fish is as
active as the other is strong, and easily avoids
the stroke; then bounding into the air, it falls
upon its great subjacent enemy, and endea-
vours not to pierce with its pointed beak, but
to cut it with its toothed edges. The sea all
about is seen dyed with blood, proceeding
from the wounds of the whale; while the enor-
mous animal vainly endeavours to reach its
invader, and strikes with its tail against the
surface of the water, making-a report at each
blow louder than the noise of a cannon.
There is still another and more powerful
enemy, called by the fishermen of New-Eng-
land, the Killer. This is itself a cetaceous
animal, armed with strong and powerful teeth.
A number of these are said to surround the
whale, in the same manner as dogs get round
a bull. Some attack it with their teeth be-
hind ; others attempt it before, until at last
the great animal is torn down, and its tongue
is said to be the only part they devour when
they have made it their prey. They are said
to be of such great strength, that one of them
alone was known to stop a dead whale that
several boats were towing along, and drag it
from among them to the bottom.
But of all the enemies of these enormous
fishes, man is the greatest : he alone destroys
more in a year than the rest in an age, and
actually has thinned their numbers in that
part of the world where they are chiefly sought.
The great resort of these animals was found
to be on the inhospitable shores of Spitzber-
gen ; where the distance of the voyage, the
coldness of the climate, the terrors of the icy
sea, and, still more, their own formidable bulk,
might have been expected to protect them from
human injury. But all these were but slight
barriers against man's arts, his courage, and
his necessities. The European ships, soon
after the improvement of navigation, found
the way into those seas ; and as early as the
beginning of the fourteenth century, the Bis-
cayneers were in possession of a very consid-
erable trade to the coast of Greenland. The
Dutch and the English followed them thither,
and soon took that branch of commerce out of
their hands. The English commenced the
business about the beginning of the seventeenth
century ; and the town of Hull had the honour
of first attempting that profitable branch of
trade. But, at present, it seems upon the de-
cline, as the quantity of fish is so greatly re-
duced, by the constant capture for such a vast
length of time. It is now said that the fishers,
from a defect of whales, apply themselves to
the seal-fishery ; yet, as these animals are ex-
256
HISTORY OF FISHES.
Iremely timorous, they will soon be inducoc
to quit those shores, where they meet sucl
frequent disturbance and danger. .The poor
natives of Greenland themselves, who used to
feed upon the whale, are diminishing, in pro-
portion as their sustenance is removed ; and it
is probable that the revolution of a few year
will see that extensive coast totally deserted
by its inhabitants, as it is already nearly de-
serted by the whales. The art of taking
whales, like most others, is much improved
by time, and differs in many respects from
that practised by the Biscay neers, when they
first frequented the icy sea. But as the des-
cription of their method is the least compli-
cated, and consequently the easiest understood,
it will be best suited to our purpose.1
1 The whale (says Scoresby, who has written from
long personal observation on the subject) which is a
mammiferous animal, and closely allied, in its anatomical
structure, to the class of quadrupeds, affords in the
modification of the parts and principles of land animals,
tor applying them to a tribe inhabiting the sea, a great
number of those striking displays of wisdom and power,
the very contemplation of which is calculated to elevate,
in no inconsiderable degree, our conceptions of the Great
Supreme. The mysticetus feeds on the smallest insects ;
its capacious mouth, with the vast fringes of whalebone,
which is a most admirable filter, enables it to receive
some tons of water at a mouthful, and to separate every
substance from it, of the size of a pin's head and up-
wards. The physalis feeds on herrings, mackerel and
oilier fishes of a similar kind; its whalebone therefore is
shorter, stronger, and less compact than that of the mys-
ticetu«, and the filter formed by it less perfect.
As the whale must rise to the surface of the sea to
breathe, its tail is placed horizontally, to enable it to
ascend and descend more quickly ; and its nostrils, or
blowholes, instead of being placed at the snout, are gen-
erally on the most elevated part of the head, that they
may be readily lifted clear of the water.
When the whale descends to the depths of the ocean,
it becomes exposed to an enormous pressure from the
superincumbent water. This pressure is sufficient to
force the water through the pores of the hardest wood ;
yet it is effectually resisted by the skin of the whale,
though it is remarkably soft arid flexible. To exclude
the water from the lungs, which would occasion suffoca-
tion if admitted, the blow-holes are defended by the pe-
culiar valves that have been already described.
The variety discovered in the structure of whales, is
by no means one of the least interesting parts of their
physiology. In other classes of animals, whose habits
are similar, we often find that each organ is the same as
the corresponding one, in almost all the species of the
same genus, or even of the same order; excepting when
their peculiar habits, or necessities, require a modifica-
tion of the general structure or principle. But in whales,
as if it were intended not only to exhibit the matchless
wisdom of the Creator, but to show that his resources
are unlimited, the structure of the breathing canals is
varied in the different genera of cetaceous animals, and
a number of contrivances, alike extraordinary, equally
beautiful, and equally efficient, are adapted for perform-
ing the same office.
The whale seems dull of hearing. A noise in the air,
such as that produced by a person shouting, is not noticed
by it, though at the distance only of a ship's length : but
a very slight splashing in the water in calm weather ex-
cites its attention and alarms it.
For this navigation, the Biscayneers, in
favourable seasons, fitted out thirty ships, of
two hundred and fifty tons each, with fifty
choice men apiece, and a few boys. These
were stored with six months' provision ; and
each ship had its boats, which were to be
serviceable when come to the place of duty.
When arrived at the part where the whales
are expected to pass to the southward, they
always keep their sails set, and a sailor is
placed at the mast-head, to give information
when he spies a whale. As soon as he dis-
covers one, the whole crew are instantly in
employment : they fit out their boats and'row
away to where the whale was seen. The har-
pooner, who is to strike the fish, stands at the
prow of the boat, with a,harpoon or javelin in
Its sense of seeing is acute ; whales are observed to
discover one another in clear water, when under the
surface, at an amazing distance. When at the surface,
however, they do not see far.
They have no voice ; but in breathing or blowing they
make a very loud noise. The vapour they discharge is
ejected to the height of some yards, and appears at a
distance like a puff of smoke. When the animals are
wounded, it is often stained with blood; and, on the ap-
proach of death, jets of blood are sometimes discharged
alone. They blow strongest, densest, and loudest, when
" running." When in a state of alarm, or when they
first appear at the surface, after being a long time down,
they respire or blow about four or five times a minute.
The whale being somewhat lighter than the medium
in which it swims, can remain at the surface of the sea,
with its "crown," in which the blowholes are situated,
and a considerable extent of the back, above water, with-
out any effort or motion. To descend, however, re-
quires an exertion. The proportion of the whale that
appears above water, when alive, or when recently killed,
is probably not a twentieth part of the animal ; hut within
a day after death, when the process of putrefaction com-
mences, the whale swells to an enormous size, until at
least a third of the carcass appears above water, and
sometimes the body is burst by the force of air generated
within.
By means of the tail principally, the whale advances
through the water. The greatest velocity is produced
by powerful strokes against the water, impressed alter-
nately upward and downward ; but a slower motion, it is
believed, is elegantly produced, by cutting the watei
laterally, and obliquely, downward, in a manner similar
;o that in which a boat is forced along, with a single oar,
)y the operation of skulling. The fins are generally
stretched out in a horizontal position : their chief ap-
jlication seems to be the balancing of the animal, as the
moment life is extinct, it always falls over on its side, or
,urns upon its back. They appear also to be used in
)earing off their young, in turning, and giving a direc-
ion to the velocity produced by the tail.
Bulky as the whale is, and inactive, or indeed clumsy
as it appears to be, one might imagine that all its motions
would he sluggish, and its greatest exertions productive
of but little celerity. The fact, however, is the reverse.
A whale extended motionless at the surface of the sea,
can sink in the space of five or six seconds, or less, be-
rond the reach of its human enemies. Its velocity along
,he surface, or 'perpendicularly, or obliquely downward,
s the same. I have observed a whale descending after
'. had harpooned it, to the depth of 400 fathoms, with
>he average velocity of seven or eight miles per hour.
The usual rate at which whales swim, however, even
THE WHALE.
257
his band five or six feet long, pointed with steel
like the barb of an arrow, of a triangular
shape. As this person's place is that of the
greatest dexterity, so also it is of the greatest
danger: the whale sometimes overturns the
boat with a blow of its tail ; or drives against
it with fury. In general, however, the ani-
mal seems to sleep on the surface of the water :
when they are on their passage from one situation to
another, seldom exceeds four miles an hour; and though,
when urged by the sight of an enemy, or alarmed by the
stroke of a harpoon, their extreme velocity may be at
the rate of eight or nine miles an hour, yet we find this
speed never continues longer than for a few minutes,
before it relaxes to almost one half ; hence, for the space
of a few minutes, they are capable of darting through
the water with the velocity almost of the fastest ship
under sail, and of ascending with such rapidity as to leap
entirely out of the water. This feat they sometimes
perform as an amusement apparently, to the high ad-
miration of the distant spectators ; but to the no small
terror of the inexperienced fishers, who, even under such
circumstances, are often ordered by the fool-hardy har-
pooner to " pull away" to the attack. Sometimes the
whales throw themselves into a perpendicular posture,
with their heads downwards, and rearing their tail on
high in the air, beat the water with awful violence. In
both these cases the sea is thrown into foam, and the air
tilled with vapours : the noise in calm weather is heard
to a great distance; and the concentric waves, produced
by the concussions on the water, are communicated
abroad to a considerable extent. Sometimes the whale
shakes its tremendous tail in the air, which, cracking
like a whip, resounds to the distance of two or three
miles.
When it retires from the surface, it first lifts its head,
then plunging it under water, elevates its back, like the
segment of a sphere, deliberately rounds it away towards
the extremity, throws its tail out of the water, and then
disappears.
In their usual conduct, whales remain at the surface
to breathe, about two minutes, seldom longer ; during
which time they " blow " eight or nine times, and then
descend for an interval usually of five or ten minutes,
but sometimes, when feeding, fifteen or twenty. The
depth to which they commonly descend is not known,
though, from the eddy occasionally observed on the
water, it is evidently at times only trifling. But when
struck, the quantity of line they sometimes take out of
the boats, in a perpendicular descent, affords a good
measure of the depth. By this rule they have been
known to descend to the depth of an English mile, and
with such velocity, that instances have occurred, in
which whales have been drawn up by the line attached,
from the depth of 700 or 800 fathoms, and have been
found to have broken their jaw-bones, and sometimes
crown bone, by the blow struck against the bottom.
Some persons are of opinion that whales can remain
under a field of ice, or at the bottom of the sea in shallow
water, when undisturbed, for many hours at a time.
Whales are seldom found sleeping, yet in calm weather,
among ice, instances occasionally occur.
The food of the whale consists of various species of
actiniae, cliones, sepiae, medusae, caned, and helices, or,
at least, some of these genera are always to be seen,
wherever any tribe of whales is found stationary and
feeding. In the dead animals, however, in the very
few instances in which I have been enabled to open their
stomachs, squillae or shrimps were the only substances
discovered. In the mouth of a whale just killed, I once
found a quantity of the same kind of insect.
When the whale feeds, it swims w'ith considerable
velocity below the surface of the sea, with its jaws widely
extended. A stream of water consequently enters its
capacious mouth, and along with it large quantities of
water insects ; the water escapes again at the sides ; but
the food is entangled and sifted, a* it were, by the whale-
VOL. it
bone, which, from its compact arrangement, and the
thick internal covering of hair, does not allow a particle
the size of the smallest grain to escape.
There does not seem to be sufficient dissimilarity in
the form and appearance of the mysticete found in the
polar seas, to entitle them to a division into other spe.
cies ; yet such is the difference observed in the propor-
tions of these animals, that they may be well considered
as sub-species or varieties. In some of the mysticete,
the head measures four-tenths of the whole length of the
animal ; in others, scarcely three-tenths ; in some the
circumference is upwards of seven-tenths of the length,
in others less than six-tenths, or little more than one
half.
The sexual intercourse of whales is often observed
about the latter end of summer : and females with cubs
or suckers along with them, being most commonly met
with in the spring of the year, the time of their bringing
forth, it is presumed, is in February or March, and their
period of gestation about nine or ten months. In the latter
end of April, 1811, a sucker was taken by a. Hull whaler,
to which the funis umbilicalis was still attached. The
whale has one young at a birth. Instances of two being
seen with a female are very rare. The young one, at
the time of parturition, is said to be at least ten if not
fourteen feet in length. It goes under the protection
ot its mother for probably a year or more, or until,
by the evolution of the whalebone, it is enabled to
procure its own nourishment. Supposing the criterion
of the notches in the whalebone heing indicative of the
number of years' growth to be correct, then it would
appear that the whale reaches the magnitude called
sine, that is, with a six feet length of whalebone, in
twelve years, and attains its full growth at the age of
twenty or twenty-five. Whales, doubtless, live to a
great age. The marks of age are, increase in the quan-
tity of gray colour in the skin, and a change to a yel-
lowish tinge of the white parts about the head ; a de-
crease in the quantity of oil yielded by a certain weight
of blubber; an increase of hardness in the blubber, and
in the thickness and strength of the ligamentous fibres
of which it is partly composed.
The maternal affection of the whale, which, in other
respects, is apparently a stupid animal, is striking and
interesting ; the cub, being insensible to danger, is easily
harpooned ; when the tender attachment of the mother is
so manifested, as not unfrequently to bring her within
the reach of the whalers. Hence, though a cub is of
little value, seldom producing above a ton of oil, and
often less, yet it is sometimes struck as a snare for its
mother. In this case she joins it at the surface of the
water, whenever it has occasion to rise for respiration ;
encourages it to swim off ; assists its flight by taking it
under her fin, and seldom deserts it while life remains.
She is then dangerous to approach ; but affords frequent
opportunities for attack. She loses all regard for her
own safety in anxiety for the preservation of her young:
dashes through the midst of her enemies; despises the
danger that threatens her ; and even voluntarily remains
with her offspring, after various attacks on herself from
the harpoons of the fishers. In June, 1811, one of my
harpooners struck a sucker, with the hope of its leading
to the capture of the mother. Presently she arose closo
by the " fast boat," and seizing the young one, dragged
about a hundred fathoms of line with remarkable force
and velocity. Again she arose to the surface, darted
furiously to and fro, frequently stopped short, or sud-
denly changed her direction, and gave every possible
intimation of extreme agony. For a length of time she
258
HISTORY OF FISHES.
while the boat is approaching, the harpooner i possible away. It is some time before the
stands aloft, and with his harpoon tied to a whale seems to feel the blow ; the instrument
cord of several hundred fathoms length, darts has usually pierced no deeper than the fat,
it into the animal, and then rows as fast as and that being insensible, the animal con-
continued thus to act, though closely pursued by the
boats ; and, inspired with courage and resolution by the
concern for her offspring, seemed regardless of the danger
which surrounded her. At length one of the boats ap-
proached so near that a harpoon was hove at her. It
hit, but did not attach itself. A second harpoon was
struck ; this also failed to penetrate; but a third was
more effectual, and held. Still she did not attempt to
escape ; but allowed other boats to approach ; so that, in
a few minutes, three more harpoons were fastened, and
in the course of an hour afterward she was killed.
There is something extremely painful in the destruc-
tion of a whale, when thus evincing a degree of affec-
tionate regard for its offspring, that would do honour to
the superior intelligence of human beings ; yet the ob-
ject of the adventure, the value of the prize, the joy of
the capture, cannot be sacrificed to feelings of compas-
sion. Whales, though often found in great numbers
together, can scarcely be said to be gregarious ; found
most generally solitary, or in pairs, excepting when
drawn to the same spot by the attraction of an abundance
of palatable food, or a choice situation of the ice.
The superiority of the sexes, in point of numbers,
seems to be in favour of the male. Of 124 whales which
have been taken near Spitzbergen, in eight years, in
ships commanded by myself, 70 were males, and 54
were females, being in the proportion to five to four
nearly. The mysticetus occurs most abundantly in the
frozen seas of Greenland and Davis's Strait — in the bays
of Baffin and Hudson — in the sea to the northward of
Behring's Strait, and along some parts of the northern
khores of Asia, arid probably America. It is never met
with in the German ocean, and rarely within 200 leagues
of the British coast ; but along the coasts of Africa and
South America it is met with periodically in considera-
ble numbers. In these regions it is attacked and cap-
tured by the southern British and American whalers, as
^ well as by some of the people inhabiting the coasts, to
the neighbourhood of which it resorts. Whether this
whale is precisely of the same kind as that of Spitzber-
gen and Greenland, is uncertain, though it is evidently
a mysticetus. One striking difference, possibly the effect
of situation and climate, is, that the mysticetus found
in southern regions is often covered with barnacles, (Le-
pas diadema, &o.) while those of the Arctic seas are
free from these shell fish.
It would be remarkable if an animal like the whale,
which is so timid that a bird alighting upon its back
sometimes sets it off in great agitation and terror, should
be wholly devoid of enemies. Besides man, who is
doubtless its most formidable adversary, it is subject to
annoyance from sharks, and it is also said from the nar-
whal, sword-fish, and thresher. With regard to the nar-
whal, I am persuaded that this opinion is incorrect, for so
far from its being an enemy, it is found to associate with
the whale in the greatest apparent harmony, and its ap-
pearance, indeed, in the Greenland sea is hailed by the
fishers, the narwhal being considered as the harbinger of
the whale. But the sword-fish and thresher (if such an
animal there be) may possibly he among the enemies of
the whale, notwithstanding I have never witnessed their
combats; and the shark is known certainly to be an
enemy, though perhaps not a very formidable one.
Whales indeed flee the seas where it abounds, and evince
by marks occasionally found on their tails, a strong evi-
dence of their having been bit by the shark. A living
whale may be annoyed, though it can scarcely be sup-
posed to be ever overcome by the shark • but a dead
whale is an easy prey, and affords a fine banquet to this
insatiable creature.
The whale, from its vast bulk, and variety of pro-
ducts, is of great importance in commerce, as well a^
in the domestic economy of savage nations ; and its oi!
and whalebone are of extensive application in the arts
and manufactures.
Though to the refined palate of a modern European,
the flesh of a whale, as an article of food, would be re-
ceived with abhorrence, yet we find that it is considered
by some of the inhabitants of the northern shores of
Europe, Asia, and America, as well as those on the
coasts of Hudson's Bay, and Davis's Strait, as a choice
and staple article of subsistence. The Esquimaux eat
the flesh and fat of the whale, and drink the oil with
greediness. Indeed, some tribes, who are not familiar-
ized with spirituous liquors, carry along with them in
their canoes, in their fishing excursions, bladders filled
with oil, which they use in the same way, and with a
similar relish, that a British sailor does a dram. They
also eat the skin of the whale raw, both adults and chil-
dren ; for it is not uncommon, when the females visit
the whale-ships, for them to help themselves to pieces
of skin, preferring those with which a little blubber is
connected, and to give it as food to their infants sus-
pended on their backs, who suck it with apparent delight.
Blubber, when pickled and boiled, is said to be very
palatable; the tail, when parboiled, and then fried, is
said to be not unsavoury, but even agreeable eating : and
the flesh of young whales, I know from experiment, is
by no means indifferent food.
Not only is it certain that the flesh of the whale is
now eaten by savage nations, but it is also well authen-
ticated that, in the 12th, 13th, 14th, and 15th centur-
ies, it was used as food by the Icelanders, the Nether-
landers, the French, the Spanish, and probably by the
English. M. S. B. Noel, in a tract on the whale fish-
ery, informs us that about the Ibth century the flesh,
particularly the tongue of the whales, was sold in the
markets of Bayonne, Cibourre, and Beariz, where it was
esteemed as a great delicacy, being used at the best
tables; and even so late as the 15th century, he conceives,
from the authority of Charles Etienne, that the principal
nourishment of the poor in Lent, in some districts of
France, consisted of the flesh and fat of the whale.
Besides forming a choice eatable, the inferior pro-
ducts of the whale are applied to other purposes by the
Indian and Esquimaux of arctic countries, and with
some nations are essential to their comfort -, some mem-
branes of the abdomen are used lor an upper article of
clothing, and the peritoneum, in particular, being thin
and transparent, is used instead of glass in the windows
of their huts ; the bones are converted into harpoons and
spears, for striking the seal, or darting at the sea-birds,
and are also employed in the erection of their tents, and
with some tribes, in the formation of their boats ; the
sinews are divided into filaments, and used as thread,
with which they join the seams of their coats and tent
cloths, and sew with great taste and nicety the different
articles of dress they manufacture ; and the whalebone
and other superior products, so valuable in European
markets, have also their uses among them.
I shall conclude this account of the mysticetus with
a sketch of some of the characters which belong generally
to cetaceous animals.
Whales arc viviparous ; they have but one young Bt
a time, and s .ckle it with teats. They are furnished
with lungs, and are under the necessity of approaching
THE WHALE.
259
tinues for a while motionless ; but soon roused
from its seeming lethargy, as the shaft con-
tinues to pierce deeper and deeper into the
muscular flesh, it flies off with amazing rapid-
ity. In the meantime, the harpoon sticks in
its side, while the rope, which is coiled up in
the boat, and runs upon a swivel, lengthens
as the whale recedes, but still shows the part
of the deep to which it has retreated. The
curd is coiled up with great care; for such is
the rapidity with which it runs off, that if it
was but the least checked, as it yields with
the animal's retreat, it would infallibly over-
set the boat, and the crew would go to the
bottom. It sometimes happens also, that the
rapidity with which it runs over the swivel at
the edge of the boat, heats it, and it would
infallibly take fire, did not a man stand con-
tinually with a wet mop in his hand, to cool
the swivel as the cord runs.1 The whale
having dived to a considerable depth, remains
at the bottom, sometimes for near half an hour,
with the harpoon in its body, and then rises
to take breath, expecting the danger over;
but the instant it appears, they are all with
their boats ready to receive it, and fling the
harpoons into its body ; the animal again
dives and again rises, while they repeat their
blows. The ship follows in full sail, like all
the rest, never losing sight of the boats, and
ready to lend them assistance ; the whole ocean
seems dyed in blood. Thus they renew their
attacks, till the whale begins to be quite en-
feebled and spent, when they plunge their
longer spears into various parts of its body,
and the enormous animal expires.8 When it
the surface of the water at intervals to respire in the air.
The heart has two ventricles and two auricles. The
blood is warmer than in the human species ; m a narwhal
that had been an hour and a half dead, the temperature
of the blood was 97° ; and in a mysticetus recently killed
102°. All of them inhabit the sea. — Some of them pro-
cure their food by means of a kind of sieve, composed of
two fringes of whalebone ; these have no teeth. Others
have no whalebone, but are furnished with teeth. They
all have two lateral or pectoral fins, with concealed bones
like those of a hand ; and a large flexible horizontal tail,
which is the principal member of motion. Some have
a kind of dorsal fin, which is an adipose or cartilaginous
substance, without motion. This fin, varying in form,
size, and position, in different species, and being in a
conspicuous situation, is well adapted for a specific dis-
tinction. The appearance and dimensions of the whale-
bone and teeth, especially the former, are other specific
characteristics. All whales have spiracles or blowholes,
some with one, others with two openings, through
which they breathe ; some have a smooth skin all over the
body ; others have rugae or sulci about the region of
the thorax and on the lower jaw. And all afford be-
neath the integuments, a quantity of fat or blubber, from
whence a useful and valuable oil, the train oil of com-
ruerce, is extracted. — Scorcsby.
1 It is also customary to have a man stationary with
an axe, ready to cut the rope asunder should it become
entangled.
2 The extreme fidelity of these wonderful animals to-
is dead, to prevent it from sinking, they tie
it with a strong iron chain to the side of the
boat, and either cut it up in pieces, and carry
it home in that manner, or extract the oil
from the blubber on ship-board.
Such is the manner in which these fish
were taken in the beginning ; but succeeding
arts have improved the method, and the har-
poon is now thrown by ; a machine being
used which inflicts a deeper wound, and
strikes the animal with much greater certainty;
there are better methods for extracting oil, and
proper machines for cutting the animal up,
than were used in the early fisheries. But
as an account of this belongs-to-the history of
art, and not of nature, we must be contented
with observing, that several parts of this ani-
mal, and all but the intestines and the bones,
are turned to a very good account ; not only
the oil, but the greaves from which it is sepa-
rated. The barbs also were an article of
great profit ; but have sunk in their price
since women no longer use them to swell out
their petticoats with whalebone. The flesh
of this animal is also a dainty to some nations,
and even the French seamen are now .and
then found to dress and use it as their ordin-
ary diet at sea. It is said, by the English
and Dutch sailors, to be hard and ill-tasted ;
but the French assert the contrary ; and the
savages of Greenland, as well as those near
the south pole, are fond of it to distraction.
They eat the flesh, and drink the oil, which
is a first-rate delicacy. The finding a dead
whale is an adventure considered among the
fortunate circumstances of their wretched lives.
wards each other, and their affection for their offspring,
is most incredible. So fondly attached are they to the
society of their brethren, that many instances are re-
corded of their assuming a passive floating position, on
the surface, after offering much resistance ; as though
disdaining to survive the loss of their companions. Thus,
when the Cyrus had captured six, out of a herd of seven
whales, and they were supported around the vessel on
the water, the surviving one rose, and thrust its head
amongst its dead brethren, and remained immovable,
close to the vessel, while it was killed. In general,
the female is accompanied in her progress by her young
one, though, on the contrary, she sometimes wanders
very far from it ; and yet, by some unknown impulse,
highly calculated to excite our amazement, she has no
difficulty in finding it, though perfectly silent, in the
vast and trackless ocean, as often as she requires ; and
the same may be said of all the cetacea. But further,
when her young one is hardest pursued and harpooned,
she supports it under her fin, while she plunges with it for
safety into unfathomable depths. A young whale, hav-
ing been struck by a harpoon from a Hull vessel, being
at the time at some distance from its mother, had run
out some length of line, when the latter appeared in
sight, and rapidly bent her course towards it. In vain
did she use every usual means to induce it to leave the
place of danger, while swimming by its side, as far RS
the line would allow, in circles around the boats, during
»HP space of four houns ; and within this time, on four
separate occasions, the parent was observed, wheu on
260
HISTORY OF FISHES.
They make their abode beside it ; and seldom
remove till they have left nothing but the
bones.
Jacobson, whom we quoted before in tlie
History of Birds, where he described his
countrymen of the island of Feroe as living a
part of the year upon salted gulls, tells us
also, that they are very fond of salted whale's
flesh. The fat of the head they season with
bay salt, and then hang it up to dry in the
chimney. He thinks it tastes as well as fat
bacon; and the lean, which they boil, is, in
his opinion, not inferior to beef. I fancy
poor Jacobson would make but an indifferent
taster at one of our city feasts 1
CHAP. IV.
OF THE NARWHAL.1
(See Plate XIV. fig. 20.)
FROM whales that entirely want teeth, we
tome to such as have them in the upper jaw
the surface, to throw one of her fins over the body of the
young whale, and to endeavour to drag it away by all
the force she possessed ; she, lastly, in this way set off
with it in a straight direction, carrying away additional
tine, to the extent of seven hundred and twenty fathoms;
but by that time, the young one became so much ex-
hausted from loss of blood, that she necessarily aban-
doned it to its fate, and herself escaped, by pursuing her
progress towards the ice, roaring and spouting with
great vehemence ; for when a whale is struck with a
harpoon, or is enraged by the loss of its young, it ejects
the water through its spiracles with great force, produc-
ing a striduous kind of roaring, which may be heard the
distance of a mile.
1 The Beluga or White fThale. The general appear-
ance of this very beautiful animal will be perceived from
the following cut. A Beluga for nearly three months
during the summer of 1815 was observed to inhabit the
Frith of Forth, passing upwards almost every day with
the tide, and returning with the ebbing of the waters.
During this time it was generally known under the
name of the White Whale, and was supposed fre-
quently to be in pursuit of salmon. Many fruitless at-
tempts were made to secure it ; but at length it was
killed by the salmon-fishers, by means of spears and
fire-arms. It was purchased by Mr Bald of Alloa, and
only ; and in this class is found but one, the
Narwhal, or Sea-unicorn. This fish is not so
large as the whale, not being above sixty feet
long. Its body is slenderer than that of the
whale, and its fat not in so great abundance.
But this great animal is sufficiently distin-
guished from all others of the deep by its
tooth, or teeth, which stand pointing directly
forward from the upper jaw, and are from nine
to fourteen feet long. In all the variety of wea-
pons with which Nature has armed her various
tribes, there is not one so large or so formid-
able as this. This terrible weapon is gener-
ally found single, and some are of opinion
that the animal is furnished but with one by
nature ; but there is at present the skull of a
narwhal at the Stadthouse at Amsterdam,
with two teeth ; which plainly proves that in
some animals, at least, this instrument is
double. It is even a doubt whether it may
not. be so in all ; and that the narwhal's want-
ing a tooth is only an accident which it has
met with in the encounters it is obliged daily
to be engaged in. Yet it must be owned, of
those that are taken only with one tooth, there
seem no socket, nor no remains of any other
upon the opposite side of the jaw, but all is
plain and even. However this be, the tooth,
or, as some are pleased to call it, the horn
of the narwhal, is the most terrible of all
natural instruments of destruction. It is
as straight as an arrow, about the thickness
of the small of a man's leg, wreathed in the
manner we sometimes see twisted bars of
transmitted by him to Professor Jameson, and is now
in the Royal museum at Edinburgh. It was examined
by Drs Barclay and Neil, whose observations are pub-
lished in Trans, ffernerian Soc. vol. iii.
The food of the Beluga is said to be cod, haddocks,
flounders, and smaller fish of this description. It seeks
them with perseverance, pursues them with ardour, and
devours them with avidity. Its favourite haunts are
evidently the higher latitudes of the Arctic regions.
They are plentiful in Hudson's bay, Davis's straits, and
on some parts of the northern coasts of Asia and Amer-
ica, where they frequent the large rivers. Steller men-
tions them as being found at Kamtschatka ; and accord-
ing to Charleroix, they are numerous in the Gulf of St
Lawrence, and go with the tide as high as Quebec.
There are fisheries both for them and the porpoise in
that river. A considerable quantity of oil is obtained,
and of their skins is made a sort of morocco leather,
thin, yet strong enough to resist a musket-ball (Pen.
Art. Zool. i. 183). They also abound near Disco
island in Greenland, and are not uncommon in Spitz-
bergen. Mr Scorseby never observed them lower than
Jan Mayen's land. This navigator also remarks, that
he has seldom seen them among the ice, but in thos«
places where the water is clearest and smoothest. They
are not at all shy, but often follow the ships, and tumble
about the boats in herds of thirty or forty ; bespangling
the surface with their splendid whiteness. They are
seldom pursued by the whale fishers, not only because
it is difficult to strike them, on account of their great
activity ; but because the harpoon often gives way ; and
they are, moreover, of comparatively little value when
killed. It is only a few stragglers that are seen in the
THE NARWHAL.
2G1
iron ; it tapers to a sharp point ; and is whiter,
heavier and harder, than ivory. It is g
nerally seen to spring from the left side of the
head directly forward in a straight line with
the body ; and its root enters into the socket
above a foot and a half. In a skull to be seen
at Hamburgh there are two teeth, which are
each above seven feet long, and are eight
inches in circumference. When the animal,
southern latitudes, or even on the European shores.
Besides the one mentioned above, Colonel Imrie, in
1793, saw two young ones which had been cast upon the
beach in the Pentland Frith, some miles to the east of
Tliurso. They were both males, between seven and
eight feet long; they were white, mottled with brown-
ish-gray.
The Deductor or Ca'ing Whale. Egede is perhaps
the first author who makes mention of the Deductor,
tinder the name of Butshead (Descrip. of Greenland,
75) ; and he was soon followed by Duhamel, who gave
a figure of one taken at Havre, under the name of " the
porpoise with the round snout." In 1806, Dr Neil,
in an appendix to his " Tour through some of the islands
of Orkney and Shetland," gives a more extended and
interesting account of them, under the name of Uyea-
Sound or Ca'ing Whales, than any which had previously
appeared ; and three years after, Dr Trail published in
Nicolson's Journal (1809) the first accurate description
of this species, giving it the appellation of Dclphinus
Melas, with a drawing from his friend James Watson,
Esq., which was republished, with additional details,
by Scoresby in his " Arctic regions, 1830." In 1812,
an interesting memoir concerning this variety, named
by him Globiceps, appeared from the pen of Cuvier, in
vol. xix. Ann. du Museum. From these sources, some
interesting circumstances may be detailed of this species.
It would appear that the Northern ocean, from the
56° to the C6°, is the favourite resort of the Deductor.
Sometimes it has been witnessed in lower latitudes ; but
not frequently, nor in large numbers; it would also
seem to have been seen in the Mediterranean, but
whether as a mere straggler or a permanent residenter,
we cannot decidely affirm. Of all the cetacea, this
would appear to be the most sociable, often herding toge-
ther in innumerable flocks. We shall here supply a few
facts which establish this point. From an old history
of the Feroe islands, quoted by Scoresby, it would ap-
pear that the inhabitants are in the habit of hunting
these animals, which they designate Grind IP/tales, and
capture them in great numbers. In the year 16C4, on
two excursions on\y, they killed about one thousand.
In the year 1748, forty individuals of this species were
seen in Tor bay, and one seventeen feet long was cap-
tured; in 1799, about two hundred ran ashore in Fetlar,
one of the Shetland isles; and in 1805, as nu-ntioned
possessed of these formidable weapons, ia
urged to employ them, it drives directly for-
ward against the enemy with its teeth, that,
like protended spears, pierce whatever stands
before them.
The extreme length of these instruments
has induced some to consider them rather as
horns than teeth ; but they in every respect
resemble the tusks of the boar and the ele-
phant. They grow, as in them, from sockets
in the upper jaw ; they have the solidity of
the hardest bone, and tar surpass ivory in all
its qualities. The same error has led others to
suppose, that as among quadrupeds the female
was often found without horns^ so these in-
struments of defence were only to be found in
the male : but this has been more than once
refuted by actual experience ; both sexes are
found armed in this manner ; the horn is some-
times found wreathed, and sometimes smooth ;
sometimes a little bent, and sometimes straight;
but always strong, deeply fixed, and sharply
pointed.
Yet, notwithstanding all these appointments
for combat, these long and pointed tusks,
amazing strength, and unmatchable celerity,
the narwhal is one of the most harmless and
peaceful inhabitants of the ocean. It is seen
constantly and inoffensively sporting among
the other great monsters of the deep, no way
attempting to injure them, but pleased in
their company. The Greenlanders call the
narwhal the forerunner of the whale ; for
wherever it is seen, the whale is shortly after
sure to follow. This may arise as well from
the natural passion for society in these ani-
mals, as from both living upon the same food,
which are the insects described in the prece-
ding chapter. These powerful fishes make
war upon no other living creature ; and
though furnished with instruments to spread
general destruction, are as innocent and as
peaceful as a drove of oxen. Nay, so regard
less are they of their own weapons, and so
utterly unmindful to keep them in repair for
engagement, that they are constantly seen
covered over with weeds, slough, and all the
filth of the sea ; they seem rather considered
as an impediment than a defence.
by Dr Neil, in February, one hundred and ninety, and
in March, one hundred and twenty more, out of a herd
of about five hundred, were forced ashore on the same
spot in Uyea-Sonnd in Unst. In 1806, ninety-two
were stranded in Scalpa bay, Orkney: in the winter of
1809 and 181(1, eleven hundred and ten of these whales
approached the shore of Hvalfiord, Iceland, and were
captured: in 1812, seventy were chased ashore near the
village of Blounalzbance, on the coast of Bretagne; and
in 1814, one hundred and fifty were driven into Balta
sound, Shetland, and were there despatched. These
are only a few of the instances, in which, in modern
times, an extensive slaughter of the Deductor has taken
place. — Naturalist's Lib., by Sir. TP . Jardine.
9-6-2
HISTORY OF FISHES.
The manners and appetites both of the nar-
whal and the great whale are entirely similar ;
they both alike want teeth for chewing, and
are obliged to live upon insects; they both are
peaceable and harmless, and always rather fly
than seek, the combat. The narwhal, how-
ever, has a much narrower gape than the
great whale, and, therefore, does not want the
use of barbs to keep in its food when once
sacked into the mouth. It is also much
swifter, and would never be taken by the fisher-
men but for those very tusks which at first
appear to be its principal defence. These
animals, as was said, being fond of living to-
gether, are always seen in herds of several hun-
dreds at a time; and whenever they are attacked
they crowd together in such a manner, that
they are mutually embarrassed by their tusks*
By these they are often locked together, and
are prevented from sinking to the bottom. It
seldom happens, therefore, but the fishermen
make sure of one or two of the hindmost,
which very well reward their trouble.1
It is from the extraordinary circumstance
of the teeth, therefore, that this fish demands
a distinct history ; and such has been the
curiosity of mankind, and their desire to pro-
cure them, that a century ago they were con-
sidered as the greatest rarity in the world.
At that time the art of catching whales was
not known ; and mankind saw few, except
such as were stranded on the coasts by acci-
dent. The tooth of the narwhal, therefore,
was ascribed to a very different animal from
that which really bore it. Among other fos-
sil substances, they were sometimes dug up ;
and the narwhal being utterly unknown, na-
turalists soon found a terrestrial owner. They
were thought to be the horns of unicorns, an
animal described by Pliny as resembling a
horse, and with one straight horn darting for-
ward from the middle of its forehead. These
teeth were, therefore, considered as a strong
testimony in favour of that historian's veracity,
and were shown among the most precious
remains of antiquity. Even for some time
alter the narwhal was known, the deceit was
continued, as those who were possessed of a
tooth sold it to great advantage. But at pre-
sent they are too well known to deceive any,
and are only shown for what they really are;
their curiosity increasing in proportion to their
weight and size.
1 The blubber of the narwhal prod noes very fine oil ;
but it is chiefly hunted for its tusk, which forms ivory
of a quality superior to that of the elephant.
CHAP. V.
OF THE CACHALOT, AND ITS VARIETIES.4
(For Great Headed Cachalot, see Plate XI V. fig. 24.)
THE Cachalot which has generally gone
under the name of the spermaceti-whale, till
2 The Spermaceti Cachalot is found in greatest abun-
dance in the Pacific ocean, where large numbers of them
are annually killed by the American and other whalers
for the sake of their oil and spermaceti. The spermaceti
cachalot is gregarious, and herds are frequently seen
containing two hundred or more individuals. Such herds,
with the exception of two or three old males, are com-
posed of females, who appear to be under the direction
of the males. The males are distinguished by the whalers
as lulls ; the females they call cows. The bulls attack
with great violence, and inflict dreadful injuries upon
other males of the species which attempt to join their
herd. These animals live separately, while young, ac-
cording to their age and sex. The young and half grown
males are found by themselves ; the old cows protect the
young females. When the young bulls attain sufficient
strength, they venture into a herd under the protection
of some old bulls, an intrusion that is said to produce a
severe contest, by which they succeed in gaining admit-
tance to, or are driven from the herd.
The mode of attacking these animals is as follows: —
Whenever a number of them are seen, four boats, each pro-
vided with two or three lines, two harpoons, four lances,
and a crew of six men, proceed in pursuit, and, if pos-
sible, each boat strikes or "fastens to" a distinct animal,
and each crew kill their own. When engaged in dis-
tant pursuit, the harpooner generally steers the boat, and
in such cases the proper boat steerer occasionally strikes,
but the harpooner mostly kills it. If one cachalot of a
herd is struck, it commonly takes the lead and is followed
by the rest. The one which is struck seldom descends
far under water, but generally swims off' with great ra-
pidity, stopping after a short course, so that the boat can
be drawn up to it by the line, or be rowed sufficiently
near to larice it. In the agonies of death, the struggles
of the animal are truly tremendous, end the surface of
the ocean is lashed into foam by the motions of the fins
and tail. Tall jets of blood are discharged from the
blowholes, which show that the wounds have taken
mortal effect, and seeing this, the boats are kept aloof,
lest they should be dashed to pieces by the violent efforts
of the victim.
When a herd is attacked in this way, ten or twelve
of the number are killed ; those which are only wounded
are rarely captured. After the cachalot is killed, the
THE CACHALOT.
203
Mr Pennant very properly made the distinc-
tion, by borrowing its name from the French,
has several teeth in the under jaw, but none
in the upper. As there are no less than seven
distinctions among whales, so also there are
the same number of distinctions in the tribe
we are describing. The cachalot with two
fins and a black back ; the cachalot with two
fins and a whitish back ; that with a spout in
the neck ; that with a spout in the snout ; that
with three fins and sharp-pointed teeth ; that
with three fins and sharp-edged teeth ; and,
lastly, the cachalot, with three fins and flatted
teeth.
This tribe is not of such enormous size as
the whale, properly so called, not being above
sixty feet long, and sixteen feet high. In
consequence of their being more slender, they
are much more active than the common whale ;
they remain a longer time at the bottom ; and
afford a smaller quantity of oil. As in the
common whale the head was seen to make a
third part of its bulk, so in this species the
head is so large as to make one half of the
whole. The tongue of this animal is small,
but the throat is very formidable ; and with
very great ease it could swallow an ox. In
boats tow it to the side of the ship, and if the weather he
fine, and other objects of chase in view, they are again
sent to the attack.
The separation of the blubber from the animal, or
" flensing," is sometimes done differently from the
manner used in the polar whaling. A strap of blubber
is cut in a spiral direction, and being raised by tackles,
turns the cachalot round as on an axis, until nearly all
the blubber is stripped ofl'. The material contained within
the head, consisting of spermaceti mixed with oil, being
in a fluid state while warm, is taken out of large cacha-
lots in buckets, while the animal remains in the water;
hut in smaller ones, the part of the head containing the
spermaceti, is hoisted upon deck before the cavity is
opened.
The substances taken from the head, congealing as
soon as cold, the compound is thrown in its crude state
into casks, and is purified at the end of the voyage on
shore. The oil is reduced from the blubber shortly after
it is on board, in " try works," with which the ships
engaged in this business are always provided. There
are two coppers in the try works, placed side by side,
near the fore hatch. These, with their furnaces and
rasing of brickwork, occupy a space of five or six feet in
length, by eight or nine in breadth, (or fore and aft —
and athwart ship,) and four or five feet in height. The
cavity of the brick arches sustaining the coppers and
furnaces, forms a water cistern, so that while the
fire is burning, the deck is secured from injury by the
changing of the water in the cistern twice or thrice in
every watch. As the oil is extracted it is thrown into
r.oolers, whence, after about twenty-four hours, it is
transferred to casks. At first the coppers are heated
with wood, but afterward the cracklings or fritters of the
blubber, which still contain some oil, are employed as
fuel, and produce a fierce fire. About three tons of oil
are commonly obtained from a large cachalot of this spe-
cies; from one to two tons are procured from a small
one. A cargo, produced from one hundred cachalots,
may be from 150 to 200 tons of oil, besides the sperma-
ceti, &c.
the stomach of the whale scarcely any thing
is to be found ; but in that of the cachalot there
are loads offish of different kinds ; some whole,
some half digested, some small, and others
eight or nine feet long. The cachalot is,
therefore, as destructive among lesser fishes,
as the whale is harmless ; and can at one gulp
swallow a shoal of fishes down its enormous
gullet. — Linnaeus tells us that this fish pursues
and terrifies the dolphins and porpoises so
much, as often to drive them on shore.
But, how formidable soever this fish may
be to its fellows of the deep, it is by far the
most valuable, and the most sought after by
man, as it contains two very precious drugs,
spermaceti and ambergris. The use of these,
either for the purposes of luxury or medi-
cine, is so universal, that the capture of this
animal, that alone supplies them, turns out to
very great advantage, particularly since the
art has been found out of converting all the
oil of this animal, as well as the brain, into
that substance called spermaceti.
This substance, as it is naturally formed,
is found in the head of the animal, and is no
other than the brain. The outward skin of
the head being taken off, a covering of fat
offers about three inches thick ; and under
that, instead of a bony skull, the animal has
only another thick skin that serves for a
covering and defence of the brain. The first
cavity or chamber of the brain, is filled with
that spermaceti which is supposed of ths
greatest purity and highest value. From this
cavity there is generally drawn about seven
barrels of the clearest spermaceti, that thrown
upon water coagulates like cheese. Below
this there is another chamber just over the
gullet, which is about seven feet high ; and
this also contains the drug, but of less value.
It is distributed in this cavity like honey in a
hive, in small cells, separated from each other
by a membrane like the innfir skin of an egg.
In proportion as the oily substance is drawn
away from this part, it fills anew from every
part of the body ; and from this is generally
obtained about nine barrels of oil. Besides
this, the spinal-marrow, which is as thick as
a man's thigh, and reaches all along the
backbone to the tail, where it is not thicker
than one's finger, affords no inconsiderable
quantity.1
This substance, which is used in the com-
position of many medicines, rather to give
them consistence than efficacy, was at first
sold at a very high price, both from the many
virtues ascribed to it, and the small quantity
that the cachalot was capable of supplying :
1 The perfume called Ambergris, is found in large
masses in the intestines, and is now known to be nothing
more than the excrements of the animal.
264
HISTORY OF FISHES.
at present, tlie price is greatly fallen ; first
because its efficacy in medicine is found to be
very small : and again, because the whole oi
of the fish is easily convertable into spermaceti.
This is performed by boiling it with a ley oi
pot-ash, and hardening it in the manner oi
soap. Candles are now made of it, which are
substituted for wax, and sold much cheaper;
so that we need not fear having our spermaceti
adulterated in the manner some medical books
caution us to beware of; for they carefully
guard us against having our spermaceti adul-
terated with virgin wax.
As to the ambergris, which is sometimes
found in this whale, it was long considered as
a substance found floating on the surface of
the sea ; but time, that reveals the secrets of
the mercenary, has discovered that it chiefly
belongs to this animal. The name, which
has been improperly given to the former sub-
stance, seems more justly to belong to this ;
for the ambergris is found in the place where
the seminal vessels are usually situated in
other animals. It is found in a bag of three
or four feet long, in round lumps from one to
twenty pounds weight, floating in a fluid
rather thinner than oil, and of a yellowish
colour. There are never seen more than four
at a time in one of these bags ; and that
which weighed twenty pounds, and which
was the largest ever seen, was found single.
These balls of ambergris are not found in all
fishes of this kind, but chiefly in the oldest
and strongest. The uses of this medicine
for the purposes of luxury, and as a per-
fume, are well known ; though upon some
petites, their manners, and conformations ;
being equally voracious, active, and roving.1
The great agility of these animals prevents
their often being taken. They seldom remain
1 The Dolphin tribe of cetaceous fishes comprehends
about thirteen species, eleven with the dorsal fin, and the
others without. Soosoo is the name which the Bengalese
about Calcutta give to a species of dolphin found in the
Ganges, especially in the slow-moving labyrinth of rivers
and creeks which intersect the Delta of that river to the
south, south-east and east of Calcutta. The description
of this new species we owe to Dr Roxburgh, who dis-
tinguishes it by the name of Delphinus Gangeticug. Its
body (including the head) is long and slender, thickest
about the forepart, and from thence tapering to the tail;
from the anus forward nearly round. The skin is soft,
smooth, and of a shining pearl-gray when dry, with here
and there light-coloured spots or clouds, particularly
when old. When the animal is alive, and seen in the
act of rising to breathe, it appears much darker. The
length of the individual which Dr Roxburgh examined
(and which was young, little more than half grown,) was
six and a half feet, and at the thickest part, which is
rather behind the pectoral fins, three feet in circum-
ference. The weight 120 pounds. For Delphinus
Phoycena, or Porpoise, see Plate XIV. fig. 22.
The Common Dolphin. This animal is perhaps better
<nOwn as the fictitious creature of unrestrained imajji-
wv *rmm »..*<-r*Tt. . vilV^LAJ-11 UISVII OtJlIHJ . 1C, , , . >~1 f
-i,K;,,,.*r. ;^.^ t ui • r nation and of heroic poetry, than the sober Goose of the
subjects ignorance is preferable to mforma. 8ca. It is unlfor^y iidered as the dolphin of
tion.
CHAP. VI.
OF THE DOLPHIN, THE GRAMPUS AND THE
TORPOISE, WITH THEIR VARIETIES.
ALL these fish have teeth both in the upper
and the lower jaw, and are much less than
the whale. The Grampus, which is the
largest, never exceeds twenty feet. It may
also be distinguished by the flatness of its
head, which resembles a boat turned upside
down. The Porpoise resembles the grampus
in most things except the snout, which is not
above eight feet long ; its snout also more
lesembles that of a hog. The Dolphin has a
strong resemblance to the porpoise, except
that its snout is longer, and more pointed.
They have all fins on the back ; they all have
heads very large, like the rest of the whale-
kind ; and resemble each other in their ap-
nntiquity ; the original whence were produced those
fantastic beings, endowed with all those extraordinary
attributes and charms with which it was clothed. It is
the Hieros Ichthys, or Sacred Fish of the Greeks, to
which they originally paid divine honours, and which
they afterwards embellished with all the illusions of un-
bridled fancy. It was also sacred to their god Apollo ;
the reason assigned for which is, that when Apollo ap-
peared to the Cretans, and obliged them to settle on the
coasts of Delphis, where he founded that oracle so famous
throughout antiquity, he did so under the form of a dolphin.
Apollo w-as thus, according to Visconti, adored not only
in connection with the Delphin province, but the Del-
phinus fish. He was worshipped at Delphi with dolphins
for his symbols. The ancients respected the dolphin
as a benefactor of mankind ; they cherished the tale of
Phalantus, the founder of Tarentum, being carried on
shore by a dolphin when wrecked on the coast of Italy ;
and the story of the musician Arion, who, when about
to be thrown overboard by the sailors that they might
possess themselves of his wealth, begged that he might
be permitted to play some melodious tune, and then
throw himself into the sea ; upon which one of the many
Dolphins, which had been attracted by the music, car-
ried him on its hack safe to Tenarus ; or rather, perhaps,
according to Ovid,
Secure he sits, and with harmonious struins
Requites his bearer for his friendly pair.?.
It is also recorded that the shield and sword of Ulysses
THE DOLPHIN.
2G5
a moment above water; sometimes, indeed,
their too eager pursuits expose them to dan-
ger ; and a shoal of herrings often allures
them out of their depth. In such a case, the
hungry animal continues to flounder in the
shallows till knocked on the head, or till the
returning tide seasonably comes to its relief.
But all this tribe, and the dolphin in particu-
lar, are not less swift than destructive. No
fish could escape them, but from the awkward
position of the mouth, which is placed in a
manner under the head : yet, even with these
disadvantages, their depredations are so great,
that they have been justly styled the plun-
derers of the deep.
What could induce the ancients to a pre-
dilection in favour of these animals, particu-
larly the dolphin, it is not easy to account for.
Historians and philosophers seem to have con-
tended who should invent the greatest num-
ber of fables concerning them. The dolphin
was celebrated in the earliest time for its
fondness to the human race, and was distin-
guished by the epithets of the boy-loving and
philanthropist. Scarcely an accident could
happen at sea, but the dolphin offered himself
to convoy the unfortunate to shore. The
musician flung into the sea by pirates, the
boy taking an airing in the midst of the sea,
and returning again in safety, were obliged
to the dolphin for its services. It is not easy,
I say, to assign a cause why the ancients
should thus have invented so many fables in
their favour. The figure of these animals is
far from prejudicing us in their interest;
their extreme rapacity tends still less to en-
dear them ; I know nothing that can reconcile
them to man and excite his prejudices, except
that when taken they sometimes have a plain-
tive moan, with which they continue to ex-
press their pain till they expire. This, at
first, might have excited human pity; arid
that might have produced affection. At pre-
sent, these fishes are regarded even by the
vulgar in a very different light ; their appear-
ance is far from being esteemed a favourable
omen by the seamen ; and from their bound-
ings, springs, and frolics in the water, ex-
perience has taught the mariners to prepajo
for a storm.
But it is not to one circumstance only that
the ancients have confined their fabulous re-
bore an image of the dolphin, and it is certain it is seen
in very ancient medals and coins. It very early ap-
peared on the shield of some of the princes of France ;
it gave a name to a fair province of that empire, and
hence a title to the heir-apparent of the crown.
Scarcely less fabulous are those other narratives which
have been transmitted on the testimony of the early
naturalists. They tell us that the dolphin made itself
familiar with man, and conceived a warm attachment
for him. Pliny narrates that in Barbary, near the town of
Hippo, a dolphin used to frequent the shore, and accept
of food from any hand which supplied it; it would mix
among those who were bathing, would allow them to
mount its back, would consign itself with docility to their
direction, and obey them with as much celerity as pre-
cision (lib. ix. chap. 48). Still more extraordinary is
that other tale the ancients relate in illustration of the
assertion that the dolphin was yet more partial to chil-
dren than to adults. Thus, according to Pliny, in
several chronicles it was recorded that a dolphin which
had penetrated the lake of Lucrinus, in Campania, every
day received bread from the hand of a child, answering
to his call, and transporting him on its back to school to
the other side of the lake. This intimacy continued for
several years, when the boy dying, the affectionate dol-
phin, overwhelmed with grief, soon sunk under its be-
reavement. For such stories as these, which might be
easily multiplied from Herodotus, Plutarch, &c., we
apprehend that most of .our readers will have but little
patience ; and we therefore dismiss them with the well
known apophthegm,
Sed quid non Grecia mendax
Audet in historia ?
The common dolphin is usually six or seven feet
long, sometimes nine or ten. Its proportions on the
whole are pleasing, and admirably adapted for swim-
ming. The pectoral fin is oval and placed very low;
the tail is large and powerful. Its tints, though not
gay, are attractive. It is black on the back, grayish
on the flanks, and white underneath, with a peculiar
arid sutiny glistening wl.en in or newly taken out of
VOL. II.
the water, which is striking and beautiful. It may
be well, however, here to remark, that " the dolphin
with its many dying colours" mentioned in many books,
and sung by modern poets, is not this, but quite another
animal, belonging to a different class of the animal king-
dom ; it is a true fish, the beautifully coloured Coryphcena
Hippuris, the Dorado of the Portuguese.
The common dolphin is an inhabitant of the Euro-
pean seas, of the Atlantic, and Mediterranean. It is
more common in the temperate zone than in places
that are further south. It is true that other species of
this genus frequent the seas of Africa, Asia, and Ame-
rica ; but it is by no means satisfactorily ascertained
that the species now under consideration has this exten-
sive range. The opposite opinion seems to be much
more probable. They navigate the waters of the ocean
in more or less numerous troops, and their vigorous
springs and rapid natation, which is daily observed by
voyagers, has long made them famous. The common
dolphin has long been peculiarly signalized for these
qualities, which however it enjoys only in common with
the larger number of its congeners, and on these points
it does not merit any particular distinctions. To swim
with the rapidity of an arrow, to shoot ahead of vessels
which are scudding before the breeze, to spring out of the
water, and over the waves, are qualifications possessed
alike by all the smaller cetacea which live in troops in
the ocean.
Pernetty's Dolphin. — On the 30th of October the
vessel of Bougainville, in which Pernetty sailed, being
near the Cape-de-Verd islands, was surrounded by about
a hundred dolphins, which approached very near them.
" They appeared," says Pernetty, " to have come only
for the purpose of amusing us ; they made extraordinary
leaps out of the water ; many of these in their capering
vaulted four feet high, and turned over two or three
times in the air."
One of these dolphins which was taken, weighed a
hundred pounds ; its beak was slender, and covered
with a thick and grayish skin. "I think," says the
author, " it was of that species which is named the
Monk of the Sea, for the anterior part of the head tor-
266
HISTORY OF FISHES.
ports concerning these animals ; as from their
leaps out of their element, they assume a tem-
porary curvature, which is by no means their
natural figure in the water, the old painters
and sculptors have universally drawn them
svrong. A dolphin is scarcely ever exhibited
by the ancients in a straight shape, but curved,
in the position which they sometimes appear
in when exerting their force ; and the poets
too have adopted the general error. Even
Pliny, the best naturalist, has asserted, that
they instantly die when taken out of the
water ; but Rondelet, on the contrary, assures
us that he has seen a dolphin carried alive
from Montpelier to Lyons.
The moderns have more just notions of
these animals; and have got over the many
fables, which every day's experience contra-
dicts. Indeed their numbers are so great,
and, though shy, they are so often taken, that
such peculiarities, if they were possessed of
any, would have been long since ascertained.
They are found, the porpoise especially, in
such vast numbers, in all parts of the sea that
surrounds this kingdom, that they are some-
times noxious to seamen, when they sail in
small vessels. In some places they almost
darken the water as they rise to take breath,
and particularly before bad weather, are much
agitated, swimming against the wind, and
tumbling about with unusual violence.
Whether these motions be the gambols of
pleasure or the agitations of terror, is not well
known. It is most probable that they dread
those seasons of turbulence, when the lesser
fishes shrink to the bottom, and their prey no
longer offers in such abundance. In times of
fairer weather they are seen herding together,
and pursuing shoals of various fish with great
minated in a hood near the root of the muzzle, and
there presented something like the edge of a cloak; the
back was black, and the abdomen of a pearly-gray colour,
verging to yellowish, dappled with spots, some black
*nd others of an iron-gray colour: the teeth were sharp,
white, and in the form of those of the pike." To these
peculiar characters, Pernetty adds those which are com-
mon to all the genus, and subjoins one which, we believe,
is often referred to many of them, viz. that they exhale
an odour which is so strong and penetrating, that what-
ever substance is impregnated with it, retains it for many
days, in spite of all that can be done to overcome it.
impetuosity. Their method of hunting their
game, if it may be so called, is to follow in a
pack, and thus give each other mutual assist-
ance. At that season, when the mackarel,
the herring, the salmon, and other fish of pas-
sage begin to make their appearance, the ce-
taceous tribes are seen fierce in the pursuit ;
urging their prey from one creek or bay to
another, deterring them from the shallows,
driving them towards each other's ambush,
and using a greater variety of arts than
hounds are seen to exert in pursuing the hare.
However, the porpoise not only seeks for prey
near the surface, but often descends to the
bottom in search of sand-eels, and sea-worms,
which it roots otit of the sand with its nose,
in the manner hogs harrow up the fields for
food. For this purpose, the nose projects a
little, is shorter and stronger than (hat of the
dolphin ; and the neck is furnished with very
strong muscles, which enable it the readier to
turn up the sand.
But it sometimes happens, that the impe-
tuosity, or the hunger, of these animals, in
their usual pursuits, urges them beyond the
limits of safety. The fishermen, who extend
their long nets for pilchards, on the coasts of
Cornwall, have sometimes an unwelcome cap-
ture in one of these. — Their feeble nets, which
are calculated only for taking smaller prey,
suffer a universal laceration from the efforts cf
this strong animal to escape ; and if it be not
knocked on the head, before it has had time
to flounder, the nets are destroyed, and the
fishery interrupted. There is nothing, there-
fore, they so much dread, as the entangling a
porpoise ; and they do every thing to intimi-
date the animal from approaching.
Indeed, these creatures are so violent in the
pursuit of their prey, that they sometimes fol-
low a shoal of small fishes up a fresh-water
river, from whence they find no small diffi-
culty to return. We have often seen them
taken in the Thames at London, both above
the bridges and below them. It is curious
enough to observe with what activity they
avoid their pursuers, and what little time they
require to fetch breath above the water. The
manner of killing them is for four or five
boats to spread over the part of the river in
which they are seen, and with fire-arms to
shoot at them the instant they rise above the
water. The fish being thus for some time
kept in agitalion, requires to come to the sur-
face at quicker interval?, and thus affords the
marksmen more frequent opportunities.
When the porpoise is taken, it becomes no
1 During a scarcity of fish, porpoises are said to dive
to the bottom, and root, like hogs, among the sand, for
sand-eels and sea-worms. Hence in most languages
they receive the name of sea-hogs. Porpoise has that
signification in the Italian.
THE DOLPHIN.
267
inconsiderable capture, as it yields a very
large quantity of oil ; and the lean of some,
particularly if the animal be young, is said to
be as well tasted as veal. The inhabitants of
Norway prepare, from the eggs found in the
body of this fish, a kind of cavier, which is
said to be a very delicate sauce, or good when
even eaten with bread. There is a fishery for
porpoise along the western isles of Scotland
during the summer season, when they abound
on that shore ; and this branch of industry
turns to good advantage.
As for the rest, we are told, that these ani-
mals go with young ten months ; that, like
the whale, they seldom bring forth above one
at a time, and that in the midst of summer :
that they live to a considerable age ; though
some say not above twenty-five or thirty years ;
and they sleep with the snout above water.
They seem to possess, in a degree proportioned
to their bulk, the manners of whales ; and (he
history of one species of cetaceous animals,
will, in a great measure, serve for all the rest
HISTORY OF FISHES.
BOOK II
OF CARTILAGINOUS FISHES.
CHAP. I.
OF CARTILAGINOUS FISHES IN GENERAL.
WE have seen that fishes of the cetaceous
kind bear a strong resemblance to quadrupeds
in their conformation ; those of the cartilagi-
nous kinds are one remove separated from
them ; they form the shade that completes the
imperceptible gradations of nature.
The first great distinction they exhibit is,
in having cartilages or gristles instead of
bones. The cetaceous tribes have their bones
entirely resembling those of quadrupeds, thick,
white, and filled with marrow; those of the
spinous kind, on the contrary, have small
slender bones, with points resembling thorns,
and generally solid throughout. Fishes of
the cartilaginous kinds have their bones al-
ways soft and yielding ;*and age, that hardens
the bones of other animals, rather contributes
still more to soften theirs. The size of all
fishes increases with age ; but from the plian-
cy of the bones in this tribe, they seem to
have no bounds placed to their dimensions ;
and it is supposed that they grow larger
every day till they die.
They have other differences, more obviously
discernible. We have observed, that the ce-
taceous tribes had lungs like quadrupeds, a
heart with its partition in the same manner,
and an apparatus for hearing; on the other
hand, we mentioned that the spinous kinds
had no organs of hearing, no lungs to breathe
through, and no partition in the heart ; but
that their cold red blood was circulated by the
means of the impulse made upon their gills
by the water. Cartilaginous fishes unite both
these systems in their conformation : like the
cetaceous tribes, they have organs of hearing,
and lungs ; like the spinous kinds, they have
gills, and a heart without a partition. Thus
possessed of a twofold power of breathing,
sometimes by means of their lungs, sometimes
by that of their gills, they seem to unite all the
advantages of which their situation is capable,
and drawing from both elements every aid to
their necessities or their enjoyments.
This double capacity of breathing in these
animals, is one of the most remarkable fea-
tures in the history of Nature. The apertures
by which they breathe, are somewhere placed
about the head ; either beneath, as in flat
fish ; on the sides, as in sharks; or the top of
the head, as in pipe-fish. To these apertures
are the gills affixed, but without any bone to
open and shut them, as in spinous fishes ; from
which, by this mark, they may be easily dis.
tinguished, though otherwise very much alike
in appearance. From these are bending cy-
lindrical ducts, that run to the lungs, and are
supposed to convey the air, that gives the or-
gans their proper play. The heart, however,
has but one valve ; so that their blood wants
that double circulation which obtains in the
cetaceous kinds ; and the lungs seem to be
rather as an internal assistant to the gills
than fitted for supplying the same offices as in
quadrupeds, for they want the pulmonary vein
and artery.
From this structure, however, the animal
is enabled to live a longer time out of water
than those whose gills are more simple. The
cartilaginous shark, or ray, live some hours
after they are taken ; while the spinous her-
ring or mackarel expire a few minutes after
they are brought on shore. From hence this
tribe seems possessed of powers that other
fishes are wholly deprived of; they can re-
main continually under water, without ever
taking breath ; while they can venture their
heads above the deep, and continue for hours
out of their native element.
We observed, in a former chapter, that
THE SHARK.
209
spinous fishes have not, or at least appear not
to have, externally any instruments of gener-
ation. It is very different with those of the
cartilaginous kind, for the male always has
these instruments double. The fish of this
tribe are not unfrequently seen to copulate ;
and their manner is belly to belly, such as
may naturally be expected from animals whose
parts of ge'neration are placed forward. They
in general choose colder seasons and situations
than other fish for propagating their kind ;
and many of them bring forth in the midst of
winter.
The same duplicity of character which
marks their general conformation, obtains also
with regard to their manner of bringing forth.
Some bring forth their young alive ; and some
bring forth eggs, which are afterwards brought
to maturity. In all, however, the manner of
gestation is nearly the same ; for upon dissec-
tion, it is ever found, that the young, while
in the body, continue in the egg till a very
little time before they are excluded : these
eggs they may properly be said to hatch
within their body ; and as soon as their young
quit the shell, they begin to quit the womb
also. Unlike to quadrupeds, or the cetaceous
tribes, that quit the egg state in a few days
after theii first conception, and continue in
the womb several months after, these continue
in the body of the female, in their egg state,
for weeks together ; and the eggs are found
linked together by a membrane, from which,
when the foetus gets free, it continues but a
very short time till it delivers itself from its
confinement in the womb. The eggs them-
selves consist of a white and a yolk, and have
a substance instead of shell, that aptly may
be compared to softened horn. These, as I
observed, are sometimes hatched in the womb,
as in the shark and ray kinds ; and they are
sometimes excluded, as in the sturgeon, before
the animal comes to its time of disengag-
ing. Thus we see that there seems very little
difference between the viviparous and the
oviparous kinds, in this class of fishes : the
one hatch their eggs in the womb, and the
young continue no long time there ; the others
exclude their eggs before hatching, and leave
it to time and accident to bring their young
to maturity.
Such are the peculiar marks of the cartila
ginous class of fishes, of which there are many
kinds. To give a distinct description of every
fish is as little my intention, as perhaps it is
the wish of the reader ; but the peculiarities
of each kind deserve notice, and the most
striking of these it would be unpardonable to
omit.
Cartilaginous fish may be divided first into
those of the shark kind, with a body growing
less towards the tail, a rough skin, with the
mouth placed far beneath the end of the nose,
five apertures on the sides of the neck for
breathing, and the upper part of the tail longer
than the lower. This class chiefly compre-
hends the Great White Shark, the Balance
Fish, the Hound Fish, the Monk Fish, the
Dog Fish, the Basking Shark, the Zygaena,
the Tope, the Cat Fish, the Blue Shark-, the
Sea Fox, the Smooth Hound Fish, and the
Porbeagle. These are all of the same nature,
and differ more in size, than in figure or con-
formation.
The next division is that of flat fish ; and
these their broad, flat, thin shape, is suffi-
ciently capable of distinguishing from all
others of this kind. They may be easily dis-
tinguished also from spinous flat fish, by the
holes through which they breathe, which are
uncovered by a bone ; and which, in this kind,
are five on each side. In this tribe we may
place the Torpedo, the Skate, ttie Sharp-nosed
Ray, the Rough Ray, the Thornback, and
the Fire Flare.
The third division is that of the slender
snake-shaped kind ; such as the Lamprey, the
Pride, and the Pipe-fish.
The fourth division is that of the Sturgeon
and its variety, the Ising-glass Fish.
The last division may comprise fish of dif-
ferent figures and natures, that do not rank
under the former divisions. These are the
Sun-Fish, the Tetrodon, the Lump Fish, the
Sea Snail, the Chimaera, and the Fishing
Frog. Each of these has somewhat peculiar
in its powers or its forms, that deserves to be
remarked. The description of the figures ol
these at least may compensate for our general
ignorance of the rest of their history.
CHAP II.
OF CARTILAGINOUS FISHES OF THE SHARK
KIND.1
OF all the inhabitants of the deep, those of
the shark kind are the fiercest and the most
1 About thirty species of sharks have been distin-
guished, of which twelve have been seen on the British
coasts. Some, from pursuing their prey in concert, are
called sea-dogs, hounds, and beagles. We may here
particularize the Blue Shark, the Basking Shark, and
the Angel Shark.
The Blue Shark. — The back of this shark is blue ;
the belly white. No orifices are to be seen behind the
eye, as is usual with fish of this genus. Two white
membranes, one to each eye, perform the office of eye-
lids. When the head was placed downwards, a pretty
large white pouch came out of its mouth. ^Elian sup-
posed this to serve as an asylum for the young in time
of danger; and Mr Pennant, who gives credit to tho
story, thinks that this fish> like the opossum, may have
270
HISTORY OF FISHES.
voracious. The smallest of this tribe is not less
dreaded by greater fish, than many that to
appearance seem more powerful ; nor do any
of them seem fearful of attacking animals far
a place fitted by nature for the reception of her young.
This, however, has been denied by some writers.
The Basking Shark. — This, though a very large fish,
possesses none of the voracity and ferociousness that
mark the generality of the shark tribe. It will frequently
lie motionless on the surface of the water, generally on
its belly, but sometimes on its back ; and it seems so
little afraid of mankind as often to suffer itself to be
patted and stroked. Its body is slender, and from three
to twelve yards in length ; of a deep lead colour above,
and white below. The upper jaw is blunt at the end,
and much longer than the lower. The mouth is placed
beneath, and furnished with small teeth ; these before
much bent, and the remote ones conical and sharp-
pointed. On each side of the neck are five breathing
apertures. There are two dorsal, two pectoral, two
ventral fins, and one small anal fin. Within the mouth,
near the throat, is a short kind of whale-bone. The liver
is of such an immense size as frequently to weigh near
a. thousand pounds. From this a great quantity of good
oil is extracted, which renders this shark an animal of
considerable importance to the Scotch fishermen ; for
according to Anderson, the oil of a single fish will some-
times sell for twenty or thirty pounds sterling. The
basking shark (which derives its name from its propen-
sity to lie on the surface of the water, as if to bask itself
in the sun) frequents our seas during the warm summer
months, and is not uncommon on the Welch and Scot-
tish coasts, where they come in shoals, usually after in-
tervals of a certain number of years. In the intervening
summers, those that are seen upon the Welch coast are
generally single fish, that have probably strayed from the
rest. They appear in the frith of Clyde, and among the
Hebrides, about midsummer, in small droves of seven
or eight, or more commonly in pairs. Here they con-
tinue till the latter end of July, when they disappear.
The food of these sharks seems to consist entirely of
marine plants, and some of the species of medusae. They
swim very deliberately, and generally with their upper
fins above water. Sometimes they may be seen sporting
about amongst the waves, and leaping several feet above
the surface. The natives of our northern coasts are
very alert in the pursuit, and very dexterous in the
killing of those fish. When pursued, they do not accel-
erate their motion till the boat comes almost in contact
with them, when the harpooner strikes his weapon into
the body as near the gills as he can. They seem not
very susceptible of pain ; for they often remain in the
same place till the united strength of two men is exerted
to force the harpoon deeper. As soon as they perceive
themselves wounded, they plunge headlong to the bot-
tom, and frequently coil the rope round their bodies in
agony, attempting to disengage themselves from the
fatal instrument by rolling on the ground. Discovering
that these efforts are in vain, they swim off with such
amazing rapidity, that one instance has occurred of a
basking shark towing to some distance, a vessel of
seventy tons burden against a fresh gale. They some-
times run ofl'with two hundred fathoms of line, and two
harpoons in them ; and will employ the men from twelve
above their size ; but the Great White Shark,
which is the largest of the kind, joins to the
most amazing rapidity, the strongest appetites
for mischief : as he approaches nearly in size
to the whale, he far surpasses him in strength
and celerity, in the formidable arrangement
of his teeth and his insatiable desire of
plunder.
The White Shark is sometimes seen to rank
even among whales for magnitude ; and is
found from twenty to thirty feet long. Some
assert that they have seen them of four
to twenty-four hours before they are subdued. As soon
as they are killed, the fishermen haul them on shore ; or,
if at a distance from land, to the vessel's side, to cut
them up and take out the liver, which is the only useful
part of their bodies. This is melted into oil in kettles
provided for the purpose ; and if the fish be a large one,
it yields eight barrels or upwards.
The Angel-shark. — This is very unlike the common
sharks, being distinguished by its flat body, which forms
the connecting link, as it were, between the genus of rays
and that of sharks, as it partakes of the figure of both.
It is called Angel-shark from its extended pectoral fins
having the appearance of wings. The head is of a cir-
cular form, and rather broader than the body. The mouth
is wide, and is situated at the extremity of the head.
Like the sharks, the old fish of this species have more
teeth than the young ones. Thus two angel-sharks,
only a foot long, in the possession of Dr Block, had only
two rows of teeth in the upper jaw, and three in the
lower ; while Willoughby and Rondelet assert, that there
are three in the former, and five in the latter. Of a
certain portion of the skin the Turks make the most
beautiful shagreen for watch cases. The angel-shark is
found in the Mediterranean and German ocean.
The Spotted Dog-fish is an inhabitant of most seas,
and measures four feet long ; it is very voracious, and
feeds chiefly upon fish. The body is reddish brown, with
large distinct black spots; it is white beneath, and a
little compressed at each end : the skin, when dried, is
used for various purposes. The head is small, and the
snout short ; the eyes are oblong, and the pupil is of a sea-
green colour ; the iris of the eye is white ; the mou'h is
oblong, and wide, armed with three rows of teeth ; the
tongue is cartilaginous, and with the palate is rough; the
nostrils are surrounded with a lobe and vermiform ap-
pendage ; the vent is placed before the middle of the
THE SHARK.
271
thousand pound weight ; and we are told par-
ticularly of one, that had a human corpse in
his belly. The head is large and somewhat
flatted ; the snout long, and the eyes large.
The mouth is enormously wide, as is the
throat, and capable of swallowing a man with
great ease. But its furniture of teeth is still
more terrible ; of these there are six rows, ex-
tremely hard, sharp-pointed, and of a wedge-
like figure. It is asserted that there are
seventy-two in each jaw, which make a hun-
dred and forty-four in the whole ; yet others
think that their number is uncertain ; and
that in proportion as the animal grows older,
these terrible instruments of destruction are
found to increase. With these the jaws, both
above and below, appear planted all over ; but
the animal has a power of erecting or depress-
ing them at pleasure. When the shark is at
rest, they lie quite flat in his mouth; but
when he prepares to seize his prey, he erects
all this dreadful apparatus, by the help of a set
of muscles that join them to the jaw ; and the
animal he seizes, dies, pierced with a hundred
wounds, in a moment.
Nor is this fish less terrible to behold as to
the rest of his form : his fins are larger in pro-
portion ; he is furnished with great goggle
eyes, that he turns with ease on every side,
so as to see his prey behind him as well as
before ; and his whole aspect is marked with
a character of malignity: his skin also is
rough, hard and prickly; being that substance
which covers instrument cases, called sha-
green.
As the shark is thus formidable in his ap-
pearance, so is he also dreadful from his
courage and activity. No fish can swim so
fast as he ; none so constantly employed in
swimming ; he outstrips the swiftest ships,
plays round them, darts out before them, re-
turns, seems to gaze at the passengers, and
all the while does not seem to exhibit the
smallest symptom of an effort to proceed.
Such amazing powers, with such great appe-
tites for destruction, would quickly unpeople
even the ocean, but providentially, the shark's
upper jaw projects so far above the lower, that
he is obliged to turn on one side, (not on his
back, as is generally supposed,) to seize his
prey. As this takes some small time to per-
form, the animal pursued seizes that oppor-
tunity to make its escape.
Still, however, the depredations he commits
are frequent and formidable. The shark is
the dread of sailors in all hot climates ; where,
like a greedy robber, he attends the ships, in
body, the ventral fins distinct ; the first dorsal fin is
placed behind the ventral ; the second dorsal fin is less,
and nearly opposite the anal ; the tail is narrow, ending
bfllow in a sharp angle.
expectation of what may drop over-board. A
man who unfortunately falls into the sea at
such a time, is sure to perish, without mercy.
A sailor that was bathing in the Mediter-
ranean, near Antibes, in the year 1744, while
he was swimming about fifty yards from the
ship, perceived a monstrous fish making to-
wards him, and surveying him on every side,
as fish are often seen to look round a bait.
The poor man, struck with terror at its ap-
proach, cried out to his companions in the
vessel to take him on board. They accord-
ingly threw him a rope with the utmost ex-
pedition, and were drawing him up by the
ship's side, when the shark darted after him
from the deep, and snapped off his leg.
Mr Pennant tells us, that the master of a
Guinea-ship, finding a rage for suicide pre-
vail among his slaves, from a notion the un-
happy creatures had, that after death they
should be restored again to their families,
friends, and country; to convince them at least
that some disgrace should attend them here?
he ordered one of their dead bodies to be tied
by the heels to a rope, and so let down into
the sea; and, though it was drawn up again
with great swiftness, yet in that short space,
the sharks had bit off all but the feet. Whether
this story is prior to an accident of the same
kind, which happened at Belfast in Ireland,
about twenty years ago, I will not take upon
me to determine ; but certain it is, there are
some circumstances alike in both, though more
terrible in that I am going to relate. A
Guinea captain was, by stress of weather,
driven into the harbour of Belfast, with a lad-
ing of very sickly slaves, who, in the manner
above-mentioned, took every opportunity to
throw themselves overboard when brought up
upon the deck, as usual, for the benefit of the
fresh air. The captain perceiving, among
others, a woman slave attempting to drown
herself, pitched upon her as a proper example
to the rest. As he supposed that they did not
know the terrors attending death, he ordered
the woman to be tied with a rope under the
arm-pits, and so let her down into the water.
When the poor creature was thus plunged in,
and about half way down, she was heard to
give a terrible shriek, which at first was as-
cribed to her fears of drowning : but soon
after, the water appearing red all round her,
she was drawn up, and it was found that a
shark, which had followed the ship, had bit
her off from the middle.
Such is the frightful rapacity of this ani-
mal; nothing that has life is rejected. But
it seems to have a peculiar enmity to man :
when once it has tasted human flesh, it never
desists from haunting those places where it
expects the return of its prey. It is even
asserted, that along the coasts of Africa,
272
HISTORY OF FISHES.
where these animals are found in great abun-
dance, numbers of the negroes, who are oblig-
ed to frequent the waters, are seized and de-
voured by them every year. The people of
these coasts are firmly of opinion, that the
shark loves the black man's flesh in prefer-
ence to the white, and that when men of dif-
ferent colours are in the water together, it
always makes choice of the former.
However this be, men of all colours are
equally afraid of this animal, and have con-
trived different methods to destroy him. In
general, they derive their success from the
shark's own rapacity. The usual method of
our sailors to take him, is by baiting a great
hook with a piece of beef or pork, which is
thrown out into the sea by a strong cord,
strengthened near the hook with an iron chain.
Without this precaution, the shark would
quickly bite the cord in two, and thus set
himself free. It is no unpleasant amusement
to observe this voracious animal coming up
to survey the bait, particularly when not
pressed by hunger. He approaches it, ex-
amines it, swims round it, seems for a while
to neglect it, perhaps apprehensive of the
cord and chain ; he quits it for a little ; but
his appetite pressing, he returns again ; ap-
pears preparing to devour it, but quits it once
more. When the sailors have sufficiently di-
verted themselves with his different evolu-
tions, they then make a pretence, by drawing
the rope, as if intending to take the bait
away : it is then that the glutton's hunger ex-
cites him ; he darts at the bait, and swallows
it, hook and all. Sometimes, however, he
does not so entirely gorge the whole, but that
he once more gets free ; yet even then, though
wounded and bleeding with the hook, he will
again pursue the bait until he is taken.
When he finds the hook lodged in his maw,
his utmost efforts are then excited but in vain,
to get free ; he tries with his teeth to cut the
chain : he pulls with all his force to break
the line ; he almost seems to turn his stomach
inside out, to disgorge the hook : in this man.
ner he continues his formidable though fruit-
less efforts ; till, quite spent, he suffers his
head to be drawn above water, and the sail-
ors, confining his tail by a noose, in this man-
ner draw him on ship-board, and despatch
him. This is done by beating him on the
head till he dies ; yet even that is not effected
without difficulty and danger ; the enormous
creature, terrible even in the agonies of death,
still struggles with his destroyers ; nor is
there an animal in the world that is harder to
be killed. Even when cut in pieces, the
muscles still preserve their motion, and vibrate
for some minutes after being separated from
the body. Another method of taking them,
is by striking a barbed instrument, called a
fizgig, into his body, as he brushes along by
the side of the ship. As soon as he is taken
up, to prevent his flouncing, they cut off the
tail with an axe, with the utmost expedition.
This is the manner in which Europeans
destroy the shark ; but some of the Negroes
along the African coast, take a bolder and
more dangerous method to combat their terri-
ble enemy. Armed with nothing more than
a knife, the Negro plunges into the water,
where he sees the shark watching for his
prey, and boldly swims forward to meet him:
though the great animal does not come to pro-
voke the combat, he does not avoid it, and
suffers the man to approach him ; but just as
he turns upon his side to seize the aggressor,
the Negro watches the opportunity, plunges
his knife into the fish's belly, and pursues his
blows with such success, that he lays the ra-
venous tyrant dead at the bottom : he soon
however returns, fixes the fish's head in a
noose, and drags him to shore, where he
makes a noble feast for the adjacent villages.
Nor is man alone the only enemy this fish
has to fear : the Remora, or Sucking-fish, is
probably a still greater, and follows the shark
every where. This fish has got a power of
adhering to whatever it sticks against, in the
same manner as a cupping-glass sticks to the
human body. It is by such an apparatus
that this animal sticks to the shark, and drains
away its moisture. The seamen, however,
are of opinion, that it is seen to attend on the
shark for more friendly purposes, to point him
to his prey, and to apprise him of his danger.
For this reason it has been called the Shark's
Pilot.
The shark so much resembles the whale in
size, that some have injudiciously ranked it
in the class of cetaceous fishes ; but its real
rank is in the place here assigned it, among
those of the cartilaginous kind. It breathes
with gills and lungs, its bones are gristly, and
it brings forth several living young. Belonius
assures us, that he saw a female shark pro-
duce eleven live young ones at a time. But
I will not take upon me to vouch for the ve-
racity of Rondeletius, who, when talking of
the blue shark, says, that the female will per
mit her small brood, when in danger, to swim
down her mouth, and take shelter in her belly.
Mr Pennant, indeed seems to give credit to
the story, and thinks that this fish, like the
oppossum, may have a place fitted by nature
for the reception of her young. To his opin-
ion much deference is due, and is sufficient, at
least, to make us suspend our dissent ; for
nothing is so contemptible as that affectation
of wisdom which some display, by universal
incredulity.1
1 Sharks, as well as the Ray tribe, bring forth their
THE RAY.
273
Upon the whole, a shark, when living, is a
very formidable animal ; and, when dead, is
of very little value. The flesh is hardly di-
gestible by any but the Negroes, who are
fond of it to distraction; the liver affords
three or four quarts of oil ; some imaginary
virtues have been ascribed to the brain; and
its skin is, by great labour, polished into that
substance called shagreen. Mr Pennant is of
opinion, that the female is larger than the
male in all this tribe ; which would, if con-
firmed by experience, make a striking agree-
ment between them and birds of prey. It
were to be wished that succeeding historians
would examine into this observation, which is
offered only as a conjecture ' *
CHAP. II
OF CARTILAGINOUS FLAT-FISH, OR THE RAY
KIND.
THE same rapacity which impels the shark
along the surface of the water, actuates the
flat fish at the bottom. Less active, and less
formidable, they creep in security along the
bottom, seize every thing that comes in their
way; neither the hardest shells nor the sharp-
est spines give protection to the animals that
bear them ; their insatiable hunger is such,
that they devour all ; and the force of their
young alive, more than one at a time, and each inclosed
in a square horny case, terminated at the four corners by
slender filaments. After being in the water some time,
these natural pouches open at one end, and the young
fish escapes from his confinement. These receptacles
are, in the shark, of a pellucid horn-colour, terminated
at the corners by very long slender filaments, which are
generally found twisted round coral, sea-weeds, and
other substances, to prevent their being driven on shore
before the young is excluded : those of the Ray tribe are
black, with the filaments hardly longer than the case,
and are frequently cast on our shores in great abun-
dance.
1 The Small Spotted Dog- Fish is a species of shark,
sometimes found on our shores. It is called Morgay in
Scotland. It lies near the bottom of the water, and its
food is small fish and Crustacea. It is often caught on
the fishermen's lines, but is a useless capture to them.
It is injurious to the fisheries from its voracity. Its
length is about eighteen inches.
The Large Spotted Dog- Fish, called in Scotland
Bounce, is easily distinguished from the other by its
larger but less numerous spots, and by the greater bulk
of the body for the same length. Like the Small Spot-
ted Dog-Fish, its haunts are near the bottom, and its
food similar, but it also frequents rocky ground, and is
hence sometimes called the Rock Dog-Fish.
VOL. II.
stomach is so great, that it easily digests
them.
The whole of this kind resemble each other
very strongly in their figure ; nor is it easy,
without experience, to distinguish one from
another. The stranger to this dangerous tribe
may imagine he is only handling a skate,
when he is instantly struck numb by the tor-
pedo; he may suppose he has caught a thorn-
back, till he is stung by the fire-flare. It
will be proper, therefore, after describing the
general figure of these animals, to mark their
differences.
All fish of the ray kind are broad, cartila-
ginous, swimming flat on _the_ water, and
having spines on different parts of their body,
or at the tail. They all have their eyes and
mouth placed quite under the body, with
apertures for breathing either about or near
them. They all have teeth, or a rough bone,
which answers the same purpose. Their
bowels are very wide towards the mouth, and
go on diminishing to the tail. The tail is
very differently shaped from that of other fishes;
and at first sight more resembling that of
a quadruped, being narrow, and ending either
in a bunch or a point. But what they are
chiefly distinguished by, is, their spines or
prickles, which the different species have on
different parts of their body. Some are
armed with spines both above and below;
others have them on the upper part only ;
some have their spines at the tail ; some have
three rows of them , and others but one. These
prickles in some are comparatively soft and
feeble ; those of others, strong and piercing.
The smallest of these spines are usually in-
clining towards the tail ; the larger towards
the head.
It is by the spines that these animals are
distinguished from each other. The skate
has the middle of the back rough, and a single
row of spines on the tail. The sharp-nosed
ray has ten spines that are situated towards
the middle of the back. The rough ray has
its spines spread indiscriminately over the
whole back. The thorn-back has its spines dig.
posed in three rows upon the back. The fire-
flare has but one spine, but that indeed a ter-
rible one. This dangerous weapon is placed
on the tail, about four inches from the body,
and is not less than five inches long. It is of
a flinty hardness, the sides thin, sharp-pointed,
and closely and sharply bearded the whole
way. The last of this tribe that I shall men-
tion is the torpedo ; and this animal has no
spines that can wound ; but in the place of
them it is possessed of one of the most potent
and extraordinary faculties in nature.
Such are the principal differences that may
enable us to distinguish animals, some of
which are of very great use to mankind, from
2M
274
HISTORY OF FISHES.
others that are terrible and noxious. With
respect to their uses, indeed, as we shall soon
see, they differ much ; but the similitude
among them, as to their nature, appetites, and
conformation, is perfect and entire. They are
all as voracious as they are'plenty; and as
dangerous to a stranger, as useful to him who
can distinguish their differences.
Of all the larger fish of the sea, these are
the most numerous ; and they owe their num-
bers to their size. Except the white shark
and cachalot alone, there is no other fish that
has a swallow large enough to take them in ;
and their spines make them a still more dan-
gerous morsel. Yet the size of some is such,
that even the shark himself is unable to de-
vour them ; we have seen some of them in
England weigh above two hundred pounds;
but that is nothing to their enormous bulk in
other parts of the world. Labat tells us of a
prodigious ray that was speared by the Ne-
groes at Guadaloupe, which was thirteen feet
eight inches broad, and above ten feet from
the snout to the insertion of the tail. The tail
itself was in proportion, for it was no less
than fifteen feet long, twenty inches broad at
;ts insertion, and tapering to a point. The
body was two feet in depth ; the skin as thick
as leather, and marked with spots ; which
spots, in all of this kind, are only glands, that
supply a mucus to lubricate and soften the
skin. This enormous fish was utterly unfit
to be eaten by Europeans; but the Negroes
chose out some of the nicest bits, and carefully
salted them up as a most favourite provision.
Yet, large as this may seem, it is very pro-
bable that we have seen only the smallest of
the kind ; as they generally keep at the bot-
tom, the largest of the kind are seldom seen ;
and as they may probably have been growing
for ages, the extent of their magnitude is un-
known. It is generally supposed, however,
that they are the largest inhabitants of the
deep ; and, were we to credit the Norway
bishop, there are some above a mile over. But
to suppose an animal of such a magnitude is
absurd ; yet the overstretching the supposition
does not destroy the probability that animals
of this tribe grow to an enormous size.
The ray generally chooses for its retreat
such parts of the sea as have a black muddy
bottom ; the large ones keep at greater depths;
but the smaller approach the shores, and feed
upon whatever living animals they can sur-
prise, or whatever putrid substances they meet
with. As they are ravenous, they easily take
the bait, yet will not touch it if it be taken
up and kept a day or two out of water.
Almost all fish appear much more delicate
with regard to a baited hook than their ordin-
ary food. They appear by their manner to
perceive the line, and to dread it ; but the im-
pulse of their hunger is too great for their
caution ; and, even though they perceive the
danger, if thoroughly hungry they devour the
destruction.
These fish generate in March and A pril ;
at which time only they are seen swimming
near the surface of the water, several of the
males pursuing one female. They adhere so
fast together in coition, that the fishermen
frequently draw up both together, though only
one has been hooked. The females are pro-
lific to an extreme degree ; there having been
no less than three hundred eggs taken out of
the body of a single ray. These eggs are
covered with a tough horny substance, which
they acquire in the womb ; for before they
descend into that, they are attached to the
ovary pretty much in the same manner as in
the body of a pullet. From this ovary, or
egg-bag, as it is vulgarly called,, the fish's
eggs drop one by one into the womb, and there
receive a shell by the concretion of the fluids
of that organ. When come to proper matur-
ity, they are excluded, but never above one
or two at a time, and often at intervals of three
or four hours. These eggs, or purses, as the
fishermen call them, are usually cast about
the beginning of May, and they continue
casting during the whole summer. In Octo-
ber, when their breeding ceases, they are ex-
ceedingly poor and thin ; but in November
they begin to improve, and grow gradually
better till May, when they are in the highest
perfection.
It is chiefly during the winter season that
our fishermen take them ; but the Dutch, who
are indefatigable, begin their operations earlier,
and fish with better success than we. The
method practised by the fishermen of Scar-
borough is thought to be the best among the
English ; and, as Mr Pennant has given a
very succinct account of it, I will take leave
to present it to the reader.
" When they go out to fish, each person is
provided with three lines : each man's lines
are fairly coiled upon a flat oblong piece of
wicker-work ; the hooks being baited and
placed very regularly in the centre of the coil.
Each line is furnished with two hundred and
eighty hooks, at the distance of six feet two
inches from each other. The hooks are fas-
tened to lines of twisted horse-hair, twenty-
seven inches in length.
" When fishing, there are always three
men in each coble ; and consequently nine of
these lines are fastened together, and used as
one line, extending in length near three miles,
and furnished with above two thousand five
hundred hooks. An anchor and a buoy are
fixed at the first end of the line, and one more
at each end of each man's lines ; in all, four
anchors, and four buoys made of leather or
THE RAY.
275
cork. The line is always laid across the cur-
rent The tides of flood and ebb continue an
equal time upon our coast ; and, when undis-
turbed by winds, run each way about six
hours. They are so rapid that the fishermen
can only shoot and haul their lines at the turn
of the tide; and therefore the lines always re-
main upon the ground about six hours. The
same rapidity of tide prevents their using
hand lines ; and, therefore, two of the people
commonly wrap themselves in the sail and
sleep, while the other keeps a strict look-out,
for fear of being run down by ships, and to
observe the weather ; for storms often rise so
suddenly, that it is sometimes with extreme
difficulty they escape to the shore, though they
leave their lines behind them.
" The coble is twenty feet six inches long,
and five feet extreme breadth. It is about
one ton burden, rowed with three pair of oars,
and admirably constructed for the purpose of
encountering a mountainous sea. They hoist
sail when the wind suits.
" The five-men-boat is forty feet long, fif-
teen broad, and twenty-five tons burden. It
is so called, though navigated by six men and
a boy ; because one of the men is hired to
oook, and does not share in the profits with
the other five. — All our able fishermen go in
these boats to the herring fishery at Yarmouth,
the latter end of September, and return about
the middle of November. The boats are then
laid up until the beginning of Lent, at which
time they go off in them to the edge of the
Dogger, and other places, to fish for turbot,
cod, ling, skate, &c. They always take two
cobles on board, and when they come upon
their ground, anchor the boat, throw out the
cobles, and fish in the same manner as those
do who go from the shore in a coble ; with
this difference only, that here each man is
provided with double the quantity of lines,
and, instead of waiting the return of the tide
in the coble, return to the boat, and bait their
other lines ; thus hauling one set, and shoot-
ing another, every turn of tide. They com-
monly run into the harbour twice a-week, to
deliver their fish. The five-men-boat is
decked at each end, but open in the middle,
and has two long sails.
" The best bait for all kinds of fish, is fresh
herring cut in pieces of a proper size : and
notwithstanding what has been said to the
contrary, they are taken there at any time in
the winter, and all the spring, whenever the
fishermen put down some nets for that pur-
pose: the five-men boats always take some
nets for that end. Next to herrings are the
lesser lampreys, which come all winter by
land-carriage from Tadcaster. The next baits
in esteem are small haddocks cut in pieces,
sand-worms, muscles, and limpets; and, lastly,
when none of these can be found, they use
bullock's liver. The hooks used there are
much smaller than those employed at Iceland
and Newfoundland. Experience has shown
that the larger fish will take a living small
one upon the hook, sooner than any bait that
can be put on; therefore they use such as the
fish can swallow. The hooks are two inches
and a half long in the shank ; and near an
inch wide between the shank and the point.
The line is made of small cording, and is
always tanned before it is used. All the rays
and turbots are extremely delicate in their
choice of baits : if a piece of herring or had-
dock has been twelve hours Tjnt.uf the sea, and
then used as a bait, they will not touch it."
Such is the manner of fishing for those fish
that usually keep near the bottom on the
coasts of England ; and Duhamel observes,
that the best weather for succeeding, is a half-
calm, when the waves are just curled with a
silent breeze.
But this extent of line, which runs, as we
have seen, three miles along the bottom, is
nothing to what the Italians throw out in the
Mediterranean. Their fishing is carried on
in a tartan, which is a vessel much larger
than ours ; and they bait a line of no less than
twenty miles long, with above ten or twelvo
thousand hooks. This line is called the para-
sina : and the fishing goes by that of the pie-
lago. This line is not regularly drawn every
six hours, as with us, but remains for some
time in the sea, and it requires the space of
twenty-four hours to take it up. By this ap-
paratus they take rays, sharks, and other fish ;
some of which are above a thousand pounds
weight. When they have caught any of this
magnitude, they strike them through with a
harpoon to bring them on board, and kill them
as fast as they can.
This method of catching fish is obviously
fatiguing, and dangerous ; but the value of
the capture generally repays the pains. The
skate and the thornback are very good food,
and their size, which is from ten pounds to
two hundred weight, very well rewards the
trouble of fishing for them. But it sometimes
happens that the lines are visited by very un-
welcome intruders; by the rough ray, the fire-
flare, or the torpedo. To all these the fisher-
men have the most mortal antipathy; and,
when discovered, shudder at the sight: how-
ever, they are not always so much upon their
guard, but that they sometimes feel the differ-
ent resentments of this angry tribe : and, in-
stead of a prize, find they have caught a vin-
dictive enemy. When such is the case, they
take care to throw them back into the sea with
the swiftest expedition.
The rough ray inflicts but slight wounds
with the prickles with which its whole body
276
HISTORY OF FISHES.
is furnished. To the ignorant it seems harm-
less, and a man would at first sight venture to
take it in his hand, without any apprehension ;
but he soon finds, that there is not a single
part of its body that is not armed with spines ;
and that there is no way of seizing the animal
but by the little fin at the end of the tail.
But this animal is harmless, when com-
pared to the fire-flare, which seems to be the
dread of even the boldest and most exper-
ienced fishermen.1 The weapon with which
1 The Rays, or Skate, as they are popularly called,
are remarkable for the rhomboidal form and consequent
breadth of their bodies, contrasted with their long narrow
tails, frequently furnished with two and sometimes three
small fins, and mostly armed with one or more rows of
sharp spines along the whole length. The whole body is
very much depressed ; the great breadth of it is produced
by the expansion of what are considered as the pectoral
fins, the base of each of which is equal to the whole
length of the side of the fish. The Skate may almost
be considered as having no true head or neck, the sides
of both being included and thus protected by the ex-
panded anterior margin of each pectoral fin. The nos-
trils, mouth, branchial and anal apertures, are on the
under surface ; the eyes and temporal orifices on the
upper surface. The texture of the skin of the body varies
considerably, and will be referred to when describing the
different species. From the peculiar form of the body,
admirably adapted to exist at the bottom of the water,
the skate may with more propriety be called a Flatfish
than any species of the Plevronectid*. Their mode of
progression is not very easily described : it is, when they
are not alarmed, performed with a slight motion of the
pectoral fins, something between a slide and a swim.
I once heard a North-country fisherman call it sludder-
ing. When a skate makes the best of its way either to
gain a prize in the matter of food, or to escape an enemy,
great muscular exertion is evident. The mode of de-
fending itself, as described by Mr Couch, is very effect-
ual : the point of the nose and the base of the tail are
bent upwards toward each other ; the upper surface of
the body being then concave, the tail is lashed about in
all directions over it and the rows of sharp spines fre-
quently inflict severe wounds.
Eight species of true Rays are found on the coasts of
this country, four of which have the snout more or less
elongated and sharp, and four have blunt noses, two of
the latter being furnished with numerous sharp spines on
various parts of the surface of the body. The skate, as
food, are held in very different degrees of estimation in
different places. In London, particularly, large quan-
tities are consumed, and the flesh is considered delicate
and well-flavoured ; but on some parts of the coast,
though caught in considerable numbers, both by lines
and nets, the flesh is seldom devoted to any purpose be-
yond that of baiting pots for catching crabs and lobsters,
skate are in the best condition for the table during au-
tumn and winter. In spring, and in the early part of
summer, they are usually maturing eggs or young, and
their flesh is then soft and woolly.
The Long Noted Skate is immediately distinguished
from any other skate found on the British coast, not only
by the great length of the nose, but also by the distance
between its most extreme point and the transverse line
of the mouth ; characters particularly observable in com-
parison with the species next in order, with which it
most assimilates in colour. The snout is very much
produced, narrow and sharp, slender as far as the eyes,
from whence the body dilates gradually to its greatest
breadth, which is behind the centre; the whole length
nature has armed this animal, which grows
from the tail, and which we described as
barbed, and five inches long, hath been an
instrument of terror to the ancient fishermen
of the body and tail one-third longer than the width.
On the upper surface the body is slightly roughened, and
of a light lead colour ; the tail rather more rough, with
a row of large crooked spines on each side of the central
line, and this species is observed never to have more or
less than these two lateral rows ; the small fins on the
tail not far removed from each other, the second about
its own length from the end The under surface is a
dirty grayish white, marked with dusky specks like the
true skate, but the body is thinner in substance than
either that or the sharp-nosed skate: the nostrils are
lobed ; the mouth narrow ; the teeth in old males sharp,
with frequently nine or ten spines above the eyes ; on
the snout two rows of minute tubercular spines ; behind
the head seven or eight spines ranged in a line along the
dorsal ridge ; towards the outer upper edge of the pec-
toral fins on each side are the usual rows of sharp hooked
spines, and close to the tail the long pendant daspers. By
some of the West-country fishermen this species is called
the Dun Cow; it attains considerable size, and is said to
feed on sand-eels and sand-launce. According to Mr
Couch, it frequents deep water, and is not caught through
the winter: fishermen state that it is exceedingly violent
when hooked. I may here state generally, that the
greater part of the skate brought to market are taken in
the trawlnets.
The Skate — called in Scotland Blue Skate, and Gray
Skate. This species, which is frequently called the
True Skate to distinguish it from the thornback and
homelyn, which are also popularly called skate, Is not so
commonly taken as either, but is still better than either
as an article of food. It appears to be found among the
Orkneys, and on the coasts of Scotlandrwhere it is called
blue skate and gray skate. From thence southward as
far as Kent, and again westward to Cornwall, it is found
along the whole line of coast. In Ireland, the skate is
taken from Cork up the east coast to Antrim, and from
thence northward and westward to Londonderry and
Donegal. At Lyme Regis, on account of its dusky gray
colour, it is called the tinker.
In this species both sexes when adult have sharp teeth,
the points beginning to elongate by the time the body of
the fish has attained the breadth of twelve or fourteen
inches. The females are generally called maids; and
fishermen distinguish the females of the three species o)
most frequent occurrence by the names of skate maid,
thornback maid, and homelyn maid, — frequently calling
the old male of the skate with his two long appendages the
three-tailed skate. In each of these species the females
are observed to be much more numerous as well as larger
than the males. Pennant mentions having seen a skate
THE RAY.
277
as well as the modern : and they have deliv-
ered many tremendous fables of its astonish-
ing effects. Pliny, JElian, and Oppian, have
supplied it with a venom that affects even the
inanimate creation : trees that are struck by
that weighed two hundred pounds: it is very voracious,
and Mr Couch has known five different species of fish,
besides Crustacea, taken from the stomach of a single
individual. There is reason to believe that the true skate
produces its young later in the season than either the
thornback or the homelyn.
The breadth of the body is to its length nearly as four
to three ; the form of the nose conical: the lines from
the extreme lateral angle of each pectoral fin being
nearly straight, similar lines taken in a direction back-
ward to a point on the tail two inches below the end of
the ventral fins, would form a true rhomb: the eyes are
slightly elevated above the line of the upper surface of
the body, with a short, hard tubercle in the front of each,
and a second on the inner side of each ; the irides yel-
low ; the temporal orifices valvular, and placed close
behind : the dorsal ridge of the body without spines till
near the origin of the ventral fins ; then commence a
single row on the centre, reaching along the tail as far as
the first of the two small fins, all the points of the spines
directed backwards ; one spine between the two small
dorsal fins. On the sides of the tail of a female of small
size there were no lateral spines ; but in a young male
of the same size, there were several lateral spines on
each side, the points of which were directed forwards,
and are in that respect characteristic of this species. The
colour of the upper surface of the body and tail grayish
brown ; the margins anterior to the angles of the pec-
toral fins tinged with reddish brown ; those behind the
angles brownish black, darker than the body: the colour
on the under surface is sooty white, with dark lines in
various directions, and numerous blue specks with small
eharp points disposed among them over the surface. The
nostrils are valvular, half the width of the mouth in ad-
vance of each of its angles ; the mouth rather wide ; the
teeth in this species are sharp in both sexes when adult,
the inner angles of the central teeth beginning to elon-
gate in specimens when they are about twelve inches in
breadth across the body.
The Sharp-Nosed Ray — This species, says Mr Couch,
" may be easily recognised by its sharp snout, by the
waved line of the margin of the body from the snout to
the extremity of the expansion, and by its pure white
colour on the lower surface. It is the largest of the
British rays; for though in length and breadth it may
not exceed the common skate, its superior thickness
renders it heavier."
Colonel Montagu, in the Wernerian Memoirs, says,
by way o' further distinction, the snout in this species
is slender, the lateral margins in a moderately-sized fish
running nearly parallel to each other for three or four
inches at the extremity. The skin is smooth, with
the exception of the spines on the upper surface, pecu-
liar to the males, the colour a plain brown without spots
or lines, and never so dark as the skate last described,
with wh:ch it is sometimes confounded. The teeth of
the males, according to a specimen of ifce mouth very
kindly sent to me by Mr Couch, are longer, more pointed,
and sharper than those of any other specier I have had an
opportunity of examining. The tail is ai med with three
rows of spines. Mr Couch states that the smaller-sized
specimens are taken throughout the year; but those which
are larger keep in deep waters, and are only taken in sum-
mer and autumn. The French are great consumers of
skate, and this species is their favourite fish : their boats
come to Plymouth during Lent to purchase skate, which
they preserve fresh and moist during the run back to their
own coast by keeping them covered with wet sand.
it instantly lose their verdure, and rocks
themselves are incapable of resisting the
potent poison. The enchantress Circe armed
her son with a spear headed with the spine
of the trygon, as the most irresistible wea-
pon she could furnish him with ; a weapon
that soon after was to be the death of his own
father.
" That spears and darts," says Mr Pennant,
" might in very early times have been headed
with this bone instead of iron, we have no
doubt. The Americans head their arrows
with the bones of fishes to this day ; and,
from their hardness and sharpness, they are
no contemptible weapons.^ But that this
spine is possessed of those venomous qualities
ascribed to it, we have every reason to doubt ;
though some men of high reputation, and the
whole body of fishermen, contend for its ven-
omous effects. It is, in fact, a weapon of
offence belonging to this animal, and capable,
from its barbs, of inflicting a very terrible
wound, attended with dangerous symptoms ;
but it cannot be possessed of any poison, as
the spine has no sheath to preserve the sup-
This species is the white skate of the Orkneys, and of
Scotland generally ; and is said to have been taken on
the south-east coast of Ireland.
The Thornback. — The thornback exhibits very marked
distinguishing characters, and being also a very com-
mon fish, is one of the best known of the species of rays,
— a term which Mr Couch considers to be derived from
the Anglo-Saxon « Reho,' which means 'rough,' and is
particularly appropriate to the thornback, which, on the
Cornish coasts, is pre-eminently distinguished as the ray.
The thornback is also taken commonly both on the coast
of Scotland and Ireland. From the good quality of the
flesh of this fish, and the immense quantity taken every
year, the thornback, and its female, the maid, is one of
the most valuable of the species. Mr Couch says that
the flesh takes salt well, and in this preserved state
affords the poor fishermen and their families many whole-
some meals when stormy weather prevents them obtain-
ing fresh supplies. The thornback is taken in the great-
est abundance during spring and summer, because the
fish then frequent sandy bottoms in shallower water and
nearer the shore than usual, for the purpose of depositing
their eggs ; but the flesh of the thornback at this season
is not, as before noticed, so firm as in autumn and winter.
It is in the best condition for table about November.
Their food is various other fish, particularly flatfish,
testaceous mollusca, and Crustacea. — Yarrell't British
Fishes, f'ol. II.
278
HISTORY OF FISHES.
posed venom on its surface ; and the animal
has no gland that separates the noxious fluid ;
besides, all those animals that are furnished
with envenomed fangs or stings, seem to have
them strongly connected with their safety and
existence ; they never part with them ; there is
an apparatus of poison prepared in the body
to accompany their exertions; and when the
fangs or stings are taken away, the animal
languishes and dies. But it is otherwise with
the spine of the fire flare ; it is fixed to the
tail, as a quill is into the tail of a fowl, and is
annually shed in the same manner : it may be
necessary for the creature's defence, but it is
no way necessary for its existence. The
wound inflicted by an animal's tail, has some-
thing terrible in the idea, and may from
thence alone be supposed to be fatal. From
hence terror might have added poison to the
pain, and called up imagined dangers ; the
Negroes universally believe that the sting is
poisonous ; but they never die of the wound ;
for by opening the fish, and laying it on the
part injured, it effects a speedy cure. The
slightness of the remedy proves the innocence
of the wound.1
The Torpedo (see Plate XXI. fig. 10.) is
an animal of this kind, equally formidable
and well known with the former ; but the
manner of its operating is to this hour a mystery
to mankind.8 The body of this fish is almost
circular, and thicker than others of the ray
kind ; the skin is soft, smooth, and of a yellow-
ish colour, marked, as all the kind, with large
annular spots ; the eyes very small ; the tail
tapering to a point ; and the weight of the fish
from a quarter to fifteen pounds. Redi found
one twenty-four pounds weight. To all out-
ward appearance, it is furnished with no ex-
traordinary powers; it has no muscles formed
for particularly great exertions ; no internal
conformation perceptibly differing from the
rest of its kind ; yet such is that unaccount-
able power it possesses, that, the instant it is
touched, it numbs not only the hand and arm,
but sometimes also the whole body. The
shock received, by all accounts, most resembles
the stroke of an electrical machine; sudden,
tingling, and painful. " The instant," says
Kempfer, " I touched it with my hand, I
felt a terrible numbness in my arm, and
as far up as the shoulder. Even if one
treads upon it with the shoe on, it affects not
only the leg, but the whole thigh upwards.
1 The account of the venomous properties of this
spine, as well as that it is shed annually, appears to he
altogether fabulous. It is probable that, by its great
strength, it may be able to inflict a painfully lacerated
wound.
' The Torpedo Ray is rare on the British coast.
Two or three species inhabit the Mediterranean, and
others are to be found in different parts of the world.
Those who touch it with the foot, are seized
with a stronger palpitation than even those
who touch it with the hand. — This numbness
bears no resemblance to that which we feel
when a nerve is a long time pressed, and the
foot is said to be asleep ; it rather appears like
a sudden vapour, which passing through the
pores in an instant, penetrates to the very
springs of life, from whence it diffuses itself
over the whole body, and gives real pain.
The nerves are so affected, that the person
struck imagines all the bones of his body, and
particularly those of the limb that received
the blow, are driven out of joint. All tiiis is
accompanied with a universal tremor, a sick-
ness of the stomach, a general convulsion, and
a total suspension of the faculties of the mind.
In short," continues Kempfer, " such is the
pain, that all the force of our promises and
authority could not prevail upon a seaman to
undergo the shock a second time. A negro, in-
deed, that was standing by, readily undertook
to touch the torpedo, and was seen to handle it
without feeling any of its effects. He informed
us, that his whole secret consisted in keeping in
his breath ; and we found, upon trial, that this
method answered with ourselves. When we
held in our breath, the torpedo was harmless;
but when we breathed ever so little, its effi-
cacy took place."
Kempfer has very well described the effects
of this animal's shock ; but succeeding exper-
ience has abundantly convinced us, that hold-
ing in the breath no way guards against its
violence. Those, therefore, who depending
on that receipt, should play with a torpedo,
would soon find themselves painfully unde-
ceived : not but that this fish may be many
times touched with perfect security ; for it is
not upon every occasion that it exerts its po-
tency. Reaumur, who made several trials
upon this animal, has at least convinced the
world that it is not necessarily, but by an ef-
fort, that the torpedo numbs the hand of him
that touches it. He tried several times, and
could easily tell when the fish intended the
stroke, and when it was about to continue
harmless. Always before the fish intended
the stroke, it flattened the back, raised the
head and the tail, and then, by a violent con-
traction in the opposite direction, struck with
its back against the pressing finger ; and the
body, which before was flat became humped
and round.
But we must not infer, as he has done, that
the whole effect of this animal's exertion arises
from the greatness of the blow which the
fingers receive at the instant they are struck.
We will, with him, allow the stroke is very
powerful, equal to that of a musquet-ball, since
he will have it so ; but it is very well known,
that a blow, though never so great, on the
THE RAY.
279
points of the fingers, diffuses no numbness
over the whole body : such a blow might break
the ends of the fingers indeed, but would hardly
numb the shoulder. Those blows that numb,
must be applied immediately to some great
and leading nerve, or to a large surface of the
body ; a powerful stroke applied to the points
of the fingers will be excessively painful in-
deed, but the numbness will not reach beyond
the fingers themselves. We must, therefore,
look for another cause producing the powerful
effects wrought by the torpedo.
O tliers have ascribed it to a tremulous
motion which this animal is found to possess,
somewhat resembling that of a horse's skin,
when stung by a fly. This operating under
the touch with an amazing quickness of vibra-
tion, they suppose produces the uneasy sensa-
tion described above ; something similar to
what we feel when we rub plush cloth against
the grain. But the cause is quite dispropor-
tioned to the effect ; and so much beyond our
experience, that this solution is as difficult as
the wonder we want to explain.
The most probable solution seems to be,
that the shock proceeds from an animal elec-
tricity, which this fish has some hidden power
of storing up, and producing on its most
urgent occasions. The shocks are entirely
similar ; the duration of the pain is the same ;
but how the animal contrives to renew the
charge, how it is prevented from evaporating
on contiguous objects, how it is originally
procured, these are difficulties that time alone
can elucidate.
But to know even the effects is wisdom.
Certain it is, that the powers of this animal
seem to decline with its vigour ; for as its
strength ceases, the force of the shock seems
to diminish ; till, at last, when the fish is dead,
the whole power is destroyed, and it may be
handled or eaten with perfect security: on the
contrary, when immediately taken out of the
sea, its force is very great, and not only affects
the hand, but if even touched with a stick, the
person finds himself sometimes affected. This
power, however, is not to be extended to the
degree that some would have us believe ; as
reaching the fisherman at the end of the line,
or numbing fishes in the same pond. Godig-
nus, in his History of Abyssinia, carries this
quality to a most ridiculous excess ; he tells
us of one of these that was put into a basket
among a number of dead fishes, and that the
next morning the people, to their utter as-
tonishment, perceived that the torpedo had
actually numbed the dead fishes into life
pgain ! l
1 The Gymnotut, or Electric Eel- — The gymnoti, or
electrical eels, which resemble large water serpents, in-
habit several streams of South America, and abound also
To conclude, it is generally supposed that
the female torpedo is much more powerful
than the male. Lorenzini, who has made
several experiments upon this animal, seems
in the Oroonoko, the Amazon, and the Meta, but the
strength of the current, and the depth of the water in
these large rivers, prevent their being caught by the
Indians. They see these fish less frequently than they
feel electric shocks from them, when swimming or
bathing in the river. To catch the gymnoti with nets
is very difficult, on account of the extreme agility of the
fish, which bury themselves in the mud like serpents.
Roots ara sometimes thrown into the water to intoxicate
or benumb these animals, but we would not employ
these means, as they would have enfeebled the gymnoti :
the Indians, therefore, told us, that they would " fish
with horses." We found it difficult tcrt'orm an idea of
this extraordinary manner of fishing; but we soon saw
our guides return from the savannah, which they had
been scouring for wild horses and mules. They brought
about thirty with them, which they forced to enter the
pool.
The extraordinary noise caused by the horses' hoofs,
makes the fish issue from the mud, and excites them to
combat; they swim on the surface of the water, and
crowd under the bellies of the horses and mules. A
contest between animals of so different an organization,
furnishes a very striking spectacle. The Indians, pro-
vided with harpoons and long slender reeds, surround
the pool closely ; and some climb upon the trees, the
branches of which extend horizontally over the surface
of the water. By their wild cries, and the length of
their reeds, they prevent the horses from running away,
and reaching the bank of the pool. The eels, stunned
by the noise, defend themselves by the repeated dis-
charge of their electric power, and during a long time
they seem to prove victorious. Several hors«s sink be-
neath the violence of the invisible strokes, which they
receive from all sides, and stunned by the force and
frequency of the shocks, disappear under the water.
Others panting, with mane erect, and haggard eyes, ex-
pressing anguish, raise themselves, and endeavour to
flee from the storm by which they are overtaken. They
are driven back by the Indians into the middle of the
water; but a small number succeed in eluding the active
vigilance of the fishermen. These regain the shore,
stumbling at every step, and stretch themselves on the
sand, exhausted with fatigue, and their limbs benumbed
by the electric shocks ot the gymnoti. In less than five
minutes two horses were drowned. The eel being five
feet long, and pressing itself against the belly of the
horses, makes a discharge along the whole extent of its
electric organ. The horses are probably only stunned,
not killed, but they are drowned from the impossibility
of rising, amid the prolonged struggles between the other
horses and the eels.
We had little doubt, that the fishing would terminate
by killing, successively, all the animals engaged, but, by
degrees, the impetuosity of this unequal contest dimin-
ished, and the wearied gymnoti dispersed. The mules
and horses appeared less frightened; their manes no
longer bristled, and their eyes expressed less dread. The
gymnoti, which require a long rest and abundant nour-
ishment to repair what they have lost of galvanic force,
approach timidly the edge of the marsh, where they are
taken by means of small harpoons, fastened to long
cords.
The gymnotus is the largest of electrical fishes ; I
measured some that were from ive to five feet three
inches long, and the Indians assert that they have seen
still longer. We found that a fish of three feet ten inches
long weighed twelve pounds; the transverse diameter
of the body was three inches five lines. The gymiiotl
280
HISTORY OF FISHES.
convinced that its power wholly resides in two
thin muscles that cover a part of the back.
These he calls the trembling fibres ; and he
asserts that the animal may be touched with
safety in any other part. It is now known
also that there are more fish, than this of the
ray kind, possessed of the numbing quality,
which has acquired them the name of the tor-
pedo. These are described by Atkins and
Moore, and found in great abundance along
the coast of Africa. They are shaped like a
mackarel, except that the head is much larger;
the effects of these seem also to differ in some
respects. Moore talks of keeping his hand
upon the animal ; which in the ray torpedo it
is actually impossible to do. " There was no
man in the company," says he, " that could
bear to keep his hand on this animal the
twentieth part of a minute, it gave him so
great pain ; but upon taking the hand away,
the numbness went off, and all was well again.
This numbing quality continued in this tor-
pedo even after it was dead ; and the very
skin was still possessed of its extraordinary
power till it became dry." Condamine in-
forms us of a fish possessed of the powers of
the torpedo, of a shape very different from the
of Cano de Bera are of a fine olive-green; the under
part of the head is yellow, mingled with red. Along
the back are two rows of small yellow spots, from which
exudes a slimy matter that spreads over the skin of the
animal, and which, as Volta has proved, conducts elec-
tricity twenty or thirty times better than pure water.
It is, in general, somewhat remarkable, that no electri-
cal fish yet discovered in the different parts of the world,
is covered with scales.
The gymnoti, which are objects of the most lively
interest to the philosopher of Europe, are dreaded and
detested by the natives. Their flesh furnishes pretty
good food, but the electric organ fills the greater part of
the body, and this being slimy and disagreeable to the
taste, is carefully separated from the rest. The presence
of the gymnoti is also considered as the principal cause
of the want of fish in the ponds and pools of the Llanos,
where they kill many more fish than they devour. The
Indians told us, that when they take young alligators
and gymnoti at the same time in veiy strong nets, the
latter never display the slightest trace of a wound, be-
cause they disable the young alligators before they are
attacked by them. All the inhabitants of the waters
dread the gymnoti; lizards, tortoises, and frogs, seek
the pools, where they are secure from their action. It
became necessary to change the direction of a road near
Uritucu, because these electrical eels were so numerous
ii. one river, that they every year killed a great number
of mules of burden as they forded the river.
tt would be temerity to expose ourselves to the first
shocks of a very large and strongly irritated gymnotus.
If by chance you receive a stroke before the fish is
wounded, or wearied by a long pursuit, the pain and
numbness are so violent, that it is impossible to describe
the nature of the feeling they excite. I do not remem-
ber having ever received from the discharge of an elec-
trical machine, a more dreadful shock, than that which
1 experienced by imprudently placing both my feet on a
gymnotus just taken out of the water. I was affected
the rest of the day with a violent pain in the knees, and
in almost every joint — Humlioldfi Personal Narrative.
former, and every way resembling a lamprey.
This animal, if touched by the hand, or even
with a stick, instantly benumbs the hand and
arm to the very shoulder ; and sometimes the
man falls down under the blow. These ani-
mals, therefore, must affect the nervous sys.
tern in a different manner from the former,
both with respect to the manner and the in-
tention ; but how this effect is wrought, we
must be content to dismiss in obscurity.
CHAP. IV.
OF THE LAMPREY, AND ITS AFFINITIES.1
THERE is a species of the Lamprey served
up as a great delicacy among the modern
The governor at New Amsterdam has a large elec-
tric eel, which he has kept for several years in a tub,
made for that purpose, placed under a small shed near
to the house. This fish possesses strong electrical powers,
and often causes scenes of diversion among the soldiers
and sailors, who are struck with astonishment at its
qualities, and believe it to be in league with some evil
spirit. Two sailors, wholly unacquainted with the pn>-
perties of the animal, were one day told to fetch an eel,
which was lying in the tub in the yard, and give it the
cook to dress for dinner. It is a strong fish, of seven or
eight pounds weight, and gives a severe shock on being
touched, particularly if at all irritated or enraged. The
sailors had no sooner reached the shed, than one of them
plunged his hand to the bottom of the tub to seize the
eel ; when he received a blow which benumbed his whole
arm : without knowing what it was, he started from the
tub, shaking his fingers, and holding his elbow with his
other hand, crying out, " I say, Jack, what a thump he
fetched me with his tail !" His messmate, laughing at
" such a foolish notion," next put down his hand to
reach out the eel, but receiving a similar shock, he snap-
ped his fingers likewise, and ran off", crying out, " Why,
he did give you a thump ! He's a fighting fellow ; he
has fetched me a broadside too I Let's both have a haul
at him together, Jack ; then we shall board his slippery
carcass, spite of his rudder." Accordingly they each
plunged their hands into the tub, and seized the fish,
by a full grasp round the body. This was rougher treat-
ment than he commonly experienced, and he returned
it with a most violent shock, "which soon caused them to
quit their hold. For a moment they stood aghast, then
rubbing their arms, holding their elbows, and shaking
their fingers, they capered about with pain and amaze-
ment, swearing that their arms were broken, and that
it was the devil in the tub in the shape of an eel. They
now perceived that it was not a simple blow with the
tail which they had felt before; nor could they be pre-
vailed upon to try again to take out the fish, but stole
away, rubbing their elbows, and abusing " the trick about
the cook and the eel." — Pinckard's Notes on the finest
Indies.
1 Lampreys. — These fishes are, in reference to their
skeleton, and in some other respects, the lowest in the
scale of organization among vertebrated animals.
The lampreys, like the sharks and rays, have no swim-
ming-bladder; and being also without pectoral fins, are
usually seen near the bottom. To save themselves from
the constant muscular exertion which is necessary to
prevent them being carried along by the current of the
water, they attach themselves by the mouth to stones or
THE LAMPREY.
281
Romans, very different from ours. Whether
theirs be the maraena of the ancients, I will
not pretend to say ; but there is nothing more
certain than that our lamprey is not. The I
Roman lamprey agrees with the ancient fish
in being kept in ponds, and considered by the
luxurious as a very great delicacy.
The lamprey, known among us, is differ-
ently estimated, according to the season in
which it is caught, or the place where it has
been fed. Those that leave the sea to deposit
their spawn in fresh waters are the best: those
that are entirely bred in our rivers, and that
have never been at sea, are considered as
much inferior to the former. Those that are
taken in the months of March, April, or May,
just upon their leaving the sea, are reckoned
very good ; those that are caught after they
have cast their spawn, are found to be flabby,
and of little value. Those caught in several
of the rivers in Ireland, the people will not
venture to touch ; those of the English Severn,
are considered as the most delicate of all other
fish whatever.
The lamprey much resembles an eel in its
general appearance, but is of a lighter colour,
and rather a clumsier make. It differs how-
ever in the mouth, which is round, and placed
rather obliquely below the end of the nose. It
more resembles the mouth of a leech than an
eel ; and the animal has a hole on the top of
the head through which it spouts water, as in
the cetaceous kind. There are seven holes on
each side for respiration ; and the fins are
formed rather by a lengthening out of the skin,
than any set of bones or spines for that pur-
pose. As the mouth is formed resembling
that of a leech, so it has a property resembling
that animal, of sticking close to and sucking
any body it is applied to. It is extraordinary
the power they have of adhering to stones ;
which they do so firmly, as not to be drawn
off without some difficulty. We are told of
one that weighed but three pounds, and yet
it stuck so firmly to a stone of twelve pounds,
that it remained suspended at its mouth, from
which it was separated with no small difficulty.
This amazing power of suction is supposed to
rocks, and were in consequence called Petromyzon, or
Stone-sucker ; while the circular form of the mouth in-
duced the name of Cyclostomes, or Round-mouthed
Fishes, which was bestowed upon them by M. Dumeril.
In reference to the respiratory apparatus in the species
of this genus, Mr Owen has remarked, that " when the
lamprey is firmly attached, as is commonly the case, to
foreign bodies by means of its suctorial mouth, it is ob-
vious that no water can pass by that aperture from the
pharynx to the gills; it is therefore alternately received
and expelled by the external apertures. If a lamprey,
while so attached to the side of a vessel, be held with
one series of apertures out of the water, the respiratory
currents are seen to enter by the submerged orifices,
and, after traversing the corresponding sacs and the
pharynx, to pass through the opposite branchix, ami to
be forcibly ejected therefrom by the exposed orifices.
The same mode of respiration must take place in the
Mixine," (a species of this family to be described imme-
diately) " while its head is buried in the flesh of its prey.
The cyclostomous fishes thus present an obvious affinity
to the Cephalopoda, inasmuch as the branchial currents
are independent of the actions of the parts concerned in
deglutition."
The intestinal canal is small, and extends in & straight
line along the abdomen to the anal aperture without any
convolution. The lampreys are oviparous, spawning
late in the spring ; the roe escaping, in both sexes, by a
small membranous sheath, which has internally at its
base five apertures, one leading upward to the intestine,
one to each kidney, and one to each lateral cavity of the
abdomen.
The Marine Lamprey, (see Plate XXII. fig. 5.)
which from its mottled appearance was called P. macu-
losut, by Artedi, has a very extensive geographical
range. It is found in the Mediterranean, and from
thence northwards in most of the rivers of Europe as far
as Scandinavia, during the spring. Professor Reinhardt
includes it among the fishes of Iceland, and our country-
man Pennant gives it a place in his Arctic Zoology.
From a description and figure in the Natural History of
the Fishes of Massachusetts, by Dr Smith of Boston, this
fish appears to be common in the rivers of North Amer-
ica, attaining a large size in those of the more southern
state", liut not exceeding seventeen or twenty inches in
VOL. II.
length in a high northern latitude. Dr Mitchell also
includes this species among his fishes of New York. It
is rather common during spring and summer in some of
the rivers on the southern coast of England, particularly
the Severn, and is found in smaller numbers in several
of the rivers of Scotland and Ireland about the same
period of the year.
In Scotland, the appearance of the lamprey in the
fresh water is rather later in the year than in the rivers
of the south. Sir VVilliam Jardine says, " They ascend
our rivers to breed about the end of June, and remain
until the beginning of August. They are not furnished
with any elongation of the jaw, afforded to most of our
fresh-water fish, to form the receiving furrows at this
important season ; but the want is supplied by their
sucker-like mouth, by which they individually remove
each stone. Their power is immense. Stones of a very
large size are transported, and a large furrow is soon
formed. The P. marinus remain in pairs, two on each
spawning place; and while there employed, retain them-
selves affixed by the mouth to a large stone."
After the spawning season is over, the flesh of the
lamprey, like that of other fish, loses for a time its firm-
ness and other good qualities, and the weakened fish
makes its way back to the sea, to recruit its wasted con-
dition. The food of the lamprey consists generally of
any soft animal matter; and in the sea it is known to
attack other fishes even of large size, by fastening upon
them, and with its numerous small' rasp-like teeth eating
away the soft parts down to the bone. It is not very
often caught while it remains at sea.
This species usually measures from twenty to twenty-
eight inches in length.
The River Lamprey, or Lampern, as it is called by
fishermen for distinction, is a well-known species which
abounds in many rivers of England, particularly the
Thames, the Severn, and the Dee : it is also abundant
in several rivers of Scotland and Ireland. Some authors
state that this species, like that last described, visits our
rivers in spring, and returns to the sea after spawning ;
but the recorded opinions of others, and my own obser-
vations, induce me to believe that it generally remains
all the year in the fresh water. In the Thames I am
certain it is to be obtained every month in the year ; but
is considered in the best condition for the table from
282
HISTORY OF FISHES.
arise from the animal's exhausting the air
within its body by the hole over the nose,
while the mouth is closely fixed to the object,
and permits no air to enter. It would be easy
to determine the weight this animal is thus
able to sustain ; which will be equal to the
weight of a column of air of equal diameter
with the fish's mouth.
From some peculiarity of formation, this
animal swims generally with its body as near
as possible to the surface ; and it might easily
be drowned by being kept by force for any
time under water. Muralto has given us the
anatomy of this animal ; but, in a very minute
description, makes no mention of lungs. Yet
I am very apt to suspect, that two red glands
tissued with nerves, which he describes as
lying towards the back of the head, are no
other than the lungs of this animal. The ab-
solute necessity it is under of breathing in
October to March, during which time it is permitted to
he caught, according to the rules adopted for the conser-
vation of the fishery.
Formerly the latnpern was considered a fish of con-
siderable importance. It was taken in great quantities
in the Thames from Battersea Reach to Taplow Mills,
and was sold to the Dutch as bait for the turbot, cod,
and other fisheries. Four hundred thousand have been
sold in one season for this purpose, at the rate of forty
shillings per thousand. From five pounds to eight pounds
the thousand have been given; but a comparative scar-
city of late years, and consequent increase in price, has
obliged the line fishermen to adopt other substances for
bait. Formerly the Thames alone supplied from cue
million to twelve hundred thousand lamperns annually.
They are very tenacious of life, and the Dutch fishermen
managed to keep them alive at sea for many weeks.
If this species, which is very easily obtained, be ex-
amined in the months of March or April, the distinc-
tion of the sexes will be immediately evident on opening
them. The female may generally be known externally
by the larger size of the abdomen, and the male by his
lips being more tumid and the mouth larger than that
of the female. — The season of spawning is May, and the
process has been described by several observers. This
sometimes takes place in pairs only, and at others by
many of both sexes occupying one general spawning bed.
The food of this species, according to Bloch, is in-
sects, worms, small fish, and the flesh of dead fish. The
ndult fish is usually from twelve to fifteen inches in
length. — Yarrell's British Fishes, Vol. II.
The Myxine Glutinous Hag-fish, or Borer, a species
of lamprey, (see Plate XXii. fig. 2.)— This little fish,
although seldom more than twelve or fourteen inches in
length, is well deserving of notice, on account of its
singular method of obtaining its food. The myxine is
found as far north as the shores of Scandinavia, and it is
also of frequent occurrence on the British coasts, more
particularly off Scarborough. It enters, says Pennant,
the mouths of other fish when on the hooks attached to
the lines, which remain a tide under water, and totally
devours the whole except the skin and bones. The
Scarborough fishermen often take it in the robbed fish
on drawing up their lines. On this account it is called,
on this part of the coast, the Hag or the Borer, because,
a.s others say, it first pierces a small aperture in the skin,
and afterwards buries its head in the body of its prey.
It is most usually found in the body of the cod, or
gome other equally rapacious fish.
the air, convinces me that it must have lungs,
though I do not know of any anatomist that
has described them.
The adhesive quality in the lamprey may
be, in some measure, increased by that slimy
substance with which its body is all over
smeared ; a substance that serves at once to
keep it warm in its cold element, and also to
keep its skin soft and pliant. This mucus is
separated by two long lymphatic canals, that
extend on each side from the head to the tail,
and that furnish it in great abundance. As
to its intestines, it seems to have but one great
bowel, running from the mouth to the vent,
narrow at both ends, and wide in the middle.
So simple a conformation seems to imply
an equal simplicity of appetite. In fact, the
lamprey's food is either slime and water, or
such small water-insects as are scarcely per-
ceivable. Perhaps its appetite may be more
Its worm-like figure induced several systematic writers
to class it with the worms, and " it was not till after dis-
sections and published descriptions, that its true relations
with the lampreys were acknowledged."
"The myxine, (says Mr Yarrell,) is not uncommon at
Berwick, but it is only to be obtained at a particular
season of the year, in one or two localities, when, during
fine weather, at the end of spring, or the beginning of
summer, the fishermen lay their long lines, on a bank
with a soft mud bottom, near the coast, when fishing for
cod or haddock. It is considered by some, that the
myxine, which is without eyes, obtains access to the in-
terior of the body of the fish by passing in at the anal
aperture ; others endeavour to account for its being found
in the belly of a voracious fish, by supposing it had been
swallowed ; while many experienced fishermen still re-
peat their belief, that the myxine enters the mouth <<f
the cod-fish while it is hanging on the line. It is con-
jectured that the myxine does not fasten upon any fish,
unless it be either dead or hanging on a hook; but how
a fish that is blind is able to find its way to a particular
aperture, is a matter not easily explained. The eight
barbules, or cirri, about the mouth of the myxine are,
there is no doubt, delicate organs of touch, by which it
obtains cognizance of the nature and quality of the sub-
stances with which they are in contact, and its single-
hooked tooth upon the palate enables it to retain its hold
till the double rows of teeth, or the tongue, are brought
into action, to aid the desire to obtain food."
Along the whole length of the under surface of the
body, from head to tail, there are two rows of mucous
pores, from which a large quantity of a gelatinous secre-
tion is expressed occasionally, at the will of the animal,
and by which, in reference either to its quality or quan-
tity, or both, this fish is said to escape its enemies. So
copious and so thick in its consistence is this jelly-like se-
cretion, that some of the older naturalists believed this
fish had the power of converting water into glue, and it
obtained in consequence the name of the Glutinous Hag.
The body is long, and cylindrical throughout nearly
its whole length, tapering and compressed near the tail ;
in colour the myxine is dark-brown along the back,
lighter chesnut-brown along the sides, and yellowish-
white underneath.
The bones of the back in the lamprey are of a ?oft
consistence, and indistinctly divided into rounded por-
tions. In the myxine, in place of a series of bones com-
posing the vertebral column, there is merely a soft and
flexible cartilaginous tube.
THE STURGEON.
283
active at sea, of which it is properly a native ;
but when it comes up into our rivers, it is
hardly perceived to devour any thing.
Its usual time of leaving the sea, which it
is annually seen to do in order to spawn, is
about the beginning of spring ; and after a
stay of a few months it returns again to the
sea. Their preparation for spawning is pe-
culiar ; their manner is to make holes in the
gravelly bottom of rivers ; and on this occasion
their sucking power is particularly service-
able ; for if they meet with a stone of a consid-
erable size they will remove it, and throw it
out. Their young are produced from eggs in
the manner of flat fish ; the female remains
near the place where they are excluded, and
continues with them till they come forth. She
is sometimes seen with her whole family play-
ing about her ; and after some time she con-
ducts them in triumph back to the ocean.
But some have not sufficient strength to re-
turn ; and these continue in the fresh water
till they die. Indeed the life of this fish, ac-
cording to Rondeletius, who has given its
history, is but of very short continuance ; and
a single brood is the extent of the female's
fertility. As soon as she has returned after
casting her eggs, she seems exhausted and
flabby. She becomes old before her time ;
and two years is generally the limit of her
existence.
However this may be, they are very indif-
ferent eating after they have cast their eggs,
and particularly at the approach of hot weather.
The best season for them is the months of
March, April, and May ; and they are usu-
ally taken in nets with salmon, and sometimes
in baskets at the bottom of the river. It has
been an old custom for the city of Gloucester
annually to present the king with a lamprey-
pie ; and as the gift is made at Christmas, it
is not without great difficulty the corporation
can procure the proper quantity, though they
give a guinea a-piece for taking them.1
How much they were valued among the
ancients, or a fish bearing some resemblance
to them, appears from all the classics that
have praised good living, or ridiculed glut-
tony. One story we are told of this fish, with
which I will conclude its history. A senator
of Rome, whose name does not deserve beins:
• i
transmitted to posterity, was famous for the
delicacy of his lampreys. Tigelinus Manu-
cius, and all the celebrated epicures of Rome,
were loud in his praises : no man's fish had
such a flavour, was so nicely fed, or so ex-
actly pickled. Augustus, hearing so much
of this man's entertainments, desired to be
his guest ; and soon found that fame had been
1 Henry I. of England died of a surfeit from eating
lampreys.
just to his merits ; the man had indeed very
fine lampreys, and of an exquisite flavour.
The emperor was desirous of knowing the
method by which he fed his fish to so fine a
relish ; and the glutton, making no secret ot
his art, informed him, that his way was to
throw into his ponds such of his slaves as had
at any time displeased him. Augustus, we
are told, was not much pleased with his re-
ceipt, and instantly ordered all his ponds to
be filled up. The story would have ended
better if he had ordered the owner to be flung
in also.
CHAP. V.
OF THE STURGEON, AND ITS VARIETIES.
THE Sturgeon, with a form as terrible, and
a body as large, as the shark, is yet as harm-
less as the fish we have been just describing ;
incapable and unwilling to injure others, it
flies from the smallest fishes, and generally
falls a victim to its own timidity.
The sturgeon, in its general form, resembles
a fresh water pike. The nose is long ; the
mouth is situated beneath, being small, and
without jaw-bones or teeth. But though it is
so harmless and ill provided for war, the body
is formidable enough to appearance. It is
long, pentagonal, and covered with five rows
of large bony knobs, one row on the back and
two on each side, and a number of fins to give
it greater expedition. Of this fish there are
three kinds ; the Common Sturgeon, the Ca-
viar Sturgeon, and the Huso or Isinglass Fish.
The first has eleven knobs or scales on the
back ; the second has fifteen ; and^ the latter
thirteen on the back, and forty-three on the
tail. These differences seem light to us who
only consider the animal's form ; but those
who consider its uses find the distinction of
considerable importance. The first is the
sturgeon, the flesh of which is sent pickled
into all parts of Europe. The second, is the
fish from the roe of which that noted delicacy
called caviar is made ; and the third, besides
supplying the caviar, furnishes also the valu-
able commodity of isinglass. They all grow
to a very great size ; and some of them have
been found above eighteen feet long.
There is not a country in Europe but what
this fish visits at different seasons ; it annually
ascends the largest rivers to spawn, and pro-
pagates in an amazing number. The inhabi-
284
HISTORY OF FISHES
tants along the banks of tlie Po, the Danube,
and the Wolga make great profit yearly of
its incursions up the stream, and have their
nets prepared for its reception.1 The sturgeon
also is brought daily to the markets of Rome
and Venice, and they are known to abound
in the Mediterranean sea. Yet those fish that
keep entirely either in salt or fresh water are
but comparatively small. When the sturgeon
enjoys the vicissitude of fresh and salt, water,
it is then that it grows to an enormous size,
so as almost to rival even the whale in mag-
nitude.
Nor are we without frequent visits from
this much esteemed fish in England. It is
often accidentally taken in our rivers in sal-
mon-nets, and particularly in those parts that
are not far remote from the sea. The largest
we have heard of, caught in Great Britain,
was a fish taken in the Eske, where they are
most frequently found, which weighed four
hundred and sixty pounds.1 An enormous
size to those who have only seen our fresh-
water fishes !
North America also furnishes the sturgeon:
their rivers in May, June, and July, supply
them in very great abundance. At that time
they are seen sporting in the water, and leap,
ing from its surface several yards into the air.
When they fall again on their sides, the con-
cussion is so violent, that the noise is heard,
in still weather, at some miles' distance.
But of all places where this animal is to be
found, it appears no where in such numbers
as in the lakes of Frischehaff and Curischaff,
near the city of Pillau. In the rivers also
1 Sturgeon Fishery — The river Volga, especially
near its mouth, is the principal scene of this fishery.
When the fish enter the river, which they do, like many
others, at stated seasons, for the purpose of depositing
their spawn, large enclosures of strong stakes are set
across the river to intercept and prevent its return; the
enclosures narrow up the river, and the animal, getting
into these confined places, is easily speared.
This fish (Accipenser sturo, or common sturgeon ; for
Accipenser huso, see Plate XXI. fig. 27.) of which there
are several species, breeds in the Caspian sea, in such
numbers as to fill the rivers flowing into that lake. Fif-
teen thousand sturgeons are sometimes taken in one day,
with the hook, at the station of Sallian, on the Persian
coast, and upwards of 700,000 were taken in the year
1829, iu the Russian dominions on the coasts of the
Caspian.
The flesh of the sturgeon is salted and dried for con-
sumption during the numerous fasts enjoined by the
Greek church, but the two products the most valuable,
are isinglass and caviare, The former is prepared from
the air-bladder, and large quantities of it are annually
imported into England from St Petersburg. Caviare
is a preparation from the roe, of a strong, oily, but
agreeable flavour, and is increasing in estimation here,
if we may judge by the increased importation of it; a
great deal is also consumed iu Italy.
8 One caught in a stake net near Findhorn, in Scot-
land, in July, 1833, measured eight feet six inches in
length, and weighed two hundred and three pounds.
that empty themselves into the Euxine sea,
this fish is caught in great numbers, particu-
larly at the mouth of the river Don. In all
these places the fishermen regularly expect
their arrival from the sea, and have their nets
and salt ready prepared for their reception.
As the sturgeon is a harmless fish, and no
way voracious, it is never caught by a bait
in the ordinary manner of fishing, but always
in nets. From the description given above of
its mouth, it is not to be supposed that the
sturgeon would swallow any hook capable of
holding so large a bulk and so strong a swim-
mer. In fact, it never attempts to seize any
of the finny tribe, but lives by rooting at the
bottom of the sea, where it makes insects and
sea- plants its whole subsistence. From this
quality of floundering at the bottom it has re-
ceived its name ; which comes from the Ger-
man verb floeren, signifying to wallow in the
mud. That it lives upon no large animals is
obvious to all those who cut it open, where
nothing is found in its stomach but a kind of
slimy substance, which has induced some to
think it lives only upon water and air. From
hence there is a German proverb, which is
applied to a man extremely temperate, when
they say, he is as moderate as a sturgeon.
As the sturgeon is so temperate in its ap-
petites, so is it also equally timid in its nature.
There would be scarcely any method of taking
it, did not its natural desire of propagation
induce it to incur so great a variety of dan-
gers. The smallest fish is alone sufficient to
terrify a shoal of sturgeons ; for, being unfur-
nished with any weapon of defence, they are
obliged to trust to their swiftness and their
caution for security. Like all animals that
do not make war upon others, sturgeons live
in society among themselves : rather for the
purposes of pleasure than from any power of
mutual protection. Gesner even asserts, that
they are delighted with sounds of various
kinds ; and that he has seen them shoal to-
gether at the notes of a trumpet.
The usual time, as was said before, for the
sturgeon to come up rivers to deposit its spawn,
is about the beginning of summer, when the
fishermen of all great rivers make a regular
preparation for its reception. At Pillau, par-
ticularly, the shores are formed into districts,
and allotted to companies of fishermen, some
of which are rented for about three hundred
pounds a-year. The nets in which the stur-
geon is caught are made of small cord, and
placed across the mouth of the river ; but in
such a manner that, whether the tide ebbs or
flows, the pouch of the net goes with the
stream.- — The sturgeon thus caught, while in
the water, is one of the strongest fishes that
swims, and often breaks the net to pieces that
incloses it ; but the instant it is raised, with
THE STURGEON.
285
its head above water, all its activity ceases ;
it is then a lifeless, spiritless lump, and suffers
itself to be tamely dragged on shore. It has
been found prudent, however, to draw it to
shore gently ; for if excited by any unneces-
sary violence, it has been found to break the
fisherman's legs with a blow of its tail. The
most experienced fishers, therefore, when they
have drawn it to the brink, keep the head still
elevated, which prevents its doing any mis-
chief with the hinder part of the body ; others,
by a noose, fasten the head and the tail to-
gether ; and thus without immediately des-
patching it, bring it to the market, if there be
one near, or keep it till their number is com-
pleted for exportation.
The flesh of this animal, pickled, is very
well known -at all the tables of Europe ; and
is even more prized in England than in any
of the countries where it is usually caught.
The fishermen have two different methods of
preparing it. The one is by cutting it in long
pieces lengthwise, and, having salted them,
by hanging them up in the sun to dry: the
fish thus prepared is sold in all the Countries
of the Levant, and supplies the want of better
provisions. The other method, which is usually
practised in Holland, and along the shores
of the Baltic, is to cut the sturgeon cross-
wise, into short pieces, and put it in small
barrels, with a pickle made of salt and sau-
mure. This is the sturgeon which is sold
in England ; and of which great quanti-
ties came from the North, until we gave en-
couragement to the importation of it from
North America. From thence we are very
well supplied; but it is said, not with such
good fish as those imported from the North of
Europe.
A very great trade is also carried on with
the roe of the sturgeon, preserved in a parti-
cular manner, and called Caviare : it is made
from the roe of all kinds of sturgeon, but par-
ticularly the second. This is much more in
request in other countries of Europe than with
us. To all these high-relished meats, the ap-
petite must be formed by degrees ; and though
formerly, even in England, it was very much
in request at the politest tables, it is at present
sunk entirely into disuse. It is still, how-
ever, a considerable merchandise among the
Turks, Greeks, and Venetians. Caviare some-
what resembles soft soap in consistence ; but
it is of a brown, uniform colour, and is eaten
as cheese with bread. The manner of making
it is this : they take the spawn from the body
of the sturgeon — for it is to be observed, the
sturgeon differs from other cartilaginous fish,
in that it has spawn like a cod, and not eggs
like a ray. They take the spawn, I say, and
freeing it from the small membranes that con-
nect it together, they wash it with vinegar,
and -afterwards spread it to dry upon a table;
they then put them into a vessel with salt,
breaking the spawn with their hands, and not
with a pestle ; this done, they put it into a
canvass bag, letting the liquor drain from it;
lastly, they put it into a tub, with holes in the
bottom, so that, if there be any moisture still
remaining, it may run out; then it is pressed
down, and covered up close for use.
But the Huso or Isinglass fish furnishes a
still more valuable commodity. This fish is
caught in great quantities in the Danube, from
the month of October to January : it is seldom
under fifty pounds weight, and often above
four hundred : its flesh is soft, glutinous, and
flabby ; but it is sometimes salted, which
makes it better tasted, and then it turns red
like salmon. It is for the commodity it fur-
nishes that it is chiefly taken. Isinglass is of
a whitish substance, inclining to a yellow,
done up into rolls, and so exported for use. It
is very well known as serviceable, not only in
medicine, but many arts. The varnisher, the
wine-merchant, and even the clothier, know
its uses ; and very great sums are yearly ex-
pended upon this single article of commerce.
The manner of making it is this : they take
the skin, .the entrails, the fins, and the tail of
this fish, and cut them into small pieces; these
are left to macerate in a sufficient quantity of
warm water, and they are all boiled shortly after
with a slow fire, until they are dissolved and
reduced to a jelly ; this jelly is spread upon
instruments made for the purpose, so, that
drying, it assumes the form of parchment, and,
when quite dry, it is then rolled into the form
which we see in the shops.1
This valuable commodity is principally fur-
nished from Russia, where they prepare great
quantities surprisingly cheap. Mr Jackson,
an ingenious countryman ol our own, found
out an obvious method of making a glue at
home that answered all the purposes of isin-
glass ; but what with the trouble of making
it, and perhaps the arts put in practice to un-
dersell him, he was, as I am told, obliged to
discontinue the improvement of his discovery.
Indeed, it is a vain attempt to manufacture
among ourselves those things which may bo
more naturally and cheaply supplied else-
where. We have many trades that are un-
naturally, if I may so express it, employed
among us ; who furnish more laboriously those
necessaries with which other countries could
easily and cheaply supply us. It would be
wiser to take what they can thus produce ; and
to turn our artizans to the increase and manu-
1 Isinglass is prepared from various other fishes, hut
principally from the White Dolphin, or Belluga of North
America. This well-known substance is made from tha
sound, or air-bladder.
286
HISTORY OF FISHES.
facture of such productions as thrive more rea
dily among us. Were, for instance, the num
ber of hands that we have now employed ir
the manufacture of silk, turned to the increase
of agriculture, it is probable that the increasec
quantity of corn thus produced, would be more
than an equivalent for the diminution of na-
tional wealth in purchasing wrought silk from
other countries.
CHAP. VI.
OF ANOMALOUS CARTILAGINOUS FISHES.'
Of all others, the Cartilaginous class seem
to abound with the greatest variety of ill.
1 Eels. — The general appearance of the Eel is so well
known, ami so unlike that of mostother fishes, as to require
hut a slight description ; yetit was not till a period of very
modern date that naturalists became acquainted with the
lact that the fresh waters of several countries produce
three or four distinct species which had previously been
confounded together. Thus the first edition of the
JRigne Animal, published in 1817, included but one
species of common fresh-water eel as well known : the
second edition, published in 1829, contains a short no-
tice of four different species ; three of which, if not all
four, are found in this country.
The form of the eel, resembling that of the serpent,
has long excited a prejudice against it, which exists in
some countries even to the present time ; and its simi-
larity to snakes has even been repeated by those, who,
from the advantages of education, and their acquirements
in natural history, might have been supposed capable of
drawing more accurate conclusions. There is but little
similarity in the snake and the eel except in the exter-
nal form of the body : the important internal organs of
the two. animals, and the character of the skeleton, are
most decidedly different.
Eels are in reality a valuable description of fish: their
flesh is excellent as food; they are very numerous, very
prolific, and are found in almost every part of the world.
The various species are hardy, tenacious of life, and very
easily preserved. In this country they inhabit almost
all our rivers, lakes, and ponds ; they are in great esteem
for the table, and the consumption in our large cities is
very considerable. The London market is principally
supplied from Holland by Dutch fishermen. There are
two companies in Holland, having five vessels each :
their vessels are built with a capacious well, in which
large quantities of eels are preserved alive till wanted.
One or more of these vessels may be constantly seen ly-
ing off Billingsgate; the others goto Holland for fresh
supplies, each bringing a cargo of 15,000 to 20,000
pounds' weight of live eels, for which the Dutch mer-
chant pays a duty of £13 per cargo for his permission to
sell. Eels and salmon are the only fish sold by the pound
weight in the London market.
Eels are not only numerous, but they are also in great
request, in many other countries. Ellis, in his Polyne-
sian Researches, vol. ii. page 286, says : " In Otaheite,
eels are great favourites, and are tamed and fed until
they attain an enormous size. These pets are kept in
large holes, two or three feet deep, partially filled with
water. On the sides of these pits they generally re-
mained, excepting when called by the person who fed
them. I have been several times with the young chief,
formed animals ; and, if philosophy could al-
low the expression, we might say, that the
cartilaginous class was the class ot monsters ;
in fact, it exhibits a variety of shapeless beings,
when he has sat down by the side of the hole, and, by
giving a shrill sort of whistle, has brought out an enor-
mous eel, which has moved about the surface of the
water, and eaten with confidence out of its master's
hand."
" Most of the writers on the habits of the eel have
described them as making two migrations in each year:
one in the autumn to the sea ; the other in spring, or at
the beginning of summer, from, the sea. The autumn
migration is performed by adult eels, and is believed to
be for the purpose of depositing their spawn; it is also
said that these parent fish never return up the rivers.
The spring migration is commonly supposed to be con-
fined to very small eels, not more than three inches in
length, and in reference to the fiy alone, it is too well
known, and too often recorded, to be matter of doubt.
The passage of countless hundreds of young eels has
been seen and described as occurring in the Thames,
the Severn, the Parrett, the Dee, and the Ban. I am,
however, of opinion, that the passage of adult eels to the
sea, or rather to the brackish water of the estuary, is an
exercise of choice, and not a matter of necessity; am]
that the parent eels return up the river as well as the
fry."
" All authors agree that eels are extremely averse to
cold. There are no eels in the arctic regions,— none in
the rivers of Siberia, the Wolga, the Danube, or any ol
its tributary streams ; yet the rivers of the southern parts
of Europe produce four species. There is no doubt thai
fishes in general, and eels in particular, are able to ap-
preciate even minute alterations in the temperature of
the water they inhabit. The mixed water they seek to
remain in during the colder months of the year is of a
higher temperature than the pure fresh water of the river,
or that of the sea. It is a well-known law in chemistry,
that when two fluids of different densities come in con-
tact, the temperature of the mixture is elevated for a
time in proportion to the difference in density of the
two fluids, from the mutual penetration and condensa-
tion. Such a mixture is constantly taking place at the
mouths of rivers that run into the sea, and the mixed
ater maintains a temperature two degrees warmer than
that of the river or the sea. This elevation in the tem-
Jerature of the water of estuaries and the mouths of ri-
vers is, I have no doubt, one reason why they in general
abound in young fish."
In a tideway river the descent of the eels towards the
irackish water takes place during the autumn, and va-
rious devices are employed in different streams to inter-
cept them in their progress. One apparatus used in va-
rious parts of the Thames, called an eelbuck, consists of a
ramework of wood supporting various wicker-baskets of
particular form. The large open end of each basket is
opposed to the stream, and by the peculiar structure of
he inside, any fish once within the body of the basket,
cannot escape.
During the cold months of the year eels remain im-
>edded in mud ; and large quantities are frequently
aken by eel-spears in the soft soils of harbours and
anks of rivers, from which the tide recedes, and leaves
he surface exposed for several hours eveiy day. The
els bury themselves twelve or sixteen inches deep,
lear the edge of the navigable channel, and generally
lear some of the many land-drains, the water of which
:ontinues to run in its course over the mud into the
hannel during the whole time the tide is out. In So-
nersetshire the people know how to find the holes in the
ianks of rivers in which eels are laid up, by the huar
CARTILAGINOUS FISHES.
287
the deviations of which from the usual form
of fishes are beyond the power of words to
describe, and scarcely of the pencil to draw.
In this class we have the Pipe Fish, that al-
frost not lying over them as it does elsewhere, and dig
them out in heaps. The practice of searching for eels
in mud in cold weather is not confined to tin's country;
Dr Mitchill, in his paper on the Fishes of New York,
published in the Transactions of the Literary and Philo-
sophical Society of that city, says, " In the winter eels
lie concealed in the mud, and are taken in great num-
bers by spears." Thus imbedded in mud, in a state of
torpidity, the eel indicates a low degree of respiration.
Dr Marshall Hall has shown that the quantity of respi-
ration is inversely as the degree of irritability. With a
high degree of irritability and a low respiration, co-ex-
ist— 1st The power of sustaining the privation of air
and of food; 2nd. A low animal temperature; 3rd.
Little activity: 4th. Great tenacity of life. All these
peculiarities eels are well known to possess. The
high degree of irritability of the muscular fibre ex-
plains the restless motions of eels during thunder-
storms, and helps to account for the enormous cap-
tures made in some rivers by the use of gratings, boxes,
and eel pots or baskets, which imprison all that enter.
The power or enduring the effects of a low temperature
is shown by the fact, that eels exposed on the ground till
frozen, then buried in snow, and at the end of four days
put into water, and so thawed slowly, discovered gradu-
ally signs of life, and soon perfectly recovered.
The mode by which young eels are produced appears
to have long been a subject of inquiry, and the notions of
the ancients as well as of some of the moderns were nu-
merous and fanciful. Aristotle believed that they sprang
from the mud ; Pliny, from fragments which were sepa-
rated from their bodies by rubbing against rocks; others
supposed that they proceeded from the carcasses of ani-
mals; Helmont believed that they came from May-dew,
and might be obtained by the following process : — " Cut
up two turfs covered with May-dew, and lay one upon
the other, the grassy sides inwards, and thus expose them
to the heat of the sun; in a few hours there will spring
from them an infinite quantity of eels." Horse-hair
from the tail of a stallion, when deposited in water, was
formerly believed to be a never-failing source of a supply
of young eels. It was long considered certain that they
were viviparous : this belief had its origin probably in
the numerous worms that are frequently to be found in
various parts of the bodies of eels, sometimes in the se-
rous cavities, at others in the intestinal canal. Rudol-
phi has enumerated eight different species of entozoa
common to fresh-water eels. The enormous number of
young known to be produced by eels is a good negative
proof that they are oviparous; viviparous fishes produc-
ing, on the contrary, but few young at a time, and
these too of considerable size when first excluded. Hav-
ing devoted time and attention to the close examination
of numbers of eels for many months in succession, the
turther details of which will be found in Mr Jesse's se-
cond series of Gleanings in Natural History, I need only
here repeat my belief that eels are oviparous, producing
their young like other true bony fishes.
" The sexual organ consists of two long narrow sacs ex-
tending one on each side of the air-bladder throughout the
whole length of the abdominal cavity, and continuing for
two inches posterior to the vent. The membranes form-
ing this tubular sac, secreting on the inner surface the
milt of the male, and affording attachment for the ova in
the female, are puckered or gathered along the line of
junction to the peritoneal covering of the spine, and the
free or loose floating edge is therefore thrown into creases
or plaits like a frill. It is probably from this folded
or convoluted appearance the sexual organs of the eel
most tapers to a thread, and the Sun Fish,
that has the appearance of a bulky head, but
the body cut off' in the middle ; the Hippocam-
pus, with a head somewhat like that of a horse,
have frequently been called fringes. By the kind-
ness of my friends Mr Clift and Mr Owen, of the Royal
College of Surgeons, I have had the pleasure of seeing
some drawings belonging to the collection of John Hun-
ter, in which these peculiarities of the sexual organs in
the eel are beautifully exhibited in various magnified re-
presentations."
Dr Mitchill of New York, whose paper on Fishes has
been already refemd to, says " the roes or ovaria of eels
may be seen by those who will look for them in the pro-
per season, like those of other fishes."
Eels that have lain in brackish water all the winter
under the constant influence of the TTigfier temperature
of that locality, probably deposit their spawn earlier in
the spring than those which have passed the winter in
places from which there existed for them no possible
egress. In the Mole, the Wey, the Longford river, and
in some large ponds, the eels in the spring of 1833 did
not deposit their spawn till near the end of April ; but in
two eels from Sheerness received and examined on the
18th of May, the internal appearances induced me to
believe that the roes had been passed some time. How
long the ova remain deposited before the young eel is
produced, is, I believe, unknown. The duration of this
interval is very variable in different fishes. The roe of
the herring, deposited at the end of October or the be-
ginning of November, is said to become living fry within
three weeks : the ova of eels, the produce of which is
very small, do not probably require a longer period.
Both the parent eels and the fry occupying the brackish
water appear to have the power of going either to the
salt water or to the fresh without inconvenience, from
the previous preparation which the respiratory organs
have undergone, and many of both are found in pure sea
water : the great bulk of the young, however, certainly
ascend the stream of the river, and their annual appear-
ance in certain places is looked for with some interest.
The passage of young eels up the Thames at Kingston
in the year 1832 commenced on the 30th of April, and
lasted till the 4th of May; but I believe I am correct in
stating that few young eels were observed to pass up the
Thames either in the year 1834 or J835. Some notion
may be formed of the quantity of young eels, each about
three inches long, that pass up the Thames in the spring,
and in other rivers the beginning of summer, from the
circumstance that it was calculated by two observers of
the progress of the young eels at Kingston in 1832, that
from sixteen to eighteen hundred passed a given point in
the space of one minute of time. This passage of young
eels is called ee\~fare on the banks of the Thames, —
the Saxon word signifying to go, to pass, to travel;* and
I have very little doubt that the term Elver, in common
use on the banks of the Severn for a young eel, is a mo-
dification or corruption of eel-fare.
" When the elvers appear in the Severn, they are
taken in great quantities with sieves of hair-cloth, or
even with a common basket, and, after being scoured
and boiled, are offered for sale. They are either fried in
cakes or stewed, and are accounted very delicious."
There is no doubt that eels occasionally quit the
water, and when grass meadows are wet from dew, or
other causes, travel during the night over the moist sur-
face in search of frogs and other suitable food, or to
change their situation. Some ponds continually produce
eels, though the owners of these ponds are most desirous
* A pedestrian on the road is cal*d " a way-faring man ;•'
- - by a convey^ :-
ghfare,' ' &c.
and hence, also, the price for travelling by a conveyance is
called " the fare." \Ve have nlso "thorou
288
HISTORY OP FISHES.
and the Water Bat, whose head can scarcely
be distinguished from the body. In this class
we find the Fishing Frog, which from its de-
formity some have called the Sea Devil ; the
Chimaera, the Lump Fish, the Sea Porcu-
pine, and the Sea Snail. Of all these the
history is but little known ; and naturalists
supply the place with description.
The Sun Fish sometimes grows to a very
large size ; one taken near Plymouth was five
hundred weight. In form it resembles a
of keeping the water free from eels, from a knowledge
of their destructive habits towards the spawn and fry of
other fishes. Other ponds into which eels have been
constantly introduced are obnoxious to them from some
quality in the water; and they are known to leave such
places during the night, and have been found, on their
passage to other retreats. Dr Hastings, in his Illustra-
tions of the Natural History of Worcestershire, says at
page 134, " I will here mention a curious confirmation
of the opinion in favour of the overland migration of
eels. A relative of the late Mr Perrott was out in his
park with his keeper near a large piece of water, on a
very beautiful evening, when the keeper drew his atten-
tion to a fine eel quietly ascending the bank of the pool,
and with an undulating motion making its way through
the long grass: on further observation he perceived a
considerable number of eels quietly proceeding to a
range of stews, nearly the distance of a quarter of a mile
from the large piece of water from whence they started.
The stews were supplied by a rapid brook, and in all
probability the instinct of the fish led them in that di-
rection as a means of finding their way to some large
river from whence their ultimate destination, the sea,
might be obtained. This circumstance took place at
Sandford Park, near Enstone."
That eels breed also in the fresh water of irland
rivers and lakes from which they are unable to visit the
sea, is, I believe, certain. A constant supply for the
table is obtained throughout the winter in these locali-
ties, as well as at other seasons, by gamekeepers and
fishermen, who have charge of waters thus situated ; and
no doubt exists in their minds that these eels are bred
in the places from which they are obtained, and of which
the great variation that occurs in the size is an additional
proof.
The eel is a voracious feeder during certain months
tf the year. In winter the stomachs of those which I
examined were empty: by the middle of March I found
the stomachs of others distended with the larvae of vari-
ous insects, and the bones of small fishes. They are
known to consume a large quantity of spawn, and will
attack large carp, seizing them by the fins, though with-
out the power of doing them further injury. Occasion-
ally they eat vegetable substances, and have been seen
swimming about the surface of water, cropping the
leaves of small aquatic plants. By means of a long and
capacious air-bladder, eels rise to various elevations in
the water with great ease, and sometimes swim very
high even in deep water. When whitebait-fishing in
the Thames, I once caught an eel in the net in twenty-
six feet depth of water, though the whitebait-net does
not dip more than about three feet below the surface.
Eels appear to be slow of growth, not attaining greater
length than twelve inches during the first year, and do
not mature roe till the second or third year. The sharp-
nosed species, however, acquires a large size. I saw at
Cambridge the preserved skins of two which weighed to-
gether fifty pounds ; the heaviest twenty-seven pounds,
the second twenty-three pounds. They were taken or
draining a fen-dyke at Wisbeach.
bream, or some deep fish cut off in the middle :
the mouth is very small, and contains in each
jaw two broad teeth, with sharp edges : the
colour of the back is dusky and dappled, and
the belly is a silvery white. When boiled,
it has been observed to turn to a glutinous
jelly, and would most probably serve for all
the purposes of isinglass, were it found in
sufficient plenty.
The Fishing Frog1 in shape very much
resembles a tadpole or young frog; but then
Ely is said to have been so named from rents being
'ormerly paid in eels: the lords of manors in the isle
ivere annually entitled to more than 100,000 eels. A
stich or stick of eels was twenty-five ; and the practice
of stringing eels on tough slender willow-twigs, put in
at the gill-aperture and out at the mouth, still prevails
n Dorsetshire among those who carry eels about for
sale from house to house ; one, two, or three pounds'
weight being thus strung on a stick, to suit different
customers. Elmore on the Severn obtained its name
from the immense number of eels which are taken
there. — YarrelVs British Fishes, vol. II.
1 The Fishing- Frog, Angler, Sea-Devil, or Ifide-
Gab. — This fish, (says Mr Yarrell) which is not uncom-
mon in all the seas of Europe, and was in consequence
called Lophius Europacus by Shaw, has also been called
frog and frog-fish from the earliest time, from its resem-
blance to a frog in the tadpole state. Its habits appeared
to the fishermen of former days so exact a representation
of the art themselves practised that they by common con-
sentcalled it the Fisher. Aristotle calls it a sort of frog,
which, he says, is also called a fisher; and he adds,
that this fish owes its name to the tact and industry it
exercises to procure food. This fish has been taken on
the coast of Londonderry, Antrim, Dublin, Waterford,
and Cork, in Ireland; in England, on the coasts of
Cornwall, Devonshire, Norfolk, and Yorkshire ; in Scot-
land, in the Forth and among the Northern islands. It
is also named by authors as common on the shores of the
Baltic and Norway.
In its appetite this fish is most voracious ; and as it
is not a rapid swimmer, possessing but little power in
its pectoral fins, it is supposed to be obliged to have
recourse to art in order to satisfy its appetite. Upon
the head, as will be seen in the figure, are two slender
elongated appendages, the first of them broad and flat-
tened towards the end, and having at this dilated part a
shining silvery appearance. These elongated filaments
are curiously articulated at the base with the upper sur-
face of the head. They have great freedom of motion
in any direction, the first filament more especially, pro-
duced by numerous muscles, amounting, according to
M. Bailly, to twenty-two.
These elongated shafts are formed of bone covered hy
the common skin ; arid as the soft parts are abundantly
supplied with nerves, they may also serve the angler as
delicate organs of touch. The uses to which they are
applied are singular. While couching close to the grour.d,
the fish, by the action of its ventral and pectoral fin..,
CARTILAGINOUS FISHES.
289
a tadpole of enormous size, for it grows to above
live feet long, and its mouth is sometimes a
yard wide. Nothing can exceed its deformity.
The head is much bigger than the whole
body; the under jaw projects beyond the
upper, and both are armed with rows of slender
sharp teeth: the palate and the tongue are
furnished with teeth in like manner: the eyes
are placed on the top of the head, and are en-
compassed with prickles : immediately above
the nose, are two long beards or filaments,
small in the beginning, but thicker at the
end, and round : these, as it is said, answer
a very singular purpose ; for being made
somewhat resembling a fishing-line, it is as-
serted, that the animal converts them to the
purposes of fishing. With these extended, as
Pliny asserts, the fishing frog hides in muddy
waters, and leaves nothing ,but the beards to
be seen : the curiosity of the smaller fish brings
them to view these filaments, and their hunger
induces them to seize the bait; upon which
the animal in ambush instantly draws in its
filaments, with the little fish that had taken
the bait, and devours it without mercy. This
story, though apparently improbable, has found
credit among some of our best naturalists ;
but what induces me to doubt the fact is, that
there is another species of this animal, that
has no beards, which it would not want if they
were necess&ry to the existence of the kind.
Rondeletius informs us, that if we take out
the bowels, the body will appear with a kind
of transparence ; and that if a lighted candle
be placed within the body, as in a lantern,
the whole has a very formidable appearance.
The fishermen, however, have in general a
stirs up the sand or mud: hidden by the obscurity thus
produced, it elevates these appendages, moves them in
various directions by way of attraction as a bait, and
the small fishes approaching either to examine or to seize
them, immediately become the prey of the fisher.
Numerous are the writers who liave borne their testi-
mony to this habit, and some have extolled it as raising
the intellectual character of this fish beyond that of
most of its class. Half the animal world seem destined
to destroy each other, some by open violence, others by
stratagem ; and this design in the angler, though singu-
lar, is not more wonderful than that of the spiders among
insects, who spin and repair their widely-spread webs
to catch other insects upon which they subsist.
The angler has been known to measure five feet in
length, but the most common size is about three feet.
Mr Couch says, " It makes but little diHerence what
the prey is, either in respect of size or quality. A
fisherman had hooked a cod-fish, and while drawing it
up he felt a heavier weight attach itself to his line : this
proved to be an angler of large size, which he compelled
to quit its hold by a heavy blow on its head, leaving its
prey still attached to the hook. In another instance,
an angler seized a conger eel that had taken the hook;
but after the latter had been engulphed in the enormous
jaws — and perhaps stomach, it struggled through the
gill-aperture of the angler, and in that situation both
were drawn up together. I have been told of its swal-
lowing the large ball of cord employed as a buoy to a
VOL. II.
great regard for this ugly fish, as it is an
enemy to dog-fish, the ooaies 01" those fierce
and voracious animals being often found in its
stomach ; whenever they take it, therefore,
they always set it at liberty.
The Lump Fish is trifling in size, com-
pared to the former ; its length is but sixteen
inches, and its weight about four pounds ; the
shape of the body is like that of a bream,
deep, and it swims edgeways; the back is
sharp and elevated, and the belly flat; the
lips, mouth, and tongue of this animal, are of
a deep red ; the whole skin is rough, with
bony knobs; the largest row is along the
ridge of the back ; the belly is of a bright
crimson colour : but what makes the chief
singularity in this fish, is an oval aperture in
the belly, surrounded with a fleshy soft sub-
stance that seems bearded all round ; by
means of this part it adheres with vast force
to any thing it pleases. If flung into a pail
of water, it will stick so close to the bottom,
that on taking the fish by the tail, one may
lift up pail and all, though it holds several
gallons of water. Great numbers of these
fish are found along the coasts of Greenland
in the beginning of summer, where they
resort to spawn. Their roe is remarkably
large, and the Greenlanders boil it to a pulp
for eating. They are extremely fat, but not
admired in England, being both flabby and
insipid.
The Sea Snail takes its name from the soft
and unctuous texture of its body, resembling
the snail upon land. It is almost transparent,
and soon dissolves and melts away. It is but
a little animal, being not above five inches
bulter, or deep-sea line ; and the fact this implies of its
mounting to the surface is further confirmed by the evi-
dence of sailors and fishermen, who have seen it floating,
and taken it with a line at mid-water. These fishes
sometimes abound, and a fisherman who informed me
of the circumstance found seven of them at one time
on the deck of a trawl-boat : on expressing his surprise
at the number, he was told that it was not uncommon
to take a dozen at once." — Couch.
" When this fish is taken in a net, its captivity does
not destroy its rapacious appetite, but it generally de-
vours some of its fellow-prisoners, which have been
taken from the stomach alive, especially flounders, It
is not so much sought after for its own flesh, as for the
fish generally to be found in its stomach: thus, though
the fishermen reject the fish itself they do not reject
those that the fish has collected."
" A female examined measured three feet three
inches, the breadth across the body at the pectoral fins
fifteen inches. Within the teeth, on the lower jaw, is a
loose skin of a brown colour, like the back of the fish,
forming a sort of bag, which probably assists in prevent-
ing the escape of its smaller prey. A male examined
was three feet five inches long. When this fish was
suspended by the head, the contents of its stomach were
readily seen, and I perceived several cuttle-fish. The
sexes are distinctly marked by external appendages, as
in some species of Raia." — Montagu.
9o
290
HISTORY OF FISHES.
long. The colour, when fresh taken, is of a
pale brown, the shape of the body round, and
the back tin reaches all the way from the
head to the tail. Beneath the throat is a
round depression, of a whitish colour, sur-
rounded by twelve brown spots, placed in a
circle. It is taken in England at the mouth of
rivers, four or five miles distant from the sea.
The body of the Pipe Fish, in the thickest
part, is not thicker than a swan quill, while it
is above sixteen inches long. This is angular,
but the angles being not very sharp, they are
not discernible until the fish is dried. Its
general colour is an olive-brown, marked with
numbers of bluish lines, pointing from the
back to the belly. It is viviparous ; for on
crushing one that was just taken, hundreds of
very minute young ones were observed to
crawl about.1
i There are several varieties of pipe fish, such as the
Great Pipe Fish, (for which see Plate XXII. fig. 3.)
the Deep Nosed Pipe Fish, the Worm Pipe Fish, the
Snake Pipe Fish, &c. The following cut represents the
Snake Pipe Fish.
The Hippocampus is a species of Pipe Fish of singular
construction. The following represents its figure. It
is about five inches long. For Hippocampus foliatus,
see Plate XXII. fig. 10.
The Gar Fish. — The Gar Fish belongs to the class of
needle fish, which denomination they have received from
the extreme length of their bodies in proportion to their
thickness. They have no scales, but scuta or bucklers,
with several angles. The hexagonal form of the body and
the anal fin, are the distinguishing characters of the gar
fish. The body is composed of eighteen scuta, and the
tail of thirty-six, which form as many joints ; the tail is
square. It is found in the North and Baltic seas ; it
scarcely exceeds the length of a foot, and the thickness of
a finger. Besides the appellation of needle fish and gar
fish, it is sometimes called by that of a shorter pipe and
horn fish.
The Needle Fiah are natives of the ocean, and the
North and Baltic seas. They are usually found in deep
places near the coasts, where they are caught with other
fish. They produce their young in a perfect state, one
after the other, from eggs hatched in their bodies, like
the sharks and rays. Having but little flesh they are
fit only for baiting lines ; and they are the more proper
for this purpose as they are tenacious of life ; and it is
well known that fish bite more eagerly r.t a living bait
than a dead one.
The Hippocampus, which, from the form
of its head, some call the seahorse, never ex-
ceeds nine inches in length. It is about as
thick as a man's thumb, and the body is said,
while alive, to have hair on the lore-part,
which falls off when it is dead. The snout is
a sort of a tube with a hole at the bottom, to
which there is a cover, which the animal can
open and shut at pleasure. Behind the eyes
there are two fins which look like ears ; and
above them are two holes which serve for res-
piration. The whole body seems to be composed
of cartilaginous rings, on the intermediate
membranes of which several small prickles
are placed. It is found in the Mediterranean,
and also in the Western ocean ; and, upon
the whole, more resembles a great caterpillar
than a fish. The ancients considered it as
extremely venomous ; probably induced by its
peculiar figure.
From these harmless animals, covered with
a slight coat of mail, we may proceed to others,
more thickly defended, and more formidably
armed, whose exact station in the scale of
fishes is riot yet ascertained. While Linnaeus
ranks them among the cartilaginous kinds, a
The Sea Adder, or little pipe, is nearly round, having
only some very small and scarcely perceptible angulur
projections on the sides. It has but one fin; and the
body is divided into joints, like that j>f the common
worm. It grows to the length of two feet, and is not
thicker than a swan's quill. It inhabits the North and
Baltic seas, and is of the same nature as the two for-
mer fish.
The Long File Fish.— The body of the long file fish
is not very deep; the skin is divided by smooth furrows,
with small rough scale-like spaces: each of these, on
the sides, have a small spine pointing towards the tail :
the first dorsal fin has three spines, the first of which is
very large, and rough in front like a file, and hence the
English name; the third very short, and situated at a
considerable distance from the other two; the skin at
the back and belly, at the base of the dorsal and anal fins
drawn out and compressed : pectoral fins small ; dorsal
and anal fins triangular, and situated nearly opposite each
other; the tail even at the end. A singular property is
possessed by the first dorsal fin of this fish, which is, that
no force can depress the first spine; but if the last be
depressed in ever so gentle a manner, the other two im-
mediately fall down upon it, and as instantaneously as
when a cross-bow is let off by pulling the trigger. One
sort found in the Mediterranean, near Rome, is on that
account called puce lalestra, the cross-bow fish.
There is another species, mentioned by Walcott, the
body of which is much compressed and deep; the rays
of the dorsal fin, spiny; the first ray very long and
rough; first dorsal fin, and the back from its base, black;
skin rough ; tail rough ; and in the place of each ventral
fin n long rough spine. Also another species, (named
hispidus by naturalists,) is found in Carolina; the head
fin of which is not radiated, and there is a round black
spot in the tail fin. The body is rough, and bristly to-
wards the tail. The spine, or horn, is situated between
the eyes ; and instead of a belly fin it has a jagged sharp
spine. Several more species, or varieties, are found in
the Indian ocean, and at Ascension island, all which,
together with the unicorn, go by the general name of the
belestes. For common file fish, see Plate XXI. fig. 22.
CARTILAGINOUS FISHES.
291
later naturalist places them among the spinous |
class. With which tribe they most agree,
succeeding observations must determine. At
present we seem better acquainted with their
figure than their history : their deformity is
obvious ; and the venomous nature of the great-
est number has been conlirmed by fatal ex-
perience.— This circumstance, as well as the
happy distance at which they'are placed from
us, being all found in the Oriental or Amer-
ican seas, may have prevented a more critical
inquiry; so that we know but little of the
nature of their malignity, and still less of their
pursuits and enmities in the deep.
In the first of this tribe we may place the
Sea Orb, which is almost round, has a mouth
like a frog, and is from seven inches to two
feet long. Like the porcupine, from whence
it sometimes takes its name, being also called
the Sea Porcupine, it is covered over with
long thorns or prickles, which point on every
side; and, when the animal is enraged, it can
blow up its body as round as a bladder. Of
this extraordinary creature there are many
kinds : some threatening only with spines, as
the Sea Hedgehog ; others defended with a
bony helmet that covers the head, as the Os-
tracion; others with a coat of mail from the
head to the tail, where it terminates in a point,
as the Centriscus ; and others still armed of-
fensively and defensively with bones and
spines, as the Shield Orb.1
Of these scarcely one is without its peculiar
weapon of offence. The centriscus wounds
with its spine ; the ostracion poisons with its
venom ; the orb is impregnable, and is abso-
lutely poisonous if eaten. Indeed, their figure
is not such as would tempt one to make the
experiment ; and the natives of those countries
1 The Eared Ostracion (See Plate XXI. fig. 21.)—
This fish has a brown spine over each eye, two on each
side of the back, the same on each side of the abdomen,
and one on each side of the body. Its teeth are cyliii-
drical, blunt, and pointing forwards. The whole body
is mailed with a complete bony covering. This species
is found about the islands of the Pacific ocean, and is
readily distinguished from the rest of its cogeners. Its
length is about four inches and a half. (For Ostracion
tt:rritus, see Plate XXII. fig. 13.)
The Lineated Tctrodon. — The jaws are bony, and
divided at the tip; the body is roughened beneath, arid
the ventral fins wanting; the abdomen is variegated by
longitudinal brown bands. This singular fish, which is
a native of the Mediterranean sea, is also said to be
sometimes found in the river Nile. Like many others
of its genus, it has a power of inflating at pleasure the
skin of its body ; and being covered on the abdomen with
numerous small spines, is said to inflict considerable pain
on the hands of those who incautiously touch it. It grows
to the length of from eight to ten inches. (For Tetrodon
hispidns, see Plate XXI. fig. 4.)
' The Orbicular Diadon. — This remarkable fish grows
about a foot in length, arid is a native of the tropical seas.
It is of a rounder shape than the Diadon Hystriae, or
Porcupine Diadon y (fcr which see Plate XXII. fig. 17.)
where they are found, are careful to inform
foreigners of their danger: yet a certain sailor
at the Cape of Good Hope, not believing what
the Dutch told him concerning their venom,
was resolved to make the experiment, and
break through a prejudice, which, he supposed,
was founded on the animal's deformity. He
tried, and ate one ; but his rashness cost him
his life; he instantly fell sick, and died a few
days after.
These frightful animals are of different
sizes ; some not bigger than a foot-ball, and
others as large as a bushel. They almost all
flatten and erect their spines at pleasure, and
increase the terrors of their -appearance in
proportion to the approach of danger. At first
they seem more inoffensive ; their body oblong,
with all their weapons pointing towards the
tail ; but, upon being provoked or alarmed,
the body, that before seemed small, swells to
the view ; the animal visibly grows rounder
and larger, and all its prickles stand upright,
and threaten the invader on every side. The
Americans often amuse themselves with the
barren pleasure of catching these frightful
creatures by a line and hook, baited with a
piece of sea-crab. The animal approaches the
bait with its spines flattened ; but when hooked
and stopped by the line, straight all its spines
are erected ; the whole body being armed
in such a manner at all points, that it is
impossible to lay hold of it on any part. For
this reason it is dragged to some distance from
the water, and there it quickly expires. In
the middle of the belly of all these there is a
sort of bag or bladder filled with air, and by
the inflation of which the animal swells itself
in the manner already mentioned.
In describing the deformed animals of this
its jaws are bony, and undivided ; and the body beset
with movable spines. The spines are much shorter than
the porcupine diadon, with broader bases, forming a kind
of curved reticular pattern on the skin.
The Scaly Centriscus. — The head of this fish is pro-
duced into a very narrow snout ; its mouth is toothless,
with the lower jaw longer than the upper one. The
gill-openings are wide ; its body is compressed, with the
abdomen carinated; and the ventral fins united. The
Scaly Centriscus or Bellows Fish is a native of the Me-
diterranean sea, and grows to the length of five or six
inches: it feeds on worms, and the smaller kinds of ma-
rine insects.
The Telescope Fish. — The whole body of this fish, and
the ground colour of the fins, is of a beautiful red, darker
towards the back, and lighter towards the belly: the
membranes of the fins are almost white ; and the red
rays shining through them have a very fine effect; the
three white points of the tail give you an idea of a tri
dent or tulip. The head is short, but large ;' the mouti.
is small ; the nostrils single. The pupil of the eye is
black, the iris yellow ; the back is round ; the lateral
line nearer the back than the head. The scales on the
belly are large; the rays of the fins are ramified. This
beautiful fish is found in the fresh waters of China, and
is supposed to be a variety of the gold fish.
292
HISTORY OF FISHES.
class, one is sometimes at a loss whether it be
a fish or an insect that lies before him. Thus
the hippocampus and the pipe-fish bear a strong
resemblance to the caterpillar and the worm ;
while the lesser orb bears some likeness to the
class of sea-eggs to be described after. I will
conclude this account of cartilaginous fishes
with the description of an animal which I
would scarcely call a fish, but that Father La-
bat dignifies it with the name. Indeed, this
class teems with such a number of odd-shaped
animals, that one is prompted to rank every
thing extraordinary of the finny species among
the number : but besides, Labat says, its bones
are cartilaginous, and that may entitle it to a
place here.
The animal I mean is the Galley Fish,
which Linnaesus degrades into the insect tribe,
under the title of the medusa, but which I
choose to place in this tribe, from its habits,
that are somewhat similar. To the eye of an
unmindful spectator, this fish seems a trans-
parent bubble swimming on the surface of the
sea, or like a bladder variously and beautifully
painted with vivid colours, where red and
violet predominate, as variously opposed to
the beams of the sun. It is, however, an ac-
tual fish ; the body of which is composed of
cartilages, and a verv thin skin filled with air,
which thus keeps the animal floating on the
surface, as the waves and the winds happen to
drive. Sometimes it is seen thrown on the
shore by one wave, and again washed back
into the sea by another. Persons who happen
to be walking along the shore often happen to
tread upon these animals ; and the bursting of
their body yields a report like that when one
treads upon the swim of a fish. It has eight
broad feet, with which it swims, or which it
expands to catch the air as with a sail. It
fastens itself to whatever it meets by means
of its legs, which have an adhesive quality.
Whether they move when on shore, Labat
could never perceive, though he did every
thing to make them stir ; he only saw that it
strongly adhered to whatever substances he
applied it. It is very common in America,
and grows to the size of a goose-egg, or some-
what more. It is perpetually seen floating;
and no efforts that are used to hurt it can sink
it to the bottom. All that appears above water
is a bladder clear and ttansparent as glass,
and shining with the most beautiful colours of
the rainbow. Beneath, in the wafer, are four
of the feet already mentioned, that serve as
oars, while the other four are expanded above
to sail with. But what is most remarkable
in this extraordinary creature, is the violent
pungency of the slimy substance with which
its legs are smeared. If the smallest quantity
but touch the skin, so caustic is its quality,
that it burns it like hot oil dropped on the
part affected. The pain is worst in the heat
of the day, but ceases in the cool of the even-
ing. It is from feeding on these that he
thinks the poisonous quality contracted by
some West Indian fish may be accounted for.
It is certain these animals are extremely
common along all the coasts in the gulf of
Mexico; and whenever the shore is covered
with them in an unusual manner, it is con-
sidered as a certain forerunner of a storm.1
1 The Remora or Sucking-Fiih. (See Plate XXI.
fig. 16.) — This extraordinary fish is furnished with a
most peculiar apparatus, on the crown of its head, by
which it is enabled at will to fix itself firmly to any other
body. For what purpose this uncommon arrangement
of parts has been bestowed on it, we have no certain
means of judging; for the wonders of the deep are but
partially unfolded to our view, and the deep recesses of
its caves, the feeding-grounds of fish, are completely
out of our reach. We may, however, by observing the
peculiar formation of the remora, make some reasonable
conjecture at the intention of Providence in thus depart-
ing from its ordinary course.
The small size of the fins in this fish, take away
from it the power of rapid motion ; it may therefore be
supposed, that at times it fixes itself to the moving
bodies, such as ships, or larger fish, on which it is fre-
quently found, for the purpose of rest, or to help it more
rapidly onward in its course. It may also feed, in one
instance, on substances thrown overboard by the sailors,
and in the other, on such portions of food as its larger
companion rejects or lets slip. In addition to this, the
power of attaching itself to rocks or other fixed bodies at
the bottom of the sea, while waiting for the passing by
of any small object on which it can prey, will, no doubt,
at times, be of great advantage to its possessor.
A foolish idea prevailed, in former times, that when
this fish attached itself in great numbers to the bottoms
of vessels, it impeded, or even stopped them in their
course, and many fabulous tales have been told to that
effect. If no other object has been gained, by the
study of natural history, than the removal of such
simple prejudices, which would seem to imply that one
part of the creation was made for the useless destruction
of another, still that study would he a useful object of
cultivation.
HISTORY OF FISHES.
BOOK III.
OF SPINOUS FISHES.
CHAP. I.
THE DIVISION OF SriNOUS FISHES.
THK third general division of fishes is into
that of the spinous or bony kind. These are
obviously distinguished from the rest by having
a complete bony covering to their gills ; by
their being furnished with no other method of
breathing but gills only ; by their bones,
which are sharp and thorny ; and their tails,
which are placed in a situation perpendicular
to the body. This is that class which alone
our later naturalists are willing to admit as
fishes. The cetaceous class with them are but
beasts that have taken up their abode in the
ocean ; the cartilaginous class are an amphi-
bious band, that are but half denizens of that
element : it is fishes of the spinous kind that
really deserve the appellation.
This distinction the generality of mankind
will hardly allow ; but whatever be the jus-
tice of this preference in favour of the spinous
class, it is certain that the cetaceous and car-
tilaginous classes bear no proportion to them
in number. Of the spinous classes are already
known above four hundred species ; so that
the numbers of the former are trifling in com-
parison, and make not above a fifth part of the
finny creation.
From the great" variety in this class, it is
obvious how difficult a task it must have been
to describe or remember even a part of what
it contains. When six hundred different sorts
of animals offer themselves to consideration,
the mind is bewildered in the multiplicity of
objects that all lay some .claim to its attention.
To obviate this confusion, systems have been
devised, which, throwing several fishes that
agree in many particulars into one group, and
thus uniting all into so many particular bodies,
the mind that was incapable of separately con-
sidering each, is enabled to comprehend all,
when thus offered in larger masses to its con-
sideration.
Indeed, of all the beings in animated na-
ture, fishes most demand a systematical ar-
rangement. Quadrupeds are but few, and
can be all known; birds, from their seldom
varying in their size, can be very tolerably
distinguished without system ; but among
fishes, which no size can discriminate, where
the animal ten inches, and the animal ten feet
long, is entirely the same, there must be some
other criterion by which they are to be distin-
guished ; something that gives precision to our
ideas of the animal whose history we desire to
know.
Of the real history of fishes, very little is
yet known ; but of very many we have full
and sufficient accounts, as to their external
form. It would be unpardonable, therefore,
in a history of these animals, not to give the
little we do know ; and, at least, arrange our
forces, though we cannot tell their destination.
In this art of arrangement, Artedi and Lin-
nasus have long been conspicuous : they have
both taken a view of the animal's form in dif
ferent lights; and, from the parts which most
struck them, have founded their respective
systems.
Artedi, who was foremost, perceiving that
some fishes had prickly fins, as the pike ; that
others had soft pliant ones, as the herring ; and
that others still wanted that particular fin by
which the gills are opened and shut, as the
eel, made out a system from these varieties.
Linnaeus, on the other hand, rejecting this
system, which he found liable to too many ex-
ceptions, considered the fins not with regard
to their substance, but their position. The
ventral fins seem to be the great object of his
system ; he considers them in fishes supplying
the same offices as feet in quadrupeds ; and
294
HISTORY OF FISHES.
from theii total absence, or from their being
situated nearer the head or the tail, in differ-
ent fishes, he takes the differences of his sys-
tem.
These arrangements, which are totally arbi-
trary, and which are rather a method than a
science, are always fluctuating ; and the last
is generally preferred to that which went be-
fore. There has lately appeared, however, a
system composed by Mr Gouan, of Montpel-
lier, that deserves applause for more than its
novelty. It appears to me the best arrange-
ment of this kind that ever was made ; and in
it the divisions are not only precisely systema-
tical, but, in some measure, adopted by Na-
ture itself. This learned Frenchman has
united the systems of Artedi and Linnaeus to-
gether ; and, by bringing one to correct the
other, has made out a number of tribes that
are marked with the utmost precision. A
part of this system, however, we have already
gone through in the cartilaginous, or, as he
calls a part of them, the branchiostegous tribe
of fishes. In the arrangement of these, I
have followed Linnaeus, as the number of them
was but small, and his method simple. But
in that which is more properly called the spi-
nous class of fishes, I will follow Mr Gouan's
system ; the terms of which, as well as of all
the former systems, require some explanation.
I do not love to multiply the technical terms
of a science ; but it often happens that names,
by being long used, are as necessary to be
known as the science itself.
If we consider the substance of the fin of a
fish, we shall find it composed, besides the
skin, either of straight, hard, pointed, bony
prickles or spines, as in the pike ; or of soft,
crooked, or forked bones, or cartilages, as in
the herring. — The fish that have bony prickly
fins, are called prickly-f.nned.Jish ; the latter,
that have soft, or cartilaginous fins, are called
soft-finned fish. The prickly-finned fish have
received the Greek new-formed name of
Acanthopterigii ; the soft-finned fish have like-
wise their barbarous Greek name of Malacop-
terigii. Thus far Artedi has supplied Mr
Gouan with names and divisions. All spin-
ous fish are divided into prickly-finned fish
and soft-finned fish.
Again, Linnaeus has taught him to remark
the situation of the fins ; for the ventral, or
belly-fins, which are those particularly to be
remarked, are either wholly wanting, as in
the eel, and then the fish is called Apodal (a
Greek word, signifying without feet) ; or the
ventral fins are placed more forward than the
pectoral fins, as in the haddock, and then the
animal is a Jugular-fish : or the ventral fins are
placed directly under the pectoral fins, as in
the father-lasher, and then it is called a Tho-
racic-fish ; or, lastly, the ventral fins are placed
nearer the tail than the pectoral fins, as in the
minnow, arid then it is an Abdominal-fish.
Possessed of these distributions, the French
naturalist mixes and unites them into two
grand divisions. All the prickly-finned fish
make one general division ; all the soft-finned
fish another. These first are distinguished
from each other, as being either apodal, jugu-
lar, thoracic, or abdominal. Thus there are
prickly-finned apodal fishes; prickly-finned
jugular fishes ; prickly-finned thoracic fishes;
and prickly-finned abdominal fishes. On the
other hand, the soft-finned fishes fall under a
similar distribution, and make the other gene-
ral division. Thus there are soft-finned apo-
dal fishes, soft-finned jugular fishes, soft-finned
thoracic fishes, and soft-finned abdominal fishes.
These general characters are strongly marked,
and easily remembered. It only remains,
therefore, to divide these into such tribes as
are most strongly marked by nature ; and to
give the distinct characters of each to form a
complete system with great simplicity. This
Mr Gouan " has done ; and the tribes into
which he has distributed each of these divi-
sions, exactly amount to fifty. Thus the read-
er, who can contain in his memory the charac-
teristic marks of fifty kinds, will have a toler-
able idea of the form of every kind of spinous
fish. I say, of the form; for as to the history
and nature of the animal itself, that can only
be obtained by experience and information.
SECT. I.
PRICKLY-FINNED FISHES.
PricJdy-finned Apodal Fish.
1. THE Trichurus. The body of a sword-
form ; the head oblong ; the teeth sword-like,
bearded near the points ; the fore-teeth lar-
gest ; the fin that covers the gills with seven
spines ; the tail ending in a point without fins ;
an inhabitant near the Oriental and American
shores ; of a silvery white ; frequently leap-
ing into the fishermen's boats in China.
2. The Xiphias, or Sword-fish. The body
round; the head long ; the upper jaw termi-
nating by a long beak, in form of a sword ; the
fin that covers the gills with eight spines ; an
inhabitant of Europe; an enemy to the
whale.1
1 The general colour of the common sword-fish (xipf.-
ias gladius, see Plate XXI. fig. 11.) is brown, accompa-
nied by a deep steel-blue cast on the head and upper
parts, and inclining to silvery white on the sides and
abdomen. It sometimes grows to a very large si/e, and
as much as twenty feet in length. Pennant mentions
one cast on shore near Laughame. Caermartheoshire,
PRICKLY-FINNED FISHES.
295
3. Ophidium or Gilthead. The body sword-
like ; the head blunt ; the fin covering the
gills with seven spines ; the opening of the
mouth side-ways ; the fins of the back, the
anus, and the tail, all joining together ; the
most beautiful of all fishes, covered over with
green, gold, and silver ; it is by sailors called
the dolphin, and gives chase to the flying-
fish.
Prickly -finned Jugular Fish.
4. The Trachinus or Weever. The body
oblong ; the head obtuse ; the bones covering
the gills jagged at the bottom ; the fins cover-
ing the gills with six spines ; the anus near
the breast ; buries itself in the sands, leaving
only its nose out ; and if trod upon, immedi-
ately strikes with the spines that form its
dorsal fins, which are venomous and dan-
gerous.
5. The Uranoscopus. The body wedge-
like ; the head almost round, and larger than
the body; the mouth flat; the eyes on the top
of the head ; the fin covering the gills with
the head of which alone weighed seventy-five pounds,
iiiid was furnished with a snout three feet long.
The sword-fish is very active in its movements and vor-
acious in its appetite. It feeds on the smaller kinds of
fish, which it kills by piercing them with its sword. It
is said to be in particular a very great enemy to the
tunny, which is described byBelon to be as much alarmed
by its appearance as a sheep is at the sight of a wolf.
This fish is highly esteemed as an article of food by
the Sicilians, who buy it up eagerly at any price at the
commencement of the season, which lasts from May to
August. They cut it into pieces, and salt it for future
use. This process was in ancient times particularly
performed at the town of Thuri in the bay of Tarentum,
whence the fish was called tomus thurianus. A de-
scription of the ancient manner of taking this fish has
been left us by Strabo, from which it appears that the
process was the same as that now in use. The operation
resembles whale fishing on a small scale.
The broad-finned sword-fish (xiphias piatypterus) i-s of
a thinner and more elegant form than the preceding,
and is also distinguished by an extremely broad back
fin, and by very long sharp-pointed thoracic appendages,
which are entirely wanting in the other. The general
colour of the fish is of a silvery-bluish white, except in
the back, head, tail, and fins, which in the living animal
are of a deep blue, fading into brown in the dried speci-
mens. This fish is found in the Brazilian and East
Indian seas, and also in the Northern seas, where and
elsewhere it is a great enemy to whales, piercing them
with its formidable weapon. A specimen of this fish
occupies a very conspicuous situation at the British
Museum in a distinct case, which also contains three
specimens of detached swords. In the same room there
is a small specimen of the common sword-fish.
six spines ; the anus in the middle of the body;
an inhabitant of the Mediterranean sea.
6. Callyonymus or Dragonel. The body
almost wedge-like ; the head broad, and larger
than the body; the mouth even with the body ;
the bony covering of the gills close shut ; the
opening to the gills behind the head ; the fin
covering the gills with six spines ; an inhabi-
tant of the Atlantic ocean.
7. The Blennius or Bteruiy. The body ob-
long ; the head obtusely bevel ; the teeth a
single range ; the fin covering the gills with
six spines ; the ventral-fins have two small
blunt bones in each ; a species of this animal
is viviparous.
Prickly finned Thoracic Fish.
8. The Gobius or Gudgeon. The body
round and oblong ; the head with two little
holes between the eyes, one before the other;
the fin covering the gills with four spines ; the
ventral fins joined together.
9. The Cepola. The body sword-like ; the
head blunt; the mouth flat ; the fin covering
the gills with six spines; the fins distinct;
an inhabitant of the Mediterranean sea.
The captain of an East ladiaman sent to Sir Joseph
Banks an account of an astonishing but not singular in.
stance of the strength of an individual of this broad-fin-
ned species : the bottom of his ship was pierced through
by its sword in such a manner that it was completely
imbedded, or driven through almost to its base, — the
animal having been killed with the violence of the shock.
It is a fortunate circumstance that the fish is generally
either killed in this manner or else perishes from being
unable to withdraw its weapon, for could it eflect this
object, the vessel must inevitably founder in consequence
of the leak ; and indeed instances are recorded in which
some vessels, probably old or of a slight description, have
been greatly endangered, or even lost, in consequence
of having been struck by a sword-fish. In the present
instance, the wood, with the sword imbedded in it, was
sawed out, and is now in the British Museum, where
it forms one of the detached swords just mentioned.
The sword-fish aiid the whale are said never to meet
without coming to battle ; and the former has the repnte
of being always the aggressor. Sometimes two of them
join against one whale, in which the combat is by no
means equal. When the whale discovers the sword-fish
darting upon him, he dives to the bottom, but is closely
pursued by his antagonist, who compels him again to
rise to the surface. It would seem that the sword-fish
aims its formidable thrusts at vessels, not so much from
a disposition to attack every thing that falls in ita "ay
as under the impression that the said vessels are whales,
or other great fish : and may not the fact, that vessels
are rarely if ever so attacked in the Mediterranean, be
in a great degree owing to this, — that there are not in
that sea any fish so large that a sword-fish of ordinary
penetration could mistake a ship for them.
296
HISTORY OF FISHES.
10. The Coryph&na or Razor-fish. The
body wedge-like ; the head very bevel ; the fin
covering the gills with five spines.
11. The Skomber or Mackerel. The body
oblong ; the line running down the side zig-
zagged towards the tail ; the head sharp and
small ; the fins covering the gills with seven
spines ; several false fins towards the tail.1
» The Mackerel, (Scomber scombrus.) — The mackerel,
though of the same order as the herring, pilchard, and
sprat, belongs to a distinct family, — to which also belong
the tunny, the bonito, the sword-fish, the dory, or doree,
and several other kinds. The mackerel, which is placed
at the head of this division of acanthopterygii, was
known to the Greeks by the name of vxopfyii (scombros^;
and the generic term for all fish comprised in this class
is Scomberidee. The name given to the mackerel by the
French, German, and Dutch, as well as by the British,
is derived from the Latin word macula, a spot; that is,
the spotted or streaked fish. Elence the term " mack-
erel-sky" is also applied to a well-known formation of
the clouds. The mackerel is perhaps the most beautiful
of our British fishes, being elegant in its form as well
as brilliant in colour.
For the following account of the habits and mode of
taking this useful fish, we are indebted to the elegant
and valuable History of British Fishes, by Mr Yarrell.
On the coast of Ireland, the mackerel is taken from
the county of Kerry in the west, along the southern
shore, eastward to Cork and Waterford; from thence
northward to Antrim, and north-west to Londonderry
and Donegal. Dr Macculloch says it visits some of
the lochs of the western islands, but is not considered
very abundant. On the Cornish coast, this fish occurs
sometimes as early as March, and appears to be pursuing
a course from west to east. They are plentiful on the
Devonshire coast, and swarm in West bay about June.
On the Hampshire and Sussex coast, particularly the lat-
ter, they arrive as early as March, and sometimes, as will
be shown, even in Feburary ; and the earlier in the year
the fishermen go to look for them, the further from the
shore do they seek for them and find them. Duhamel say:
the mackerel are caught earlier at Dunkirk than at Dieppe
or Havre: up our eastern coast, however, the fishing i<
later. The fishermen of Lowestofie and Yarmouth, gaii
their great harvest from the mackerel in May and June
The mackerel spawns in June, and according to Bloch
five hundred and forty thousand eggs have been countec
in one fish. The young mackerel, which are callec
shiners, are from four to six inches long, by the end o
August. They are half grown, says Mr Couch, b'
November, wheii they retire to deep water, and are seen
no more that winter; but the adult fishes never wholl;
quit the Cornish coast, and it is common to see som
taken with lines in every month of the year. Th
mackerel as feeders are voracious, and their growth i
rapid. The ordinary length varies from fourteen to six
teen inches, and their weight is about two pounds each
but they are said to attain the length of twenty inches
The largest fish are not, however, considered the bes
for the table.
As an article of food they are in great request, an
those taken in the months of May and June are gener
ally considered superior in flavour to those taken eilh
12. The £aZ>rws.Pl.XXI.fig.23. The body
oval; the head middling; the lips doubled
inward ; both cutting and grinding teeth ; the
covers of the gills scaly; the fin covering
arlier in the spring, or in autumn. To be eaten in
erfection. this fish should be very fresh, as it soon
ecomes unfit for food. Mackerel were first allowed to
e cried through the streets of London on a Sunday, in
698, and the practice prevails to the present time.
At our various fishing-towns on the coast, the mack-
rel season is one of great bustle and activity ; the high
rice obtained by early cargoes being the inducement to
reat exertions.
In May, 1807, the first Brighton boat-load of mackerel
old at Billingsgate for forty guineas per hundred, —
even shillings each, reckoning six score to the hundred,
— the highest price ever known at that market. The
ext boat-load produced but thirteen guineas the hnn-
red. Mackerel were so plentiful at Dover in Ib08,
hat they were sold sixty for a shilling. At Brighton,
n June of the same year, the shoal of mackerel was so
reat, that one of the boats had the meshes of her nets
o completely occupied by them, that it was impossible
o drag them in. The fish and nets, therefore, at length
unk together. The boats engaged in fishing, are
sually attended by other fast-sailing vessels, which are
ent away with the fish taken. From Hastings, and other
ishing-towns on the Sussex coast, the fish are brought
o London by vans, which travel up during the night.
The most common made of fishing for mackerel, and
n which the greatest numbers are taken, is by drift-
icts. The drift-net is twenty feet deep, by one hun-
dred and twenty feet long, well corked at the top, but
without lead at the bottom. They are made of small
fine twine, which is tanned of a reddish-brown colour,
to preserve it from the action of the sea water. Th*
size of the mesh is about two and a half inches, or rather
arger. Twelve, fifteen, and sometimes eighteen of
these nets are attached lengthways, by tying along a
thick rope called the drift-rope, and at the end of each
net to each other. When arranged for depositing in the
sea, a large buoy attached to the end of the drift-rope, is
thrown overboard; the vessel is put before the wind,
and as she sails along, the rope with the nets thus
attached, is passed over the stem into the water, till the
whole of the nets are run out. The net thus deposited,
hangs suspended in the water perpendicularly, twenty
feet deep from the drift-rope, and extending from three
quarters of a mile to a mile, or even a mile and a half,
depending on the number of nets belonging to the party
or company engaged in fishing together. When the
whole of the nets are thus handed out, the drift-rope is
shifted from the stern to the prow of the vessel, and she
rides by it as if at anchor. The benefit gained by the
boat's hanging at the end of the drift-rope is, that the
net is kept strained in a straight line, which, without
this pull upon it, would not be the case.
The nets are shot in the evening, and sometimes
hauled once during the night, at others allowed to re-
main in the water all night. The fish roving in the
dark through the water, hang in the meshes of the net,
which are large enough to admit them beyond the gill-
covers arid pectoral fins, but not large enough to allow
the thickest part of the body to pass through. In the
morning early, preparations are made for hauling the
nets. A capstan upon the deck is manned, about which
two turns of the drift-rope are taken. One man stands
forward to untie the upper edge of each net from the
drift-rope, which is called casting off' the lashings : others
hand in the net with the fish caught, to which one side
of the vessel is devoted ; the other side is occupied by
the drift-rope, which is wound in by the men at the
capstan. The whole of the net in, and the fish secured,
PRICKLY FINNED FISHES.
297
the gills with five spines ; the pectoral fins
pointed.
13. The Sparus or Sea-Bream. The body
oblong; (he head middling; the lips not in-
verted ; the teeth cutting and grinding ; the
the vessel runs back into harbour with her fish, or de-
posits them on board some other boat in company.
Near to land, another mode of fishing is adopted,
which is thus described by Mr Couch. "A long deep
net is employed, of which, unlike the former, the meshes
are too small to admit any of the fish. Two boats are
necessary, one of which is rowed round the schull, while
the net is thrown overboard by two men to enclose it : the
other boat is employed in keeping steady the end of the
net, and warping it, the sooner and more surely to pre-
vent the escape of the fish. When Uiis is effected, the
net stands like a circle, enclosing the captives, and the
men proceed to draw it together at the end and bottom ;
at the same time throwing pebbles at that place where
the circle closes, to prevent the approach of the fish to
the only place where escape is possible; when at last
the enclosure is perfect, and the net raised from the
ground, the fish tlrus brought to the surface are taken on
board in flaskets." Such is the mode of proceeding with
the seine-net in deep water, or at a distance from shore,
but in some places it is hauled on the beach in the
manner of a ground-net, with less trouble and expense.
A third mode of fishing is with the line, and is called
railing, (trailing.) The mackerel will bite at any bait
that is used to take the smaller kind of fish ; but prefer-
ence is given to that which resembles a living and active
prey, which is imitated by what is called a lask, — along
slice cut from the side of one of its own kind near the
tail ; — it is found, also, that a slip of red leather, or a
piece of scarlet cloth, will commonly succeed. The boat
is placed under sail, and a smart breeze is considered
favourable, hence termed a mackerel-breeze. The line
is short, but weighed down by a heavy plummet, and in
this manner, when these fish abound, two men will take
from five hundred to a thousand a day. It is singular
that the greatest number of mackerel are caught when
the boat moves most rapidly, and that even then the
hook is commonly gorged. It seems that the mackerel
takes its food by striking across the course of what is
supposed to be its flying prey.
The Tunny. — The common Tunny (TbynHus vul-
garis,) is a large fish belonging to the intrkerel tribe ;
although but little known in England, it is an object of
considerable importance to many of the nations bordering
on the Mediterranean ; to none more so, perhaps, than
the Sicilians. The tunnies, like the mackerel, appear
in great shoals, or banks, which are believed to enter
the Mediterranean at the beginning of April, for the
purpose of depositing their spawn ; but it is very likely
that instead of coming from any great distance, they
VOL. II.
cover of the gills scaly; the fins covering the
gills with five rays; the pectoral fins pointed.
14. The Chatodon or Cat-fish. The body
oblong : the head small ; the teeth slender and
merely rise from the deeper parts of that sea, in order
to reach the shoal water, that the spawn, or ova, may be
placed within the influence of the sun's rays. The ap-
pearance of the mackerel is said to indicate the approach
of the tunnies, these last being voracious fish, and de-
vouring great quantities of their smaller brethren.
At the time when these fish make their periodical ap-
pearance, the strongest and the boldest precede their
companions at distances determined by their greater
vigour or courage. The form assumed by a shoal o!
tunnies is that of a long triangle, _th_e weaker fish bring-
ing up the rear. The approach of this living mass is
perceived at a considerable distance, from the noise
which accompanies their rapid movements, for the tail
of the tunny is large and powerful, and striking forcibly
and rapidly against the water, produces a sound which
can be heard at a great way off. " This murmuring
noise, which is heard from afar, is echoed from rock to
rock, and repeated from shore to shore, resembling that
dull but imposing sound, which during a deceitful calm
on a burning summer's day announces the approach of
a hurricane."
In spite, however, of their number, their strength,
and their swiftness, a sudden noise will often arrest the
whole shoal in the middle of their course, or even the
unexpected appearance of any bright object. If we may
believe the reasoning of Pliny, the Roman naturalist,
who speaking of the tunny, says, " in the spring, the
tunnies pass in troops, composed of numerous individu-
als, from the Mediterranean into the Euxine or the
Black sea, and in the strait which separates Europe
from Asia, a rock of dazzling whiteness, and of great
elevation, rises near Chalcedony, on the Asiatic shore;
and the sudden appearance of this rock, terrifies the
tunnies to such an extent, as to force them to alter their
course, and suddenly tun* towards the Cape of Byzan-
tium, opposite the Chalcedouian shore; and this forced
direction of the course of these fish, causes the fishery
to be very abundant near the Cape of Byzantium." The
usual size of this fish is from two to three feet in length ;
they are at times, however, taken as long as ten feet.
Aristotle mentions an old tunny which weighed upwards
of two hundred weight.
The tunny-fishery was attended to with great care by
the ancients, and still employs a vast number of hands
in d.flerent parts of the Mediterranean, chiefly in Cata-
lonia, Provence, Liguria, Sardinia, arid, as we have
already mentioned, Sicily.
The tunnies are taken in two ways. In the first, case,
when a sentinel, posted on an elevated spot, has made a
signal that the fish are in view, and has pointed out the
quarter from which they are coming, a number of boats
put to sea under the command of a leader, and arrange
themselves in a curve, and joining their nets form an
enclosure, which alarms the tunnies, and gradually
drives them into closer ranks : they still continue to
add fresh nets, continually driving the fish towards the
shore. When they have reached water only a few
fathoms in depth, they cast their last and largest net,
which has a kind of pocket or long bag attached to it ;
this they draw towards the land, and with it they bring
all the fish. The small ones are then taken out witij
the hands, and the larger are landed after they are des-
patched with boat hooks. This mode of fishing, which
is employed on the coast of Languedoc, produces some-
times at a single take as much as fifteen ton weight of
fish.
The second mode is that with mts, called by the
298
HISTORY OF FISHES.
Bending; the fin covering the gills with three
to six spines ; the fins of the back and arm
scaly.1
15. The Scieena. The body nearly ellipti-
cal; the head bevel, the covers of the tins
scaly ; the fin covering the gills with six rays;
the fins of the back jagged, and hidden in a
furrow in the back.
16. The Perch." The body oblong; the
Italians tonnaro. These are much more complicated ;
Brydone calls the whole apparatus a kind of aquatic
castle, constructed at great cost, — a double row of large
long nets, supported in an upright position by means of
corks fastened to their upper edge, and by lead weights
aud stones at the lower, are fixed by anchors in such a
manner as to form an enclosure parallel to the shore for
many hundred fathoms, sometimes an Italian mile in
length, and divided into "many chambers by transverse
nets, and open on the land-side by a sort of door.
The flesh of the tunny, when uncooked, bears a close
resemblance to beef. " You would scarcely believe,"
says Cetti, " the different tastes of the various parts of
the tunny ; at each part of the body, and at various
depths from the surface, it varies; here it is like veal,
there pork. The Sardinian fishermen employ a host
of words, which the memory can scarcely retain, to dis-
tinguish these different morsels. The flesh of the belly,
which is the most delicious, is called sorra, and costs
twice as much as the netta, which is flesh of the second
quality." Like all the mackerel tribes, the tunny
remains fresh and good for a few hours only after it is
taken ; if the least tainted it is not only unwholesome,
but even a dangerous kind of food.
1 The Cat. Fish, or Sea- Wolf, (Anarhichas lupus.}
This singular-looking fish is found in the more northern
parts of the seas that surrounds the British islands; it is
seldom met with on the southern coasts.
The appearance of this fish, (says Mr Yarrell,) is not
prepossessing. Independently of a ferocious- looking, cat-
like head, with an exceedingly thick coarse skin, covered
with slime, it possesses most formidable teeth, and nei-
ther wants the will nor the power to attack others or
defend itself. It is occasionally caught with a baited hook,
at times decoyed into the meshes of a net by the tempta-
tion of the fishes already entangled ; but fights despe-
rately, even when out of its own element, inflicting
severe wounds if not cautiously avoided. The nets also,
are frequently torn by its powerful struggle.', and a spirit
of retaliation for the labour thereby occasion* d, or for
personal injury inflicted by it, brings a speedy death to
the unfortunate fish. Handspikes and spars of wood are
articles always at hand in fishing-boats, and the savage
sea-cat is speedily rendered incapable of doing farther
harm by heavy well aimed blows upon the head.
As an article of food it is said to be excellent, although
its appearance may disgust a squeamish stomach. The
food of this fish consists chiefly of crabs, lobsters, and
other crustaceous animals, to enable it to crush the hard
covering of its prey, it is admirably furnished with teeth
well adapted for the purpose; sharp in front to seize,
and strong and rounded on each side of the jaw, on the
roof of the mouth, and on the tongue itself, to crush.
This fish sometimes attains the size of six or seven feet,
and in the colder and more extreme northern seas is said
to become still larger.
It swims rapidly, with a lateral undulating motion,
and has acquired the name of sea-wolf from its voracity.
Jtis called swine fish in the Orkneys, from a particular
motion of the nose. It approaches the shore to deposit
its spawn in the months of May and June, and the young,
of a green colour, are \isually found among sea- weed.
* The Cammon Perch was a grtat favourite with the
head bevel ; the covers of the gills scaly and
toothed ; the fin covering the gills with seven
spines ; the fins in some jagged.
1 7. The Scorpcena or Father-lasher. The
body oblong ; the head great, with beards; the
covers of the gills armed with prickles ; the
fin covering the gills with seven spines.
18. The Muffirs or Surmulet. The body
slender ; the head almost four-cornered ; the
fin covering the gills with three spines ; some
of these have beards ; a fish highly prized by
the Romans, and still considered* as a very
great delicacy.
19. The trigla or the Gurnard. The body
slender ; the head nearly four-cornered, and
covered with a bony coat, the fin covering the
gills with seven spines ; the pectoral and ven-
tral fins strengthened with additional muscles
and bones, and very large for the animal's
size.
20. The Cottus or Bull-head. The body
•wedge-like ; the head flat and broader than
the body; the fin covering the gills with six
spines ; the head furnished with prickles,
knobs, and beards.
21. The Zeus or Doree. The body oblong;
the head large, bevel; the fin covering the
gills with seven rays; the fins jagged; the
upper-jaw with a loose floating skin depend-
ing into the mouth.
22. The Trachipterus or Sabra. The body
sword-like ; the head bevel; the fin covering
the gills with six spines; the lateral line
straight ; the scales in a single order ; a loose
skin in both the jaws.
23. The Gasterostetts or Stickleback. The
body broadest towards the tail ; the head ob-
Greeks and Romans as an article of food. In modern
days, trout and salmon are preferred. The perch is ex-
tensively spread over the lakes and rivers of Europe in
many varieties. In Great Britain, its general habitat
is in lakes with a clear bottom and grassy margin, or in
slow running streams. It is easily taken with various
kinds of bait, the most successful of which, however, is
the minnow. Its average size is from one pound to a
pound and a half, though some of three and four pounds
are by no means uncommon. In some of the Highland
lochs, particularly those of Perthshire, perch are re-
markably fine and abundant.
The Basse or Sea Perch, like the common perch,
was much esteemed by the ancients. It is to be found
on the coasts of England during the summer, while the
Dutch have established fisheries of it. There are various
ispecies, among which may be mentioned the Rock-Jish
or Striped Basse of the Americans, which is abundant
in the vicinity of New York, where it is brought to the
markets weighing often sixty or seventy pounds.
The Granulated Perch (see Plate XX1. fig. 14.)
inhabits the large rivers of America, and is so similar to
that of Europe as to have been confounded with it.
The Common Pike Perch is to be found in the rivers
and lakes of the north and east of Europe, but is unknown
in Britain, France, and Italy. It attains a length of
three or four feet, and a weight of twenty pounds. Large
quantities of this fish, smoked and salted, are exported
irum Prussia and Silesia.
SOFT-FINNED FISH.
299
long; (he fin covering the gills with three, six,
or seven spines ; prickles starting backward
before the back fins and the fins of the anus.1
Prickly -finned Abdominal Fish,
24. The Silurus or Sheath-fish. The body
oblong; the head large; the fin covering the
gills from four to fourteen spines ; the leading
bones or spines in the back and pectoral fins
toothed.
25. The Mugul or Mullet. The body ob-
long; the head almost conical ; the upper-jaw
with a furrow, which receives the prominence
of the under; the fin covering the gills with
seven rays.
26. The Polynemns. The body oblong ;
the head with a beak; the fin covering the
gills with from five to seven spines ; the bones
that move the pectoral fins not articulated to
those fins.
27. The Teuthys. The body almost ellipti-
cal ; the head abruptly shortened ; the fin
covering the gills with five rays ; the teeth in
a single row, close, strong, and even.
28. The Elops or Sea-serpent. The body
slender; the head large; the fin covering the
gills double, with thirty spines, and armed
externally with five bones resembling teeth.
SECT. II.
SOFT- FINNED FISHES.
Soft-Jinned Apodal Fish.
29. The Murcena or Eel. The body round
1 1'bc. fifteen spined Stickleback or Great Stickleback. —
This fish, which is the largest species of the sticklebacks,
is slender, being only an inch thick, and nine in length:
the snout is long ; and the body of a pentagonal figure
towards the tail, which is flat, the mouth is small, and
the upper jaw projects beyond the lower. Tne gills and
the bony plate on the belly are brown upon the upper
part, silvery and streaked upon the lower. It has two
pectoral fins, one dorsal, rising in a triangular form from
the middle of the back: between this and the head are
fifteen distinct spines inclined towards the tail, which,
when depressed, are insensible to the touch. The fins
of the belly consist of two spines, the foremost of which
is the longest. In the fin at the anus there is also a
covered spine, but the other fins are soft and ramified.
The fifteen-spined sticklebacks, like the last mentioned
species, are found in the Baltic sea and the German
ocean ; they are very common in Holland, and also near
Lubeck in the duchy of Holstein. M. Bloch says, that
their ordinary size does not exceed seven inches, and
that he has found small crabs in their stomach. The
great stickleback does not ascend the rivers like the other
kinds, never leaving the sea, where it is taken among
other fish. Large quantities are sometimes taken by
kindling a fire on the shore, which draws them in shoals
to the nets. A kind of lamp oil is extracted from them
and slender ; the head terminating in a beak;
the fin covering the gills with ten rays; the
opening to the gills pipe- fashion, placed near
the pectoral fins; the tins of the back, the anus,
and the tail, united in one.2
SO. The Gymnotus or Carapo.3 The body
roundest on the back, like theblade of a knife;
the head small ; the fin covering the gills with
five rays ; the back without a fin ; two beards
or filaments from the upper lip ; an inhabitant
of Brazil.
31. The Anarhicas or Wolf -fish. The body
roundish and slender ; the head large and
blunt; the fore-teeth above and below conical;
the grinding teeth and tlwse in the palate
round; the fin covering the gill has seven
rays.
32. The Stromateus. The body oblong}
the head small ; the teeth moderately sharp;
the fin covering the gills with five or six rays.
33. The Ammodytes or Launce. The body
slender and roundish ; the head terminated by
a beak; the teeth of a hair-like fineness; the
fin covering the gills with seven rays.
Soft-finned Jugular Fish.
34. The Lepadogaster. The body wedga-
like; the head oblong, forwarder than the
body, flattish, the beak resembling that of a
duck : the pectoral fins double, two on each
side ; the ventral fins joined together ; a kind
of bony breastplate between the pectoral fins;
the fin covering the gills with five rays ; the
opening to the gills pipe-fashion.
35. The Gadus or Cod-fish. The body ob-
long ; the head wedge-like; the fin covering the
gills with seven rays: several back and anal
fins.4
Soft finned Thoracic Fish.
36. The Pleuronectes or Flat-fish. The body
elliptical; the head small; both eyes on one
side of the head ; the fin covering the gills
with from four to seven rays.
and what remains is used as manure. They are, how-
ever, frequently eaten by the poor.
8 See an account of Eels given in Note at page 2S3.
8 See an account of the Gymnotus given in Note
at |iage 279.
4 The Cod is taken in immense numbers ;n all the
northern coasts. It is abundant among the islands to
the north arid west of Scotland. It spawns about Feb-
ruary, aud is in the greatest perfection as food from the
300
HISTORY OF FISHES.
37. The Echineis or Suckingfish. The
body almost wedge-like, moderately round ;
the head broader than the body ; the fin
covering the gills with ten rays ; an oval
end of October to Christmas. There are two varieties of
the Common Cod — the Dogger Bank Cod, with a sharp
nose, and of a dark brown colour, and the Scotch Cod,
with a blunt nose, and of a yellowish ash-green colour.
The Haddock. — This well-known fish is a species of
the cod ; it has a bearded mouth, and three fius on the
back; the upper jaw longest, and the tail a little forked.
On each side of the body, just beyond the gills, there
is a dark spot, which the superstitious assert is the im-
pression of St Peter's finger and thumb, when he took
the tribute money (at the command of his Master) out
of the mouth of a fish of this species, and which has ever
since been continued to the whole race of haddocks..
Haddocks seldom grow to any great size ; they very
rarely become^ so large as to weigh twelve or fourteen
pounds : they are esteemed more delicate eating when
they do not exceed three pounds in weight. These fish,
during stormy weather, are said to take shelter in the
band or mud, or among the sea-weeds. Tin y feed on
various small marine animals, and frequently become fat
on herrings. The females deposit their spawn on the
sea-weeds near the shore. The larger ones begin to be
in roe in November, and continue so for somewhat more
than two months: from this time till May they are
reckoned out of season, and are not good. They then
begin to recover. The small ones are extremely good
from May till February; and those that are not old
enough to breed, for even two months longer.
The Whiting is another species of the cod, but with-
out a beard. Its flesh is more delicate than that of any
other of the cod species.
The Ling.- — The Ling is a valuable species of cod.
It is taken in large quantities among the Western
Islands, in the Orkneys, and on the Yorkshire and Corn-
wall coasts. In Yorkshire, the young are called Driz-
zles. The ling is very prolific, of voracious appetite,
and tenacious of life. Its usual length is from three
to four feet.
The Torsk. The Torsk or Tusk, another species of
cod, is occasionally caught in the Forth, and brought to
the Edinburgh market. It is abundant in Orkney and
Shetland. It is a somewhat tough fish, but excellently
adapted for curing. Its usual length is from eighteen
inches to two feet.
To the Pleuronectes or Flat-foh belong the Turbot,
Sole, Flounder, Plaice, Dab, &c.
Turbots have sometimes been known to weigh from
twenty-five to thirty pounds. Their general form is
somewhat square. The upper parts of the body and
fins are cinereous, with dark spots ; and the under parts
white : on the upper parts there are numerous short
breastplate, streaked in form of a ladder,
toothed.
38. The Liptdopus or Garterf.sh. The
body sword-like, the head lengthened out ;
and blunt spines. The eyes are on the left side of the
head. The northern parts of the English coast, and some
places ofl" the coast of Holland, afford tnrbots in great
abundance, and in greater excellency there than any
other parts of the world. Lying here, however, in deep
waters, they are seldom to be caught but by lines. In
fishing for turbot off the Yorkshire coast, three men go
out in each of the boats, each man provided with three
lines, every one of which is furnished with two hundred
and eighty hooks, baited and placed exactly six feet two
inches asunder. These are coiled in an oblong piece of
wicker-work, with the hooks baited and placed very
regularly in the centre of the coil. When they are
used, the nine are generally fastened together, so as to
form one line with about two thousand hooks, and ex-
tending nearly three miles in length. This is always
laid across the current. An anchor and a buoy are fixed
at the end of each man's line. The tides nm here so
rapidly, that the fishermen can only shoot and haul their
lines in the still water, at the turn of the tide ; and
therefore as it is flood and ebb about every alternate six
hours, this is the longest time the lines can remain on
the ground. When the lines are laid, two of the mea
usually wrap themselves in the sail and sleep, whilst the
third is on watch to prevent their being run down by
ships. The voracity of the turbot in pursuit of its prey
is oftentimes such, that it carries them into the mouths
of rivers, or the entrance of ponds in salt marshes, which
communicate with the sea. But they are not contented
with merely employing agility and strength in the pro-
curing of their prey, they likewise have recourse to
stratagem. They plunge themselves into the mud or
sand at the bottom of the sea, and cover their whole
body, except their eyes and month. Thus concealed,
they seize upon, and devour all the smaller kinds of fish
which incautiously approach them. It is said they are
very particular in the choice of their food, refusing, in-
variably, all except living animals, or such as are not in
the least degree putrid. And the fishermen assert, that
they are "never to be caught with baits which have been
bitten by other fish. The holibut has been known to
attain so great a weight as between two and three hun-
dred pounds. Its general shape is long and narrow. The
upper parts are dusky; and the under parts white. The
skin is smooth, and destitute of spines. The eyes on
the right side of the head.
The Sole. — This well-known and delicious fish is
remarkable for one very extraordinary circumstance;
among various other marine productions, they have been
known to feed on shell fish, although they are furnished
with no apparatus whatever in their mouth for reducing
them to a state calculated for digestion. Some that
were purchased by Mr Collinson, (as his letter inserted
in the Philosophical Transactions states.) had their bellies
hard and prominent, appeared to be filled with rows of
some hard substance, which, on being opened, were
found to be shell-fish. These, from the bulging of the
SOFT-FINNED FISH.
301
(lie fins covering tlie gills with seven rays;
-three scales only on the whole body; two in
the place of the ventral fins ; and the third
from that of the anus.
shells and the intervening interstices, give the intestines
somewhat the appearance of strings of beads. On further
examination, some of them were found nearly dissolved,
others partly so, but many of them whole. The mosl
usual food of soles is, the spawn and young of other fish.
These fish are found on all of the British coasts ; but
those of the western shores are much superior in size to
what are taken in the north, since they are sometimes
found of the weight of six or seven pounds. The prin-
cipal fishery for soles is in Torbay.
The Flounder, or Fluke, is one of the most common
of the flat fish, and is abundant in our rivers and
coasts. It feeds on aquatic insects, worms, and small
insects. There are more varieties of the flounder than
of any other species of flat-fish.
The Btarded Flounder. — The eyes of this fish are
both on the same side of the head. The body is com-
pressed, one side representing the back, and the other
the abdomen. The whole body is scattered with gray
spots ; and it is bearded all round the fore part of the
head. This fish is a native of the Indian and Red seas,
measuring seven or eight inches in length. It seems to
have been first considered a distinct species by Gronovius,
but does not occur in the Systema Naturae of Linna'iis.
The Plaice. — Plaice are very flat, and much more
square than the generality of flat-fish. Behind the left
eye there is a row of six tubercles, that reaches to the
commencement of the lateral line. The upper part of
the body and fins are of a clear brown, marked with large
bright orange- coloured spots ; the belly is white. These
fish are very common on most of our coasts, and some-
times taken of the weight of fifteen pounds, but they seldom
reach that size, one of eight or nine pounds being reck-
oned a large fish. The best and largest are taken ofl"
Rye, on the coast of Sussex, and in Ireland; also off" the
Dutch coasts. They are watery eating ; but are, not-
withstanding, admired by some. They spawn in the
beginning of February.
The Dab, or, as it is called in Edinburgh, the Saltic
or Salt-voter Fluke, is found with the preceding species,
but is less common. It is generally of a uniform brown
colour on the upper side, though sometimes clouded
with a darker. The scales are small and rough, which is a
character of this species. The lateral line is extremely
incurvated in the beginning, then goes quite straight to
the tail. The lower part of the body is white. This fish
is in best season during February, March, and April,
theyspawn in Miiy and June, and become flabby and watery
the rest of the summer. They are superior in quality
to the plaice and flounder, but. rather inferior in size.
The Lemon Dab, Smooth Dab, or Sand Fluke, is not
so common as the above. It is a prettier fish to look at,
having various shades of reddish brown and yellow. The
flesh is equal to that of the common dab, and the sub-
stance of the body thicker.
The Hnlibut is one of the largest species of flat fish,
but is chiefly confined to the Northern seas. Their flesh
M dry and has little flavour, but oil is obtained from them.
Soft-finned Abdominal Fish.
39. The Loricaria. The body crusted over;
the head broad with a beak; no teeth; the
fin covering the gills with six rays.
40. The Atherina or Atherine. The body
oblong; the head of a middling size; the lips
indented; the fin covering the gills with six
rays ; the line on the sides resembling a silver
band. ,
41. The Safrio or Salmon* (See Plate
Jn April, 1828, a holihnt, taken near the Isle of Man,
was exhibited at the F.dinburgh market, measuring seven
feet six inches in length, three feet six inches in breadth,
and weighing 320 Ibs. It was the largest specimen ever
seen there.
The Salmon. — The Salmon, which was known to
the Romans, but not to the Greeks, is a soft-finned ab-
dominal fish. It is distinguished from other fish by
having two dorsal fins, of which the hindermost is fleshy
and without rays : it has teeth both in the jaws and in
the tongue ; and the body is covered with round and
minutely striated scales. The colour of the back and
sides is gray, sometimes spotted with black, and some-
times plain ; the covers ot the gills are subject to the
same variety; and the belly is silvery. The nose is
sharp-pointed : and in the males the under jaw some-
times turns up in the form of a hook. Rapid and stony
rivers, where the water is free from mud, are the fa-
vourite places of most of the salmon tribe, the whole of
which is supposed to aflbrd wholesome food for mankind.
This fish seems confined in a great measure to the
northern seas, being unknown in the Mediterranean,
and in the waters of other climates. It lives in fresh,
as well as in salt waters, forcing itself in autumn up the
rivers, sometimes for hundreds of miles, for the purpose
of depositing its spawn. It abandons the seas where it
fiuds an abundant sustenance, ascends the rivers depo-
pulated by man, endeavours by every kind of artifice to
escape the snares of the fishermen, and all this solely
for the purpose of finding a convenient place for deposit-
ing its eggs. In these peregrinations it is that salmon
are caught in the great numbers that supply our markets
and tables. Intent only on the object of their-journcy,
they spring up cataracts and other obstacles of a very
great height. This extraordinary power seems to be
owing to a sudden jerk that the fish gives to its body
from a bent into a straight position. When they are
unexpectedly obstructed in their progress, it is said they
swim a few paces back, survey the object for some min-
utes, motionless, retreat, and return again to the charge;
then, collecting all their force, with one astonishing
spring leap over every obstacle. When the water is
low, or sand-banks intervene, they throw themselves on
one side, and in that position soon work themselves over
into the deep water beyond! On the river Li fly, in
Ireland, there is a cataract above nineteen feet high;
here, in the salmon season, many of the inhabitants
amuse themselves in observing the fish leap up the tor-
rent. They frequently fall back many times before they
surmount it ; and baskets, made of twigs, are placed
near the edge of the stream to catch them in their
fall.
302
HISTORY OF FISHES.
XXII. fig. I.) The body oblong ; the head
a little sharp ; the fin covering the gills from
four to ten rays ; the last fin on the back,
without its corresponding muscles, fat.
The Parr, or Samlet. This little fish, (says Mr
Yarrell) one of the smallest of the British salmonidoe,
has given rise to more discussion than any other species
of the genus. Abounding in our salmon rivers, and
conspicuous for those lateral marks which are now known
to he borne also for a time by the young of the trout as
well as' the fry of the other salmonida, and this fish al-
ways appearing of small comparative size, it has fre-
quently been insisted upon as the young of the salmon,
and local regulations have as generally been invoked for
its preservation. The fry, however, of the different
species of migratory salmonidce are even now probably
accurately known only to a few persons: their great sim-
ilarity when very small has so frequently deceived even
those who have lived the greater part of their lives on
the salmon river banks, that the fry marked by them, in
their experiments, believing them all to be what they
considered the young of the parr, have been retaken as
grilse, bull-trout, salmon-trout, and river-trout. That
the parr is not the young of the salmon, or indeed of any
other of the larger species of salmonider., as still consid-
ered by some, is sufficiently obvious from the circum-
stance that parrs by hundreds may be taken in the rivers
all the summer, long after the fry of the year of the larger
migratory species have gone down to the sea ; and the
greater part of those parrs taken even in autumn do not
exceed five inches in length, when no example of the
young of the salmon can be found under sixteen or
eighteen inches, and the young of the bull-trout and
salmon-trout are large in proportion. The transverse
dusky bars from which this fish has obtained the name
of brandling and fingerling are family marks, borne by
all the species of the genus for a time, are obliterated by
degrees, and at periods depending on the ultimate size
attained by the individual species when adult;- the
soonest, probably in the salmon, and certainly the latest
in the parr.
The Trout. — The general shape of the trout is rather
long than broad : in several of the Scotch and Irish rivers,
thoy grow so much thicker than those in England, that
a fish from eighteen to twenty-two inches will often
weigh from three to five pounds. This is a fish of prey;
has a short roundish head, blunt nose, wide mouth filled
with teeth, not only in the jaws, hut in the palate and
tongue ; the scales are small ; the back of an ash-colour;
the sides yellow; and, when in season, is sprinkled all
over the body and covers of the gills with small beautiful
red and black spots ; the tail is broad. The female has
a smaller head and deeper body than the male, and is of
superior flavour. In fact, the colour of the trout and its
fpots vary greatly in different waters, and at different
seasons.
This fish, although very delicate, and at present well
known, was in no esteem among the ancients. It
abounded in most of the lakes of the Roman empire, yet
is only mentioned by writers on account of its beautiful
colours.
In some rivers trouts begin to spawn in October, but
November is the chief month of spawning. About the
end of September they quit the deep water to which they
had retired during the hot weather, and make great ef-
forts to gain the course of the currents, seeking out a
42. The Fistuluria. The body angular, in
form of a spindle ; the head pipe-fashion, with
a beak; the fin covering the gills with seven
rays ; the under jaw covering the upper.
proper place for spawning. This is always on a gravelly
bottom, or where gravel and sand are mixed among
stones towards the end and sides of the streams. At this
period they turn black about the head and body, and
become soft and unwholesome. They are never good
when they are big with roe, which is contrary to the
nature of most other fish. They multiply very fast,
though they produce much less spawn than any other
fish, which is probably owing to the voracious fish in
these cold streams where they reside ; and they would
be still more numerous, if they were not so greedy as
to devour each other. After spawning they become
feeble, their bodies are wasted, and those beautiful spots,
which before adorned them, are imperceptible ; their
heads appear swelled, and their eyes are dull. In this
state they seek still waters, and continue there sick, as
is supposed, all the winter. There are in all trout rivers
some barren female fish, which continue good throughout
the winter.
These fish begin to leave their winter quarters in
March, or sometimes earlier, if the weather be mild,
and approach the shallows and tails of streams, where
they cleanse and restore themselves. As they acquire
strength they advance still higher up the rivers, till they
fix on their summer residence ; for which they generally
choose an eddy behind a stone, a log, or bank, that
projects into the water, and against which the current
drives.
The varieties of the common trout are almost infinite;
from the great lake trout, which weighs above sixty or
seventy Ibs. to the trouts of the little mountain brook,
which is scarcely larger than the finger. The gilleroo trout
and par, samlet or brandling may be considered as form-
ing distinct species.
The Great Gray Trout of LocJimrs. — According to
Sir William Jardine, this fish, as far as can be traced,
seems to have been first noticed about forty-five years
since by the late Mr. Morison of Glasgow, who used to
exhibit them to his friends as the trophies of his expedi-
tions. The first specimens taken in Loch Awe by
Mr Selby and Sir William Jardine were considered as
a species undescribed and new to Britain ; and the name
of Salmo ferox was given to it, from its extreme voracity
and rapacious habits. M. Agassiz, who saw specimens
of this fish when he was in Edinburgh, pronounced it to
be different from any of the large continental species.
In Scotland this fish appears to be generally distri-
buted in all the larger aud deeper lochs. Loch Awe,
Loch Laggan, the upper end of Loch Shin, Lochs Loyal
and Assynt, they certainly inhabit, roving indiscrimin-
ately, and feeding almost entirely upon the smaller fish.
By persons residing on the banks they are taken by night-
lines, few rising at the artificial fly; but they may al-
ways be taken by strong trolling tackle, baited with a
small trout. They are extremely voracious, and having
seized the bait, they will allow themselves to be dragged
by the teeth for forty or fifty yards; and when acciden-
tally freed, will immediately again seize it.
This great trout is almost entirely confined to the
lochs, seldom venturing far either up or down aiiy of the
streams communicating with them, and never descend-
ing to the sea. It is known to spawn in September.
SOFT-FINNED FISH.
303
43. The Esox or Pike.1 The body round;
the head with a beak ; the under jaw pierced
longitudinally with small holes ; the r)n cov-
ering the gills with from seven to twelve rays.
44. The Argentina or Argentine. The body
a little round and slender ; the head with a
beak, broader than the body ; the fin covering
the gills with eight rays ; a spurious back-fin.
The most usual mode of fishing for this great lake
trout is from a boat, which is rowed gently through the
water; the bait, as before mentioned, a small trout,
guarded by six or eight large hooks: the rod and line of
great strength; for this fish is considered to be even
stronger than a salmon of the same size, but not so ac-
tive. Young fish from one to two pounds' weight rise
freely to the usual trout flies.
The Salmon-trout, so called from its resemblance
to the two fish whose name it bears, attains the size
of a small salmon; is spotted in the same manner as the
trout ; and, like it, spawns in winter. Like the salmon
it sometimes inhabits the sea, and sometimes the rivers;
it likewise ascends into the latter to deposit its spawn.
The salmon-trouts, however, do not quit the sea so early
as the salmon, being seldom seen in the rivers before
the month of May. They spawn in the same manner
as salmon, in November or December; but as the rivers
are then frozen, they do not retire to the sea till after
the thaw. Like all other fish of the same genus, they
live upon aquatic insects, worms, and small fish, and are
fond of rapid streams, with a bottom of sand and gravel.
Their flesh is red, and well-tasked, particularly before
the spawning season. Its quality depends, in a great
measure, on the greater or less degree of purity of the
streams in which the fish are taken ; their colour and
spots vary extremely from the same cause. They die
soon after they are taken out of the water. Young salmon
trout are known by the name of whitlings ; and many
have supposed them to be young salmon, which opinion
has been proved to be ill-founded.
Salmon-trouts attain a considerable size, weighing
sometimes eight or ten pounds. Dr Bloch describes
one that was twenty inches in length, an inch and a half
thick, and which weighed five pounds and three quarters.
This gentleman discovered, that this fish, like several
kinds of sea-fish, possesses the quality of emitting light
in a dark place ; and that the palate, tongue, gills, and
eyes, were endowed with that property in an eminent
degree. When touched with the finger, those parts cast
a considerable light ; and when any other part was rub-
bed with the same finger, that quality was likewise
communicated to it. The luminous matter, the doctor
imagines, is contained in the slimy substance which
covers those parts ; for the flesh does not afford the
smallest appearance of light. He kept fish eight days,
and this luminous property diminished in proportion as
the viscous matter was dried up.
The Grayling is a scarce fish in England, and is not
to be found in Scotland or Ireland. They frequent rivers
of peculiar temperature or current.
1 The Pike, from its fierce disposition and great vor-
acity, has been called, not unaptly, the fresh-water
shark ; it is found in almost all of the I'resh waters of
Europe, and in those of the north of Asia and of Amer-
ica, being everywhere- noted for the great rapidity of its
growth.
The head of the pike is large, flattened in front, and
compressed on the sides. The opening of the mouth is
extremely deep, and extends as far back as the eyes; the
lower jaw is somewhat longer than the upper ; the front
teeth on this jaw are strong but small, and every other
one is moveable. The upper jaw is furnished with teeth
in front only, but the palate also possesses three rows of
teeth, the two outer rows of which are very strong and
turned backwards. As many as seven hundred tee'.li
have been counted in the jaws of a pike, without in-
cluding those which are found in the throat, and near
the internal opening to the gills. The mouth of this
tyrant is, indeed, every way formidable, for even the
tongue itself is covered with teeth.
This fish, in the course of the first year's growth, at.
tains the length of eight or ten inches, in the second,
twelve or fourteen, and in the 'third-, eighteen or twenty.
It has been found as much as eight feet in length, and
in the great fresh-water lakes of the north of Europe,
and the rivers of Northern Asia, as for instance the
Volga, specimens four or five feet in length are far from
rare.
Among the extraordinary tales recorded of this fish,
the following is one of the most remarkable, and, at the
same time, among the best authenticated. In 1 497 a
pike was taken at Kayserslautern, in the palatinate of the
Rhine, which weighed three hundred and fifty pounds ;
a painting was made of this wonderful fish, which is pre-
served in the castle of Lautern, and the skeleton was
preserved at Manheim. The emperor Barbarossa had
placed this fish in the lake in the year 1230, with a
ring of gilded copper attached to it, so constructed as to
be capable of expanding with the growth of the fish. So
that when taken, a period of two hundred and sixty-seven
years had elapsed from the period when it had been re-
consigned to the lake encumbered with this singular
memento.
As already observed, the pike is common in all the
rivers, lakes, and ditches, of the north of Europe, but it
is much less seldom met with towards the south. It is
said to have been introduced into England in the reign
of Henry VIII. when it was so rare that a pike sold
at double the price of a house lamb in February, and
a pickerel ( small pike,) for more than a fat capon.
The instances of the voracity of this fish are numer-
ous ; for, not content with small fish and frogs, it will
devour rats, young ducks, and occasionally much more
formidable prey. In the History of Staffordshire it is
stated that, " at Lord Gower's estate at Trentham, a
pike seized the head of a swan, as she was feeding under
water, and gorged so much of it as killed them both.
The servants, perceiving the swan remain in the same
position for a considerable time, went in a boat, and
found both swan and pike dead.
Gesner says, that a famished pike, in the Rhone, fixed
on the lips of a mule that was drinking, and was drawn
out by the beast before it could disengage itself.
In December, 1765, a pike was caught in the river
Ouse, weighing upwards of twenty-eight pounds, and
was bought by a gentleman in the neighbourhood for a
guinea. When opened, the cook found a watch with
two seals attached to it by a black riband, in the body
of the fish. These, it was afterwards discovered, had
belonged to a gentleman's servant, who had been drowned
about six weeks before.
Pikes are necessarily great destroyers of fish in ponds,
but there are two descriptions of fishes, namely, the
perch and the stickleback, which they are unwilling to
attack ; the sharp spines of their back-fins sticking in
the throat of the pike, more particularly that of the
stickleback.
An instance lately occurred at Edmonton of a pike
capturing a sparrow, that was perched on the edge of a
water-lily in a pond. The fish surprised the uususpect-
HISTORY OF FISHES.
45. The Clupea or lltrring) The body
a little oblong ; the head with a small
beak ; the fin covering the gills with eight
rays.
ing bird, by springing out of the water and seizing it
by a sudden snap.
A singular encounter, which took place at Waldstein,
between a pike and a fox, is commemorated in a German
print. Some country-people had taken a large pike,
but iu conveying it home during the night, it escaped.
As it was a large fish, they returned with torches in
search of their prize, and after some time found it on the
grass, having fast hold of a fox by the nose. The fox,
caught in this novel trap, endeavoured in vaia to escape,
and it was not until the pike was killed, that it was
possible to separate them.
Pikes are in the habit of basking in the sun, when
they float upon the surface of the water ; at this time
they are sometimes shot, or taken by a noose of wire,
fixed to a strong pole about four yards long, by which
the wire, with great slowness, is conducted over the
pike's head, gills, and fins, and then hoisted with a jerk
to land.
The Saury Pike or Skipper, was first described as a
British species by Ray : those he saw were taken on
the Cornish coast. The Rev. Mr Low, in his Natural
History of Orkney, says, that the year preceding that
in which he wrote his Fauna Orcadeiuis, such a glut of
these fish set into the head of Kerston bay, that they
could be taken by pailfuls: numbers were caught, and
heaps flung ashore. According to Mr Neill, the saury
is not at all an uncommon fish in the Frith of Forth,
numbers running up with the flood-tide in the autumn ;
but they do not, like other fishes, retire from the shallows
at the ebbing of the tide, but are then found by hundreds,
having their long noses stuck in the sludge, and are
picked up by people from Kincardine, Alloa, and other
places. Mr Pennant mentions that great numbers of
sauries were thrown ashore at Leith, by a storm, in
November 176S. The saury has been taken at Yarmouth
.on the east, and ofi' Portland Island on the south ; being,
.on some occasions, even plentiful in Cornwall. Mr
Couch says —
" The skipper is more strictly than the gar-pike a
migratory fish, never being seen in the channel until the
month of June, and it commonly departs before the end
of autumn. It does not swim deep in the water ; and
in its harmless manners resembles the flying fish, as well
as in the persecution it experiences from the ravenous
inhabitants of the ocean, and the method it adopts to
escape from their pursuit. It is gregarious, and is some-
times seen to rise to the surface in large shoals, and flit
over . a considerable space. But the most interesting
spectacle, and that which best displays their great, agility,
is when they are followed by a company of porpoises, or
their still more active and persevering enemies the
tunny and bonito. Multitudes then mount to the sur-
face, and crowd on each other as they press forward.
When still more closely pursued, they singly spring to
the height of several feet, leap over each other in singu-
lar confusion, and again sink beneath. Still further
urged, they mount again, and rush along the surface by
repeated starts for more than a hundred feet, without
1 See an account of the Herring in afucceedingpage.
46. The Exocetus or Fly iny -fish* The body
oblong ; the head almost three-cornered ; the
fin covering the gills with seven rays ; the
pectoral fins placed high, and as long as the.
once dipping beneath, or scarcely seeming to touch the
water. At last, the pursuer springs after them, usually
across their course ; and again they all disappear toge-
ther. Amid such multitudes — for more than twenty
thousand have been judged to be out of the water toge-
ther— some must fall a prey to the enemy ; but as mj.ny
hunt in company, it may be long before the pursuit is
abandoned. From inspection, we should scarcely judge
the fish to be capable of such considerable flights ; for
the fins, though numerous, are small, and the pectorals
far from large — though the angle of their articulation is
well fitted to raise the fish by the direction of their mo-
tions to the surface; the furce of its spring must there-
fore be chiefly ascribed to the tail and finlets. It rarely
takes a bait; and when this has happened, the boat has
been under sail, the men fishing with a lask, or slice of
mackerel made to imitate a living bait. The skipper has
not been commonly taken since the drift fishermen began
the practice of sinking their nets a fathom or two beneath
the surface — a circumstance which marks the depth to
which they swim ; but before this, it was usual to take
them, sometimes to the amount of a few hundreds, at
almost every shoot of the pilchard nets." — YarrelCi
British Fishes,
* The Flying Fish. — " No familiarity," says Captain
Basil Hall, " with the sight, can ever render us indiiler-
ent to the graceful flight of these most interesting of all
the finny, or, rather, winged tribe. On the contrary,
like a bright day, or » smiling countenance, the more
we see of them, the more we value their presence. I
have, indeed, hardly ever observed a person so dull, that
his eye did not glisten as he watched a shoal, or, it may
be called, a covey of flying-fish, rise from the sea, and
skim along for several hundred yards. There is some-
thing in it so peculiar, so totally different from every
thing else in other parts of the world, that our wonder-
goes on increasing every time we see one take its flight ;
so that we may easily excuse the old Scottish wife, who
said to her son, when he was relating what he had seen
abroad; "You may hae seen rivers o' milk, and moun-
tains o' sugar, but you'll ne'er gar (make) me believe
you hae seen a fish that could flee !'
" I have endeavoured to form an estimate as to the
length of these flights, and find two hundred yards, or
about an eighth of a mile, set down in my notes as about
the longest distance, which they perform in somewhat
more than half a minute. These flights, however, vary
from that length to a mere skip out of the water. Gener-
ally speaking, they fly to a considerable distance in &
straight line, in the wind's eye, that is, exactly towards
the point from which the wind blows, and then gradually
turn ofi" to leeward. But sometimes they merely skim
the surface, so as to touch only the tops of the waves.
A notion prevails afloat, but I know not how just it may
be, that they can fly no longer than whilst their wings,
or fins, remain wet. That they rise as high as twenty feet
above the water is certain, from their being found in
parts of a ship, which are full as much as that out of the sea.
I remember seeing one about nine inches in length, and
weighing not less, I should suppose, than half a pound,
skim into the Folage's main-deck port just abreast of
the gang-way. One of the seamen was coming up the
quarter-deck ladder at the moment, when the fish, enter-
ing the port, struck the astonished mariner on the temple,
knocked him off the step, and very nearly threw him
down at full length.
" The amiable Humboldt good-naturedly suggests that
the flights of these fish may be mere gambols, and
not proofs of their being pursued by their enemy, the
SOFT FINNED FISH.
305
whole body ; the back-fin at the extremity of
the back.
47. Cyprinus or Carp. The body elongated,
almost round ; the head with a small beak ;
dolphin. I wish I could believe so; for it were much
more agreeable to suppose, that at the end of the fine
sweep which they take, they fall safely on the bosom of
the sea.
" I do not recollect whether that eminent traveller,
who not only observes many more things than most men,
but describes them much better, has any where men-
tioned his having witnessed one of these chases. The
best I remember, was during the first voyage I ever
made, through those regions of the sun, the tropical
seas, and I will therefore describe it.
" We were stealing along pleasantly enough, under
the influence of a newly-formed breeze, which, as yet,
was confined to the upper sails, and every one was look-
ing open-mouthed to the eastward, to catch a little cool
air, or was congratulating his neighbour on getting rid
of the calm in which we had been so long half- roasted,
half-suffocated, when about a dozen flying fish rose out of
the water, and skimmed away to windward, at the height
of ten or twelve feet above the surface. Shortly alter,
discovered two or three dolphins, ranging past the ship
in all their beauty. ' Presently, the ship in lier course,
put up another shoal of those little creatures, which flew
in the same direction which the others had taken.
" A large dolphin, which had been keeping company
with us at the depth of two or three fathoms, and as
usual, glistening most beautifully in the sun, no sooner
detected our poor dear little friends taking wing, than
he turned his head towards them, and darting to the
surface, leaped from the water with a swiftness little
short, as it seemed, of a cannon-ball. But, although
the force with which he shot himself into the air, made
him gain upon the flying-fish at first, yet the start which
they had got, enabled them to keep ahead of him for a
considerable time.
" The length of the dolphin's first •spring, could not
be less than ten yards ; and after he fell, we could see
him gliding like lightning through the water, for a
moment, when he again rose and shot forward with a
speed considerably greater than at first, and of course,
to a still greater distance. In this manner, the merciless
pursuer seemed to stride along the sea with fearful ra-
pidity, whilst his brilliant coat sparkled and flashed in
the sun quite splendidly. As he fell headlong on the
water, at the end of each huge leap, a series of circles
were sent far over the still surface, which lay as smooth
as a mirror.
" The group of flying-fish thus hotly pursued, at length
dropped into the sea ; but we were rejoiced to observe,
that they merely touched the top of the swell, and
scarcely sunk into it : at least, they instantly set oft"
again in a fresh, and even more vigorous flight. It was
particularly interesting to observe, that the direction
they now took was quite different from the one in which
they had set out ; thus implying, that they had detected
their fierce enemy," who was following them, with giant
steps, along the waves, and was now rapidly gaining
upon them. His terrific pace, indeed, was two or three
times as swift as theirs, — poor little things !
" The dolphin was fully as quick-sighted as the fly-
ing-fish. For whenever they changed their flight in the
smallest degree, he lo-:t not the tenth part of a second
in shaping a new course in pursuit, whilst they in a
manner really not unlike that of the hare, doubled more
than once upon their pursuer. But it was soon too
plainly to be seen, that the strength and confidence of
the flying-fish was fast ebbing. Their flights became
shorter and shorter, and their course more fluttering and
uncertain, whilst the enormous leaps of the dolphin
VOL. II.
the hinder part of the bone covering the gills,
marked with a crescent; the (in covering tlie
gills with three rays.1
48. The Cobitis or Loach. The body ob-
appeared to glow only more vigorous at each bound. At
last, indeed, we could see, or fancied we could see, that
this skilful sea-sportsman so arranged all his springs,
that he contrived to fall at the end of each, just under
the very spot, on which the exhausted flying- fish were
about to drop ! Sometimes this took place at too great a
distance for us to see from the deck exactly what hap-
pened ; but on our mounting high into the rigging, we
could discover that many of the unfortunate little crea-
tures, one after another, either fell right into the dol-
phin's jaws, as they lighted on the_water, or were snapped
up instantly afterwards."
1 The Common Carp. — In their general habits these
fish exhibit so great a degree of cunning, as to be some-
times called by the country people the River Fox. When
attempted to be taken by a net, they will often leap over
it; or immerse themselves so deep in the mud, as to
suffer the net to pass over without touching them. They
are also very shy of taking a bait; but, during spawning-
time, so intent are they on the business of depositing
their ova, that they will suffer themselves to be handled
by any one who attempts it. They breed three or four
times in the year, but their first spawning is in the begin-
ning of May. Carp are found in the slow rivers and
stagnant waters of Europe and Persia ; and here princi-
pally in deep holes, under the roots of trees, hollow
banks, or great beds of flags, &c. They do not often
exceed four feet in length, and twenty pounds in weight;
but Jovius mentions some caught in the Lago de Como,
in Italy, that weighed two hundred pounds each, and
others have been taken in the Dneister five feet iu
length.
The carp is the least carnivorous among fishes. It is
very tenacious of life, and can he carried alive over land
for great distances. It has been frequently carried alive
from Strasburgh to Paris, by keeping a little wet moss
in contact with the gill-lids ; and without even this sim-
ple precaution it will live for a long time out of water.
" And, doubtless," says Izaac Walton, " as of sea-fish,
the herring dies soonest out of the water, and of fresh-
water fish, the trout, so, except the eel, the carp endures
most hardness, and lives longest out of his own proper
element. And, therefore, the report of the carp's being
brought out of a foreign country into this nation, is the
more probable." One of the recent editors of Walton
says that it is a common practice in Holland to keep
carp alive for three weeks or a month, by hanging them
in a cool place, with wet moss in the mouth, and feeding
them with bread and milk.
The carp does not delight in troubled waters : it loves
to haunt placid streams which steal along without any
perceptible current ; such as the moats and trenches of
old castles ; or retired shady ponds, where aquatic plants
accumulate. It feeds upon these vegetables, and, from
the quietness of its habits, it attains a great age. When
very old its back becomes quite white. Gesner says,
that a carp has been known to live in the palatine above
a hundred years. In 1782, a gentleman of Emanuel
college, Cambridge, published an account of a carp which
had inhabited a small artificial pond in the college for
thirty-six years ; and that, although the fish had lost one
eye, yet it knew, and would constantly swim up to its
feeder. Carps are not timid, but rather fond of society ;
and, as in the instance just given, they are so far capable
of being educated, as to come and be fed at stated hours
on being whistled to. There are immense numbers o)
this fish in the stilly part of the Rhine, near Strasburgh ;
and vast quantities are sent annually to Paris.
The food of the carp is animal, as well as vegetable.
'2 Q
306
HISTORY OF FISHES.
long; almost equally broad throughout ; the
head small, a little elongated; the eyes in the
hinder part of the head ; the fin covering the
gills from four to six rays: the covers of the
gills closed below.
49. The Arnia or Bonito. The body round
and slender; the head, forehead, and breast,
without skin ; the fin covering the gills with
welve rays ; two beards from the nose.
50. The Mormyrns. The body oblong ; the
It eats worms and aquatic insects, and is also said to
swallow the mud at the bottom of its abode for the sake
of larvae and seeds. Hence the flavour of its flesh de-
pends upon the nature of its food. Walton says, in his
usual quaint a:id amusing style, " the tongues of carps
are noted to be choice and costly meat, especially to
them that buy them ; but Gesner says, carps have no
tongue like other fish, but a piece of flesh like fish, in
their mouth, like to a tongue, and should be called a
palate ; but it is certain it is choicely good, and that the
carp is to be reckoned among those leather-mouthed fish,
which, I told you, have their teeth in their throat; and
for that reason he is very seldom lost by breaking his
hold, if your hook be once stuck in his chops.''
The general length of the carp is about two feet:
specimens have, however, been found of four feet in
length.
The frog is said to be the mortal enemy of the carp.
Walton says, that a pond, well stocked with carp lias
been known to lose all its fish in a single summer, in
consequence of the depredations of the frogs. He says
that a " gentleman of tried honesty" told him that he
saw, in a hot day in summer, a large carp swim near
the top of the water, with a frog upon its head ; and
that he upon that occasion caused his pond to he let dry ;
and I say, of seventy or eighty carps, he only found five
or six in the said pond, and those very sick and lean ;
and with every one a frog, sticking so fast on the head
of the said carps, that the frog could not be got off with-
out extreme force or killing. And a person of honour,
now living in Worcesteshire, assured me he had seen a
necklace, or collar of tadpoles, hang, like a chain, or
necklace of beads, about a pike's neck, and so killec
him ; whether it were for meat or malice, must be to
me a question.
Gold and Silver Carp, or what are called Gold and
Silver Fishes, — the Cyprinus Auratus, of Linnaeus —
were brought originally to England from China about the
year 1601.
The former are of an orange gold colour, with very
shining scales, and finely variegated with black and dark
brown. When young, its colour is dark brown or black
which is afterwards replaced by the orange gold hue. I
is naturalized in this country, and in other parts o
Europe, and breeds freely in warm and sheltered situa
tions. Our supply is chitfly obtained from Portugal
where this fish abounds. The silver fish differs from
the former only in colour, which is similar to silver
tissue ; it generally has scarlet fins, and is curiously
marked in several parts of the body. Both varieties an
also subject to variation in the fins, which are occasion
ally double ; and specimens have been seen with triple
tails, but such a developement is generally at the ex
pense of some other fin.
When I happen to visit a family (says Gilber
White) where gold and silver fishes are kept in a glas
bowl, I am always pleased with the occurrence, because
it offers me an opportunity of observing the actions an
propensities of those beings with whom we can be little
acquainted in their natural state. Not long since I spen
a fortnight at the house of a friend, where there was sue!
a vivary, to which I paid no small attention, taking ever
occasion to remark what passed within its narrow limits
It was here that I first observed the manner in wind
fishes die. As soon as the creature sickens, the heai
sinks lower and lower, and it stands as it were on it
head ; till, getting weaker, and losing all poise, the tai
turns over, and at last it floats on the surface of th
vater, with its belly uppermost. The reason why fishes,
vhen dead, swim in that manner is very obvious ; be-
ause when the body is no longer balanced by the fins of
he belly, the broad muscular back preponderates by its
iwti gravity, and turns the belly uppermost, as lighter,
rom its being a cavity, and because it contains the
wimming bladders, which contribute to render it buoy-
ant.
Some that delight in gold and silver fishes have adopted
a notion that they need no aliment. True it is, that
hey will subsist for a long time without any apparent
ood, but what they can collect from pure water, fre-
quently changed ; yet they must draw some support
rom animalculre, and other nourishment supplied by the
ivater; because, though they seem to eat nothing, yet
ndications of their having eaten are found in their glass
abodes. That they are best pleased with such jejune
diet may easily be confuted ; since, if you toss them
rumbs they will seize them with great readiness, not to
say greediness : however, bread should be given spar-
ingly, lest, turning sour, it corrupt the water. They
will also feed on the aquatic plant called lemna, .or
duck's meat, and also on small fry.
Hawkins, the editor of Walton, says that fine gravel
should be strewed at the bottom of the vessel containing
the fish ; '' frequently changing the water, and feeding
them with bread and gentles. Those who can take more
pleasure in angling for, then in beholding them, which
I confess I could never do, may catch them with gentles ;
but though costly, they are but coarse food."
When they want to move a little (continues White)
they gently protrude themselves with their pinnae pcc-
torales ; but it is with their strong muscular tails only
that they, and all fishes, shoot along with such incon-
ceivable rapidity. It has been said that the eyes of
fishes, are immovable : but these apparently turn them
forward or backward in their sockets, as their occasions
require. They take little notice of a lighted candle,
though applied close to their heads, but flounce and
seem much frightened by a sudden stroke of the hand
against the support whereon the bowl is hung, especially
when they have been motionless, and are perhaps asleep.
As fishes have no eyelids, it is not easy to discern when
they are sleeping or not, because their eyes are always
open. Nothing can be more amusing than a glass bowl,
containing such fishes : the double refractions of the
glass and water represent them when moving in a shift-
ing and changeable variety of dimensions, shades, and
colours; while the two mediums, assisted by the concavo-
convex shape of the vessel, magnify and distort them
vastly; not to mention that the introduction of another
element and its inhabitants into our parlours engages
the fancy in a very agreeable manner. Some people
exhibit this sort of fish in a very fanciful way; for they
cause a glass bowl to be blown with a large hollow space
within, that does not communicate with it. In this
cavity they put a bird occasionally, so that you may see
a goldfinch or a linnet, hopping as it were in the midst
of the water, and the fishes swimming in a circle round
it. The simple exhibition of the fishes is agreeable and
pleasant; buHn so complicated a way, becomes whim-
sical and unnatural, and liable to the objection due to him,
Qui variare cupit rem prodigaliter uiiam. *
The Tench. — This, according to Artedi, is a species
of the carp, and is thick and bulky in proportion to its
* " Who desires to impart a monstrous variation to an object."
SOFT-PINNED FISH.
307
head elongated ; the fin covering the gills
with a single ray , the opening to the gills is
linear, and has no bone covering them.
Such is the system of Mr Gouan ; by re-
ducing to which any fish that offers, we can
know its rank, its affinities, and partly its
anatomy, all which make a considerable part
in its natural history. But to show the use
of this system still more apparently, suppose
I meet with a fish, the name to me unknown,
of which I desire to know something more.
The way is first to see whether it be a cartil-
aginous fish, which may be known by its
wanting fins to open and shut the gills, which
the cartilaginous kinds are wholly without.
If I find that it has them, then it is a spinous
fish ; and in order to know its kind, I examine
its fins whether they be prickly or soft ; I find
length. The colour of •the hack is dusky ; the dorsal
and ventral fins of the same colour ; the head, sides, and
belly, are of a greenish cast, most beautifully mixed with
gold, which is in its greatest splendour when the fish is
in highest season. They love still waters, and are rarely
found in livers; they are very foolish, and easily caught.
This is one of those fish that prefer foul and weedy
waters ; and its haunts in rivers are chiefly amongst
weeds, and in places well shaded with rushes. These
fish thrive best in standing waters, where they lie under
weeds near sluices and pond-heads. They are much
more numerous in pools and pits than in rivers ; but those
lakea in the latter are far preferable for the table. They
begin to spawn in June, and may he found spawning in
some waters till September. The best season is from
that time till the end of May. These fish do not often
exceed four or five pounds in weight. Mr Pennant,
however, mentions one that weighed ten pounds. Tench
are in great repute with ns as delicious and wholesome
food ; but in Guernsey they are considered bad fish, and
in contempt called shoemaker. Gesner even says, that
it is insipid and unwholesome. Like the barbel, it was
unnoticed by early writers ; and Ausonius, by whom it
was first mentioned, treats it with that disrespect which
evinces the capriciousuess of taste. These fish are
sometimes found in waters where the mud is excessively
fetid, and the weeds so thick that a hand-net can hardly
be thrust down. In these situations they grow to a large
size, and their exterior becomes completely tinged by the
mud. Their flavour from this, if cooked immediately
on being taken out, is often very unpleasant ; but if they
ure transferred into clear water, they soon recover from
the obnoxious taint. A tench was taken at Thornville-
Royal in Yorkshire, in 1802, of such enormous size, and
so singular in its shape, as rather to be accounted &lusua
naturae than a regular product. A piece of water which
had been ordered to be filled up, and into"which wood
and rubbish had been thrown for some years, was directed
to be cleared out. So little water remained, and in such
(juantity were the weeds and mud, that it was expected
no fish would be found, except perhaps a few eels ; but,
greatly to the surprise of the persons employed, nearly
two hundred brace of tench, and as many perch, were
discovered. After the pond was supposed to be quite
them soft ; it is therefore to be ranked among
the soft-firmed fishes. I then examine its ven-
tral or belly fins, and finding that the fish has
them, I look for their situation, and find they
lie neaser to the tail than the pectoral fins.
By this I find the animal to be a soft-firmed
abdominal fish. Then, to know which of the
kinds of these fishes it is, I examine its figure
and the shape of its head : I find the body
rather oblong ; the head with a small beak ;
the lower jaw like a saw ; the fin covering the
gills with eight rays. This animal must,
therefore, be the herring, or one of that family,
such as the pilchard, the sprat, the shad, or
the anchovy. To give anofKcflnstance : upon
examining the fins of a fish to me unknown, I
find them prickly; I then look for the situation
of the ventral fins; I find them entirely want-
cleared, an animal was observed to he under some roots,
which was conjectured to be an otter. The place was
surrounded ; and on making an opening, a tench was
found of a most singular form, having literally taken the
shape of the hole in which he had of course been many
years confined. His length was four feet nine inches,
his circumference two feet three inches, and his weight
near twelve pounds. The colour was also singular, his
belly being tinged with vermilion like that of a char.
This extraordinary animal, after having been examined
by many gentlemen, was carefully put into a pond. At
first it merely floated, and after a while it swam gently
away. When Mr Daniel produced his " Rural Sports "
it was alive and well.
The Chub. — This fish, which is called cheven, nab,
or, bot.Hng, very much resembles the carp, but is of a
longer form. The body is ohlong, rather round, and is
of an equal thickness in the greater part of the slope;
the scales are large ; the irides silvery ; the cheeks of
the same colour ; the head and back of a deep dusky
green; the sides silvery, but in the summer yellow; the
belly white ; the pectoral fins of a pale yellow ; the ven-
tral and anal fins red ; and the tail forked, of a brownish
hue, but tinged with blue at the end. It is altogether a
handsome fish, but in no esteem for the table, being very
coarse, and when out of season full of small hairy bones :
the roe however is veiy good ; and this fish stewed as
carp will, it is said, deceive a connoisseur. Its name
is derived from the shape of the head, cop being an old
English word for head ; and the French and Italians
know it by a name synonymous with ours. The haunts
of these fish are rivers whose bottoms are of sand or clay,
or which are bounded by clayey banks, in deep holes,
under hollow banks, shaded by trees or weeds. They
are also found in the Esk, a river noted for the crystal-
line clearness of its waters, flowing over a rocky bottom.
These fish often float on the surface, and are sometimes
found in deep waters, where the currents are strong. In
ponds fed by a rivulet they grow to a large size. They
seldom, however, exceed the weiglit of four or five
pounds, though Salvanus speaks of them as increasing
to eight or nine. They deposit their spawn in April ;
and are in great perfection during the months oi Decem-
ber and January.
SOS
HISTORY OF FISHES.
ing ; this then must be a prickly-finned apodal
fish. Of this kind there are but three : and
by comparing the fish with the description, I
find it either of the trie-hums kind, the sword-
fish, or the gilt-head. Upon examining also
Us internal structure, I shall find a very great
similitude between my fish and that placed at
the head of the family.
CHAP. II.
OF SPINOUS FISHES IN GENERAL.
HAVING given a method by which Spinous
Fishes may be distinguished from each other,
the history of each in particular might natur-
ally be expected to follow ; but such a distinct
account of each would be very disgusting,
from the unavoidable uniformity of every des-
cription. The history of any one of this class
very much resembles that of all the rest : they
breathe air and water through the gills; they
live by rapine, each devouring such animals
as its mouth is incapable of admitting; and
they propagate, not by bringing forth their
young alive, as in the cetaceous tribes, nor
by distinct eggs, as in the generality of the
cartilaginous tribes, but by spawn, or peas,
as they are generally called, which they pro-
duce by hundreds of thousands. These are
the leading marks that run through their
whole history, and which have so much
swelled books with tiresome repetition.
It will be sufficient therefore to draw this
numerous class into one point of view, and
to mark how they differ from the former
classes ; and what they possess peculiarly
striking, so as to distinguish them from each
other. The first object that presents itself,
and that by which they differ from all others,
are the bones. These, when examined but
slightly, appear to be entirely solid; yet when
viewed more closely, every bone will be found
hollow, and filled with a substance less rancid
and oily than marrow. These bones are very
numerous, and pointed ; and, as in quadru-
peds, are the props or stays to which the
muscles are fixed which move the different
parts of the body.
The number of bones in all spinous fishes
of the same kind, is always the same. It is
a vulgar way of speaking to say, that fishes
are at some seasons more bony than at others;
but this scarcely requires contradiction. It is
true indeed, that fish are at some seasons much
fatter than at others : so that the quantity of
the flesh being diminished, and that of "the
bones remaining the same, they appear to
increase in number, as they actually bear a
greater proportion.
All fish of the same kind, as was said, have
the same number of bones: the skeleton of a
fish, however irregularly the bones may fall
in our way at table, has its members very
regularly disposed ; and every bune has its
fixed place, with as much precision as we
find in the orders of a regular fabric. But
then spinous fish differ in the number of bones
according to the species : for some have a
greater number of fins by which they move
in the water. The number in each is always
in proportion to the number and size of these
fins : for every fish has a regular apparatus
of bones and muscles by which the fins are
moved ; and all those fish, where they are
numerous or large, must, of consequence, be
considerably bony. Indeed, in the larger
fish, the quantity of flesh is so much, and the
bones themselves are so large, that they are
easily seen and separated ; but in the smaller
kinds with many fins, the bones are as numer
ous as in the great; yet being so very minute,
they lurk almost in every part of the flesh,
and are dangerous as well as troublesome to
be eaten. In a word, those fish which are
large, fat, and have few fins, are found to be
the least bony; those which are small, lean,
and have many fins, are the most bony of all
others. Thus, for instance, a roach appears
more bony than a carp, because it is leaner
and smaller; and it is actually more bony
than an eel, because it has a greater number
of fins.
As the spinous fish partake less of the
quadruped in their formation than any others,
so they can bear to live out of their own ele-
ment a shorter time. In general, when taken
out of the water they testily their change by
panting more violently and at closer intervals,
the thin air not furnishing their gills the pro-
per play ; and in a few minutes they expire.
Some indeed are more vivacious in air than
others; the eel will live several hours out of
water; and the carp has been known to be
fattened in a damp cellar. The method is
by placing it in a net well wrapped up in
wet moss, the mouth only out, and then hung
up in a vault. The fish is fed with white
bread and milk; and the net now and then
plunged into the water. The animal, thus
managed, has been known not only to live
fora fortnight, but to grow exceedingly fat,
and of a superior flavour. From this it would
seem that the want of a moisture in the gills
is the chief cause of the death of these ani-
mals ; and could that be supplied, their lives
might be prolonged in the air, almost as well
as in their own element.
Yet it is impossible to account for the dif-
ferent operations of the same element, upon
animals that, to appearance, have the some con-
formation. To some fishes, bred in the sea, fresh
SPINOUS FISH.
309
vater is immediate destruction : on the other
hand, some fishes, that live in our lakes and
ponds, cannot bear the salt water. Whence
this difference can arise, is not easily to be
accounted for. The saline quality of the
water cannot properly be given as the cause ;
since no fishes imbibe any of the sea's saltness
with their food, or in respiration. The flesh
of all fishes is equally fresh, both in the river,
and in the saltest depths of the ocean ; the
salt of the element in which they live no way
mixing with their constitution. Whence
then is it that animals will live only there,
and will quickly expire when carried into fresh
water? It may probably arise from the supe-
rior weight of the sea-water ; as from the great
quantity of salt dissolved in its composition, it
is much heavier than fresh water, so it is pro-
bable it lies with greater force upon the
organs of respiration, and gives them their
proper and necessary play ; on the other hand,
those fish which are used only to fresh water,
cannot bear the weight of the saline fluid, and
expire, in a manner suffocated in the gross-
ness of the strange element.
But though there are some tribes that live
only in the sea, and others only in Iresh water,
yet there are some whose organs are equally
adapted to either element ; and that spend a
part of their season in one, and a part in the
other. Thus the salmon, the shad, the smelt,
arid the flounder, annually quit their native
ocean, and come up our rivers to deposit their
spawn. This seems the most important busi-
ness of their lives ; and there is no danger
which they will not encounter, even to the
surmounting precipices, to find a proper place
for the deposition of their future offspring.
The salmon, upon these occasions, is seen to
ascend rivers five hundred miles from the sea;
and to brave not only the danger of various
enemies, but also to spring up cataracts as high
as a house. As soon as they come to the bot-
tom of the torrent, they seem disappointed to
meet the obstruction, and swim some paces
back: they then take a view of the danger that
lies before them, survey it motionless for some
minutes, advance, and again retreat; till at
last summoning up all their force, they take
a leap from the bottom, their body straight,
and strongly in motion ; and thus most fre-
quently clear every obstruction. It sometimes
happens, however, that they want strength to
make the leap ; and then, in our fisheries, they
are taken in their descent. But this is one
of the smallest dangers that attend these ad-
venturing animals in their progress : number-
less are the methods of taking them ; as well
by the hook, as by nets, baskets, and other
inventions, which it is not our business here
to describe. Their capture makes, in several
countries, a great article of commerce; and
being cured in several different manners, either
by salting, pickling, or drying, they are sent
to all the markets of Europe.
As these mount up the rivers to deposit
their spawn, others, particularly the eel, de-
scend the fresh water stream, as Redi assures
us, to bring forth their young in the sea.
About the month of August, annually, these
animals take the opportunity of the most ob-
scure nights, and when the rivers are flooded
by accidental rains seek the ocean. When
they have reached the sea, and produced their
young, for they are viviparous, they again
ascend the stream, at different times, as op-
portunity offers, or as the season is favourable
or tempestuous. Their passage begins usually
about the end of January, and continues till
towards the end of May, when they are taken
in the river Arno by millions, and so small
that a thousand of them goes to a pound.
There is nothing more certain than that they
descend our own rivers after floods in great
abundance, and are thus caught in nets to
very great advantage. They are possessed
also of a power of climbing over any obstacle ;
for, by applying their glutinous and slimy
bodies to .the surface of the object the)
desire to surmount, they can thus creep up
locks, weirs, and every thing that would
prevent their ascending the current of the
stream.
But the length of the voyage performed by
these fishes, is short, if compared to what is
annually undertaken by some tribes, that con-
stantly reside in the ocean. These are known
to take a course of three or four thousand miles
in a season, serving for prey to whales, sharks,
and the numerous flocks of water-fowl, that
regularly wait to intercept their progress.
These may be called fish of passage, arid bear
a strong analogy to birds of passage, both from
their social disposition, and the immensity of
their numbers. Of this kind are the cod, the
haddock, the whiting, the mackarel, the tunny,
the herring, and the pilchard. Other fish live
in our vicinity, and reside on our coasts all the
year round ; or keep in the depths of the ocean,
and are but seldom seen : but these, at stated
seasons, visit their accustomed haunts with
regular certainty, generally returning the
same week in the succeeding year, and often
the same day.
The stated returns, and the regular progress
of these fish of passage, is one of the most ex-
traordinary circumstances in all the history of
nature. What it is that impels them to such
distant voyages ; what directs their passage ;
and what supports them by the way : and what
sometimes prompts them to quit, for several
seasons, one shore for another, and then return
to their accustomed harbour ; are questions that
curiosity may ask, but philosophy ran hardly
310
HISTORY OF FISHES.
resolve. We must dismiss inquiry, satisfied
ivith the certainty of the facts.
The cod seems to be the foremost of this
wandering tribe, and is only found in our
northern part of the world. This animal's
chief place of resort is on the banks of New-
foundland, and the other sand-banks that lie
off Cape Breton. That extensive flat seems
to be no other than the broad top of a sea-
mountain, extending for above live hundred
miles long, and surrounded with a deeper sea.
Hither the cod annually repair in numbers
beyond the power of calculation, to feed on the
quantity of worms that are to be found there
in the sandy bottom. Here they are taken in
such quantities, that they supply all Europe
with a considerable share of provision. The
English have stages erected all along the
shore for salting and drying them ; and the
fishermen, who take them with the hook
and line, which is their method, draw them
in as fast as they can throw out. This im-
mense capture, however, makes but a very
small diminution when compared to their
numbers; and when their provision there is
exhausted, or the season for propagation re-
turns, they go off to the polar seas, where
they deposit their roes in full security. From
thence want of food forces them, as soon as
the first more southern seas are open, to repair
southward for subsistence. Nor is this fish an
unfrequent visitant upon our own shores :
but the returns are not so regular, nor does
the capture bear any proportion to that at
Newfoundland.
The haddock, the whiting, and the mack-
erel are thought by some to be driven upon
our coasts rather by their fears than their
appetites ; and it is to the pursuit of the larger
fishes we owe their welcome visits. It is
much more probable, that they come for that
food which is found in more plenty near the
shore than farther out at sea. One thing is
remarkable, that their migrations seem to be
regularly conducted. The grand shoal of
haddocks that comes periodically on the
Yorkshire coasts, appeared there in a body on
the tenth of December, I 766 ; and exactly on
the same day in the following year. This
shoal extended from the shore near three
miles in breadth, and in length for more than
forty. The limits of a shoal are precisely
known ; for if the fishermen put down their
lines at the distance of more than three miles
from shore, they catch nothing but dog-fish:
a proof that the haddock is not there.
But of all migrating fish, the herring and
the pilchard take the most adventurous voy-
ages. Herrings are found in the greatest
abundance in the highest northern latitudes.
In those inaccessible seas, that are covered
•with ice for a great part of the year, the her-
ring and pilchard find a quiet and sure retreat
from all their numerous enemies ; thither
neither man, nor their still more destructive
enemy, the fin-fish, or the cachalot, dares to
pursue them. The quantity of insect food
which those seas supply, is very great ;
whence, in that remote situation, defended by
the icy rigour of the climate, they live at ease,
and multiply beyond expression. From this
most desirable retreat, Anderson supposes they
would never depart, but that their numbers
render it necessary for them to migrate ; and,
as with bees from a hive, they are compelled
to seek for other retreats.
For this reason, the great colony is seen to
set out from the icy sea about the middle of
winter; composed of numbers, that if all the
men in the world were to be loaded with her-
rings, they would not carry the thousandth
part away. But they no sooner leave their
retreats, but millions of enemies appear to
thin their squadrons. The fin-fish and the
cachalot swallow barrels at a yawn ; the por-
poise, the grampus, the shark, and the whole
numerous tribe of dog-fish, find them an easy
prey, and desist from making war upon each
other ; but, still more, the unnumbered flocks
of sea-fowl, that chiefly inhabit near the pole,
watch the outset of their dangerous migration,
and spread extensive ruin.
In this exigence the defenceless emigrants
find no other safety but by crowding closer
together, and leaving to the outmost bands the
danger of being first devoured ; thus, like
sheep when frighted, that always run together
in a body, and each finding some protection
in being but one of many that are equally
liable to invasion, they are seen to separate
into shoals, one body of which, moves to the
west, and pours down along the coasts of
America, as far as South Carolina, and but
seldom farther. In Chesapeake Bay, the
annual inundation of these fish is so great,
that they cover the shores in such quantities
as to become a nuisance. Those that hold
more to the east, and come down towards
Europe, endeavour to save themselves from
their merciless pursuers, by approaching the
first shore they can find ; and that which first
offers in their descent, is the coast of Iceland,
in the beginning of March. Upon their arri-
val on that coast, their phalanx, which has
already suffered considerable diminutions, is
nevertheless, of amazing extent, depth, and
closeness, covering an extent of shore as large
as the island itself. The whole water seems
alive ; and is seen so black with them to a
great distance, that the number seems inex-
haustible. There the porpoise and the shark
continue their depredations ; and the birds
devour what quantities they please. By
these enemies the herrings are cooped up into
THE HERRING.
311
so close a body, that a shovel, or any hollow
vessel, put into the water, takes them up
without farther trouble.
. That body which comes upon our coasts,
begins to appear off the Shetland isles in
April. These are the forerutmers of the
grand shoal which descends in June ; while
its arrival is easily announced, by the number
of its greedy attendants, the gannet, the gull,
the shark, and the porpoise. When the main
body is arrived, its breadth and depth is such
as to alter the very appearance of the ocean.
It is divided into distinct columns, of five or
six miles in length, and three or four broad;
while the water before them curls up, as
if forced out of its bed. Sometimes they
sink for the space of ten or fifteen minutes,
then rise again to the surface ; and, in bright
weather, reflect a variety of splendid colours,
like a field bespangled with purple, gold, and
azure. The fishermen are ready prepared to
give them a proper reception ; and, by nets
made for the occasion, they take sometimes
above two thousand barrels at a single draught.
From the Shetland isles, another body of
this great army, where it divides, goes off to
the western coasts of Ireland, where they meet
with a second necessity of dividing. The one
takes to the Atlantic, where it is soon lost in
that extensive ocean ; the other passes into the
Irish sea, and furnishes a very considerable
capture to the natives.
In this manner the herrings, expelled from
their native seas, seek those bays and shores
where they can find food, and the best defence
against their unmerciful pursuers of the deep.
In general, the most inhabited shores are the
places where the larger animals of the deep
are least fond of pursuing ; and these are chosen
by the herrings as an asylum from great dan-
pers. Thus, along the coasts of Norway, the
German shores, and the northern shores ol
France, these animals are found punctual in
their visitations. In these different places
they produce their young; which, when come
to some degree of maturity, attend the general
motions. After the destruction of such num-
bers, the quantity that attempts to return is
but small; and Anderson doubts whether they
ever return.
Such is the account given of the migration
of these fishes, by one who, of all others, was
best acquainted with their history ; and yet
many doubts arise, in every part of the migra-
tion. The most obvious which has been made
is, that though such numbers perish in their
descent from the north, yet, in comparison to
those that survive, the account is trifling: and
it is supposed, that of those taken by man, the
proportion is not one to a million. Their
regularly leaving the shore also at a stated
time, would imply that they are not in these
visits under the impulse of necessity. In fact,
there seems one circumstance that shows these
animals governed by a. choice with respect to
the shores they pitch upon; and not blindly
drove from one shore to another. What I
mean, is their fixing upon some shores for
several seasons, or, indeed, for several ages
together ; and, after having regularly visited
them every year, then capriciously forsaking
them, never more to return. The first great
bank for herrings was along the shores of Nor-
way. Before the year 1584, the number of ships
from all parts of Europe that resorted to that
shore exceeded some thousands. The quantity
of herrings that were then "assembled there
was such, that a man who should put a spear
in the water, as Olaus Magnus asserts, would
see it stand on end, being prevented from
falling. But soon after that period, these
animals were seen to desert the Norway shores,
and took up along the German coast, where
the Hanse- Towns drove a very great trade by
their capture and sale ; but, for above a century,
the herrings have, in a great measure forsaken
them ; and their greatest colonies are seen in
the British channel, and upon the Irish shores.
It is not easy to assign a cause for this seem-
ingly capricious desertion : whether the num-
ber of their finny enemies, increasing along
the northern coasts, may have terrified the
herring tribe from their former places of re-
sort; or, whether the quantity of food being
greater in the British Channel, may not allure
them thither; is not easy to determine.1
1 The Herring, v/ith the pilchard sprat, shad, anchovy,
and white-bait, belongs to the Clupeae genus. It weighs
about five ounces and a half. The upper part of the
body is blue or dark green, and the lower parts of a silvery
white. Owing to the gill-lids being very loose and
opening wide, the herring dies almost the instant it is
taken out of the water; hence, perhaps, the saying, " as
dead as a herring." In twenty-four hours the gill-covers
present an extravasated appearance.
The herring is not found in warm regions, nor farther
south than the northern coasts of France. The most
interesting point connected with its natural history is
the annual movement which it makes. Pennant, whose
zoological labours entitle him to much respect, about the
middfe of the last century gave an account of their per-
iodical migration, which has been implicitly copied by
nearly every succeeding writer, Goldsmith among the
rest. In a work on subjects of marine natural history,
published quite recently, Pennant's account is substan-
tially repeated, and it is stated in addition that the dif-
ferent columns of herrings, in the course of their migra-
tions, are led by herrings of more than ordinary size.
Other writers have stated that the annual visitations of the
herring are adjusted with the most scrupulous precision to
the character of the country along which they pass, and
that wherever the soil is meagre and the climate severe,
there they never fail to resort. This is going much
312
HISTORY OF FISHES.
The pilchard, vvhicli is a fish differing little
from the herring, makes the coast of Cornwall
its place of principal resort. Their arrival on
that coast is soon proclaimed by their atten-
farther than Mr Pennant, who notices the caprice
which the herrings exercise with regard to their haunts.
The promulgation of these and similar erroneous notions
is productive of mischief in various ways. The belief
that a particular part of the coast was invariably haunted
by the herrings, excited hopes of commercial prosperity
from the fishery, and led to the formation of establish-
ments which it was afterwards found necessary to
abandon, owing to the laws which direct the arrival of
the fish being so completely fluctuating. Factitious
views of the designs of Providence have been taken,
which, being founded on error, were liable to be sud-
denly overthrown ; whereas, within the bounds of ascer-
tained facts, there are to be found abundant manifesta-
tions of beneficent design, the evidence of which rests
upon a more secure foundation. The very uncertainty
which characterizes the herrings in the choice of their
haunts is attended with advantage, as it occasions atten-
tion to be directed to agriculture and to other means of
subsistence than that which the ocean supplies, and
thus the chances of scarcity are lessened.
So far from the arctic seas being the great resort to
which the herrings retire for the winter after having
deposited their spawn, it is nearly certain that they are
not in the habit of leaving the seas on the shores of
which they periodically appear. They leave the shore
for the deep sea, and the return of warm weather again
brings them around the coasts. The herring, it may
also be stated, is nearly unknown within the polar seas,
and has scarcely been observed by the navigators of
those regions ; nor are they taken by the Greenlanders.
A small variety of the herring is sometimes found, and
is noticed by Sir John Franklin. The young are found
at the mouth of the Thames, and on the coasts of Essex
and Kent during the winter. The Dutch at one period
carried on the fishery in the deep sea at all seasons.
On the western coast of Scotland the fishery has some-
times terminated before that on the eastern coast has
commenced. It has sometimes commenced earlier in a
southern part of the coast than further north, and on
the western coast of the county Cork before any other
part of the united kingdom. These facts are all ad-
verse to the accounts which have been given of a grand
movement in military order from the Arctic seas. On
the east coast of Scotland the herrings often spawn at
a different period from those which resort to the western
coast, and at the same time their condition is quite dissi-
milar. Mr Jesse, in his " Gleanings in Natural History,"
states that the herrings of Cardigan bay are much supe-
rior to those taken at Swansea. Dr John Macculloch
is of opinion that this may arise from their obtaining more
abundant or different food. He states that in Scotland
no migration takes place even between the two coasts,
and that when the herrings first appear on the western
coast it is not in shoals; and instead of being taken by
the net, they are taken by the line. Sir Humphry
Davy has remarked as follows in his " Salmonia:" — " It
has always appeared to mo, that the two great sources
of change of places of animals, was the providing of
food for themselves, and resting-places and food for
their young. The great supposed migrations of her-
rings fion the poles to the temperate zone, have ap-
peared to me to he only the approach of successive shoals
from deep to shallow water, for the purpose of spawn-
ing." The presumption, therefore, is that the herring is
a permanent inhabitant of our seas, and that there are
different varieties of the species. Mr Yarrell says :• —
" There are three species of herrings said to visit the
Baltic, and three seasons of roe and spawning. The
btrornling, or small spring herring, spawns when the
dants the birds and the larger fishes ; and the
whole country prepare to take the advantage
of this treasure, providentially thrown before
them. The natives sometimes enclose a bay
ice begins to melt ; then a large summer herring ; and
lastly, towards the middle of September, the autumn
herring makes its appearance and deposits its spawn.''
The same naturalist has discovered what he believes to
be a second species of British herring: it is found heavy
with roe at the end of January, which it does not de-
posit till the middle of February. The flavour is milder
than that of the common herring, but it is not so large,
its length being seven inches, and its depth two.
The frequent changes of their haunts by herrings have
been a fruitful source of speculation, though this fact is
adverse to the accounts which give to their migration all
the regularity which would seem to belong to so well
organized an army. At one time they frequent a parti-
cular part of the coast for several years, and they after,
wards suddenly abandon it. The change is doubtless
occasioned by circumstances which it is their nature to
obey. In the time of Charles I. the Long island, one
of the western islands of Scotland, was a favourite resort
of the herring, and buildings were erected for the pur-
pose of establishing a fishery, but it wras abandoned in
consequence of the fish ceasing to frequent that part of
the coast. Dr Macculloch, in his work on the " High-
lands and Western isles of Scotland," has introduced
some remarks which are too apt to be omitted in this
place. " As vulgar philosophy (he says) is never satis-
fied unless it can find a cause for everything, this dis-
appearance of the herring has been attributed to the
manufacture of kelp. But kelp was not introduced for
very many years after the herrings had left the Long
island, as well as many other coasts which they had
frequented. It is also a popular belief that naval
engagements, or even the firing of guns, cause them to
change their haunts. Thus their desertion of Sweden
was attributed to the battle of Copenhagen; and now,
when guns are at peace, the steam-boats are the ' suffi-
cient reason.' The one reason is as valid as the other.
It is a chance if there has been a gun fired in the west-
ern islands since the days of Cromwell, and they have
shifted their quarters within that period many a time.
They have long left loch Hourn, and loch Torridon,
where steam-boats never yet smoked; and since the
steam-boat has chosen to go to Inverary, they have also
thought fit to prefer loch Fyne to all the western bays.
But theories like this have at least the merit of antiquity.
Long before the days of gunpowder, the ancient high-
landers thought that the fish deserted those coasts where
blood had been shed ; so that the gun hypothesis is only
an old one revived, with the necessary modifications."
Assuming that the herring approaches our shores from
the deep surrounding seas, and does not migrate from the
polar seas alone, there are three different circumstances
which may occasion its movements : — 1. For the pur-
pose of spawning. 2. In pursuit of food. 3. To escape
from enemies which prey upon them.
The herring spawns towards the end of October or the
beginning of November; and for the purpose of vivifica-
tion, it is necessary that it should be deposited in shallow
water, where it may receive the heat of the sun. This
instinctive movement is felt in the middle of July, and
they are thus brought within the reach of man when they
are in the highest perfection. They are worthless as
food after having deposited their spawn, and the fishing
season of course terminates. Mr Yarrell is of opinion,
from repeated examinations, that the herringsile, or young
herrings, do not mature any roe during their first year ;
and hence they are not impelled to retire to the deep sea,
but haunt the coasts. The weight of spawn in the her.
ring is 480 grains, and the number of eggs between 3000
and 4000. This spawn has been thrown ashore in Ork-
THE HERRING.
313
of several miles extent with their nets called
saines. To direct them in their operations,
there were some years ago (but I believe they
are discontinued) several men placed on emi-
ney, found around the isle of Man and all along the
western shores of Scotland, and in the western lochs.
A greater degree of observation would most probably
prove that it is deposited around the British coasts gen-
erally, particularly the coast of Scotland.
Fishermen have remarked that the herring was most
abundant where the medusae, and other marine animals
which give the sea a luminous appearance, were to be
found. The movements of herrings are doubtless fre-
quently determined by the time and place where food is
abundant. If it is not to be found in one spot it must
be sought for in another; and the apparent caprice which
they show in frequenting places at irregular times and
irregular intervals, is determined by a provident regard
to the abundance of food with which those places are
supplied.
Lastly, in endeavouring to escape from whales, gram-
puses, sharks, and other enemies, the movements of the
herring are the result of necessity ; and nothing seems
more unlikely than that they should, under such circum-
stances, display an instinctive attachment to particular
places.
Herrings enter the Frith of Forth about the end of
December or the beginning of January, and remain two
or three weeks at the mouth of the estuary before they
attempt to ascend. This delay seems greatly to depend
on the state of the weather, for in some seasons when it
is mild and fine, the herring has been observed to swarm
in the Frith oft' Musselburgh in the early part of Janu-
ary; whilst in the rough and stormy seasons they do not
make their appearance in that part of the river before
the middle of February, and always disappear before the
end of March. They seem to visit the Frith regularly
every winter, and a season very seldom passes without a
few being captured and sent to the Edinburgh market.
Some years they appear in much larger shoals than in
others, the reason of which is not accounted for. In the
year 1816, pilchards were taken in the Frith of Forth
in great abundance, when not a dozen herrings were
.seen during the whole winter. Since that time not a
single pilchard has been known to enter the estuary.
'In June, July, and August, herring are taken off the
Dunbar and Berwick coasts in considerable number,
from whence the Edinburgh market is abundantly sup-
plied, when scarcely a single herring is to be seen higher
in the Frith of a size worth the notice of the fisher-
men.
Herrings are said to deposit their spawn towards the
end of October, but this spawning does not account for the
number of small fiy, two inches in length, that are found
in the Frith of Forth during the month of July; and the
young herrings that are taken from six to seven inches
long in the month of February, mixed with fry from two
to three inches in length. When herrings are brought
to the market in the first two months of the year, they
are found full of spawn, and in the middle of March
they are observed to be very lank, with not a single ovum
to be seen. Hence it is not improbable, that the same
species of herring might spawn twice in the year, early
in the month of March and also towards the end of
October.
The most common length of a full-grown herring is
eleven inches, and two and a quarter deep. Each jaw on
the anterior part is furnished with six or eight teeth placed
in one row, which are more perceptible on the lower than
on the upper jaw ; the vomer is supplied with a double
row, about sixteen in number; on each side is another
row of teeth, which are rather smaller ; the tongue is also
armed with teeth, arranged in three or four rows, with
VOL it
nences near the shore, called huers, who, with
brooms in their hands, gave signals where the
nets were to be extended, and where the shoals
of fishes lay : this they perceived by the colour
their points directed inwards; the under jaw is longest,
and is tipped with black ; eyes large and silvery, placed
nearer to the point of the nose than to the posterior
margin of the operculm. The first ray of the dorsal fin
in an adult fish arises exactly half way between the point
of the upper jaw and the base of the middle caudal rays ;
the origin of the ventral fins is placed behind the third
dorsal ray, half way between the point of the lower jaw,
and a little beyond the end of the middle caudal rays.
The tail is deeply forked, the middle rays less than
half the length of the longest ray of the same fin; the
second ray of the dorsal fin, a little~Iongfir than the base
of that fin ; the scales are large, oval, and very decidu-
ous, placed in fifteen rows between the dorsal and ven-
tral fins. Most authors suppose that the belly of the
herring is not serrated in any stage of its growth, which
is said to form a good specific distinction between it and
the sprat; but it will be found that this is not the case,
for a herring less than six inches in length is as dis-
tinctly serrated on the belly with thirty-six teeth,
between the ventral and anal fins, as a sprat of equal
size ; but as the herring increases in size, so the serra-
tures become obliterated, and, by the time the fish reaches
to the length of eight inches, the belly will be found to
be no longer serrated, but carinated.
The most prominent specific distinction of the herring,
from the sprat, white-bait, and pilchard, is in the posi-
tion of the dorsal fin, which is placed exactly in the
middle of the fish, half way between the point of the
upper jaw, and the end of the longest caudal ray.
Dr Knox considers the food of the herring, while
inhabiting the depths of the ocean, to consist principally
of minute entomostracous animals; but it is certainly
less choice (adds Mr Yarrell) in its selection when near
the shore. Dr Neill found five young herrings in the
stomach of a large female herring; he has also known
them to be taken by the fishermen on their lines, the
hooks of which were baited with limpets. The young
of the white-bait and small shrimps are often found in
the stomach of herrings when they are not in roe ; but
when they are about to spawn, their stomachs (as is ob-
served in most other fishes at that period,) appear as if
empty and destitute of any perceptible food. On the
authority of Dr Fleming the fry have even been caught
with a trout-fly^ "
On the coasts of the West Highlands, herrings for
many years past have been taken with the rod, th'e hook
dressed with a white feather (generally from some of the
gulls.) Near Oban, and upon the snores of Mull and
Jura, twelve dozen are sometimes taken by a single boat
during the evening.
Mode of taking and curing Herrings. — The herring-
fishery is only carried on during the spawning season,
when the fish are in the highest perfection. The Yar-
mouth herring-fishery commences about the middle of
September, but the season varies at different parts of
the coast. On the coast of Sutherland the early her-
ring-fishery commences in June ; the late fishery about
the middle of July, and continues until September.
On the coast of Cromarty large shoals appear as early
as the month of May. The great object is to obtain a
supply for the purpose of curing, although, in the early
part of the season, large numbers of fresh herrings are
brought to the London market from Yarmouth; and
the consumption at Norwich and other places, which
are not at a great distance from the coast, is also con-
siderable. The fish are sometimes so rich in the early
part of the season as to be unfit for curing, and on this
aocount they are brought into the market for immediate
2 R
314
HISTORY OF FISHES.
of the water, which assumed a tincture from
the shoals beneath. By these means, they
sometimes take twelve or fifteen hundred bar-
rels of pilchards at a draught ; and they place
consumption. The spawning season being over by the
end of October or the beginning of November, the fish-
ing terminates, as the herrings are then in a poor and
exhausted condition.
The description of vessel fitted out for the herring-
fishery on the eastern and western coasts of Scotland
is called a " bu«s," of from fifty to eighty tons burden,
cutter built. Tiiey ply from loch to loch in pursuit
of the herrings, and come to anchor in the nearest
harbour when the fish appear. A man or two is left
on board the buss to take charge of her, and the rest
go out in the boats, each manned with four hands, for
the purpose of setting the nets. Each boat has two
trains of nets, 230 or 240 yards long, and from eleven
to twelve yards deep. In deep water both trains are
tied together by the back-rope, one end to windward
and the other to leeward. The boats are fastened at
each end and allowed to drive to leeward with the nets.
Every half-hour, or oftener, the men endeavour to
ascertain if there are any herrings in the net. This
they do by following along the line of the back-rope,
and here and there raising a piece of netting. By this
means they not only find when they are upon good
fishing-ground, but learn whether the herrings swim
high or low, and they raise or sink the nets accordingly,
by shortening or lengthening the buoys by which thu
nets are kept up. Sometimes they traverse ten or
twenty miles in a night, setting their nets ten or twelve-
times in different places. The fishing is never carried
on but in the night, and the darkest nights, accompanied
by a slight breeze, are the most propitious. In the
morning, at daylight, the fishermen take their cargo to
their respective busses. When the herrings are in
great numbers, their labours are comparatively light.
The nets are set in the evening, a small anchor
is fixed to each end of the train, and they are not hauled
or raised until morning. In this case the trains are
not joined together, but are set separately, and near the
buss, on board of which the men sleep. The crews of
the busses are engaged by the month, and a great pro-
portion of them are landsmen, pursuing other labours
when the fishing season is over. Each man receives,
in addition to his wages, a certain quantity of herrings,
when the season is a good one, and a smaller proportion
when it is unfavourable.
The Dutch Herring Fishery — Mr William Chambers,
in his Recollections of a Continental Tour, gives an in-
teresting description of the Dutch herring fishery.
"The Dutch greatly excel," he says, "in the art of curing
herrings. The herring in a salted state is the animal
delicacy of Holland, and enjoys a very different estima-
tion from that of the common salt herring in Britain.
Yet the fish of both countries are the same, being caught
in the same fishing-grounds ; and there is no reason why
our herrings should be in any respect inferior in quality
and mercantile value. There are about eighty vessels
employed in the Dutch herring fishery, nearly all of
which belong to Vlaardingen and Maas-sluis, two ports
on the Maas, situated between Rotterdam and the sea.
The fishing is conducted on an organized plan. All the
vessels set sail on a fixed day, namely, the 15th of June,
which is held as a day of rejoicing and merriment. They
arc accompanied by a vessel of war, which carries a
chaplain for the fleet ; and to this vessel, at the beat of
drum, the fishermen proceed on Sundays for public
worship. The fishing-grounds are towards the northern
coasts of Scotland ; but agreeably to a law of old standing,
no vessel is expected to approach within three leagues of
the shore. The first day that nets are allowed to be
them in heaps on the shore. — It often hap-
pens that the quantity caught exceeds the
salt or the utensils for curing them : and the}
then are carried off to serve for the purposes
hauled is the 24th of June, wheii the fishing at once com-
mences in all its vigour. The whole process of curing
is conducted on shipboard. Immediately on being
caught, the herrings are bled, gutted, cleaned, salted,
and barrelled. The bleeding is eflected by cutting them
across the back of the neck, and then hanging them up
for a few seconds by the tail. By being thus relieved
of the blood, the fish retain a certain sweetness of flavour
or delicacy of flesh which unbled herrings cannot possibly
possess. The rapidity of the process of curing must
likewise aid in preserving the native delicacy of the ani-
mal, for the herring is salted and in the barrel in a very
few minutes after it has been swimming in the water.
The superiority of the Dutch herrings, I was assured, is
solely ascribable to this mode of curing, though it is not
unlikely that something is also owing to the nature of
the salt employed, as I have somewhere seen it men-
tioned that the salt in use, in reference to other processes
of curing in Holland, is of a less bitter quality than
that which is commonly employed in this country. The
first herrings caught and cured, to the extent of two or
three barrels, are instantly dispatched by a fast-sailing
vessel for Holland, where their arrival is anxiously ex-
pected. On landing at Maas-sluis, one barrel, decorated
with flowers and with flags flying, is dispatched to the
Hague as an offering to his majesty, who on this occasion
presents the fortunate fishers with 10CO guilders. The
other barrels are sold by public auction, and generally
fetch from 900 to 1100 guilders. These precious barrels
are then subdivided among the dealers, who retail them
at a high price. A single herring of this first importa-
tion brings one and a half to two guilders — that is, half
a crown to three shillings and fourpence each. So highly
are they esteemed, that a single herring is considered
a handsome present ; and it is a custom to make such
gifts to friends and acquaintances on this auspicious oc-
casion. Livery servants may be seen passing through
the streets with a plate, on which lie one or two herrings,
covered with a fine white cloth and a neat card of pre-
sentation. When a second importation takes place, the
price falls perhaps to a guilder, to half a guilder, to five-
pence, and, finally, to a penny each. The period of my
visit was shortly after the early importations of the her-
rings from the Dutch fleet, and I observed some shops
still decorated with the gaudy crowns of flowers with
which their exterior had been invested a few weeks be-
fore. Both in Holland and in the countries up the
Rhine, I had an opportunity of seeing these delicious
Dutch herrings brought to table. Two or three of them
form a dish at dinner, and are partaken of as an entre-
met, or something tasteful between the courses. I ob-
served that some persons at the table-d'hfites began their
meals by taking a small piece of them. They are always
brought to the table raw, and cut across, as if crimped.
At Rotterdam, on asking for one boiled, I shocked the
feelings of our domestic attendant, who expressed no
small degree of surprise at so singular a proposition."
The Pilchard, (Clupea pilchardus,) is a species of the
herring-tribe, and diliers from the common herring,
chiefly, in being rather shorter in the head, and thicker
in the body, and in having its dorsal or back-fin, some-
what forwarder: but it may be more readily distinguished
THE HERRING-
315
of manure. This fishery employs not only
great numbers of men at sea, training them
to naval affairs, but also numbers of women
and children at land, in salting and curing
by its scales, which are nearly half as large again as those
of a herring of the same size. It is found, during the
months of August and September, in great shoals, or
schools, as they are called by the fishermen, on the south-
west coast of England, and afford employment, for a
time, to a great number ot boats and men, belonging to
the fishing-towns of Cornwall. This fish is also met with
off the French coast, and other parts of Europe, but its
chief place of resort, appears to be the coasts of Cornwall
and Devon. The pilchard is rarely met with in the
London markets, but there is a fish, found sparingly
among the sprats, which has obtained its name, which
in reality, is merely a small, and we believe, undescribed
species of herring. The value of this fishery was well
known as long back as the reign of Elizabeth, when an
act of parliament, containing the following clause, was
passed : — " No stranger should transport beyond seas,
any pilcherd or other fish in cask, vnlesse hee did bring
into the realme for every sixe tunnes, two hundred of
clap boord fit to make cask, and so rateably, vpon payne
of forfeiting the said pilcherd or fish." The reason the
stranger was obliged to bring in a certain quantity of
wood, appears to have arisen irom the circumstance of
Cornwall being nearly without timber of any kind.
There are several signs by which the presence of a
shoal of pilchards may be known ; the luminous appear-
ance of the sea at night, the number of birds of prey which
accompany it, and, when seen from a moderate distance,
the appearance of the water, which seems for miles
around to be, as it were, boiling or bubbling.
When the annual visit of the pilchards is expected, to
prevent their passing unnoticed, men are continually
on the alert, watching from all the elevated spots on the
coast, from which stations they are also able by signs to
direct the operations of their friends at sea, so that they
may be enabled to enclose as many of the fish as possible.
The largest net which is employed is called a scan, and
is upwards of sixty fathoms (three hundred and sixty feet,)
in length, and thirty-six feet in depth; the lower part of
this net is kept down by means of leaden weights, while
the upper floats on the surface, being rigged out with a
number of corks; if one of these nets is found to be in-
sufficient for the purpose of surrounding the shoal, a
second, or even a third, is attached to it. The sean now
forms a kind of wall, within which the fish are enclosed,
and the object of the fishermen is to bring this net as
near as possible to the shore, so that at low water, the
fish shall have all means of escape cut off, except by
overleaping the net. As soon as the tide is out, a net
called a truck-net, which differs from the sean in being
smaller, and without leads, is cast among the pilchards,
and, cords being attached to its four corners, it is hauled
on shore, along with as many fish as it may happen to
contain : and this is repeated until the whole of them
are taken or have made their escape.
While these means are employed for the capture of the
larger quantity, other boats are engaged in taking the
scattered parts of the shoal by means of driving-nets.
The boats and nets of the seaners being very expensive,
are generally provided by some capitalist or company of
proprietors, and the men during the season are paid a
small weekly sum, and also a certain portion of the cap-
tured fish. As soon as they are brought on shore, they
are carried off in baskets to the curing-house, where they
are carefully laid in rows one above the other, with al-
ternate layers of salt, till a pile of considerable height is
formed. They are said now to be in bulk, and are al-
lowed to remain in this state from a fortnight to five
weeks. During this time a quantity of brin'e and oil
the fish ; in making boats, nets, ropes, and
casks, for the purposes of taking or fitting them
for sale. The poor are fed with the superfluity
of the capture ; the land is manured with the
has drained from them, which runs off through gutters
in the floor and is carefully collected ; they are next
thrown into a large wooden trough which contains a false
bottom, formed of battens or long strips of wood, and are
freed from the salt and impurities that are attached to
them; they are now very carefully and neatly packed in
hogsheads, arranged in circles, one within the other, the
heads all pointing inwards.
As soon as the hogshead is full, a circular board is
placed on the top of the fish, and they are pressed very
closely together by the application of heavy weights, the
weights being large blocks of graniter ^in's pressure re-
duces the bulk of the fish by nearly one third, arid the
hogshead has to be filled up three times before it is con-
sidered well packed. A quantity of pure oil runs off,
during this part of the process, through a small hole in
the bottom of the cask. It is calculated, that a hogshead
of pilchards which weigh about four hundred weight and
a quarter, will yield from three to four gallons of oil,
worth about £17 a tun, or rather better than 1*. 4d. a
gallon.
The oil is used in the manufacture of cart-grease, and
for many other purposes to which the more common kind
of whale-oil, called train-oil, is applied. Attempts have
been made to purify this oil, so as to render it serviceable
to the currier, but hitherto without success, on account
of the quantity of salt and glutinous matter which it
contains. The pilchards, when thus packed, are exported
chiefly to the West Indies, for the use of the slave-popu-
lation, and to different parts of the Mediterranean and
are likewise salted and dried in great quantities for
winter-provision, by the poorer classes in Cornwall and
Devon.
The myriads of fish that a shoal of pilchards contains,
are almost beyond the power of calculation ; some of the
shoals will form almost solid masses, covering a surface
frequently of six square miles, and extending in depth
upwards of one hundred feet. In successful times, as
many as from five to seven hundred hogsheads have been
taken from one shoal. The annual value of the fish that
are exported is from fifty to sixty thousand pounds.
The appearance of a shoal of pilchards on a dark night,
when enclosed by the nets, is splendid beyond descrip-
tion : struggling and leaping in every direction, to escape
from their confinement, or to avoid the attacks of their
numerous enemies (particularly the dog-fish,) who are
imprisoned along with their victims, they appear like so
many flakes of fire, and the sea itself seems like a lake
of liquid flame.
The pilchard fisheries, according to evidence laid be-
fore a committee of the house of commons, appear, of
late yea<s, to have decreased considerably. Several causes
have tended to produce this state of the fishery; among
others, the removal of a bounty of 8*. Gd. a hogshead,
which had been paid to the exporters till within these five
or six years, and the increase of duty at present is as
much as 18*. 2d. a hogshead, imposed by the govern-
ment at Naples, to which place large quantities were
exported.
The fishery is also injured by the illegal practice of
employing drift and other nets too near the shore,
by which means the shoals are dispersed as they ap-
proach. It is likely, however, that the statute of the
14th of Charles II. will soon be more' strictly enforced.
This Act imposes a fine upon all persons who " shall
in any year, from the first of June till the last day of
November, presume to take fish in the high sea, or in
any bay, port, creek, or coast, of or belonging to
Cornwall and Devon, with any drift-net, trammel, or
316
HISTORY OF FISHES.
offals ; the merchant finds the gain of com-
mission, and honest commerce ; the fisherman a
comfortable subsistence from his toil. " Ships,"
says Dr Borlase, " are often freighted hither
stream-net or nets, or any other nets of that sort or
kind, unless it be at the distance of one league and a half
at least from the respective shores."
The number of boats at present engaged in this
fishery is about 1000, giving employment to 3500 men
at sea, and upwards of 5000 men, women, and children,
on shore.
The White-bait (Clupea alba,} which is found so
plentifully in the Thames, and is so well known in the
neighbourhood of London, as a delicate and well-flavoured
fish, was supposed by naturalists to be the young of the
shad, until Mr Yarrell, in the Magazine of Natural His-
tory, proved it to be a distinct species. In many respects
it diilers materially from all the other British species of
Clnpea, not only in specific characters, but also in its
habits, and is one as distinctly marked as any of its con-
geners. From the beginning of April to the end of
September, this fish, according to Mr Yarrell, may be
caught in the Thames as high up as Woolwich or Black-
wall, every flood tide, in considerable quantity; while
during the first three months of this period, neither spe-
cies of the genus Clupea of any age or size, except
occasionally a young sprat, can be found. About the
end of March, or early in April, white-bait begin to
make their appearance in the Thames, and remain till
the end of September, when they are no longer to be
found in the river. In the months of June, July,
and August, provided the weather be fine, immense
quantities are consumed by visitors to Greenwich and
Blackwall, where epicures of all orders assemble for a
white-bait feast. The fishery for these fish is continued
in the Thames frequently so late as September, and
specimens of young fish of the year, from four to five
inches long, are then not uncommon, but mixed, even
at this late period of the season, with others of very
small size, as if the roe had continued to be deposited
throughout the summer.
The white-bait (says Dr Parnell, in a communication
in the first volume of the Magazine of Zoology and
Botany, to which we are indebted for the present ac-
count) is not, as it was formerly considered to be, pe-
culiar to the Thames, as I have found it to inhabit the
Frith of Forth in considerable numbers during the sum-
mer months. From the beginning of July to the end of
September they are found in great abundance in the
neighbourhood of Queensferry, and opposite Hopetoun
House, where I captured on one dip of a small net, of
about a foot and a half square, between two and three
hundred fish, the greater part of which were white-bait
of small size, not more than two inches in length: the
remainder were sprats, young herring, and fiy of other
fish. In their habits they appear to be similar to the
young of the herring, always keeping in shoals, and
occasionally swimming near the surface of the water,
where they often fall a prey to aquatic birds.
I have no doubt (continues Dr Parnell) that the white-
bait will be found to exist in the Frith of Forth* through-
out the whole of the year in considerable quantity, and
that the fishermen would find it a new source of income,
equal or superior to the spirling fishery, did they use
* The white-bait has also been observed by Dr Parnell in
abundance iu the Suhvay Frith.
with salt, and into foreign countries with the
fish, carrying off at the same time a part of
our tin. The usual produce of the number
of hogsheads exported for ten years, from 1747
the mode of fishing for white-bait that is practised in the
Thames. But in consequence of the large extent
of the estuary, and of no means being used exclusively
for the capture of these fish, we can form but a faint
idea of the number that may there exist.
The white-bait net which is used in the Thames is
not large; the mouth of it measures only about three
feet across, but the mesh of the hoes, or bag-end of the
net, is very small. A boat is moored in the tide-way,
where the water is from twenty to thirty feet deep ; and
the net with its wooden frame is fixed to the side of the
boat. The tail of the hose, swimming loose, is from
time to time brought into the boat, the end untied, and
its contents shaken out. The wooden frame forming
the mouth of the net does not dip more than four feet
below the surface of the water.
The largest specimen of Clupea alba that I have met
with, taken from the Frith of Forth, measures five
inches in length. The upper part of the back, from the
nape to the tail, is of a pale greenish ash-colour, the
sides, gill covers, pectoral, ventral, and anal fins, of a
beautiful pure white; the dorsal and caudal fins straw
colour, minutely spotted with dark brown. The head
on the summit in young specimens is marked with a
large brown spot, which is divided anteriorly by a white
line. Each orbit on the superior margin is tinged with
black, as well as the posterior inferior margin, but in a
less degree. The shape of the body resembles that cf
the young herring, but it is more compressed and of a
deeper form.
The first ray of the dorsal fin commences exactly
midway between the point of the upper jaw and the end
of the middle caudal ray; the ventral fins are placed
behind the third ray of the dorsal; the tail is deeply
forked, the middle ray being not quite half the length cf
the longest ray of the same fin.
The head, in a specimen five inches long, is not
quite one-fourth the length of the whole fish. In a fish
four inches long, the head is exactly one-fourth the entire
length. In one two inches long, the head measures more
than one-fourth the whole length. Each jaw on the
anterior part is furnished with a few small slender teeth,
about six in number, placed in one row ; which are
more perceptible on the lower than on the upper jaw;
on the roof of the mouth as well as on the tongue, are
placed three or more rows of teeth, which can be easily .
felt by the assistance of the point of a needle. In this
respect my observations differ from those of Mr Yarrell,
who says, the tongue of the white-bait has an elevated
central ridge without teeth; but it is probable that that
author did not examine a dried specimen, for until in
tliat state, it is almost impossible to perceive the teeth,
in consequence of their extreme minuteness. This is
a most important character, and at once removes it from
the shad, which has the tongue and roof of the mouth
destitute of teeth.
The white-bait, four inches long, differs from the
herring, sprat, and pilchard of the same length, in the
following characters :
The herring has the dorsal fin half-way between the
point of the upper jaw and end of the long caudal rays ;
with the head nearly one-fifth the entire length. The
white-bait has the dorsal fin much nearer the tip of the
tail, than to the point of the upper jaw, with the head
one-fourtli the length of the whole fish ; the body is more
compressed, of a much lighter colour, and the belly much
rougher under the pectorals, than is observed in the
herring.
The sprat has tho origin of the ventral fins situated
SPINOUS FISH.
317
to 1756 inclusive, amounted to nearly thirty
thousand hogsheads each year ; every hogs-
head has amounted, upon an average, to the
price of one pound thirteen shillings and
threepence. Thus the money paid for pilchards
exported, has annually amounted to near fifty
thousand .pounds."
Whence these infinite numbers are derived,
still remains obscure ; but it will increase our
wonder to be told, that so small a fish as the
stickleback, which is seldom above two inches
long, and that one would think could easily
find support in any water, is yet obliged to
colonize, and leave its native fens in search of
new habitations. Once every seventh or eighth
year, amazing shoals of these appear in the
river Welland, near Spalding, and come up
the stream, forming one great column. There
are supposed to be multitudes collected in some
of the fens, till overcharged with .numbers,
they are periodically obliged to migrate. An
idea may be had of their numbers, when we
are informed, that a man, employed by a
farmer to take them, for the purpose of man-
uring his grounds, has got, for a considerable
time, four shillings a day by selling them at
a halfpenny a bushel !
Thus we see the amazing propagation of
anterior to a vertical line dropped from the first dorsal
ray, with forty-eight vertebrae ; the white-bait has fifty-six
vertebra, with the origin of the ventral fins placed behind
the third ray of the dorsal. In the pilchard the dorsal
iin is placed exactly in the centre of gravity, so that
when the fish is held up by the anterior rays, the body
preserves an equilibrium, whereas if the white-bait,
herring, or sprat, be taken up by the same part, the head
will be observed to dip considerably.
The stomach of the white-bait I have found frequently
filled with minute Crustacea.
Sprat or Garvie Herring, (Clupea sprattus.} This little
fish, although well known toeveryone by the name of Sprat
or Garvie herring, is not admitted by all to be a distinct
species, being considered as the young of the pilchard or
the herring. This mistake is not to be wondered at,
since authors either omit the most important characters,
or place reliance on characters which do not exist.
Sprats are found in the Frith of Forth, throughout the
whole of the year, and, like many small animals, appear
to be very susceptible of cold. During the warm sum-
mer months, they are seen sporting about in large shoals,
in every part of the Frith, occupying a considerable ex-
tent of water, and causing a ripple on the surface with
their fins, while they become the principal food of many
marine birds, which assail them in the water, or prey on
them from above. As the cold weather advances, these
little fish are no longer seen in the lower part of the
estuary, but are found to ascend the Frith to a consider-
able distance, and to select that part of the river where
the fresh and salt waters mingle together ; for it is a well
known law in chemistry, that when two fluids of differ-
ent densities come in contact, the temperature of the
mixture is elevated for a time in proportion to the dif-
ference in density of the two fluids. Owing to mutual
penetration and condensation, such a mixture is con-
stantly taking place in the rivers that run into the sea,
and the temperature of the mixed water is accordingly
elevated. In the year 1830, the sprat was remarkably
abundant all over the British coast, but more particularly
fishes along our own coasts and rivers ; but
their numbers bear no proportion to the vast
quantities found among the islands of the In-
dian ocean. The inhabitants of these coun-
tries are not under the necessity even of pro-
viding instruments for fishing : it is but going
down to the shore, and there the fish are found
in great numbers in the plashes-that still con-
tinue to have water in them. In some of these
places the quantity is so great that they are
left in shoals on those swamps, dried up by
the sun, and their putrefaction contributes to
render the country unhealthful.
This power of increasing in these animals,
exceeds our ideas, as it would in a very short
time outstrip all calculation. A single herring,
if suffered to multiply unmolested and undi-
minished for twenty years, would show a pro-
geny greater in bulk than ten such globes as
that we live upon. But happily the balance
of Nature is exactly preserved ; and their con-
sumption is equal to their fecundity. For this
reason we are to consider the porpoise, the
shark, or the cod-fish, not in the light of plun-
derers and rivals, but of benefactors to man-
kind. Without their assistance, the sea would
soon become overcharged with the burden of
its own productions ; and that element, which
on the coasts of Kent and Essex, where they were taken
in immense quantity, so that they were sold at sixpence
a bushel as manure for the land.
The sprat is generally considered as a delicious well-
flavoured arid wholesome fish, and is eaten in consider-
able quantity in this country, both in the fresh and salted
conditions, but is very seldom brought to the Edinburgh
market. They spawn early in the month of March, and
feed on small crustaceous animals.
The most common size of a sprat is from four to five
inches in length, but it is observed occasionally to exceed
six inches and a half, when it is named in the neigh-
bourhood of Alloa the King of Garvies.
The colour of the hack is a deep glossy blue, the sides,
belly, and gill-covers of a pure silvery white, passing
into green and blue reflections, when viewed in different
lights; the dorsal and caudal fins dusky, minutely spotted
with black ; the pectoral and ventral fins white, slightly
tinged with orange. On the crown of the head is a dark
spot placed between the eyes, which is very perceptibly
seen when young, but as the fish increases in size the
spot gradually becomes obliterated. The eye is large, the
diameter being not less than one-fourth of the whole
head ; the upper and lower margins are tinged with
black. Each operculum has a slight notch placed on
its upper and posterior edge. The teeth in the jaws are
small, slender, and few in number; they are situated on
the most anterior parts, and are more obvious on the
lower than on the upper jaw ; the tongue as well as the
roof of the mouth is also armed with fine teeth, their
points being slightly bent inwards. The under jaw is
the longest. The belly is strongly serrated as far as
the anal aperture. The convexity of the dorsal and ab-»
dominal lines is much greater thau is observed either in
the white-bait or the herring.
The sprat differs from the herring, white-bait, pilchard,
and shad, in two most striking characters; in having only
forty-eight vertebra, and in having the origin of the
ventral fins placed before a vertical line dropped from
the commencement of the first dorsal ray.
318
HISTORY OF FISHES.
at present distributes health and plenty to the
shore, would but load it with putrefaction.
In the propagation of all fish, some degree
of warmth seems absolutely necessary, not
only to their preservation, but to the advance-
ment of their posterity. Their spawn is al-
ways deposited in those places where the sun
beams may reach them, either at the bottom
of shallow shores, or floating on the surface in
deeper waters. A small degree of heat answers
all the purposes of incubation, and the animal
issues from the egg in its state of perfect for-
mation, never to undergo any succeeding
change.
Yet, still I have some doubts whether most
fish come from the egg completely formed.
We know that in all the frog tribe, and many
of the lizard kind, they are produced from the
egg in an imperfect form. The tadpole, or
young frog, with its enormous head and slen-
der tail, are well known; a species of the lizard
also, which is excluded from the shell without
legs, only acquires them by degrees, and not
till after some time does it put off ifs serpent
form. It is probable that some kinds of fish
in like manner suffer a change ; and though
it be too inconsiderable to strike the fisherman
or the inattentive spectator, yet it makes a
very material difference to the naturalist, and
would, perhaps, disarrange his most favourite
systems. A slight alteration in the fins or
bones that cover the gills would overturn the
whole fabric of the most applauded ichthyolo-
gist; and yet, as I observed, it is most proba-
ble that these minute alterations often take
place.
As a proof of this, during the month of
July, there appear near Greenwich, innumer-
able shoals of small fishes, which are known
to the Londoners by the name of White bait.
It is universally agreed that they are the
young of some fish ; they are never seen but
at this time of the year, and never found to
have any roe, a circumstance that proves their
not being come to maturity. The quantity is
amazrhg ; and the fish that produces them in
such numbers must be in plenty, though it is
not yet known what that fish is, as they cor-
respond with no other species whatever. They
most resemble the smelt in form ; and yet they
want a fin, which that animal is never without
They cannot be the bleak, as they are never
found in other rivers where the bleak breed
in great abundance. It is most probable,
therefore, that they are the young of some
animal not yet come to their perfect form, and
therefore reducible to no present system.
The time that spinous fishes continue in the
pea is in proportion to the size of the kind. It
is a rule that chiefly holds through nature,
that the larger the animals are, the longer
they continue before exclusion. This I say
holds generally through all nature, though it
is not easy to assign a cause for so well known
a truth. It may probably be, that as all large
bodies take a longer time to grow hot than
small ones, so the larger the egg, the longer
influence of vital warmth it requires to reach
through all its recesses, and to unfold the
dormant springs that wait to be put into
motion.
The maimei in which the eggs of fishes are
impregnated is wholly unknown. All that
obviously offers is, that in ponds the sexes are
often seen together among the long grass at
the edge of the water; that there they seem to
struggle; and that during this time they are
in a state of suffering; they grow thin ; they
lose their appetite, and their flesh becomes
flabby; the scales of some grow rough, and
they lose their lustre. On the contrary, when
the time of coupling is over, their appetite
returns ; they re-assume their natural agility,
and their scales become brilliant and beau-
tiful.
Although the usual way with spinous fishes
is to produce by spawn ; yet there are some,
such as the eel and the blenny, that are known
to bring forth their young alive. Bowlker,
who has written a treatise upon fishing, seems
to determine the question relative lo the vivi.
parous production of eels, upon the authority
of one or two credible witnesses. An eel,
opened' in the presence of several persons of
credit, was found to have an infinite number
of little creatures, closely wrapped up together
in a lump, about the size of a nutmeg, which
being put into a basin of water, soon separated,
and swam about: yet still, whether these may
not have been worms generated in the animal's
body, remains a doubt ; for there are scarcely
any fishes that are not infested with worms in
that manner.1
With respect to the growth of fishes, it is
observed, that among carps, particularly the
first year, they grew to about the size of the
leaf of a willow-tree ; at two years, they are
about four inches long. They grow but one
inch more the third season, which is five inches.
Those of four years old are about six inches;
and seven after the fifth. From that to eight
years old they are found to be large in pro-
portion to the goodness of the pond, from eight
to twelve inches. With regard to sea-fish,
the fishermen assure us, that a fish must be
six years old before it is fit to be served up to
table. They instance it in the growth of a
mackarel. They assure us that those of a
year old are as large as one's finger ; that those
of two years, are about twice tliat length ; at
three and four years, they are that small kind
of mackarel that have neither milts nor roes ;
1 The eel, it is known, is viviparous.
SPINOUS FISH.
319
and between five and six, they are those full-
grown fish that are served up to our tables.
In the same manner, with regard to flat fishes,
they tell us, that the turbot and barbel at one
year are about the size of a crown-piece ; the
second year, as large as the palm of one's
hand ; and at the fifth and sixth year, they are
large enough to be served Up to table. Thus
it appears, that fish are a considerable time
in coming to their full growth, and that they
are a long time destroyed before it comes to
their turn to be destroyers.1
All fish live upon each other in some state
of their existence. Those with the largest
mouths attack and devour the larger kinds ;
those whose mouths are less, lie in wait for
the smaller try; and even these chiefly subsist
upon spawn. Of those which live in the ocean,
of the spinous kinds, the dorado is the most
voracious. This is chiefly found in the tro-
pical climates ; and is at once the most active
and the most beautiful of the finny region.
It is about six feet long ; the back all over
enamelled with spots of a bluish green and
silver ; the tail and fins of a gold colour ;
and all have a brilliancy of tint, that nothing
but nature's pencil can attain to; the eyes are
placed on each side of the head, large and beau-
tiful, surrounded with circles of shining gold.
In the seas where they are found, these fish are
always in motion, and play round ships in full
sail with ease and security : for ever either
pursuing or pursued, they are seen continu-
ally in a state of warfare ; either defending
themselves against the shark, or darting after
the smaller fishes. Of all others, the Flying-
fish most abounds in these seas ; and as it is
a small animal, seldom growing above the
size of a herring, it is chiefly sought by the
dorado. Nature has furnished each respec-
tively with the powers of pursuit and evasion.
The dorado being above six feet long, yet not
thicker than a salmon, and furnished with a
full compliment of fins, cuts its way through
the water with amazing rapidity : on the
other hand, .the flying fish is furnished with
two pair of fins longer than the body, and
these also moved by a stronger set of muscles
than any other. This equality of power seems
to furnish one of the most entertaining spec-
tacles those seas can exhibit. The efforts to
seize on the one side, and the arts of escaping
on the other, are perfectly amusing. The
dorado is seen, upon this occasion, darting
after its prey, which will not leave the water,
while it has the advantage of swimming, in
the beginning of the chase. But, like a
hunted hare, being tired at last, it then has
recourse to another expedient for safety by
1 Traite des Peches, par Monsieur Duhamel. Sect.
3. p. 100.
flight. The long fins, which began to grow
useless in the water, are now exerted in a dif-
ferent manner, and different direction, to that
in which they were employed in swimming :
by this means, the timid IHtle" animal rises
from the water, and flutters over its surface
for two or three hundred yards, till the mus-
cles employed in moving the wings are en-
feebled by that particular manner of exertion.
By this time, however, they have acquired a
fresh power of renewing their efforts in the
water, and the animal is capable of proceed,
ing with some velocity by swimming: still,
however, the active enemy keeps it in view,
and drives it again from the deep ; till, at
length, the poor little creature is seen to dart
to shorter distances, to flutter with greater
effort, and to drop down at last into the mouth
of its fierce pursuer. But not the dorado alone,
all animated nature seems combined against
this little fish, which seems possessed of double
powers, only to be subject to greater dangers.
For though it should escape from its enemies
of the deep, yet the tropic bird and the alba-
tross are for ever upon the wing to seize it.
Thus pursued in either element, it sometimes
seeks refuge from a new enemy ; and it is
not unfrequent for whole shoals of them to fall
on shipboard, where they furnish man with
an object of useless curiosity.
The warfare in fresh water is not carried
on with such destructive activity ; nor are the
inhabitants of that element so numerous. It
would seem that there is something more
favourable to the fecundity of fishes in the
ocean than in an element less impregnated
with salt. It has been the opinion of some
philosophers that all fish are natives of that
great reservoir; and that only colonies have
been sent up rivers, either through accident,
or the necessity of procuring subsistence.
They have been led to this opinion by the
superior fecundity of sea-fish, which breed
twenty to one ; as well as by their superiority
in strength and size, over those of the same
kind found in lakes and rivers. This is a
matter too remotely speculative to be worth
pursuing ; but certain it is that, in fresh water,
fishes seem to abate much of their courage and
rapacity ; pursue each other with less violence,
and seem to be less powerfully actuated by
all their appetites. The greediness with
which sea-fish devour the bait is prodigious,
if compared with the manner they take it in
fresh water. The lines of such fishermen as
go off to sea are coarse, thick, and clumsy,
compared to what are used by those who fish
at land. Their baits are seldom more than
a piece of a fish, or the flesh of some quadruped,
stuck on the hook in a bungling manner ; and
scarcely any art is employed to conceal the
deception. But it is otherwise in fresh water;
320
HISTORY OF FISHES.
the lines must often be drawn to a hair-like
fineness ; they must be tinctured of the pecu-
liar colour of the stream ; the bait must be
formed with the nicest art, and even, if pos-
sible, to exceed the perfection of nature: yet
still the fishes approach it with diffidence, and
often swim round it with disdain. The cod,
on the banks of Newfoundland, the instant
the hook, which is only baited with the guts
of the animal last taken, is dropped into the
water, darts to it at once, and the fishermen
have but to pull up as fast as they throw
down. But it is otherwise with those who
fish in fresh waters, they must wait whole
hours in fruitless expectation ; and the patience
of a fisherman is proverbial among us.1
1 Fish usually taken by anglers in Great Britain. — The
Barbel, so called from its four barbs, two of which are
at the corners of its mouth, and the others at the end of
its snout, is a heavy, dull fish, and gives very inferior
sport to the angler, in proportion to his size and strength.
They begin to shed their spawn about the middle of
April, and come in season about a month or six weeks
after. In their usual haunts, among weeds, &c., they
are fond of rooting with their nose like the pig. In sum-
mer, they frequent the most powerful and rapid currents,
and settle among logs of wood, piles, and weeds, where
they remain for along time apparently immovable; dur-
ing the winter time, they return to deep bottoms. The
most killing baits for the barbel are the spawn of trout,
salmon, or indeed of any other fish, especially if it be
fresh, respecting which, the barbel is very cunning; the
paste that imitates it must, therefore, be well made,
and of fresh flavour. It is also an advisable plan to bait
the water over night, by spawn or a quantity of cut
worms. The barbel will also bite well at the cobworm,
gentles, and cheese, soaked in honey. The rod and
line, with which you fish for barbel, must both be ex-
tremely long, with a running plummet attached to the
latter, as they swim very close to the bottom. By a
gentle inclination of the rod, you may easily ascertain
when there is a bite; immediately upon which the fish
should be struck, and seldom escapes, unless he break
the line.
The Bleak, or Blay, is a common river fish, so called
from its bleak or white appearance, that spawns in March ;
and is fond of many of the baits for trout. It is usually
caught with a small artificial fly of a brown colour; and
the hook should be suited in size to the fly* The bleak
seldom exceeds six inches in length ; its flesh is highly
valued by epicures, and beads are made of its scales.
Bream (see it figured at page 297) shed their spawn
about midsummer, and although they are occasionally
met with in slow running rivers, are reckoned a pond
fish, where they will thrive in the greatest perfection ;
and have been known to weigh from eight to ten Ibs. In
fishing for them, the angler should be very silent, and
take all possible care to keep concealed from the fish,
which are angled for near the bottom. His tackle also
must be strong. This fish, according to Dr Shaw, is a
native of many parts of Europe, inhabiting the still lakes
and rivers, and sometimes found even in the Caspian
sea.
This comparative neglect of food, which is
found in all the tribes of fresh-water fishes,
renders them less turbulent and less destruc-
tive among each other. Of all these the pike
Bull head, or Miller's thumb, is a small ugly fish,
which hides itself in brooks and rivers under a gravelly
bottom. They spawn in April, and their average length
is from four to five inches. When their gill fins are cut
off' they serve as good baits for pike and trout, and, like
the cray fish, when boiled, their flesh turns red.
Carp (see it described at page 305) is a fish that by
its frequency of spawning, and quickness of growth, is
greatly used to stock ponds, where it thrives better, and
lives longer than in rivers. Gesner speaks of one who
lived to 100 years old; there is much doubt about its
general age, but it is supposed to be a very long lived
fish. They spawn three or four times a year, but the
earliest time is about the commencement of May. They
are observed to live uncommonly long out of water, and
in Holland are frequently kept alive for three weeks, or
a month, in a cool place, by being hung with wet moss
in a net, and fed with bread, steeped in milk. In ang-
ling for carp, it is necessary to make use of strong tackle,
with a fine gut next the hook, and a float formed of the
quill of a goose, They bite almost close to the bottom,
and are rarely caught if angled for in a boat. From its
subtlety, it has been sometimes called the water fox.
The river carp is accustomed to haunt, in the winter, the
most quiet and broad parts of the stream. In summer
they live in deep holes, reaches, and nooks, under the
roots of trees, and among great banks of weeds, until
they are in a rotten condition. The pond carp loves a
rich and fat soil, and will seldom or never thrive in cold,
hungry waters. The carp ponds of Germany yield a
considerable income to the gentry.
The Chub, (see it figured at page 307) or Chevin, is,
like the perch, a very bold biter, and will rise eagerly
at a natural or artificial fly. They spawn in June, or
at the latter end of May, at which time they are easily
caught by a fly, a beetle with its legs and wings cut off,
or still more Successfully by a large snail. When they
are fished for at mid-water, or at bottom, a float should
be made use of; when at top, it is customaiy to dip for
them, or to use a fly, as if a trout were the angler's ob-
ject. Strong tackle is also requisite, as they are a heavy
fish, and usually require a landing net to pull them out.
Their average length is from ten to fourteen inches.
Dace, Dart, or Dare, are a very active and cautious
fish, and rise to a fly, either real or artificial. It is
necessary, in angling for them, to remain in concealment
as much as possible. They spawn in February and
March, and their flesh is but inferior in point of flavour.
They frequent gravelly, clayey, and sandy bottoms,
leaves of the water lily, and deep holes, if well shaded.
In sultry weather they are frequently caught in the
shallows; and during that period, are best taken with
grasshoppers or gentles. In fishing at bottom for roach .
and dace, who are similar in their haunts and disposition,
bread soaked in water, and kneaded to a good consistency
and then made up together with bran into round balls,
and thrown into the place where it is 'proposed to angle,
will be found very serviceable, but must always be thrown
up the stream. There is a mode of intoxicating dace,
and by this means rendering them an easy prey ; but this
is no part of the real angler's sport. The Thames is
well known to abound in dace, and the graining of the
Mersey is thought to be a variety of the same species.
The Eel (see an account of eels at page 286) is rarely
angled for, but it is usually caught by the process of
sniggling or bobbing, with night lines, &c. Being fond
of quiet in the day time, all who expect much sport in
eel fishing must devote their evenings and even whole
nights to the pursuit. The method for sniggling for eels
SPIHOUS FISH.
321
is the most active and voracious ; and our poets,
whose business it is to observe the surface of
nature, have called it the tyrant of the watery
plain. In fact, in proportion to its strength
is as -follows : — Take a common needle, attached in the
middle by fine waxed twine, a packthread line, or a strong
small hook fixed to this kind of line ; place a large lob-
worm, by the head end, on your needle or hook, and draw
him on to his middle ; affix another needle to the end of
a long stick, and guide your bait with it into any of the
known haunts of the fish, between mill boards, or into
clefts of banks or holes, holding the line in your hand ;
now give the eel time to gorge the bait, and then by a
sharp twitch fix the needle across his throat, or the hook
into his body; tire him well, and your triumph is cer-
tain. Although this is not strictly a method of angling,
the lovers of that sport will find it so successful a mode
of diversifying their pursuits, where eels are common,
that the present appeared the most convenient place to
insert it. Bobbing is a rough species of angling. The
best method is to provide yourself with a considerable
number of good-sized worms, and string them from head
to tail, by a needle, on fine strong twine, viz. to the
amount of a pound, or a pound and a half in weight.
Wind them round a card into a dozen or fifteen links,
and secure the two ends of each link by threads.
Now tie a strong cord to the bundle of strung worms,
about a foot from which put on a bored plummet, and
angle with a line from two to three feet long, attached
to a stout tapering pole. Eels, and perhaps pike, are
found in no part of Great Britain in such numbers or
variety as in the marshy parts of the counties of Cam-
bridge and Lincoln. The silver eel is the finest, and is
very common in Scotland. The manner in which this
fish is propagated, has long been a matter of dispute.
They have neither spawn nor melt, as known organs of
generation. Walton gravely argues for their being bred
of corruption, " as some kind of bees and wasps are ;"
others strongly contend for their being viviparous. It
is a subject, indeed, upon which naturalists have no cer-
tain information. The lamprey, (see it noticed at page
280) "a lambendo petras, from licking the rocks," says
the quaint author of the Worthies of England, is a spe-
cies of eel, variously esteemed. In Worcestershire and
Gloucestershire, the Severn lamprey is regarded as a
luxury ; and, by the city of Gloucester, a pie made of
this fish is annually presented to the queen. In the
north of Great Britain it is much disliked. Eels bait
iu a shower, and in windy, gloomy weather, at the lob
and garden worm, designed for other fish, particularly
trout. Unlike other fish, they are never out of season.
They are a very greedy fish, and if you wish to angle
for them in the ordinary way, they will take a lam-
prey, wasp, grubs, minnows, &c., but particularly the
first.
The Pinnock, or Hirling, is a species of sea trout
which usually attains the length of from nine to four-
teen inches, and is principally known in Scotland ; the
whitling, another species, is from sixteen to twenty-four
inches long. They will both rise equally at an artificial
fly, but require generally a more showy one than the
common trout.
The Grayling, or Umber, (noticed at page 303)
spawns in May, and is in the best condition in Novem-
ber. They will greedily take all the baits that a trout
does, and frequent the same streams. They are said to
have the fragrant smell of the plant Thymallus. Their
average length is from sixteen to eighteen inches; and
they must be angled for with very fine tackle, as they are
a remarkably timid fish. When hooked, they must also
be cautiously worked, as the hold in their mouth easily
gives way; but they will speedily return to the bait.
It is fine eating, unknown to Scotland or Ireland.
VOL. II.
and celerity, the pike does some mischief;
but what are its effects compared to those of
the cachalot or the shark ! they resemble the
petty depredations of a robber, put in com-
The Gudgeon (figured at page 295)Ts a fish in some
request, both for its flavour and the sport it aflbrds to the
inexperienced angler. It is very simple, and is allured
with almost any kind of bait. It spawns two or three
times during the year; is generally from five to six
inches long, and fond of gentle streams with a gravelly
bottom. In angling for gudgeon, the bottom should be
previously stirred up, as this rouses them from a state of
inactivity, and collects them in shoals together. Some
anglers use two or three hooks in gudgeon fishing. A
float is always used, but the fish should not be struck
on the first motion of it ; as they are accustomed to
nibble the bait before they swallow it. It frequently
happens, that in angling for gudgeons, perch are
caught.
The Loach, or Groundling, sheds its spawn in April,
and remains in the gravel ; where they are usually
caught with a small red worm. They are principally
found in the north of Great Britain, and in the streams
of the mountainous parts. They are 'about three
inches in length; and their flesh is pleasant and whole-
some.
The Minnow, or Minim, one of the smallest river
fish, seldom exceeds two inches in length. They spawn
generally about once in two or three years, and swim
together in shoals, in shallow waters, where they are
very free, and bold in biting. They serve also as excel-
lent baits for pike, trout, chub, perch, and many other
fish, which prey upon and devour them greedily.
The Mullet takes almost the same baits as the trout,
and will very eagerly rise to an artificial fly; they are
considered free baiters, and come and go with the tide.
If artificial flies are made use of, their size should be
larger than those generally used to insnare the trout.
They are found in their greatest perfection, in the river
Arun, Sussex ; but are seldom or never seen in Scot-
land.
The Par, or Samlet, (see it figured and described at
page 302) is a fish that is known by different names in
different parts of Great Britain. On the river Wye it
is usually called a skirling; in Yorkshire, a brandling:
in Northumberland, a rack-rider ; and in some parts of
England, a fingering, from the resemblance of its spotted
streaks to the human fingers. Par, or Samlet, is its
Scottish name, and in that part of Britain it is best
known. Some have affirmed, that it is the blended
spawn of the trout and salmon. This opinion is strength-
ened by the circumstances of their usually frequenting
the same haunts with the salmon and sea trout, and their
being forked in their tail like the former.
The Perch (see it noticed at page 298) is a very bold
biting fish, and affords excellent amusement to the
angler. He is distinguished by the beauty of his
colours, and by a large erection on his back, strongly
armed with still" and sharp bristles, which he can raise
or depress at pleasure. Defended by this natural excres-
cence, he bids defiance to the attacks of the ravenous
and enormous pike, and will even dare to attack one of
his own species. Perch spawn about the beginning of
March, and measure from eight to fourteen inches.
In fishing for perch with a minnow, or brandling, the
hook should be run through the back fin of the bait,
which must hang about six inches from the ground. A
large cork float should be attached to the line, which
should be leaded about nine inches from the hook. It
must be observed, that they invariably refuse a fly.
The Pike, Luce, or Jack, (see it figured and described
at page 303) is a fish of enormous size, and the greatest
voracity; indeed, so notorious is he for the latter quality,
322
HISTORY OF FISHES.
petition with the ravages of a conqueror!
However, the pike will attack every fish less
than itself; and it is sometimes seen choked,
by attempting to swallow such as are too
as to have gained the appellation of the fresh water
shark. They are also great breeders. Their usual time
of shedding their spawn is about March, in extremely
shallow waters. The finest pike are those which feed
in clear rivers; those of fens or meres, being of very
inferior quality. They grow to a vast size in these last
mentioned places, where they feed principally on frogs,
and such like nutriment. They are reckoned to be the
most remarkable for longevity of all fresh water fish;
are solitary and melancholy in their habits, generally
swimming by themselves, and remaining alone in
their haunts, until compelled by hunger to roam in
quest of food. There are three modes of catching pike :
by the ledger, the trolling, or walking bait, and the
trimmer
The Pope, or Ruff, is a fish veiy similar in its nature
and appearance to the perch, and is frequently caught
when fishing for the latter. They spawn in March and
April, and are taken with a brandling, gentles, or caddis.
They are extremely voracious in their disposition, and
will devour a minnow, which is almost as big as them-
selves. In their favourite haunts of gentle deep streams,
overhung by trees, they swim in shoals together; and
you may fish for them either at the top or the bottom of
the water, as they are known to bait in almost any wea-
ther, and in any situation. Their average length is from
six to seven inches.
Roach are frequently taken with flies under water.
They will bite at all the baits which are prepared for chub
or dace, and are considered a simple and foolish fish. They
spawn in May, and turn red when boiled. The compact-
ness of their flesh gave rise to the proverb, " sound as a
roach." The roach haunts shallow and gentle streams,
and the mouths of small streams which run into larger
ones. In angling for roach, the tackle must be strong,
and the float large and well leaded.
The Ritd, or Finscale, is a very scarce fish, found
only in the river Charwell, in Oxfordshire, and a few
of the lakes of Lincolnshire and Yorkshire. It sheds
its spawn in April, will take all kinds of worms, and will
rise at an artificial fly. Its colour is a kind of yellowish
brown, and its average length from nine to fifteen
inches.
Salmon (see page 301) are accustomed to quit the
fresh waters, and retire into the sea at the approach of
winter, which, at the commencement of April, they
usually leave for rivers; but the Wye and Usk in Mon-
mouthshire, and the Exe in Devonshire, have them in
season during the six wintry mouths. The finest species
are caught in the Exe, Thames, and Tamar, but not so
abundantly as in many other places. Salmon prefer more
chilly streams, and are consequently found in greater
numbers northward, in the rivers of Scotland, particularly
in the Tweed, the Tyne, the Clyde, and the Tay. In
the lutter, they occasionally occur at the immense weight
of seventy pounds ; arid in the Tweed, and Clyde, at
about fifty or sixty pounds weight. They are also found
in all the great streams of Europe north of 51°, and in the
United States of America north of 4 1°. Some recent ac-
counts of the north-west coast of America, describe them
also as abounding there. In the American rivers, they
seldom exceed from fifteen to twenty pounds weight.
They appear some time in the rivers before they are in
a healthy state ; and the best season for the angler to
commence his operation, is in the close of the month of
May, or the early part of June. The usual time for the
salmon to deposit their spawn, is from the first of Sep-
tember to the latter end of October, when they grow
very sickly both iti appearauce and flavour. Previous to
large a morsel. It is immaterial of what
species the animal it pursues appears to he,
whether of another or its own, all are indis-
criminately devoured ; so that every fish owes
this, they generally retire to brooks which branch out ir-
regularly from the main river, or remain in shallows,
where they sometimes are scarcely covered with water.
During their residence in fresh water, it is a well authen-
ticated circumstance, that they always lie with their
heads pointing up the river; and never swim down the
stream, unless during the period of their emigration to
the sea, or when their position is molested. The length
of the rod for catching salmon should be from about seven-
teen to twenty feet, which, however, can be regulated
according to the breadth and general size of the river in
which the angler pursues his operations. The reel, which
on these occasions, forms the most material appendage
to the rod, is made of brass ; it should be constructed
with the utmost nicety, and capable of the swiftest cir-
cumvolutions. The line, which is fastened to the reel,
may be composed either of strong silk or twisted horse
hair, gradually diminishing at the top, and having a loop
at the end of the wheel, and another at the cast lines, to
fasten them to each other. Let this last line be very
carefully twisted with the fingers, and shorter than the
rod, so that none of the knots may come within the top
ring; sixteen to twenty horse hairs may be used in the
upper links, but they must be diminished toward the
hook, where they are best made of three small round
twisted silk worm guts, or a few strong horse hairs. Of
worms, lob-worms, earth-bobs, &c., and of fish, minnow
have been used with great success. The artificial flies
should be generally of large dimensions, and of a gaudy
and glittering colour. The materials that compose
them are hairs, furs, and wools, of every variety that
can be collected, mingled with the tail-feathers of cocks
and game, and secured together by plated wire, or gold
and silver thread, marking silk, shoemakers' wax, bees'
wax, &c. Their wings may be made of the leathers
of domestic fowls, or any others of a showy colour.
Imitate principally the natural flies ; hut you may safely
indulge your fancy, rather than depart without a bite ;
for many anglers succeed with the most monstrous and
capricious baits of this kind. A raw cockle, or muscle,
taken out of the shell, prawns, and minnows, have also
been recommended as salmon baits. The mode of
angling with these is to drop the line, which must be
totally unincumbered with shot, into some shallow which
approximates to the edge of a hole of considerable depth,
and in this situation to suffer it to be carried in by the
current. The noviciate in angling will, at first, exper-
ience considerable difficulty in throwing his line to any
great extent. For this we can give no recipe, but a
most inflexible determination to proceed, and the most
consummate patience in disappointment. It should al-
ways be thrown across the river, and on the offside from
the spot where you expect the fish to rise. When you
imagine that the salmon has been struck, be cautious in
giving him time sufficient to enable him to poach his
bait, that is, to swallow it fairly and securely. After
this, fix the hook firmly in him, by a gentle twitch. On
the first sensation of this pain, the salmon will plunge
and spring with great violence, and use every endeavour
of strength and cunning to effect his escape. He will
then, perhaps, run away with a considerable length of
line, which is to be kept in a gently relaxed situation,
so that it may always yield with facility to his obstinate
resistance: nor can you give him. too much line, if you
do but clear it of weeds and encumbrances. If he now
become sullen and quiet in the water, rouse him gently,
by flinging in a few stones; and when he once more
commences resistance, do not be too eager in checking
his career, but let him gradually exhaust himself of his
SPINOUS FISH.
323
its safety to its minuteness, its celerity, or its
courage : nor does the pike confine itself to
feed on fish and frogs; it will draw down the
water-rat and the young ducks, as they are
swimming about. Gesner tells us of a mule
that stooped to drink in the water, when a
famished pike, that was near, seized it by
the nose, nor was it disengaged till the beast
flung it on shore. So great is their rapacity,
that they will contend with the otter for his
prey, and even endeavour to force it from him.
For this reason it is dreaded by all other fish :
and the small ones show the same uneasiness
and detestation at the presence of their tyrant,
as the little birds do at the sight of a hawk
or an owl. When the pike lies asleep near
the surface, as is frequently the case, the
lesser fish are often observed to swim around
it in vast numbers, with a mixture of caution
and terror.
The other tribes of fresh-water fish are
much inferior to this animal in courage and
rapacity : they chiefly subsist upon worms
strength; follow him down the stream, or allow him to
cross it ; while, at every, opportunity, you keep winding
up your line until you approach him in this wearied
state, and take him softly by the gills out of the water.
The salmon peal may be caught in the same manner; he
is smaller than the salmon, and seldom exceeds fourteen
or fifteen inches in length.
Tench, (see page 306 for a figure of the Tench) like the
carp, are generally considered pond fish, although they
have been frequently caught in the river Stour. They
shed their spawn about the commencement of July, and
are in season from September to the latter end of May.
They will bite very freely during the sultry months.
Their haunts are similar to those of the carp ; except
that they frequent the foulest and muddiest bottoms,
where they may shelter themselves among an infinite
quantity of reeds ; hence you must angle for them very
near the bottom, and allow them sufficient time to gorge
the bait.
Trout (see page 302) are considered as one of the
finest river fish that this country can produce. Its
colours are beautifully varied at different seasons of the
year, and according to the rivers it frequents. They
abound in the generality of our streams, rivers, and lakes,
and are usually angled for with an artificial fly. Their
weight also differs from half a pound to three; some few
have been caught which weighed upwards of four pounds.
Trout are extremely voracious ; and, by their activity and
eagerness, afford famous diversion to the angler. Previous
to their spawning, they are observed to force a passage
through weirs and flood-gates against the stream ; and
how they are enabled to overcome some of these
impediments, is a subject of much conjecture. Their
general time of shedding the spawn is about October or
November; in some rivers, however, it is much sooner,
in others later. They are also met with in eddies, where
they remain concealed from observation behind a stone,
cr log, or a bank that projects into the stream ; during
the latter part of the summer, they are frequently caught
in a mill-tail, and sometimes under the hollow of a bank,
or the roots of a tree. In angling for trout, there are
many things worthy of particular observation : 1st. That
the day on which the sport is undertaken, be a little
windy, or partially overcast, and the south wind is supe-
rior to all others, if it do not too much disturb your
and insects, pursuing them at the bottom, or
jumping after them to the surface of the water.
In winter also, their appetite seems entirely
to forsake them ; at least they continue in so
torpid a state, that few baits-will tempt them
to their destruction. At that season, they
forsake the shallow waters, and seek those
deep holes to be found in every river, where
they continue for days together, without ever
appearing to move. The cold seems to affect
them ; for at that time they lie close to the
bottom, where the water is most warm, and
seldom venture out, except the day be pecu-
liarly fine, and the shallows at the edges of
the stream become tepified by the powerful
rays of the sun. Indeed I have been assured,
that some fishes may be rendered so torpid by
the cold, in the northern rivers, as to be frozen
up in the great masses of ice, in which they
continue for several months together, seem-
ingly without life or sensation, the prisoners
of congelation, and waiting the approach of a
warmer sun to restore them at once to life and
tackle. 2d. The sportsman should remain as far as
possible from the stream, fish it downwards, the line
never touching ihe water, as the agitation proceeding
from the fall might disturb the fish, and preclude all
possibility of capturing them. 3d. Clear streams are
famous for sport, and in fishing in them, a small fly with
slender wings must be attached to the hook. When the
water is thick, and the sight more imperfect from this
disadvantage, a larger species of bait must of necessity
be used. 4th. The line should, on an average, be about
twice as long as the rod, unless in cases of emergency,
when the number and variety of trees exclude the pro-
bability of a successful throw, if at any distance. 6th.
Let the fly be made to suit the season. After a shower,
when the water becomes of a brown appearance, the
most killing bait is the orange fly ; in a clear day, the
light coloured fly ; and on a gloomy day, in overshadowed
streams, a dark fly. Very large trout have been killed
in Ullswater, in Cumberland, and still larger in Loch
Awe in Argyleshire. Specimens of this great fish are to
be found in Loch Awe, weighing from ten to twenty
pounds. (See it figured and described at page 302.) It
is said to be by far the most powerful of our fresh-water
fishes, exceeding the salmon in actual strength, though
not in activity. The most general size caught by troll-
ing, ranges from three to fifteen pounds: beyond that
weight they are of uncommon occurrence. If hooked
upon tackle of moderate strength, they afford excellent
sport; but the general method of fishing for them is
almost as well adapted for catching sharks as trout; the
angler being apparently more anxious to have it in his
power to state that he had caught a fish of such a size,
than to enjoy the pleasure of the sport itself. However,
to the credit of both parties, it may be stated, that the very
strongest tackle is sometimes snapped in two by its first
tremendous springs. The ordinary method of fishing for
this king of trouts is with a powerful rod, from a boat row-
ing at the rate of from three to four miles an hour ; the
lure, a common trout, from three to ten inches in length,
baited upon six or eight salmon hooks, tied back to back
upon strong gimp, assisted by two swivels, and the
wheel-line strong whip cord. Yet all this, in the first
impetuous efforts of the fish to regain its liberty, is fre-
quently carried away for ever into the crystal depths of
Loch Awe !
S2t
HISTORY OF FISHES.
liberty. Thus that cheerful luminary not
only distributes health and vegetation to the
productions of the earth, but is ardently
sought even by the gelid inhabitants of the
water.
As fish are enemies one to another, so each
species is infested with worms of different
kinds peculiar to itself. The great fish
abound with them ; and the little ones are not
entirely free. These troublesome vermin
lodge themselves either in the jaws and che
intestines internally, or near the fins without.
When fish are healthy and fat they are not
much annoyed by them ; but in winter, when
they are lean or sickly, they then suffer very
much.
Nor does the reputed longevity of this class
secure them from their peculiar disorders.
They are not only affected by too much cold,
but there are frequently certain dispositions
of the element in which they reside unfavour-
able to their health and propagation. Some
ponds they will not breed in, however artfully
disposed for supplying them with fresh
recruits of water, as well as provisions. In
some seasons they are found to feel epidemic
disorders, and are seen dead by the water
side, without any apparent cause : yet still
they are animals of all others the most viva-
cious, and they often live and subsist upon such
substances as are poisonous to the more per-
fect classes of animated nature.
It is not easy to determine whether the
poisonous qualities which many of them are
ibund to possess, either when they wound our
bodies externally with their spines, or when
they are unwarily eaten at our tables, arises
from this cause. That numbers of fishes in-
flict poisonous wounds, in the opinion of many,
cannot be doubted. The concurrent testimony
of mankind they think sufficient to contradict
any reasonings upon this head, taken from
anatomical inspection. The great pain that
is felt from the sting given by the back fin of
the weaver, bears no proportion to the small-
ness of the instrument that inflicts the wound.
How the poison is preserved, or how it is con-
veyed by the animal, it is not in our power to
perceive ; but its actual existence has been
often attested by painful experience. In this
instance we must decline conjecture, satisfied
with history.
The fact of their being poisonous when
eaten, is equally notorious ; and the cause
equally inscrutable. My poor worthy friend,
Dr Grainger, who resided for many years at
St Christopher's, assured me, that of the fish
caught, of the same kind, at one end of the
island, some were the best and most wholesome
in the world ; while others taken at a different
end were always dangerous, and most com-
monly fatal. We have a paper in the Philo-
sophical Transactions, giving an account of
the poisonous qualities of those found at New
Providence, one of the Bahama islands. The
author assures us, that the greatest part of the
fish of that dreary coast are all of a deadly
nature : their smallest effects being to bring
on a terrible pain in the joints, which, if ter-
minating favourably, leaves the patient without
any appetite for several days after. It is not
those of the most deformed figure, or the most
frightful to look at, that are alone to be dread-
ed ; all kinds, at different times, are alike dan-
gerous ; and the same species which has this
day served for nourishment, is the next, if
tried, found to be fatal !
This noxious quality has given rise to much
speculation, and many conjectures. Some
have supposed it to arise from the fishes on
these shores eating of the manchineel apple, a
deadly vegetable poison, that sometimes grows
pendent over the sea ; but the quantity of those
trees growing in this manner, bears no pro-
portion to the extensive infection of the fish.
Labat has ascribed it to their eating the gal-
ley-fish, which is itself most potently poisonous:
but this only removes our wonder a little
farther back; for it maybe asked, with as
just a cause for curiosity, how comes the gal-
ley-fish itself to procure its noxious qualities ?
Others have ascribed the poison of these fishes
to their feeding upon copperas-beds : but I
do not know of any copper-mines found in
America. In short, as we cannot describe the
alembic by which the rattlesnake distils its
malignity, nor the process by which the scor-
pion, that lives among roses, converts their
sweets to venom, so we cannot discover the
manner by which fishes become thus danger-
ous ; and it is well for us of Europe that we
can thus wonder in security. It is certain
that with us, if fishes, such as carp or tench,
acquire any disagreeable flavour from the lakes
in which they have been bred, this can be re-
moved, by their being kept some time in finet
and better water: there they soon clear away
all those disagreeable qualities their flesh had
contracted, and become as delicate as if they
had been always fed in the most cleanly man-
ner. But this expedient is with us rather the
precaution of luxury than the effect of fear : we
have nothing to dread from the noxious quali-
ties of our fish ; for all the animals our waters
furnish are wholesome.
Happy England! where the sea furnishes
an abundant and luxurious repast, and the
fresh waters an innocent and harmless pastime;
where the angler, in cheerful solitude, strolls
by the edge of the stream, and fears neither
the coiled snake, nor the lurking crocodile ;
where he can retire at night, with his few
trouts (to borrow the pretty description of old
Walton) to some friendly cottage, where the
SPINOUS FISH.
325
landlady is good, and the daughter innocent
and beautiful ; where the room is cleanly,
with lavender in the sheets, and twenty ballads
stuck about the wall ! There he can enjoy
the company of a talkative brother sportsman,
have his troufs dressed for supper, tell tales,
sing old tunes, or make a catch ! There he
can talk of the wonders of nature with learned
admiration, or find some harmless sport to
content him, and pass away a little time,
without offence to God, or injury- to man !
HISTORY OF FISHES.
BOOK IV.
OF CRUSTACEOUS AND TESTACEOUS FISHES.
CHAP. I.
THE DIVISION OF SHELL FISH.
IN describing the inhabitants of the water, a
class of animals occur, that mankind, from the
place of their residence, have been content to
call fish; but that naturalists, from their for-
mation, have justly agreed to be unworthy of
the name. Indeed the affinity many of this
kind bear to the insect tribe, may very well
plead for the historian who ranks them rather
as insects. However, the common language
of a country must not be slightly invaded ; the
names of things may remain, if the philoso-
pher be careful to give precision to our ideas
of them.
There are two classes of animals, therefore,
inhabiting the water, which commonly re-
ceive the name of fishes, entirely different from
those we have been describing, and also very
distinct from each other. These are divided
by naturalists into Crustaceous and Testaceous
Animals; both, totally unlike fishes to ap-
pearance, seem to invert the order of nature ;
and as those have their bones on the inside,
and their muscles hung upon them for the
purposes of life and motion, these, on the con-
trary, have all their bony parts on the outside,
and all their muscles within. Not to talk
mysteriously — all who have seen a lobster or
an oyster, perceive that the shell in these
bears a strong analogy to the bones of other
animals ; and that, by these shells, the ani-
mal is sustained and defended.
Crustaceous fish, such as the crab and the
lobster, have a shell not quite of a stony hard-
ness, but rather resembling a firm crust, and
in some measure capable of yielding. — Testa-
ceous fishes, such as the oyster or cockle, are
furnished with a shell of a stony hardness ;
very brittle, and incapable of yielding. Of
the crustaceous kinds are the Lobster, the
Crab, and the Tortoise : of the testaceous, that
numerous tribe of Oysters, Mussels, Cockles,
and Sea-Snails, which offer with infinite va-
riety.
The crustaceous tribe l seems to hold the
middle rank between fishes, properly so called,
and those snail-like animals that receive the
name of testaceous fishes. Their muscles are
strong and firm, as in the former; their shell
is self-produced, as among the latter. They
have motion, and hunt for food with great avi-
dity, like the former. They are incapable of
swimming, but creep along the bottom, like
the latter : in short, they form the link that
unites these two classes, that seem so very op-
posite in their natures.
Of testaceous fishes we will speak hereafter.
As to animals of the crustaceous kind, they
are very numerous, their figure offers a hun-
dred varieties : but as to their nature, they are
obviously divided into two very distinct kinds,
differing in their 'habits and their conforma-
tion.— The chief of one kind is the Lobster;
the chief of the other, the Tortoise. Under
the Lobster we rank the Prawn, the Cray-fish,
the Shrimp, the Sea-Crab, the Land-Crab,
and all their varieties. Under the Sea-Tor-
toise, the Turtle, the Hawksbill-Turtle, the
Land- Tortoise, and their numerous varieties.
CHAP. II.
CRUSTACEOUS ANIMALS OF THE LOBSTEK
KIND.
HOWEVER different in figure the lobster and
the crab may seem, their manners and con-
1 All the animals of this class are covered with inte-
THE LOBSTER KIND
327
formation are nearly the same. With all the
voracious appetites of fishes, they are condemned
to lead an insect life at the bottom of the
water ; and though pressed by continual hun-
ger, they are often obliged to wait till acci-
dent brings them their prey. Though with-
out any warmth in their bodies, or even with-
out red blood circulating through their veins,
they are animals wonderfully voracious. What-
ever they seize upon that has life, is sure to
perish, though never so well defended : they
even devour each other ; and to increase our
surprise still more, they may, in some mea-
sure, be said to eat themselves; as they change
their shell and their stomach every year, and
their old stomach is generally the first morsel
that serves to glut the new.
The lobster is an animal of so extraordinary
a form, that those who first see it are apt to
mistake the head for the tail ; but it is soon
discovered that the animal moves with its
claws foremost ; and that the part which plays
within itself by joints, like a coat of armour,
is the tail. The two great claws are the lob-
ster's instruments of provision and defence ;
these, by opening like a pair of nippers, have
great strength, and take a firm hold ; they are
usually notched like a saw, which still more
increases their tenacity. Beside these power-
ful instruments, which may be considered as
arms, the lobster has eight legs, four on each
side, and these, with the tail, serve to give the
animal its progressive and sidling motion. Be-
tween the two claws is the animal's head, very
small, and furnished with eyes that seem like
two black horny specks on each side ; and
these it has a power of advancing out of the
socket, and drawing in, at pleasure. The
mouth, like that of insects, opens the long way
of the body, not crossways, as with man, and
the higher race of animals. It is furnished
with two teeth for the comminution of its food;
but, as these are not sufficient, it has three
more in the stomach ; one on each side, and
the other below. Between the two teeth there
is a fleshy substance, in the shape of a tongue.
The intestines consist of one long bowel, which
reaches from the mouth to the vent ; but what
this animal differs in from all others, is, that
guments of a crustaceous substance, more calcareous than
that which envelopes the myriapods, the arachnida, and
the insects. Most of them feed on bodies in a state of
putrefaction, and in all the sexes are distinct.
the spinal marrow is in the breast-bone. It
is furnished with two long feelers or horns,
that issue on each side of the head, that seem
to correct the dimness of its sight, and apprize
the animal of its danger, or-nf its prey. The
tail, or that jointed instrument at the other
end. is the grand instrument of motion ; and
with this it can raise itself in the water.
Under this we usually see lodged the spawn
in great abundance ; every pea adhering to
the next by a very fine filament, which is
scarcely perceivable. Every lobster is an her-
maphrodite and is supposed to be self-impreg-
nated I1 The ovary, or place where the spawn
is first produced, is backwards toward the tail,
where a red substance is always found, and
which is nothing but a cluster of peas, that
are yet too small for exclusion. From this
receptacle there go two canals, that open on
each side at the jointures of the shell, at the
belly ; and through these passages the peas
1 The animals of this tribe are by no means herma-
phrodites, but are found distinctly male and female. The
eggs are deposited under the tail of the females, which
for that purpose is often much broader than that of the
males. Amongst the numerous examples given by Dr
Paley, of the wonderful manner in which Nature con-
trives to overcome difficulties, which would at first ap-
pear insurmountable, there is perhaps none more' strik-
ing than the mode in which the lobster is released from
his case when the increasing size of his body requires
more room. In most animals the skin grows with their
growth. In some animals, instead of a soft skin, there
is a shell, which admits by its form of gradual enlarge-
ment. Thus the shell of the tortoise, which consists of
several pieces, is gradually enlarged at the joinings of
those pieces which are called "sutures." Shells with
two sides, like those of the mussel, grow bigger by addi-
tion at the edge. Spiral shells, as those of the snail, re-
ceive this addition at their mouth. The simplicity of
their form admits of this ; but the lobster's shell being
applied to the limbs of his body, as well as to the body
itself, does not admit of either of the modes of enlarge-
ment which is observed in other shells. It is so hard
that it cannot expand or stretch, and it is so complicated
in its form that it does not admit of being enlarged by
adding to its edge. How, then, was the growth of the
lobster to be provided for ? We have seen that room
could not be made for him in his old shell : was he then
to be annually fitted with a new one ? If so, another
difficulty arises; how was he to get out of his present
confinement? How was he to open his hard coat, or
draw his legs out of his boots which are become too tight
for him ? The works of the Deity are known by expe-
dients, and the provisions of his power extend to the
most desperate cases. The case of the lobster is thus
provided for : At certain seasons his shell grows soft.
The animal swells' his body; the seams open, and the
claws burst at the joints. When the shell is thus be-
come loose upon the body, the animal makes a second
effort, and by a trembling motion, a sort of spasm, casts
off his case. In this state of nakedness the poor defence-
less fish retires to a hole in the rocks. The released
body makes a sudden growth. In about eight and forty
hours a fresh concretion of humour takes place all over
the surface of his body ; it quickly hardens ; and thus a
new shell is formed, fitted in every part to the increased
size of the body and limbs of the animal. See the sub-
ject fully haudled by Mr Couch, in the following Note.
328
HISTORY OF FISHES.
descend to be excluded, and placed under the
tail, where the animal preserves them from
danger for some time, until they come to ma-
turity ; when, being furnished with limbs and
motion, they drop off into the water.
When the young lobsters leave the parent,
they immediately seek for refuge in the
smallest clefts of rocks, and in such like cre-
vices at the bottom of the sea, where the
entrance is but small, and the opening can be
easily defended. There, without seeming to
take any food, they grow larger in a few
weeks' time, from the •mere accidental sub-
stances which the water washes to their
retreats. By this time, also, they acquire a
hard firm shell, which furnishes them with
both offensive and defensive armour. They
then begin to issue from their fortresses, and
boldly creep along the bottom, in hopes of
meeting with more diminutive plunder. The
spawn of fish, the smaller animals of their
own kind, but chiefly the worms that keep at
the bottom of the sea, supply them with
plenty. They keep in this manner close
among the rocks, busily employed in scratch-
ing up the sand with their claws for worms,
or surprising such heedless animals as fall
within their grasp : thus they have little to
apprehend, except from each other ; for in
them, as among fishes, the large are the most
formidable of all other enemies to the small.
But this life of abundance and security is
soon to have a most dangerous interruption ;
for the body of the lobster still continuing to
increase, while its shell remains unalterably
the same, the animal becomes too large for its
habitation, and, imprisoned within the crust
that it has naturally gathered round it, there
comes on a necessity of getting free. The
young of this kind, therefore, that grow faster,
as I am assured by the fishermen, change their
shell oftener than the old, who come to their
full growth, and who remain in the same
shell often for two years together. In general
however, all these animals change their shell
once a-year ; and this is not only a most pain-
ful operation, but also subjects them to every
danger.1 Moulting season is generally about
1 Process of Exuviation in Shrimps, Lobsters, and
Crabs. — Dr Milne Edwards, in his Histoire Naturelle
des Crustaces, has given an account of what may be
considered the present state of our, knowledge, of the
circumstances under which the process of exuviation is
effected, and the methods by which it is accomplished
in the long-tailed stalk-eyed crustaceans ; but as much
of what that eminent naturalist advances is derived from
other authorities, and I have reason to conclude, con-
trary to the general opinion, that the circumstances
attending this process of nature, are different in even
nearly allied species, there still remains space for inquiry.
Reaumur is our only original authority for the minute
circumstances attending the process of exuviation, which
he observed in the river crayfish (Potamobius fluviatilis,
Leach ,) but not having an opportunity of consulting
the beginning of summer, at which time their
food is in plenty, and their strength and vigour
in the highest perfection. But soon all their
activity ceases ; they are seen forsaking the
that author's work, I copy his narrative from Dr M.
Edwards's quotation: A few days previous to the
commencement of the operations, the creature abstains
from all solid nourishment, and the carapace and abdo-
minal segments will be found to offer less than the usual
resistance to the pressure of the finger. Shortly after,
wards the crayfish appears restless, and rubs its legs
against each other ; it then throws itself on its back,
agitates its whole body and then distends it, by which
the membrane joining the carapace to the abdomen is
burst, and this great dorsal plate is raised. Some degree
of rest follows these first struggles ; but after a short time
the animal again puts all its organs in motion, the ca-
rapace is seen to rise gradually from the legs beneath,
and in less than half an hour, the animal has extricated
itself from this portion of its slough. By retracting its
head, the antenna, eyes, and legs are withdrawn as from
a case ; and the extrication of the last, being the most
difficult and complicated operation, is attended with so
much pain, that the effort sometimes occasions the loss
of one or more of the organs. The hinder parts are
withdrawn with less difficulty; the head is conducted
below the carapace, and the tail being thrown off by a
forward motion attended with a brisk and distensive
action, the creature is seen divested of all its encum-
brances, and the case is left unbroken, as if no struggle
had ever taken place within it.
I have no doubt that the process here described in the
cray-fish corresponds to what takes place in the common
prawn (Palsemon serratus, Leach,) although I have never
been able to observe it in operation ; — the following is
a description of the case from which the animal has
recently extricated itself : The whole is thin, elastic and
transparent ; the carapace with its serrated process w'hole,
the antennae perfect to their minute extremities: tha
palpi and jaws drawn within the cavity of the thorax,
and partially separated from the sternal plate ; the latter
with the legs still forming a loose attachment to each
other, and without fracture, but drawn somewhat pos-
teriorly into the thoracic cavity. The case and pedestal
of one eye were within the thorax, but the other could
not be found ; — the legs perfect, and attached to the
sternal plate. The caudal plates were united at their
joints, but in no part was there any intervening mem-
brane, this portion of the body not appearing to be
thrown off with the more solid covering: a circumstance
which will account for the fact, that the eyes do not long
remain attached to the adjacent parts after the slough is
left by its inhabitant.
The habits of the lobster (Astacus Europeus, Leach,)
at this periodical crisis, and the circumstances attending
it, present a very considerable difference from those of
the species already mentioned. So far from abstaining
from food, it is not uncommon for it to be taken in crab
pots, which it has been enticed to enter by the allure-
ment of the usual bait; and instances have been related
to me, where, when the fishermen commenced to handle
his capture, the animal has slipped away, leaving an
empty huskvas the only reward of his labour. It wan by
a circumstance somewhat similar that the opportunity is
afforded me of giving a minute description of a very per-
fect case, left by the creature when it made its escape:
— for escape it did, through an aperture too narrow to
have allowed it to pass if its new covering had possessed a
very moderate degree of firmness — to the no small
annoyance of the fisherman, who had calculated on the
possession of a prize somewhat above the ordinary mag-
nitude. I cannot find that any extraordinary actions or
contortions have been observed in the lobster, when
THE LOBSTER KIND.
329
open parts of the deep, and seeking some
retired situation among the rocks, or some
outlet where they may remain in safety from
the attacks of their various enemies. For
engaged in delivering itself from its trammels, or that
the time is prolonged, as is the case with the cray-fish ;
circumstances which are easily accounted for by an ex-
amination of the crust ; and it is certain that when
delivered it possesses great activity in effecting its escape,
and that neither the prawn nor the lobster devour, as
has been supposed, any portion of the old shell.
In the specimen referred to, the case of the antennae
and palpi was perfect to their minutest extremities ; the
stalk also, and transparent covering of the eyes, were
uninjured, but the former was attached on its inferior
portion only, the superior half hanging loose, so that it
would soon have fallen away in the agitation of the sea.
The segments and joints of the posterior portion of the
body, with the caudal plates, were all joined together,
but without any intervening membrane ; and the infer-
ior parts from beneath the snout, including the jaws and
footjaws, chelaedlegs, with the sternal plate, oesophagus
and internal coat of the stomach, formed one connected
portion, with no further separation than arises from the
absence of every portion . of membrane. The whole of
these inferior portions was drawn very considerably
within the carapace ; and it was the latter section of the
surface only that showed a mark of the manner in which
the animal had delivered itself from its case ; and this
it did in a way not to be mistaken. Through the middle
of this space, ran a line as straight as if it had been cut
with a knife, and evidently formed by a natural process
of separation : for it even proceeded through the centre
of the snout, to the terminal pointed process, at the root
of which it turned off' on the right side ; so that the
least effort of the animal was sufficient to aflbrd it a
passage.
The observation here made on a very perfect specimen
that came into my possession by great accident, has been
further confirmed by a careful examination, both of the
living lobster, in which an obscure line is perceptible,
where the natural separation takes place : and also of a
specimen of small size, in which the sloughing or natural
process of division had only begun. In the latter case a deep
channel had been formed on the external part, nearly
half through the carapace ; while the internal portion
still remained firm; but I have little doubt that if the
creature had lived but a few days longer, the separation
would have been complete, and the animal would have
escaped from its prison.
The growth of the young of the long-tailed Crusta-
ceans, is well known to be exceedingly rapid ; and there
seems reason to believe that the process of exuviation is
repeated at least two or three times in the course of the
first year of their age. In the course of a summer,
among many prawns one or two may always be found in
a state that indicates the having lately passed through
this process; but about October or November they all
seem to undergo it at once, the breeding season finishes,
and no further change in the shell takes place until the
approach of the spring. It is not improbable that the
general opinion is correct, which limits the exuviation
of the adult animals to once in the year; but from the
narks of old injuries, and the incrustation of parasitic
animals, I have come to the conclusion that in advanced
age the lobster does not throw off its case with any regu-
larity, and perhaps not at all.
When about to throw off its exuviae the crab com-
monly retires to some secret place, in the near neigh-
bourhood of rocks that will afford it shelter when unable
to escape from danger, or defend itself from enemies.
Its craving appetite seems also at this time to be sus-
pended ; but the particular subject of my observation
some days before their change, the animal
discontinues its usual voraciousness ; it is no
longer seen laboriously harrowing up the sand
at the bottom, or fighting with others of its.
differed from others, in wandering into a crab-pot at this
period, in search of food; and being known by the
fishermen to be what is called peel, that is, about to
throw off its crust, it was transferred to the safe custody
of the store-pot, on Saturday, July 30th, where, on the
morning of August 1, it was found just then delivered-
from its covering. As quickly as possible, and without
injury, the living crab and its empty representative were
brought to me: and the following is a description of the
exuviae.
The longest diameter of the carapace was 6$ inches ;
compass of the largest chela, and length of the flap or
tail, severally 3f inches: the individual a female, or
what is termed by fishermen a Bon Crab. The carapace
was sound, except on its under surface, where in its
ordinary state a curved line passes backward from the
jaws to the hinder part of the body. When caught on
the 30th this portion was observed by the fishermen to
be loosened ; and now the portion included between this
waved line and the sternal plate, was entirely separate
and fallen inward. The sheaths of the antennae and
palpi perfect ; one eye gone, the other remaining, with
the transparent covering perfect, the stalk loosely attached ;
the tail and all its appendages perfect ; the sternal plate
beginning to break across in the middle, leaving to each
portion a pair of legs on each side ; but this not being a
complete or natural separation, may have been produced
by the weight of the limbs alone, or the efforts of the
animal. The chelae and legs perfect in all their attach-
ments, the membranes unbroken ; and the flat bones
which occupy the middle of the muscles and serve them
for tendons or points of attachment for motion, were un-
injured and fastened to each joint, their distant extrem-
ities hanging loosely in the cavity of the case of the limb.
The coverings of the branchiae were perfect to their mi.
nutest extremities ; and besides the internal coat of the
stomach, the whole internal skeleton of the animal was
thrown off without fracture or displacement: — including
the two motive bones or levers that pass through the mid.
die of the body from the jaws, to be attached to the in-
ternal dorsal aspect of the carapace: where formerly
attached, however, to the carapace they hung loose. The
curious bony articulations of the grinding apparatus of the
stomach, which renders the digestion of these Crusta-
ceans analogous to the rumination of quadrupeds, toge-
ther with the double crustaceous body (perhaps gland) at
the pyloric orifice, and the whole of the bony crusts or
chambers that receive the muscles which move the legs,
were disengaged with displacement.
The Living representative of this wonderful skeleton
measured 7£ inches in its longest diameter, the compass
of the largest chela, and length of the flap or tail, 4
inches; the weight 24J- ounces, being 5J ounces less
than an ordinary crab ef the same dimensions, weighed
with it for comparison. It was plump, having much
the appearance of a lump of dough enclosed in a mem-
brane ; and it was also equally soft, with scarcely more
power of motion : appearing sensitive only when pressed
on the under surface of the carapace. The colour above
was red, beneath a pale yellow, the flap purplish ; the
bristles on the legs fully formed, but soft, which is the
more worthy of notice, as I have seen the Procellana
platycheles, in which villosity forms a conspicuous
character, entirely naked when just escaped from the
crust. On cutting open the legs and chelce, the bonj
plates to which the muscles are attached, and which
serve for tendons, were found as soft as wet parchment,
and towards the extreme joints, could not be distinguished
with certainty. On breaking off the largest chela at the
2 i
380
HISTORY OF FISHES.
kind, or hunting its prey ; it lies torpid and
motionless, as if in anxious expectation of the
approaching change. Just before casting its
shell, it throws itself upon its back, strikes its
joint where the animal is itself accustomed to separate
it when injured, the usual membrane formed towards
the body, and no discharge took place ; but a watery
fluid proceeded copiously from the surface towards the
limb, which was thus soon left empty, speedily becomin
capable of being blown up with air like a bladder. On
proceeding to dissect the body a similar circumstance
took place, the fluid running off in so large a quantity,
that I regretted when too late, that I had not taken the
.precaution to have measured it. In a few minutes, the
body had so sunk into one mass that I was unable to
distinguish the separate parts. At the lower and inner
part of each joint of the chelae and legs, an opening re-
mained, in the form of a slit; through which the flat
central bony plate, found in the empty crust, had been
withdrawn ; which opening of course must be closed
when the shell is finally consolidated.
It appears from close inspection, that the exuviae of a
lobster consists of the same parts as those of a crab ; the
whole internal skeleton and external surface of the
branchiae, with the osseous tendons of the muscles, hav-
ing been rejected. But they are more distinctly ascer-
tained in the latter species, from their greater firmness
of texture ; and I may add also in reference to myself,
that a desire to preserve the specimen perfect, had in
the former case prevented a very minute examination of
the internal structure.
Having procured a crab that was beginning to show
signs of a commencement of the process of exuviation,
I found the limbs shrunk to three-fourths of what the shell
could well contain ; the soft contents of the points of the
chelae being diminished much more than the muscular
structure. A greater diminution than this, however,
takes place before the process of deliverance is accom-
plished ; but all the vigilance that I have exerted has
not enabled me to see the actual escape from the crust ;
which is usually left in some void place, often in a sandy
basin, and, as several fishermen have informed me, always
on its back ; as the living specimen I have described is
represented also to have been found in the store-pot.
The newly extricated crab has at first strength enough
to crawl off to a place of safety, commonly beneath the
shelter of a neighbouring crevice, of such limited dimen-
sions at its entrance,, that it seems surprising it should
ever be able to return from it, in its new state of growth.
The first instinct of nature after securing a place of
retreat, is to absorb, I suppose by swallowing it, as much
fluid as will distend its organs and their common cover-
ing, now as flexible as velvet, to the full extent of their
capacity; by which means the deposition of crustaceous
particles is made according to the dimensions of its
newly acquired bulk: which in the instance now des-
cribed, that had arrived at the ordinary size of a female,
and allowing for the thickness of the first crust, exceeded
the former by at least an inch in its longest diameter,
and in all its dimensions in the same proportion. In
the early stages of growth, the increase of bulk at ex-
uviation is, of course, much more considerable, in rela-
tive proportion. Some of these smaller specimens may
be found passing through this natural process in every
month of the year ; but in some adult individuals, the
same crust must continue for a long time, since I have
seen one with oysters measuring two inches and a half
in length, on the carapace ; and in another, a mussel
(mytilus) about an inch in length, attached by its byssus
to a joint near the body.
Whether, as has been said, the rejected case forms a
n.eal for its old inhabitant, on its first return to habits of
at tiviiy,ma.v wellbe questioned; though I have known
claws against each other, and every limb
seems to tremble ; its feelers are agitated, and
the whole body is in violent motion ; it then
swells itself in an unusual manner, and at last
the shell is seen beginning to divide at its
junctures ; particularly, it opens at the junc-
tures of the belly, where, like a pair of jumps,
it was before but seemingly united. It also
seems turned inside out, and its stomach comes
away with its shell. — After this, by the same
operation, it disengages itself of the claws,
which burst at the joints ; the animal, with a
tremulous motion, casting them off as a man
would kick off a boot that was too big for him.
Thus, in a short time, this wonderful crea-
ture finds- itself at liberty, but in so weak and
enfeebled a state, that it continues for several
hours motionless. Indeed, so violent and
painful is the operation, that many of them
die under it; and those which survive are in
such a weakly state for some time, that they
neither take food nor venture from their re-
treats. Immediately after this change, they
have not only the softness but the timidity of
a worm. Every animal of the deep is then
a powerful enemy, which they can neither
escape nor oppose ; and this, in fact, is the time
when the dog-fish, the cod, and the ray, devour
them by hundreds. But this state of defence-
less imbecility continues for a very short time:
the animal, in less than two days, is seen to
have the skin that covered its body grown al-
most as hard as before ; its appetite is seen to
increase ; and, strange to behold ! the first ob-
ject that tempts its gluttony, is itsown stomach,
which it so lately was disengaged from. This
it devours with great eagerness ; and some time
after eats even its former shell. In about
forty-eight hours, in proportion to the animal's
health and strength, the new shell is perfectly
formed, and as hard as that which was but
just thrown aside.
To contribute to the speedy growth of the
shell, it is supposed by some, that the lobster
is supplied with a very extraordinary concre-
tion within its body, that is converted into the
shelly substance. It is a chalky substance,
found in the lower part of the stomach of all
lobsters, improperly called crabs' eyes, and
an instance where one crab has devoured another, leav-
ing nothing but the points of the legs, and a small por-
tion of the carapace ; — but in the analogous instance of
a prawn, that had just thrown off its exuviae, I have
detected the source of the firmness of the new covering,
in the presence of small shell-fish in its stomach. Under
a lens, a minute trochus, perhaps the T. zizyphinus, and
some specimens of an oval bivalve, were distinguishable.
This is perhaps the only period of their lives when their
food is of this kind, but its nature cannot often be ascer-
tained, by the comminution it undergoes from the man-
ner in which it is devoured, when the jaws have attained
their firmness. — From, two communications ly Mr Couch
in the Magazine of Zoology and Botany.
THE LOBSTER KIND.
331
sold under that title in the shops. About the
time the lobster quits its shell, the teeth in
its stomach break these stones to pieces, and
the fluids contained therein dissolve them.
This fluid, which still remains in the new
stomach, is thought to be replete with a petri-
fying quality, proper for forming a new shell:
however, the concreting power that first formed
these, shows a sufficient power in the animal
to produce also the shell ; and it is going but
a short way in the causes of things when we
attempt to explain one wonder by another.
When the lobster is completely equipped in
its new shell, it then appears how much it has
grown in the space of a few days ; the dimen-
sions of the old shell being compared with
those of the new, it will be found that the
creature is increased above a third in its size ;
and, like a boy that has outgrown his clothes,
it seems wonderful how the deserted shell was
able to contain so great an animal as entirely
fills up the new.
The creature thus furnished, not only with
a complete covering, but also a greater share
of strength and courage, ventures more boldly
among the animals of the bottom ; and not a
week passes, that, in its combats, it does not
suffer some mutilation. A joint,, or even a
whole claw, is sometimes snapped off in these
encounters. At certain seasons of the year
these animals never meet each other without
an engagement. In these, to come off with
the loss of a leg, or even a claw, is considered
as no great calamity ; the victor carries off the
spoil to feast upon at leisure, while the other
retires from the defeat to wait for a thorough
repair. This repair it is not long in procuring.
From the place where the joint of the claw
was cut away, is seen in a most surprising
manner to burgeon out the beginning of a new
claw. This, if observed at first, is small and
tender, but grows, in the space of thi ..e weeks,
to be almost as large and as powerful as the
old one. I say almost as large, for it never
arrives to the full size ; and this is the reason
we generally find the claws of lobsters of un-
equal magnitude.1
After what has been thus described, let us
pause a little, to reflect on the wonders this
extraordinary creature offers to our imagina-
tion ! An animal without bones on the inside,
yet furnished with a stomach capable of di-
gesting the hardest substances, the shells of
muscels, of oysters, and even its own ; an ani-
mal gaining a new stomach and a new shell
at stated intervals ! furnished with the instru-
ments of generation double in both sexes ; and
1 In the water, these animals are able to run nimbly
upon their legs or small claws ; and, if alarmed, they
can spring, tail foremost, to a surprising distance almost
as swiftly as a bird can fly.
yet with an apparent incapacity of uniting ;
without red blood circulating through the body,
and yet apparently vigorous and active ! but,
most strange of all, an animal endowed with
a vital principle that furnishes out such limbs
as have been cut away ; and keeps continually
combating it, though in constant repair to re-
new its engagements ! These are but a small
part of the wonders of the deep, where nature
sports without a spectator !
Of this extraordinary yet well-known ani-
mal there are many varieties, with some dif-
ferences in the claws, but little in the habits
or conformation.2 It is found above three
feet long; and if we may admit the shrimp
and the prawn into the class, though un-
furnished with claws, it is seen not above
an inch. These all live in the water, and can
bear its absence for but a few hours. The
shell is black when taken out of the water, but
turns red by boiling. The most common way
of taking the lobster is in a basket, or pot, as
the fishermen call it, made of wicker-work, in
which they put the bait, and then throw it to
the bottom of the sea, in six or ten fathom
water. The lobsters creep into this for the
sake of the bait, but are not able to get out
again. The river cray-fish8 differs little from
* The Norway Lobster. — It has generally eight legs,
besides two claspers, with six unequal feelers; two eyes,
commonly distant, placed on fast stakes, and movable;
the tail is articulated and unarmed. The body is long,
with the thorax aculeated forwards; and prismatic arms,
with the angles spiny. This species is nearly equal in
size to the common lobster, and is principally found' in
the northern ocean. It also inhabits Great Britain.
The Prawn.— Prawns have a long serrated snout,
bending upwards ; three pair of very long filiform feelers ;
claws small, furnished with two fangs ; smooth thorax ;
five joints to the tail ; middle caudal fin subulated, two
outmost flat and rounded. It is frequent in several shores
among loose stones; sometimes found at sea, and taken
on the surface over thirty fathoms depth of water: ciner-
eous when fresh, and of a fine red when boiled.
The Shrimp. — Shrimps possess long slender feelers,
and between them two protective laminae; the claws have
a single-hooked movable fang ; they have three pair of
legs; seven joints in the tail; the middle caudal, fin
subulated, the four others round and fringed ; a spine on
the exterior side of each of the outmost. These animals
inhabit the shores of Britain in vast quantities, and are
the most delicious of the genus.
The Squilla. — This has a snout like a prawn, but
deeper and thinner; the feelers longer in proportion to
the bulk; the sub-caudal fins rather larger. This ani-
mal is, at full growth, not above the bulk of the shrimp.
The squilla inhabits the coast of Kent, and is sold in
London under the name of the white shrimp, as it as-
sumes that colour when boiled.
8 Cray or Crawjish. — This species of lobster has a
projecting snout, slightly serrated on the sides ; a smooth
thorax ; the back smooth, with two small spines on each
side; the claws large, beset with small tubercles; the
two first pair of legs clawed, the two next subulated ;
the tail consists of five joints ; and the caudal fins are
rounded. The flesh of the craw-fish is cooling, moisten-
ing, and adapted to nourish such as labour under ron-
332
Hl&TORV OF FISHES.
the lobster, but that the one will live only in
fresh water, and the other will thrive only in
the sea.
The crab is an animal found equally in fresh
and salt water; as well upon land as in the
ocean. In shape it differs very much from
the lobster, but entirely resembles it in habits
and conformation. The tail in this animal is
not so apparent as in the former, being that
broad flap that seems to cover a part uf the
belly, and when lifted discovers the peas or
spawn, situated there in great abundance. It
resembles the lobster in the number of its
claws, which are two; and its legs, .which are
eight, four on either side. Like the lobster,
it is a bold voracious animal ; and such an en-
mity do crabs bear each other, that those who
carry them for sale to market, often tie their
claws with strings to prevent their fighting
and maiming themselves by the way. In
short, it resembles the lobster in every thing
but the amazing bulk of its body compared to
the size of its head, and the length of its in-
testines, which have many convolutions.
As the crab, however, is found upon land
as well as in water, the peculiarity of its situ-
ation produces a difference in its habitudes,
which it is proper to describe. The Land
sumptions. Though they are variously dressed, yet no
parts of them are eatable except their claws and tails.
Soups are frequently made of them.
There are great quantities of these fish in the river
Obra, on the borders of Silesia ; but the people find them
scarcely eatable, because of a bitter aromatic flavour,
very disagreeable in food. Craw-fish also abound in the
river Don, in Muscovy, where they are laid in heaps to
putrefy, after which the stones called crab's eyes are
picked out. These animals are very greedy of flesh,
and flock in great numbers about carcases thrown in the
water where they are, and never leave them while any
remains: they also feed on dead frogs when they come
in their way. In Switzerland there are some craw-fish
which are red when they are alive, and others bluish.
Some kinds of them also will never become red, even by
boiling, but continue blackish.
Craw-fish are found in many of our rivers lodged in
holes which they form in the clayey banks ; and their
presence is generally esteemed an evidence of the good-
ness of the water. They are frequently taken by means
of sticks, split at the end, with a bait inserted in the
cleft, and stuck in the mud at the distance of a few feet
from each other. These sticks, after remaining some
time, are taken up, generally with an animal adhering to
each. They are gently drawn out of the mud, and a
basket is put under them, to receive the animals which
always drop ofi when brought to the surface of the water.
Crab is found in some of the warmer regions
of Euro'pe, and in great abundance in all the
tropical climates in Africa and America.2
They are of various kinds, and endued with
* Who would expect an animal so low in the scale of
creation as a crab, to be furnished with ten or twelve
pair of jaws to its mouth? Yet such is the fact; and
ail these variously constructed pieces are provided with
appropriate muscles, and move in a manner which can
scarcely be explained, though it may be very readily
comprehended when once observed in living nature.
But after all the complexity of the jaws, where would
an inexperienced person look for their teeth ? surely
not in the stomach ? Nevertheless, such is their situa-
tion ; arid these are not mere appendages, that are called
teeth by courtesy, but stout regular grinding teeth, with
a light brown surface. They are not only within the
stomach, but fixed to a cartilage nearest to its lower ex-
tremity, so that the food, unlike that of other creatures,
is submitted to the action of the teeth as it is passing
from the stomach, instead of being chewed before it is
swallowed. In some species the teeth are five in num-
ber ; but throughout this class of animals the same ge-
neral principle of construction may be observed. Crabs
and their kindred have no brain, because they are not
required to reason upon what they observe; they have a
nervous system excellently suited to their mode of life,
and its knots or ganglia send out nerves to the organs oi
sense, digestion, motion, &c. The senses of these
beings are very acute, especially their sight, hearing,
and smell. Most of my readers have heard of crab's
eyes, or have seen these organs in the animal on the
end of two little projecting knobs, above and on each side
of the mouth ; few of them, however, have seen the crab's
ear; yet it is very easily found, and is a little triangular
bump placed near the base of the feelers. This bump
has a membrane stretched over it, and communicates
with a small cavity, which is the internal ear. The or-
gan of smell is not so easily demonstrated as that of hear-
ing, though the evidence of their possessing the sense to
an acute degree is readily attainable. <
The greater proportion of the genera feed on animal
matter, especially after decomposition has begun ; a large
number are exclusively confined to the deep waters, and
approach the shoals and lands only during the spawning
season. Many live in the sea, but daily pass many
hours upon the rocky shores for the pleasure of basking
in the sun ; others live in marshy or moist ground, at a
considerable distance from the water, and feed principal-
ly on vegetable food, especially the sugar cane, of which
they are extremely destructive. Others again reside
habitually on the hills or mountains, and visit the sea
only once a-year, for the purpose of depositing their eggs
in the sand. All those which reside in burrows made in
moist ground, and those coming daily on the rocks to
bask in the sun, participate in about an equal degree in
the qualities of vigilance and swiftness. Many a breath-
less race have I run in vain, attempting to intercept
them, and prevent their escaping into the sea. Many
an hour of cautious and solicitous endeavour to steal
upon them unobserved, has been frustrated by their long-
sighted watchfulness; and several times, when, by ex-
treme care and cunning approaches, I have actually suc-
ceeded in getting between a fine specimen and the sea,
and had full hope of driving them farther inland, have all
my anticipations %been ruined by the wonderful swiftness
of their flight, or the surprising facility with which they
would dart off in the very opposite direction, at the very
moment I felt almost sure of my prize.
The fleet-running crab (Cypoda pugilalor), mentioned
as living in burrows dug in a moist soil, and preying
chiefly on the sugar cane, is justly regarded as one of the
THE LOBSTER KIND.
333
various properties- some being healthful, de-
licious, and nourishing food ; others, poisonous
or malignant to the last degree ; some are not
above half an inch broad, others are found a
most noxious pests that can infest a plantation. Their
burrows extend to a great depth, and run in various di-
rections ; they are also, like those of our fiddlers, nearly
full of muddy water; so that, when these marauders
once plump into their dens, they must be considered as
entirely beyond pursuit. They are so numerous, and
they multiply in such numbers, as in some seasons to
destroy a large proportion of a sugar crop, and some,
times their ravages, combined with those of the rats and
other plunderers, are absolutely ruinous to the sea-side
planters. I was shown, by the superintendent of a place
thus infested, a great quantity of cane utterly killed by
these creatures, which cut it off in a peculiar manner,
.in order to suck the juice ; and he assured me that, dur-
ing that season, the crop would be two-thirds less than
its average, solely owing to the inroads of the crabs and
rats, which, if possible, are still more numerous. It was
to me an irresistible source of amusement to observe the
air of spite and vexation with which he spoke of the
crabs; the rats he could shoot, poison, or drive off for a
time with dogs. But the crabs would not eat his poi-
son while sugar cane was growing ; the dogs could only
chase them into their holes ; and if, in helpless irritation,
he sometimes fired his gun at a cluster of them, the shot
only rattled over their shells like hail against a window.
It is truly desirable that some summary mode of lessen-
ing their number could be devised, and it is probable that
this will be best effected by poison, as it may be possible
to obtain a bait sufficiently attractive to ensnare them.
Species of this genus are found in various parts of our
country, more especially towards the south. About Cape
May, our friends may have excellent opportunities of
testing the truth of what is said of their swiftness and
vigilance.
The land crab, which is common to many of the West
India islands, is more generally known as the Jamaica
crab, because it has been most frequently described from
observation in that island. Wherever found, they have
all the habit of living, during great part of the year, in
the highlands, where they pass the daytime concealed in
huts, cavities, and under stones, and come out at night
for their food. They are remarkable for collecting in
vast bodies, and marching annually to the sea-side, in
order to deposit their egg» in the sand ; and this accom-
plished, they return to their former abodes, if undisturbed.
They commence their march in the night, and move in
the most direct line towards the destined point. So ob-
stinately do they pursue this route, that they will not turn
out of it for any obstacle that can possibly be surmounted.
"During the daytime, they skulk and lie hid as closely as
possible, but thousands upon thousands of them are taken
for the use of the table by whites and blacks, as on their
seaward march they are very fat and of fine flavour. On
the homeward journey, those that have escaped capture
are weak, exhausted, and unfit for use. Before dismiss-
ing the crabs, I must mention one which was a source
of much annoyance to me at first, and of considerable in-
terest afterwards, from the observation of its habits. At
that time I resided in a house situated about two hun-
dred yards from the sea, fronting the setting sun, having
in clear weather the lofty mountains of Porto Rico in
view, distant about eighty miles. Like most of the
houses in the island, ours had seen better days, as was
evident from various breaks in the floors, angles rotted
off the doors, sunken sills, and other indications of de-
cay. Our sleeping room, which was on the lower floor,
was especially in this condition ; but as the weather was
delightfully warm, a few cracks and openings, though
foot over; some are of a dirty brown, and
others beautifully mottled. That animal called
the Violet Crab of the Caribbee islands, is
the most noted, both for its shape, the deli-
rather large, did not threaten much inconvenience. Our
bed was provided with that indispensable accompaniment,
a mosquito bar or curtain, to which we were indebted
for escape from various annoyances. Scarcely had we
extinguished the light, and composed ourselves to rest,
than we heard, in various parts of the room, the most
startling noises. It appeared as if numerous hard and
heavy bodies were trailed along the floor; they then
sounded as if climbing up the chairs and other furniture,
and frequently something like a large stone would tum-
ble down from such elevations with a loud noise, followed
by a peculiar chirping noise. What an effect this pro-
duced upon entirely inexperienced strangers, may well
be imagined by those who have been suddenly waked up
in the dark, by some unaccountable noise in the room.
Finally, these invaders began to ascend the bed ; but
happily the musquito bar was securely tucked under the
bed all around, and they were denied access, though their
efforts and tumbles to the floor produced no very com-
fortable reflections. Towards daylight they began to re-
tire, and in the morning no trace of any such visitants
could be perceived. On mentioning our troubles, we
were told that this nocturnal disturber was only Bernard
the Hermit, called generally the soldier crab, perhaps
from the peculiar habit he has of protecting his body by
thrusting it into an empty shell, which he afterwards
carries about, until he outgrows it, when it is relin-
quished for a larger. Not choosing to pass another night
quite so noisily, due care was taken to exclude Mon-
sieur Bernard, whose knockings were thenceforward
confined to the outside of the house. I baited a large
wire rat-trap with some corn meal, and placed it out-
side of the back door, and in the morning found it
literally half filled with these crabs, from the largest
sized shell that could enter the trap, down to such as
were not larger than a hickory nut. Here was a fine
collection made at once, affording a very considerable
variety in the size and age of the specimens, and the
different shells into which they had introduced them-
selves.
The soldier, or hermit crab, when withdrawn from
his adopted shell, presents about the head and claws a
considerable family resemblance to the lobster. The
claws, however, are very short and broad, and the body
covered with hard shell only in that part which is liable
to be exposed or protruded. The posterior or abdominal
part of the body is covered only by a tough skin, and
tapers towards a small extremity, furnished with a sort
of hook-like apparatus, enabling it to hold on to its facti-
tious dwelling. Along the surface of its abdomen, as
well as on the back, there are small projections, appar-
ently intended for the same purpose. When once fairly
in possession of a shell, it would be quite a difficult matter
to pull the crab out, though a very little heat applied to
the shell will quickly induce him to leave it. The shells
they select are taken solely with reference to their suit-
ableness, and hence you may catch a Considerable num-
ber of the same species, each of which is in a different
species or genus of shell. The shells commonly used by
them, when of larger size, are those of the whilk, which
are much used as an article of food by the islanders, or
the smaller conch (strombus) shells. .The very young
hermit crabs are found in almost every variety of small
shell found on the shores of the Antilles. I have fre-
quently been amused by ladies eagerly engaged in making
collections of these beautiful little shells, and not dream-
ing of their being tenanted by a living animal, suddenly
startled, on displaying their acquisitions, by observing
33*
HISTORY OF FISHES.
cacy of its flesh, and the singularity of its
manners.
The Violet Crab somewhat resembles two
hands cut through the middle and joined
together ; for each side looks like four fingers,
and the two nippers or claws resemble the
thumbs. All the rest .of the body is covered
with a shell as large as a man's hand, and
bunched in the middle, on the fore part of
which there are two long eyes of the size of a
grain of barley, as transparent as crystal, and
as hard as horn. A little below these is the
mouth, covered with a sort of barbs, under
which there are two broad sharp teeth as white
as snow. They are not placed, as in other
animals, crossways, but in the opposite direc-
tion, not much unlike the blades of a pair of
scissars. With these teeth they can easily
cut leaves, fruits, and rotten wood, which is
their usual food. But their principal instru-
ment for cutting and seizing their food is their
nippers, which catch such a hold, that the
animal loses the limb sooner than its grasp,
and is often seen scampering off, having left
its claw still holding fast upon the enemy.
The faithful claw seems to perform its duty,
and keeps for "above a minute fastened upon
the finger while the crab is making off. In
fact, it loses no great matter by leaving a leg
or an arm, for they soon grow again, and the
animal is found as perfect as before.1
them to be actively endeavouring to escape ; or on in-
troducing the hand into the reticule to produce a par-
ticular fine specimen, to receive a smart pinch from the
claws of the little hermit. The aquatic soldiers may be
seen towing along shells of most disproportionate size ;
but their relatives, who travel over the hills by moon-
light, know that all unnecessary encumbrance of weight
should be avoided. They are as pugnacious and spiteful
as any of the crustaceous class ; and when taken, or when
they fall and jar themselves considerably, utter a chirp-
ing noise, which is evidently an angry expression. They
are ever ready to bite with their claws, and the pinch of
the larger individuals is quite painful. It is said that
when they are changing their shells for the sake of ob-
taining more commodious coverings, they frequently
fight for possession, which may be true where two that
have forsaken their old shells meet, or happen to make
choice of the same vacant one. — Rambles of a Naturalist,
by John D. Godman, M. D. United States.
1 The skeleton of the crab is external. Each side is
provided with four legs and a hand. The latter is di-
vided at the extremity into two parts, resembling the
notched jaws of a pair of pincers. One of these parts is
movable and the other is not. The feet are furnished
with bristles. The senses of the crab are not deficient
in acuteness. The sense of smell is not wanting, though
it is not yet known where that organ is seated. The
powers of vision are lively, and are the result of a com-
plex structure, while the organ of hearing, placed near
the base of the antennae, is doubtless in every respect
adapted to its necessities. It is generally difficult to
surprise land-crabs ; their acuteness of sight or hearing,
or perhaps both, being soon alarmed. The antennfe are
the organs of touch. The crab has no tongue, but pos-
sesses the organ of taste. It is a voracious feeder, and
not very delicate in its choice. The mouth is furnished
This, however, is the least surprising part
of this creature's history ; and what I am going
to relate, were it not as well known and as
confidently confirmed as any other circumstance
in natural history, it might well stagger our
belief. These animals live not only in a kind
of orderly society in their retreats in the moun-
tains, but regularly once a year march down to
the sea-side in a body of some millions at a
time. As they multiply in great numbers, they
choose the months of April or May to begin
their expedition; and then sally out by thou-
sands from the stumps of hollow trees, from
the clefts of the rocks, and from the holes
which they dig for themselves under the sur-
face of the earth. At that time the whole
ground is covered with this band of adventur-
ers ; there is no setting down one's foot with-
out treading upon them.8 The sea is their
place of destination, and to that they direct
their march with right-lined precision. No
geometrician could send them to their destined
station by a shorter course ; they neither turn
to the right or left, whatever obstacles inter-
vene ; and even if they meet with a house, they
will attempt to scale the walls to keep the un-
broken tenor of their way. But though this
be the general order of their rout, they upon
other occasions are compelled to conform to the
face of the country ; and if it be intersected
by rivers, they are then seen to wind along
the course of the stream. The procession sels
forward from the mountains with the regular-
ity of an army, under the guidance of an ex-
perienced commander. They are commonly
divided into three battalions ; of which the
first consists of the strongest and boldest males,
that, like pioneers, march forward to clear the
route, and face the greatest dangers. These
are often obliged to halt for want of rain, and
go into the most convenient encampment till
the weather changes. The main body of the
army is composed of females, which never
leave the mountains till the rain is set in for
some time, and then descend in regular battalia,
being formed into columns of fifty paces broad
and three miles deep, and so close that they
almost cover the ground. Three or four days
after this the rear-guard follows ; a straggling
undisciplined tribe consisting of males and fe-
males, but neither so robust nor so numerous
as the former. The night is their chief time
of proceeding ; but if it rains by day, they do
not fail to profit by the occasion ; arid they
with eight pieces or pairs of jaws ; and grinding teeth
are attached to a cartilaginous appendage in the stomach,
where the process of mastication is completed. Hence
the crab is said to be a ruminating animal. The liver
is very large, and is considered by epicures as a delicious
morsel. The blood is either colourless or has a slight
blue tinge.
1 Labat. Voyage anx Isle Francoises, vol. ii. p. 221.
THE CRAB.
335
continue to move forward in their slow uniform
manner. When the sun shines and is hot
upon the surface of the ground, they then
make a universal halt, and wait till the cool
of the evening. When they are terrified, they
march back in a confused disorderly manner,
holding up their nippers, with which they
sometimes tear off a piece of the skin, and then
leave the weapon where they inflicted the
wound. They even try to. intimidate their
enemies ; for they often clatter their nippers
together, as if it were to threaten those that
come to disturb them. But though they must
strive to be formidable to man, they are much
more so to each other ; for they are possessed
of one most unsocial property, which is, that
if any of them by accident is maimed in such
a manner as to be incapable of proceeding, the
rest fall upon and devour it on the spot, and
then pursue their journey.
When after a fatiguing march, and escap-
ing a thousand dangers, (for they are some-
times three months in getting to the shore,)
they have arrived at their destined port, they
prepare to cast their spawn. The peas are as
yet within their bodies, and not excluded, as
is usual in animals of this kind, under the tail ;
for the creature waits for the benefit of the
sea-water to help the delivery. For this pur.
pose, Ihe crab has no sooner reached the shore,
than it eagerly goes to the edge of the water,
and lets the waves wash over its body two or
three times. This seems only a preparation
for bringing their spawn to maturity ; for
without further delay they withdraw to seek
a lodging upon land ; in the meantime the
spawn grows larger, is exuded out of the
body, and sticks to the barbs under the flap
or more properly the tail. This bunch is seen
as big as a hen's egg, and exactly resembling
the roes of herrings. In this state of preg-
nancy, they once more seek the shore for the
last time, and shaking off their spawn into the
water, leave accident to bring it to maturity.
At this time whole shoals of hungry fish are
at the shore, in expectation of this annual sup-
ply ; the sea to a great distance seems black
with them ; and about two-thirds of the crabs'
eggs are immediately devoured by those rapa-
cious invaders. The eggs that escape are
hatched under the sand ; and soon after mil-
lions at a time of these little crabs are seen
quitting the shore, and slowly travelling up to
the mountains.
The old ones, however, are not so active to
return ; they have become so feeble and lean,
that they can hardly creep along, and the flesh
at that time changes its colour. The most of
them, therefore, are obliged to continue in the
flat parts of the country till they recover,
making holes in the earth, which they cover
at the mouth with leaves and dirt, so that no
air may enter. There they throw off their
old shells, which they leave as it were quite
whole, the place where they opened on the
belly being unseen. At that time they are
quite naked, and almost wifhout motion for
six days together, when they become so fat as
to be delicious food. They have then under
their stomachs four large white stones, which
gradually decrease in proportion as the shell
hardens, and when they come to perfection are
not to be found. It is at that time that the
animal is seen slowly making its way back ;
and all this is most commonly performed in
the space of six weeks.
This animal, when possessed of its retreats
in the mountains, is impregnable ; for only
subsisting upon vegetables, it seldom ventures
out ; and its habitation being in the most in-
accessible places, it remains for a great part of
the season in perfect security. It is only
when impelled by the desire of bringing forth
its young, and when compelled to descend into
the flat country, that it is taken". At that time
the natives wait for its descent in eager expec-
tation, and destroy thousands : but disregard-
ing the bodies, they only seek for that small
spawn which lies on each side of the stomach
within the shell ; of about the thickness of a
man's thumb. They are much more valuable
upon their return, after they have cast their
shell ; for being covered with a skin resem-
bling soft parchment, almost every part ex-
cept their stomach may be eaten. They are
taken in their holes by feeling for them in the
ground with an instrument: they are sought
after by night, when on their journey, with
flambeaux. The instant the animal perceives
itself attacked, it throws itself on its back, and
with its claws pinches most terribly whatever
it happens to fasten on. But the dexterous
crab-catcher takes them by the hinder legs in
such a manner, that its nippers cannot touch
him, and thus he throws it into his bag.
Sometimes also they are caught when they
take refuge at the bottom of holes, in rocks by
the sea-side, by clapping a stick at the rnouth
of the hole, which prevents their getting out ;
and then soon after the tide coming, enters the
hole, and the animal is found, upon its retir-
ing, drowned in its retreat. *
1 There are various modes of taking crabs — some ex-
tremely simple, and others on a larger and more complex
scale for commercial purposes. In the West Indies the
monkeys adopt an ingenious expedient for catching crabs.
They insert their tails in the. holes where the crabs take
refuge, and the crab fastening upon it, the monkey with-
draws his tail with a jerk, and then conveys his prey on
shore. By what expedient the crab is induced to release
its hold we are not informed, but this must be no easy
matter, as it grasps whatever it seizes in its claws with
remarkable tenacity. Several species of birds, which oc-
casionally live on shell-fish, obtain the meat out of the
shell by dropping the shell from a considerable height ;
336
HISTORY OF FISHES.
These crabs are of considerable advantage
to the natives ; and the slaves very often feed
entirely upon them. In Jamaica, where they
are found in great plenty, they are considered
as one of the greatest delicacies of the place.
Yet still, the eating of them is attended with
some danger ; for even of this kind many are
found poisonous, being fed, as it is thought,
upon the manchineel apple'; and whenever
they are found under that noxious plant, they
are always rejected with caution. It is thus
and the monkeys are probably not less ingenious in their
devices. Brickell gives an interesting account, in his
History of North Carolina of the wonderful cunning ma-
nifested by the racoon in that country. It is fond of
crabs, and, when in quest of them, will take its station
by a swamp, and hang its tail over into the water, which
the ciabs mistake for food, and lay hold of it; as soon as
the racoon feels them pinch, he pulls up his tail with a
sudden jerk, and they generally quit their hold upon being
removed from the water. The racoon instantly seizes
the crabs in his mouth, removes them to a distance from
the water, and greedily devours his prey. He is very
careful how he takes them up, which he always does from
behind, holding them transversely, in order to prevent
them catching his mouth with their nippers. The chil-
dren of fishermen are often employed iu crab-catching,
as crabs are found on a rocky beach at low water, hidden
in crevices and under stones. A stick, with a hook at
the end of it, is inserted in their retreat, and the crab,
instantly grasping it, is drawn out. But only a small
number, and those not of the finest sort, are taken in this
manner, as the largest and strongest crabs betake them-
selves to the sea on the ebbing of the tide. On a shore
which is rugged, and abounding in cavities which afford
it a hiding pjace, the crab is also taken on a small scale
by another method. At the spot where they are most
numerous, the fisherman places a bait at the end of a
small cord, at the other end of which a stone is tied.
When the tide flows the crab seizes the bait, which it
drags to some hole, and the stone, which it draws after
it, closes the entrance. As a stone may be dragged in
the water, which cannot be moved by the same power
exerted in a less advantageous manner, the animal finds
itself a prisoner. The stone must be large enough to
close the entrance of the cavity in which the crab con-
ceals itself, and not too heavy to obstruct its movements.
But none of these methods are sufficient to provide for
an extensive demand.
Crab-fishing, as generally pursued along the British
coasts, is conducted by two men who go out in one boat.
In addition to their boat they require creels, cruives, or
crab-pots, and lines. These creels (in the south of Eng-
land generally termed crab-pots) are made of dry osier,
and resemble basket-work. They are constructed on the
same principle as a wire mouse-trap, but the aperture in-
stead of being on the side is at the top. Within the
creel the bait, consisting of pieces of thorn-back or skate,
is fastened at the bottom, and the creel is then dropped
in some favourable situation, three stones of sufficient
weight being fastened in the inside to sink it. The
creels are sometimes sunk to the depth of twenty fathoms,
the fishermen being guided in this respect by the state
of the weather or the nature of the ground. In fine
weather they are dropped in from three to five fathoms
deep; but the crabs are chiefly to be found where the
bottom is rocky. A line is fastened to the creel, and at
the upper end of the line a cork is attached which floats
on the surface. By this means the place where the creel
is sunk is known to the fishermen, who usually set from
forty to fifty creels at one time. The bait is suspended
with almost all the productions of those luxur-
ious climates ; however tempting they may be
to the appetite, they but too often are found
destructive ;and scarce a delicacy among them
that does not carry its own alloy.
The. descent of these creatures for such im-
portant purposes, deserves our admiration ; but
there is an animal of the lobster kind that
annually descends from its mountains in like
manner, and for purposes still more important
and various. Its descent is not only to produce
about the middle of the creel, and can easily be seen by
the crabs, which, entering at the aperture, find, like a
mouse in a wire-trap, that escape is impossible. The
difficulty of egress is increased by the entrance being over-
head. Lobsters, prawns, and shrimps are frequently found
captured in the same creel with crabs. When the fish-
ermen have sunk the whole of their creels, they have
still some time left to proceed farther out to sea for other
fish before it is necessary to visit them. Crab-fishing is
therefore a valuable addition to their means of livelihood,
for it does not preclude the pursuit of other fish at the
same season. The demand for this species of shell-fish
is usually good, and in the nearest large town on many
parts of the coast it is often fully equal to the 'supply.
Thither the fisherman's wife or some of his family may
convey the quantity taken ; and, if the market be already
abundantly provided, they can by means of the well-boxes,
although already caught, be kept' back for a time un-
til prices rise again. These are all advantages peculiar
to this fishery. When a few hours have elapsed, the
fishermen visit their creels, one of them row-ing and
the other keeping a look-out for the floats, and taking
out of the creels whatever has been captured. There
may perhaps be a dozen different owners of boats thus
engaged, and it is therefore necessary to have recourse
to some means by which they may each secure the fruits
of their individual industry without the risk of dispute.
This is accomplished by distinguishing their respective
floats by some peculiar mark — by a notch in the side —
a mark in the shape of a diamond cut on the top — an
angle cut off, &c. £c. The necessity of mutual protec-
tion points out to them the value of combination and
union, and the marks adopted by the fishermen to dis-
tinguish their floats are consequently the result of some
common understanding amongst them ; or otherwise, of
an instinctive regard to the means by which not only one
but all are enabled to pursue their calling in confidence
and security.
Crabs are brought to market both in a boiled and in
a raw state. If the market be distant they are placed in
a well-box, which is attached to the outside of the fish-
ing-vessel, and in this manner they are brought to Bil-
lingsgate from parts so distant as Norway. The crab
is so tenacious of life that it does not lose its vital powers
until two or three days after leaving its native element.
May, June, and July are the months in which it is
generally out of season : but even in these months many
may be obtained which are in a perfectly good state for
the table. The male is of greater value than the female,
and has larger claws. The sexes are distinguished as
the cock and the hen. Before boiling, a good crab is
knowu by the roughness of its shell, particularly on the
claws. When boiled, the mode of ascertaining its good-
ness is by holding the claws tight, and shaking the body,
which will rattle, or seem as if water were in the inside,
if it be not in perfection. The time they are usually
boiled is from a quarter of an hour to a couple of hours
in sea-water, or in water in which salt has been infused.
Sometimes they are put into cold water, which is after-
wards heated to the boiling point.
THE TORTOISE.
.337
an offspring, but to provide itself a covering; not
only to secure a family, but to furnish a house.
The animal I mean is the Soldier Crab, which
has some similitude to the lobster, if divested of
its shell. It is usually about four inches long,
has no shell behind, but is covered down to
the tail with a rough skin, terminating in a
point. It is, however, armed with strong
hard nippers before, like the lobster ; and one
of them is as thick as a man's thumb, and
pinches most powerfully. It is, as I said,
without a shell to any part except its nippers;
but what nature has denied this animal, it
takes care to supply by art ; and taking pos-
session of the deserted shell of some Other ani-
mal, it resides in it, till, by growing too large
for its habitation, it is under a necessity of
change. It is a native of the West India
islands ; and, like the former, it is seen every
year descending from the mountains to the
left-shore, to deposit its spawn, and to provide
itself with a new shell. This is a most bust-
ling time with it, having so many things to
do ; and in fact, very busy it appears. It is
very probable that its first care is to provide
for its offspring, before it attends to its own
wants; and it is thought, from the number of
little shells which it is seen examining, that
it deposits its spawn in them, which thus is
placed in perfect security till the time of ex-
clusion.
However this be, the soldier is in the end
by no means unmindful of itself. It is still
seen in its old shell, which it appears to have
considerably outgrown ; for a part of the naked
body is seen at the mouth of it, which the
habitation is too small to hide. A shell, there-
fore, is to be found large enough to cover the
whole body ; and yet not so large as to be un-
manageable and unwieldy. To answer both
these ends it is no easy matter, nor the attain-
ment of a slight inquiry. The little soldier
is seen busily parading the shore along that
line of pebbles and shells that is formed by
the extremest wave ; still, however, dragging
its old incommodious habitation at its tail, un-
willing to part with one shell, even though a
troublesome appendage, till it can find another
more convenient. It is seen stopping at one
shell, turning it, and passing it by, going on
to another, contemplating that for a while, and
then slipping its tail from its old habitation,
to try on the new. This also is found to be
inconvenient ; and it quickly returns to its old
shell again. In this manner it frequently
changes, till at last it finds one light, roomy,
and commodious ; to this it adheres, though
the shell be sometimes so large as to hide the
body of the animal, claws and all.1 Yet it is
not only till after many trials, but many combats
1 Pere du Festre.
also, that the soldier is thus completely equip-
ped ; for there is often a contest between two
of them for some well-looking favourite shell
for which they are rivals. They both endea-
vour to take possession ; they strike with their
claws, they bite each other, till the weakest
is obliged to yield, by giving up the object of
dispute. It is then that the victor immediately
takes possession, and parades it in his new
conquest three or four times backwards and
forwards upon the strand before his envious
antagonist.
When this animal is taken, it sends forth
a feeble cry endeavouring to seize the enemy
with its nippers ; which if it fastens upon, it
will sooner die than quit the grasp. The
wound is very painful, and not easily cured.
For this reason, and as it is not much esteemed
for its flesh, it is generally permitted to return
to its old retreat to the mountains in safety.
There it continues till the necessity of chang-
ing once more, and the desire of producing
an offspring expose it to fresh dangers the
year ensuing.
VOL. II.
CHAP. III.
OF THE TORTOISE AND ITS KINDS.
HAVING described the lobster and the crab
as animals in some measure approaching to
the insect tribes, it will appear like injustice
to place the Tortoise among the number, that
from its strength, its docility, and the warm
red blood that is circulating in its veins, de-
serves to be ranked even above the fishes.
But as this animal is covered, like the lobster,
with a shell ; as it is of an amphibious nature,
and brings forth its young from the egg with-
out hatching; we must be content to degrade
it among animals that in every respect it in-
finitely surpasses.
Tortoises are usually divided into those that
live upon land, and those that subsist in the
water ; and use has made a distinction even in
the name ; the one being called Tortoises, the
other Turtles. However, Seba has proved
that all tortoises are amphibious ; that the land
tortoise will live in the water, and that the
sea turtle can be fed upon land. A land tor-
toise was brought to him that was caught in
one of the canals of Amsterdam, which he kept
lor half a year in his house, where it lived
very well contented in both elements. When
in the water, it remained with its head above
the surface ; when placed in the sun, it seemed
delighted with its beams, and continued im-
movable while it felt their warmth. The
difference, therefore, in these animals, arises
2u
338
HISTORY OF FISHES.
rather from their habits than their conforma-
tion; and, upon examination, there will be
less variety found between them than between
birds that live upon land, and those that swim
upon the water.
Yet, though nature seems to have made
but few distinctions among these animals, as
to their conformation, yet, in their habits, they
are very dissimilar ; as these result from dif-
ferent qualities of their food, and the different
sorts of enemies they have to avoid or encoun-
ter. I will therefore exhibit their figure and
conformation under one common description,
by which their slight differences will be more
obvious ; and then I will give a separate his-
tory of the manners of each, as naturalists and
travellers have taught us.
All tortoises, in their external form, pretty
much resemble each other ; their outward
covering being composed of two great shells,
the one laid upon the other, and only touch-
ing at. the edges: however, when we come to
look closer we shall find that the upper shell
is composed of no less than thirteen pieces,
which are laid flat upon the ribs, like the tiles
of a house, by which the shell is kept arched
and supported. The shells both above and
below that, which seem, to an inattentive ob-
server, to make each but one piece, are bound
together at the edges by very strong and hard
ligaments, yet with some small share of mo-
tion. There are two holes at either edge of
this vaulted body ; one for a very small head,
shoulders, and arms, to peep through ; the other
at the opposite edge, for the feet and the tail.
These shells the animal is never disengaged
from ; and they serve for its defence against
every creature but man.1
The tortoise has but a small head, with no
teeth ; having only two bony ridges in the
place, serrated and hard. These serve to
gather and grind its food; ana such is the
amazing strength of the jaws, that it is im-
possible to open them where they once have
fastened. Even when the head is cutoff, the
jaws still keep their hold ; and the muscles in
death, preserve a tenacious rigidity. Indeed,
the animal is possessed of equal strength in
1 There are various species of land tortoise, such as
the Indian tortoise — the Radiated tortoise — the Tabular
tortoise — the Geometrical tortoise — the Starred tortoise
— the Leopard tortoise — the Kinyxis tortoise, &c. and
the Emys tortoise, which latter term is employed to
designate the species that live habitually iu fresh water.
all other parts of its body : the legs, though
short, are inconceivably strong ; and torpid as
the tortoise may appear, it has been known
to carry five men standing upon its back, with
apparent ease and Unconcern. Its manner of
ajoing forward is by moving its legs one after
the other ; and the claws with which the toes
are furnished, sink into the ground like the
nails of an iron-shod wheel, and thus assist
its progression.
With respect to its internal parts, not to
enter into minute anatomical disquisitions, it
may not be improper to observe, that the
blood circulates in this animal as in some
cartilaginous fishes, and something in the
manner of a child in the womb. The great-
est quantity of the blood passes directly from
the vena cava into the left ventricle of the
heart, which communicates with the right
ventricle by an opening ; while the auricles
only receive what the ventricles seem incap-
able of admitting. Thus the blood is driven
by a very short passage through the circula-
tion ; and the lungs seem to lend only
occasional assistance. From this conforma-
tion, the animal can subsist for some time,
without using the lungs, or breathing; at
least the lungs are not so necessary an instru-
ment for driving on the circulation as with us.
Such is the general structure of this animal,
whether found to live by land or water.
With regard to the differences of these ani-
mals, the land-tortoise, from its habits of
making use of its feet in walking, is much
more nimble upon land than the sea-turtle :
the land-tortoise, if thrown upon its back, by
rocking and balancing its body, like a child
rocking in a cradle, at last turns itself upon
its face again ; but the turtle, when once
turned, continues without being able to move
from the spot. In comparing the feet also of
these animals, the nails upon the toes of one
that has long been used to scratch for subsis-
tence upon land, are blunt and worn ; while
those that have only been employed in swim-
ming, are sharp and long, and have more the
similitude of fins. The brain of the land-
tortoise is but small ; and yet it is three times
as large as that of the turtle. — There is a differ-
ence also in the shape of their eggs, and in the
passage by which they are excluded ; for, in
the land-tortoise, the passage is so narrow,
that the egg conforms to the shape of the
aperture, and though round when in the body,
yet becomes much more oblong than those of
fowls upon being excluded ; otherwise they
would never be able to pass through the bony
canal by which they are protruded ; on the
contrary, the passage is wider in the turtle,
and therefore its eggs are round. These are
the most striking distinctions ; but that which
is most known is their size ; the land-tortoise
THE TORTOISE.
339
often not exceeding three feet long, by two
feet broad ; the sea-turtle being sometimes
from five to seven feet long. The size, how-
ever, is but a fallacious distinction: since
land-tortoises, in some parts of India, grow
to a very great magnitude ; though probably
not, as the ancients affirm, big enough for a
single shell to serve for the covering of a
house.
But if the different kinds of tortoise's are
not sufficiently distinguished by their figure,
they are very obviously distinguishable by
their methods of living. The land-tortoise
lives in holes dug in the mountains, or near
marshy lakes ; the sea-turtle in cavities of
rocks, and extensive pastures at the bottom of
the sea. The tortoise makes use of its feet to
walk with, and burrow in the ground ; the
turtle chiefly uses its feet in swimming or
creeping at the bottom.
The land-tortoise is generally found, as was
observed above, from one foot to five feet long,
from the end of the snout to the end of the
tail ; and from five inches to a foot and a half
across the back. It has a small head, some-
what resembling that of a serpent ; an eye
without the upper lid ; the under eye-lid serv-
ing to cover and keep that organ in safety.
It has a strong scaly tail, like the lizard. Its
bead the animal can put out and hide at plea-
sure, under the great penthouse of its shell ;
there it can remain secure from all attacks;
there, defended on every side, it can fatigue
the patience of the most formidable animal of
the forest, that makes use only of natural
strength to destroy it. As the tortoise lives
wholly upon vegetable food, it never seeks
the encounter ; yet, if any of the smaller ani-
mals attempt to invade its repose, they are
sure to suffer. The tortoise, impregnably
defended, is furnished with such a strength of
jaw, that, though armed only with bony
plates instead of teeth, wherever it fastens it
infallibly keeps its hold, until it has taken out
the piece.
Though peaceable in itself, it is formed for
war in another respect, for it seems almost
endued with immortality. Nothing can kill
it ; the depriving it of one of its members, is
but a slight injury : it will live, though
deprived of the brain ; it will live, though
of its head. Redi informs us, that in making
some experiments upon vital motion, he, in
the beginning of the month of November, took
a land-tortoise, made a large opening in its
skull, and drew out all the brain, washed the
cavity, so as not to leave the smallest part
remaining, and then leaving the hole open,
set tho animal at liberty. Notwithstanding
this, the tortoise marched away without seem-
ing to have received the smallest injury; only
it shut the eyes, and never opened them after-
wards. Soon after the hole in the skull was
seen to close ; and in three days, there was a
complete skin covering the wound. In this
manner the animal lived without a brain, for
six months ; walking abouL unconcernedly,
and moving its limbs as before. Bu,t the
Italian philosopher, not satisfied with this ex-
periment, carried it still farther; for he cut
off the head, and the animal lived twenty-three
days after its separation from the body. The
head also continued to rattle the jaws, like a
pair of castanets, for above a quarter of an
hour.
Nor are these animals less long-lived than
difficult in destroying. Tortoises are com-
monly known to exceed eighty years old ; and
there was one kept in the Archbishop of
Canterbury's garden, at Lambeth, that was
remembered above a hundred and twenty. It
was at last killed -by the severity of a frost,
from which it had not sufficiently defended
itself in its winter retreat, which was a heap
of sand, at the bottom of the garden.1
i " From a document belonging to the archives of the
cathedral, called the Bishop's Barn, it is well ascer-
tained that the tortoise at Peterborough must have been
about 220 years old. Bishop Marsh's predecessor in the
see of Peterborough had remembered it above sixty years,
and could recognize no visible change. Ffe was the
seventh bishop who had worn the mitre during its sojourn
there. If I mistake not, its sustenance and abode were
provided for in this document. Its shell was perforated,
in order to attach it to a tree, &c., to limit its ravages
among the strawberry borders. The animal had its
antipathies and predilections. It would eat endive,
green peas, and even the leek ; while it positively re-
jected asparagus, parsley, and spinage. In the early
part of the season, its favourite pabulum were the flowers
of the dandelion, of which it would devour twenty at a
meal ; and lettuce, of the latter a good sized one at a
time ; but if placed between lettuce and the flowers of
the dandelion, it would forsake the former for the latter.
It was also partial to the pulp of an orange, which it sucked
greedily. About the latter end of June, (discerning the
times and the seasons,) it looked out for fruit, when its
former choice was forsaken. It ate currants, raspberries,
pears, apples, peaches, nectarines, &c., the riper, the
better, but would not taste cherries. Of fruits, however,
the strawberry and gooseberry were the most esteemed :
it made great havoc among the strawberry borders, and
would take a pint of gooseberries at intervals. The
gardener told me it knew him well, the hand that gener-
ally fed it, and would watch him attentively at the goose-
berry bush, where it was sure to take its station while
he plucked the fruit. I could not get it to take the root
of the dandelion, nor indeed any root I offered it, as that
of the carrot, turnip, &c, All animal food was discarded,
nor would it take any liquid; at least neither milk nor
water ; and when a leaf was moist, it would shake it to
expel the adhering wet. This animal moved with ap-
parent ease, though pressed hy a weight of eighteen
stones ; itself weighed 13£ Ibs. In cloudy weather it
would scoop out a cavity, generally in a southern expo-
sure, where it reposed, torpid and inactive, until the
genial influence of the sun roused it from its slumber.
When in this state the eyes were closed, and the head
and neck a little contracted, though not drawn within
the shell. Its sense of smelling was so acute, that it
was roused from its lethargy if any person approached,
340
HISTORY OF FISHES.
The usual food of the land tortoise seems
not so nourishing as to supply this extraordin-
ary principle of vitality. It lives upon vege-
tables in its retreats in the mountains or the
plain ; and seldom makes its prey of snails or
Worms . but when other food is not found in
grateful plenty. It is fond also of fruits ; and
when the forest affords them, is generally
found not far from where they grow. As it
can move but slowly, it is not very delicate in
the choice of its food ; so that it usually fills
itself with whatever offers. Those that are
kept in a domestic state will eat any thing ;
leaves, fruits, corn, bran, or grass.
From the smallness of its brain, and the
slowness of its motion, it obviously appears to
be a torpid heavy animal, requiring rest and
sleep ; and, in fact, it retires to some cavern
to sleep for the winter. I already observed
that its blood circulated through the heart by
a short passage ; and that it did not, as anato-
mists express it, go through the great circulation.
With us, and quadrupeds, the blood goes from
the veins to the heart ; and from the heart it is
sent to be spread over the lungs ; from the
lungs it returns to the heart again ; and from
thence it goes to the arteries to be distributed
through the whole body. But its passage in
the tortoise is much shorter; for, from the
veins it goes to the heart ; then leaving the
lungs entirely out of its course, it takes a short
cut, if I may so say, into the beginning of the
arteries, which send it round the animal frame.
From hence we see the lungs are left out of
the circulation ; and, consequently, the animal
is capable of continuing to live without conti-
nuing to breathe. In this it resembles the bat,
the serpent, the mole, and the lizard ; like
them it takes up its dark residence for the
winter ; and, at that time, when its food is no
longer in plenty, it happily becomes insensible
to the want. Nor is it unmindful to prepare
its retreat, and make it as convenient as pos-
sible ; it is sometimes buried two or three feet
in the ground, with its hole furnished with
moss, grass, and other substances, as well to
even at a distance of twelve feet. About the beginning
of October, or latter end of September, it began to im-
mure itself, and had for that purpose for many years
selected a particular angle of the garden ; it entered in
an inclined plane, excavating the earth in the manner of
the mole; the depth to which it penetrated varied with
the character of the approaching season, being from one
to two feet, according as the winter was mild or severe.
It may be added, that for nearly a month prior to this
entry into its dormitory, it refused all sustenance what-
ever. The animal emerged about the end of April, and
remained for at least a fortnight before it ventured on
taking any species of food. Its skin was not perceptibly
cold : its respiration, entirely effected through the nos-
trils, was languid. I visited the animal, for the last
time, on the 9th June, 1813, during a thunder storm :
it then lay under the shelter of a cauliflower, and ap-
parently torpid." — Murray's Experimental Researches.
keep the retreat warm, as to serve for food, in
case it should prematurely awake from its
state of stupefaction. But it must not be
supposed, that, while it is thus at rest, it to-
tally discontinues to breathe ; on the contrary,
an animal of this kind, if put into a close ves-
sel, without air, will soon be stifled ; though
not so readily as in a state of vigour and acti-
vity.
From this dormant state the tortoise is
awakened by the genial return of spring : and is
thought not to be much wasted by its long con-
finement. To animals that live a hundred and
fifty years, a sleep of six months is but as the
nap of a night. All the actions of these long-
lived creatures seem formed upon a scale an-
swering the length of their existence ; their
slumbers are for a season ; their motions are
slow, and require time in every action ; even
the act of procreation, which among other ani-
mals is performed in a very few minutes, is
with them the business of days. About a
month after their enlargement from a torpid
state, they prepare to transmit their posterity;
and both continue joined for near a month to-
gether. The eggs of the female are contained
in the ovary, above the bladder, which is ex-
tremely large ; and these are, before their ex-
clusion, round and naked, with some spots of
red ; after they are laid, however, they assume
another form, being smaller and longer than
those of a hen. This alteration in the figure
of the eggs most probably proceeds from the
narrowness of the bony passage through which
they are excluded. Swammerdam, who com-
pared the size of the eggs taken out of this
animal's body with the diameter of the passage
through which they were excluded, was of
opinion that the bones 'themselves separated
from each other, and closed again ; but, in
my opinion, it is more probable to suppose,
that the eggs, and not the bones, alter their
form. Certain it is, that they are round in
the body, and that they are oval upon being
protruded.
The eggs of all the tortoise kind, like those
of birds, are furnished with a yolk and a white ;
but the shell is different, being somewhat like
those soft eggs that hens exclude before their
time ; however, this shell is much thicker auf?
stronger, and is a longer time in coming to
maturity in the womb. The land-tortoise lays
but' a few in number, if compared to the sea-
turtle, who deposits from a hundred and fifty
to two hundred in a season.
The amount of the land-tortoise's eggs I
have not been able to learn ; * but, from the
scarceness of the animal, I am apt to think
they cannot be numerous. When it prepares
1 Land tortoises are supposed to lay five or six eggs,
hut on this point we have no very positive iuformatUui.
THE TORTOISE.
341
to lay, the female scratches a slight depression
in the earth, generally in a warm situation,
where the beams of the sun have their full ef-
fect : there depositing her eggs, and covering
them with grass and leaves, slie forsakes them,
to be hatched by the heat of the season. The
young tortoises are generally excluded in about
twenty-six days ; but, as the heat of the wea-
ther assists, or its coldness retards incubation,
sometimes it happens that there is a difference
of two or three days. The little animals no
sooner leave the egg than they seek, for their
provision, entirely self-taught; and their shell,
with which they are covered from the begin-
ning, expands and grows larger with age. As
it is composed of a variety of pieces, they are
all capable of extension at their sutures, and
the shell admits of increase in every direction.
It is otherwise with those animals, like the
lobster, whose shell is composed all of one
piece, that admits of no increase ; which, when
the tenant is too big for the habitation, must
burst the shell, and get another. But the co-
vering of the tortoise grows larger in propor-
tion as the internal parts expand ; in some
measure resembling the growth of the human
skull, which is composed of a number of bones,
increasing in size in proportion to the quantity
of the brain. All tortoises, therefore, as they
never change their shell, must have it formed
in pieces ; and though in some that have been
described by painters or historians, these marks
have not been attended to, yet we can have
no doubt that they are general to the whole
tribe.
It is common enough to take these animals
into gardens, as they are thought to destroy
insects and snails in great abundance. We
are even told that in hot countries, they are
admitted into a domestic state, as they are
great destroyers of bugs. How so large and
heavy an animal is capable of being expert at
such petty prey is not easy to conceive ; but I
have seen several of them about gentlemen's
houses, that, in general, appear torpid, harm-
less, and even fond of employment. Children
have sometimes got upon the back of a tor-
toise ; and such was the creature's strength,
that it never seemed overloaded, but moved
off with its burden to where it expected to be
fed, but would carry them no further. In
winter they regularly find out a place to sleep
in ; but in those warm countries in which the
tortoise is found larger, and in greater plenty
than in Europe, they live, without retiring,
the whole year round.
The Sea Tortoise, or Turtle, as it is now
called, is generally found larger than the for,
mer. This element is possessed with the pro-
perty of increasing the magnitude of those ani-
mals, which- are common to the land and the
ocean. The sea pike is larger than that of
fresh water ; the sea bear is larger than that
of the mountains ; and the sea turtle exceeds
the land tortoise in the same proportion. It
is of different magnitudes, according to its
different kinds ; some turtles~beirig not above
fifty pounds weight, and some above eight
hundred.
The Great Mediterranean Turtle (or Coria-
ceous Turtle) * is the largest of the turtle kind
with which we are acquainted. It is found from
five to eight feet long, and from six to nine
hundred pounds weight But, unluckily, its
utility bears no proportion to its size; as it is
unfit for food, and sometimes poisons those who
eat it The shell also, which is a tough strong
integument, resembling a hide, is unfit for all
serviceable purposes. One of these animals
was taken in the year 1729, at the mouth of
the Loire, in nets that were not designed for
so large a capture. This turtle, which was of
enormous strength, by its own struggles in-
volved itself in the nets in such a manner as
to be incapable of doing mischief: yet, even
thus shackled, it appeared terrible to the fish,
ermen, who were at first for flying ; but find-
ing it impotent, they gathered courage to drag
it on shore, where it made a most horrible
bellowing ; and when they began to knock it
on the head with their gafls, it was to be heard
at half a mile's distance. They were still far-
ther intimidated by its nauseous and pestilen-
tial breath, which so powerfully affected them,
that they were near fainting. This animal
wanted but four inches of being eight feet
long, and was above two feet over : its shell
more resembled leather than the shell of a tor-
toise ; and, unlike all other animals of this
kind, it was furnished with teeth in each jaw,
one rank behind another, like those of a shark:
its feet also, different from the rest of this
kind, wanted claws ; and the tail was quite
disengaged from the shell, and fifteen inches
long, more resembling that of a quadruped
than a tortoise. This animal was then un-
known upon the coasts of France, and was
supposed to have been brought into the Euro-
pean seas, in some India ship that might be
wrecked upon her return. Since that, how-
ever, two or three of these animals have been
1 Also called the Leathery Turtle, from its tough
leathery covering.
342
HISTORY OF FISHES.
taken upon the coasts ; two in particular upon
those of Cornwall, in the year 1756, the largest
of which weighed eight hundred pounds ;
and one upon the isle of Rhe, but two years
before, that weighed between seven and eight,
hundred. One, most probably of this kind
also, was caught about thirty years ago near
Scarborough, and a good deal of company was
invited to feast upon it : a gentleman, who
was one of the guests, told the company that
it Was a Mediterranean turtle, and not whole-
some; but a person, who was willing to satisfy
his appetite at the risk of his life, ate of it :
he was seized with a violent vomiting and
purging ; but his constitution overpowered the
malignity of the poison.
These are a formidable and useless kind, if
compared to the turtle caught in the South
seas and the Indian ocean. These are of
different kinds ; not only unlike each other in
form, but furnishing man with very different
advantages. They are usually distinguished
by sailors into four kinds; the Trunk Turtle,
the Loggerhead, the Hawksbill, and the Green
Turtle.
The Trunk Turtle is commonly larger than
the rest, and its back higher and rounder.
The flesh of this is rank, and not very whole-
some.
The Loggerhead is so called from the large-
ness of its head, which is much bigger in pro-
portion than that of the other kinds.1 The
] The Loggerhead Turtle. — The Loggerhead turtle (tee-
tudo caretta) has some resemblance to the green turtle;
but the head is larger, the shell broader, and the colours
more intense. There are also two more pieces in the
back plate, and the fore legs are longer and the hind legs
shorter in proportion. It is much more active than the
green turtle, and ranges over a much greater extent in
latitude. It is by no means uncommon in the Mediter-
ranean, not merely on the coasts of Africa, but on those
of Italy and Sicily. The flesh is tough and harsh, though
eaten by the poor. The shell too, is thin, dull, and of
little value, though the Italian workmen sometimes use
it in veneering. The principal value of the animal is
for its oil, which is abundant, considerably superior to
whale-oil, and some suppose it would answer well for
the dressing of leather, for which cod-oil, made from the
liver, is chiefly used in this country. The eggs of the
loggerhead are more palatable than the flesh.
The loggerhead is as formidable and fierce as the green
turtle is gentle and inoffensive. Its jaws are very hard
and strong, and they come together with much force.
They are, however, well adapted to its food, the princi-
pal part of which is shelled animals, and it can easily
break the hardest shell. It can also strike and scratch
with its long fore legs, which have strong claws project-
ing beyond the webs of the toes. It will snap at a stick
flesh of this also is very rank, and not eaten
but in case of necessity.
The Hawksbill Turtle (or Imbricated Tur-
tle) is the least of the four, and has a long and
small mouth, somewhat resembling the bill of
a hawk.2 The flesh of this also is very indif-
or any other object with which it is threatened ; and its
hold is so firm that it will break a thick stick, or bend a
rod of iron. It is exceedingly difficult to get it to quit
its hold after once it has been taken ; and it is commonly
said that the " loggerhead" continues to bite after it has
been separated from the body. The hold which, in that
case it retains, is not the stiffness of death, foe the head
of any tortoise lives for some time after it has been cut
off.
These animals are formidable in size, too; for it has
been said that some weighing 1500 or 1600 pounds have
been met with. They also swim with more rapidity
than the green turtle, being much more frequently met
with " on the high seas." When young, they have so
great 8 resemblance to the green turtle as to lead to &
suspicion that the specimens met with on the western
coast of France, and described as green turtle, were in
fact loggerheads ; because green turtle have not been
found in the Mediterranean, the shores of which have a
much more tropical character than the coast of France.
It is probable that all the green turtle described as being
found far out at sea, were in truth the species now under
consideration. As a grazing animal, the green turtle is
not likely to go often or far to places where it can find
no bottom, while the loggerhead, a devourer of flesh, can
range the ocean at its pleasure. In Europe this turtle
is not often found to the north of the Mediterranean ; and
in America it is seldom found to the north of Florida.
As it has not the same charms for the palate of the epi-
cure, its habits, though it has been much longer known,
have not been so much studied as those of the other.
* The Hawksbill Turtle. — The Hawksbill turtle
(Testudo imbricata) gets its scientific name from the
arrangement of the plates, which overlap each other like
the tiles on a roof ; and it gets its common English name
from the partial resemblance of its mouth, seen in profile,
to the bill of a hawk. Its head, neck, and legs are longer
in proportion to their thickness than those of the other
turtles ; it is more active, swimming with greater velo-
city, and righting itself when turned. Its eggs are eat-
able, but its flesh is not good, and the chief value of it
to man are the plates on its back, which are the true
tortoise-shell of commerce, and have been highly esteemed
from the earliest ages. There are thirteen plates in the
central part, surrounded by twenty-five smaller ones.
The large central plates are the finest shell ; and they
are often of considerable thickness. The plates of shell
do not form the entire case of the animal. The inner or
supporting part is bony, and may be considered as part
of the skeleton. The true skin is between the bony sub-
stance and the plates of shell. The plates are a pro-
duction of that skin, and in the living state they are
covered by an epidermis, or scarfskin. The common
way of obtaining the plates is to heat the entire back-
piece of the animal, by fire applied under the hollow on
the inside. By that means the gelatine of the skin is
dissolved, the skin itself swells, and the plates are easily
detached entire. A turtle of about 300 pounds weight
will produce about ten or twelve pounds of shell ; but in
the common way of obtaining the shell, the animal,
which is otherwise useless in the arts, is sacrificed. In
the eastern isles, where the hawksbill turtle is very
abundant, the Malays, who procure large quantities of
shell for the Chinese, pursue a different method. They
catch the turtle aliva, and retain it while they detach
the central plates, so dexterously as not to lacerate the
THE TURTLE.
843
ferent eating ; but the shell serves for the
most valuable purposes. This is the animal
that supplies the tortoise-shell, of which such
a variety of beautiful trinkets are made. The
substance of which the.shells of other turtle
are composed is thin and porous ; but that of
the hawksbill is firm, and when polished, is
beautifully marbled. They generally carry
about three pounds ; but the largest of all, six
pounds. The shell consists, as in all the kind,
of thirteen leaves or plates, of which eight are
flat, and five hollow. They are raised and
taken off by means of fire, which is made
under the shell after the flesh is taken out.
As soon as the heat affects the leaves, they
start from the ribs, and are easily raised with
the point of a knife. By being scraped and
polished on both sides, they become beauti-
fully transparent, or are easily cast into what
form the workman thinks proper, by making
them soft and pliant in warm water, and then
screwing them in a mould, like a medal:
however, the shell is most beautiful before
it undergoes this last operation.
But of all animals of the tortoise kind,
the Green Turtle1 is the most noted and the
skin. The animal is said not to show much uneasiness
during the operation, and when that is performed it is
returned into the sea, where, after a time, the plates are
said to be reproduced. That is by no means unlikely,
as the reproduction of parts is not uncommon among
reptiles, any more than among some of the Crustacea,
which have at least some analogy with the reptiles.
The hawksbill, or shell turtle, is much more widely
diffused than the green turtle. It is found in almost all
the tropical seas ; being peculiarly abundant in the shal-
lows near Belese, the chief settlement in the mahogany
country of Honduras. It is indeed general in the
Caribbean sea ; and is found browsing on its favourite
sea weed, wherever that abounds in latitudes sufficiently
warm. It is also plentiful on the shores of tropical
Africa, on those of New Holland, and in the Indian
ocean. Tortoise-shell is thus so abundant, that though
it has been a favourite article of luxury from very early
times, the supply is still undiminished.
1 The Green Turtle. — The Green turtle, of which we
hear so much as a luxury at the tables of the rich, is a
native of the seas in the warm and tropical parts of the
world ; and instead of being considered as a rarity or a
dainty there, it is so abundant, that the flesh of it is sold
cheaper than that of any land animal. The tropical
shores of America, both on the Atlantic and the Pacific
side, the tropical shores of Africa, and those of New
Holland, are the favourite hauuts of the turtle. These
animals prefer lonely places, and thus they are much
more plentiful on desert shores and about little barren
islands, than they are on those of fertile countries. The
little isles called the Alligator isles, in the West Indian
most valuable. The delicacy of its flesh, and its
nutritive qualities, together with the property
of being easily digested, were, for above a
century, known only to our seamen, and the
inhabitants of the coasts where they were taken.
It was not till by slow degrees the distinction
came to be made between such as were malig-
nant and such as were wholesome. The con-
troversies and contradictions of our old travel-
lers were numerous upon this head : some as-
serting, that the turtle was delicious food ; and
others, that it was actual pojson. Dampier,
that rough seaman, who has added more to
natural history than half of the philosophers
that went before him, appears to be the first
who informed us of their distinctions ; and
that, while the rest might be valuable for
other purposes, the green turtle alone was
chiefly prized for the delicacy of its flesh. He
never imagined, however, that this animal
would make its way to the luxurious tables of
Europe ; for he seems chiefly to recommend
it as salted up for ship's provision, in case of
necessity.
At present the turtle is very well known
among us, and is become the favourite food of
those that are desirous of eating a great deal
without the danger of surfeiting. This is a
sea ; the barren volcanic rocks of the Gallipagos in the
Pacific ; the island of Ascension, in the Atlantic, and
the northern shores of New Holland, which are gener-
ally speaking, dreary and barren, abound more with them
than any other parts of the world. The green turtle
attains an enormous size and^weight; some individuals
measuring six or seven feet in length from the tip of the
nose to the extremity of the tail, by three or four feet •
broad, and weighing as much as eight hundred pounds.
The more common weight, however, is from two to three
hundred pounds.
The instinct which leads the female turtle to the shore
to lay her eggs, exposes her to the danger of becoming
the prey of man. She deposits her eggs on the loose
sand, and abandons them at once to the chance, which
approaches almost to a certainty in the southern hemi-
sphere, that they will be hatched by the influence of the
sun's rays. She digs, by means of her fore-feet, one or
more holes about a foot wide and two feet deep, in which
she usually deposits more than a hundred eggs. These
eggs are round, and are two or three inches in diameter;
they are covered with a membrane something like wet
parchment. The female generally lays three times in
each year, at intervals of about a fortnight or three
weeks. They almost always go ashore in the night
time. A loose sand beiV? essential to the hatching
of the eggs, the turtles frequent only particular shores ;
but these are often several hundred miles from their
feeding places. The eggs are hatched in less than
a month after they are laid; and in about eight or
ten days the young reptiles crawl to the water. Few
however, reach their native element, in proportion to
the number produced. They become the prey of sea-
fowl and various quadrupeds of prey. The tiger is an
especial enemy to the tortoise ; but man is still more
actively engaged in their destruction. The collection of
tortoise eggs forms one of the most important of the
occupations of the Indians of the Orinoco. Humboldt
gives an interesting account of this branch of commerce.
344
HISTORY OF FISHES.
property the flesh of the turtle seems peculiarly
possessed of ; and by the importation of it alive
among us, gluttony is freed from one of its
greatest restraints. The flesh of the turtle is
become a branch of commerce ; and therefore
ships are provided with conveniences for sup-
plying them with water and provision, to bring
them over in health from Jamaica and other
West India islands. This, however, is not
always effected ; for though they are very vi-
vacious, and scarcely require any provision
upon the voyage, yet, by the working of the
ship, and their beating against the sides of the
boat that contains them, they become battered
and lean ; so that to eat this animal in the
highest perfection, instead of bringing the tur-
tle to the epicure he ought to be transported
to the turtle.
This animal is called the green turtle, from
the colour of its shell, which is rather greener
than that of others of this kind. It is gene-
rally found about two hundred weight ; though
some are five hundred, and others not above
fifty. Dampier tells us of one that was seen
at Port-Royal, in Jamaica, that was six feet
broad across the back ; he does not tell us its
other dimensions ; but says that the son of
Captain Roach, a boy about ten years old,
sailed in the shell, as in a boat, from the shore
to his father's ship, which was above a quarter
of a mile from land. But this is nothing to
the size of some turtles the ancients speak of.
-flSlian assures us, that the houses in the island
of Taprobane are usually covered with a sin-
gle shell. Diodorus Siculus tells us that a
people neighbouring on Ethiopia, called the
Turtle-eaters, coasted along the shore in boats
made of the upper shell of this animal; and
that in war, when they had eaten the flesh,
the covering served them as a tent. In this
account, Pliny, and all the rest of the an-
cients, agree ; and as they had frequent op-
portunities of knowing the truth, we are not
lightly to contradict their testimony.
At present, however, they are not seen of
such amazing dimensions. We are told by
Laet, that on the isle of Cuba they grow to
such a size, as that five men can stand on the
back of one of them together ; and what is
rrtbre surprising still, that the animal does not
seem overloaded, but will go off with them
upon its back, with a slow steady motion, to-
wards the sea.
They are found in the greatest numbers on
the island of Ascension ; where for several
years, they were taken to be salted to feed the
slaves, or for a supply of ship's provision.
Their value at present seems to be better
known.
This animal seldom comes from the sea but
to deposit its eggs, and now and then to sport
in fresh water. Its chief food is a submarine
plant, that covers the bottom of several parts
of the sea not far from the shore. There the
turtles are seen, when the weather is fair,
feeding in great numbers, like flocks of sheep,
several fathoms deep, upon the verdant carpet
below. At other times they go to the mouths
of rivers ; and they seem to find gratification
in fresh water. After some time thus em-
ployed, they seek their former stations : and
when done feeding, they generally float with
their heads above water, unless they are
alarmed by the approach of hunters or birds of
prey, in which case they suddenly plunge to
the bottom. They often seek their provision
among the rocks, feeding upon moss and sea-
weed ; and it is probable will not disdain to
prey upon insects and other small animals, as
they are very fond of flesh when taken and
fed for the table.
At the time of breeding, they are seen to
forsake their former haunts and their food, and
to take sometimes a voyage of nine hundred
miles to deposit their eggs on some favourite
shore. The coasts they always resort to upon
these occasions are those that are low, flat, and
sandy: for, being heavy animals, they cannot
climb a bold shore ; nor is any bed so proper
as sand to lay their eggs on. They couple in
March, and continue united till May; during
a great part of which they are seen locked to-
gether, and almost incapable of separation.
The female seems passive and reluctant ; but
the male grasps her with his claws in such a
manner, that nothing can induce him to quit
his hold. It would seem that the grasp, as in
frogs, is, in some measure, convulsive, and
that the animal is unable to relax its efforts.
When the time for laying approaches, the
female is seen towards the setting of the sun
drawing near the shore, and looking earnestly
about her, as if afraid of being discovered.
When she perceives any person on shore, she
seeks for another place ; but if otherwise, she
lands when it is dark, and goes to take a
survey of the sand where she designs to lay.
Having marked the spot, she goes back
without laying, for that night, to the ocean
again ; but the next night returns to deposit a
part of her burden. She begins by working
and digging in the sand with her fore-feet
till she has made a round hole, a foot broad, and
a foot and a half deep, just at the place a little
above where the water reaches highest. This
done, she lays eighty or ninety eggs at a time,
each as big as a hen's egg, and as round as a
ball. She continues laying about the space
of an hour; during which time, if a cart were
driven over her, she would not be induced to
stir. The eggs are covered with a tough
white skin, like wetted parchment. When
she -has done laying, she covers the hole so
dexterously, that it is no easy matter to find
THE TURTLE.
345
the place ; and those must be accustomed to
the search to make the discovery. When the
turtle has done laying, she returns to the sea,
and leaves her eggs to be hatched by the heat
of the sun. At the end of fifteen days she
lays about the same number of eggs again ;
and at the end of another fifteen days she
repeats the same ; three times in all, using
the same precautions every time for safety.
In about twenty-four or twenty-five days
after laying, the eggs are hatched by the heat
of the sun ; and the young turtles being about
as big as quails, are seen bursting from the
sand, as if earth-born, and running directly
to the sea, with instinct only for their guide :
but, to their great misfortune, it often happens
that, their strength being small, the surges of
the sea, for some few days, beat them back
upon the shore. Thus exposed, they remain
a prey to thousands of birds that then haunt
the coast ; and these stooping down upon them
carry off the greatest part, and sometimes the
whole brood, before they have strength suf-
ficient to withstand the waves, or dive to the
bottom. Helbigius informs us, that they have
still another enemy to fear, which is no other
than the parent that produces them, that waits
for their arrival at the edge of the deep, and
devours as many as she can.1 This circum-
stance, however, demands further confirma-
tion ; though nothing is more certain than
that the crocodile acts in the same unnatural
manner.
When the turtles have done laying, they
then return to their accustomed places of feed-
ing. Upon their outset to the shore where
they breed, they are always fat and healthy ;
but upon their return, they are weak, lean,
and unfit to be eaten. They are seldom,
therefore, molested upon their retreat ; but the
great art is to seize them when arrived, or to
intercept their arrival. In these uninhabited
islands, to which the green turtle chiefly
resorts, the men that go to take them land
about night-fall, and without making any
noise (for these animals, though without any
external opening of the ear, hear very dis-
tinctly, there being an auditory conduit that
opens into the mouth,) lie close while they see
the female turtle coming on shore. They let
her proceed to her greatest distance from the
sea ; and then, when she is most busily em-
ployed in scratching a hole in the sand, they
sally out and surprise her. Their manner
is to turn her upon her back, which utterly
incapacitates her from movinsr ; and yet as the
creature is very strong, and struggles very
hard, two men find it no easy matter to lay
her over. When thus secured they go to the
1 This account of the turtle's preying upon its young
is incorrect.
VOL. n
next ; and in this manner, in less than
three hours, they have been known to turn
forty or fifty turtles, each of which weighs
from a hundred and fifty to two hundred
pounds. Labat assures us,— tliat when the
animal is in this helpless situation, it is
heard to sigh very heavily, and even to shed
tears.
At present, from the great appetite that
man has discovered for this animal, they are
not only thinned in their numbers, but are
also grown much more shy. There are several
other ways, therefore, contrived for taking
them.2 One is, to seize them when coupled
a Audubon, in his Ornithological Biography, has a
chapter, headed The Turtlers, in which he gives an in*
teresting account of the habits of turtles, and the methods
of taking them. " The Tortugas," he says, " are a group
of islands lying about eighty miles from Key West, and the
last of those that seem to defend the peninsula of the
Floridas. They consist of five or six extremely low un-
inhabitable banks formed of shelly sand, and are resorted
to principally by that class of men called Wreckers and
Turtlers. Between these islands are deep channels,
which, although extremely intricate, are well known to
those adventurers, as well as to the commanders of the
revenue cutters, whose duties call them to that danger-
ous coast. The great coral reef or wall lies about eight
miles from these inhospitable isles, in the direction of
the Gulf, and on it many an ignorant or careless navi-
gator has suffered shipwreck. The whole ground around
them is densely covered with corals, sea-fans, and other
productions of the deep, amid which crawl innumerable
testaceous animals, while shoals of curious and beautiful
fishes fill the limpid waters above them. Turtles cf di£-
ferent species resort to these banks, to deposit their eggs
in the burning sand, and clouds of sea-fowl arrive every
spring for the same purpose. These are followed by
persons called 'Eggers,' who, when their cargoes are
completed, sail to distant markets, to exchange their ill-
gotten ware for a portion of that gold, on the acquisicion
of which all men seem bent.
" But the Tortugas are not the only breeding places
of the turtles; these animals, on the contrary, frequent
many other keys, as well as various parts of the coast of
the mainland. There are four different species, which are
known by the names of the green turtle, the hawksbill
turtle, the loggerhead turtle, and the trunk turtle. The
first is considered the best as an article of food, in which
capacity it is well known to most epicures. It approaches
the shores, and enters the bays, inlets, and rivers, early
in the month of April, after having spent the winter in
the deep waters. • It deposits its eggs in convenient
places, at two different times in May, and once again in
June. The first deposit is the largest, and the last the
least, the total quantity being at an average about two
hundred and forty. The hawksbill turtle, whose shell is
so valuable as an article of commerce, being used for
various purposes in the arts, is the next with respect to
the quality of its flesh. It resorts to the outer keys only,
where it deposits its eggs in two sets, first in July, and
again in August, although it 'crawls' the beaches oi
these keys much earlier in the season, as if to look for
a safe place. The average number of its eggs is about
three hundred. The loggerhead visits the Tortugas in
April, and lays from that period until late in June
three sets of eggs, each set averaging a hundred and
seventy. The trunk turtle, which is sometimes of au
enormous size, and which has a pouch like a pelican,
reaches the shores latest. The shell and flesh are so
soft that one may push his finger into them, almost as
2 x
341)
HISTORY OF FISHES
together, at the breeding season, whsri they
are very easily approached, and as easily
seen ; for these animals, though capable of
living for some time under water, yet rise
every eight or ten minutes to breathe. As
into a lump of butter. This species is therefore con-
sidered as the least valuable, and indeed is seldom eaten,
unless by the Indians, who, ever alert when the turtle
season commences, first carry ofl" the eggs, and after-
wards catch the turtles themselves. The average num-
ber of eggs which it lays in the season, in two sets, may
be three hundred and fifty.
" The loggerhead and the trunk turtles are the least
cautious in choosing the places in which to deposit their
eggs, whereas the two other species select the wildest
and most secluded spots. The green turtle resoits
either to the shores of the main, between Cape Sable
and Cape Florida, or enters Indian, Halifax, and other
large rivers or inlets, from which it makes its retreat as
speedily as possible, and betakes itself to the open sea.
Great numbers, however, are killed by the turtlers and
Indians, as- well as by various species of carnivorous ani.
mals, as cougars, lynxes, bears, and wolves. The hawks-
.bill, which is still more wary, and is always the most
difficult to surprise, keeps to the sea islands. All the
species employ nearly the same method in depositing
their eggs in the sand, and as I have several times
observed them in the act, I am enabled to present you
with a circumstantial account of it
" On first nearing the shores, and mostly on fine calm
moonlight nights, the turtle raises her head above the
water, being still distant thirty or forty yards from the
beach, looks around her, and attentively examines the
objects on the shore. Should she observe nothing likely
to disturb her intended operations, she emits a loud hiss-
ing sound, by which such of her many enemies as are
unaccustomed to it are startled, and so are apt to remove
to another place, although unseen by her. Should she
hear any noise, or perceive indications of danger, she
instantly sinks and goes off to a considerable distance;
but should every thing be quiet, she advances slowly
towards the beach, crawls over it, her head raised to the
full stretch of her neck; and when she has reached a
place fitted for her purpose, she gazes all round in
silence. Finding ' all well,' she proceeds to form a hole
in the sand, which she effects by removing it from under
her body with her hind flappers, scooping it out with so
much dexterity that the sides seldom if ever fall in. The
sand is raised alternately with each flapper, as with a
large ladle, until it has accumulated behind her, when
supporting herself with her head and fore part on the
ground fronting her body, she with a spring from each
flapper sends the sand around her, scattering it to the
distance of several feet. In this manner the hole is dug
to the depth of eighteen inches, or sometimes more than
two feet. This labour I have seen performed in the
short period of nine minutes. The eggs are then dropped
one by one, and disposed in regular layers, to the number
of a hundred and fifty, or sometimes nearly two hundred.
The whole time spent in this part of the operation may
be about twenty minutes. She now scrapes the loose
sand back over the eggs, and so levels and smooths the
surface that few persons on seeing the spot could ima-
gine any thing had been done to it. This accomplished
to her mind, she retreats to the water with all possible
dispatch, leaving the hatching of the eggs to the heat of
the sand. When a turtle, a loggerhead for example, is
in the act of dropping her eggs, she will not move
although one should go up to her, or even seat himsell
on her back, for it seems that at this moment she finds
it necessary to proceed at all events, and is unable to in-
termit her labour. The moment it is finished* how-
soon as tluy are thus perceived, two or three
people draw near them in a canoe, and slip a
noose either round their necks or one of their
feet. If they have no line, they lay hold of
them by the neck, where they have no shell,
ever, off she starts ; nor would it then be possible for
one, unless he were as strong as a Hercules, to turn her
over and secure her.
' To upset a turtle on the shore, one is obliged to fall
on his knees, and, placing his shoulder behind her
forearm, gradually raise her up by pushing with great
force, and then with a jerk throw her over. Sometimes
it requires the united strength of several men to accom-
plish this; and if the turtle should be of very great
size, as often happens on that coast, even hand-spikes
are employed. Some turtlers are so daring as to swim
up to them while lying asleep on the surface of the
water, and turn them over in their own element, when,
however, a boat must be at hand to enable them to secure
their prize. Few turtles can bite beyond the reach of
their forelegs, and few, when once turned over, can with-
out assistance regain their natural position ; but notwith-
standing this, their flappers are generally secured by
ropes, so as to render their escape impossible.
" Persons who search for turtles' eggs are provided
with a light stiff cane or gun-rod, with which they go
along the shores, probing the sand near the tracks of the
animals, which, however, cannot always be seen, on ac-
count of the winds and heavy rains that often obliterate
them. The nests are discovered not only by men, but
also by beasts of prey, and the eggs are collected, or des-
troyed on the spot in great numbers, as on certain parts
of the shores hundreds of turtles are known to deposit
their eggs within the space of a mile. They form a
new hole each time they lay, and the second is gener-
ally dug near the first, as if the animal were quite un-
conscious of what had befallen it. It will be readily
understood that the numerous eggs seen in a turtle on
cutting it up could not be all laid the same season. The
whole number deposited by an individual in one summer
may amount to four hundred, whereas if the animal is
caught on or near her nest, as I have witnessed, the re-
maining eggs, all small, without shells, and as it were
threaded like so many large beads, exceed three thou-
sand. In an instance where I found that number, the
turtle weighed nearly four hundred pounds. The young,
soon after being hatched, and when yet scarcely larger
than a dollar, scratch their way through their sandy cov-
ering, and immediately betake themselves to the water.
" The food of the green turtle consists chiefly of ma-
rine plants, more especially the grasswrack (Zostera ma-
rina), which they cut near the roots to procure the most
tender and succulent parts. Their feeding grounds, as
I have elsewhere said, are easily discovered by floating
masses of these plants on the flats, or along the shores to
which they resort. The hawk-billed species feeds on
sea-weeds, crabs, various kinds of shell-fish, and fishes ;
the loggerhead mostly on the fish of conch-shells of large
size, which they are enabled, by means of their powerful
beak, to crush to pieces with apparently as much ease as
a man cracks a walnut. One which was brought on board
the Nlarion, and placed near the fluke of one of her an-
chors, made a deep indentation in that hammered piece
of iron that quite surprised me. The trunk turtle feeds
on mollusca, fish, Crustacea, sea urchins, and various
marine plants.
" All the species move through the water with sur-
prising speed: but the green and hawk-billed in par-
ticular remind you, by their celerity and the ease of
their motions, of the progress of a bird in the air. It
is therefore no easy matter to strike one with a spear, and
yet this is often done 1jv an accomplished turtler. . .
TESTACEOUS FISH.
with their hands only ; and by this means
they usually catch them both together. But
sometimes the female escapes, being more
shy than the male.
Another way of taking them is by the har-
poon, either when they are playing on the
surface of the water, or feeding at the bottom ;
when the harpoon is skilfully darted, it sticks
fast in the shell of the back ; the wood then
disengages from the iron, and the line is long
" Turtles such as I have spoken of are caught in vari-
ous ways on the coasts of the Floridas, or in estuaries and
rivers. Some turtlers are in the habit of setting great nets
across the entrance of streams, so as to answer the purpose
either at the flow or at the ebb of the waters. These nets
are formed of very large meshes, into which the turtles par-
tially enter, when, the more they attempt to extricate
themselves, the more they get entangled. Others harpoon
them in the usual manner ; but in my estimation no me-
thod is equal to that employed by Mr Egan, the pilot of
Indian isle.
" That extraordinary turtler had an iron instrument,
which he called a peg, and which at each end had a
point not unlike what nail-makers call a brad, it being
four-cornered but flattish, and of a shape somewhat re-
sembling the beak of an ivory-billed woodpecker, toge-
ther with a neck and shoulder. Between the two shoul-
ders of this instrument a fine tough line, fifty or more
fathoms in length, was fastened, by one end being passed
through a hole in the centre of the peg, and the line itself
was carefully coiled up and placed in a convenient part
of the canoe. One extremity of this peg enters a sheath
of iron that loosely attaches it to a long wooden spear,
until a turtle has been pierced through the shell by the
other extremity. He of the canoe paddles away as
silently as possible whenever he spies a turtle basking on
the water, until he gets within a distance of ten or twelve
yards, when he throws the spear so as to hit the animal
about the place which an entomologist would choose,
were it a large insect, for pinning it to a piece of cork.
As soon as the turtle is struck, the wooden handle sepa-
rates from the peg, in consequence of the looseness of
its attachment The smart of the wound urges on the
animal as if distracted, and it appears that the longer the
peg remains in its shell, the more firmly fastened it is,
so great a pressure is exercised upon it by the shell of the
turtle, which being suffered to run like a whale, soon
becomes fatigued, and is secured by hauling in the line
with great care. In this manner, as the pilot informed
me, eight hundred green turtles were caught by one man
in twelve months.
" Each turtler has his crawl, which is a square wooden
building or pen, formed of logs, which are so far separated
as to allow the tide to pass freely through and stand
erect in the mud. The turtles are placed in this in-
closure, fed and kept there until sold. If the animals
thus confined have not laid their eggs previous to their
seizure, they drop them in the water, so that they are
lost.
" When I was in the Floridas, several turtlers assured
me, that any turtle taken from the depositing ground,
and carried on the deck of a vessel several hundred
miles, would, if then let loose, certainly be met with at
the same spot, either immediately after, or in the follow-
ing breeding season. Should this prove true, and it
certainly may, how much will be enhanced the belief of
the student in the uniformity and solidity of Nature's
arrangements, when he finds that the turtle, like a
migratory bird, returns to the same locality, with per-
haps a delight similar to that experienced by the. tra-
veller, who, after visiting distant countries, once more
returns to the bosom of his cherished family !"
enough for the animal to take its range ; for
if the harpooner should attempt at once to
draw the animal into his boat till it is weak-
ened by its own struggling, it would probably
get free. Thus the turtle struggles hard to
get loose, but all in vain ; for they take care
the line fastened to the harpoon shall be strong
enough to hold it.
There is yet another way, which, though
seemingly awkward, is said to be attended
with very great success. A good diver places
himself at the head of the boat ; and when the
turtles are observed, which they sometimes
are in great numbers, asleep on the surface,
he immediately quits the vessel, at about fifty
yards distance, and keeping still under water,
directs his passage to where the turtle was
seen, and, coming up beneath, seizes it by the
tail ; the animal awaking struggles to get
free ; and by this both are kept at the surface
until the boat arrives to take them in.
CHAP. IV.
OF THE SHELL OF TESTACEOUS FISHES.
ONE is apt to combine very dissimilar
objects in the same group, when hurried into
the vortex of method. No two animals are
more unlike each other than the whale and
the limpet, the tortoise and the oyster. Yet,
as these animals must rind some place in the
picture of animated nature, it is best to let
them rest in the station which the generality
of mankind have assigned them ; and as they
have been willing to give them all from their
abode the name of fishes, it is wisest in us to
conform.
But before 1 enter into a history of shell-
fish, it may not be improper to observe, that
naturalists, who have treated on this part of
history, have entirely attended to outward
forms; and, as in many other instances, for-
saking the description of the animal itself,
have exhausted all their industry in describ-
ing the habitation. In consequence of this
radical error, we have volumes written upon
the subject of shells, jfnd very little said on
the history of shell-fish. The life of these
industrious creatures, that, for the most part,
creep along the bottom, or immovably wait
till driven as the waves happen to direct, is
almost entirely unknown. The wreathing of
the shells, or the spots with which they are
tinctured, have been described with a most
disgusting prolixity ; but their appetites and
their combats, their escapes and humble arts
of subsistence, have been utterly neglected.
As I have only undertaken to write the
history of animated nature, the variety of
348
HISTORY OF FISHES.
shells, and their peculiar spots or blemishes,
do not come within my design. However,
the manner in which shells are formed is a
part of natural history connected with my
plan, as it presupposes vital force or industry
in the animal that forms them.
The shell may be considered as a habita-
tion supplied by nature. It is a hard stony
substance, made up somewhat in the manner
of a wall. Part of the stony substance the
animal derives from outward objects, and the
Suids of the animal itself furnish the cement.
These united make that firm covering which
shell-fish generally reside in till they die.
But, in order to give a -more exact idea of
the manner in which sea-shells are formed, we
must have recourse to an animal that lives
upon land, with the formation of whose shell
we are best acquainted. This is the garden-
snail, that carries its box upon its back, whose
history Swammerdam has taken such endless
pains to describe. As the manner of the for-
mation of this animal's shell extends to that
of all others that have shells, whether they
live upon land or in the water, it will be
proper to give it a place before we enter upon
the history of testaceous fishes.
To begin with the animal in its earliest
state, and trace the progress of its shell from
the time it first appears— The instant the
young snail leaves the egg, it carries its shell
or its box on its back. It does not leave the
egg till it is arrived at a certain growth, when
its little habitation is sufficiently hardened.
This beginning of the shell is not much bigger
than a pin's head, but grows in a very rapid
manner, having at first but two circumvolu-
tions, for the rest are added as the snail grows
larger. In proportion as the animal increases
in size, the circumvolutions of the shell in-
crease also, until the number of -these volutes
come to be five, which is never exceeded.
The part where the animal enlarges its
shell is at the mouth, to which it adds in pro-
portion as it finds itself stinted in its habita-
tion below. Being about to enlarge its shell,
it is seen with its little teeth biting and clear-
ing away the scaly skin that grows at the
edges. It is sometimes seen to eat those bits
it thus takes off; at other times it only cleans
away the margin when covered with films,
and then adds another rim to its shell.
For the purposes of making the shell,
which is natural to the animal, and without
which it could not live three days, its whole
body is furnished with glands, from the orifices
of which flows out a kind of slimy fluid, like
small spider threads, which join together in
one common crust or surface, and in time con-
dense and acquire a stony hardness. It is this
slimy humour that grows into a membrane,
<uid afterwards a stony skin ; nor can it have
escaped any who have observed the track of
a snail ; that glistening substance which it
leaves on the floor or the wall, is no other
than the materials with which the animal adds
to its shell, or repairs it when broken.
Now to exhibit in a more satisfactory man-
ner the method in which the shell is formed
— The snail bursts from its egg with its shell
upon its back ; the shell, though very simple,
is the centre round which every succeeding
convolution of the shell is formed, by new
circles added to the first. As the body of the
snail can be extended no where but to the
aperture, the mouth of the shell only can, of
consequence, receive augmentation. The sub-
stance of which the shell is composed is chiefly
supplied by the animal itself, and is no more
than a slimy fluid which hardens into bone.
This fluid passes through an infinite number
of little glands, till it arrives at the pores of
the skin ; but there it is stopped by the shell
that covers the part below ; and therefore is
sent to the mouth of the shell, where it is
wanted for enlargement. There the first
layer of slime soon hardens ; and then another
is added, which hardens also, till in time the
shell becomes as thick as is requisite for the
animal's preservation. Thus every shell may
be considered as composed of a number of
layers of slime, which have entirely proceeded
from the animal's own body.
But though this be the general opinion
with regard to the formation of shells, I can-
not avoid thinking there are still other sub-
stances besides the animal's own slime which
go to the composition of its shell, or at least
to its external coat, which is ever different
from the internal. The substances I mean
are the accidental concretions of earthy or
saline parts, which adhere to the slimy matter
upon its first emission.1 By adopting this
theory, we can more satisfactorily account for
the various colours of the shell, which cannot
be supposed to take its tincture from the
animal's body, as is the usual opinion ; for all
the internal parts of the shell are but of one
white colour ; it is only the outermost layer
of the shell that is so beautifully varied, so
richly tinctured with that variety of colours
we behold in the cabinets of the curious. If
the external coat be scaled off, as Mr Argen-
ville asserts, all the inner substances will be
found but of one simple colouring ; and con.
sequently the animal's own juices can give
only one colour ; whereas we see some shells
stained with a hundred.
1 Our author is mistaken in supposing that any part
of the shell is composed of extraneous matter. If such
were the case, the same species of shell would often be
found to differ in its composition and external appearance,
whereas some species are so uniformly alike, that it is
difficult to distinguish between two shells.
TESTACEOUS FISH.
849
The usual way of accounting for the dif-
ferent colouring of shells, which seems to me
erroneous, is this ; in the body of every one
of these animals, several streaks are discerned
of a different colour from the rest. " This
variety," say they, " is an incontestable proof
that the juices flowing from these parts will
be also of a different hue ; and will con-
sequently tinge that part of the shell which
their slime composes of a different colour."
But this system, as was observed before, is
overthrown by the fact, which discovers that
only the outer surface of the shell is tinged ;
whereas by this it would have been coloured
throughout ; nay, by this system, the internal
parts of the shell would be stained with the
most vivid colouring, as being least exposed
to the external injuries of the element where
it is placed. But the truth is, the animal
residing in the shell has none of these various
colours thus talked of: its slime is a simple
pellucid substance; and the only marblings
which appear in its body, are the colour of the
food, which is seen through its transparent in-
testines. We must, therefore, account for the
various colouring of its shell upon a different
principle.
If, as I said, we examine the cabinets of the
curious, we shall find shells with various
and beautiful colouring ; we shall find them
generally furnished with a white ground,
tinctured with red, yellow, brown, green, and
several other shades and lovely mixtures, but
never blue. Shells are of almost all colours
but blue. The reason seems to be obvious ;
for blue is the colour which sea-water changes.
A piece of silk, or a feather, of this colour,
put into an infusion of salt, urine, or nitre, lose
their tint entirely. Now may not this give
us a hint with respect to the operation of
nature in colouring her shells ? May we not
from hence conclude, that sea- water is effica-
cious in giving colour, or taking it away ?
That, to produce colour, the animal not only
furnishes its juices, but the sea or the earth
that mixture of substance which is to unite
with them? Neither the animal slime alone,
nor the external earthy or saline substances
alone, could produce colours; but both united,
produce an effect which neither, separately, was
possessed of. Thus shells assume every colour
but blue ; and that sea-water, instead of pro-
ducing, would be apt to destroy.
From hence, therefore, it appears, that the
animal does not alone tincture its own shell ;
but that external causes co-operate in contri-
buting to its beauty. It is probable that,
from the nature of its food, or from other cir-
cumstances unknown to us, the external
layers of its slime may be of different consis-
tences ; so, as when joined with the particles
of earth or salt that are accidentally united
with them from without, they assume various
and beautiful hues. But the internal layers,
which receive no foreign admixture, still pre-
serve the natural colour of the animal, and
continue white without any variation.
Thus far we see that the animal is not
wholly the agent in giving beauty and colour-
ing to its shell : but it seems otherwise with
respect to its convolutions, its prominences, and
general form. These entirely depend upon
the art of the animal ; or rather upon its in-
stincts; which, in the same kinds, are ever
invariable. The shell generally bears some
rude resemblance to the body upon which it
has been moulded. Thus, it is observable in
all sea-shells, that if the animal has any
tumour, or excrescence on its body, it creates
likewise a swelling in that part of the incrus-
tation to which it corresponds. When the
animal begins to alter its position, and to
make new additions to its apartments, the same
protuberance which had raised the shell before
in one part, swells it again at some little dis-
tance; by which means we see the same in-
equality, in a spiral line, all round the shell.
Sometimes these tumours of the animal are so
large, or so pointed, that those which rise
over them, in the incrustation appear like
horns : after this the animal disengages itself
from its first . cavities ; and then, by fresh
evacuations, assumes a new set of horns; and
so increases the number in proportion to its
growth. If, on the other hand, the body hap-
pens to be channelled, the shell that covers it
will be channelled likewise ; if there be any
protuberances in the body, which wind in a
spiral line about it, the shell will likewise have
its tumours and cavities winding round to
the end.
In this manner, as the animals are of vari-
ous forms, the shells exhibit an equal variety.
Indeed, the diversity is so great, and the
figures and colours so very striking, that
several persons, with a kind of harmless indo-
lence, have made the arrangement of them the
study and the business of their lives. Those
who consult their beauty alone, take care to
have them polished, and to have an external
crust, or periosteum, as Swammerdam calls
it, scoured off from their surfa'ces by spirit of
salt. But there are others that, with more
learned affectation, kept them exactly in the
state in which they have been found, with
their precious crust still round them. The
expense men have sometimes been at, in mak-
ing such collections, is amazing ; and some
shells, such as the Stairs-shell, or the Admiral-
shell, are not more precious for their scarce-
ness, than pearls are for their beauty. Indeed,
it is the scarcity, and not the beauty of the
object, that determines the value of all na-
tural curiosities. Those shells that offer but
350
HISTORY OF FISHES.
little beauty to the ignorant are often the most
precious ; and those shells which an unlearned
spectator would stop to observe with admira-
tion, one accustomed to the visitation of cabi-
nets would pass over with disdain. — These
collections, however, have their use ; not only
by exhibiting the vast variety of Nature's
operations, but also by exciting our curiosity
to the consideration of the animals that form
them. A mind that can find innocent enter-
tainment in these humble contemplations is
well employed; and, as we say of children, is
kept from doing mischief. Although there
may be nobler occupations than that of con-
sidering the convolutions of a shell, yet there
may be some who want the ambition to aspire
after such arduous pursuits ; there may be
some unfit for them ; there may be some who
find their ambition fully gratified by the
praise which the collectors of shells bestow
upon each other. Indeed, for a day or two,
there is no mind that a cabinet of shells
cannot furnish with pleasing employment.
" What can be more gratifying," as Pliny
says,1 " than to view nature in all her irregu-
larities, and sporting in her variety of shells !
Such a difference of colour do they exhibit !
such a difference of figure ! flat, concave, long,
lunated, drawn round in a circle, the orbit cut
in two ! some are seen with a rising on the
back, some smooth, some wrinkled, toothed,
streaked, the point variously intorted, the
mouth pointing like a dagger, folded back,
bent inwards ! all these variations, and many
more, furnish at once novelty, elegance, and
speculation."*
1 Pirn. ix. 33.
1 Conchology, — Aristotle had three orders of Testacea,
— Univalves, Bivalves and- the Turbinated, — but the
class itself and these divisions were loosely defined ; and
the same vagueness is to be found in the writings of those
authors who followed his method. Perhaps Dr Walter
Charleton, Physician in Ordinary to Charles II. was the
first who had a full conviction of the importance of
system, but his attempt to arrange the Mollusca is very
faulty.* The Limaces he places with apodous insects ;
and aquatic animals being divided as usual into the
sanguineous and exsanguineous, the remaining mollus-
cas are arranged under two classes — viz. the inollia or
molluscula and the testacea. The first embraces all the
cuttles and the Lepus marinus or Aplysia ; the second
the shelled tribes, whose primary sections are the same
as those of Aristotle's, while his genera, in general
without definitions, rest on characters of little or no
value. Jean-Daniel Major, Professor of Practical
Medicine in the university of Keil, in the duchy of
Holstein, was the next to make the attempt, (1675,)
which is pronounced by two critics, to whose opinion
much deference has been shown, to be " infinitely too
complicated and ramifying to admit of any useful ap-
plication." Sibhald, Grew, Bonanni, Lister, Langius,
Hebenstreit, Tournefort, D'Argenville, and Klein are
perhaps the principal who followed in their wake, but it
is evident that they had all entered on their task without
a previous study of what the real object and use of method
* Onomastikon Zoikon. Lond. 1671. 4to.
With respect to the figure of shells, Aris-
totle has divided them into three kinds : and
his method is, of all others, the most conform-
able to nature. These are, first the univalve,
was, what principles were to guide them in framing the
various sections, or what the relative bearing of these
divisions on one another should be. The division of
shells primarily into Multivalve, Bivalve, and Univalve
had perhaps superseded the Aristotelian, and many new
divisions of secondary rate were of course invented, but
they were arbitrary, founded on no common principle,
either too lax or too complex to be applicable in practice,
cumbersome to the memory, and clumsy in writing.
To analyse these methods would be wearisome and un-
profitable,— they were next to useless when promulgated,
and have now no attraction even in the eyes of the pure
conchologist. It is when we rise from their examina-
tion that we are in the best mood to appreciate the
merits of Linnaeus.
Linnaeus having, with a tact characteristic of his
genius for system, divided invertebrated animals into
two great classes — Insecta and Hermes,— was less happy
in his reduction of the latter into their secondary groups
or orders. The testaceous mollusca occupy one order by
themselves, in which there are four sections of equal
value — the multivalve, bivalve (Concha,) the univalves
with a regular spire (Cochlea), and the univalves with-
out a regular spire .f In each section there are several
genera defined with neat precision, — the characters of
the multivalves being derived from the position of the
valves — of the bivalves from the number and structure
of the hinge-teeth, or, in the absence of these, from a part
influencing the opening of the valves, — of the Cochlea;
from the unilocular or multilocular shell, but in most
from the formation of the aperture; while in the last
division the shape of the shell affords the means of dis-
criminating them, excepting in Teredo, which is defined
" T. intrusa ligno," in evident contrariety to his prin-
ciples and his better custom. The naked tribes are
placed in the order denominated " Mollusca," where
they stand, in " admired disorder," with radiated zoo-
phytes, annelidans, parasitical worms, and the Echinoder-
mata, which latter, however, are better in this strange
miscellany, than they were when they stood either
amongst simple or multivalved shells.
In estimating the merits of this system it is not fair
to look back from our present vantage ground, and
magnify its defects by a comparison with modern classi-
fications : we are in candour to place ourselves behind
its author, and looking forward, say how far his efforts
have been useful or quickening.^ Standing thus we
trust to offend none of his admirers when we admit that
there is nothing in its principle of a novel character:
the soft mollusca were previously recognized and better
assorted by Charleton ; and every one of the sections,
and, if we mistake not, of the genera also, of the shelled
tribes, had been already recognized. It labours under
the censure of having too small regard to the animal, a
censure in some degree just, for assuredly more was
known of these than the definitions of the "Systema,"
would lead us to suppose ; and it had still less regard to
the position of the groups in reference to their organical
affinities. It often associates species of dissimilar habits ;
and species are found in almost every genus at variance
with the character of this, and where consequently the
student ought not to have sought for them. The superi-
ority of it lies in its simplicity; in the regulated subor-
t The expounders of I innaeus' system do not adopt this last
division,— why, it is difficult to say. By disregarding: it they
have injured the naturalness of the method.
t The first edition of the ' Systema Naturae,' was published
in 1735, but 1758 is properly the year which gave birtli to his
oonehological system, when the tenth edition was published.
It was perfected in 1766.
TESTACEOUS FISH.
351
or turbinated, which consists of one piece, like
the box of a snail ; secondly, the bivalve, con-
sisting of two pieces, united by a hinge, like
an oyster; and, thirdly, the multivolve, con-
rl ination of all its parts; in the admirable sagacity with
which tli3 families or genera are limited ; in the assump-
tion of more stable characters for these, and for the clear
distinct manner in which they are applied ; in the
suitableness of Its nomenclature; in the invention of
trivial names which give a facility in writing hitherto
uiiknowu, and was a welcome relief to the memory; in the
conciseness of the specific characters and the skill with
which those characters were chosen ; in the regular in-
dication of the stations which the species occupy on the
globe ; and in the beauty of the more extended descrip-
tions, and the peculiar felicity of language in which the
thoughts suggested by any remarkable structure in the
species under review are conveyed to us. That merits
of this kind should secure him something more than ap-
probation was natural: there was much excellence in it
wh'ch prejudice or jealousy only could not see, and
which folly alone would have rejected ; and while every
collector and amateur found it easy to be understood,
ready in practice, and neat in nomenclaturing their
cabinets, their pursuit assumed the garb of science when
they could tell the scorner that they were following the
steps, and had the sanction, of a man whose genius has
justly won him a place in the first rank of those whom
succeeding ages continue to venerate for the good they
have done iu the promotion of useful knowledge.
While the eyes of almost all were turned to this
northern luminary for light to guide them in their pur-
suit, or as an object by barking at which a few drew
notice on their littleness, Jussieu of Paris, the admirer
of Linnaeus' genius and industry, and his correspondent,
was explaining to his select but few disciples the prin-
ciples of what has been commonly called the " Natural
System." Jussieu's profound studies were confined to
botany, but he had colleagues and contemporaries who
attempted their application to conchology, and whose
want of success is to be ascribed mainly to the meagre-
ness of the anatomy of the mollusca then attained, to the
fewness of the observations made ou the living species,
and in part also to the imperfection of the views of the
authors. Daubenton, the colleague of Buffon, so early
as 1743, insisted on a knowledge of the animal as
necessary to form a natural classification of shells ; and
in 1756, Guttard, who was the personal friend of Jussieu,
not only gave his sanction to this opinion, but showed
its practicability and excellence by defining, from the
peculiarities of the animal and shell combined, a con-
siderable number of the univalves, comprehending among
these, in evident agreement with their relations, though
contrary to general use, the slugs, the Aplysia, and the
Bullfca. But the fullest attempt of this kind was made
by Adanson, whose work on Senegal was published some
years before Linn&us had given the last revision to his
system. Impelled by an indomitable enthusiasm, Adan-
son visited Senegal, under many disadvantages, to ex-
amine and describe the natural productions of a tropical
climate ; and for this purpose he made very extensive
collections in every department of nature, but of his
great work the first volume only, containing the outline
of his travels and his account of the shells, was ever given
to the people. The character of this volume has risen
with the progress of the science, and it is more valued
by the conchologists of the present day than it was by
the contemporaries of its author. He had some personal
peculiarities — too visible in his writings— which could
not fail .to hurt his popularity : an austere temperament,
which caused him to treat his fellow-labourers with con-
temptuous acerbity, — a mind that would neither bend to
nor treat with respect the prejudices as he deemed them,
sisting of more than two pieces, as the Acom-
shell, which has not less than twelve pieces
that go to its composition. All these kinds
are found in the sea at different depths, and
of his age, — an unflinching severity in criticising the
writings of others, and a pertinacious tenacity of his own
views, — while some barbarisms he attempted to intro-
duce into the nomenclature of conchology repelled the
naturalists of a too nice taste, and the very extent of his
requirements from those who claimed to be naturalists
operated against him, for it was not to be supposed that
mere collectors or virtuosos were to enter on so difficult
a path, or would be willing to allow themselves to be
pushed aside as idlers, end put without the pale of the
scientific circle. Shell-fish were, according to him, dis-
tinguishable, in the first place, into " Lima$ons" and
" Conques ;" the former were subdivided into univalves
and operculated univalves, and the conques into bivalves
and multivalves ; these primary families were still
further divided into smaller groups from the position of
the eyes in the Limagons, and from the figure of the
respiratory tubes in the Conques. Now it was a pure
arbitrariness in him to fix upon the operculum as a part or
organ of primary value, for there is nothing in its use or
position to justify the choice, nor did he attempt, by any
analysis, to show that it was a regulator of structure and
habits; and it was equally arbitrary to divide the bivalves
into two sections on the mere existence of a few-
additional pieces over the hinge, for these pieces were
not proved to be an index to the animal's economy.
But Adanson's services to conchology are very great,
— of those of its labourers who have passed in review we
place him next to Lister. He has the merit of having
altogether removed from the Testacea the Lepas and
Balani, whose structure he saw was modelled after tho
type of another category ; his interesting discovery of
the Vermetus was a fine illustration of the shell being oi
itself useless as a character in natural history ; and his
knowledge of affinities was made evident by the acute-
ness which led him to approximate the Teredo to the
Pholas. If not the first to point out the importance of
the operculum, he was undoubtedly the first who knew
its value as an index to natural relationship between
genera ; perhaps the first who was fully aware that the
entireness or canaliculate formation of the aperture of
the shell gave an insight into the habits of the snail in
regard to food ; the first too to point out fully the in-
fluence of age and sex in altering the shape of the shell,
and more especially of its aperture : the first to describe
and delineate the animal tenant of many genera ; and
although his attention was exclusively directed to ex-
ternal characters, yet we are above all indebted to him
for his strong advocacy of the maxim that the anatomy
of the animal was the sole sure foundation of a rational
arrangement which had in view the mutual affinities ol
the objects it attempted to classify, and present them not
fancifully commixed as they might be placed in a
museum, but according to those characters which nature
itself had given them of affinity or dissemblance.
The example of Adanson was followed by Geoffrey
who, in a history of the shells found in the vicinity
of Paris, attempted to arrange them on the external
anatomy of their animals ; and by Muller, who described
in the same manner the mollusi-a of the north of Europe.
The writings of Muller are still deservedly held in high
estimation. They contain the descriptions of many
novelties, and his descriptions of them, as well as of
species previously known, are remarkable for their
accuracy ; they are thickly strewed with notices of the
external anatomy and habits of those he had examined
alive ; and his style of writing is interesting, rising
occasionally to eloquence. As an observer and teller ol
what he had observed, he claims a place among the first,
352
HISTORY OF FISHES.
are valuable in proportion to their scarceness
or beauty.
From the variety of the colours and figures
of shells, we may pass to that of their place
but he was the discoverer of no fact in their structure or
physiology of any consequence — we speak in reference
to the rnollusca only ; and his systematic efforts were
limited and partial, although he sometimes drops a hint
ou the subject, which makes us almost believe that he was
capable of better things, had he had courage to have made
the attempt. In relation to the mollusca, he clearly saw
the impropriety of making the presence or absence of
the shell an ordinal character ; and he knew, vaguely it
may be, the affinity between the bivalvular mollusca and
the Tuuicata.
The celebrated Pallas was another who at this period
had obtained a glimpse of the true relations of the mol-
lusca as a class even clearer than Muller, but he did
not pursue the subject, and as his slight incidental
notice, though it might have originated inquiry in a
predisposed mind, was not otherwise of a nature to pro-
duce any effect, so the pains of Geoffrey and Muller
were equally unproductive. The authority of Linnaeus
prevailed every where. The force of his genius having
swept away all previous systems, there was no other
safety for a naturalist, than to take refuge in the Linnaean
ark, which floated on the surface proud amid the ruins,
— the systems of his contemporaries also sinking one
after another in the waters of forge tfulness. His dis-
ciples were distinguished by their enthusiasm in the
pursuit of nature, and their love of their master ; and the
facility with which they found their discoveries were regis-
tered, and the easy nature of the discoveries which
sufficed to give them a certain reputation, requiring
nought but zeal, opportunity, and a knowledge of the
' Systema' not difficult to be acquired, rivetted their at-
tachments. In England nothing was tolerated that was
not according to the letter of Linnaeus: his works were
a code of laws which, like an act of Parliament, was to
be interpreted verbally, and the spirit of them was un-
seen or overlooked. Under his reforming hand, Con-
chology having passed 'from confusion and incongruity
to lucid order and simplicity,' the slightest attempt to
alter this order was treated as an attempt to replunge
us into the chaos, whence he had brought us, and further
improvement or alteration was declared to be futile, since
the ' beauties' of the Linnsean ' must perpetuate it:
pre-eminence.' Were it shewn that, from the very
subsidiary station the animal was made to occupy in this
system, there was a fear attention should be drawn from
the object most worthy of it, we were seriously told that
the animal, even could it be procured, which was
doubtful, would never present those ' permanent anc
obvious points of distinction' indispensable in the ap-
plication of a system meant to be practical. Wherein
does the animal differ, it was asked in a tone of triumph
signifying that reply was impossible, — ' wherein doe
the animal differ from an unshapen mass of lifeles
matter when coiled up within its shelly habitation i
And how are its natural shape and appendages to be ex
amined, but by the knife of an anatomist?' Were i
proved, what indeed was most palpable, that species o
opposite habits and habitations were huddled togethe
under a common head, it was answered that to deriv
characters from such particulars was contrary to axio:
and uriphilosophical ; and if it were demonstrative tha
the class of Testacea, as a whole, was constituted o
heterogeneous disparates, — as for example, when Palla
indicated the difference between this class and tl
Serpula, — what then ? Nature gloried in variety an
oppositions, and was herself systemless, as if it wer
possible to believe that He who made every thing i
wisdom and order had shook His creatures from h
nd situation. Some are found in the sea;
ome in fresh-water rivers ; some alive upon
nd ; and a still greater quantity dead in the
owels of the earth. But wherever shells
nd, with the same wanton unordered profusion that
he poet has represented the jocund May, flinging the
owerets from her teeming lap. Such were the futile
asons by which this System was upheld, and so firm
vas its despotism that, until within these twenty years,
lere was little or no relaxation on its hold of public
pinion ; and its evil effects are too evident in the super-
cialness of the productions which emanated from this
chool.
Even in France the Linnsean system soon became
ttle less predominant under the leading of Bruguiere,
ut the regard the French paid to it was of a less slavish
haracter than it had assumed in Britain. Bruguiere,
hough a Linnsean in principle, carried forward in some
egree the system of his master by intercalating several
lew and obviously necessary genera ; and he was other-
vise a conchologist of higher attainments than any Eng-
and could at that period boast of. He cannot be said
o have promoted conchology in any very sensible de-
gree", but he made no effort to arrest it, or detain the
cience at the stage where Linnaeus had left it. Nor
deed is it perhaps possible to stop the march of any,
lowever trivial the branch of science, to perfection.
ike the operations of Nature in her living productions
ever tending to maturity, there are periods of accelera-
ion and delay, and causes may for a season induce a
iickly weakness that waits long for a remedy, but come
at last this will. Conchology was now in her sickly
time, — nevertheless in a state of constant advancement.
His, Baster, Bohadtch, Pallas, Muller, Forskal, So-
ander, and Otlio Fabricius, all of whom might have
seen Linnaeus in the flesh, and were his immediate suc-
essors, drew attention to the naked molluscaris in par-
ticular, whose curious variety was enticing and provoca-
tive to further quest; Herissant, Scopoli, Bruguiere, and
Olivi, described many species with their animals, and
entered too into physiological questions which it was
worthy reasonable men to solve ; Knorr, Davila, Mar-
tini Snd Chemnitz, Schroter, Born, Pennant, Da Costa,
and Martyn, set forth at intervals volumes of figures
more numerous in species and more correct than had
been hitherto attempted ; and the minute or microscopic
species, which notwithstanding their littleness have played
a most important part in the revolutions of our globe,
were well illustrated in the works of Soldani, Plancus,
Boys and Walker, and of Fichtel and Moll. Yet this
array of names only proves a wider spread of the study,
— the students may have been, and we think were,
mediocrists, — many of them were simply ichniographists
and collectors.* We can remember no discovery by
which to distinguish the period, for the developemeut or
improvement of an artificial system, the accumulation
of species, and their more accurate discrimination, though
points of considerable importance, are not sufficiently so
to mark an era. Perhaps the most curious and interest-
ing discovery that was made in it is that of the capa-
bility of the snail to reproduce its tentacula, eyes, and
head, when these have been cut off, — the phenomena of
which singular reintegration were amply elucidated by
the experiments of Spallanzani, Bonnet, and others.
* It is most especially necessary to except from this remark
John Hunter, but his labours and views were not published,
and were not appreciated. 'John Hunter was a great discov.
erer in his own science ; but cue who well knew him has told
us, that few of his contemporaries perceived the ultimate object
of his pursuits ; and his strong and solitary genius laboured to
if i
for a list of the Mollusca anatomized and exhibited in Hunter's
Museum : also p. 217, '203.
TESTACEOUS FISH.
353
are found, they are universally known to be
composed of one and the same substance.
They are formed of an animal or calcareous
earth, that ferments with vinegar and other
The first to raise us from this enchained slumber was
Cuvier. Before this great naturalist entered the field,
Poli, a Neapolitan physician, had indeed anatomized
with admirable skill the bivalved mollusca of his native
shores, and had constructed a new arrangement of them
from the characters of the animal alone, but partly from
the political position of Europe, partly from the very ex-
pensive fashion in which Poli's work was published, and
its consequent extremely limited circulation, and in part
also from the partial application of his system and its did-
actic character, the erroneousness of his general views,
and the novelty of his nomenclature,— we cannot trace
its influence either as diffusive or propulsive of con--
ehology. The result of Cuvier's labours was happily
very different. In 1788, when he was scarcely nine-
teen years of age, circumstances fixed Cuvier for a time
at Caen in Normandy. His sojourn on the borders of
the sea induced him, already an enthusiast in natural
history, to study marine animals, more especially the
mollusca, and the anatomies of them which he now
made conducted him to the developemeot of his great
views on the whole of the animal kingdom. With un-
wearied zeal he collected the materials which were at no
distant date to become the basis of a classification which
ran through all its details in a harmonious parallelism
with the developement of organization, so that the stu-
dent of it, when in search of the name and place of the
object in his hand, was necessitated simultaneously to
acquire a knowledge of its principal structural peculi-
arities, on which, again, as Cuvier beautifully explained,
all its habits in relation to food, to habitation, and to
locomotion, were made dependant. The Linnsean sys-
tem of avertebrated animals, even in its primary sections,
rested on a single external character. The Insecta were
antennulated, and the Vermes were tentaculated averte-
hrates. Had the character been constant or even general,
it might have had some claim for adoption, but to a want
of constancy was added the fundamental defect of its in-
appreciable influence over the organisms of the body.
Cuvier's object being to give us not merely a key to the
name, but to make that key open at the same time a
knowledge of the structure and relations of the creature,
such arbitrary assumption of a character was 'to him
useless. After innumerable dissections had made him
familiar with many structures, and after a careful con-
sideration of the respective value of characters, as
shown in their constancy and influence on the economy
of the species, Cuvier resolved to divide the animal
kingdom, not as hitherto into two, bnt into four prin-
cipal sub-kingdoms, drawing their lines of separation
from differences exhibited in the plan on which their
muscular, their nervous, and their circulating systems
were formed. " There exist in nature," he says, "four
principal forms, or general plans, according to which all
animals seem to have been modelled, and the ulterior
divisions of which, whatever name the naturalists may
apply to them, are but comparatively slight modifica-
tions, founded on developement or addition of certain
parts, which do not change the essence of the plan."
Of these forms the mollusca furnish the second, of which
the essential character is derived from the peculiar ar-
rangement of the nervous system, consisting of some
ganglions scattered as it were irregularly through the
body, and from each of which nerves radiate to its vari-
ous organs. As there is no skeleton, so the muscles are
attached to the skin, which forms a soft contractile en-
velope protected, in many species, by a shell. The
greater number possess the senses of taste and sight, bnt
the last is often wanting. "Only one family can boast
VOT-. n.
acids, and that burns into lime, and will not
easily melt into glass. Such is the substance
of which they are composed; and of their
spoils, many philosophers think -that a great
of the organ of hearing ; they have always a complete
system of circulation, and organs peculiarly adapted to
respiration ; those of digestion and secretion are nearly
as complicated as the same organs in vertebrated ani-
mals. The sub-kingdom, characterized and limited •
by those important features, is next divided into six
classes, the characters of which are mostly derived from
the organs of locomotion, or others not less influential.
Thus the Cephalopodes bear their feet and arms like a
coronet round the summit of the head ; the Pteropodes
swim in their native seas by fin-like oars ; and the
Gasteropodes crawl on the belly by means of a flat disk
or sole. Reaching now tribes among whom the organs
of motion are less developed, and accordingly less
influential on their manners, Cuvier resorts to others.
Thus the fourth class is named Acephales, because it is
strikingly distinguished by the want of head and amorph-
ous form of its constituents; the Brachiopodes are
equally acephalous, but near the mouth they have two
fringed fleshy organs which simulate feet ; and the
Cirropodes have several pairs of subarticulated fringed
feet, in addition to a multivalved shell of a peculiar con-
struction. The orders of these classes, when the class
admits of further subdivision, rest upon distinct differ-
ences in the structure and position of the branchiae or
respiratory organs ; and when we reflect a moment on
the paramount necessity of these to the animal, and their
necessary co-adaptation to its locality and wants, it is
scarcely possible to conceive that a happier choice could
have been made.*
Early in 1799, Lamarck published his Prodramus of
a new classification of shells, laying down, more precise-
ly, the generic characters, and establishing many new
genera, and still continuing the old division into uni-
valves, bivalves, and multivalves. Up to this time, La-
marck does not seem to have profited much by the la-
bours of his predecessors towards the establishment of a
natural conchyliological method, but acknowledges that
he has adopted the principles and views of Bruguiere.
Late in 1799, Cuvier published a table of the divisions
of the class of mollusca, at the end of the first volume of
his Lessons of Comparative Anatomy. We see, in this,
that Cuvier derived light from the Prodromus of La-
marck. Indeed, these two great naturalists, by their
successive works, seem to have aflbrded light alternately
to each other for a number of years. In 1801, Lamarck
published his Animaux sans Verttbres, in which, not
confining himself entirely to the shells, he has, like Cu-
vier, paid atttention also to the animals. From this pe-
riod until 1822, when he finished publishing the second
edition of Animatu? sans Vertibres, under the title of
Histoire naturelle des Animaux sans Vert&bres, many
authors, both continental and British, had published me-
moirs alid treatises on conchology, and many interesting
facts had been collected, shedding much additional light
on the science. Part of the 5th and the whole of the
6th and 7th volumes of the Histoire naturelle des Ani-
maux sans Vertibres, are devoted to the conchyliopho-
rous animals, the proper subjects of conchology. In this
excellent work, Lamarck has improved upon the views
of his friend Bruguiere in the follo\ying particulars : —
not confining himself to the consideration of the sheil ;
viewing the shell as forming part of an animal ; introdu-
cing into conchology a great number of new generic
groups ; using a very rigorous and exact terminology;
* For the above sketch of the different systems of conchology,
we are indebted to an elaborate article on the Hist' ry of Con-
rholoprv, in the Magazine of Zoology and Botany, Edinburgh.
1838. Vol. II.
2 T
354
HISTORY OF FISHES.
part of the surface of the earth is composed at
present. It is supposed by them, that chalks,
marls, and all such earths as ferment with vi-
negar, are nothing more than a composition of
and treating as the foundation of the principal division
among bivalves, the number of the muscular impressions.
He has also abandoned the di visions, multivalves, bivalves,
and univalves, which had been followed by most of
the preceding conchologists, and has increased the num-
ber of genera to 261.
Synoptical Table of the Generic Characters of Lamarck's
' Conchological System; arranged according to the des-
cending scale; with some additional genera, distinguished
' by an asterisk,.
CLASS I.— MOLLUSCA UNIVALVES.
ORDER. I.— HETEROPODA.
Having a head ; two eyes ; no arms ; body free ; swims
horizontally ; destitute of a foot ; fins, but irregular. •
Phytliroe and Pterotrachea, destitute of shells.
Carnaria, Cymbium, pi. 31. fig. 1.
ORDER II.— CEPHALOPODA.
DIVISION I. — CEPHALOPODA SEPIARIA.
FAMILY 1. — AMMONACEA.
Mantle bag shaped ; head protruding from the bag,
with inarticulate arms, haying suckers around the
n outlis ; two eyes ; mouth with horny mandibles.
The genera are Sepia, Loligo, Loligopsis, and Octopus,
all destitute of shells.
DIVISION II. — CEPHALOPODA MONOTHALAMA.
Arffonauta Argo, pi. 31, fig. 2.
DIVISION III. — CEPHALOPODA POLYTHALAMA.
FAMILY I. — AMMONACEA.
Baculites, Turrilites, Ammonoceras, Orbulites, and Am-
monites, are fossil.
FAMILY II. — NAUTILACEA.
Nautilus pompilius. pi. 31. fig. 3. Nummulites, Vorticialis,
PolystomeUa, Siderolites, and Discorbis, are fossil.
FAMILY III. — RADIOLACEA.
Placentula, Lenticulina, and Rotalia, fossil.
FAMILY IV. — SPHERULACEA.
Melonia, fossil. " MUiola concentrica.
FAMILY V.— CRISTACEA.
Orbiculina, Cristellarea, and Remtlina, principally fos-
sil.
FAMILY VI. — LITUOLACEA.
Lituola and Spirolina, fossil. Spirilla Peronii, pi. 31.
tig. 4.
FAMILY VII. — ORTHOCERATA.
Conilites and Hippurites, fossil. Nodosaria radicula,
pi. 31, fig. 5. Orthocera raphanus, fig. 5. Belemnites,
fossil.
ORDER III.— TRACHELIPODA.
SECTION I. — ZOOPUAGOUS TRACHELIPODA.
Body of the animal spirally convolute posteriorly, se-
parated from the foot ; shell spiral enveloping the ani-
mal. This order is divided into three sections.
FAMILY I. — INVOLUTA.
Conus betulinus, pi. 31, fig. 6. Oliva utriculus, f. 7. An-
ciUaria glandiformis, f. 8. Terebellum subulatum, f. 9.
Cypraea' Lynx, f. 10. Ocula verrucosa, f. 11.
FAMILY II. — COLUMELLARIA.
Voivaria cylindrica, pi. 31, fig. 12. Marginalia bivar-
shells, decayed, and crumbled down to one
uniform mass.
Sea-shelis are either found in the depths of
the ocean, or they are cast empty, and forsaken
icostata, f. 13. Valuta scapha, f. 14. Mitra tcencata, f. 15.
Columbella rustica, f. 16.
FAMILY III. — PURPURIFERA.
Terebra vtttata,p\. 31. fig. 17. Elurna spirata, f. 18.
Buccinum lineolatum, f. 19. Dolium tesselatum, f. 20.
Harpa nobtiis, f. 21. Concliolepas Peruvianus, f. 22
Monoceros glabratum, f. 23. Purpura bicostalis, f. 24.
Recinida arachnoides, f. 25. Cassis arcola, f. 26. Cassi-
daria echinopJtora, f. 27.
FAMILY IV.— ALATA.
Strombus succinclus.pL 31. fig. 28. Pterocera millepeda,
f. 29. RosteUaria columbina, f. 30.
FAMILY V.— CANALIFERA.
Triton scorbiculator, pi. 31 . fig. 31 . Murex acantfiopterus,
f. 32. Ranetta granidata, f. 33. Struthiolaria nodulosa, f.
34. Fyrula reticulata, f. 35. Fusus longicaiidata, f. 36.
Fasciolaria tulipa, f. 37. Cancellaria asperellu, f. 38. Tur-
binella scolymus, f. 39. Pleurotoma Babylonia f. 40.
Cerithium aluco, f. 41.
SECTION II.— PHYTOPHAGA.
FAMILY I. — TURBINACEA.
Turtiella duplicata, pi. 31. fig. 42. Pttasianclla varia, f.
43. Planajcis undidata, f. 44. Turbo sinaragdus, f. 45.
Monodonta canalifera, f. 46. Tmchus papiUosus, f. 47.
Rotella vestrarius, f. 48. Solarium variegatum, f. 49.
FAMILY II.— SCALARIDES.
DelpUnula ktciniata, pi. 31. fig. 50. Scalaria coronata,
f. 51. Vermetus lumbruxdis, f. 52.
FAMILY III.— PLICACEA.
Pyramidella maculosa, pi. 31. fig. 53. Tornatellajlam-
mea, f. 54.
FAMILY IV.— MACROSTOMA.
Haliotis tvberculata, pi. 31. fig. 55. Stomaiia phymotis,
f. 56. StomateUa auricula, f. 57. Sigaretus haliotoideus,
f. 58. G'alericulumt'cevit/aium. tip. 111.
FAMILY V.— IANTHINIA.
lanthina eacigua, pi. 31. fig. 59.
FAMILY VI.— NERITACEA.
Natica stercus-muscarum, pi. 31. fig. 60. Nerita pelo-
ronta,f.6l. *Neritoideslittoralis,L\.\'2. Neritina punc-
tulata, f. G2. Navicdla tesselaria, f. 63.
FAMILY VII.— PERISTOMIDA.
Amptdlaria rugosa, pi. 31. fig. 64. Paludina vivipara,
f. 65. Valvata depressa, f. 66. Pirena Madagascar ensis,
f. 67. Melanopsis costata, f. 68. Melania granifera, f. 69.
FAMILY IX.—
Lymneea auricularia, pi. 31. fig. 70. Physa hypnorum,
f. 71. Planorbis corneus, f. 72.
FAMILY X.— COLIMACEA.
globosa, f. 81. Carocolla Madagascar ensis, f. 82. Helix
nemoralis, f. 83.
ORDER IV.— GASTEROPODA.
Body always- straight, never enveloped in a shell
which can entirely contain it; foot situated under tho
abdomen, united to the body nearly its whole length.
TESTACEOUS FISH.
355
of their animals, upon shore. Those which
are fished up from the deep, are called by
the Latin name Pelagii ; those that are
cast upon shore are called Littorales. Many
FAMILY 1.— LIMACINEA.
Vitrina elongate, pi. 31 . fig. 84. Testacetta Haliotoidea,
f. 85. Limax rufus, f. 86. Parmacella Olivieri, f. 87.
Ondtidium. Destitute of a shell. P. Calyculata, f. 108.
SECTION II. — HYDROBRANCHI.E.
Bfc
FAMILY II. — LAPLYSIACEA.
DolabeUa callosa, pi. 31. fig. 88. Laplysia radiata, f.
FAMILY III. — BULLACEA.
Bulla amygdala, pi. 31. fig. 90. BidUea catena, f. 91.
*Utriculvs obtusa;L 110. *Akera flextiis, f. 109. Acera.
Destitute of a shed.
FAMILY IV. — CALY PTRACEA.
Ancylusfluviattiis, pi. 31. fig. 92. Crepidula fornicata,
f. 93. Calyptreea sinense, f. 94. Pileopsis Ungarica, f. 95.
Fisurella Grceca. f. 96. *Sipho sti-iata, f. 113. Emargi-
nulafissura, f. 97. Pannophorus Australia, f. 98.
FAMILY V. — SEMPHYLLIDIACEA.
Umbrella Indica, pi. 31. fig. 99. Pleurobranckus plu-
mula,'f. 100.
FAMILY VI. — PHYLLIDIACEA.
Patella vulqata, pi. 31. fig. 101. Cliiton marginatus, f.
102. ChitonMus striatus, f. 103. Phyllidia. Destitute
of a shell.
FAMILY VII. — TRITONIACEA.
Doris, Tethys, Scylkea, Titonia, Eolis, and Glaucus.
Destitute of shells.
ORDER V.— PTEROPODA.
Destitute of foot and arms ; two opposite fins ; body
frue. Pneumodermon. Shelless. Cymbulia proboscidea,
pi. 31. fig. 104. Limacina helicialis, f. 105. Cleodorapy-
ramidata, f. 106. Clio. Destitute of a shell. Hydlcea
cuspidata,f. 107.
CLASS II.— CONCHIFERA. BIVALVES.
Animals soft, inarticulated, without head or eyes, and
adhering^ to a bivalve shell ; having external brancliise,
simple circulation, and a unilocular heart.
ORDER. I.— MONOMYARIA.
With one muscular attachment, and one subventral
muscular impression.
SECTION I.— No LIGAMENT.
FAMILY I. — BRACHIOPODA.
Lingula anatina, pi. 32. fig. 1. Terebratula vitrea, f. 3.
Orbicula Norwegica, f. 2.
FAMILY II. — RUDISTA.
Crania striata, pi. 32. fig. 4. Discina ostreoides,f.b5.
Gen. Birostritus, Calicola, Radiolites, and Sphaerulites,
fossil.
SECTION II.— LIGAMENT MARGINAL.
FAMILY I. — OSTRACEA.
Anomia EphippJiium, pi. 32. fig. 6. Placuna setta, f.
7. VidseUa spongiarum, f. 8. Ostrea cornucopia, f. 9.
Grypltcea secunda', f. 1 0.
FAMILY II. — PECTINIDES.
Podopsis truncata,Tp\. 32. fig. 11. Spondylus spatulifor-
mis. f. 12. Plicatula cristata, f. 13. Pecten radtda, f. 14.
Phlagiostoma semilunaris, f. 15. Lima fragilis, f. 16.
Pedum spondyloideum, f. 17.
of the pelagii are never seen upon shore ; they
continue in the depths where they are bred ;
and we owe their capture only to accident.
These, therefore, are the most scarce shells,
SECTION III. — LIGAMENT ELONGATED AND MARGINAL.
FAMILY I. — MALLEACEA.
Meleagrina margaritifera, pi. 32. fig. 18. Avicula obli-
qua, f. 1 9. Malleus vulgaris, f. 20. Perna isognomum, f.
21 . Crenatula phasianoptera, f. 22.
FAMILY II. — MYTILACEA.
Pinna ekgans, pi. 32. fig. 23. MytUus Afer, f. 24.
Modiola papuana, f. 25.
FAMILY III.— TRIDACNITES.
Hippopus maculatus, pi. 32. fig. 26. Tridacna squamo-
sa, f. 27.
ORDER II.— DlMYARIA.
Muscular impressions two, separate and lateral.
SECTION I. — IRREUULAR AND ALWAYS INEQUIVALVB.
FAMILY I.— CAMACEA.
Etheria ettiptica, pi. 32. fig. 28. Ckama arcinetta, f. 29.
Diceras ariettna, f. <JO.
SECTION II.— LAMELLIPKDES.
FAMILY I. — NAYADES.
Inhabit fresh water. Iridina exotica, pi. 32 fig. 31.
Anadonta cygnea, f. 32. Hyria corrugata, f. 33. Unto ir-
roratus, f. 34.
FAMILY II. — TRIGONACEA.
Casfalia ambigua, pi. 32. fig. 35. Trigoma, scabra, f. 36.
FAMILY III. — ARCACEA.
Nucula tenuis, pi. 32. fig. 37. Pectunculus pilosus, f
38. Area tortuosa, f. 39. CucuRcea, auriculifera, f. 40.
FAMILY IV.— CARDIACEA.
Isocardia Moltkiana, pi. 32. fig. 41. Hiatella arctioa, f.
42. Cypricardia coralliophaga, f. 43. Cardita crassKostu,
f. 44. Cardium elongatum, \. 45.
FAMILY V.— OONCHACEA.
Venerkardia imbricata, pi. 32. fig. 46. *Ortygia stdca-
ta, f. 47. Venus verrucosa, f. 48. Cytherea erycina, f. 49
*Eamleta lincta, f. 50. Cyprina Islandica. f. 51. *Lascea
rubra, f. 52. Galathea radiata, f. 53. (Jyrena fuscata, f.
54. Cydas cornea, f. 55. *Pisidium obltqua, f. 56.
SECTION III.— TENUIPEDES.
FAMILY I. — NYMPHACEA.
Crassina stdcata, pi. 32. fig. 57. Capsa Braziliensis, f.
58. Donax dentictdata, f. 59. Lucina carnaria.t. 60.
*Mysia rotundata, f. 61. Corbis lamellosa, f. 62. *Arco-
paffia crassa,f. 63. Tellinides roseus, f. 64. Tettinapuni-
cea, f. 65. Psammotcea variegata, f. 66. Psammolna ves-
pertina, f. 67. Sanguinolaria Occtdens, f. 68.
FAMILY II. — LITHOPHAGI.
Venempis irus, pi. 32. fig. 69. Petricola Pholadiformis,
f. 70. Saxicava Pr<ecisa,t 71.
FAMILY III. — CORBULACEA.
Pandora rostrata, pi. 32. fig. 72. Corbula sulcata, f.
73.
FAMILY IV. — MACTRAC.EA.
Amphidesma Ludnalis, pi. 32. fig. 74. "Solemya Medi-
356
H1STOIU OF FISHES.
and consequently the most valuable. The li-
torales are more frequent, and such as are of
the same kind with the pelagii are not so beau-
tiful. As they are often empty and forsaken,
rw, f. 81. Matra Stuttorumy f. 1. Lutraria compressa,
f. '-.
SECTION IV.— CRASSIPEDKS.
Posterior margin gaping.
FAMILY I. — MYARIA.
Anatina convexa, pi. 33. fig. 3. Mya arenaria, f. 4.
*Galeomrna Turtoni, f. 5. *Magdala striata, f. 6. *My-
atella striata, f. 7. *CreneUa elliptica, f. 8. *Spenia Bing-
hami, f. 9.
FAMILY II. — SOLENIDES.
Glycimeris Siliqua, pi. 33. fig. 10. Panopea Aldrovandi,
f.U.Solen Vaffina,f.l2.
FAMILY III. — PHOLADARIA.
Gastrochcena modiolina, pi. 33. fig. 13. PJialas dactylus,
f. 14.
FAMILY IV.— TUBICOLA.
Teredo navalis, pi. 33. fig. 15; 16, side valve ; 17, one
of the bivalves ; 18, section of interior part of the tube.
Teredina personata, f. 19. Septaria arenaria, f. 20. Fis-
tulana clava, f. 21. Fig. 22. a side valve. Clavaqella
aperta, f. 23. Fig. 24 a face valve. Aspergillum Java-
num, f. 25.
CLASS III.— CIRRIPEDA.
Animals soft, destitute of head or eyes, covered with
an adhering shell.
ORDER. I.— PEDUNCULATA.
Body supported on a tubular peduncle.
Otion Cuvieri, pi. 33. fig. 26. Cineras vittata, f. 27.
Potticipes mitella, f. 28. *Scalpellum vulaare, f. 29. Ana-
Ufa vitrea, f. 30.
ORDER II.— SESSILIA.
Body inclosed in a multivalve shell which is seated
on rocks or marine bodies ; mouth and tentacula hi the
opening of the shell ; operculated.
Pyrgoma crenata, pi. 33. fig. 31. Creusia verruca, f.
32. Acasta Montagui, f. 33. *Adna Anglica, f. 34. Ba-
lanus Cranchii, f. 36. Coronula testudinaria, f. 37. Tu-
bicinilla balcenarum, f. 38.
DIVISION III.— ARTICULATA.
CLASS V.— ANNELIDES.
Elongated, soft, consisting of segments; having red
blood.
ORDER I.— SEDENTAREJS.
Animals placed in a testaceous tube, in which they
ever live; brancliiae at one extremity of the body.
FAMILY I.— SERPULACEA.
Magilus antiquus, pi. 33. fig 39. Cktkolaria recumlens,
f. 40. Vermdia tnquetra, f. 41. Serpula tubularia, f. 42.
bpirorbts spirillum, f. 43.
FAMILY II.— AMPHITRIT.EA.
Amphitrite venttiubrum, pi. 33. fig. 44. Terelella con-
ehuega, f 45. Sabellana craasissima, f. 46. Pectmaria
Belguxt, f. 47.
FAMILY III.— MALDANI.E.
Dentalium entalis, pi. 33. fig. 48. Brochus reticulatus f
49. Cornuoides minor, f. 50. Clymene.
FAMILY IV.— DORSALI*.
SiHquaria anguina, pi. 33. fig. 51. Arnicola. Desti-
tute of shell.
and as their animal is dead, and, perhaps, piu
trid in the bottom of the shell, they, by this
means, lose the whiteness and the brilliancy
of their colouring. They are not, unfrequently
EXPLANATION OF THE PARTS OF SHELLS.
OF THE OPERCULA OF UNIVALVE SHELLS.
The opening, or aperture of many univalve shells, is
covered, when the animal is withdrawn within, by an
operculum or lid, intended for the protection of the in-
habitant. This is attached to the foot of the animal,
and is either of a horny substance, or is testaceous, be-
ing as hard as the shell itself. This appendage will be
familiar to all who have seen the common periwinkle,
which is abundant on most rocky shores. Its texture
is of a horny nature.
Operculum of Nerita Undulata, pi. 33. fig. 52. Pha-
sianella Bulimoides, 53. Trochus Pharaouis, 54. Me-
lania Byronensis, 55. Neritia fluviatilis. 56. Panlu-
dina achatina, 57. Turbo Pica, 58. Neritoides littora,-
lis, 59. Murex Brandaris, 60. Buccinum undatum,
61. Strombus Auris-Dianae, 62. Trochus littoralis, 63.
Animal of the Manodonta Pica. 64. a, thetentacula, or
feelers; b, the trunk ; cc, the pedicles, with the eyes at
their tips.; dd, the branchite or gills; ee, mantle ;/, foot;
g, the operculum; h, the tail, or that extremity of the
animal which occupies the volutions at the tip of the
shell.
The following are the shells figured, explanatory of
the different parts: — Fig. 65, Fusus antiquus; 66, Voluta
vespertilio; 67, A'lusus natura- of Helix Pomatia; 68,
Spirula Peronii; 69, Cassis ariola; 70, Cyprsea exanthe-
ma; 71, Clausilia ventricosa; 72, Planorbis Planata; 73,
Crepidula aculeata; 74, Fusus discrepans; 75, Doliuin
galea ; 76, Turitella terebra ; 76,* Helix Umbilicata ;
77, Cytherea Chione ; 78, Hinge of Lutraria elliptica ;
79, Solen truncatus ; 80. Cardium elongatum ; 81, Spon-
dylus gsederopus ; 82, Anomia squamula ; 83, Cardium
edule ; 84, Venus Cassma ; 85, Pecten obsoletus ; 86,
Pho^as candidus ; 87, Anatifa striata ; 88, Balanus coin-
munis ; 89, Operculum of Balanus Cranchii ; 90, Chiton
cinereus.
Apex, is the summit or tip of the spire, pi. 33. fig. 65
-a.
Base, the opposite extremity to the apex, pi. 33. fig.
65 — b. In simple univalves, such as the patellae, it is the
margin of the aperture, the tip of the vertex being the
apex. Example of the base in a depressed shell, pi. 33.
fig. 72—6.
Body. The lower volution of the shell in which the
aperture is placed, pi. 33 fig. 65 — m, m, m.
Front, is the place where the aperture is situated.
Back, the opposite of the front, opposed to that in
which the aperture is situated.
Venter, the most bulging part of the front, pi. 33. fig.
65 — c.
Sides, the extreme edges of the shell, pi. 33. fig. 65—
dd. Right is the opposite to that in which the aper-
ture is situated.
Aperture, the mouth or opening — -g.
Beak, the elongated process at the base of many ge-
nera of univalves, pi. 33. fig. 65. t, f. 75— c.
Canal, the inside of the beak, pi. 33. fig. 65. ft, 75— b.
Pillar or columella, is that process which runs through
the spire, for the support of the volutions, f. 76 — a, a.
Platted columella, is when there are folds at the base
of the pillar lip, f. 66 — a.
Pillar lip, a continuation of the enamelled process
which lines the inside of the shell, and is reflected on
the base of the pillar : this also is termed the inner lip,
pi. 33. fig. 65— k.
Outer lip, the expansion of the body of the shell or
outer edge of the aperture, pi. 33. fig. 65—1.
Spire, is the whole volutions of the shell but the lower
one, pi. 33. fig. 65 — e, e, e. The remaining or lower
one is the body, as above noticed.
Crowned or coronated spire, f. 66 — b, b, b.
WJtorl, is one of the volutions, or turnings of the spire,
Depressed spire, is when the spire is partly flattened.
or entirely so, as exemplified in the shells of the genus
planorbis. nl. 33. fiz. 72— o.
TESTACEOUS FISH.
357
al^o found eaten through, either by worms,
or by each other ; and they are thus rendered
less valuable ; but what decreases their price
still more is, when they are scaled and worn
Involuted spire. Those univalve shells which have
their volutions concealed inside of the body of the shell,
as in the Nautili and Cyprsea, pi. 33. fig. 70.
Reversed or Heterostrophe spire, is when the volutions
of the spire revolve in a contrary direction to that of a
common screw; in which case the aperture is on the
right side, hi place of the left, which is the case with
all dextral shells, pi. 33. fig. 71.
Detached spire, is when the volutions are not adhering
together at their base, pi. 33. fig. 67.
Suture of the spire a fine tliread-like line, which runs
spirally between the volutions, pi. 33. fig. $&—f,f,f,f\f.
Sides, are the extreme edges of the shell, when the
back or front is held next'the observer, d, d.
Chambers, are the intervals, between the partitions or
septa, of multilocular shells, pi. 33. fig. 68—66, &c., and
also occur in simple univalves, f. 73.
Siphunde is the tube which extends through some of
the multilocular univalves, pi. 33. fig. 68 — a.
Septa, are partitions which divide the chambers in
multilocular shells, f. 68 — c, c, &c.
Varices, are transverse ribs which cross the volutions
in some species of Murex, Triton, Buccinum, Cassis,
\c., f. 69 — aa.
Ribs, longitudinal and transverse projections, f. 75 — a
a; an example of the former; those in f. 74 illustrate
the latter.
Teeth, some projecting laminae in the aperture of uni-
valves as represented in the aperture of pi. 33. fig. 71.
Umbilicus, a perforation in the base of the body, of
Helices, Trochi, &c., pi. 33. fig. 76*— a.
PARTS OF BIVALVES.
Equilateral SMls, are those whose sides are alike, that
is, both of a uniform size and shape, pi. 33, fig. 85.
Inequilateral Shells, have unequal sides, and of differ-
ent shapes, as in Donox Lutraria, &c., pi. 33, fig. 77.
Summit, is the most elevated part of the shell, in which
the hinge is usually situated, pi. 33, fig. 77— a.
^Base, the opposite extremity of the above, pi. 33, fig.
77 — 6.
Anterior slope, is that side of the shell in which the
ligament is situated, pi. 33, fig. 77— d.
Posterior slope. The opposite of the above, and may
be distinguished by viewing the shell in front, when the
beaks point to the observer, pi. 33, fig. 77— e.
Disk, the most prominent part of a valve, if lying with
its inside undermost.
Cicatrix, the internal impression by which the animal
was affixed to the shell, pi. 33, fig. 77— yg,f 80; d,L 81
— e.
Lunule, the crescent-shaped depressions, in the pos-
terior and anterior slopes, pi. 33, fig. 77 — h.
Ligament perforation, the circular aperture through
which the ligament passes, as exemplified in the Ano-
miae, pi. 33, fig. 82— o.
Hinge, that part by which the shells are united. It
is generally constructed of teeth; those of the one valve
fitting into a socket in the opposite one. Some shells
have no teeth, but are merely kept together by the li-
gament, in which case they are called inarticulate; when
they have many teeth, they are called multiarticulate.
The Hinge is that part which affords the most promi-
nent generic distinction in bivalves.
Teeth oft/te hinge. The number, relative situation, and
construction of these, afford the best specific distinc-
tions in bivalves. A spatuliform central tooth is exhi-
bited, pi. 33, fig. 78.
Primary teeth, are those situated in the centre of the
hinge. They are also termed the cardinal teeth, pi. 33,
fig. 77— f.
Lateral teeth, are those divergent from the umbo; are
usually long, flat, and frequently double, or divided bv
u groove, pi. 33. fig. 80— a a.
Double teeth. When teeth are very deeply cleft they
are so termed.
by lying too long empty at the bottom, or ex-
posed upon the shore. Upon the whole, how-
ever, sea-shells exceed either land or fossil-
shells in beauty ; they receive the highest
Incurved teeth, are those which are bent round, as in
the Spondylus Gsederopus, Solen Siliqua, &c., pi. 33. fig.
* y. — c.
Recurved teeth, such teeth as are bent backwards are
so termed, as in the hinge of the Panopea Aldrovandi,
pi. 33. fig. 11 ;f. 81— a a.
Numerous teeth, are generally set in rows, either
straight or curved as in pi. 32. fig. 37, 38, 39.
Cavity of the hinge, is a pit or hollow hi which the li-
gament is inserted in the Ostrea, &c., as may be seen in
pi. 32. fig. 20.
Ligament, is that cartilaginous substance by which
the valves are held together, and is situated under the
hinge of the shell, pi. 33. fig. 11— k ; f. 80—6. The ca-
vity hi which it is inserted, f. 81 — b; f. 83 — b.
Beak, the extreme point or summit of bivalves, which,
for the most part, is turned aside, or downwards, so
that it is seldom the highest part of the bivalve.
Umbo, that part situated immediately under the
beak, pi. 33. fig. 84— a.
Ears or Auricles, are those processes, situated on one
or both sides of the beak, as in the scallops, pi. 33. fig.
81 — c c. Superior ear, 85— a. Inferior ear, b.
Margin, the extreme edges of the entire shell.
Crenulated margin. When the margin is notched as
in the common edible cockle it is so termed, pi. 33. fig.
80— cc.
Stria, are fine thread-like lines, which traverse the
exterior surface of shells, as exemplified, pi. 32. fig. 62,
63.
Spines, are exterior acutely pointed protrusions, com-
posed of shelly matter, pi. 33. fig. 81— d d.
Rigid valve, may be distinguished by the anterior
slope, pointing to the right hand, when the valve is
viewed with the inside uppermost, pi. 32. fig. 46 — the
under valve, in many species, is flattened, as in the os-
trea.
Left valve, the opposite of the above, or where the an-
terior slope points to the left hand, pi. 32. fig. 46.
Length of the shell — is always understood to be from
that part in which the ligament is situated to the oppo-
site extremity. Bivalve shells are called longitudinal,
when then- greatest length is from the hinge to the op-
posite margin, pi. 33. fig. 80 and 85, from a to b ;
and transverse, when then: breadth exceeds their length
— fig. 77 from c to c; and fig. 79 from a to a.
Byssus, or beard. An accessory filamentary appen-
dage of a silky texture, by which some bivalve shells are
affixed to rocks, stones, &c. as may be instanced in the
common muscle. Sides — the right and left parts of the
valves ; pi. 33. fig. 77 — c, c.
Ribs are longitudinal or transverse protuberances, ge-
nerally running parallel to each other on the external
surface of bivalves. Longitudinal ribs, pi. 33. fig. 83 — a.
Transverse ribs, f. 84.
Accessory valves are small, unattached valves in the
genus Pholas, pi. 33. fig. 86. — a.
Valves of Chitons are placed transversely along the
back of the animal, usually eight in number, pi. 33. fig.
90 — a, a, &c. Fig. 91, a central valve ; 92, a terminat-
ing valve.
Margin in Chitons, is a fleshy border which surrounds
the valves, pi. 33. fig. 90—6.
PARTS OF CIRRIPEDES.— MULTIVALVES.
Operculum — consists of from two to four small valves,
placed in the opening at top of the Balani, pi. 33. fig.
"^-a;f. 89.
Base — the part by which the shells of the genus Ba-
lanus, &c. arc attached to rocks, pi. 33. fig. 87— c; f. 88
— b.
Ligament — a membranous substance, by which the
valves are attached, pi. 33. fig. 87 — d.
Ridges — are com'tJcities in the Balani, &c., sometimes
longitudinal and at others transver&e.
358
HISTORY OF FISHES.
polish, and exhibit the most brilliant and va-
rious colouring.
Fresh-water shells are neither so numerous,
so various, nor so beautiful, as those belonging
to the sea. They want that solidity which the
others have ; their clavicle, as it is called, is
neither so prominent nor so strong ; and not
having a saline substance to tinge the surface
of the shell, the colours are obscure. In fresh-
water there are but two kinds of shells, name-
ly, the bivalved and the turbinated.
Living land-shells are more beautiful,
though not so various, as those of fresh water;
and some not inferior to sea-shells in beauty.
They are, indeed, but of one kind, namely,
the turbinated ; but in that there are found
four or five very beautiful varieties.
Of fossil, or, as they are called, extraneous
shells, found in the bowels of the earth, there
are great numbers, and as great a variety. In
this class there are as many kinds as in the
sea itself. There are found the turbinated,
the bivalve, and the multivalve kinds ; and of
all these, many, at present, are not to be found
even in the ocean. Indeed, the number is so
great, and the varieties so many, that it was
long the opinion of naturalists, that they were
merely the capricious productions of nature,
and had never given retreat to animals whose
habitations they resembled. They were found,
not only of various kinds, but in different states
of preservation ; some had the shell entire com-
posed, as in its primitive state, of a white cal-
careous earth, and filled with earth, or even
empty ; others were found with the shell en-
tire, but filled with a substance which was
petrified by time ; others, and these in great
numbers, were found with the shell entirely
mouldered away, but the petrified substance
that filled it still exhibiting the figure of the
shell; others still, that had been lodged near
earth or stone, impressed their print upon these
substances^ and left the impression, though
they themselves were decayed: lastly, some
shells were found half mouldered away, their
parts scaling off from each other in the same
order in which they were originally formed.
However, these different stages of the shell,
and even their fermenting with acids, were at
first insufficient to convince those who had be-
fore assigned them a different origin. They
were still considered as accidentally and spor-
tively formed, and deposited in the various re-
positories where they were found, but no way
appertaining to any part of animated nature.
This put succeeding inquirers upon more mi-
nute researches; and they soon began to find,
that often, where they dug up petrified shells
or teeth, they could discover the petrified re-
mains of some other bony parts of the body.
They found that the shells, which were taken
from the earth, exhibited the usual defects and
mischances which the same kind are known
to receive at sea. They showed them not only
tinctured with a salt-water crust, but pierced
in a peculiar manner by the sea- worms, that
make the shells of fishes their favourite food.
These demonstrations were sufficient, at last,
to convince all but a few philosophers, who
died away, and whose erroneous systems died
with them.
Every shell, therefore, wherever it is found,
is now considered as the spoil of some animal,
that once found shelter therein. It matters
not by what unaccountable means they may
have wandered from the sea ;• but they exhi-
bit all, and the most certain marks of their
origin. From their numbers and situation we
are led to conjecture, that the sea reached the
places where they are found; and from their
varieties we learn how little we know of all
the sea contains, at present ; as the earth fur.
nishes many kinds which our most exact and
industrious shell-collectors have not been able
to fish up from the deep. It is most probable
that thousands of different forms still remain
at the bottom unknown ; so that we may justly
say with the philosopher, Ea quce scimus sunt
pars minima eorum quce ignoramus.
It is well, however, for mankind, that the
defect of our knowledge on this subject is, of
all parts of learning, that which may be most
easily dispensed with. An increase in the
number of shells would throw but very few
lights upon the history of the animals that in-
habit them.1 For such information we are
Peduncle, or pedicle — a sort of stem, or hollow mem-
branaceous tube, on which the Anatifae are seated, pi.
33. fig. 87— b.
Feelers, or tentacula — are those arms by whioh the ani-
mals of the Balani and Anntifas secure their food, pi.
33. fig. 87 — a. — (See a description of Fossil Mollusca at
p. 25, Vol. I.)
Uses and Value, of Shells. — The greater part of the
lime used in America for agricultural and architectural
purposes, is made of calcined shells: the puhlic streets
of Christianstadt and Santa Cruz are paved with the
Strombus Gigas; and the town of Conchylion is entirely
built of marine shells. The blue and white belts of the
Indians of North America, as symbols of peace and
amity, in opposition to the war hatchet, and by
which the fate of nations is often decided, are made of
the Venus Mercenaria: and the gorget of the chieftain's
war-dress is formed of the Mytilus Margaritiferus. The
military horn of many African tribes is the Murex Tri-
tonis; the rare variety of which, with the volutions re-
versed, is held sacred, and only used by the high priests.
The highest order of dignity among the Friendly Islands,
is the permission to wear the Cypraea Auraritium, or
orange cowry. And Lister relates that the inhabitants of
the province of Nicaragua fasten the Ostrea Viiginica
to a handle of wood, and use it as a spade to dig up the
ground. As matter of traffic, they bear a nominal va-
lue and appreciation proportionate to their supposed scar-
city or beauty. Rumphius is said to have given nearly
a thousand pounds for one of the first discovered speci-
mens of the Venus Dione. The Conus Cedo nulli, so
very rarely offered for sale, is valued at three hundred
TURBINATED SHELL-FISH.
359
obliged to those men who contemplated some-
thing more than the outside of the objects be-
fore them. To Reaumur we are obliged for
examining the manners of some with accura-
cy; but to Svvammerdam for more. In fact,
this Dutchman has lent an attention to those
animals that almost exceeds credibility; he
has excelled even the insects he dissected, in
patience, industry, and perseverance. It was
in vain that this poor man's father dissuaded
him from what the world considered as a bar-
ren pursuit : it was in vain that an habitual
disorder, brought on by his application, inter-
rupted his efforts; it was in vain that mankind
treated him with ridicule while living, as they
suffered his works to remain long unprinted
and neglected when dead: still the Dutch
philosopher went on, peeping into unwhole-
some ditches, wading through fens, dissecting
spiders, and enumerating the blood-vessels of
a snail : like the bee, whose heart he could
not only distinguish, but dissect, he seemed
instinctively impelled by his ruling passion,
although he found nothing but ingratitude
from man, and though his industry was appa-
rently becoming fatal to himself. From him
I will take some of the leading features in the
history of those animals which breed in shells ;
previously taking my division from Aristotle,
who, as was said above, divides them into
three classes: the Turbinated, or those of the
Snail-kind ; the Bivalved, or those of the
Oyster-kind; and the Multivalved, or those
of the Acorn-shell kind. Of each I will treat
in distinct chapters.
CHAP. V.
OF' TURBINATED SHELL-FISH, OR THE SNAIL
KIND.
To conceive the manner in which those ani-
mals subsist that are hid from us at the bot-
guineas. The Turbo Scalaris. if large and perfect, is
worth a hundred guineas; the Cypraea Aurantium, with-
out a hole beaten through it, is worth fifty ; and it has
been calculated, that a complete collection of the British
Conchology is worth its weight in pure silver. In an
economical and political view, they are of no inconsi-
derable import. Pearls, the diseased excrescences of
mussels and oysters, iurm a portion of the revenues of
these and some other kingdoms; and constitute, with
jewels, the rich and costly ornaments by which tlie high
and wealthy ranks of polished society are distinguished.
The Cypraea Moneta, or money cowry, forms the current
coin of many nations of India and Africa; and this co-
vering or coat of an inconsiderable worm, stands at this
day as the medium of barter for the liberty of man; a
certain weight of them being given in exchange for a
slave. The scholar needs not the reminiscence, that the
sufl'rages of the ancient Athenians were delivered in,
marked upon a shell ; the record of which is still corn-
torn of the deep, we must again have recourse
to one of a similar nature and formation that
we know. The history of the garden-snail1
has been more copiously considered than that
memorated in the derivation of our terms, testament and
attestation .
1 Garden Snails. — The most common in this country
of herbivorous Trachelipods, is the Garden-snail ; but
the species whose history has been most copiously rela-
ted, is that called in France the Escaryot, which, though
stated to have been originally imported into this coun-
try, now abounds in some parts of Surrey, and other
southern countries. On the continent, especially in
France, this large snail, which is more than double the
size of our garden one, is used as an article of food, and
though said not to be easy of digestion, is very palatable.
They are thought to be in best season in the winter,
when they are invested with their temporary calcareous
covering, which falls off in the spring.
Early in the spring, snails lay, at different times, a
great number of white eggs, varying at each laying from
twenty-five to eighty, as large as little peas, enveloped
in a membraneous shell, which cracks when dried. They
lay these eggs in shady and moist places, in hollows
which they excavate with their foot, and afterwards,
cover with the same organ. These eggs are hatched
sooner or later, according to the temperature, producing
little snails, exactly resembling their parent, but so de-
licate that a sun-stroke destroys them, and animals feed
upon them; so 'that few,^comparatively speaking, reach
the end of the first year, when they are sufficiently de-
feuded by the hardness of their shell.
The animal, at first, lives solely on the pellicle of the
egg from which it was produced. This pellicle, con-
sisting of carbonate of lime, united to animal substance,
is necessary to produce the calcareous secretion of the
mantle, and to consolidate the shell, as yet too soft for
exposure. When this envelope is eaten, the little snail
finds its nutriment, more or less, in the vegetable soil
around it, and from which it continues to derive materials
for the growth and consolidation of the shell. It remains
thus concealed for more than a month, when it first issues
forth into the world, and attacks the vegetable produc-
tions around, returning often to an earthly aliment, pro-
bably still necessaiy, for the due growth and hardening
of its portable house.
These snails cease feeding when the first chills of
autumn are felt ; and associating, m considerable num-
bers, on hillocks, the banks of ditches, or in thickets and
hedges, set about their preparations for their winter re-
treat. They first expel the contents of their intestines,
and then concealing themselves under moss, grass, or
dead leaves, each forms, by means of its foot, and the
viscid mucus which it secretes, a cavity large enough to
contain its shell. The mode in which it effects this is re-
markable: collecting a considerable quantity of the mucus
on the sole of its foot, a portion of earth and dead leaves
adheres to it, which it shakes off on one side ; a second
portion is again thus selected and deposited, and so on
till it has reared around itself a kind of wall of sufficient
height to form a cavity that will contain its shell ; by
turning itself round it presses against the sides and
renders them smooth and firm. The dome, or covering,
is formed in the same way: earth is collected on the foot,
wlu'ch theu is turned upwards, and throws it off by exud-
ing fresh mucus ; and this is repeated till a perfect roof
is formed. Having now completed its winter-house, it
draws in its foot, covering it with the mantle, and opens
its spiracle to draw in the air. On closing this, it forms
with its slime a fine membrane, interposed between the
mantle and extraneous substances. Soon afterwards,
the mantle secretes a large portion of very white fluid
over its whole surface, which instantly sets uniformly,
360
HISTORY OF FISHES
of the elephant; and its anatomy is as well,
if not better, known : however, not to give
any one object more room in the general
picture of nature than it is entitled to, it will
be sufficient to observe that the snail is sur-
prisingly fitted for the life it is formed to lead.
It is furnished with the organs of life in a
manner almost as complete as the largest ani-
mal : with a tongue, brain, salival ducts,
glands, nerves, stomach, and intestines ; liver,
heart, and blood-vessels : besides this, it has
a purple bag that furnishes a red matter to
different parts of the body, together with
strong muscles that hold it to the shell, and
which are hardened, like tendons, at their
insertion.
But these it possesses in common with
other animals. We must now see what it
has peculiar to itself. The first striking pe-
and forms a kind of solid operculum about half a line in
thickness, which accurately closes the mouth. When
this is become hard, the animal separates the mantle
from it. After a time, expelling a portion of the air it
had inspired, and thus being reduced in bulk, it retreats
a little further into the shell, and forms another leaf of
mucus, and continues repeating this operation till there
are sometimes five or six of these leaves forming cells
filled with air between it and the operculum.
The mode in which these animals escape from their
winter confinement is singular. The air they had ex-
pired on retiring into their shell further and further
remains between the different partitions of mucous mem-
brane above mentioned, which forms so many cells
hermetically sealed: this they again inspire, and- thus
acquiring fresh vigour, each separate partition, as they
proceed, is broken hy the pressure of the foot, projected
in part through the mantle ; when arrived at the oper-
culum, they burst it by a strong effort, and finally de-
taching it, then emerge, begin to walk, and to break their
long fast.
In all these proceedings, the superintending care and
wise provisions of a Father Being are evident. This
creature can neither foresee the degree of cold to which
it may be exposed in its state of hibernation, nor know
by what means it may secure itself from the fatal effects
it would produce upon it, if not provided against. But
at a destined period, — at the bidding of some secret
power, it sets about erecting its winter dwelling, and
employing its foot both as a shovel to make its mortar,
as a hod to transport it, and a trowel to spread it duly
and evenly, at length finishes and covers in its snug and
warm retreat ; and then, still further to secure itself from
the action of the atmosphere, with the slimy secretion
with which its Maker has gifted it, fixes partition after
partition, and fills each cell formed by it, with air, till
it has retreated as far as it can from every closed orifice
of its shell — and thus barricades itself against a frozen
death. Again, in the spring, when the word is spoken
• — Awake I — it begins immediately to act with energy,
it re-inspires the air stored in its cells, bursts all its
cerements, returns to its summer-haunts, and again lays
waste our gardens.
It is worthy of remark, that the terrestrial animals of
this tribe all delight in shady and moist places, and that
during hot and dry weather, they seldom make their ap-
pearance ; — but no sooner comes a shower than they are
all in motion. It is probable that their power of motion
is impeded by a dry soil, and that the grains of earth
»nd small stones, when quite dry, adhere to their slimy
feet. — Abridged from Kirty's Bridgewater Treatise.
culiarity is, that the animal has got its eyes on
the points of its largest horns. When the
snail is in motion, four horns are distinctly
seen : but the two uppermost, and longest,
deserve peculiar consideration, both on ac-
count of the various motions with which they
are endued, as well as their having their eyes
fixed at the extreme ends of them. These
appear like two blackish points at their ends.
When considered as taken out of the body,
they are of a bulbous or turnip-like figure ;
they have but one coat ; and the three
humours which are common in the eyes of
other animals, namely, the vitreous, the aque-
ous, and the crystalline, are, in these, very
indistinctly seen. The eyes the animal can
direct to different objects at pleasure, by a
regular motion out of the body ; and some-
times it hides them by a very swift contrac-
tion into the belfy. Under the small horns is
the animal's mouth ; and though it may ap.
pear too soft a substance to be furnished with
teeth, yet it has not less than eight of them,
with which it devours leaves, and other sub-
stances, seemingly harder than itself; and
with which it sometimes bites off pieces of its '
own shell.
But what is most surprising in the forma-
tion of this animal are the parts that serve for
generation. Every snail is at once male and
female ; and while it impregnates another, is
itself impregnated in turn. The vessels sup-
plying the fluid for this purpose, are placed
chiefly in the fore part of the neck, and extend
themselves over the body ; but the male and
female organs of generation are always found
united, and growing together. There is a
large opening on the right side of the neck,
which serves for very different purposes. As
a vent, it gives a passage to the excrements;
as a mouth, it serves for an opening for res-
piration; and also as an organ of generation,
it dilates when the desire of propagation be-
gins. Within this each animal has those
parts, or something similar thereto, which
continue the kind.
For some days before coition, the snails ga-
ther together, and lie quite near to each other,
eating very little in the meantime ; but they
settle their bodies in such a posture, that the
neck and head are placed upright. In the
meantime, the apertures on the side of the
neck being greatly dilated, two organs, resem-
bling intestines, are seen issuing from them,
which some have thought to be the instru-
ments of generation. Beside the protrusion
of these, each animal is possessed of another
peculiarity; for, from the same aperture, they
launch forth a kind of dart at each other,
which is pretty hard, barbed, and ending in a
very sharp point. This is performed when
the apertures approach each other; and then
TURBINATED SHELL-FISH.
,361
the one is seen to shoot its weapon, which is
received by the other, though it sometimes
falls to the ground; some minutes after, the
snail which received the weapon, darts one of
its own at its antagonist, which is received in
like manner. They then softly approach still
nearer, and apply their bodies one to the
other, as closely as the palms and fingers of
hands when grasped together. At that time
the horns are seen variously moving in all di-
rections ; and this sometimes for three days to-
gether. The coupling of these animals is ge-
nerally thrice repeated, at intervals of fifteen
days each; and, at every time, a new dart is
mutually emitted.
At the expiration of eighteen days, the
snails produce their eggs, at the opening of
the neck, and hide them in the earth with the
greatest solicitude and industry. These eggs
are in great numbers, round, white, and co-
vered with a soft shell : they are also stuck to
each other by an imperceptible slime, like a
bunch of grapes, of about the size of a small
pea.
When the animal leaves the egg, it is seen
with a very small shell on its back, which has
but one convolution ; but in proportion as it
grows, the shell increases in the number of its
circles. The shell always receives its addi-
tions at the mouth, the first centre still re-
maining ; the animal sending forth from its
body that slime which hardens into a stony
substance, and still is fashioned into similar
volutions. The garden-snail seldom exceeds
four rounds and a half; but some of the sea-
snails arrive even at ten.
The snail, thus fitted with its box, which is
light and firm, finds itself defended, in a very
ample manner, from all external injury.
Whenever it is invaded, it is but retiring into
this fortress, and "waiting patiently till the
danger is over. Nor is it possessed only of a
power of retreating into its shell, but of mend-
ing it when broken. Sometimes these ani-
mals are crushed seemingly to pieces, and, to
all appearance, utterly destroyed ; yet still
they set themselves to work, and, in a few
days, mend all their numerous breaches. The
same substance by which the shell is original-
ly made goes to the re-establishment of the
ruined habitation. But all the junctures are
very easily seen, for they have a fresher col-
our than the rest; and the whole shell, in some
measure, resembles an old coat patched with
new pieces. They are sometimes seen with
eight or ten of these patches ; so that the da-
mage must have been apparently irreparable.
Still, however, though the animal is possessed
of the power of mending its shell, it cannot,
when come to its full growth, make a new
one. Swammerdam tried the experiment; he
stripped a snail of its shell, without hurting
VOL. n.
any of the blood-vessels, retaining that part of
the shell where the muscles were inserted;
but it died in three days after it was stripped
of its covering : not, however, without making
efforts to build up a new shell T for, before its
death it pressed out a certain membrane round
the whole surface of its body. This mem-
brane was entirely of the shelly nature, and
was intended, by the animal, as a supply to-
wards a new one.
As the snail is furnished with all the or-
gans of life and sensation, it is not wonderful
to see it very voracious. It chiefly subsists
upon leaves of plants and trees ; but is very
delicate in its choice. When the animal
moves to seek its food, it goes forward by
means of that broad muscular skin which
sometimes is seen projecting round the mouth
of the shell ; this is expanded before, and then
contracted with a kind of undulating motion,
like a man attempting to move himself for-
ward by one arm while lying on his belly.
But the snail has another advantage, by which
it not only smooths and planes its way, but also
can ascend in the most perpendicular direc-
tion. This is by that slimy substance with
which it is so copiously furnished, and which
it emits wherever it moves. Upon this slime,
as upon a kind of carpet, it proceeds slowly
along, without any danger of wounding its
tender body against the asperities of the pave-
ment; by means of this it moves upwards to its
food upon the trees*; and by this descends
without danger of falling, and breaking its
shell by the shock.
The appetite of these animals is very great;
and the damage gardeners in particular sus-
tain from them, makes them employ every
method for their destruction. Salt will destroy
them, as well as soot ; but a tortoise in a garden
is said to banish them much more effectually.
At the approach of winter, the snail buries
itself in the earth ; or retires to some hole, to
continue in a torpid state, during the severity
of the season. It is sometimes seen alone, but
more frequently in company in its retreat ; se-
veral being usually found together, apparently
deprived of life and sensation. For the pur-
poses of contitming in greater warmth and se-
curity, the snail forms a cover or lid to the
mouth of its shell with its slime, which stops
it up entirely, and thus protects it from every
external danger. The matter of which the
cover is composed, is whitish, somewhat like
plaster, pretty hard and solid, yet, at the same
time, porous and thin, to admit air, which the
animal cannot live without. When the cover
is formed too thick, the snail then breaks a
little hole in it, which corrects the defect of
that closeness, which proceeded from too much
caution. In this mariner, sheltered in its hole
from the weather, defended in its shell by a
2 z
362
HISTORY OF FISHES.
cover, it sleeps during the winter ; and, for
six or seven months, continues without food or
motion, until the genial call of spring breaks
its slumber, and excites its activity.
The snail, having slept for so long a season,
wakes one of the first fine days of April,
breaks open its cell, and sallies forth to seek
for nourishment. It is not surprising that so
long a fast should have thinned it, and ren-
dered it very voracious. At first, therefore,
it is not very difficult in the choice of its food ;
almost any vegetable that is green seems wel-
come ; but the succulent plants of the garden
are chiefly grateful ; and the various kinds of
pulse are, at some seasons, almost wholly des-
troyed by their numbers. So great is the
multiplication of snails in some years, that
gardeners imagine they burst from the earth.
A wet season is generally favourable to their
production ; for this animal cannot bear very
dry seasons, or dry places, as they cause too
great a consumption of its slime, without
plenty of which it cannot subsist in health and
vigour.
Such are the most striking particulars in
the history of this animal ; and this may serve
as a general picture, to which the manners
and habitudes of the other tribes of this class
may be compared and referred. These are,
the sea-snail, of which naturalists have,, from
the apparent difference of their shells, men-
tioned fifteen kinds;1 the fresh-water-snail, of
which there are eight kinds; and the land-
snail, of which there are five. These all bear
a strong resemblance to the garden-snail, in
the formation of their shell, in their herma-
phrodite natures, in the slimy substance with
which they are covered, in the formation of
their intestines, and the disposition of the hole
on the right side of the neck, which serves at
once for the discharge of the feces, for the
lodging the instruments of generation, and for
respiration, when the animal is under a ne-
cessity of taking in a new supply.
But, in nature, no two kinds of animals,
however like each other in figure or conforma-
tion, are of manners entirely the same. Though
the common garden-snail bears a very strong
resemblance to that of fresh-water, and that
of the sea, yet there are differences to be
found, and those very considerable ones.
If we compare them with the fresh-water
mail, though we shall find a general resem-
blance, yet there are one or two remarkable
distinctions: and, first, the fresh- water snail,
and, as I should suppose, all snails that live
in water, are peculiarly furnished with a con-
trivance by Nature, for rising to the surface,
or sinking to the bottom. The manner in
which this is performed, is by opening and
1 D'Argenville's Conchyliologie.
shutting the orifice on the right side of the
neck, which is furnished with muscles for
that purpose. The "snail sometimes gathers
this aperture into an oblong tube, and stretches
or protends it above the surface of the wa-
ter, in order to draw in or expel the air, as it
finds occasion. This may not only be seen,
but heard also by the noise which the snail
makes in moving the water. By dilating this
it rises; by cdmpressing it the animal sinks
to the bottom. This is effected somewhat in
the manner in which little images of glass are
made to rise or sink in the water, by pressing
the air contained at the mouth of the tubes, so
that it shall drive the water into their hollow
bodies, which, before, were filled only with
air, and thus make them heavier than the ele-
ment in which they swim. In this manner
does the fresh water snail dive or swim, by
properly managing the air contained in its
body.
But what renders these animals far more
worthy of notice is, that they are viviparous,
and bring forth their young not only alive, but
with their shells upon their backs. This
seems surprising ; yet it is incontestably true :
the young come to some degree of perfection
in the womb of the parent ; there they receive
their stony coat ; and from thence are exclu-
ded, with a complete apparatus for subsis-
tence.
" On the twelfth of March," says Swam-
merdam, " I began my observations upon this
snail, and collected a great number of the
kind, which I put into a large basin filled
with rain-water, and fed, for a long time, with
potter's earth, dissolved in the water about
them. On the thirteenth of the same month
I opened one of these snails, when I found
nine living snails in its womb : the largest of
these were placed foremost, as the first candi-
dates for exclusion. I put them into fresh-
water, and they lived till the eighteenth of the
same month, moving and swimming, like
snails full grown : nay, their manner of swim-
ming was much more beautiful." Thus, at
whatever time of the year these snails are
opened they are found pregnant with eggs, or
with living snails ; or with both together.
This striking difference between the fresh-
water and the garden snail, obtains also in
some of the sea kind: among which there are
some that are found viviparous, while others
lay eggs in the usual manner. Of "this kind
are one or two of the Buccinums ; within
which living young have been frequently found
upon their dissection. In general, however,
the rest of this numerous class bring forth
eggs; from whence the animal bursts at a
proper state of maturity, completely equipped
with a house, which the moistness of the ele-
ment where it resides does not prevent the in-
TUKBINATED SHELL FISH.
363
habitant from enlarging. How the soft slime
of the snail hardens, at the bottom of the sea,
into the stony substance of a shell, is not easy
to conceive. This slirne must at least be pos-
sessed of very powerful petrifying powers.
All animals of the snail kind, as was ob-
served before, are hermaphrodites ; each con-
taining the instruments of generation double.
But some of the sea kinds copulate in a differ-
ent manner from those of the garden. The
one impregnates the other ; but, from the po-
sition of the parts, is incapable of being im-
pregnated by the same in turn. For this rea-
son it is necessary for a third to be admitted
as a partner in this operation : so that, while
one impregnates that before it, another does
the same office by this ; which is itself im-
pregnated by a fourth. In this manner, Mr
Adanson has seen vast numbers of sea-snails
united together in a chain impregnating each
other. The Bulin and the Coret perform the
offices of male and female at the same time.
The orifices in these are two, both separated
from each other: the opening by which the
animal performs the office of the male being
at the origin of the horns ; that by which it is
passive, as the female, being farther down
upon the neck. It may also be observed, as
a general rule, that all animals that have this
orifice, or verge, as some call it, on the right
side, have their shells turned from the right
to the left ; on the contrary, those which have
it on the left side, have their shells turned from
left to right, in a contrary direction to the
former.
But this is not the only difference between
land and sea-snails. Many of the latter en-
tirely want horns; and none of them have
above two. Indeed, if the horns of snails be
furnished with eyes, and if, as some are will-
ing to think, the -length of the horn, like the
tube of a telescope, assists vision, these ani-
mals that chiefly reside in the gloomy bottom
of the deep, can have no great occasion for
them. Eyes would be unnecessary to crea-
tures whose food is usually concealed in the
darkest places; and who, possessed of very
little motion, are obliged to grope for what
they subsist on. To such, I say, eyes would
rather be an obstruction than an advantage ;
and, perhaps, even those that live upon land
are without them.
Those that have seen the shells of sea-snails,
need not be told that the animal which produ-
ces them is larger than those of the same de-
nomination upon land. The sea seems to have
the property of enlarging the magnitude of all
its inhabitants; and the same proportion that
a trout bears to a shark, is often seen to obtain
between a shell bred upon the land, and one
bred in the ocean. Its convolutions are more
numerous. The garden-snail has but five
turns at the most ; in the sea-snail the convo-
lutions are sometimes seen amounting to ten.
There is a difference also in the position of
the mouth in the garden and the water snail.
In the former, the mouth ia-plaeed crosswise,
as in quadrupeds; furnished with jaw-bones,
lips, and teeth. In most of the sea-snails, the
mouth is placed longitudinally in the head ;
and in some obliquely, or on one side. Others,
of the Trochus kind, have no mouth whatso-
ever; but are furnished with a trunk, very
long in some kinds, and shorter in others.
Snails of the Trochus kind, furnished thus
with an instrument of offence, deserve our par-
ticular attention. The trunk of the Trochus
is fleshy, muscular, supple, and hollow. Its
extremity is bordered with a cartilage, and
toothed like a saw. The snails that are pre-
vided with this may be considered as the pre-
dacious tribe among their fellows of the bot-
tom. They are among snails what the tiger,
the eagle, or the shark, is among beasts, birds,
or fishes. The whole race of shelled animals
avoid their approach ; for their habitations,
however powerfully and strongly built, though
never so well fortified, yield to the superior
force of these invaders. Though provided
with a thick clumsy shell themselves, yet they
move with greater swiftness at the bottom
than most other shell-fish, and seize their prey
with greater facility. No shell so large but
they will boldly venture to attack; and, with
their piercing auger-like trunk, will quickly
bore it through. No efforts the other animal
makes can avail : it expands itself, and rises
to the surface ; but the enemy rises with it :
it again sinks to the bottom, but still its des-
troyer closely adheres. In this manner the
carnivorous shell-fish, as some naturalists call
it, sticks for several days, nay, weeks, to its
prey, until, with its trunk, it has sucked out
all the substance, or until it drops off, when
the other begins to putrefy.
Thus it would seem, throughout nature,
that no animal is so well defended but that
others are found capable of breaking in upon
its intrenchments. The garden-snail seems
tolerably well guarded ; but the wall of its
shell is paper itself, in comparison with that
which fortifies some of the sea-snail kind.
Beside this thick shell, many of them are also
furnished with a lid, which covers the mouth
of the shell, and which opens and shuts at the
animal's pleasure. \Vhen the creature hunts
for food, it opens its box, gropes or swims
about; and, when satisfied, drops its lid, and
sinks to the bottom : there it might be sup-
posed to remain in perfect security; but the
trochus soon finds the way to break into the
thickest part of its inclosure, and quickly de-
stroys it with the most fatal industry.
The being liable to the attacks of the trochus
364
HISTORY OF FISHES.
seems to be a calamity to which most of
this tribe are subject. Scarce a shell is met
with entire and sound to the end of its convo-
lutions ; but particularly the thinnest shells
are the most subject to be thus invaded. As
their shells are easily pierced, the predatory
shell-fish, or the sea-worm, chiefly seek them
for subsistence ; and of those thin paper-like
shells, not one in a hundred is found that has
not suffered some disaster. As they are lighter
than other shell-fish, they swim with greater
ease ; and this is the chief method of avoiding
their heavier thick-shelled pursuers. The
food of all snails properly lies at the bottom;
when, therefore, the nautilus, or other thin-
shelled fish, are seen busily swimming at the
surface, it may be that, instead of sporting or
sunning themselves, as some are apt to sup-
pose, they are actually labouring to escape
their most deadly pursuers.
Of all sea-snails, that which is most fre-
quently seen swimming upon the surface, and
whose shell is the thinnest, and most easily
pierced, is the nautilus. Whether, upon these
occasions, it is employed in escaping its nu-
merous enemies at the bottom, or seeking for
food at the surface, I will not venture to de-
cide. It seems most probable, that the former
is the cause of its frequently appearing ; for,
upon opening the stomach, it is found to con-
tain chiefly that food which it finds at the
bottom. This animal's industry, therefore,
may be owing to its fears ; and all those arts
of sailing which it has taught mankind, may
have been originally the product of neces-
sity. But the nautilus is too famous not to
demand a more ample description. Although
there be several species of the nautilus, yet
they all may be divided into two: the one
with a white shell, as thin as paper, which it
often is seen to quit, and1 again to resume ; the
other with a thicker shell, sometimes of a beau-
tiful mother-of-pearl colour, and that quits its
shell but rarely.- This shell, outwardly, re-
sembles that of a large snail, but is generally
six or eight inches across ; within it is divided
into forty partitions, that communicate with
each other by doors, if I may so call them,
through which one could not thrust a goose-
quill : almost the whole internal part of the
shell is filled by the animal ; the body of
which, like its habitation, is divided into as
many parts as there are chambers in its shell :
all the parts of its body communicate with
each other, through the doors or openings, by
a long blood-vessel, which runs from the head
to the tail, thus the body of the animal, if
taken out of the shell, may be likened to a
number of soft bits of flesh, of which there are
forty, threaded upon a string. From this ex-
traordinary conformation, one would not be
apt to suppose that the nautilus sometimes
quitted its shell, and returned to it again ; yet
nothing, though seemingly more impossible,
is more certain. The manner by which it
contrives to disengage every part of its body
from so intricate a habitation, -by which it
makes a substance, to appearance as thick as
one's wrist, pass thrdiigh forty doors, each of
which would scarcely admit a goose-quill, is
not yet discovered : but the fact is certain ; for
the animal is often found without its shell ;
and the shell more frequently destitute of the
animal. It is most probable, that it has a
power of making the substance of one section
of its body remove up into that which is next ;
and thus, by multiplied removals, it gets free.1
But this, though very strange, is not the
peculiarity for which the nautilus has been
the most distinguished. Its " spreading the
thin oar," and " catching the flying gale," to
use the poet's description of it, has chiefly ex-
cited human curiosity. These animals, par-
ticularly those of the white light kind, are
chiefly found in the Mediterranean ; and
scarcely any who have sailed on that sea, but
must often have seen them. When the sea
is calm, they are observed floating on the
surface ; some spreading their little sail ;
some rowing with their feet, as if for life and
death; and' others still, floating upon their
mouths, like a ship with the keel upward.
If taken while thus employed, and examined,
the extraordinary mechanism of their limbs
for sailing will appear more manifest. The
nautilus is furnished with eight feet, which
issue near the mouth, and may as properly be
called barbs : these are connected to each
other by a thin skin, like that between the
toes of a duck, but much thinner and more
transparent. Of these eight feet thus con-
nected, six are short, and these are held up
as sails to catch the wind in sailing ; the two
others are longer, and are kept in the water,
1 Goldsmith has confounded two shells very different
in their characters. The one is an Argonauta, and the
other a Nautilus. The paper argonaut is extremely
thin, spiral, involute, membraneous, and unilocular, or
consisting of a single apartment or cell. It has a narrow
keel, bordered on each side by a row of conical sharp
tubercles ; its sides are nearly flat, with numerous
angular waved ridges ; its colour is white, with the keel
often brown. The shell is very thin and brittle ; from
which circumstance it has obtained the name of paper
nautilus. This shell is the nautilus of the ancients,
mentioned in the writings of Pliny and others. It is
supposed, that, in the early ages of society, the art of
navigation owed its origin to the expert management of
this instinctive sailor.
Learn of the little Nautilus to sail,
Spread the thin oar, and catch the driving1 gale. — Pope.
It swims on the surface of the sea, on the back of its
shell, which exactly resembles the hull of a ship ; it
raises two feet like masts, and extends a membrane
between, which serves as a sail ; the other two feet arc
employed as oars. This fish is usually found in the
Mediterranean.
BIVALVED SHELL-FISH
365
serving like paddles to steer their course by.
When the weather is quite calm, and the
animal is pursued from below, it is then seen
expanding only a part of its sail, and rowing
with the rest : whenever it is interrupted, or
fears danger from above, it instantly furls the
sails, catches in all its 'bars, turns its shell
mouth downward, and instantly sinks to the
bottom. Sometimes also it is seen pumping
the water from its leaking hulk ; and, when
unfit for sailing, deserts its shell entirely.
The forsaken hulk is seen floating along, till
it dashes, by a kind of shipwreck, upon the
rocks or the shore.
From the above description, I think we
may consider this animal rather as attempting
to save itself from the attacks of its destroyers,
than as rowing in pursuit of food. Certain
it is, that no creature of the deep has more
numerous or more powerful enemies. Its
shell is scarcely ever found in perfect preser-
vation ; but is generallv seen to bear some
marks of hostile invasion. Its little arts,
therefore, upon the surface of the water may
have been given it for protection ; and it may
be thus endued with comparative swiftness,
to avoid the crab, the sea-scorpion, the trochus,
and all the slower predacious reptiles that
lurk for it at the bottom of the water.
From this general view of snails, they ap-
pear to be a much more active animated tribe,
than from their figure one would at first con-
ceive. They seem to an inattentive spectator,
as mere inert masses of soft flesh, rather loaded
than covered with a shell, scarcely capable
of motion, and insensible to all the objects
around them. When viewed more closely,
they are found to be furnished with the organs
of life and sensation in tolerable perfection ;
they are defended with armour that is at once
both light and strong ; they are as active as
their necessities require ; and are possessed
of appetites more poignant than those of ani-
mals that seem much more perfectly formed.
In short, they are a fruitful industrious tribe;
furnished, like all other animals, with the
powers of escape and invasion; they have
their pursuits and their enmities ; and, of all
creatures of <^e deep, they have most to fear
from each other.
CHAP. VI.
OF BIVALVED SHELL-FISH, OK SHELLS OF
THE OTSTEK KIND.
IT may seem whimsical to make a distinc-
tion, between the animal perfections of turbin-
1 The Oyster, the Mussel, and the Cockle.— The I
ated and bivalved shell-fish ; or to grant a
degree of superiority to the snail above the
oyster. Yet this distinction strongly and ap-
parently obtains in nature ; and we shall find
Mollusca which inhabit bivalved shells, such as the
Oyster, the Mussel, and the Cockle, are all acephalous ;
that is, destitute of a head. The two valves of the shell
are united at the back by a hinge-joint, often very
artificially constructed, having teeth that lock into each
other; and the mechanism of this articulation varies
much in different species. The hinge is secured bv a
substance of great strength.
During the life of the animal, the usual and natural
state of its shell is that of being kept open for a little
distance, so as to allow of the ingress and egress of the
water necessary for its nourishment and respiration ; but,
as a security against danger, it was necessary to furnish
the animal with the means of rapidly closing the shell,
and retaining the valves in a closed state. These ac-
tions being only occasional, yet requiring considerable
force, are effected by a muscular power, for which pur-
pose sometimes one, sometimes two, or even a greater
number of strong muscles are placed between the valves,
their fibres passing directly across from the inner surface
of the one to that of the other, and firmly attached to
both. They are named, from their office of bringing
the valves towards each other, the adductor muscles.
The simple actions of opening and closing the valves,
are capable of being converted into a means of retreat-
ing from danger, or of removing to a more commodious
situation, in the case of those bivalves which are not
actually attached to rocks or other fixed bodies. Dique-
marc long ago observed, that even the oyster has some
power of locomotion, by suddenly closing its shell, and
thereby expelling the contained water with a degree of
force, which, by the reaction of the fluid in the opposite
direction, gives a sensible impulse to the heavy mass.
He notices the singular fact, that oysters which are at-
tached to rocks occasionally left dry by the retreat of the
.tide, always retain within their shells a quantity of water
sufficient for respiration, and that they keep the valves
closed till the return of the tide ; whereas, those oysters
which are taken from greater depths, where the water
never leaves them, and are afterwards removed to situa-
tions where they are exposed to these vicissitudes, of
which they have had no previous experience, improvi-
dently open their shells after the sea has left them ;
and, by allowing the water to escape, soon perish.
Many bivalved moljusca are provided with an instru-
ment shaped like a leg and foot, which they employ ex-
tensively for progressive motion.. In the cardium, or
cockle, this organ is composed of a mass of muscular
fibres, interwoven together in a very complex manner,
and which may be compared to the muscular structure
of the human tongue ; the effect in both is the same,
namely, the conferring a power of motion in all possible
ways ; thus it may be readily protruded, retracted, or
inflected at every point. The solen, or razonshell fish,
has afoot of a cylindrical shape, tapering at the end, and
much more resembling in its form a tongue than a foot.
In some bivalves Jhe dilatation of the foot is effected by
a curious hydraulic mechanism : the interior of the organ
is formed of a spongy texture, capable of receiving a con-
siderable quantity of water, which the animal has the
power of injecting into it, and of thus increasing its
dimensions.
1 he foot of the Mytilus edulis, or common mussel, can
he advanced to the distance of two inches from the shell,
and applied to any fixed body within that range. By
attaching the point to such body, and retracting the foot,
this animal drags its shell towards it, and by repeating
the operation successively on other points of the fixed
object, continues slowly to advance.
SG6
HISTORY OF FISHES.
the bivalved tribe of animals in every respect
inferior to those we have been describing.
Inferior in all their sensations ; inferior in
their powers of motion ; but particularly in-
This instrument is of great use to such shell-fish as
conceal themselves in the mud or sand, which its struc-
ture is then peculiarly adapted for scooping out. The
cockle continually employs its foot for this purpose ; first
elongating it, directing its point downwards, and insin-
uating it deep into the sand, and next, turning up the
end, and forming it into a hook, by which, from the resis-
tance of the sand, it is fixed in its position, and then the
muscles which usually retract it are thrown into action,
and the whole shell is alternately raised and depressed,
moving on the foot as on a fulcrum. The effect of these
exertions is to drag the shell downwards. When the
animal is moderately active, these movements are repeated
two or three times in a minute. The apparent pro-
gress is at first but small ; the shell, which was raised on
its edge at the middle of the stroke, falling back on its
side at the end of it ; but when the shell is buried so far
as to be supported on its edge, it advances more rapidly,
sinking visibly at every stroke, till nothing but the
extremity of the tube can be perceived above the
sand.
By a process exactly the inverse of this, that is, by
doubling up the foot, and pushing with it downwards
against the sand below, the shell may be again made to
rise by the same kind of efforts which before protruded
the foot. By this process of burrowing, the animal is
enabled quickly to retreat when danger presses, and when
this is past, it can, with equal facility, emerge from its
hiding-place.
The Cardium can also advance at the bottom of the
sea along the surface of the soft earth, pressing back-
wards with its foot, as a boatman impels his boat onwards
by pushing with his pole against the ground in a con-
trary direction. It is, likewise, by a similar expedient,
that the Solen forces its way through the sand, expand-
ing the end of its foot into the form of a club. The
Tellina is remarkable for the quickness and agility with
which it can spring to considerable distances, by first
folding the foot into a small compass, and then suddenly
extending it, while the shell is at the same time closed
with a loud snap.
The Pinna, or marine mussel, when inhabiting the
shores of tempestuous seas, is furnished, in addition,
with a singular apparatus for withstanding the fury of the
surge, and securing itself from dangerous collisions,
which might easily destroy the brittle texture of its shell.
The object of this apparatus is to prepare a great num-
ber of threads, which are fastened at various points to the
adjacent rooks, and then tightly drawn by the animal,
just as a ship is moored in a convenient station, to avoid
the buffeting of the storm. The foot of this bivalve is
cylindrical, and has, connected with its base, a round
tendon, of nearly the same length as itself, the office of
which is to retain all the threads in firm adhesion with
it, and concentrate their power, on one point. The
threads themselves are composed of a glutinous matter,
prepared by a particular organ. They are not spun by
being drawn out of the body like the threads of the silk-
worm, or of the spider, but they are cast in a mould,
where they harden, and acquire a' certain consistence
before they are employed. This mould is curiously
constructed ; there is a deep groove which passes along
the foot, from the root of the tendon to its other extrem-
ity, and the sides of this groove are formed so as to fold
and close over it, thereby converting it into a canal.
The glutinous secretion, which is poured into this canal,
dries into a solid thread ; and, when it has acquired
sufficient tenacity the foot is protruded, and the thread
it contains is applied to the object to which it is to be
ferior in their system of animal genera-
tion. The snail tribe, as we saw, are her-
maphrodite, but require the assistance of each
other for fecundation ; all the bivalve tribe
are hermaphrodite in like manner, but they
require no assistance from each other towards
impregnation ; and a single mussel or oyster,
if there were on other in the world, would
quickly replenish the ocean. As the land-
snail, from its being best known, took the
lead in the former class, so the fresh-water
mussel, for the same reason, may take the
lead in this. The life and manners of such
as belong to the sea will be best displayed in
the comparison.
The mussel, as is well known, whether
belonging to fresh or salt water, consists of
two equal shells, joined at the back by a
strong muscular ligament, that answers all
the purposes of a hinge. By the elastic con-
traction of these, the animal can open its shell
at pleasure, about a quarter of an inch from
each other. The fish is fixed to either shell
by four tendons, by means of which it shuts
them close, and keeps its body firm from being
crushed by any shock against the walls of its
own habitation. It is furnished, like all other
animals of -this kind, with vital organs, though
these are situated in a very extraordinary man-
ner. It has a mouth furnished with two
fleshy lips ; its intestine begins at the bottom
of the mouth, passes through the brain, and
makes a number of circumvolutions through
the liver; on leaving this organ, it goes on
straight into the heart, which it penetrates,
and ends in the anus : near which the lungs
are placed, and through which it breathes,
fixed, its extremity being carefully attached to the solid
surface of that object. The canal of the foot is then
opened along its whole length, and the thread, which
adheres by its other extremity to the large tendon at the
base of the foot, is disengaged from the canal. Lastly,
the foot is retracted, and the same operation is repeated.
Thread after thread is thus formed, and applied in
different directions around the shell. Sometimes the
attempt fails, in consequence of some imperfection in
the thread ; but the animal, as if aware of the impor-
tance of ascertaining the strength of each thread, on
which its safety depends, tries every one of them as soon
as it has been fixed, by swinging itself round, so as to
put it fully on the stretch ; an action* which probably
also assists in elongating the thread. When once the
threads have been fixed, the animal does not appear to
have the power of cutting or breaking them off. The
liquid matter out of which they are formed, is so exceed-
ingly glutinous as to attach itself firmly to the smoothest
bodies. It is but slowly produced, for it appears that no
Pinna is capable of forming more than four, or at most
five threads, in the course of a day and night. The
threads which are formed in haste, when the animal is
disturbed in its operations, are more slender than those
which are constructed at its leisure. In Sicily, and
other parts of the Mediterranean, these threads have
been manufactured into gloves, and other articles, which
resemble silk. — Abridged from Dr Rogcfs firidgewatcr
Treatise.
BIVALVED SHELL-FISH
367
like those of the snail kind; and in this man-
ner its languid circulation is carried on.1
But the organs of generation are what most
deserve to excite our curiosity. These consist
in each mussel of two ovaries, which are the
female part of its furniture, and of two seminal
vessels, resembling what are found in the
male. Each ovary and each seminal vessel,
has its own proper canal : by the ovary canal
the eggs descend to the anus ; and there also
the seminal canals send their fluids to impreg-
nate them. By this contrivance, one single
animal suffices for the double purposes of
generation ; and the eggs are excluded and
impregnated by itself alone.
As the mussel is thus furnished with a kind
of self-creating power, there are few places
where it breeds that it is not found in great
abundance. The ovaries usually empty them-
selves of their eggs in spring, and they are
replenished in autumn. For this reason they
are found empty in summer, and full in winter.
They produce in great numbers, as all bivalved
shell-fish are found to do, The fecundity
of the snail kind is trifling in comparison to
the fertility of these. Indeed it may be as-
serted as a general rule in nature, that the
more helpless and contemptible the animal,
the more prolific it is always found. Thus
all creatures that are incapable of resisting
their destroyers, have nothing but their quick
multiplication for the continuation of their ex-
istence.
The multitude of these animals in. some
places is very great ; but from their defence-
less state, the number of their destroyers are
in equal proportion. The crab, the cray-fish,
and many other animals, are seen to devour
them ; but the trochus is their most formidable
enemy. When their shells are found deserted,
if we then observe closely, it is most probable
we shall find that the trochus has been at work
in piercing them. There is scarcely one of
them without a hole in it ; and this probably
was the avenue by which the enemy entered
to destroy the inhabitant.
But notwithstanding the numbers of this
creature's animated enemies, it seems still
more fearful of the agitations of the element
in which it resides ; for if dashed against rocks,
or thrown far on the beach, it is destroyed
without a power of redress. In order to guard
against these, which are to this animal the
commonest and the most fatal accidents, al-
though it has a power of slow motion, which
I shall presently describe, yet it endeavours to
become stationary, and to attach itself to any
fixed object it happens to be near. For this
purpose, it is furnished with a very singular
capacity of binding itself by a number of
1 M. Mery. Anat. des Moules d'Etan^.
threads to whatever object it approaches ; and
these Reaumur supposed are spun artificially,
as spiders their webs which they fasten against
a wall. Of this, however, later philosophers
have found very great reasotvlolioubt. It is
therefore supposed that these threads, which
are usually called the beard of the mussel, are
the natural growth of the animal's body, arid
by no means produced at pleasure. Indeed
the extreme length of this beard in some,
which far exceeds the length of the body,
seems impossible to be manufactured by the
thrusting out and drawing in of the tongue,
with the glutinous matter of which the French
philosopher supposed those threads were formed.
It is even found to increase with the growth
of the animal; and as the mussel becomes lar-
ger and older, the beard becomes longer, and
its filaments more strong.2 Be this as it will,
nothing is more certain than that the mussel
is found attached by these threads to every
fixed object ; sometimes, indeed, for want of
such an object, these animals are found united
to each other ; and though thrown into a lake
separately, they are taken out in bunches of
many together.
To have some fixed resting place where the
mussel can continue, and take its accidental
food, seems the state that this animal chiefly
desires. Its instruments of motion, by which
it contrives to reach the object it wants to
bind itself to, is that muscular substance re-
sembling a tongue, which is found long in
proportion to the size of the mussel. In some
it is two inches long, in others not a third part
of these dimensions. This the animal has a
power of thrusting out of its shell ; and with
this it is capable of making a slight furrow in
the sand at the bottom. By means of this
furrow it can erect itself upon the edge of its
shell ; and thus continuing to make, the furrow
in proportion as it goes forward, it reaches out
its tongue, that answers the purpose of an arm,
and thus carries its' shell edge-ways, as in a
groove, until it reaches the point intended.
There, where it determines to take up its re-
sidence, it fixes the ends of its beard, which
are glutinous, to the rock or the object, what-
ever it be ; and thus, like a ship at anchor,
braves all the agitations of the water. Some-
times the animal is attached by a large num-
ber of threads ; sometimes but by three or four,
that seem scarce able to retain it. When the
mussel is fixed in this manner, it lives upon
the little earthy particles that the water tran-
sports to its shells, and perhaps the flesh of the
most diminutive animals. However, it does
not fail to grow considerably ; and some oi
this kind have been found a foot long. I
have seen the beards a foot and a half; and of
* Mercier du Paty, sur le Bouchots a Moules. Tom.
ii. de I'Academie de la Rochelle.
368
HISTORY OF FISHES.
this substance the natives of Palermo sometimes
make gloves and stockings.
These shell-fish are found in lakes, rivers,
and in the sea. Those of the lake often grow
to a very large size ; but they seem a solitary
animal, and are found generally separated
from each other. Those of rivers are not so
large, but yet in greater abundance ; but the
sea-mussel of all others is perhaps the most
plenty. These are often bred artificially in
salt-water marshes that are overflowed by the
tide , the fishermen throwing them in at the
proper seasons; and there being undisturbed
by the agitations of the sea, and not preyed
upon by their powerful enemies at the bottom,
they cast their eggs, which soon become per-
fect animals, and these are generally found in
clusters of several dozen together. It requires
a year for the peopling of a mussel bed ; so
that, if the number consists of forty thousand,
a tenth part may annually be left for the
peopling the bed anew. Mussels are taken
from their beds from the month of July to Oc-
tober ; and they are sold at a very moderate
price.1
From this animal the oyster differs very
little, except in the thickness of its shell, and
its greater imbecility. The oyster, like the
mussel, is formed with organs of life and res-
piration, with intestines which are very volu-
minous, a liver, lungs, and heart. Like the
mussel, it is self-impregnated ; and the shell,
which the animal soon acquires, serves it for
its future habitation. Like the mussel, it
opens its shell to receive the influx of water ;
and like that animal is strongly attached to its
shell both above and below.
But it differs in many particulars. In the
first place, its shells are not equal, the one
being cupped, the other flat: upon the cupped
shell it is always seen to rest ; for if it lay
upon the flat side it would then lose all its
water. It differs also in the thickness of its
shells, which are so strongly lined and defen.
1 Some shell-fish are poisonous when eaten. This is
frequently the case with mussels. In the month of June,
1827, a great number of the poor in Leith were poisoned
by eating these shell-fish, which they procured from the
docks. " The town," says Dr Combe, " was in a ferment,
and the magistrates, with great propriety, issued a warn-
ing against the use of the mussels. Many deaths were
reported, and hundreds of individuals were stated to be
suffering under it. Luckily, matters were not so de-
plorable ; but we ascertained that in addition to the man
mentioned before, the companion of our patient, an el-
derly woman, had died. In all, about thirty cases oc-
curred, with great uniformity of symptoms, but varying
very much in severity : but none, so far as I know, have
left any permanent bad effects." To what (ftuse these
deleterious effects are to be ascribed is uncertain. Some
attribute them to disease in the fish, or to its being in a
state of putrefaction ; others to its having fed on some
poisonous articles, more particularly on tho ores of
copper.
ded, that no animal will attempt to pierce
them. But though the oyster be secured from
the attacks of the small reptiles at the bottom,
yet it often serves as an object to which they
are attached. Pipe-worms, and other little
animals, fix their habitation to the oyster's
sides, and in this manner continue to live in
security. Among the number of these is a
little red worm, that is often found upon the
shell ; which some, from never seeing oysters
copulate, erroneously supposed to be the male
by which their spawn was impregnated.
The oyster differs also from the mussel, in
being utterly unable to change its situation.
The mussel, as we have observed, is capable
of erecting itself on an edge, and going for-
ward with a slow laborious motion. The oys-
ter is wholly passive, and endeavours by all
its powers to rest fixed to one spot at the bot-
tom. It is entirely without that tongue which
we saw answering the purposes of an arm in
the other animal; but nevertheless is often at-
tached very firmly to any object it happens to
approach. Rocks, stones, pieces of timber, or
sea-weeds, all seem proper to give it a fixture,
and to secure it against the agitation of the
waves. Nothing is so common in the rivers
of the tropical climates as to see oysters grow-
ing even amidst the branches of the forest
Many trees which grow along the banks of
the stream often bend their branches into thf
water, and particularly the mangrove, which
chiefly delights in a moist situation. To these
the oysters hang in clusters, like apples upon
the most fertile tree ; and in proportion as the
weight of the fish sinks the plant info the
water, where it still continues growing, the
number of oysters increase, and hang upon the
branches. Thus there is nothing that these
shell-fish will not stick to ; they are often even
found to stick to each other. This is effected
by means of a glue proper to themselves,
which, when it cements, the joining is as hard
as the shell, and is as difficultly broken. The
joining substance, however, is not always of
glue ; but the animal grows to the rocks,
somewhat like the mussel, by threads ; al-
though these are only seen to take root in- the
shell, and not, as in the mussel, to spring from
the body of the fish itself.
Oysters usually cast their spawn in May,
which at first appear like drops of candle-
grease, and stick to any hard substance they
fall upon. These are covered with a shell in
two or three days ; and in three years the ani-
mal is large enough to be brought to market.
As they invariably remain in the places where
they are laid, and as they grow without any
other seeming food than the afHux of sea-water,
it is the custom at Colchester, and other parts
of the kingdom, where the tide settles in
marshes on land, to pick up great quantities of
BIVALVED SHELL-FISH.
369
small oysters along the shore, which, when first
gathered, seldom exceed the size of a sixpence.
These are deposited in beds where the tide
comes in, and in two or three years grow to a
tolerable size. They are said- to be better
tasted from being thus sheltered from the agita-
tions of the deep ; and a mixture of fresh water
entering into these repositories, is said to im-
prove their flavour, and to increase their
growth and fatness.1
1 Oysters. — Oysters are said to be in season in every
month of the year that has an R in its name, beginning
with September and ending with April ; but the season
in many places extends from August to May. Every
city has its favourite oyster-bank. In London, the Col-
chester and Milton oysters are held in most esteem ;
Edinburgh has her " whiskered Pandores," and, latterly,
Aberdour oysters ; and Dublin, the Carlingford and
" Powldoodies of Burran." For the convenience of ob-
taining a ready supply of oysters, they are often trans-
ported from their original beds, and laid down on pro-
per places of the coast ; but these exiles are seldom
found in such perfection as those which are called na-
tives— that is, such as have never been rudely torn from
their native homes, and sent on voyages of profit. Oys-
ters, when just dredged, may be so packed in small bar-
rels as to keep good for a week or ten days ; and in this
state they are sent to distant places. They may also
be preserved good for some time by/eediny; and custom,
which brings gourmands to admire game most when in
a state of putridity, has taught them to relish the flavour
of stale oysters better than those recently taken from the
beds. The fresher oysters are, they are the better, but when
to be kept, lay them, bottom downwards, in a tub, or any
vessel suited to the quantity to be preserved, and cover
them with water in which a good deal of salt is dis-
solved ; — change the water every twelve hours. Most
cooks direct that this delicate animal should be fed with
catmeal or flour sprinkled in the water ; and others, on
the principle which leads a mother of the parish of St
Giles to bathe her new-born darling in a drop of gin, are
for feeding them with white wine and bread crumbs !
It is said, by those who have the charge of fish-ponds,
that " fish will eat nothing but what conies out of the
sea ;" now, though we are not perfectly convinced of
this fact, we can at least believe that salt-water gruel
is not over well suited to the delicate stomach of an
oyster. Those large, fat oysters, called Pandores,
which are so much prized in Edinburgh, are said to
owe their superior excellence to the blackish contents
of the pans of the adjacent salt-works of Prestonpans
flowing out upon the beds, a subject worthy the serious
investigation of the oyster amateur, who may here receive
some excellent hints for fattening and improHng the
quality of his favourite morsel.
Shell-fish, and the oyster above all, have long been
deemed highly restorative and easy of digestion: they
are therefore recommended for the food of the delicate
and declining, and of those whose digestive powers have
been impaired by excess. When eaten for health, an
oyster is best swallowed with its own liquor, the moment
the shell is opened : or if found too cold for the stomach,
a sprinkling of black pepper may be allowed. Vinegar
counteracts the effect of eating oysters to enrich the
blood, or render it more balsamic ; and ought, therefore,
to be avoided by the declining. As there are no reason-
able bounds to oyster-eating, it may be' useful to notice
here that, when too many of these or other shell-fish are
swallowed, the unpleasant feeling may be removed by
drinking half a pint of hot milk. Consumptive persons
are recommended to use hot milk after their oysters at
all times.
VOL. II.
The oysters, however, which are prepared
in this manner, are by no means so large
as those found sticking to rocks at the bot-
tom of the sea, usually called rock oysters.
These are sometimes found as broad as a
plate, and are admired by some as excellent
food. But what is the size of these compared
to the oysters of the East-Indies, some of
whose shells I have seen two feet over! The
oysters found along the coast of Coromandel
are capable of furnishing a plentiful meal to
eight or ten men ; but it seems universally
agreed, that they are no way comparable to
ours for delicacy of flavour.*
Thus the mussel and the oyster appear to
have but few distinctions, except in their shape
and the power of motion in the former. Other
bivalved shell-fish, such as the cockle, the
scallop, and the razor-shell, have differences
equally minute. The power of changing
place, which some of them effect in a manner
quite peculiar to themselves, makes their
greatest difference. The scallop is particu-
larly remarkable for its method of moving for-
ward upon land, or swimming upon the sur-
face of the water. When this animal finds
itself deserted by the tide, it makes very
remarkable efforts to regain the water, mov-
ing towards the sea in a most singular man-
ner. It first gapes with its shell as widely as it
can, the edges being often an inch asunder; then
it shuts them with a jerk, and by this the
whole animal rises five or six inches from the
ground. It thus tumbles any how forward,
and then renews the operation until it has
attained its journey's end. When in the
water, it is capable of supporting itself upon
the surface ; and there opening and shutting
its shells, it tumbles over and over, and makes
its way with some celerity.
The Pivot, or Razor-shell, has a very dif-
ferent kind of motion. As the former moves
laboriously and slowly forward, so the razor,
shell has only a power of sinking point down-
Of the univalved shells, the periwinkle (Turbo littoreus)
and common whelk (Bucciuum lapillus, Lin.) frequently
furnish to the poorer classes of our sea-coast towns and
villages a repast, perhaps sufficiently wholesome, and
certainly not destitute of relish. But, even to them
these m?y be regarded merely in the light of luxuries :
it is far otherwise with the still poorer inhabitants of
several of the Western isles of Scotland. Periwinkles
and limpets (Patella vulgata), which so profusely stud
the rocks of their shores, are their daily fare, and on
which they are sometimes reduced to the necessity of
altogether subsisting. In the Isle of Sky, for example,
we are told that there is almost annually a degree of
famine, when the poor are left to Providence's care, and
prowl, like other animals, along the shores, to pick up
limpets and other shell-fish : " the casual repast," adds
Mr Pennant, "of hundreds, during part of the year, in
these unhappy islands."
8 The shell here alluded to is probably the Giant
Chama, a native of the Indian ocean, and the largest
shell at present known.
3 A
370
HISTORY OF FISHES.
ward. The shells of this animal resemble
nothing so much as the haft of a razor ; and
by this form it is better enabled to dive into
the soft sand at the bottom. All the motions
of this little animal are confined to sinking or
rising a foot downwards or upwards in the
sand, for it never leaves the spot where it first
was planted. From time to time it is seen to
rise about half way out of its hole ; but if any
way disturbed, it sinks perpendicularly down
again. Just over the place where the razor
buries itself, there is a small hole like a
chimney, through which the animal breathes,
or imbibes the sea-water. Upon the deser-
tion of the tide, these holes are easily distin-
guished by the fishermen who seek for it ; and
their method of enticing the razor up from the
depth of its retreat, is by sprinkling a little
sea-salt upon the hole. This melting no
sooner reaches the razor below, than it rises
instantly strait upwards, and shows about
half its length above the surface. This ap-
pearance, however, is instantaneous ; and if
the fisher does not seize the opportunity, the
razor buries itself with great ease to its former
depth. There it continues secure: no salt
can allure it a second time , but it remains
unmolested, unless the fisher will be at the
trouble of digging it out sometimes two feet
below the surface.
Such are the minute differences between
bivalved shell-fish ; but in the great outlines
of their nature they exactly resemble each
other. It is particularly in this class of shell-
fish that pearls are found in greatest abund-
ance ; and it is in the internal parts of those
shells that are of a shining silvery colour, that
these gems are usually generated ; but the
pearl is also found to breed as well in the
mussel or the scallop as in the oyster. In
fact, it is found in all bivalved shells, the in-
sides of which resemble that well-known sub-
stance called mother-of-pearl.
Whether pearls be a disease or an accident
in the animal is scarcely worth inquiry. The
common opinion is, that they are a kind of
calculose concretion in the body of the animal,
somewhat resembling a stone in the bladder,
and are consequently to be considered as a
disorder. It is said, in confirmation of this
opinion, that those coasts upon which pearls
are fished, are very unhealthy; and therefore
most probably oysters share the general in-
fluence of the climate ; it is also added, that
those oysters in which pearls are found are
always ill-tasted, which is a sign of their
being unsound : and, lastly, it is asserted, that
the pearl grows sometimes so big as to keep
the shells of the animal from shutting, and
that thus it dies by being exposed. It is easy
to see the weakness of these assertions, which
seem neither true nor amusing. To answer
them in their own way : If a stone in the
bladder be a disorder, a stone in the stomach
of an ostrich is a benefit^ and so it may be in
the shell of an oyster. If the shores where
the pearls are fished be unwholesome to man,
that, instead of being disadvantageous, is so
much the more lucky for the oyster. If the
pearl oysters are the worst tasted, so are kites
and ravens among birds; and yet we know
that they are healthy and long-lived animals.
If the oyster had never its shell kept asunder
by the pearl within it, that would be a disease
indeed ; but this, in reality, never happens;
for the oyster that breeds a large pearl always
breeds a large shell, and the shell itself indents
to receive its impression. The pearl upon the
whole seems bred from no disorder in the ani-
mal, but accidentally produced by the same
matter that goes to form the shell. This sub-
stance, which is soft at first, quickly hardens ;
and thus, by successive coats, layer over layer,
the pearl acquires its dimensions. If cut
through, it will be found to consist of several
coats, like an onion ; and sometimes a small
speck is seen in the middle, upon which the
coats were originally formed.
All oysters, and most shell-fish, are found
to contain pearls ; but that which particularly
obtains the name of the pearl oyster, has a
large strong whitish shell, wrinkled and rough
without, and within smooth and of a silver
colour. From these the mother-oi'- pearl is
taken, which is nothing more than the inter-
nal coats of the shell, resembling the pearl in
colour and consistence. This is taken out,
and shaped into that variety of utensils which
are found so beautiful: but the pearl itself is
chiefly prized ; being found but in few oysters,
and generally adhering ; sometimes making a
print in the body of the shell, sometimes at
large within the substance of the fish.
There are a great number of pearl fisheries
in America and Asia : but as pearls bear a
worse price than formerly, those of America
are in a great measure discontinued. The most
famous of all the Asiatic fisheries is in the
Persian Gulf, near the isle of Bahreen.1 There
1 Pearls. — The Persian Gulf, the shores of Japan, &nd
;he Bay of Condatchy in Ceylon, are the situations where
pearls are found in greatest abundance at the present
day, and where the most extensive fisheries are carried
on. The Ceylon coast, in particular, yields in success-
ill seasons a great produce, the revenue derived being
sometimes nearly two hundred thousand pounds. In
some years, however, the produce falls far short of this,
and this deficiency is generally occasioned by the ex-
laustion, for the time, of the oyster beds. To prevent
;his, the bays where they are found are marked out into
divisions called banks, of which a certain number only are
nshed each year, the rest being allowed to lie untouched.
The fishing season lasts about two months, commencing
in February and ending in April ; and the particular
Danks to be wrought upon are put up to auction by gov-
irnraent, and farmed out to the highest bidder. Pre-
BIVALVED SHELL-FISH.
371
is another between the coast of Madura and
the island of Ceylon ; and there was a third
on the coast of Japan : but as these noble
islanders have a contempt for jewels, and an
viously to this, the banks are surveyed, and the beds
ascertained to have reached a state of maturity.
The oysters are brought out of the sea, not by means
of dredging nets, as in common fisheries, but by men
trained to the practice of diving. They proceed in
boats to the quarter allotted for the season's operations,
each boat containing twenty men, ten of whom are
divers, while ten row the boats and assist their com-
panions in reaching the surface of the water after div-
ing. Five of the divers descend at a time, and when
they come up, the other five go down ; by which alterna-
tion the whole have a certain time to recruit between
each exertion. The fishing commences at sunrise, and
ceases on account of the rising sea-breeze at noon, and
during the whole of the intervening period, the divers
pursue their hazardous occupation. To facilitate their
descent, each of them has a weight attached round his
body, or to his feet, in such a way that he can relieve
himself of it easily. A bag of network is grasped with
his toes, the right hand holds a rope, the left keeps the
nostrils closed, and in this condition the diver fearlessly
plunges in, and speedily reaches the bottom. Hanging
the bag around his neck, he collects as many oysters as
he can, generally about a hundred at one time, and on
making a signal, is drawn up to the surface ; the stone
or weight which assisted his descent is hauled out after-
wards. The length of time he continues under water
is from one to two minutes, although instances have been
known of divers who could remain four and even five
minutes ; and the longest period ever known was that
of a diver who could prolong his stay under water full six
minutes. The sea at the oyster banks is generally from
four to ten fathoms deep, which is a descent easily accom-
plished by the divers. One boat, with the complement
of men we have described, has been known, when the
oysters were abundant, to bring to land thirty-three
thousand in one day, while at other times a hundred or
two are the whole day's produce. The divers on the
Asiatic coasts are all natives, trained to this employ-
ment from infancy, and so expert from custom that they
will make from forty to fifty plunges a-day; but the
exertion is so violent, that water, and occasionally blood
gushes from the mouth, nose, and ears. Some of the
divers use no precautionary means" whatever, while
others rub their bodies with oil, and stuff their ears
and noses to prevent the entrance of the water. They
take no food while in the boats, nor till they have
bathed themselves with fresh water, after returning
to land. The only danger which the divers appear to
apprehend in the course of their occupation, is from
the shark, particularly the ground shark, which is a
native of the Asiatic seas. Some of the divers are so
expert in their movements as to avoid this enemy,
even when they have been under water for a consider-
able time ; but the chief reliance for security is on the
priests and conjurors, some of whom always accompany
the boats, by order of government, to inspire courage by
their presence. Upon the whole, it must be admitted
that few of the divers pursue their occupation voluntar-
ily, but rather act under the compulsion of their employ-
ers and masters.
As soon as the boats land with the oysters an immense
number of labourers, men, women, and children, rush
to them, and carry on" the produce of the day's fishing.
Every speculator has his own group of huts, and in the
midst of each of these is acoutfd, or space of ground en-
closed with poles and transverse pieces of bamboo, but
open to the air. In these coutt6s are deposited the
oysters as they are landed, and there they are left to
abhorrence for such Europeans as come in
pursuit of them, that fishery, which is thought
to be the most valuable of all others, is dis-
continued. The diving business is now
putrefy, which they soon do under a burning sun. It is
a curious fact, that though these numerous couttos, each
containing an enormous mass of oysters, all putrefy
together on a narrow extent of soil, and emit the most
detestable odours, yet the health of the precarious but
crowded population gathered there is in noways affected
"During two consecutive years," says M. de No6, " that
I did duty at the fishery, I never saw a soldier of my regi-
ment sick: Europeans and Sepoys all equally enjoyed
good health." And Mr Marshall has observed to us,
that in this climate, where the effects of vegetable de-
composition are so fatal and so rapid, those of animal
decomposition are almost innocuous. As soon as the
putrefaction is sufficiently advanced, the oysters are taken
from the cov,tt6, and placed in troughs, made of the trunk
of trees, hollowed ; sea-water is then thrown over them.
In this putrid state the oysters easily render the pearls
they contain ; and a number of men, all standing on the
same side of the trough, rapidly shake them out and v\£sh
them. Inspectors stand at each end of the trough to see
that the labourers secrete none of the pearls, and others
are in the rear to examine whether the shells thrown out
as worthless may not contain some of the precious sub-
stance. The workmen are prohibited, under penalty of
a beating, to lift their hands to their mouths while they
are washing the pearls. Notwithstanding these precau-
tions and the vigilance of the inspectors, a man some-
times contrives to swallow a pearl of high price.
The various operations in preparing pearls for the
market, occupy in Ceylon a great number of the inhabi-
tants. After being thoroughly cleansed, they are
rounded, and polished with a powder made of the pearls
themselves, and arranged into classes according to their
various sizes. They are then drilled and strung together,
the largest classes being generally sent to the Indian,
while the smaller meet with a ready sale in the Euro-
pean, market. The operation of drilling is jn exceed-
ingly nice one, and is performed with great expertnes?
by the black people. The drilling instrument is a wooden
machine in the form of an inverted cone, in the upper
flat surface of which are pits, or depressions, to receive
the pearls. The holes are made by spindles of various
sizes, which revolve in a wooden head, by the action of
a bow handle to which they are attached. During the
operation, which is performed with one hand, while the
other presses on the machine, the pearls are moistened
occasionally, and the whole is done with astonishing
rapidity. The colour of the pearls is in general a bluish
or silvery white, but they are met with of- a variety of
hues, transparent, semi-transparent, opaque, brown and
black.
The pearl fishery at the Bahreen Islands, in the
Persian Gulf, is the most extensive in the world, but
very little of its produce is brought to Europe. The
pearls are of a golden yellow tint, and are held in great
estimation by the Asiatics, on account of their retaining
permanently their colour, whereas the white ones are
liable to tarnish, and to lose their lustre. The oyster
shells from this fishery are of a finer character than usual,
and are sent to Constantinople, and to China, where
they are manufactured into a great variety of useful and
ornamental articles. Long before the discovery of
America, pearls were highly valued by the natives; and
the Spaniards, on their landing in the country, found
large quantities of them in different quarters. The
early colonists established regular fisheries, and a great
revenue was derived by the Spanish monarchy from their
importation into Europe. In one year 697 Ibs. of pearls
were brought over, many of them of great size and beauty.
372
HISTORY OF FISHES.
carried on only in those countries where the
wretchedness of one part of mankind goes to
support the magnificence of the other.
The chief fishery, as was said, is carried
on in the Persian Gulf, and the most valuable
pearls are brought from thence. The value
of these jewels increases not only in propor-
tion to their size, but also their figure and
colour ; for some pearls are white, others are
yellowish, others of a lead colour ; and some
affirm they have been found as black as jet.
What it is that gives these different tinctures
to pearls is not known : Tavernier ascribes it
to their lying two or three weeks upon the
shore after the oyster is taken : Reaumur
thinks it proceeds from the colour of that part
of the fish's body upon which the pearl lies.
It is most probable that this colour proceeds,
like the spots frequently found on the inter-
nal surface of the shell itself, from some acci-
dent while the pearl is growing.
The best coloured pearls, and the roundest
are brought from the East : those of America
are neither so white nor so exactly oval. All
pearls, however, in time become yellow ;
they may be considered as an animal sub-
stance converted into a stony hardness, and,
like ivory, taking a tincture from the air.
They have been even found to decay when
in damp or vaulted places, and to moulder
into a substance scarcely harder than chalk.
When the daughters of Stilicon, who were
both betrothed, one after the other, to the
emperor Honorius, were buried, much of their
finery was also deposited with them in the
same tomb. In this manner they remained
buried for above eleven hundred years, till the
foundations of the church of St Peter were
From the fishery of St Magueritta, one was sent to Philip
II. weighing 250 carats, and valued at 150,000 dollars.
From neglect and improper management, the Ameri-
can pearl fisheries now produce little or nothing, and all
that is procured is from the gulfs of Panama and Cali-
fornia. A fishery of no contemptible extent existed
about a century ago in the river Tay, but, either from
being exhausted, or from the market being better supplied
from other quarters, neither at this point nor on any
other part of the British shores does any establishment
of the kind now exist.
Pearls are found on analysis to consist of calcareom
or chalky matter, disposed in thin coats or layers, ai.
arrangement which corroborates the opinion that they
are gradually deposited by the animal upon a small
nucleus of sand, or other -foreign body, which, being
admitted along with the food, causes irritation, to pre-
vent which the animal covers them with a gelatinous
fluid, that grows hard by degrees. A grain of sand is
often found in the centre of the pearl, but many of the
largest want it altogether : and hence we are left in
doubt regarding the correctness of the theory. What-
ever be the cause of the formation of the pearl, there
seems little doubt that it is produced by an unnatural or
morbid action ; and it is not a little curious, upon the
whole, that a little functional derangement in an oyster
should generate a gem, which for ages has been an orna-
ment of crowns and courts.
laying. Their tomb was then discovered,
and all their finery was found in tolerable
preservation except the pearls, which were
converted by time and damps into a chalky
powder.
The wretched people that are destined to
fish for pearls, are either negroes or some of
the poorest of the natives of Persia. The
inhabitants of this country are divided into
tyrants and slaves. The divers are not only
subject to the dangers of the deep, to tem-
pests, to suffocation at the bottom, to being
devoured by sharks, but from their profession
universally labour under a spitting of blood,
occasioned by the pressure of air upon their
lungs in going down to the bottom. The
most robust and healthy young men are chosen
for this employment, but they seldom survive
it above five or six years. Their fibres be-
come rigid ; their eye-balls turn red ; and
they usually die consumptive.
It is amazing how very long they are seen
to continue at the bottom. Some, as we are
assured, have been known to continue three
quarters of an hour under water without
breathing ; and to one unused to diving t
ten minutes would suffocate the strongest.1
Whether from some effort the blood bursts the
old passage which it had in the foetus, and
circulates without going through the lungs,
it is not easy to tell ; but certain it is that
some bodies have been dissected with this
canal of communication open, and these ex-
traordinary divers may be internally formed
in that manner.
Be this as it may, no way of life seems so
laborious, so dangerous, or so painful. They
fish for pearls, or rather the oysters that con-
tain them, in boats twenty-eight feet long ;
and of these there are sometimes three or four
hundred at a time, with each seven or eight
stones, which serve for anchors. There are
from five to eight divers belonging to each,
that dive one after another. They are quite
naked, except that they have a net hanging
down from the neck to put their oysters in,
and gloves on their hands to defend them
while they pick the oysters from the holes in
the rocks ; for in this manner alone can they
1 From the previous Note, it will be seen, that the
period during which pearl-divers are said to remain
under water is here grossly exaggerated. Fifty seconds
is about the time that men in the bay of Naples, who
dive iorfrutta di mare, or small shell-fish, and the Greek
islanders of the Archipelago, who dive for sponges, re-
main under water ; and these two classes nre the most
famous divers in Europe, and likely, from their physical
construction, sober way of living, and constant practice,
to carry their art to its utmost natural limits. Ribeyro,
a Portuguese officer, who was nineteen years on the
island, says, that the Ceylon plunger could stay under
water for the space of time in which two credos might
be repeated, and the Catholic belief may be said over
twice in about fifty seconds.
BIVALVED SHELL-FISH.
373
he gathered. Every diver is sunk by means
of a stone, weighing fifty pounds, tied to the
rope by which he descends. He places his
foot in a kind of stirrup, and laying hold of
the rope with his left hand, with his right he
stops his nose to keep in his breath, as upon
going down he takes in a very long inspira-
tion. They are no sooner come to the bottom,
but they give the signal to those who are in
the boat to draw up the stone ; which done,
they go to work, filling their net as fast as
they can ; and then giving another signal, the
boats above pull up the net loaded with oysters,
and shortly after the diver himself, to take a
new inspiration. They dive to the depth of
fifteen fathoms, and seldom go deeper. They
generally go every morning by break of day
to this fatiguing employment, taking the land
wind to waft them out to sea, atid returning
with the sea-breeze at night. The owners of
the boats usually hire the divers, and the rest
of the boat's crew, as we do our labourers, at
so much a day. All the oysters are brought
on shore, where they are laid in a great heap,
till the pearl fishery is over, which continues
during the months of November and Decem-
ber. When opportunity serves, they then ex-
amine every oyster, and it is accidental whether
the capture turns out advantageous. Indeed no
human being can wish well to a commerce,
which thus chains such a number of fellow-
creatures to the bottom, to pluck up a glitter-
ing mouldering pebble.
CHAP. VII.
OF MULT1 VALVE SHELL- FISH.
MULTIVALVB Shell- Fish may be considered
as animals shut up in round boxes. To view
their habitations externally, one would be
little apt to consider them as the retreats of
living creatures; and still less, to suppose that
some of them carry their boxes with a toler-
able share of swiftness, so as to escape their
pursuers. Of these there are principally two
kinds ; such as move, arid such as are station-
ary : the first are usually known in our cabi-
nets by the name of Sea-eggs ; the others are
as often admired, from the cavities which they
scoop out for their habitation in the hardest
marble. The first are called by naturalists,
Echini, or Urchins ;J the latter are called
1 The sea-urchins are very improperly placed in the
multivalve division of shells, as they are very different
from testaceous worms, not only in their functions, but
also in the composition of their shells. They are placed
by naturalists in the crustaceous order, the shells or
crusts of Echini being composed of phosphate of lime with
animal matter; those of the testaceous shells being car-
bonate of lime.
Pholades, or File fish. Of both there are '
several sorts ; but, by describing these two,
we shall have a competent idea of all the rest.
On a slight view, the sea-urchin may be
compared to the husk of a~chestnut ; being,
like it, round, and with a number of bony
prickles standing out on every side. To
exhibit this extraordinary animal in every
light — if we could conceive a turnip stuck full
of pins on every side, and running upon these
pins with some degree of swiftness, we should
have some idea of this extraordinary creature.
The mouth is placed downwards ; the vent is
above; the shell is a hollow vase, resembling
a scooped apple ; and this filled with a soft
muscular substance, through which the intes-
tines wind from the bottom to the top. The
mouth, which is placed undermost, is large
and red, furnished with five sharp teeth,
which are easily discerned. The jaws are
strengthened by five small bones, in the
centre of which is a small fleshy tongue ; and
from this the intestines make a winding of
five spires, round the internal sides of the
shell, ending at the top, where the excrements
are excluded. But what makes the most ex-
traordinary part of this animal's conformation,
are its horns and its spines, that point from
every part of the body, like the horns of a
snail, and that serve at once as legs to move
upon, as arms to feel with, and as instruments
of cnpture and defence. Between these horns
it has also spines that are not endued with
such a share of motion. The spines and the
horns issue from every part of its body ; the
spines being hard and prickly ; the horns
being soft, longer than the spines, and never
seen except in the water. They are put for-
ward and withdrawn like the horns of a snail,
and are hid in the bases of the spines, serving,
as was said before, for procuring food and
motion. All this apparatus, however, is only
seen when the animal is hunting its prey at
the bottom of the water ; for a few minutes
after it is taken, all the horns are withdrawn
into the body, and most of the spines drop off'.
It is generally said of insects, that those
which have the greatest number of legs
always move the slowest ; but this animal
seems to be an exception to the rule ; for
though furnished with two thousand spines,
and twelve hundred horns, all serving for legs,
and from their number seeming to impede
each other's motion, yet it runs with some
share of swiftness at the bottom, and it is
sometimes no easy matter to overtake it. It
is often taken upon the ebb, by following it
in shallow water, either in an osier basket,
or simply with the hand. Both the spines
and the horns assist its motion ; and the ani-
rnal is usually seen running with the mouth
downward.
374.
HISTORY OF FISHES.
Some kinds of this animal are as good eating
as the lobster ; and its eggs, which are of a deep
red, are considered as a very great delicacy.
But of others the taste is but indifferent ; and in
all places, except the Mediterranean, they are
little sought for, except as objects of curiosity.
Very different in motion, though not much
different in shape, from these, are the Acorn
Shell- Fish, the Thumb-footed Shell- Fish, and
the imaginary Barnacle. These are fixed to
one spot, and appear to vegetate from a stalk.
Indeed, to an inattentive spectator, each actu-
ally seems to be a kind of fungus that grows
in the deep, destitute of animal life, as well
as motion. But the inquirer will soon change
his opinion, when he comes to observe this
mushroom-like figure more minutely. He
will then see that the animal residing within
the shell has not only life, but some degree of
voraciousness ; that it has a cover, by which
it opens and shuts its shell at pleasure ; that
it has twelve long crooked arms, furnished
with hair, which it thrusts forth for its prey ;
and eight smaller, which are generally kept
in the shell. They are seen adhering to every
substance that is to be met with in the ocean ;
rocks, roots of trees, ships' bottoms, whales,
lobsters, and even crabs, like bunches of
grapes clung to each other. It is amusing
enough to behold their operations.1 They for
some time remain motionless within their
shell ; but when the sea is calm, they are seen
opening the lid, and peeping about them.
They then thrust out their long neck, look
round them for some time, and then abruptly
retreat back into their box, shut their lid, and
lurk in darkness and security. Some people eat
them ; but they are in no great repute at the
tables of the luxurious, where their deformed
figure would be no objection to their being
introduced.
Of all animals of the shelly tribe, the
Pholades are the most wonderful. From their
great powers of penetration, compared with
their apparent imbecility, they justly excite
the astonishment of the curious observer.
These animals are found in different places;
sometimes clothed in their proper shell, at the
bottom of the water ; sometimes concealed in
lumps of marly earth ; and sometimes lodged,
shell and all, in the body of the hardest marble.
In their proper shell they assume different fig-
ures ; but, in general, they somewhat resem-
ble a mussel, except that their shell is found
actually composed of five or more pieces, the
smaller valves serving to close up the open-
ings left by the irregular meeting of the two
principal shells. But their penetration into
rocks, and their residence there, makes up
the most wonderful part of their history.
1 Anderson's History of Greenland.
This animal, when divested of its shell, re-
sembles a roundish soft pudding, with no in-
strument that seems in the least fitted for
boring in to stones, or even penetrating the soft-
est substances. It is furnished with two
teeth indeed: but these are placed in such a
situation as to be incapable of touching the
hollow surface of its stony dwelling : it has
also two covers to its shell, that open and shut
at either end ; but these are totally unservice-
able to it as a miner. The instrument with
which it performs all its operations, and
buries itself in -the hardest rocks, is only a
broad fleshy substance, somewhat resembling
a tongue, that is seen issuing from the bottom
of its shell. With this soft yieldirtg instru-
ment, it perforates the most solid marbles ; and
having, while yet little and young, made its
way, by a very narrow entrance, into the sub-
stance of the stone, it then begins to grow
bigger, and thus to enlarge its apartment.
The seeming unfitness, however, of this
animal for penetrating into rocks, and there
forming a habitation, has induced many
philosophers to suppose that they entered the
rock while it was yet in a soft state, and from
the petrifying quality of the water, that the
whole rock hardened round them by degrees.
Thus any penetrating quality, it was thought,
was unjustly ascribed to. them, as they only
bored into a soft substance, that was hardened
by time. This opinion, however, has been
confuted, in a very satisfactory manner, by
Dr Bohads, who observed that many of the
pillars of the temple of Serapis at Puteoii
were penetrated by these animals. From
thence he very justly concludes, that the
pholades must have pierced into them since
they were erected ; for no workman would
have laboured a pillar into form, if it had been
honey-combed by worms in the quarry. In
short, there can be no doubt but that the
pillars were perfectly sound when erected ;
and that the pholades have attacked them,
during the time in which they continued
buried under water, by means of the earth-
quake that swallowed up the city.2
From hence it appears that, in all nature,
there is not a greater instance of perseverance
and patience than what this animal is seen to
exhibit. Furnished with the bluntest and
sofest auger, by slow successive applications,
it effects what other animals are incapable of
performing by force ; penetrating the hardest
bodies only with its tongue. When, while
yet naked, and very small, it has effected an
entrance, and has buried its body in the stone,
it there continues for life at its ease ; the sea-
water that enters at the little aperture sup-
plying it with luxurious plenty. When the
* Bohadschde Animalibus Marinis, p. 153.
BIVALVED SHELL-FISH.
375
animal has taken too great a quantity of water,
it is seen to spurt it out of its hole with some
violence. Upon this seemingly thin diet it
quickly grows larger, and soon finds itself
under a necessity of enlarging its habitation
and its shell. The motion of the pholas is
slow beyond conception ; its progress keeps
pace with the growth of its body ; and, in
proportion as it becomes larger, it makes its
way farther into the rock. When it has got
a certain way in, it then turns from its former
direction, and hollows downward ; till at last,
when its habitation is completed, the whole
apartment resembles the bowl of a tobacco
pipe; the hole in the shank being that by
which the animal entered.
Thus immured, the pholas lives in darkness,
indolence, and plenty ; it never removes from
the narrow mansion into which it has pene-
trated ; and seems perfectly content with
being inclosed in its own sepulchre. The
influx of the sea-warer that enters by its little
gallery satisfies all its wants ; and, without
any other food, it is found to grow from seven
to eight inches long, and thick in proportion.
But they are not supplied only with their
rocky habitation ; they have also a shell to
protect them : this shell grows upon them in
the body of the rock, and seems a very
unnecessary addition to their defence, which
they have procured themselves by art. These
shells take different forms, and are often com-
posed of a different number of valves ; some-
times six, sometimes but three ; sometimes
the shell resembles a tube with holes at either
end, one for the mouth, and the other for void-
ing the excrements.
Yet the pholas thus shut up, is not so soli-
tary an animal as it would at first appear ; for
though it is immured in its hole without egress,
though it is impossible for the animal, grown
to a great size, to get out by the way it made
in, yet many of this kind often meet in the
heart of the rock, and like miners in a siege,
who sometimes cross each other's galleries,
they frequently break in upon each other's
retreats. Whether their thus meeting be the
work of accident or of choice, few can take
upon them to determine : certain it is, they
are most commonly found in numbers in the
same rock ; and sometimes, above twenty are
discovered within a few inches of each other.1
1 Molluscae. — Mzfhy may have probably noticed, in
their ramblings along the sea beach, certain gelatinous
transparent masses deposited by the receding tide upon
the sands. They resemble very large planoconvex lenses,
and are devoid of colour, except in a few minute points,
which appear like grains of yellow sand, or the eggs of
some shells embedded in their substance. This has led
many to consider them as the spawn of some marine ani-
mal. If one of these jellies be placed in a tub of brine
immediately after it reaches the shore, the observer, will
be surprised to find it possessed of animation. The su-
As to the rest, this animal is found in great-
est numbers at Anconar in Italy ; it is found
along the shores of ^Tormandy and Poitou, in
France ; it is found also upon some of the
coasts of Scotland : and, in general, is con-
sidered as a very great delicacy at the tables
of the luxurious.
perior, or convex part, will expand like the top of an
umbrella, and from its under surface several fringed and
leaf-like membranes will be developed. The remains
of numerous threads, or tendrils, will float out from the
margin of the umbrella, following the motions of the ani.
mal as it swims around the tub. These threads are often
several feet in length before they are broken by the sand;
they are probably employed both to entice and secure the
prey, and they produce a sharp, stinging sensation, when
applied to the skin. It is from the appearance and offen-
sive power of these last organs, that seamen have given
the animal the title of the sea nettle, and naturalists the
generic name Medusa.
The medusa is a familiar example of the class of
animated beings which are the subjects of the following
remarks. They are all alike gelatinous and transparent,
and many of them melt and flow away when exposed in
the open air to the direct rays of the sun.
' Of all the tribes of molluscae which are scattered over
every part of the ocean, the most splendid and the best
known is the Portuguese man-of-war (Physalia). This
is an oblong animated sack of air, elongated at one extre-
mity into a conical neck, and surmounted by a mem-
braneous expansion running nearly the whole length of
the body, and rising above into a semicirclar sail, which
can be expanded or contracted to a considerable extent,
at the pleasure of the animal. From beneath the body
are suspended from ten to fifty or more little tubes, from
half an inch to an inch in length, open at their lower ex-
tremity, and formed like the flower of the blue-bottle.
These have been regarded as temporary receptacles for
food, like the first stomach of cattle ; but as the animal
is destitute of any visible mouth or alimentary canal, and
as I have frequently seen fish in their cavities apparently
half digested, I cannot but consider them as proper stom-
achs ; nor indeed is it a greater paradox in zoology that
an animal should possess many independent stomachs ;
than that the strange carnivorous vegetable, the saraciriea,
should make Use of its leaves apparently for a similar
purpose. From the centre of this group of stomachs
depends a little cord, never exceeding the fourth of an
inch in thickness, and often forty times as long as the
body. The size of the Portuguese man-of-war varies from
half an inch to six inches in length. When it is in mo-
tion, the sail is accommodated to the force of the breeze,
and the elongated neck is curved upward, giving to the
animal a form strongly resembling the little glass swans
which we sometimes see swimming in goblets.
The mode in which the animal .secures his prey has*
been a subject of much speculation, for the fish and crabs
that are frequently found within the little tubes are often
large enough to tear them in pieces could they retain
their natural vigour during the contest. Deceived by the
extreme pain which is felt when the cable is brought into
contact with the back of the hand, naturalists have con-
cluded, I think too hastily, that this organ secretes a poi-
sonous or acrid fluid, by which it benumbs any unfortu-
nate fish or other animal that ventures within its toils,
allured by the hope of making a meal upon what, in its
ignorance, it has mistaken for a worm. The secret will
be better explained by a more careful examination of the
organ itself. The cord is composed of a narrow layer of
contractile fibres, scarcely visible when relaxed, 011 ac-
count of its transparency. If the animal be large, this
layer of fibres will sometimes extend itself to the length
S76
HISTORY OF FISHES.
of four or five yards. A spiral line of blue bead-like bo-
dies, less than the head of a pin, revolves around the
cable from end to end, and under the microscope these
beads appear covered with minute prickles, so hard and
sharp, that they will readily enter the substance of wood,
adhering with such pertinacity that the cord can rarely
be detached without breaking. It is to these prickles
that the man-of-war owes its power of destroying animals
much its superior in strength and activity. When any
thing becomes impaled upon the cord the contractile
fibres are called into action, and rapidly shrink from
many feet in length to less than the same number of
inches, bringing the prey within reach of the little tubes
by one of which it is immediately swallowed.
I might now proceed to describe many analogous ani-
mals scarcely inferior in interest, but it is time to notice
some individuals of another tribe, residing beneath the
surface, and therefore less generally known.
The grandest of these is the beroe. In size and form
it precisely resembles a purse, the mouth, or orifice, an-
swering to one of the modern metallic clasps. It is per-
fectly transparent ; and in order to distinguish its filmy
outlines, it is necessary to place it in a tumbler of brine
held between the observer and the light. lu certain di-
rections the whole body appears faintly irridescent, but
there are several longitudinal narrow lines which reflect
the full rich tints of the rainbow in the most vivid man-
ner, for ever varying and mingling the hues, even while
the animal remains at rest. Under the microscope these
lines display a succession of innumerable coloured scales
or minute fins, which are kept unceasingly in motion,
thus producing the play of colours by continually chang-
ing the angle of reflection. The movements of the beroe
are generally retrograde, and are not aided by the col-
oured -scales, but depend upon the alternate contraction
and dilatation of the mouth. The lips are never per-
fectly closed, and the little fish and shrimps which play
around them are continually entering and leaving them
at pleasure. The animal is dependent for its food upon
such semi-animated substances as it draws within its
grasp by moving slowly backwards in the water, and
retains them in consequence of their own feebleness and
inability to escape the weakest of snares..
Another tribe of the sea^urscs (Salpa), though much
smaller than the beroe, are more complex in structure,
and possesses a higher interest in consequence of the sin-
gular habits of some of the species. They are double
sacks, resembling the beroe in general form, but desti-
tute of irridescence. The outer sack, or mantle, rarely
exceeds an inch in length, and is commonly about hall
as wide. The inner sack is much smaller, and the in-
terval between these forms a cavity for the water which
they breathe, and for some of the viscera. Their visible
organs are a transparent heart, which can only be seen
in the strongest light ; a splendid double row of whitish
bead-like cavities forming a spiral line near one extrem-
ity, and supposed to be either lungs or ovaries ; numerous
broad, flat, pearly muscles, barely distinguished by theii
mistiness, and an alimentary canal as fine as horse-hair,
with a slight enlargement at one spot, which has beeu
called a stomach. This enlargement resembles both in
size and colour a grain of sand. From the base of the
animal arises two longer and four or five shorter conical
spines of jelly, curved into hooks at the points, by means
of which numerous individuals attach themselves toge-
ther in double rows like the leaflets of a pinnated leaf.
Cords of this kind, composed of forty or fifty animals,
were often taken, but they separate and reattach them-
selves at pleasure.
To the gregarious habits of this little mollusque we
owe a very singular and striking phenomena, which I
have never seen noticed by naturalists, although we fre-
quently witnessed it near the Cape of Good Hope. The
animals are occasionally found associated together in such
countless myriads that the sea is literally filled with them,
sometimes over three or four square miles of surface,
and to the depth of several fathoms. The yellow spots
which have been described being the only coloured por-
tions of their body, give to the whole tract the appear,
ance of a shoal or sand-bank at some distance below the
surface. The deception is heightened by the greater
smoothness of the water at these places, particularly in
calm weather ; for so closely are the animals crowded to-
gether, that the water is rendered in a manner less fluid ;
the smaller billows break around the margin and are lost,
while the heavy waves of the Southern ocean are some-
what opposed in their progress, and take ou in a slight
degree the usual appearance of the ground-swell. There
can be but little doubt that many of the numerous shoals
laid down in the charts of this region, but which have
never been seen by any but the supposed discoverers,
have been immense banks of these gregarious molluscse.
In sailing through a tract of this description, in which the
progress of the ship was very sensibly retarded, I have
dipt up with the ship's bucket a greater bulk of the ani- .
mals than of the water hi which they were suspended.
How wonderful are the effects produced by the minute
liuks of creation I" — Dr Reynall Coates of Philadelphia.
OE FROGS, LIZARDS, AND SERPENTS.
BOOK I.
OF FROGS AND TOADS.
CHAP. I.
OP FROGS AND TOADS IN GENERAL.
IP we emerge from the deep, the first and
most obvious class of amphibious animals that
occur upon land are frogs and toads. These,
wherever they reside, seem equally adapted
for living upon land, and in the water, having
their hearts formed in such a manner as to
dispense with the assistance of the lungs in
carrying on the circulation. The frog and
the toad, therefore, can live several days under
water, without any danger of suffocation ; they
want but little air at the bottom ; and what is
wanting is supplied by lungs, like bladders,
which are generally distended with wind, and
answer all the purposes of a reservoir from
whence to breathe.
To describe the form of animals so well
known would be superfluous ; to mark those
differences that distinguish them from each
other may be necessary. The frog moves by
leaping ; the toad crawls along the ground :
the i'rog is, in general, less than the toad ; its
colour is brighter, and with a more polished
surface ; the toad is brown, rough and dusty.
The frog is light and active, and its belly
comparatively small ; the toad is slow, swol-
len, and incapable of escaping. The frog,
when taken, contracts itself so as to have a
lump on its back ; the toad's back is straight
and even. Their internal parts are nearly the
same, except that the lungs of the toad are
more compact than those of the frog; they
have fewer air-bladders, and, of consequence,
the animal is less fitted for living underwater.
Such are the differences with respect to figure
and conformation ; their habitudes and man-
ners exhibit a greater variety, and require a
separate description.
VOL. It
CHAR II.
OF THE FROG, AND ITS VARIETIES.
THE external figure of the frog is too well
known to need a description. Its power of
taking large leaps is remarkably great, com-
pared to the bulk of its body. It is the best
swimmer of all four-footed animals ; and na-
ture hath finely adapted its parts for those
ends, the arms being light and active, the legs
and thighs long, and furnished with very
strong muscles.
If we examine this animal internally, we
shall find that it has a very little brain for its
size ; a very wide swallow ; a stomach seem-
ingly small, but capable of great distension.
The heart in the frog, as in all other animals
that are truly amphibious, has but one ventri-
cle ; so that the blood can circulate without the
assistance of the lungs, while it keeps under
water. The lungs resemble a number of
small bladders joined together, like the cells
of a honey-comb : they are connected to the
back by muscles, and can be distended or ex-
hausted at the animal's pleasure. The male
has two testiculi lying near the kidneys ; and
the female has two ovaries lying near the same
place ; but neither male nor female have any
of the external instruments of generation; the
anus serving for that purpose in both. Such
SB
378
HISTORY OF FROGS, LIZARDS, AND SERPENTS.
are the most striking peculiarities in the ana-
tomy oi a frog ; arid in these it agrees with
the toad, the lizard, and the serpent. They
are all formed internally pretty much in the
same manner, with spongy lungs, a simple
heart, and are destitute of the external instru-
ments that serve to continue the kind.
Of all those who have given histories of the
frog, Mr Rcesal, of Nuremberg, seems the
most accurate and entertaining. His plates of
this animal are well known ; his assiduity
and skilfulness in observing its manners are
still more deserving our esteem. Instead,
therefore, of following any other, I will take
him for my guide ; and though it be out of
my power to amuse the reader with his beau-
tiful designs, yet there will be some merit in
transcribing his history.
The common brown frog begins to couple
early in the season, and as soon as the ice is
thawed from the stagnating waters. In some
places the cold protracts their genial appetite
till April ; but it generally begins about the
middle of March. The male is usually of a
grayish brown colour ; the female is more in-
clining to yellow speckled with brown. When
they couple, the colours of both are nearly
alike on the back; but as they change their
skins almost every eighth day, the old one fall-
ing off in the form of mucus, the male grows
yellower, and the female more brown. In
the males the arms and legs are much stronger
than in the females ; and at the time of coup-
ling, they have upon their thumbs a kind of
fleshy excrescence, which they fix firmly to
the breast of the female. This Linnaeus sup-
posed to be the male instrument of generation ;
but, by closer inspection, it is found only of
service in holding the female in a more strict
embrace. It may be cut off, and the impreg-
nation continue unimpaired : it is sometimes
found in the opposite sex ; and some df the
males are found entirely without it ; however,
when it is cut off, the male cannot hold the fe-
male so strongly as before.
The sexes couple only once a year : and
then continue united sometimes for four days
together. At this time they both have their
bellies greatly swollen ; that of the female
being filled with eggs ; the male having the
skin of the whole body distended with a lim-
pid water, which is ejected in impregnation.
As soon as the male has leaped upon the fe-
male, he throws his fore legs round her breast,
and closes them so firmly, that it is impossible,
with the naked hands, to loose them. The
male clasps his fingers between each other, in
the same manner as people when they are
praying ; the thumbs press with their thickest
sides against the breast of the female ; and
though she should struggle ever so much, no-
thing can induce him to let go his hold. The
grasp seems involuntary and convulsive ; they
cannot be easily torn asunder ; and they swim,
creep, and live united, for some days succes-
sively, till the female hath shed her spawn,
which, at length, she does almost in an in-
stant. But how the impregnation is performed,
without any apparent instruments of genera-
tion, has long been an object of inquiry ; and
still continues in great obscurity. To inves-
tigate the difficulty as carefully as possible,
our German philosopher continued to examine
their mutual congress for thre-e years together,
and availed himself of all the lights that the
knife, or analogy, could furnish.1
After having chosen twelve couple of frogs
that were thus joined to each other, and having
placed each couple in a glass vessel with
water, he scarcely let them out of his sight day
or night, and even sat up two nights together
to examine their operations. The first day he
observed nothing that deserved remark : but
1 Different developments of embryo of Frogs. — Dur-
ing the cohesion of the two sexes, the female com-
mences the deposition of the spawn, which is fecundated
during its passage. When first expelled it consists of
numerous small opaque globular bodies, enveloped in a
small glairy, or glutinous mass. This latter substance
soon absorbs a large quantity of water, and, in the course
of an hour or two, each becomes not less than a quarter
of an inch in diameter. The consequence of this aug-
mentation in the bulk of the transparent mass, surround-
ing each embryo, is, that all the latter are removed from
each other by a whole diameter of each globe ; and they
appear like black dots regularly distributed throughout a
large mass of transparent jelly.
The deposit of the eggs takes place at the bottom of
the water, notwithstanding the assertion of some natu-
ralists, and of Raesel amongst them, that they are expel-
led at the surface. The mistake, probably, arose from
the mass of eggs being generally found at the surface ;
but this arises merely from the disengagement of gas in
the substance of the glairy envelope, in consequence of
partial decomposition.
The changes which now begin to take place in the
embryo are most interesting. They have been detailed
in a very minute and satisfactory manner by Rusconi
and I have taken considerable pains during the last
spring to follow out his investigations, and by actual ob-
servation to correct or confirm his account. I may here
observe, once for all, that with the exception of a few of
the details in the earliest periods, I have been able to sa-
tisfy myself of his correctness; and in those points, I be-
lieve that I only failed to do so, partly by my not hav-
ing obtained the ova immediately after their expulsion,
and partly by the want of time to enter into all the ne-
cessary minutiae of the investigation.
I have also to observe that the development of the
young is more or less rapid, according to the tem-
perature of the atmosphere ; and that I was enabled to
retard or hasten it by regulating this circumstance. I
therefore kept my reservoir of eggs in a veiy cold situa-
tion,-and occasionally brought a few of them into my
drawing-room for the purpose of observation ; in which
place, being in an elevated temperature, the development
became very rapid. As my object, therefore, was to as-
certain positive facts, rather than the periods of the
changes, which were dependant upon variable circum-
stances, I kept no register of the temperature or of the
periods; and I shall, in both these particulars, give some
of the statements of the accurate Rusconi.
THE FROG.
379
the second they began to be agitated more
than before ; the males made a noise some-
what resembling the grunting of a hog; the
females only kept sinking and rising in the
water.
The embryo is found, in the first place, to consist of
a small globular body, one side, or hemisphere, of which
is of a dark brown colour, the other being much paler.
In a very short period after the egg is deposited, — four
hours, according to Rusconi, — a deep furrow across the
dark hemisphere divides it into two equal parts, and this
is soon afterwards crossed by another at right angles ; a
third and a fourth furrow are produced, and so on, until
the whole surface of this side of the sphere is, as it were,
granulated. This appearance, however, is but transi-
tory, the surface soon becoming almost smooth. In the
course of the second day, the sphere begins to elongate,
and a groove, which had previously divided the upper
part of it into two equal parts, begins to close up. The
head becomes prominent, the tail begins to show itself,
the little hooks by which it subsequently lays hold of ob-
jects and supports itself, begin to appear. At this pe-
riod the examination becomes more easy, and more in-
teresting. At somewhat more than fifty hours in an ele-
vated temperature, the head is very well marked, the
tail somewhat elongated, and even the rudiment of the
membrane, or web, which is destined to form its fin, is
visible. About this time, also, a small projection takes
place on each side of the head, which is the earliest in-
dication of the branchiae, and the muscles of the spine
may just be seen. In figure 2 of the woodcut, I have
given an outline of the embryo in this condition. At
this time the water is seen to flow in a distinct and ra-
pid current to the branchial orifice over the rudiments of
the branchiae, which are now just visible, the course of
which current I have indicated by arrows. These parts
gradually become more developed ; the body is more
elongated, the branchiae more distinct; the fin extends
round the tail and partly over the back ; and the head is
distinguished from the body by a slight contraction at
the neck ; and a, short period more suffices to bring it to
The male of the first couple ejected the hu-
midity with which his body was swollen, by
which the water in the glass was made mud.
dy ; and he soon after quitted the female. —
Our philosopher continued for twelve hours to
the condition represented in figures 3, 4, of the woodcut,
in which the branchiae are seen to consist of two tuber-
cles on each side, as yet simple and undivided ; the hold-
ers, which are small simple organs placed near the situ-
ation of the future mouth, and which serve to enable the
little animal to attach itself by means of a viscid secre-
tion at their extremities, have become longer, the web,
or fin, is also enlarged. By this time the first voluntary
motion of the embryo is discovered on the application of
any means of excitement or disturbance ; but it consists
only of a slight movement of the head or tail. The nos-
trils are seen more distinctly, but the mouth is scarcely
yet observable, and shortly afterwards the eye, in a ru-
dimentary state, may be just discerned. The next step
in the development is a slight division of the branchigs
into lobes, and the appearance of that beautiful and in-
teresting phenomenon, the circulation of the blood
through these organs. The embryo, which is still con-
fined to a curved position by the envelopes (fig. 1), is
now seen frequently to extend itself by sudden jerks, as
if to emancipate itself from its confinement, which it
eventually does by tearing the membrane of the egg.
The Tadpoles, we see, are now hatched (fig. 5). Ac-
cording to Rusconi, this takes place within four days
after the deposit of the eggs, in a temperature varying
only from 23° to 27° Ceutigr. (73°. 4 to 80°.6 Fahr.);
but certainly in our own climate, in the ordinary tem-
perature of our spring, it does not take place until at
least a month. As I before observed, the development
may be greatly hastened by a constant elevation of tem-
perature, and I was often surprised at the degree to
which this was the case in the course of my own obser-
vations ; but the comparatively low temperature of our
spring, and the cold frosty nights which occur in March
and April, may well account for such a discrepancy.
If the eggs be deposited at the middle or latter end of
March, it is generally, with us, the latter end of April
before they are hatched. The situation of the mouth is
now distinctly visible, though the opening is but small;
and even when it becomes considerably enlarged it has
no power of movement, and there are no distinct' lips.
The branchiae now speedily enlarge, and each of the two
branches on either side is seen to consist of about four
leaves (figs. 6. 9); these are sessile upon the body or
stem of the branchia; they are somewhat granular on
the surface, and slightly irregular in their form; there is
also frequently a short additional branch at the base of
the posterior one, as is shown in the outline, figure 9.
The present state of these organs, which have now ar-
rived at their maximum of development, constitutes one
of the most charming objects for microscopic observation
which can be conceived, and to view which a very high
power is not necessary, nor even desirable. The current
of the blood poured in regular pulsations at each ccn-
traction of the heart, passes up each stem or main branch
of the branchiae, and a distinct stream is given off to
each leaf; it is propelled to the extremity, and then re-
turns down the opposite sides in the most regular man-
ner, and the parts are so transparent that every globule
of blood is distinctly and beautifully visible.
This state of things, however, is- destined to last but
a short time. No sooner have these interesting organs
attained their greatest development than they begin to
diminish in size ; they become obtuse (fig. 7,) and are
gradually so reduced as to be withdrawn within the bran-
chial cavity, and concealed by a little operculum of the
intepument. The eyes are now perfectly formed. The
holders have become much diminished in size; thu
380
HISTORY OF FROGS, LIZARDS, AND SERPENTS.
observe whether the female would cast her
spawn ; but finding her tardy, he dissected
both her and the male : in the latter, the sper-
matic vessels were quite empty, as might na-
turally have been supposed ; but for the fe-
male, her spawn still remained in her body.
Upon its being extracted, and put into water,
it perished without producing any animal
whatever. From hence he justly concluded,
that it required that the eggs should be ejected
from the body of the female before they could
be at all prolific. In another pair the male
quitted the female, who did not eject her
spawn till sixteen days after ; and these, like
the former, came to nothing. But it was very
different with some of the rest. The females
ejected their spawn while the male still re-
mained in his station, and impregnated the
masses at different intervals as they fell from
her ; and these all brought forth animals in
the usual course of generation. From these
observations it was easy to infer, that the fe-
male was impregnated neither by the mouth,
as some philosophers imagined, nor by the
excrescence at the thumbs, as was the opinion
of Linnaeus, but by the inspersion of the male
seminal fluid upon the eggs, as they proceeded
from the body.
A single female produces from six to ele-
ven hundred eggs at a time ; and, in general,
she throws them all out" together by a single
effort; though sometimes she is an hour in
performing this task. While she is thus
bringing forth, it may be observed that the
male acts the part of a midwife, and promotes
the expulsion of the eggs by working with his
thumbs, and compressing the female's body
more closely. The eggs which were com-
pressed in the womb, upon being emitted, ex-
pand themselves into a round form, and drop
to the bottom of the water ; while the male
swims off, and strikes with his arms as usual,
though they had continued so long in a state
of violent contraction.
The egg, or little black globe, which pro-
duces a tadpole, is surrounded with two differ-
ent kinds of liquor. That which immediately
surrounds the globe is clear and transparent,
mouth has acquired movable lips, and has changed its
position from the inferior part of the head to near the
extremity, and the little creature which has hitherto de-
rived its sustenance either from its own resources or by
absorption, now seeks its food amid softened and decom-
posing vegetable matter. The caudal web (fig. 8) has,
therefore, become considerably developed, and serves for
very rapid as well as varied locomotion. The colour of
the body, too, has undergone a considerable change, hav-
ing become of a soft olive green, the abdomen being
dotted with golden yellow. The Tadpole now undergoes
but little change in its external form for a considerable
time, but increases rapidly in bulk, and by and by a lit-
tle tubercle appears on each side of the vent, which is
the rudiment of the posterior extremity. — Bell's History
of British Reptiles.
and is contained in its proper membrane; that
which surrounds the whole is muddy and mu-
cous. The transparent liquor serves for the
nourishment of the tadpole from time to time ;
and answers the same purposes that the white
of the egg does to birds. The tadpoles, when
this membrane is broken, are found to adhere
with their mouth to part of it ; and when they
get free, they immediately sink to the bottom
of the water, never being able to get to the
top after, while they continue in their tadpole
form.
But to return — When the spawn is emitted
and impregnated by the male, it drops, as was
said, to the bottom, and there the white quickly
and sensibly increases. The eggs, which,
during the four first hours, suffer no perceptible
change, begin then to enlarge and grow
lighter ; by which means they mount to the
surface of the water. At the end of eight
hours the white in which they swim grows
thicker, the eggs lose their blackness, and, as
they increase in size, somewhat of their spher-
ical form. The twenty-first day, the egg is
seen to open a little on one side, and the be-
ginning of a tail to peep out, which becomes
more and more distinct every day. The
thirty-ninth day the little animal begins to
have motion ; it moves at intervals its tail ;
and it is perceived that the liquor in which it
is circumfused serves it for nourishment. In
two days more some of these little creatures
fall to the bottom ; while others remain swim-
ming in the fluid around them, while their vi.
vacity and motion is seen to increase. Those
which fall to the bottom remain there the
whole day ; but having lengthened themselves
a little, for hitherto they are doubled up, they
mount, at intervals, to the mucus which they
had quitted, and are seen to feed upon it with
great vivacity. The next day they acquire
their tadpole form.1 In three days more they
are perceived to have two little fringes, that
serve as fins beneath the head ; and these, in
four days after, assume a more perfect form.
It is then, also, that they are seen to feed very
greedily upon the pond-weed with which they
are to be supplied; and, leaving their for-
mer food, on this they continue to subsist
till they arrive at maturity. When they
come to be ninety-two days old, two small
feet are seen beginning to bourgeon near
the tail: and the head appears to be se-
parate from the body. The next day the legs
are considerably enlarged : four days after
1 The tadpole is furnished with a small tube beneath
the lower jaw, which acts as a sucker, and by means of
which it can, at pleasure, attach itself to the under sur-
face of aquatic plants: from these plants it can also sus-
pend itself, when very young, by a kind of glutinous
thread, in the same manner as spiders drop from the
veiling to the ground.
THE FROG.
S81
they refuse all vegetable food ; their mouth
appears furnished with teeth ; and their
hinder-legs are completely formed. In two
days more the arms are completely produced ;
and now the frog is every way perfect, except
that it still continues to carry the tail. In
this odd situation the animal, resembling at
once both a frog and a lizard, is seen fre-
quently rising to the surface, not to take food,
but to breathe. In this state it continues for
about six or eight hours, and then, the tail
dropping off by degrees, the animal appears
in its most perfect form.
Thus the frog, in less than a day, having
changed its figure, is seen to change its appe-
tites also. So extraordinary is this transfor-
mation, that the food it fed upon so greedily
but a few days before, is now utterly rejected ;
it would even starve if supplied with no other.
As soon as the animal acquires its perfect
state, from having fed upon vegetables, it be-
comes carnivorous, and lives entirely upon
worms and insects. But as the water cannot
supply these, it is obliged to quit its native
clement, and seek for food upon land, where
it lives by hunting worms, and taking insects
by surprise. At first, being feeble and un-
able to bear the warmth of the sun, it hides
among bushes and under stones ; but when a
shower comes to refresh the earth, then the
whole multitude are seen to quit their retreats,
in order to enjoy the grateful humidity.
Upon many occasions the ground is seen per-
fectly blackened with their numbers ; some
hunting for prey, and some seeking secure
lurking places. From the myriads that offer
on such occasions, some have been induced
to think that these animals were generated
in the clouds, and thus showered down on
the earth. But had they, like Derham,
traced them to the next pool, they would
have found out a better solution for the diffi-
culty.
The frog lives for the most part out of the
water ; but when the cold nights begin to set in,
it returns to its native element, always choos-
ing stagnant waters, where it can lie without
danger concealed at the bottom. In this man-
ner it continues torpid, or with but very little
motion, all the winter: like the rest of the
dormant race, it requires no food ; and the
circulation is slowly carried on without any
assistance from the air.
It is at the approach of spring that all
these animals are roused from a state of slum-
ber to a state of enjoyment. A short time
after they rise from the bottom they begin to
pair, while those that are as yet too young come
upon land before the rest. For this reason,
while the old ones continue concealed in the
beginning of spring, the small ones are more
frequently seen ; the former remaining in the
lake to propagate, while the latter are not ye.t
arrived at a state of maturity.1
The difference of sexes, which was men-
tioned above, is not perceivable in these ani-
1 There are various species of frogs, of which we may
notice the more remarkable. The Common Frog of this
country is called the Red Frog by the French. The
Green Frog is the common frog of France, and is the
one chiefly used at table. Its thighs are in great request
there among the amateurs of good cheer, although in this
country a stupid prejudice exists against it. Its colour
is an olive green, distinctly marked with black patches
on the back, and on its limbs with transverse bars of the
same. From the tip of the nose three distinct stripes of
a pale yellow extend to the extremity of the body, the
middle one slightly depressed, and the lateral ones con-
siderably elevated. The under parts are of a pale whitish
colour tinged with green, and marked with irregular
brown spots. Though not common in England, it is
found in great plenty in Italy, France, and Germany.
This species seldom deposits its spawn before the month
of June. During this season the male is said to croak
so loud as to be heard at a great distance. In some
particular places, where these animals are numerous,
their croaking is very oppressive to persons unaccustomed
to it. The globules of spawn are smaller than those of
the common frog ; and the young are considerably
longer in attaining their complete state, this seldom tak-
ing place till November. They arrive at their full growth
in about four years, and live to the age of sixteen or
seventeen. They are excessively voracious, frequently
seizing young birds, and even mice, which, like the rest
of their prey of snails, worms, &c. they swallow whole.
Edible frogs are brought from the country, thirty or
forty thousand at a time, to Vienna, and sold to the
great dealers, who have conservatories for them, which
are large holes, four or five feet deep, dug in the ground,
the mouth covered with a board, and in severe weather
with straw. In these conservatories, even during a hard
frost, the frogs never become quite torpid ; when taken
out, and placed on their backs, they are always sensible
of the change, and have strength enough to turn them-
selves. They get together in heaps, one upon another,
instinctively, and thereby prevent the evaporation of
their humidity ; for no water is ever put to them. In
Vienna, in the year 1793, there were only three great
dealers, by whom most of those persons were supplied
who brought them to the market ready for the cook. As
their spawning time is so very late in the year, those ani-
mals that are brought to market before the month of June
for edible frogs, are supposed to be either common frogs,
or sometimes toads.
The large water, or Bull-frog, is also edible, having as
much on them as a young fowl. It frequently measures
from the nose to the hind feet, a foot and a half, or up-
wards. Its colour is a dusky olive brown, marked with
numerous dark spots, lighter beneath than above. The
external membranes of the ears are large, round, and of
a brownish red surrounded by a yellowish margin. This
species is chiefly found in the anterior parts of America,
where, at the springs and small rills, they are said to sit
in pairs. Kalm, however, says, that they frequent only
ponds and marshes. In Virginia they are in such
abundance, that there is scarcely a single spring that has
not a pair of them. The inhabitants, who respect them
as genii of the fountains, imagine that they purify the
water. The women, however, are no friends to them,
because they kill and eat young ducks and goslings; and
sometimes they carry ofTchickens that venture too near the
pond. When suddenly surprised, by a long leap or two they
enter their hole, at the bottom of which they lie perfectly
secure. A full-grown bull-frog will sometimes leap three
yards. _ Kalm relates the following story respecting 0113
382
HISTORY OF FROGS, LIZARDS, AND SERPENTS.
mals, until they have arrived at their fourth
year; nor do they begin to propagate, till
they have completed that period. By com-
paring their- slow growth with their other
habitudes, it would appear that they live
of them. The American Indians are known to be ex-
cellent runners, being almost able to equal the best horse
in its swiftest course. In order, therefore, to try how
well the bull-frog could leap, some Swedes laid a wager
with a young Indian that he could not overtake one of
them, provided it had two leaps beforehand. They
carried a bull-frog, which they had caught in a pond,
into a field, and burnt its tail. The fire and the Indian
who endeavoured to get up to the frog, had together
such an effect on the animal, that it made its long leaps
across the field as fast as it could. The Indian pursued
it with his might. The noise he made in running
frightened the poor frog; probably it was afraid of being
tortured with fire again, and therefore it redoubled its
leaps, and by that means reached the pond, which was
fixed on as their goal, before the Indian could overtake
it. This animal is called the bull-frog on account of its
croaking, which is said somewhat to resemble the hoarse
lowing of a bull ; and when, in a calm night, many of
theni are making a noise together, they may be heard to
the distance of a mile and a half. The night is the time
when they croak, and they are said to do it at inter-
vals. In this act they are either hidden among the
grass or rushes, or they are in the water, with their heads
above the surface. Kalm informs us that, as he was one
day riding out, he heard one of them roaring before him,
and supposed it to be a bull hidden in the bushes at a
little distance. The voice was, indeed, more hoarse than
that of a bull, yet it was too loud for him to conceive that
it could be emitted by so small an animal as a frog, and
he was in considerable alarm for his safety. He was
undeceived a few hours afterwards, by a party of Swedes,
to whom he had communicated his fears.
The Tree-frog, which is a native of America, France,
Germany, Italy, and many other European regions, but
never found in Britain, is small, and of a slender and
very elegant shape. It is the only species found in
Europe of a genus called Hylte, which are distinguished
from frogs and toads by the viscous cushions by which
the toes are terminated. Its upper parts are green, and
the abdomen is whitish, marked by numerous granules.
The under surface of the limbs is reddish, and on each
side of the body there is a longitudinal blackish or violet-
coloured streak. The body is smooth above, and the
hind legs are very long and slender. At the end of each
toe is a round, fleshy, concave apparatus, not unlike the
mouth of a leech, by means of which the animal is en-
abled to adhere even to the most polished surfaces. This
animal, during the summer months, resides principally
on the upper branches of the trees, where it wanders
among the foliage in quest of insects. These it catches
with great dexterity, stealing softly to them, as a cat
does to a mouse, till at a proper distance, when it makes
a sudden spring upon them of frequently more than a
foot in height. It often suspends itself by its feet, or
abdomen, to the upper parts of leaves, remaining thus
concealed among the foliage. The skin of the abdomen
about twelve years ; but having so many
enemies, both by land and water, it is pro-
bable that few of them arrive at the end of
their term.
Frogs live upon insects of all kinds; but
is covered with small glandular granules of such a nature
as to allow the animal to adhere as well by these as by
the toes. It will even stick to glass by pressing its belly
against it. About the end of autumn the tree-frog retires
to the water and lies concealed in a torpid state in the
mud till the spring, when, on the return of warm weather,
it emerges, like the rest of the genus, to deposit its
spawn in the water. At this period the male inflates
his throat in a surprising manner, forming a large sphere
beneath his head ; he also exerts a very loud and sharp
croak, that may be heard to a vast distance. The tad-
poles become perfected about the beginning of August,
and they soon afterwards begin to ascend the adjacent
trees. At this time they are particularly noisy in the
evenings on the approach of rain ; therefore, if kept in
glasses in a room, and supplied with proper food, they
will supply the place of barometers by affording sure
presage of changes of weather.
Tree-frogs have been kept also by Dr Townson, who
had them in a window, and appropriated to their use a
bowl of water, in which they lived. They soon grew
quite tame ; and to two that he had had for a consider-
able length of time, and were particular favourites, the
doctor gave the names of Damon and Musidora. In
the evening they seldom failed to go into the water, un-
less the weather was cold and damp, in which case they
would sometimes stay out a couple of days. When they
were out of the water, if a few drops were thrown upon
the board, they always applied their bodies as close to it
as they could ; and from this absorption through the skin,
though they were flaccid before, they soon again appeared
plump. A tree frog that had not been in the water
during- the night was weighed, and then immersed;
after it had remained half an hour in the bowl it came
out, and was found to have absorbed nearly half its own
weight in water. From other experiments, it was dis-
covered that these animals frequently absorbed nearly
their whole weight of water ; and that, as was clearly
proved, by the under surface only of the body. They
will even absorb water from wetted blotting paper.
Sometimes they eject water with considerable force from
their bodies, to the quantity of a fourth part or more of
their weight. Before the flies had disappeared in au-
tumn, the doctor collected for his favourite tree-frog,
Musidora, a great quantity, as winter provision. When
he laid any of them before her she took no notice of them,
but the moment he moved them with his breath, she
sprung upon and ate them. Once, when flies were
scarce, the doctor cut some flesh of a tortoise into small
pieces, and moved them by the same means ; she seized
them, but the instant afterwards rejected them from her
tongue. After he had obtained her confidence, she ate
from his fingers dead as well as living flies. Frogs will
leap at the moving of any small object ; and, like toads,
they will also soon become sufficiently familiar to sit on
the hand, and be carried from one side of a room to the
other, to catch flies as they settle on the wall. This
gentleman accordingly made them his guards at Got-
tingen, for keeping these troublesome creatures from his
dessert of fruit, and they performed their task highly to
his satisfaction. He has seen the small tree-frogs eat
humble-bees, but this was never done without some con-
test ; they are in general obliged to reject them, being
incommoded by their stings and hairy roughness ; but
in each attempt the bee is further covered with tho
viscid matter from the frog's tongue, and when thus
coated it is swallowed with facility.
A battle between a tree-frog and snake was seen in
THE FROG.
383
they never eat any unless they have motion,
They continue fixed and immovable till their
prey appears ; and just when it comes
sufficiently near, they jump forward with
great agility, dart out their tongues, and seize
it with certainty. The tongue, in this ani-
mal, as in the toad, lizard, and serpen-t kinds,
is extremely long, and formed in such a man-
ner, that it swallows the point down its throat;
so that a length of tongue is thus drawn out,
like a sword from its scabbard, to assail its
prey. This tongue is furnished with a gluti-
nous substance ; and whatever insect it touches,
infallibly adheres, and is thus held fast till it
is drawn into the mouth.
As the frog is thus supplied with the power
of catching its prey, it is also very vivacious,
and able to bear hunger for a very long time.
I have known one of them continue a month
in summer without any other food than the
turf on which it was placed in a glass vessel.
We are told of a German surgeon, that kept
one eight years in a glass vessel, covered with
a net. Its food was at all times but sparing :
in summer he gave it fresh grass, which it is
said to have fed upon; and, in the winter, hay,
a little moistened ; he likewise, now and then,
put flies into the glass, which it would follow
with an open mouth, and was very expert in
catching them. In winter, when the flies
were difficult to be found, it usually fell away,
the top of a mangrove-tree, by one of the officers who
was with Captain Stedman, when he was sailing up one
of the rivers of Surinam in a canoe. When the captain
first perceived them, the head and shoulders of the frog
were in the jaws of the snake, which was about the size
of a large kitchen poker. This creature had its tail
twisted round a tough limb of the mangrove, while the
frog, which appeared about the size of a man's fist, had
laid hold of a twig with his hind feet. In this position
they were contending," the one for life, the other for his din-
ner, forming one straight line between the two branches;
and thus they continued for some time, apparently
stationary, and without a straggle. Still it was hoped,
that the poor frog might extricate himself by his exer-
tions, but the reverse was the case. The jaws of the
snake, gradually relaxing, and by their elasticity forming
an incredible orifice, the body and fore legs of the frog
by little and little disappeared, till finally nothing more
was seen than the hinder feet and claws, which were at
last disengaged from the twig, and its formidable adver-
_saiy drew it down its throat by suction. The frog passed
some inches further down the alimentary canal, and at
last stuck, forming a knob or knot at least six times as
thick as the snake, whose jaws and throat immediately
contracted, and resumed their former natural shape.
The Fire Frog — The fire-frog is the least of all the
European frogs, hardly ever equalling the tree-frog in
size, and is a native of Germany, Italy, and many other
parts of Europe, but is not found in England. Its colour
on 'the upper part is of a dull olive brown, the skin being
marked with large and small tubercles : round the edges
of the mouth is placed a row of blackish streaks or per-
pendicular spots. The under parts both of the body and
limbs are orange -coloured, spotted or variegated with
irregular markings of dull blue. It is from the colour
of the under surface of its body that this species has
obtained the name of fire-frog.
and grew very lean ; but in the summer,
when they were plenty, it soon grew fat again.
It was kept in a warm room, and was always
lively and ready to take its prey: however, in
the eighth winter, when there were no flies to
be found, it fell away and died. It is not cer-
tain how long it might have lived, had it been
supplied with proper nourishment ; but we are
certain, that a very little food is capable of
sufficing its necessities.
Nor is the frog less tenacious of life. It
will live and jump about several hours after
its head has been cut off. It will continue ac-
tive, though all its bowels are taken out ; and
it can live some days, though entirely stripped
of its skin. This cruel trick, which is chiefly
practised among school-boys, of skinning
frogs, an operation which is done in an in-
stant, seems for some hours no way to abate
their vigour. I am assured that some of them
get a new skin, and recover, after this painful
experiment.
The croaking of frogs is well known ; and,
from thence, in some countries, they are dis-
tinguished by the ludicrous title of Dutch
Nightingales. Indeed, the aquatic frogs of
Holland are loud beyond what one would
imagine. We could hardly conceive that an
•animal, not bigger than one's fist, should be
able to send forth a note that is heard at three
miles' distance ; yet such is actually the case.1
The large water-frogs have a note as loud as
the bellowing of a bull ; and, for this purpose,
puff up the cheeks to a surprising magnitude.
Of all frogs, however, the male only croaks;
the female is silent, and the voice in the other
seems to be the call to courtship. It is cer-
tain, that at these times wh#n they couple, the
loudness of their croaking is in some places
very troublesome ; for then the whole lake
seems vocal ; and a thousand dissonant notes
perfectly stun the neighbourhood. At other
times, also, before wet weather, their voices
are in full exertion : they are then heard with
unceasing assiduity, sending forth their call,
and welcoming the approaches of their favour-
ite moisture. No weather-glass was ever so
true as a frog in foretelling an approaching
change ; and, in fact, the German surgeon,
mentioned above, kept his frog for that pur-
pose. It was always heard to croak at the
approach of wet weather ; but was as mute as
a fish when it threatened a continuance of fair.
This may probably serve to explain an opin-
ion which some entertain, that there is a month
in the year, called Paddock Moon, in which
the frogs never croak : the whole seems to be
no more than that, in the hot season, when the
moisture is dried away, and consequently, when
these animals neither enjoy the quantity of
• Rsesel, ibid.
384
HISTORY OF FROGS, LIZARDS, AND SERPENTS.
health or food that at other times they are sup-
plied with, they show, by their silence, how
much they are displeased with the weather.
All very dry weather is hurtful to their health,
and prevents them from getting their prey.
They subsist chiefly upon worms and snails ;
and as drought prevents these from appearing,
the frog is thus stinted in its provisions, and
also wants that grateful humidity which mois-
tens its skin, and renders it alert and active.
As frogs adhere closely to the backs of their
own species, so it has been found, by repeated
experience, they will also adhere to the backs
of fishes. Few that have ponds, but know
that these animals will stick to the backs of
carp, and fix their fingers in the corner of each
eye. In this manner they are often caught
together ; the carp blinded and wasted away.
Whether this proceeds from the desires of the
frog, disappointed of its proper mate, or whe-
ther it be a natural enmity between frogs and
fishes, I will not take upon me to say. A
story told us by Walton, might be apt to in-
cline us to the latter opinion-.
" As Dubravius, a bishop of Bohemia, was
walking with a friend by a large pond in that
country, they saw a frog, when a pike lay very
sleepily and quiet by the shore side, leap upon
his head, and the frog having expressed ma-
lice or anger by his swoln cheeks and staring
eyes, did stretch out his legs, and embraced
the pike's head, and presently reached them
to his eyes, tearing with them and his teeth
those tender parts ; the pike, irritated with
anguish, moves up and down the water, and
rubs himself against weeds, and whatever he
thought might quit him of his enemy ; but all
in vain, for the fr*g did continue to ride tri-
umphantly, and to bite and torment the pike
till his strength failed, and then the frog sunk
with the pike to the bottom of the water: then
presently the frog appeared again at the top,
and croaked, and seemed to rejoice like a con-
queror ; after which he presently retired to his
secret hole. The bishop, that had beheld the
battle, called his fisherman to fetch his nets,
and by all means to get the pike, that they
might declare what, had happened. The pike
was drawn forth, and both his eyes eaten out;
at which, when they began to wonder, the
fisherman wished them to forbear, and assured
them he was certain that pikes were often so
served."
CHAP. III.
OF THE TOAD, AND ITS VARIETIES.
IP we regard the figure of the toad, there
seems nothing in it that should disgust more
than that of the frog. Its form and propor-
tions are nearly the same ; and it chiefly dif-
fers in colour, which is blacker; and its slow
and heavy motion, which exhibits nothing of
the agility of the frog : yet such is the force of
habit, begun in early prejudice, tliat those
who consider the one as a harmless playful
animal, turn from the other with horror and
disgust. The frog is considered as a useful
assistant, in ridding our grounds of vermin ;
the toad, as a secret enemy, that only wants
an opportunity to infect us with its venom.
The imagination , in this manner biassed by
its terrors, paints out the toad in the most hi-
deous colouring, and clothes it in more thar
natural deformity. Its body is broad; its
back flat ; covered with a dusky pimpled
hide ; the belly is large and swagging ; the
pace laboured and crawling ; its retreat gloomy
and filthy ; and its whole appearance calcula-
ted to excite disgust and horror : yet, upon my
first seeing a toad, none of all these deformi-
ties in the least affected me with sensations of
loathing : born, as I was, in a country where
there are no toads, I had prepared my imagi-
nation for some dreadful object ; but there
seemed nothing to me more alarming in the
sight, than in that of a common frog ; and in-
deed, for some time, I mistook, and handled
the one for the other. When first informed
of my mistake, I very well remember my sen-
sations : I wondered how I had escaped with
safety, after handling and dissecting a toad,
which I had mistaken for a frog. I then be-
gan to lay in a fund of horror against the
whole tribe, which, though convinced they
are harmless, I shall never get rid of. My
first imaginations were too strong not only for
my reason, but for the conviction of my
senses.
As the toad bears a general resemblance of
figure to the frog, so also it resembles that ani-
mal in its nature and appetites. Like the
frog, the toad is amphibious; like that animal,
it lives upon worms and insects, which it seizes-
by darting out its length of tongue; and
in the same manner also it crawls about in
moist weather. The male and female couple
as in all the frog kind ; their time of propaga-
tion being very early in the spring. Some-
times the females are seen upon land oppressed
by the males ; but more frequently they are
THE TOAD.
385
coupled in the water. They continue toge-
ther some hours, and adhere so fast as to tear
the very skin from the parts they stick to. In
all this they entirely resemble the frog; but
the assistance which the male lends the fe-
male, in bringing forth, is a peculiarity in
this species that must not be passed over in
silence. " In the evening of a summer's
day, a French gentleman, being in the king's
gardens at Paris, perceived two toads coupled
together, and he stopped to examine them.
Two facts equally new surprised him ; the first
was the extreme difficulty the female had in
laying her eggs ; the second was the assist-
ance lent her by the male for this purpose.
The eggs of the female lie in her body, like
beads on a string ; and after the first, by great
effort, was excluded, the male caught it with
his hinder paws, and kept working it till he
had thus extracted the whole chain. In this
manner the animal performed, in some mea-
sure, the functions of a midwife ; impregna-
ting, at the same time, every egg as it issued
from the body.
It is probable, however, that this difficulty
in bringing forth obtains only upon land ; and
that the toad, which produces its spawn in the
water, performs it with as much ease as a frog.
They propagate in England exactly in the
manner of frogs; and the female, instead of
retiring to dry holes, goes to the bottom of
ponds, and there lies torpid all the winter,
preparing to propagate in the beginning of
spring. On these occasions, the number of
males is found greatly to surpass that of the
other sex, there being above thirty to one ;
and twelve or fourteen are often seen clinging
to the same female.
When, like the frog, they have undergone
all the variations of their tadpole state, they
forsake the water ; and are often seen, in a
moist summer's evening, crawling up, by my-
riads, from fenny places, into dryer situations.
There, having found out a retreat, or having
dug themselves one with their mouth and
hands, they lead a patient solitary life, seldom
venturing out, except when the moisture of a
summer's evening invites them abroad. At
that time the grass is filled with snails, and
the pathways covered with worms, which make
their principal food. Insects also of every
kind they are fond 01 ; and we have the au-
thority of Linnaeus for it, that they sometimes
continue immovable, with the mouth open,
at the bottom of shrubs, where the butterflies,
in some measure fascinated, are seen to fly
down their throats.1
In a letter from Mr Arscott, there are some
curious particulars relating to this animal,
which throw great light upon its history.
1 Amsentt. vol. vi. p. 201.
" Concerning the toad," says he, " that lived
so many years with us, and was so great a fa-
vourite, the greatest curiosity was its becom-
ing so remarkably tame ; iV had frequented
some steps before our hall-door some years be-
fore my acquaintance commenced with it, and
had been admired by my father for its size,
(being the largest I ever met with,) who con.
stantly paid it a visit every evening. I knew
it myself above thirty years ; and by constant-
ly feeding it, brought it to be so tame, that it
always came to the candle, and looked up, as
if expecting to be taken up and brought upon
the table, where I always fed it with insects
of all sorts. It was fondest of flesh maggots,
which I kept in bran; it would follow them,
and when within a proper distance, would fix
his eyes, and remain motionless for near a
quarter of a minute, as if preparing for the
stroke, which was an instantaneous throwing
its tongue at a great distance upon the insect,
which stuck to the tip by a glutinous matter.
The motion is quicker than the eye can follow.
I cannot say how long my father had been ac-
quainted with the toad, before I knew it ; but
when I was first acquainted with it, he used
to mention it as the old toad I have known so
many years ; I can answer for thirty-six years.
This old toad made its appearance* as soon as
the warm weather came ; and I always con-
cluded it retired to some dry bank, to repose
till spring. When we new-layed the steps,
I had two holes made in the third step, on
each, with a hollow of more than a yard long
for it ; in which I imagine it slept, as it came
from thence at its first appearance. It was
seldom provoked. Neither that toad, nor the
multitudes I have seen tormented with great
cruelty, ever showed the least desire of re-
venge, by spitting or emitting any juice from
their pimples. Sometimes, upon taking it up,
it would let out a great quantity of clear wa-
ter, which, as I have often seen it do the same
upon the steps when quite quiet, was certainly
its urine, and no more than a natural evacua-
tion. Spiders, millipedes, and flesh maggots,
seem to be this animal's favourite food. I
imagine if a bee was to be put before a toad,
it would certainly eat it to its cost ;* but as
bees are seldom stirring at the same time thai
toads are, they rarely come in their way; as
they do not appear after sun-rising, or before
sun-set. In the heat of the day they will
come to the mouth of their hole, I believe for
air. I once, from my parlour window, ob-
served a large toad I had in the bank of a
bowling-green, about twelve at noon in a very
hot day, very busy and active upon the grass.
So uncommon an appearance made me go oul
* RfE.sel tried a frog; it swallowed the bee alive; its
stomach was stung, and the animal vomited it up again
3c
336
HISTORY OF FROGS, LIZARDS, AND SERPENTS.
to see what it was ; when I found an innum- '
enable swarm of winged ants had dropped
round his hole ; which temptation was as irre-
sistible as a turtle would be to a luxurious al-
derman. In respect to its end, had it riot
been for a tame raven, I make no doubt but
it would have been now living. This bird,
one day seeing it at the mouth of its hole,
pulled it out, and, although I rescued it,
pulled out one eye, and hurt it so, that not-
withstanding its living a twelvemonth, it
never enjoyed itself, and had a difficulty of
taking its food, missing the mark for want of
its eye. Before that accident, it had all the
appearance of perfect health."
To this account of the toad's inoffensive
qualities, I will add another from Valisnieri,
to show that, even taken internally, the toad is no
way dangerous. In the year 1692, some Ger-
man soldiers, who had taken possession of the
castle of Arceti, finding that the peasants of
the country often amused themselves in catch-
ing frogs, and dressing them for the table ;
resolved to provide themselves with a like en-
tertainment, and made preparations for frog
fishing, in the same manner. It may easily
be supposed that the Italians and their Ger-
man guests were not very fond of each other;
and indeed it is natural to think that the sol-
diers gave the poor people of the country many
good reasons for discontent. They were not
a little pleased, therefore, when they saw them
go to a ditch where toads, instead of frogs,
were found in abundance. The Germans, no
way distinguishing in their sport, caught them
in great numbers; while the peasants kept
looking on, silently flattering themselves with
the hopes of speedy revenge. After being
brought home, the toads were dressed -up af-
ter the Italian fashion : the peasants were
quite happy at seeing their tyrants devour
them with so good an appetite, and expected
every moment to see them drop down dead.
But what was their surprise to find that the
Germans continued as well as ever, and only
complained of a slight excoriation of the lips,
which, probably, arose from some other cause
than that of their repast."
I will add another story, from Solenander;
who tells us, that a tradesman of Rome and
his wife who had long lived together with mu-
tual discontent ; the man was dropsical, and the
woman amorous: this ill-matched society pro-
mised soon, by the very infirm state of the
man, to have an end ; but the woman was
unwilling to wait the progress of the disorder ;
and therefore concluded that, to get rid of her
husband, nothing was left her but poison.
For this purpose she chose out a dose that she
supposed would be the most effectual ; and
having calcined some toads, mixed their
powder with his drink." The man, after tak-
ing a hearty dose, found no considerable in.
convenience, except that it greatly promoted
urine. His wife, who considered this as a
beginning symptom of the venom, resolved
not to stint the next dose, but gave it in greater
quantities than before. This also increased
the former symptom ; and, in a few days the
woman had the mortification to see her detested
husband restored to perfect health, and re-
mained in utter despair of ever being a widow.
From all this it will appear with what in-
justice this animal has hitherto been treated. It
has undergone every kind of reproach ; and
mankind have been taught to consider, as an
enemy, a creature that destroys that insect-
tribe which are their real invaders. We are
to treat, therefore, as fables, those accounfs
that represent the toad as possessed of poison
to kill at a distance ; of its ejecting its venom,
which burns wherever it touches ; of its in-
fecting those vegetables near which it resides ;
of its excessive fondness for sage, which
is rendered poisonous by its approach ; these,
and a hundred others of the same kind,
probably took their rise from an antipathy
which some have to all animals of the kind.
It is a harmless, defenceless creature, torpid
and unvenomous, and seeking the darkest
retreats, not from the malignity of its nature,
but the multitude of its enemies.
Like all the frog kind, the toad is torpid in
winter. It chooses then, for a retreat, either
the hollow root of a tree, the cleft of a rock,
or sometimes the bottom of a pond, where it
is found in a state of seeming insensibility.
As it is very long-lived, it is very difficult to
be killed ; its skin is tough, and cannot be
easily pierced ; and, though covered with
wounds, the animal continues to show signs
of life, and every part appears in motion.
But what shall we say to its living for cen-
turies lodged in the bosom of a rock, or cased
within the body of an oak-tree, without the
smallest access on any side either for nourish-
ment or air, and yet taken out alive and per-
fect ! Stories of this kind it would be as rash
to contradict as difficult to believe ; we have
the highest authorities bearing witness to theii
truth, and yet the whole analogy of nature
seems to arraign them of falsehood. Bacon
asserts that toads are found in this manner;
Dr Plot asserts the same. There is, to this
day, a marble chimney-piece, at Chatsworth,
with the print of a toad upon it, and a tradition
of the manner in which it was found. In the
Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences there i?
an account of a toad found alive and healthy
in the heart of a very thick elm, without the
smallest entrance or egress.1 In the year
1731, there was another found, near Nantes,
1 Vide the year 1719.
THE TOAD.
387
in the heart of an old oak, without the small-
est issue to its cell ; and the discoverer was of
opinion, from the size of the tree, that the
animal could not have been confined there
less than eighty or a hundred years, without
sustenance and without air. To all these we
can only oppose the strangeness of the facts;
the necessity this animal appears under of
receiving air; and its dying, like all other
animals, in the air-pump, when deprived of
this all-sustaining fluid. But whether these
!)e objections to weigh against such respect-
able and disinterested authority I will not
pretend to determine ; certain it is that if
kept in a damp place, the toad will live for
several months without any food whatsoever. *
1 In 1777, Herissaut undertook some experiments to
ascertain the truth of facts of this kind, which might
appear fabulous. He shut up three toads in sealed boxes
in plaster, and they were deposited in the Academy of
Sciences. At the end of eighteen months one of these
toads was dead, but the other two were still living.
Nobody could doubt the authenticity of this fact, yet the
experiments were severely criticised, as well as the ob-
servations which they seemed to confirm. It was con-
tended that the air must have come to these animals
through some imperceptible hole which escaped the
notice of the observer. Some probability, however, was
piven to this circumstance by the researches of Dr
Edwards, published in 1817. He observed that toads,
shut up totally in plaster, and absolutely deprived of air,
lived for a great number of days, and much longer than
those which were forced to remain under water. This
certainly is one of the most extraordinary phenomena
which the history of reptiles can furnish. It appears an
exception to the necessity of air, which is regarded as
indispensable to the life of all animals, and seems to
break the chain which united them under the most in-
teresting relations. of existence. It appears, however,
that the air evidently penetrated through the plaster, as
Dr Edwards proved, for the toads perished as soon as the
plaster which enclosed them was placed under water.
The opponents of Herissaut were therefore justified to
some degree in theirTscepticism. Still the fact of ani-
mals existing so long under such circumstances, even
with a little air, is most surprising, and calculated to
produce very strange reflections. If these reptiles lived
in this manner longer than they would have done in the
open dry air, the reason is that they lost less by trans-
piration, and if they died much later than they would
have done in water, ft was because the air certainly had
some access to them.
Professor Buckland has recently made some experi-
ments in order to throw light on this obscure subject.
Two blocks of stone were taken, one of porous oolite
limestone, and one of a compact silicious sandstone ;
twelve cells, five inches wide, and six inches deep, were
/ut in the sandstone, and twelve others, five inches wide,
and twelve inches deep, in the limestone. In November,
1825, one live toad was placed in each of the twenty,
four cells, its weight being previously ascertained with
care. A glass plate was placed over each cell as a cover,
with a circular slate above to protect it ; and the two
Mocks of stone, with the immured toads, were buried in
Dr Buckland's garden under three feet of earth. They
were uncovered after the lapse of a year, in December,
1826. All the toads in the small cells of compact sand-
stone were dead, and their bodies so much decayed as to
prove that they had been dead for some months. The
greater number of the toads in the larger cells of porous
To this extraordinary account, which is
doubtful, I will add another not less so; which
is, that of toads sucking cancerous breasts,
and thus extracting the venom, and perform,
ing a cure. The first account we have of
limestone were alive ; but they were all a good deal
emaciated, except two, which had increased in weight,
the one from one thousand one hundred and eighty-five
grains to one thousand two hundred and sixty-five, the
other from nine hundred and eighty-eight to one thous-
and one hundred and sixteen. With regard to these two,
Dr Buckland thinks they had both been nourished by in-
sects, which had got into the one cell through a crack
found in the glass cover, and into the other probably by
some small aperture in the luting, which was not carefully
examined. No insects were found in either cell, but an
assemblage of insects were found on the outside of an-
other glass, and a number within one of the cells whoso
cover was cracked, and where the animal was dead.
Of the emaciated toads, one had diminished in weight
from nine hundred and twenty-four grains to six hundred
and ninety-eight, and one from nine hundred and thirty-
six to six hundred and fifty-two. " The results of the
experiments," says Dr Buckland, "amount to this:—
All the toads, both large and small, enclosed in the
sandstone, and the small toads inclosed in the limestone
also, were dead at the end of thirteen months. Before
the expiration of the second year, all the large ones alsc
were dead. These were examined several times, dur-
ing the second year, through the glass covers of the cells,
but without removing them to admit air. They ap-
peared always awake, with their eyes open, and never
in a state of torpor, their meagerness increasing at each
interval, until at length they were found dead. Those
which had gained an increase of weight at the end of the
first year, and were then carefully closed up again, were
emaciated and dead before the expiration of the second
year." Four toads, inclosed in cavities cut in the trunk
of an apple tree, and closed up by plugs so tightly as to
exclude insects, and "apparently air," were found dead
at the end of a year.
The phenomena, then, of live toads inclosed in rocks,
he explains in this way. The young toad, as soon as it
leaves its tadpole state, and emerges from the water,
seeks shelter in holes and crevices of rocks and trees.
One may thus enter a small opening in a rock, and
when there find food, by catching the insects which seek
shelter in the same retreat ; and its increase of size
may prevent it from getting out again by the same open-
ing". It is probable that there are some small apertures
in all the stones in which toads are found, though they
escape the notice of the workmen, who have no motive
to induce them to make a narrow examination. In
other cases, there may have been an opening, which had
been closed up, alter the animal was immured, by
stalactitic incrustation. Deprived of food and air, it
might fall into that state of torpor, or suspended anima-
tion, to which certain animals are subject in winter; but
how long it might continue in this state is uncertain.
The Rev. George Young, in his Geological Survey of
the Yorkshire Coast, second edition, 1828, mentions
several recent instances of living toads having been
found within solid blocks of sandstone. " We are the
more particular in recording these facts," he observes,
" because some modern philosophers have attempted to
explode such accounts as wholly fabulous." Mr Jesse
informs us, that he knew a gentleman who put a toad into
a small flower-pot, and secured it, so that no insect
could penetrate it, and then buried it so deep in hi?
garden that it was secured against the influence of frost.
At the end of twenty years he took it up,, and found th*
toad increased in bulk, and healthy.
338
HISTORY OF FROGS, LIZARDS, AND SERPENTS.
this is in a letter to the bishop of Carlisle
from Dr Pitfield, who was the first person of
consequence that attended the experiment.
His letter is as follows : —
" Your lordship must have taken notice of
a paragraph in the papers with regard to the
application of toads to a cancered breast. A
patient of mine has sent to the neighbourhood
of Hungerford, and brought down the very
woman on whom the cure was done. I have,
with all the attention I am capable of, attended
the operation for eighteen or twenty days, and
am surprised at the phenomenon. I am in no
expectation of any great service from the ap-
plication ; the age, constitution, and thoroughly
cancerous condition, of the person, being un-
conquerable barriers to it. How an aliment
of that kind, absolutely local, in an otherwise
sound habit, and of a likely age, might be
relieved, I cannot say. But as to the opera-
tion, thus much I can assert, that there is
neither pain nor nauseousness in it. The
animal is put into a linen bag all but its head,
and that is held to the part. It has generally
instantly laid hold of the foulest part of the
sore, arid sucked with greediness until it
dropped off dead. It has frequently happened
that the creature has swollen immediately,
and from its agonies, appeared to be in great
pain. I have weighed them for several days
together, before and after the application, and
found their increase of weight, in the differ-
ent degrees, from a drachm to near an ounce.
They frequently sweat exceedingly, and turn
quite pale, sometimes they disgorge, recover,
and become lively again: I think the whole
scene is surprising, and a very remarkable
piece of natural history. From the constant
inoffensiveness which I have observed in them,
I almost question the truth of their poisonous
spitting. Many people here expect no great
good from the application of toads to cancers ;
and where the disorder is not absolutely local,
none is to. be expected. When it is seated in
any part not to be well come at for extirpa-
tion, I think it is hardly to be imagined, but
that the having it sucked clean as often as you
please, must give great relief. Every body
knows that dogs licking of sores cures them ;
which is, I suppose, chiefly by keeping them
clean. If there be any credit to be given to
history, poisons have been sucked out. Pal-
lentia vulnera lambit ore venena trahens, are the
words of Lucan on the occasion. It the peo-
ple to whom these words are applied did their
cure by immediately following the injection
of the poison, the local confinement of another
poison brings the case to a great degree of si-
milarity. I hope I have not tired your lord-
ship with my long tale : as it is a true one,
and, in my apprehension, a curious piece of
natural history, I could not forbear communi-
cating it to you. I own 1 thought the story
in the papers to be an invention ; and when I
considered the instinctive principle in all ani-
mals of self-preservation, I was confirmed in
my disbelief; but what I have related I saw;
and all theory must yield to fact. It is only
the Rubeta, the land-toad, which has the pro-
perty of sucking : I cannot find any, the least,
mention of the property in any one of the old
naturalists. My patient can bear to have
but one applied in twenty-four hours. The
woman who was cured had them on day and
night, without intermission, for five weeks.
Their time of hanging at the breast has been
from one to six hours."
Other remarks made upon their method of
performing this extraordinary operation are as
follow : " Some toads die very soon after they
have sucked ; others live about a quarter of
an hour, and some much longer. For exam-
ple, one that was applied about seven o'clock
sucked till ten, and died as soon as it was taken
from the breast; another that immediately
succeeded continued till three o'clock, but
dropped dead from thu wound : each swelled
exceedingly, and grew of a pale colour. They
do not seem to suck greedily, and often turn
their heads away; but during the time of their
sucking, they were heard to smack their lips
like a young child." *
From this circumstantial account of the pro-
gress of this extraordinary application, one
could hardly suppose that any doubt could re-
main of the ingenious observer's accuracy ;
and yet, from information which I have re-
ceived from authority still more respectable,
there is much reason, as yet, to suspend our
assent. A lady, who was under the care of
the present president of the College of Phy-
sicians, was induced by her friends to try
the experiment ; and as he saw the case was
desperate, and that it would quiet her mind as
well as theirs, he permitted the trial. Dur-
ing the whole continuance of their application,
she could never thoroughly perceive that they
sucked her ; but that did not prevent their
swelling and dying, as in the former instan-
ces. Once indeed, she said, she thought that
one of them seemed to suck; but the physician,
and those who attended, could not perceive
any appearance of it. Thus, after all, it is a
doubt whether these animals die by the inter-
nal or the external application of the cancer-
ous poison.
Of this animal there are several varieties ;
such as the water and the land toad, which
probably differ only in the ground-colour of
their skin. In the first, it is more inclining
to ash-colour, with brown spots ; in the other,
the colour is brown, approaching to black.
1 British Zoology, vol. ai. p. 338.
THE TOAD.
S89
The water toad is not so large as the other;
but both equally breed in that element The
size of the toad, with us, is generally from
two to four inches long ; but in the fenny
countries of Europe I have seen them much
larger, and not less than a common crab,
when Drought to table. But this is nothing to
what they are found in some of the tropical
climates, where travellers often, for the first
time, mistake a toad for a tortoise. Their usual
size is from six to seven inches : but there
are some still larger, and as broad as a plate.
Of these some are beautifully streaked and
coloured ; some studded over, as with pearls ;
others bristled with horns or spines ; some
have the head distinct from the body, while
others have it so sunk in that the animal ap-
pears without a head.1 All these are found
in the tropical climates in great abundance ;
and particularly after a shower of rain. It is
then that the streets seem entirely paved with
them ; they then crawl from their retreats,
and go into all places to enjoy their favourite
moisture. With us the opinion of its raining
toads and frogs has long been justly exploded;
but it still is entertained in the tropical coun-
tries ; and that not only by the savage natives,
but the more refined settlers, who are apt
enough to add the prejudices of other nations
to their own.
It would be a tedious, as well as useless
task, to enter into all the minute discrimina-
tions of these animals, as found in different
countries or places •, but the pipa, or Surinam
toad, is too strange a creature not to require
an exact description. There is not, perhaps,
in all nature, a more extraordinary phenome-
non than that of an animal breeding and
hatching its young in its back ; from whence,
as from a kind of hot-bed, they crawl one
after the other when come to maturity.
The pipa is, in form, more hideous than
even the common toad; nature seeming to
have marked all those strange mannered ani-
mals with peculiar deformity. The body is
1 Among this numerous family there is one which,
for horrid and deformed appearance, probably, exceeds
all other created beings. This is the horned toad, of
South America. The colour is cinereous, with brown
stripes. The eye-lids project in a singular manner, and
give it the appearance as if the eyes were placed at the
bottom of a pair of sharp pointed horns: the head is very
large, and the mouth is so enormous, as to exceed half
the length of its body. To add to its loathsome appear-
ance, it is likewise clothed all over, except the head and
feet, with short sharp spines.
flat and broad ; the head small ; the jaws, liks
those of a mole, are extended, and evidently
formed for rooting in the ground : the skin of
the neck forms a sort of wrinkled collar: the
colour of the head is of a dark chestnut, and
the eyes are small : the back, which is verv
broad, is of a lightish gray, and seems covered
over with a number of small eyes, which are
round, and placed at nearly equal distances.
These eyes are very different from what they
seem ; they are the animal's eggs, covered
with their shells, and placed there for hatch-
ing. These eggs are buried deep in the skin,
and in the beginning of incubation but just
appear ; and are very visible when the young
animal is about to burst from its confinement.
They are of a reddish shining yellow colour ;
and the spaces between them are full of small
warts resembling pearls.8
This is their situation, previous to their
coming forth ; but nothing so much demands
our admiration as the manner of their produc-
tion. The eggs, when formed in the -ovary,
are sent by some internal canals, which ana-
tomists have not hitherto described, to lie and
come to maturity, under the bony substance
of the back ; in this state they are impregna-
ted by the male, whose seed finds its way by
pores very singularly contrived, and pierces
not only the skin but the periosteum. The
skin, however, is still apparently entire, and
forms a very thick covering over the whole
brood ; but as they advance to maturity, at
different intervals, one after another, the egg-
seems to start forward and bourgeon from the
back, becomes more yellow, and at last breaks,
when the young one puts forth its head: it
still, however, keeps its situation, until it has
acquired a proper degree of strength, and then
it leaves the shell, but still continues to keep
upon the back of the parent. In this manner
the pipa is seen travelling with her wondrous
family on her back, in all the different stages
of maturity. Some of the strange progeny,
not yet come to sufficient perfection, appear
quite torpid, and as yet without life in the
egg : others seem just beginning to rise through
the skin ; here peeping forth from the shell ;
and there, having entirely forsaken their pri-
son ; some are sporting at large upon the par-
ent's back ; and others descending to the
ground, to try their own fortune below.
Such is the description given of this strange
8 It is now demonstrated that the female lays its egss
after the manner of toads, but that the male, fastened oti
her back, fecundates them, and then places them on the
back of the mother ; she then repairs to the water, where
her skin swells, and forms rounded alveoli, in which
these eggs are lodged, to be subsequently disclosed. The
pipa lives in the fresh waters of South America, and
sometimes in the obscure parts of houses at Cayenne
and Surinam. The negroes are said sometimes to use
the pipa as food.
390
HISTORY OF FROGS, LIZARDS, AND SERPENTS.
production by Seba, in which he differs from
Ruysch, who affirms, that the young ones are
bred in the back of the male only, where the
female lays her eggs. I have followed Seba,
however, not because he is better authority,
but because he is more positive of the truth of
his account, and asserts, assuredly, that the
eggs are found on the back of the female only.
Many circumstances, however, are wanting
towards completing his information ; such as
a description of the passage by which the egg
finds its way into the back ; the manner of
its fecundation ; the time of gestation ; as also
a history of the manners of this strange animal
itself; but, by a prolixity that much prevails
among naturalists at present, he leaves the
most interesting object of curiosity to give us a
detailed discription of the legs and claws of the
pipa,
cern.
about which we have
very
little
cor-
The male pipa is every way larger than the
female, and has the skin less tightly drawn
round the body. The whole body is covered
with pustules resembling pearls; and the bel-
ly, which is of a bright yellow, seems as if it
were sewed up from the throat to the vent, a
seam being seen to run in that direction.
This animal, like the rest of the frog kind, ia
most probably harmless ; though we are told
of the terrible effects resulting from its powder
when calcined. This, however, must certainly
be false ; no creature whatever, when calcined,
can be poisonous ; for the fire burns away
whatever might have been dangerous in their
composition : all animal substances, when cal-
cined, being entirely the same.
OF FROGS, LIZARDS, AND SERPENTS.
BOOK It.
OF LIZARDS.
CHAP. I.
OF LIZARDS IN GENERAL.
THERE is scarcely a naturalist, who has treated
of lizards, but has a particular manner of
ranking them in the scale of animated nature.
Ray, rather struck with the number of their
legs than their habits and conformation, has
exalted them among quadrupeds ; while Lin-
naeus, attentive only to their long slender
torms, has degraded them among serpents.
Brisson gives them a distinct class by them-
selves, under the name of reptiles. Klein
gives them a class inferior to beasts, under the
name of naked quadrupeds. Some, in short,
from their scaly covering, and fondness for the
water, have given them to the fishes ; while
there have not been wanting naturalists who
have classed them with insects, as the smaller
kinds of this class seem to demand.
It is indeed no easy matter to tell to what
class in nature lizards are chiefly allied.
They are unjustly raised to the rank of beasts,
as they bring forth eggs, dispense with breath-
ing, and are not covered with hair. They
cannot be placed among fishes, as the major-
ity of them live upon land : they are excluded
from the serpent tribe by their feet, upon
which they run with some celerity : and from
the insects, by their size ; for though the Newt
may be looked upon in this contemptible light,
a Crocodile would be a terrible insect indeed.
Thus lizards are, in some measure, excluded
from every rank, while they exhibit somewhat
of the properties of all ; the legs and celerity
of the quadruped ; a facility of creeping
through narrow and intricate ways, like the
serpent; and a power of living in the water,
like fishes ; however, though endued with these
various powers, they have no real advantages
over any other class of animated nature ; for
what they gain in aptitude for one element;,
they lose in their fitness for another. Thus,
between both, they are an awkward ungainly
tribe ; neither so alert upon land, nor so nim-
ble in the water, as the respective inhabitanls
of either abode: and, indeed, this holds
throughout all nature, that in proportion as the
seeming advantages of inferior animals are
multiplied, their real ones are abridged; and all
their instincts are weakened and lost by the
variety of channels into which they are divided.
As lizards thus differ from every other class
of animals, they also differ widely from each
other. With respect to size, no class of be-
ings has its ranks so opposite. What, for in-
stance, can be more removed than the small
cameleon, an inch long, arid the alligator of
the river Amazon, above twenty-seven feet?
To an inattentive observer, they would appear
entirely of different kinds ; and Seba wonders
how they ever came to be classed together.
The colour of these animals also is very va-
rious, as they are found of a hundred different
hues — green, blue, red, chestnut, yellow,
spotted, streaked, and marbled. Were colour
alone capable of constituting beauty, the liz-
ard would often please ; but there is some-
thing so repressing in the animal's figure, that
the brilliancy of its scales, or the variety of its
spots, only tend to give an air of more exqui-
site venom or greater malignity. The figure
of these animals is not less various ; sometimes
swollen in the belly ; sometimes pursed up
at the throat ; sometimes with a rough set of
spines on the back, like the teeth of a saw;
sometimes with teeth, at others with none ;
sometimes venomous, at others harmless, and
even philanthropic : sometimes smooth and
even ; sometimes with a long slender tail ; and
often with a shorter blunt one.1
i The whole of this tribe is perfectly destitute of pol-
392
HISTORY OF FROGS, LIZARDS, AND SERPENTS.
But their greatest distinction arises from
the manner of bringing forth their young.
First, some of them are viviparous. Secondly,
some are oviparous ; and which may be con-
sidered in three distinct ways. Thirdly, some
bring forth small spawn, like fishes. The
crocodile, the iguana, and all the larger kinds,
bring forth eggs, which are hatched by the
heat of the sun ; the animals that issue from
them are complete upon leaving the shell ;
and their first efforts are to run to seek food
in their proper element. The viviparous
kinds, in which are all the salamanders, come
forth alive from the body of the female, per-
fect and active, and suffer no succeeding
change. But those which are bred in the
water, and as we have reason to think, from
spawn, suffer a very considerable change in
their form. They are produced with an ex-
ternal skin or covering that sometimes incloses
their feet, and gives them a serpentine appear,
ance. To this false skin fins are added, above
and below the tail, that serve the animal for
swimming; but when the false skin drops off,
these drop off also ; and then the lizard, with
its four feet, is completely formed, and forsakes
the water.
From hence it appears, that, of this tribe,
there are three distinct kinds, differently pro-
duced, and, most probably, very different in
their formation. But the history of these ani-
mals is very obscure ; and we are, as yet,
incapable of laying the line that separates
them. All we know, as was said before, is,
that the great animals of this kind are mostly
produced perfect from the egg; the salaman-
ders are generally viviparous ; and some of the
water lizards imperfectly produced. In all
these most unfinished productions of Nature,
if I may so call them, the varieties in their
structure increase in proportion to theii imper-
fections. A poet would say, that Nature
grew tired of the nauseous formation, and left
accident to finish the rest of her handy- work.
However, the three kinds have many points
of similitude ; and, in all their varieties of
figure, colour, and production, this tribe is
easily distinguished, and strongly marked.
They have all four short legs ; the two fore-
feet, somewhat resembling a man's hand and
arm. They have tails almost as thick as the
body at the beginning, and that generally run
tapering to a point. They are all amphibious
also ; equally capable of living upon land and
•water; and formed, internally, in the same
manner with the tortoise, and other animals,
that can continue a long time without respira-
tion : in other words, their lungs are not so
ion, and except the. crocodile and alligator, quite inof-
fensive to mankind. Those that are bred in waters un-
dergo a metamorphosis, and pass through a tadpole
form.
necessary to continue life and circulation,. but
that their play may be stopped for some con-
siderable time, while the blood performs its
circuit round the body by a shorter communi-
cation.
These are differences that sufficiently sepa-
rate lizards from all other animals ; but it
will be very difficult to fix the limits that dis-
tinguish the three kinds from each other.
The crocodile tribe, and its affinities, are suf-
ficiently distinguished from all the rest by
their size and fierceness ; the salamander tribe
is distinguished by their deformity, their frog-
like heads, the shortness of their snouts, their
swollen bellies, and their viviparous produc-
tion. With regard to the rest, which we
may denominate the cameleon or lizard kind,
some of which bring forth from the egg, some
of which are imperfectly formed from spawn,
we must group them under one head, and
leave time to unravel the rest of their history.
CHAP. II.
OF THE CROCODILE, AND ITS AFFINITIES-1
THE Crocodile is an animal placed at a
happy distance from the inhabitants of Eu-
rope, and formidable only in those regions
where men are scarce, and arts are but little
known. In all the cultivated and populous
1 Crocodiles and Alligators. — The true crocodile is
found in the river Nile, but by no means in such plenty
as in the times of the Pharaohs. The species which is
domesticated by the priests, and magnificently provided
for in a temple in Memphis, was of a green colour. It
was an object of profound worship, called a God, and em-
balmed when it died. On the other hand, the alligator
is exclusively found in America ; and instead of having
an uninterrupted series of teeth round both jaws, as in
the crocodile, the fourth tooth of the under jaw shuts into
a corresponding socket in the upper one. This law ii
so universal, that any person by remembering this fact,
may with certainty designate the one from the other.
The term alligator is applied to the various species of
crocodiles that are found in America, while the name
Gavial has been given to such as inhabit the East Indies
and the islands of the Indian ocean, and the original
word is more especially used when speaking of that
species which abounds in the Nile. In the central parts
of Africa, the crocodiles attain a very large size, in many
instances being found as much as thirty feet in length.
The crocodile swallows its prey whole, and feeds in.
differently on fish or small quadrupeds; and the upper
teeth, instead of resting with their points upon the under
when the mouth is closed, enter between them, and thus
prevent all chance of escape. It but rarely attacks man-
kind. On either side of the under part of the lower
jaw, a small opening is found, from which the creaturo
can force, at will, a liquid possessing the smell of musk.
This property has been lately noticed by JVlr Thomas
Bell, in a paper inserted in the Transactions of the
Royal Society of London, and, in his opinion, the rep-
tile employs it for the purpose of attracting fish into the
places it haunts.
THE CROCODILE.
303
parts of the world the great animals are en-
tirely banished, or rarely seen. The appear-
ance of such raises at once a whole country up
in arms to oppose their force ; and their lives
The following cut represents the Double Crested Cro-
idile. It is the most common species in all the rivers
that lead to the Indian ocean. It is found in Java and
even in China.
The most remarkable distinguishing character of alli-
gators (as already said) is the shape of the head. The
gavials have it the most produced, the crocodiles the
next, and the alligators have it shortest. In them the
length of the jaws from the articulation is only one-half
more than the greatest breadth. The teeth have a ragged
appearance, as some of them are long and others short.
There are never fewer than nineteen in each side of
either jaw, and sometimes two more in each side of the
under one. These grow with the growth of the ani-
mal; and receiving cavities are formed for them in the
upper jaw, especially from those fourth from the front,
which are longer than any of the others. The body is
low and squat ; the hind legs are nearly round in their
section, and have no membrane on their sides ; the webs
of the toes also extend only half the length ; and the
holes behind the orbits, which are understood to secrete
a musky fluid in the crocodiles, are small and obscure,
or wanting. From the structure of the feet, and the
want of fringed or pectinated membranes on the hind
legs, which are both a lessening of the pelagic structure,
alligators keep more to the fresh waters, the rivers, and
lagunes, than the crocodiles ; so that those in the bays
of the West India islands, though popularly known as
alligators or caymans, are rather to be considered as
crocodiles, even in the popular sense of that term.
There are four species or more, of alligators, all natives
of the warmer parts of the American continent, but vary-
ing in their appearance, so as in some of th" species to
resemble the crocodiles, and in others th« gavials. The
species which, in the written accounts at least, is the
most ferocious and formidable to man, is that which in-
habits the Mississippi and the other rivers of the southern
parts of North America, and the swamps and lagunes
which these rivers form when they are swollen by floods.
It is the pifte-headed alligator (Alligator lucius) of Cuvier,
so called bec&use its head, in shape at least, bears some
resemblance to that of the common pike. This species
has been seen as long as fifteen feet, with the head two
VOL. n
generally pay the forfeit of their temerity.
The crocodile, therefore, that was once so
terrible along the banks of the river Nile, is
now neither so large, nor its_nu_mbers sogreal
feet long, and live gape nearly the same. The jaws are
more elongated than in some other species, the breadtL
at the articulation not being in those of the size men-
tioned much more than one foot. The snout is flattened
on the upper surface, and slightly turned up at the ex-
tremity, which is bluntly pointed ; but the sides of the
jaws are, for the greater portion of the length of the gape,
nearly parallel. The teeth are large and irregular, with
the fourth from the front in each side of the tinder jaw .
much larger than the rest, so that they can pene-
trate through a substance of considerable thickness, and,
with their points received into the sockets in the upper
jaw, hold on against a very considerable strain. It is
by this means that the animal is said to master the
larger mammalia, when they come to the shores to
quench their thirst. The alligator, having observed its
prey, swims slowly towards it, with the snout barely
above the* water. When within reach, it seizes the
upper lip and nose; and at the same time incurvating ita
body with more than ordinary exertion, hits a violent
blow on the shoulder with its thick and scaly tail. The
bite and the blow together bring the animal to its knees,
tumble it headlong and helpless ; and as the alligator
does not quit its hold while the animal continues to
struggle, and also contrives to keep the head underwater,
the prey soon expires of pain and suffocation. The
smaller mammalia are generally foundered by the blow
of the tail, and then seized by the head and drawn under
water till they are suffocated. But in what state soever
prey of this description is eaten, whether recent or after
it has been partially decomposed by time, it is always
eaten on land. They do not feed under water, any
more than they breathe in that situation.
The Parted Monitor, of which the following is a re-
presentation, resembles the crocodile as to form, but is
different in its habits. It swims with difficulty, runs
with considerable swiftness, and climbs trees with dex-
terity. It conceals itself in burrows, and bites desper-
ately. Its flesh and eggs are eaten. Its length is from
four to five feet. It inhabits the savannahs and marshy
soils of South America, particularly Guiana.
There is, perhaps, no country in which the alligator
more generally abounds, than in India. It is found in
most of the rivers, in the large tanks, and frequently,
during the monsoons, in small pools of water scarcely larger
than the common pond of an English farm -yard. In
the larger tanks these creatures are commonly fed by
the Hindoos, who venerate, though they do not, like the
ancient Egyptians, worship them. They become so
tame when daily supplied with food by the superstitious
Brahmins of the temples near which they take tip their
undisturbed abode, that any person may fearlessly bathe
in the tanks, without the slightest chance of molesta-
tion, these usually voracious reptiles being so pampered
as to have no further relish for human flesh.
In the Ganges, these creatures may be almost daily
seen watching the numerous carcasses which constantly
float down that river, awaiting the moment when they
shall have attained a state of luxurious maturity. Some-
times a solitary vulture appears sailing down the current,
394
HISTORY OF FROGS, LIZARDS, AND SERPENTS.
as formerly. The arts of mankind have,
through a course of ages, powerfully operated
to its destruction ; and, though it is some-
times seen, it appears comparatively timorous
and feeble.
perched upon a human body, which the mistaken at-
tachment of superstitious friends had committed to the
stream to send on its roads to paradise, tearing the
scarcely cold flesh from the bones, until chased from its
horrid repast by the more dominant and not less voracious
•alligator.
It is a very common thing for the native princes of
India, living in the neighbourhood of large rivers where
alligators abound, to have them caught for the purpose
of entertaining their court and guests, by making them
fight, or causing them to be attacked by other animals.
Captain Basil Hall has given the following animated
account of a fight of this kind, got up for the amusement
of the Admiral, Sir R. Hood, and performed by a corps
of Malays in the British service.
Very early (he says) in the morning, the party were
summoned from their beds, to set forth on the expedition.
In other countries, the hour of getting up may be left to
choice ; in India, when any thing active is to be done,
it is a matter of necessity ; for after the sun has gained
even a few degrees of altitude, the heat and discomfort,
as well as the danger of exposure, become so great, that
all pleasure is at an end. The day, therefore, had
scarcely begun to dawn, when we all cantered up to the
scene of action.
The ground lay as flat as a marsh for many leagues,
and was spotted with small stagnant lakes connected by
sluggish streams, scarcely moving over beds of mud,
between banks fringed with a rank crop of draggled
weeds. The chill atmosphere of the morning felt so
thick and clammy, it was impossible not to think of
agues, jungle-fevers, and all the hopeful family of
malaria. The hardy native soldiers who had occupied
the ground during the night, were drawn up to receive the
Admiral, and a very queer guard of honour they formed.
The whole regiment had stripped ofl" their uniform, and
every other stitch of clothing, save a pair of short trou-
sers, and a kind of sandal. In place of a firelock, each
man bore in his hand a slender pole, about six feet in
length, to the extremity of which was attached the
bayonet of his musket. His only other weapon, was
the formidable Malay crease, a sort of dagger, or small
two-edged sword.
Soon after the commander. in-chief came to the
ground, the regiment was divided into two main parties,
and a body of reserves. The principal columns, facing,
one to the right, the other to the left, proceeded to occupy
different points in one of the sluggish canals, connecting
the pools scattered over the plain. These detachments
being stationed about a mile from one another, enclosed
an interval where, from some peculiar circumstances
known only to the Malays, who are passionately fond of
the sport, the alligators were sure to be found in great
numbers. The troops formed themselves across the
canals, in three parallel lines, ten to twelve feet apart ;
but the men in each line stood side by side, merely leav-
ing room enough to wield their pikes. The canal may
have been about four or five feet deep, in the middle of
the stream, if stream it can be called, which scarcely
moved at all. The colour of the water, when undis-
turbed, was a shade between ink and coffee ; but no
sooner had the triple line of Malays set themselves in
motion, than the consistence and colour became like
those of peas-soup.
On eveiy thing being reported ready, the soldiers
planted their pikes before them in the mud, each man
crossing his neighbour's weapon, and at the word
" march " away they all started in full cry, sending forth
To look for this animal in all its natural
terrors, grown to an enormous size, propagated
in surprising numbers, and committing un-
ceasing devastations, we must go to the unin-
habited regions of Africa and America, to
a shout, or war-whoop, sufficient to curdle the blood of
those on land, whatever effect it may have had on the
inhabitants of the deep. As the two divisions of the in-
vading army gradually approached each other in pretty
close column, screaming, and yelling, aud striking their
pikes deep in the slime before them, the startled animals
naturally retired towards the unoccupied centre. Gen-
erally speaking, the alligators, or crocodiles, had sense
enough to turn their long tails upon their assailants, and
to scuttle off, as fast as they could, towards the middle
part of the canal. But every now and then, one of the
terrified monsters floundered backwards, and, by retreat-
ing in the wrong direction, broke through the first,
second, and even third line of pikes. This was the per-
fection of sport to the delighted Malays. A double circle
of soldiers was speedily formed round the wretched
aquatic who had presumed to pass the barrier. By
means of well-directed thrusts with numberless bayonets,
and the pressure of spme dozens of feet, the poor brute
was often fairly driven beneath his native mud. When
once there, his enemies half-choked and half-spitted
him, till at last they put an end to his miserable days,
in regions quite out of sight, and in a manner as inglori-
ous as can well be conceived.
The intermediate space was now pretty well crowded
with alligators, swimming about in the utmost terror, at
times diving below, and anon showing their noses above
the surface of the dirty stream ; or occasionally making
a furious bolt, in sheer despair, right at the phalanx of
Malays. On these occasions, half-a-dozen of the soldiers
were often upset, and their pikes either broken or twisted
out of their hands, to the infinite amusement of their
companions, who speedily closed up the broken ranks.
There were none killed, but many wounded.; yet no man
flinched in the least.
The perfection of the sport appeared to consist in de-
taching a single alligator from the rest, surrounding and
attacking him separately, and spearing him till he was
almost dead. The Malays, then, by main strength,
forked him aloft, over their heads, on the end of a dozen
pikes, and, by a sudden jerk, pitched the conquered
monster far on the shore. As the alligators are amphibi-
ous, they kept to the water no longer than they found
they had an advantage in that element ; but on the two
columns of their enemy closing up, the monsters lost all
discipline, floundered up the weedy banks, scuttling
away to the right and left, helter-skelter. " Sauve qui
pent !" seemed to be the fatal watch-word for their total
rout. That prudent cry would, no doubt, have saved
many of them, had not the Malays judiciously placed
beforehand their reserve on each side of the »iver, to
receive the distracted fugitives, who, bathed in mud,
and half dead with terror, but still in a prodigious fury,
dashed off at right angles from the canal, in hopes of
gaining the shelter of a swampy pool, overgrown with
reeds and bulrushes, but which most of the poor beasts
were never doomed to reach. The concluding battle
between these retreating and desperate alligators, and the
Malays of the reserve, was formidable enough. Indeed,
had not the one party been fresh, the other exhausted,
one confident, the other broken in spirit ; it is quite pos-
sible that the crocodiles might have worsted the Malays.
It was difficult, indeed, to say which of the two looked
at that moment the more savage ; the triumphant natives,
or the flying troop of alligators wallopping away from the
water. Many on both sides were wounded, and all
covered with slime and weeds. There could not have
been fewer than thirty or forty alligators killed. The
THE CROCODILK.
395
those immense rivers that roll through exten-
sive and desolate kingdoms, where arts have
never penetrated, where force only makes dis-
tinction, and the most powerful animals exert
their strength with confidence and security.
Those that sail up the river Amazon, or the
river Niger, well know how numerous and
terrible those animals are in such parts of the
world. In both these rivers, they are found
from eighteen to twenty-seven feet long ; and
sometimes lying as close to each other as rafts
of timber upon one of our streams. There
they indolently bask on the surface, no way
disturbed at the approach of an enemy, since,
from the repeated trials of their strength, they
found none that they were not able to subdue.
Of this terrible animal there are two kinds ;
the Crocodile, properly so called, and the
Cayman or Alligator. Travellers, however,
have rather made the distinctions than Nature ;
for in the general outline, and in the nature
of these two animals, they are entirely the
same. It would be speaking more properly
to call these animals the Crocodiles of the
eastern and western world ; for, in books of
voyages, they are so entirely confounded
together, that there is no knowing whether the
Asiatic animal be the crocodile of Asia, or
the alligator of the western world. The dis-
tinctions usually made between the crocodile
and alligator are these : the body of the cro-
codile is more slender than that of the alliga-
tor ; its snout runs off tapering from the fore-
head, like that of a grayhound; while that of
the other is indented, like the nose of a lap-
dog. The crocodile has a much wider swal-
low, and is of an ash-colour ; the alligator is
black, varied with white, and is thought not
to be so mischievous. All these distinctions,
however, are very slight ; and can be reckoned
little more than minute variations.
This animal grows to a great length, being
sometimes found thirty feet long, from the tip
of the snout to the end of the tail ; its most
usual length, however, is eighteen. One
which was dissected by the Jesuits at Siam,
was of the latter dimensions ; and the descrip-
tion which is given of it, both externally and
internally, is the most accurate known of this
noted animal. I must beg leave to give it as
I find it, though somewhat tedious. It was
eighteen feet and a half, French measure, in
length ; of which the tail was no less than
five feet and a half, and the head and neck
above two feet and a half. It was four feet
'•^, many uj wiiicn, Deing carneu on
board, became great favourites amongst the sailors, whose
queer taste in the choice of pets has frequently been
nine inches in circumference, where thickest.
The fore legs had the same parts and confor-
mation as the arms of a man, both within and
without. The hands, if theyunay be so called,
had five fingers : the two last of which had no
nails, and were of a conical figure. The
hinder legs, including the thigh and paw,
were two feet two inches long ; the paws,
from the joint to the extremity of the longest
claws, were above nine inches ; they were
divided into four toes, of which three were
armed with large claws, the longest of which
was an inch and a half ; these toes were united
by a membrane, like those of a duck, but
much thicker. The head was long, and had
a little rising at the top ; but the rest was
flat, and especially towards the extremity of
the jaws. It was covered by a skin, which
adhered firmly to the skull and to the jaws.
The skull was rough and unequal in several
places ; and about the middle of the forehead
there were two bony crests, about two inches
high : the skull between these two crests was
proof against a musket-ball ; for it only ren-
dered the part a little white that it struck
against. The eye was very small, in propor-
tion to the rest of the body, and was so placed
within its orbit, that the outward part, when
the lid was closed, was only an inch long,
and the line running parallel to the opening
of the jaws. It was covered with a double
lid, one within and one without: that within,
like the nictitating membrane in birds, was
folded in the great corner of the eye, and had
a motion towards the tail, but being transpa-
rent, it covered the eye without hindering the
sight. The iris was very large in proportion
to the globe of the eye, and was of a yellow-
ish gray colour. Above the eye the ear was
placed, which opened from above downwards,
as if it were by a kind of spring, by means of
a solid, thick, cartilaginous substance. The
nose was placed in the middle of the upper
jaw, near an inch from its extremity, and was
perfectly round and flat, being near two inches
in diameter, of a black, soft, spongy substance,
not unlike the nose of a dog. The jaws
seemed to shut one within another ; and no-
thing can be more false than that the animal's
under jaw is without motion ; it moves like
the lower jaw in all other animals, while the
upper is fixed to the skull, and absolutely im-
movable. The animal had twenty-seven
cutting teeth in the upper jaw, and fifteen in
the lower, with several void spaces between
them : they were thick at the bottom, and
sharp at the point, being all of different sizes,
except ten large hooked ones, six of which
were in the lower jaw, and four in the upper.
The mouth was fifteen inches in length, and
eight and a half in breadth, where broadest.
The distance of the two jaws, when opened
296
HISTORY OF FROGS, LIZARDS, AND SERPENTS.
HS wide as they could be, was fifteen inches
and a half; this is a very wide yawn, and
could easily enough take in the body of a man.
The colour of the body was of a dark brown
on the upper part, and of a whitish citron
below, with large spots of both colours on the
sides. From the shoulders to the extremity of
the tail, the animal was covered with large
scales, of a square form, disposed like parallel
girdles, and fifty-two in number ; but those
near the tail were not so thick as the rest.
The creature was covered not only with these,
but all over with a coat of armour; which,
however, was not proof against a musket-ball,
contrary to what has been commonly asserted :
however, it must be confessed, that the attitude
in which the animal was placed, might
contribute to render the skin more penetra-
ble ; for, probably, if the ball had struck
obliquely against the shell it would have
flown off. Those parts of the girdles un-
derneath the belly were of a whitish colour,
and were made up of scales of divers shapes,
but not so hard as those on the back.
With respect to the internal parts of the
animal, the gullet was large in proportion to
the mouth ; and a ball of wood, as large as
one's head, readily ran down, and was drawn
up again. The guts were but short, in com-
parison, being not so long as the animal's
body. The tongue, which some have errone-
ously asserted this animal was without, con-
sisted of a thick, spongy, soft flesh, and was
strongly connected to the lower jaw. The
heart was of the size of a calf's, of a bright
red colour, the blood passing as well from the
veins to the aorta as into the lungs. There
was no bladder ; but the kidneys sent the
urine to be discharged by the anus. There
were sixty-two joints in the back-bone, which,
though very closely united, had sufficient play
to enable the animal to bend like a bow to the
right and the left; so that what we hear of es-
caping the creature by turning out of the right
line, and of the animal not being able to wheel
readily after its prey, seems to be fabulous.
It is most likely the crocodile can turn with
ease, for the joints of its back are not stiffer
than those of other animals, which we know,
by experience, can wheel about very nimbly
lor their size.
Such is the figure and conformation of this
formidable animal, that unpeoples countries,
and makes the most navigable rivers desert
and dangerous. They are seen, in some
places, lying for whole hours, and even days,
stretched in the sun, and motionless ; so that
one not used to them might mistake them for
trunks of trees, covered with a rough and dry
bark ; but the mistake would soon be fatal, if
not prevented ; for the torpid animal, at the
near approach of any living thing, darts upon
it with instant swiftness, and at once drags it
down to the bottom. In the times of inunda-
tion, they sometimes enter the cottages of the
natives, where the dreadful visitant seizes the
first animal it meets with. There have been
several examples of their taking a man out of
a canoe in the sight of his companions, with-
out their being able to lend him any assist-
ance.
The strength of every part of the crocodile
is very great ; and its arms, both offensive and
defensive, irresistible. We have seen, from
the shortness of its legs, the amazing strength
of the tortoise : but what is the strength of such
an animal compared to that of the crocodile,
whose legs are very short, and whose size is
so superior! The back-bone is jointed in the
firmest manner ; the muscles of the fore and
hinder legs are vigorous and strong ; and its
whole form calculated for force. Its teeth are
sharp, numerous, and formidable ; its claws are
long and tenacious ; but its principal instru-
ment of destruction is the tail : with a single
blow of this it has often overturned a canoe,
and seized upon the poor savage its conduc-
tor.
Though not so powerful, yet it is very ter-
rible even upon land. The crocodile seldom,
except when pressed by hunger, or with a
view of depositing its eggs, leaves the water.
Its usual method is to float along upon the
surface, and seize whatever animals come
within its reach ; but when this method fails,
it then goes closer to the bank. Disappointed
of its fishy prey, it there waits, covered up
among the sedges, in patient expectation of
some land animal that comes to drink ; the
dog, the bull, the tiger, or man himself. No-
thing is to be seen of the insidious destroyer
as the animal approaches ; nor is its retreat
discovered, till it be too late for safely. It
seizes the victim with a spring, and goes at a
bound much farther than so unwieldy an
animal could be thought capable of exerting ;
then having secured the creature with both
teeth and claws, it drags it into the water, in-
stantly sinks with it to the bottom, and in this
manner quickly drowns it.
Sometimes it happens that the creature the
crocodile has thus surprised escapes from its
grasp wounded, and makes off from the river
side. In. such a case the tyrant pursues with
all its force, and often seizes it a second time ;
for, though seemingly heavy, the crocodile
runs with great celerity. In this manner it
is sometimes seen above half a mile from the
bank, in pursuit of an animal wounded be-
yond the power of escaping, and then dragg-
ing it back to the river-side, where it feasts in
security.
It often happens, in its depredations along
(he bank, that the crocodile seizes on a crea-
THE CROCODILE.
397
ture as formidable as itself, and meets with a
most desperate resistance. We are told of
frequent combats between the crocodile and
the tiger. All creatures of the tiger kind are
continually oppressed by a parching thirst,
that keeps them in the vicinity of great rivers,
whither they descend to drink very frequent-
ly. It is upon these occasions that they are
seized by the crocodile ; and they die not un-
revenged. The instant they are seized upon,
they turn with the greatest agility, and force
their claws into the crocodile's eyes, while he
plunges with his fierce antagonist into the
river. There they continue to struggle for
some time, till at last the tiger is drowned.
In this manner the crocodile seizes and de-
stroys all animals, and is equally dreaded by
all. There is no animal but man alone that
can combat it with success. We are assured
by Labat, that a negro, with no other weapons
than a knife in his right hand, and his left arm
wrapped round with a cow-hide, ventures
boldly to attack this animal in his own ele-
ment. As soon as he approaches the croco-
dile, he presents his left arm, which the ani-
mal swallows most greedily ; but sticking in
his throat, the negro has time to give it seve-
ral stabs under the throat ; and the water also
getting in at the mouth, which is held invo-
luntarily open, the creature is soon bloated up
as big as a tun, and expires.
To us who live at a distance from the ra-
pacity of these animals, these stories appear
strange, and yet most probably are true.
From not having seen any thing so formida-
ble or bold in the circle of our own experience,
we are not to determine upon the wonderful
transactions in distant climates. It is proba-
ble that these, and a number of more dreadful
encounters, happen every day among those
forests and in those rivers where the most for-
midable animals are known to reside ; where
the elephant and rhinoceros, the tiger and the
hippopotamus, the shark and the crocodile,
have frequent opportunities of meeting, and
every day of renewing their engagements.
Whatever be the truth of these accounts,
certain it is that crocodiles are taken by the
Siamese in great abundance. The natives of
that empire seem particularly fond of the cap-
ture of all the great animals with which their
country abounds. We have already seen
their success in taking and taming the ele-
phant ; nor are they less powerful in exerting
their dominion over the crocodile. The man-
ner of taking it in Siam,is by throwing three
or four strong nets across a river, at proper
distances from each other ; so that if the ani-
mal breaks through the first, it may be caught
by one of the rest. When it is first taken,
it employs the tail, which is the grand instru-
ment of strength, with great force ; but after
many unsuccessful struggles, the animal's
strength is at last exhausted. Then the na-
tives approach their prisoner in boats, and
pierce him with their weapons in the most
tender parts, till he is weakeneU by the loss of
blood. When he has done stirring, they be-
gin by tying up his mouth, and with the same
cord they fasten his head to his tail, which
last they bend back like a bow. However,
they are not yet perfectly secure from his
fury; but, for their greater safety, they tie his
fore-feet, as well as those behind, to the top
of his back. These precautions are not use-
less : for if they were to omit them, the croco-
dile would soon recover strength enough to do
a great deal of mischief.
The crocodile, thus brought into subjection,
or bred up young, is used to divert and enter-
tain the great men of the East. It is often
managed like a horse ; a curb is put into his
mouth, and the rider directs it as he thinks
proper. Though awkwardly formed, it does
not fail to proceed with some degree of swift-
ness; and it is thought to move as fast as some
of the most unwieldly of our own animals, the
hog or the cow.1 Some, indeed, assert, that
no animal could escape it, but for its difficulty
in turning ; but to this resource we could wish
none would trust who are so unhappy as to
find themselves in danger.
Along the rivers of Africa this animal is
sometimes taken in the same manner as the
shark. Several Europeans go together in a
large boat, and throw out a piece of beef upon
a hook and strong fortified line, which the
crocodile seizing and swallowing, is drawn
along, floundering and struggling until its
strength is quite exhausted, when it is pierced
in the belly, which is its tenderest part ; and
thus, after numberless wounds, is drawn
ashore. In this part of the world also, as well
as at Siam, the crocodile makes an object of
savage pomp near the palaces of their mo-
narchs. Philips informs us that at Sabi, on
the slave coast, there are two pools of water,
near the royal palace, where crocodiles are
bred, as we breed carp in our ponds in Eu-
rope.
Hitherto I have been describing the croco-
dile as it is found in unpeopled countries, and
1 Waterton, in his interesting Wanderings in South
America, gives an account of a ride he had on a croco-
dile's back. He and his Indians having secured a mon-
ster of the Essequibo, by a baited hook fastened to a
Jong rope, " they pulled the cayman," as he describes
(p. 231), " within two yards of me. I saw he was in a
state of fear and perturbation; I instantly dropped the
mast, sprung up, and jumped on his back, turning half
round as I vaulted, so that I gained my seat with my
face in a right position. I immediately seized his fore
legs and by main forco twisted on his back : thus they
served me for a bridle."- — This was at first laughed at as
incredible, but it is now known to be a feat of not unus-
ual occurrence.
898
HISTORY OF FROGS, LIZARDS, AND SERPENTS.
undisturbed by frequent encounters with man-
kind.1 In this state it is tierce and cruel, attack-
ing every object that seems endued with mo-
tion : but in Egypt, and other countries long peo-
pled, where the inhabitants are civilized, and
the rivers frequented, this animal is solitary and
fearful. So far from coming to attack a man,
it sinks at his approach with the utmost pre-
cipitation ; and, as if sensible of superior
power, ever declines the engagement. We
have seen more than one instance in animated
nature of the contempt which at first the lower
orders of the creation have for man, till they
have experienced his powers of destruction.
The lion and the tiger among beasts, the
whale among fishes, the albatross and the pen-
guin among birds, meet the first encounters of
man without dread or apprehension ; but they
soon learn to acknowledge his superiority, and
take refuge from his power in the deepest fast-
nesses of nature. This may account for the
different characters which have been given us
of the crocodile and the alligator, by travellers
at different times ; some describing them as
harmless and fearful, as ever avoiding the
sight of a man, and preying only upon fishes:
others ranking them among the destroyers of
nature; describing them as furnished with
strength, and impelled by malignity, to do
mischief ; representing them as the greatest
enemies of mankind, and particularly desirous
of human prey. The truth is, the animal has
been justly described by both ; being such as
it is found in places differently peopled or dif-
ferently civilized. Wherever the crocodile
has reigned long unmolested, it is there fierce,
bold, and dangerous ; wherever it has been
harassed by mankind, its retreats invaded, and
its numbers destroyed, it is there timorous and
inoffensive.
In some places, therefore, this animal,
instead of being formidable, is not only inof-
fensive, but is cherished and admired. In
the river San Domingo, the crocodiles are the
most inoffensive animals in nature ; the chil-
dren play with them, and ride about on their
backs ; they even beat them sometimes, with-
out receiving the smallest injury. It is true
the inhabitants are very careful of this gentle
breed, and consider them as harmless domes-
tics.
It is probable that the smell of musk, which
all .these animals exhale, may render them
agreeable to the savages of that part of Africa.
They are often known to take the part of this
1 It is a very remarkable observation, that the croco-
dile, when it appears out of the water, is almost sur-
rounded by various large birds, particularly the pelican.
It has been asked, whether there exists the same sym-
pathy between these birds (especially the pelican) and
the crocodile, which the heron has for buffaloes, oxen,
Riid cows ?
animal which contains the musk, and wear it
as a perfume about their persons. Travellers
are not agreed in what part of the body these
musk-bags are contained ; some say in the
ears ; some, in the parts of generation ; but
the most probable opinion is, that this musky
substance is amassed in glands under the legs
and arms. From whatsoever part of the body
this odour proceeds, it is very strong and
powerful, tincturing the flesh of the whole
body with its taste and smell. The crocodile's
flesh is at best very bad tough eating ; but
unless the musk bags be separated it is in-
supportable. The negroes themselves cannot
well digest the flesh ; but then, a crocodile's
egg is to them the most delicate morsel in
the world. Even savages exhibit their epi-
cures as well as we ; and one of true taste
will spare neither pains nor danger to furnish
himself with his favourite repast. For this
reason, he often watches the places where the
female comes to lay her eggs, and upon her
retiring seizes the booty.
All crocodiles breed near fresh waters ; and
though they are sometimes found in the sea,
yet that may be considered rather as a place
of excursion than abode. They produce their
young by eggs, as was said above ; and for
this purpose the female, when she comes to
lay, chooses a place by the side of a river, or
some fresh-water lake, to deposit her brood
in. She always pitches upon an extensive
sandy shore, where she may dig a hole with-
out danger of detection from the ground being
fresh turned up. The shore must also be
gentle and shelving to the water, for the
greater convenience of the animal's going and
returning ; and a convenient place must be
found near the edge of the stream, that the
young may have a shorter way to go. When
all these requisites are adjusted, the animal
is seen cautiously stealing upon shore to de-
posit her burden. The presence of a man, a
beast, or even a bird, is sufficient to deter her
at that time ; and if she perceives any creature
looking on, she infallibly returns. If, how-
ever, nothing appears, she then goes to work,
scratching up the sand with her fore-paws,
and making a hole pretty deep in the shore.
There she deposits from eighty to a hundred
eggs, of the size of a tennis-ball, and of the
same figure, covered with a tough white skin
like parchment. She takes above an hour to
perform this task ; and then covering up the
place so artfully that it can scarcely be per-
ceived, she goes back to return again the next
day. Upon her return, with the same pre-
caution as before, she lays about the same
number of eggs ; and the day following also
a like number. Thus having deposited her
whole quantity, and having covered them close
up in the sand, they are soon vivified by the
THE SALAMANDER.
39,9
heat of the sun ; and at the end of thirty days,
the young ones begin to break open the shell.
At this time the female is instinctively taught
that her young ones want relief; and she
goes upon land to scratch away the sand, and
set them free. Her brood quickly avail them-
selves of their liberty : a part run unguided
to the water; another part ascend the back
of the female, and are carried thither in
greater safety. But the moment they arrive
at the water, all natural connection is at an
end ; whtn the female has introduced her
young to their natural element, not only
she, but the male, become among the number
of their most formidable enemies, and devour
as many of them as they can. The whole
brood scatters into different parts of the bot-
tom ; by far the greatest number is destroyed,
and the rest find safety in their agility or min-
uteness.
But it is not the crocodile alone that is thus
found to thin their numbers ; the eggs of this
animal are not only a delicious feast to the sa-
vage, but are eagerly sought after by every
beast and bird of prey. The ichneumon was
erected into a deity among the ancients for its
success in destroying the eggs of these mon-
sters : at present that species of the vulture
called the Gallinazo is their most prevailing
energy. All along the banks of great rivers,
for thousands of miles, the crocodile is seen to
propagate in numbers that would soon overrun
the earth, but for the vulture, that seems ap-
pointed by Providence to abridge its fecun-
dity. These birds are ever found in greatest
numbers where the crocodile is most numer-
ous: and hiding themselves within the thick
branches of the trees that shade the banks of
the river, they watch the female in silence,
and permit her to lay all her eggs without in-
terruption. Then when she has retired, they
encourage each other with cries to the spoil ;
and flocking all together upon the hidden trea-
sure, tear up the eggs, and devour them in a
much quicker time than they were deposited.
Nor are they less diligent in attending the fe-
male while she is carrying her young to the
water ; for if any one of them happens to drop
by the way, it is sure to receive no mercy.
Such is the extraordinary account given us
by late travellers of the propagation of this
animal ; an account adopted by Linnaeus and
the most learned naturalists of the age.1 Yet,
if one might argue from the general analogy
of nature, the crocodile's devouring her own
young when she gets to the water seems
doubtful. This may be a story raised from
the general idea of this animal's rapacious
cruelty ; when, in fact, the crocodile only
seems more cruel than other animals, because
> Ullon. '
it has more power to do mischief. It is pro-
bable that it is not more divested of parental
tenderness than other creatures, and I am the
more led to think so from the peculiar forma-
tion of one of the crocodile kind. This is
called the Open-Bellied Crocodile, and is fur.
nished with a false belly like the oppossum,
where the young creep out and in, as their
dangers or necessities require. The crocodile
thus furnished at least cannot be said to be an
enemy to her own young, since she thus gives
them more than parental protection. It is
probable, also, that this open-bellied crocodile
is viviparous, and fosters her young that are
prematurely excluded in this second womb,
until they come to proper maturity.2
How long the crocodile lives we are not
certainly informed : if we may believe Aris-
totle, it lives the age of a man : but the an-
cients so much amused themselves in invent-
ing fables concerning this animal, that even
truth from them is suspicious. What we
know for certain from the ancients is, that
among the various animals that were produced
to fight in the amphitheatre at Rome, the com-
bat of the crocodile was not wanting.3 Mar-
cus Scarus produced them living in his unri-
valled exhibitions ; and the Romans considered
him as their best citizen, because he furnished
them with the most expensive entertainments.
But entertainment at that corrupt time was
their only occupation.
CHAP. III.
OF THE SALAMANDER/
THE ancients have described a lizard that is
bred from heat, that lives in the flames, and
2 None of the lizard tribe have any thing like an ab-
dominal pouch for the safety of their young.
3 Plin. lib. Viii. c. 26.
* The Salamander. — The Salamander belongs to that
order of reptiles called Batrachians, from their resem-
blance, to a certain extent, to the frog tribes. The Ba.
trachia include all the reptiles with naked bodies, with-
out the hard covering of the tortoises, or scales like ser-
pents. The whole of this order are without nails on the
toes, and they all undergo various changes or metamor-
phoses; the different changes in the organization of the
salamanders nearly resemble those which occur in the
case of the frogs and toads.
The body of the salamander is covered with pores,
from which, when alarmed, or suffering from pain, an
acrid watery humour exudes, which is at times able so
far to quench the fury of the flames as to give the poor
creature time to escape, and in this simple fact consists
the whole of the mysterious power that has been attri-
buted to it.
The salamanders are divided into two sections, the
aquatic, that rarely leave the water, (our common eft is
an example,) and the terrestrial, who only remain in
that element during their tadpole state. The aquatic
400
HISTORY OF FROGS, LIZARDS, AND SERPENTS.
feeds upon fire as its proper nourishment As
they saw every other element, the air, the
earth, and water, inhabited, fancy was set to
work to find or make an inhabitant in fire ;
and thus to people every part of nature. It
will be needless to say that there is no such
animal existing ; and that of all others, the
modern salamander has the smallest affinity to
such an abode.
Whether the animal that now goes by the
name of Salamander be the same with that
described by Pliny, it is a doubt with me ; but
this is not a place for the discussion. It is
sufficient to observe, that the modern salaman-
der is an animal of the lizard kind, and under
this name is comprehended a large tribe that
all go by the same name. There have been
not less than seven sorts of this animal des-
cribed by Seba ; and to have some idea of the
peculiarity of their figure, if we suppose the
tail of a lizard applied to the body of a frog,
we shall not be far from precision. The com-
mon lizard is long, small, and taper ; the sala-
mander, like the frog, has its eyes towards the
back of the head ; like the frog, its snout
salamanders have a tail flattened sideways, so as to as-
sist them in swimming.
The experiments of Spallanzani, on their astonishing
power of reproducing a limb, have rendered them fa-
mous. The same limb can be reproduced several times
in succession, after it has been cut off, and that with all
its bones, muscles, &c. Another faculty, not less sin-
gular, is that of remaining a long time encompassed with
ice without perishing.
The salamanders were erroneously placed by Linnauis
among the lizards, but they have been most properly
transferred to the order to which they now belong, and
to. which they bear a much greater affinity, especially
from their transformations. The following cut repre-
sents the Gigantic Salamander.
Although it is called gigantic, in reference to the size
of most of the genus, it does not exceed eighteen inches
in length. Some few years back, however, a salaman-
der was discovered in Japan, to which the name gigan-
tic might be applied with much greater propriety. A
living specimen was taken, and conveyed to the museum
at Leydeu five years since; it was then about twelve
inches long, but it has since then grown to the length of
two feet and a half, although confined in a wooden ves-
sel containing water. It is of a very dark olive-green
colour, and covered with tubercles, nearly resembling in
form the species represented in the engraving. It feeds
sparingly on small living fish which are placed in its
prison ; its appetite, however, only recurs at long inter-
vals, and its destined prey seem perfectly unconscious of
the presence of an enemy, and when alarmed, take re-
fuge under the very jaws of the reptile.
is round, and not pointed, and its belly
thick and swollen. The claws of ils toes
are short and feeble ; its skin rough ; and
the tongue, unlike that of the smallest of the
lizard kind, in which it is long and forked, is
short, and adhering to the under jaw.
But it is not in figure that this animal
chiefly differs from the rest of the lizard tribe ;
for it seems to differ in nature and conforma-
tion. In nature it is unlike, being a heavy
torpid animal ; whereas the lizard tribe are
active, restless, and ever in motion ; in confor-
mation it is unlike, as the salamander is pro-
duced alive from the body of its parent, and is
completely formed the moment of its exclu-
sion. It differs from them also in its general
reputation of being venomous : however, no
trials that have been hitherto made seem to
confirm the truth of the report.
Not only this, but many others of the lizard
tribe, are said to have venom ; but it were to
be wished that mankind, for their own happi-
ness, would examine into the foundation of
this reproach. By that means many of them,
that are now shunned and detested, might be
found inoffensive ; their figure, instead of
either exciting horror or disgust, would then
only tend to animate the general scene of na-
ture ; and speculation might examine their
manners in confidence and security. Certain
it is, that all the lizard kind, with which we
are acquainted in this country, are perfectly
harmless ; and it is equally true that, for a
long time, till our prejudices were removed,
we considered not only the Newt, but the
Snake and the Blind-worm, as fraught with
the most destructive poison. At present we
have got over these prejudices ; and, it is pro-
bable, that if other nations made the same
efforts for information, it would be found, that
the malignity of most, if not all, of the lizard
tribe, was only in the imagination.
With respect to the salamander, the whole
tribe, from the Moron to the Gekko, are said
to be venomous to the last degree ; yet, when
experiments have been tried, no arts, no pro-
vocations, could excite these animals to the
rage of biting. They seem timid and inoffen-
sive, only living upon worms and insects ; quite
destitute of fangs, like the viper, their teeth
are so very small that they are hardly able to
inflict a wound. But as the teeth are thus
incapable of offending, the people of the coun-
tries where they are found have recourse to a
venomous slaver, which, they suppose, issues
from the animal's mouth ; they also tell us of
a venom issuing from the claws ; even Lin-
nasus seems to acknowledge the fact ; but
thinks it a probable supposition that this ve-
nom may proceed from their urine.
Of all animals, the Gekko is the most no-
torious for its powers of mischief ; yet we are
THE SALAMANDER.
401
told by those who load it with that calumny,
that it is very friendly to man, and though
supplied with the most deadly virulence, is
yet never known to bite. It would be absurd
in us,-without experience, to pronounce upon
the noxious or inoffensive qualities of animals,
yet it is probable, from an inspection of the
teeth of lizards, and from their inoffensive qua-
lities in Europe, that the gekko has been un-
justly accused; and that its serpent-like figure
has involved it in one common reproach with
serpents.
The salamander best known in Europe, is
from eight to eleven inches long, usually
black, spotted with yellow; and, when taken
in the hand, feeling cold to a great degree. —
There are several kinds. Our Black Water-
Newt is reckoned among the number. The
idle report of its being inconsumable in fire,
has caused many of these poor animals to be
burnt ; but we cannot say as philosophical
martyrs, since scarcely any philosopher could
think it necessary to make the experiment.
When thrown into the fire, the animal is seen
to burst with the heat of its situation, and to
eject its fluids. We are gravely told, in the
Philosophical Transactions, that this is a
method the animal takes to extinguish the
flames !
When examined internally, the salamander
exhibits little difference from other animals of
the lizard kind. It is furnished with lungs
that sometimes serve for the offices of breathing ;
with a heart that has its communications open,
so that the animal cannot easily be drowned.
The ovary in the female is double the size of
what it is in others of this tribe ; and the
male is furnished with four testiculi instead
of two. But what deserves particular notice
is the manner of this animal's bringing forth
its young alive.1 " The salamander," says
my author, " begins to show itself in spring,
and cliiefly during heavy rains. When the
warm weather returns, it disappears; arid
never leaves its hole, during either great heats
or severe colds, both which it equally fears.
When taken in the hand, it appears like a
lump of ice ; it consequently loves the shade,
and is found at the feet of old trees surrounded
with brushwood at the bottom. It is fond of
running along new ploughed grounds : proba-
bly to seek for worms, which are its ordinary
food. One of these," continues my author,
" I took alive some years ago in a ditch that
had been lately made. I laid it at the foot
of the stairs upon coming home, and there it
disgorged from the throat a worm three inches
long, that lived for an hour after, though
1 Acta Hafniensia, ami. 167(5. Observ. 11. Memoires
de 1'Academie Royale des Sciences, torn. iii. part 3.
p. 80.
voi. ii.
wounded as I suppose by the teeth of the ani-
mal. I afterwards cut up another of these
lizards, and saw not less than fifty young ones,
resembling the parent, come_frpm its womb,
all alive, and actively running about the
room." It were to be wished the author had
used another word besides that of worm ; as
we now are in doubt whether he means a real
worm, or a young animal of the lizard species :
had he been more explicit, and had it appeared
that it was a real young lizard, which I take
to be his meaning, we might here see a won-
der of Nature brought to the proof, which
many have asserted, and many have thought
proper to deny ; I mean the refuge which the
young of the shark, the lizard, and the viper
kinds, are said to take, by running down the
throat of the parent, and there finding a tem-
porary security. The fact, indeed, seems a
little extraordinary ; and yet it is so frequently
attested by some, and even believed by others,
whose authority is respectable, among the
number of whom we find Mr Pennant, that
the argument of strangeness must give way to
the weight of authority.
However this be, there is no doubt of the
animal's being viviparous, and producing
above fifty at a time. They come from the
parent in full perfection, and quickly leave
her to shift for themselves. These animals,
in the lower ranks of nature, want scarcely
any help when excluded ; they soon complete
the little circle of their education ; and in a
day or two are capable of practising all the
arts of subsistence and evasion practised by
their kind.
They are all amphibious, or at least are found
capable of subsisting in either element, when
placed there : if those taken from land are
put into water, they continue there in seeming
health : and, on the contrary, those taken
from the water will live upon land. In water,
however, they exhibit a greater variety in
their appearance ; and what is equally won-
derful with the rest of their history, during
the whole spring and summer, this water-
lizard changes its skin every fourth or fifth day ;
and during the winter every fifteen days. This
operation they perform by means of the moutl
and the claws : and it seems a work of no
small difficulty and pain. The cast skins are
frequently seen floating on the surface of the
water : they are sometimes seen also with a
part of their old skin still sticking to one of their
limbs, which they have not been able to get
rid of ; and thus, like a man with a boot half
drawn, in some measure crippled in their own
spoils. This also often corrupts, and the leg
drops off; but the animal does not seem to feel
the want of it, for the loss of a limb to all the
lizard kind is but a trifling calamity. They
can live several hours even after the loss of
3 B
402
HISTORY OF FROGS, LIZARDS, AND SERPENTS.
their head : and for some time under dissec-
tion, all the parts of this animal seem to retain
life : but the tail is the part that longest re-
tains its motion. Salt seems to be much more
efficacious in destroying these animals than the
knife ; for upon being sprinkled with it, the
whole body emits a viscous liquor, and the
lizard dies in three minutes, in great agonies.
The whole of the lizard kind are also
tenacious of life in another respect, and the
salamander among the number. They sustain
the want of food in a surprising manner.
One of them, brought from the Indies, lived
nine months, without any other food than
what it received from licking a piece of earth
on which it was brought over ;* another was
kept by Scba in an empty vial for six months,
without any nourishment ; and Rhedi talks
of a large one, brought from Africa, that lived
for eight months, without taking any nourish-
ment whatever. Indeed, as many of this
kind, both salamanders and lizards, are torpid,
or nearly so, during the winter, the loss of their
appetite for so long a time is the less surpris-
ing:.
CHAP. IV.
OF THE CAMELEON, THE IGUANA, AND
LIZARDS OF DIFFERENT KINDS.
IT were to be wished that animals could be
so classed, that by the very mentioning their
rank, we should receive some insight into
their history. This I have endeavoured in
most instances ; but in the present chapter all
method is totally unserviceable. Here distri-
bution gives no general ideas : for some of the
animals to be here mentioned produce by eggs ;
some by spawn ; and some are viviparous.
The peculiar manner of propagating in each,
is very indistinctly known. The Iguana and
ihe Cameleon, we know bring forth eggs;
some others also produce in the same manner ;
but of the rest, which naturalists make amount
to above fifty, we have but very indistinct in-
formation.
In the former divisions of this tribe, we
had to observe upon animals, formidable from
their size, or disgusting from their frog-like
head and appearance ; in the present division,
all the animals are either beautiful to the eye,
or grateful to the appetite. The lizards, pro-
perly so called, are beautifully painted and
mottled ; their frolicsome agility is amusing
to those who are familiar with their appear-
ance ; and the great affection which some of
them show to man, should, in some measure,
1 Phil. Trans, ann. 1601. N. 21. art, 7.
be repaid with kindness. Others, such as
the Iguana, though not possessed of beauty,
are very serviceable, furnishing one of the
most luxurious feasts the tropical climates can
boast of. Those treated of before were ob-
jects of curiosity, because they were apparently
objects of danger; most of these here men-
tioned have either use or beauty to engage us.
Directly descending from the crocodile, we
find the Cordyle, the Tockay, and the Teju-
guacu, all growing less in order, as I have
named them. These fill up the chasm to be
found between the crocodile and the African
Iguana.
The Iguana, which deserves our notice, is
about five feet long, and the body about as
thick as one's thigh ; the skin is covered with
small scales, like those of a serpent; and the
back is furnished with a row of prickles, that
stand up, like the teeth of a saw : the eyes
seem to be but half opened, except when the
animal is angry, and then they appear large
and sparkling : both the jaws are full of very
sharp teeth, and the bite is dangerous, though
not. venomous, for it never lets loose till it is
killed. The male has a skin hanging under
his throat, which reaches down to his breast ;
and, when displeased, he puffs it up like a
bladder ; he is one-third larger and stronger
than the female ; though the strength of either
avails them little towards their defence. The
males are ash-coloured, and the females are
screen.3
8 The Common American Iguana is from four to five
feet long. It is very common in all the warm parts of
America, where it remains in the woods, at the environs
of rivers, and sources of spring-water. It passes most
part of its time on trees, sometimes going to the water,
and living on fruits, grain, and leaves. Without being
either venomous or dangerous, its bite is exceedingly
painful ; and when it is angry, the goitre which it has
under its neck becomes distended and expanded. This
reptile has great tenacity and endurance of life, and will
resist the blows of a stick or cudgel very well. Accor-
dingly, it is usually hunted with the bow or the gun.
The females are smaller than the males, but their
colours are much more brilliant. They lay eggs in the
sand, about as large as those of pigeons, but a little
longer, and of equal thickness at both ends. The shell
of these eggs is white, even, and soft. They are entirely
filled by the yolk, and can hardly be said to have any
albumen. They never harden by fire, but only become
a little pasty. But their flavour is very agreeable, and
they are constantly eaten in Surinam and Guiana. A
single female will lay about six dozen.
The flesh of the iguana is considered as delicious, and
is in great estimation throughout all the warm parts of
America. It is white and delicate. Many persons,
however, consider it as unwholesome, especially for those
who are infected with syphilis, some symptoms of which,
such as pains in the bones, &c. it is supposed to aggra-
vate or cause the return of. At Paramaraibo, it is sold
extremely dear, and highly thought of by epicures.
Pison, and many others of the old travellers in America,
have spoken in high terms of the virtues of the bezoar ot
the iguana, a kind of stone, found, say they, in the stom-
ach or cranium of this reptile. But, at the present day,
THE CAMELEON.
40S
The flesh of these may be considered as the
greatest delicacy of Africa and America; and
the sportsmen of those climates go out to hunt
the iguana, as -we do in pursuit of the pheas-
ant or the hare. In the beginning of the
season, when the great floods of the tropical
this substance is fallen into the most absolute disrepute
among all medical practitioners.
The slate-coloured Iguana is but three feet in length,
[t inhabits the same places as the former species, and
may be merely a variety of it, in age or sex. Seba
derives it from the island of Formosa.
The horned Iguana of St Domingo is about four feet
long. It is frequently found in the hills of St Domingo,
between Artibonite and Gonaives. It lives on fruits,
insects, and small birds, which it seizes with marvellous
agility, and during the day it couches on trees and rocks
to watch for its prey. During the night, and the entire
season of the great heats, it retires into the hollows of
rocks, or into the holes of old trees, and it passes about
five or six months of the year there in a state of lethargy.
This reptile is considered by the negroes as a delicious
meat, and is accordingly sought after by them with great
avidity. According to the report of the colonists, its
flesh resembles in flavour that of the roebuck, and the
maroon dogs make great, slaughter among these reptiles.
The colours of this iguana are not precisely known.
Some authors place here the iguana fasciata. Its
colour is deep blue, with transverse bands of a clearer
tint. The goitre is moderate, and not denticulated.
There is no large scale at the angle of the jaw. This
iguana belongs to the island of Java. It may probably
be the reptile which Bontius has named rameleon. It
is also probable, that to this species must be referred the
very large iguanas which are found at Batavia, and
which are sometimes as thick as a man's thigh. In his
voyage with Captain Cook, Sir Joseph Banks killed one
of these, which was five feet in length.
Under the name of Basilisk is at present designated
a genus of reptiles, of this saurian order, which exhibits
many affinities with the iguanas and monitors. No ani-
mal, perhaps, has been the subject of so great a number
of prejudices as the one now under consideration. The
most ancient authors have spoken of the basilisk, as of a
serpent which had the power of striking its victim dead
by a single glance. Others have pretended that it could
not exercise this faculty, unless it first perceived the
object of its vengeance before it was itself perceived by it.
It was also most absurdly imagined to proceed from the
eggs of old cocks. Aldrovandus, and several other
writers have given figures of it. They have represented
it with eight feet, a crown on the head, and a hooked
and recurved beak. Pliny assures us that the serpent
named basilisk has a voice so terrible, that it strikes ter-
ror into all other species, that it thus chases them from
the spot which it inhabits, and of which it retains the
sole and undisputed dominion. The name, indeed, of
basilisk, JSoco-i^ixof, signifies royal. The fantastic forms,
and fabulous properties thus attributed to an animal,
which most probably never had any existence, rendered
this name too celebrated for naturalists not to endeavour
to apply it to another species, which accordingly they did.
Seba has figured a species of lizard, whose head is sur-
mounted with projecting lines, and the back furnished
with a broad vertical crest, which extends as far over the
tail, and which that author believed to be intended for
the purposes of flight. He has designated it under the
name of basilisk, or dragon of America, a flying amphibi-
ous animal. This is the animal which has subsequently
been described in all works of natural history under the
name of basilisk. — Supplement to the English edition of
Carter,
climates are passed away, and vegetation
starts into universal verdure, the sportsmen
are seen, with a noose and a stick, wandering
along the sides of the rivers ^tp take the iguana.
The animal, though apparently formed for
combat, is the most harmless creature of all
the forest : it lives among the trees, or sports
in the wafer, without ever offering to offend ;
there, having fed upon the flowers of the
mahot, and the leaves of the mapou, that grow
along the banks of the stream, it goes to repose
upon the branches of the trees that hang over
the water. Upon the land the animal is swift
of foot ; but when once in possession of a tree,
it seems conscious of the security of its situation,
and never offers to stir. There the sportsman
easily finds it, and as easily fastens his noose
round its neck: if the head be placed in such
a manner that the noose cannot readily be
fastened, by hitting the animal a blow on the
nose with the stick, it lifts the head, and offers
it in some measure to the noose. In this
manner, and also by the tail, the iguana is
dragged from the trees, and killed by repeated
blows on the head.
The Cameleon is a very different animal;
and as the iguana satisfies the appetites of the
epicure, this is rather the feast of the philoso-
pher. Like the crocodile, this little animal
proceeds from an egg ; and it also nearly re-
sembles that formidable creature in form ; but
it differs widely in its size and its appetites ;
being not above eleven inches long, and de-
lighting to sit upon trees, being afraid of ser-
pents, from which it is unable to escape on
the ground.
The head of a large cameleon is almost two
inches long; and from thence to the begin-
ning of the tail, four and a half : the tail is five
inches long, and the feet two and a half : the
thickness of the body is different at different
times ; for sometimes, from the back to the
belly, it is two inches, and sometimes butone ;
for it can blow itself up, and contract itself at
pleasure. This swelling and .contraction is
not only of the back and belly but of the legs
and tail.
These different tumors do not proceed from
a dilatation of the breast in breathing, which
rises and falls by turns ; but are very irregu-
lar, and seem adopted merely from caprice.
The cameleon is often seen, as it were, blown
up for two hours together ; and then it con-
tinues growing less and less insensibly ; for
the dilatation is always more quick and visi-
ble than the contraction. In this last state
the animal appears extremely lean ; the spine
of the back seems sharp, and all the ribs may
be counted ; likewise the tendons of the legs
and arms may be seen very distinctly.
This method of puffing itself up, is similar
to that in pigeons, whose crops are sometimes
404
HISTORY OF FROGS, LIZARDS, AND SERPENTS.
greatly distended with air. The cameleon
lias a power of driving the air it breathes over
every part of the body ; however, it only gets
between the skin and the muscles; for the
muscles themselves are never swollen. The
skin is very cold to the touch; and though the
animal seems so lean, there is no feeling the
beating of the heart. The surface of the
skin is unequal, and has a grain not unlike
shagreen, but very soft, because each eminence
is as smooth as if it were polished. Some
of these little protuberances are as large as a
pin's head, on the arms, legs, belly, and tail ;
but on the shoulders and head they are of an
oval figure, and a little larger; those under
the throat are ranged in the form of a chaplet,
from the lower lip to the breast. The colour
of all these eminences, when the carneleon is
at rest in a shady place, is of a bluish gray,
and the space between is of a pale red and
yellow.
But when the animal is removed into the
sun, then comes the wonderful part of its his.
tory. At first it appears to suffer no change
of colour, its grayish spots still continuing
the same : but the whole surface soon seems
to imbibe the rays of light ; and the simple
colouring of the body changes into a variety
of beautiful hues. Wherever the light comes
upon the body, it is of a tawny brown ; but
that part of the skin on which the sun does
not shine, changes into several brighter col-
ours, pale yellow, or vivid crimson ; which
forms spots of the size of half one's finger :
some of these descend from the spine halfway
down the back ; and others appear on the
sides, arms, and tail. When the sun has
done shining, the original gray colour returns
by degrees, and covers all the body. Some-
times the animal becomes all over spotted
with brown spots, of a greenish cast. When
it is wrapt up in a white linen cloth for two
or three minutes, the natural colour becomes
much lighter; but not quite white, as some
authors have pretended : however, from hence
it must be concluded that the cameleon as-
sumes the colour of the objects which it ap-
proaches ; this is entirely an error, and pro-
bably has taken its rise from the continual
changes it appears to undergo.1
1 The skin of the cameleon is composed of a sort of
small, scaly grains, and, under ordinary circumstances,
is of a greenish-gray colour. The general form of the
body reminds one of the lizard, but the trunk is com-
pressed, and the back highly ridged or cutting. The
occiput, or hinder part of the head, is elevated pyramid-
ically ; the eyes are large, projecting far outwards, yet
almost entirely covered over by the skin, except imme-
diately opposite the pupil. What is still more singular,
the eyes are capable of moving independently of each
other, taking different directions at the same moment;
there is no visible external ear ; the tongue is fleshy,
round, and capable of being greatly lengthened ; the
Le Bruyn, in his Voyage to the Levant,
has given us a very ample description of the
cameleon. During his stay at Smyrna, he
bought several of this kind ; and to try how
teeth are three-pronged. Each of the feet has five toes,
but these are separated into two portions (one containing
two and the other three toes) by the skin, which covers
them entirely to the nails. The tail is long and round,
and capable of grasping twigs or branches, to sustain
the animal. The lungs of the chameleon are so large,
that when inflated to the utmost, the whole body becomes
almost transparent. With the different degrees of infla-
tion, the surface undergoes changes of colour, owing to
the variations produced in the distribution of the blood,
and not, as has been fabled, by the animal assuming the
colour of the body upon which it happens to be placed.
It is scarcely possible to witness any thing more curi-
ous or beautiful than the transitions from hue to hue,
exhibited by the cameleon, when aroused to motion.
The cameleons are all exceedingly slow, dull and almost
torpid. The only part which they move with celerity
is their long tongue. This organ is clothed, at its ex-
tremity, with a viscid, gluey mucus, and is darted out
for the purpose of capturing insects, upon which the ani-
mal subsists. As they feed but seldom, and are fre-
quently seen inhaling the air, to inflate their bodies as
above-mentioned, ancient observers concluded that they
fed altogether on air ; but closer attention to their habits
has shown that they require a diet rather more substan-
tial. Three or four species are well known, and are na-
tives of Africa and the Molucca islands. They pass
their lives altogether upon trees, feeding upon small in-
sects, for which their construction shows them to be per-
fectly adapted.
The Variegated Lizard. — This, which is by far the
largest in this division of the genus, sometimes exceeds
the guana in size. The head is covered, as in the green
lizard, with large scales or plates ; the body with small
and somewhat square scales, which are so disposed as to
mark the sides into numerous tapering annul! or striae,
passing from the back perpendicularly downwards, arid
from the sides perpendicularly upwards, the narrow end
of each row alternating with the broader end of the oppo-
site one ; and in the younger animals a kind of plated
appearance, or continued lateral wrinkle appears to pass
along each side of the animal ; the tail, which is very
long, is surrounded by extremely numerous rings of
small square scales, and tapers to a slender point. The
colour in the larger animals is highly beautiful, consist-
ing of an elegant, and in general somewhat minute va-
riegation of brown, or blackish and purple spots, on a
pale bluish-white, and in some parts yellowish ground.
The whole form of the animal is rather thick or plump,
in comparison with many other lizards : the tongue is
broad, flat, long, forked at the tip, and curiously serrated
on each side ; the head shaped like that of the Arneivo,
to which this species is nearly allied. It is a native of
South America.
The Green Lizard. — The common green lizard is a
native of both Europe and India. This species is also
extremely nimble ; it basks on the sides of diy banks,
or under old trees in the hot weather, but, on being ob-
served, immediately retreats to its hole. The food of
this, as well as all other British lizards, is insects ; and
they themselves are devoured by birds of prey. They
are all perfecly harmless, yet their form strikes almost
every beholder with disgust, and has occasioned great
obscurity in their history. Mr Pennant mentions a
lizard killed in Worcestershire, in the year 1714, which
was two feet six inches long, and four inches in girth ;
the fore-legs were placed eight inches from the head,
the hind-legs five inches behind those ; the legs were
two inches long ; and the feet divided into four toes.
THE CAMELEON.
405
long they could live, kept four of them in a
cage, permitting them at times to run about
the house. The fresh sea-breeze seemed to give
them most spirits and vivacity ; they opened
each furnished with & sharp claw. Another of the same
kind was afterwards killed in that county: but whether
these lar^e lizards were natives of other countries, and
imported into England, or whether they were of British
growth, is uncertain, though the former is more probable,
as in this country they scarcely ever exceed six inches.
This species has a pretty long verticulated tail, with
sharp scales, and a scaly collar.
The green lizard of Carolina is denominated from its
colour. It is very slender ; the tail nearly double the
length of the body ; and the whole length above five
inches. It inhabits Carolina, where it is domestic,
familiar, and harmless. ft sports on the tables and
windows, and amuses with its agility in catching flies.
Cold affects its colours: in that uncertain climate, when
ihere is a quick transition in the same day from hot to
cold, it changes instantly from the most brilliant green
to a dull brown. They are a prey to cats and ravenous
birds. They appear chiefly in summer ; and at the ap-
proach of cold weather they retire to their winter
recesses, and lie torpid in the holes and crevices of hol-
low trees. It frequently happens, that a few warm sun-
shiny days so invigorate them, that they will come out
of their holes and appear abroad ; when on a sudden the
weather changes to cold, they become so feeble as to be
unable to return to their retreats, and consequently ex-
pire.
The Nimble Lizard. — This elegant little creature,
which is known in almost every part of the temperate
regions of Europe, seems to be the most gentle and in-
offensive, and at the same time, the most useful of all the
lizard tribe. It is fond of basking in the sun ; but, un-
able to bear extensive heat, in the hottest weather it
seeks for shelter. In spring, during fine weather, it
may sometimes be seen luxuriously extended on a
sloping green bank, or on a wall exposed to the sun. In
these situations it enjoys the full effects of the reviving
warmth, expressing- its delight, by gently agitating its
slender tail ; and its lively and brilliant eyes are ani-
mated with pleasure. — Should any of the minute animals,
on which it feeds, appear, it springs upon them with the
quickness of thought ; and if any danger occurs, the
creature itself seeks a more secure retreat with equal
rapidity. On the least noise it turns suddenly round,
drops down, and seems, for a moment, perfectly stupified
by its fall ; or else it suddenly shoots away among the
bushes or thick grass. Its wonderful rapidity of motion
is chiefly to be observed in warm countries, for in the
temperate regions its evolutions are much more languid.
This gentle and peaceful animal excites no sensations of
terror ; and, when taken into the hand, makes not the
smallest attempt either to bite or offend. In some
countries, children use it as a play-thing ; and, in con-
their mouths to take it in ; he never perceived
that they eat any thing, except now and then
a fly, which they took half an hour to swal-
low : he observed their colour often to change,
three or four times successively, without being
able to find out any cause for such alterations ;
their common colour he found to be gray, cr
rather a pale mouse colour ; but its most fre-
quent changes were into a beautiful green,
spotted with yellow ; sometimes the animal
was marked all over with dark brown ; and
this often changes into a lighter brown : some
colours, however, it never assumed ; and con-
trary to what was said above, he found red to
be among the number.
Though our traveller took the utmost care,
he was unable to preserve any of them alive
above five months ; and many of them died in
four. When the cameleon changes place, and
attempts to descend from an eminence, it
moves with the utmost precaution, advancing
one leg very deliberately before the other,
still securing itself by holding whatever it
can grasp by the tail. It seldom opens its
mouth, except for fresh air ; and when that
is supplied, discovers its satisfaction by its
motions, and the frequent changes of its colour.
The tongue is sometimes darted out after its
prey, which is flies ; and this is as long as the
whole body. The eyes are remarkably little,
though they stand out of the head ; they have
sequence of its natural gentleness of disposition, it be-
comes in a great measure tame and familiar.
The Sand Lizard. — This species is found on sandy
heaths in some parts of England. Its colour is in general
brown, and its length seven inches. It is more sluggish
than the common lizard, and will attempt to bite any one
who handles it.
The Frilled Lizard, of which the following cut re-
presents the figure, is a curious soecies found in Australia,
Little is known of its Ualu.s.
406
HISTORY OF FROGS, LIZARDS, AND SERPENTS.
a single eye-lid, like a cap with a hole in the
middle, through which the sight of the eye
appears, which is of a shining brown ; and
round it there is a little circle of a gold colour :
but the most extraordinary part of their con-
formation is, that the animal often moves one
eye, when the other is entirely at rest : nay
sometimes one eye will seem to look directly
forward, while the other looks backward ; and
one will look upward, while the other regards
the earth.
To this class of lizards, we may refer the
Dragon, a most terrible animal, but most pro-
bably not of Nature's formation. Of this
death-dealing creature all people have read ;
arid the most barbarous countries, to this day,
paint it to the imagination in all its terrors,
and fear to meet it in every forest. It is not
enough that nature has furnished those coun-
tries with poisons of various malignity ; with
serpents forty feet long ; with elephants, lions,
and tigers ; to make their situation really dan-
gerous, the capricious imagination is set at
work to call up new terrors ; and scarce a
savage is found that does not talk of winged
serpents of immoderate length, flying away
with the camel or the rhinoceros, or destroying
mankind by a single glare. Happily, how-
ever, such ravagers are nowhere found to exist
at present ; and the whole race of dragons is
dwindled down to the Flying Lizard, a little
harmless creature, that only preys upon insects,
and even seems to embellish the forest with
its beauty.
The Flying Lizard of Java perches upon
fruit-trees, and feeds upon flies, ants, butter-
flies, and other small insects. It is a very
harmless creature, and does no mischief in
any respect. Gentil, in his voyage round the
World, affirms, that he has seen these lizards
at the island of Java, in the East Indies. He
observed they flew very swiftly from tree to
tree ; and having killed one, he could not but
admire the skin, which was painted with
several beautiful colours : it was a foot in
length, and had four paws, like the common
lizards: but its head was flat, and had ^a small
hole in the middle ; the wings were very
thin, and resembled those of a flying fish.
About the neck were a sort of wattles, not un-
like those of cocks, which gave it no disagree-
able appearance. He intended to have pre-
served it, in order to bring it into Europe;
but it was corrupted by the heat, before the
close of the day ; however, they have since
been brought into England, and are now
common enough in the cabinets of the curious.
The last animal of the lizard kind that I
shall mention, is the Chalcidian Lizard of
Aldrovandus, very improperly called the Seps
by modern historians, This animal seems to
make the shade that separates the lizard from
the serpent race. It has four legs, like the
lizard ; but so short, as to be utterly unser-
viceable in walking : it has a long slender
body, like the serpent; and is said to have
the serpent's malignity also. The fore legs
are very near the head; the hind legs are
placed far backward ; but before and behind
they seem rather useless incumbrances, than
instruments serving to assist the animal in its
motions, or in providing for its subsistence.
These animals are found above three feet
long, and thick in proportion, with a large
head and pointed snout. The whole body is
covered with scales ; and the belly is white
mixed with blue. It has four crooked teeth,
as also a pointed tail, which, however, can in-
flict no wound. Whether the teeth be similar to
the viper's fangs, we are not told; though Vola-
teranus says, they are covered with a mem-
brane ; by which I am apt to think he means
a venom-bag, which is found at the root of
teeth of all serpents that are poisonous. It is
viviparous ; fifteen young ones having been
taken alive out of its belly. Upon the whole,
it appears to bear a strong affinity to the viper;
and, like that animal, its bite may be danger-
ous.
OF FROGS, LIZARDS, AND SERPENTS.
BOOK III.
OF SERPENTS, ETC.
CHAP. I.
OF SERPENTS IN GENERAL.1
WE now come to a tribe, that not only their
deformity, their venom, their ready malignity,
but also our prejudices, and our very religion,
have taught us to detest. The serpent has,
Irom the beginning, been the enemy of man ;
and it has hitherto continued to terrify and an-
noy him, notwithstanding all the arts that
have been practised to destroy it. Formidable
in itself, it deters the invader from the pur-
1 The serpent tribes are distinguished from all other
animals by a peculiar character, in which their figure,
motion, and habits, so repulsive and disgusting, form a
striking contrast to the beautiful and variegated colours
with which their skin is studded, adding, if possible, to
their subtile and venomous appearance ; while their
jrawling motion strikingly exemplifies the decree of the
Creator, made after tiie temptation and fall of man : —
'• Because thou hast done this, cursed art thou above all
cattle, and every bird of the field ; upon thy belly shalt
thou go, and dust thou shall eat all the days of thy life."
The tribes are very numerous, and have been divided
by Lacepede into eight genera, each of which are subdi-
vided, and contain many species. The genera comprise
the Boas, containing 11 species; the Rattle-snake, 6
species; the Vipers, 196 species the Snakes, 24 spe-
cies; the Amphisbcena, 5 species; Langrata, 1: Ccecilia,
2; and Acrochord, 1.
Although destitute of feet and wings, few animals are
so active as serpents, or can transport themselves from
place to place with equal agility. Whether to seize its
prey, or escape from danger, the serpent moves with the
velocity of an arrow, and surpasses several species of
birds in the ease and rapidity with which it gains the
summits of the highest trees, twisting and untwisting its
llexible body around their trunks and branches with such
celerity, that the quickest eye can scarcely follow its ra-
pid motion. Their size greatly varies ; some are but a
few inches long, while others are forty, or even fifty feet
in length. All are covered with scales, or scaly tuber-
cles. Their brain case is weak and shallow; and hence
serpents are easily killed by a blow on the head. The
formation and conjunction of the vertebra are well adap-
ted for mobility.
suit; and, from its figure, capable of finding
shelter in a little space, it is not easily disco-
vered by those who would venture to try the
encounter. Thus possessed at once of potent
arms and inaccessible or secure retreats, it
baffles all the arts of man, though never so
earnestly bent upon its destruction.
For this reason, there is scarce a country in
the world that does not still give birth to this
poisonous brood, that seem formed to quell hu-
man pride, and repress the boasts of security.
Mankind have driven the lion, the tiger, and
the wolf from their vicinity ; but the snake
All parts of their body have great force, agility, and
elasticity. They are most abundant in warm and tem-
perate regions ; but increase in size and numbers, in pro-
portion to the heat and moisture, and to the freedom c/
their range. They have less blood than quadrupeds, a
lower animal heat, and less interior activity of system.
They are more animated in times of tempest and hurri-
cane, when the electricity of the atmosphere is in the
greatest perturbation. Their sense of hearing is dull,
but their vision acute. Their sense of taste is probably
of considerable delicacy, as the tongue is very slender,
and divided into two joints, which admit of its being
readily applied to sapid bodies. Their sense of touch is
probably obscure. They give many indications of high
instinct and sensibility, and have the faculty of existing
a long period without food.
They have no voice, but a hiss, which is uttered softer
or stronger according to the exciting cause. It is exer-
ted exclusively in the declaration of their fiercer passions
— the milder sensibilities are not accompanied by any
vocal annunciation.
Serpents have great strength from the peculiar con-
struction of their body. They are very tenacious of life.
They have been, from all antiquity, and in most coun-
tries, celebrated for their great cunning and sagacity ;
which is chiefly displayed in their mode of evading their
enemies, or of obtaining their prey. Some serpents are
eminently noted for their brilliant colours, of which se.
veral display fine iridescent changes. It is a curious dis-
tinction ofthese animals, which has lately been made by
M. de la Borde, of Cayenne, that nearly all the species
of serpents of which the young are hatched within the
mother, and which are therefore born alive, are veno-
mous.
408
HISTORY OF FROGS, LIZARDS, AND SERPENTS.
and the viper still defy their power, and fre-
quently punish their insolence.
Their numbers, however, are thinned by
human assiduity ; and it is possible some of
the kinds are wholly destroyed. In none of
the countries of Europe are they sufficiently
numerous to be truly terrible ; the philosopher
can meditate in the fields without danger ; and
the lover seek the grove without fearing any
wounds but those of metaphor. The various
malignity that has been ascribed to European
serpents of old is now utterly unknown ; there
are not above three or four kinds that are dan-
gerous, and their poison operates in all in the
same manner. A burning pain in the part,
easily removable by timely applications, is
the worst effect that we can experience from
the bite of the most venomous serpents of Eu-
rope. The drowsy death, the starting of the
blood from every pore, the insatiable and burn-
ing thirst, the melting down the solid mass of
the whole form into one heap of putrefaction,
these are horrors with which we are entirely
unacquainted.
But though we have thus reduced these
dangers, having been incapable of wholly re-
moving them, in other parts of the world they
still rage with all their ancient malignity.
Nature seems to have placed them as centin-
els, to deter mankind from spreading too
widely, and from seeking new abodes, till they
have thoroughly cultivated those at home. In
the warm countries that lie within the tropics,
as well as in the cold regions of the north,
where the inhabitants are few, the serpents
propagate in equal proportion. But of all
countries, those regions have them in the
greatest abundance where the fields are un-
peopled and fertile, and where the climate
supplies warmth and humidity. All along the
swampy banks of the river Niger or Oroonoko,
where the sun is hot, the forests thick, and the
men but few, the serpents cling among the
branches of the trees in infinite numbers, and
carry on an unceasing war against all other
animals in their vicinity. Travellers have as-
sured us, that they have often seen large snakes
twining round the trunk of a tall tree, encom-
passing it like a wreath, and thus rising and
descending at pleasure. In these countries,
therefore, the serpent is too formidable to be-
come an object of curiosity, for it excites much
more violent sensations.
We are not, therefore, to reject, as wholly
fabulous, the accounts left us by the ancients
of the terrible devastations committed by a
single serpent. It is probable, in early times,
when the arts were little known, and mankind
were but thinly scattered over the earth, that
serpents, continuing undisturbed possessors of
the forests, grew to an amazing magnitude :
und every other tribe of animals fell before
them. It then might have happened, that ser
pents reigned the tyrants of a district for cen-
turies together. To animals of this kind,
grown by time and rapacity to a hundred or a
hundred and fifty feet in length, the lion, the
tiger, and even the elephant itself, were but
feeble opponents. The dreadful monster
spread desolation round him ; every creature
that had life was devoured, or fled to a dis-
tance. That horrible fcetor, which even the
commonest and the most harmless snakes are
still found to diffuse, might, in these larger
ones, become too powerful for any living being
to withstand; and while they preyed without
distinction, they might thus also have poisoned
the atmosphere around them. In this manner,
having for ages lived in the hidden and un.
peopled forest, and finding as their appetites
were more powerful, the quantity of their prey
decreasing, it is possible they might venture
boldly from their retreats, into the more culti-
vated parts of the country, and carry conster-
nation among mankind, as they had before de-
solation among the lower ranks of nature. We
have many histories of antiquity, presenting us
such a picture ; and exhibiting a whole nation
sinking under the ravages of a single serpent.
At that time, man had not learned the art of
uniting the efforts of many, to effect one great
purpose. Opposing multitudes only added
new victims to the general calamity, and in-
creased mutual embarrassment and terror. The
animal was, therefore, to be singly opposed by
him who had the greatest strength, the best
armour, and the most undaunted courage. In
such an encounter hundreds must have fallen ;
till one, more lucky than the rest, by a fortu-
nate blow, or by taking the monster in its tor
pid interval, and surcharged with spoil, might
kill, and thus rid his country of the destroyer.
Such was the original occupation of heroes :
and those who first obtained that name, from
their destroying the ravagers of the earth,
gained it much more deservedly than their suc-
cessors, who acquired their reputation only for
their skill in destroying each other. But as
we descend into more enlightened antiquity,
we find these animals less formidable, as being
attacked in a more successful manner. We
are told, that while Regulus led his army
along the banks of the river Bagrada, in
Africa, an enormous serpent disputed his pas-
sage over. We are assured by Pliny, who
says, that he himself saw the skin, that it was
a hundred and twenty feet long, and that he
had destroyed many of the army. At last,
however, the battering engines were brought
out against it ; and these assailing it at a dis-
tance, it was soon destroyed. Its spoils were
carried to Rome, and the general was decreed
an ovation for his success. There are, per-
haps, few facts better ascertained in history
THE SERPENT.
409
than this : an ovation was a remarkable '
honour; and was given only for some signal
exploit that did not deserve a triumph : no his-
torian would offer to invent that part of the
story at least, without being subject to the
most shameful detection. The skin was kept
for several years after in the capitol ; and Pliny
says, he saw it there : now, though Pliny was
a credulous writer, he was by no means a. false
one; and whatever he says he has seen, we
may very safely rely on. At present, indeed,
such ravages from serpents are scarcely seen
in any part of the world ; not but that in Af-
rica and America some of them are powerful
enough to brave the assaults of men to this
day.
But, happily for us, we are placed at such
a distance as to take a view of this tribe with-
out fearing for our safety ; we can survey their
impotent malignity with the same delight with
which the poet describes the terrors of a dead
monster.
Neqncnnt expleri corda tuendo
Terribiles oeulos villooaijue setis pectora.
To us their slender form, their undulating
motion, their vivid colouring, their horrid
stench, their forky tongue, and their enven-
omed fangs, are totally harmless ; and in this
country their uses even serve to counterbalance
the mischief they sometimes occasion.
If we take a survey of serpents in general,
they have marks by which they are distin-
guished from all the rest of animated nature.
They have the length and the suppleness of
the eel, but want fins to swim with: they
have the scaly covering and pointed tail of the
lizard, but they want legs to walk with ; they
have the crawling motion of the worm, but,
unlike that animal, they have lungs to breathe
with : like all tlie reptile kind, they are re-
sentful when offended ; and nature has sup-
plied them with terrible arms to revenge every
injury.
Though they are possessed of very different
degrees of malignity, yet they are all formid-
able to man, and have a strong similitude of
form to each other ; and it will be proper to
mark the general character before we descend
to particulars. With respect to their confor-
mation, all serpents have a very wide mouth,
in proportion to the size of the head ; and, what
is very extraordinary, they can gape and swal-
low the head of another animal which is three
times as big as their own. I have seen a toad
laken out of the belly of a snake, at lord Spen-
cer's, near London, the body of which was
thrice the diameter of the animal that swal-
lowed it. However, it is no way surprising
that the skin of the snake should stretch to re-
ceive so large a morsel : the wonder seems
how the jaws could take it in. To explain
this, it must be observed that the jaws of this
animal do not open as ours, in the manner of
a pair of hinges, where bones are applied to
bones, and play upon one another; on the con-
trary, the serpent's jaws areTheld together at
the roots by a stretching muscular skin ; by
which means they open as widely as the ani-
mal chooses to stretch them, and admit of a
prey much thicker than the snake's own body.
The throat, like stretching leather, dilates to
admit the morsel ; the stomach receives it in
part ; and the rest remains in the gullet, till
putrefaction and the juices of the serpent's
body unite to dissolve it.
As to the teeth, I will talk more of them
when I come to treat of the viper's poison ; it
will be sufficient here to observe, that some
serpents have fangs, or canine teeth, and others
are without them. The teeth in all are crooked
and hollow ; and, by a peculiar contrivance,
are capable of being erected or depressed at
pleasure.
The eyes of all serpents are small, if com-
pared to the length of the body ; and though
differently coloured in different kinds, yet the
appearance of all is malign and heavy; and,
from their known qualities, they strike the
imagination with the idea of a creature medi-
tating mischief. In some, the upper eye-lid
is wanting, and the serpent winks only witL
that below ; in others, the animal has a nicti-
tating membrane or skin, resembling that
which is found in birds, which keeps the eye
clean, and preserves the sight. The substance
of the eye in all is hard and horny ; the crys-
talline humour occupying a great part of the
globe.
The holes for hearing are very visible in all :
but there is no conduits for smelling ; though
it is probable that some of them enjoy that
sense in tolerable perfection.
The tongue in all these animals is long and
forky. It is composed of two long fleshy sub.
stances, which terminate in sharp points, and
are very pliable. At the root it is connected
very strongly to the neck by two tendons, that
give it a variety of play. Some of the viper
kind have tongues a fifth part of the length of
their bodies ; they are continually darting
them out, but they are entirely harmless, and
only terrify those who are ignorant of the real
situation of their poison.
If from the jaws we go on to the gullet, we
shall find it very wide for the animal's size,
and capable of being distended to a great de-
gree ; at the bottom of this lies the stomach,
which is not so capacious, and receives only a
part of the prey, while the rest continues in
the gullet for digestion. When the substance
in the stomach is dissolved into chyle, it passes
into the intestines, and from thence goes to
nourishment, or to be excluded by the vent.
Si
410
HISTORY OF FROGS, LIZARDS, AND SERPENTS.
Like most other animals, serpents are fur-
nished with lungs, which, I suppose, are ser-
viceable in breathing, though we cannot per-
ceive the manner in which this operation is
performed ; for though serpents are often seen,
apparently, to draw in their breath, yet we
cannot find the smallest signs of their ever re-
spiring it again. Their lungs, however, are
long and large, and doubtless are necessary to
promote their languid circulation. The heart is
formed as in the tortoise, the frog, and the lizard
kinds, so as to work without the assistance of
the lungs. It is single, the greatest part of
the blood flowing from the great vein to the
great artery by the shortest course. By this
contrivance of nature we easily gather two
consequences — that snakes are amphibious,
being equally capable of living on land and in
the water; and that also they are torpid in
winter, like the bat, the lizard, and other ani-
mals formed in the same manner.
The vent in these animals serves for the
emission of the urine and the faeces, and for
the purposes of generation. The instrument
of generation in the male is double, being
forked like the tongue ; the ovaries in the fe-
male are double also ; and the aperture is very
large, in order to receive the double instrument
of the male. They copulate in their retreats;
and it is said by the ancients, that, in this si-
tuation, they appear like one serpent with two
heads : but how far this remark is founded in
truth, I do not find any of the moderns that
can resolve me.
As the body of this animal is long, slender,
and capable of bending in every direction, the
number of joints in the back-bone are numer-
ous beyond what one would imagine. In the
generality of quadrupeds, they amount to not
above thirty or forty ; in the serpent kind they
amount to a hundred and forty-five from the
head to the vent, and twenty-five more from
that to the tail.1 The number of these joints
must give the back-bone a surprising degree
of pliancy ; but this is still increased by the
manner in which each of these joints are locked
into the other. In man and quadrupeds, the
tiat surfaces of the bones are laid one against
the other, and bound tight by sinews-, but in
serpents, the bones play one within the other,
like ball and socket, so that they have full
motion upon each other in every direction.8
Thus, if a man were to form a machine com-
posed of so many joints as are found in the
back of a serpent, he would find it no easy
matter to give it such strength and pliancy at
the same time. The chain of a watch is but a
bungling piece of workmanship in comparison.
Though the number of joints in the back-
bone is great, yet that of the ribs is still great-
Vide Charat. Auatoin.
« Derham, p. 390-
er ; for, from the head to the vent there are
two ribs to every joint, which makes their
number two hundred and ninety in all. These
ribs are furnished with muscles, four in num-
ber ; which being inserted into the head, run
along to the end of the tail, and give the ani-
mal great strength and agility in all its mo-
tions.
The skin also contributes to its motions,
being composed of a number of scales, united
to each other by a transparent membrane,
which grows harder as it grows older, until
the animal changes, which is generally done
twice a year. This cover then bursts near the
head, and the serpent creeps from it, by an
undulatory motion, in a new skin, much more
vivid than the former. If the old slough be
then viewed, every scale will be distinctly
seen, like a piece of net- work, and will be
found greatest where the part of the body they
covered was largest.
There is much geometrical neatness in the
disposal of the serpent's scales for assisting the
animal's sinuous motion. As the edges of the
foremost scales lie over the ends of their fol-
lowing scales, so those edges, when the scales
are erected, which the animal has a power of
doing in a small degree, catch in the ground,
like the nails in the wheel of a chariot, and so
promote and facilitate the animal's progressive
motion. The erecting these scales is by means
of a multitude of distinct muscles, with which
each is supplied, and one end of which is
taoked each to the middle of the foregoing.
In some of the serpent kind there is the ex-
actest symmetry in these scales; in others,
they are disposed more irregularly. In some,
there are larger scales on the belly, and often
answering to the number of ribs ; in others,
however, the animal is without them. Upon
this slight difference Linnaeus has founded his
distinctions of the various classes of the serpent
tribe. Human curiosity, however, and even
human interest, seem to plead for a very dif-
ferent method of distribution. It is not the
number of scales on a formidable animal's
belly, nor their magnitude or variety, that any
way excite our concern. The first question
that every man will naturally ask, when he
hears of a snake, is, whether it be large? the
second, whether it be venomous ? In other
words, the strongest lines in the animal's his-
tory are those that first excite our attention ;
and these it >s every historian's business to dis-
play.
When we come to compare serpents with
each other, the first great distinction appears
in their size ; no other tribe of animals differ-
ing so widely in this particular. What, for
instance, can be so remotely separated as the
Great Liboya of Surinam, that grows to thirty-
six feet long ; and the Little Serpent, at the
THE SERPENT.
411
Cape of Good Hope, and the north of the river
Senegal, that is not above three inches, and
covers whole sandy deserts with its multi-
tudes ! This tribe of animals, like that of
tishes, seems to have no bounds put to their
growth: their bones are, in a great measure,
cartilaginous, and they are, consequently, ca-
pable of great extension : the older, therefore,
a serpent becomes, the larger it grows; and
as they seem to live to a great age, they arrive
at an enormous size.
Leguat assures us, that he saw one in Java
that was fifty feet long. Carli mentions their
growing to above forty feet; and we have now
the skin of one in the Museum, that measures
thirty-two. Mr Wentwort, who had large
concerns in the Berbices, in America, assures
me, that in that country, they grow to an en-
ormous length. He one day sent out a sol-
dier, with an Indian, to kill wild fowl for the
table ; and they accordingly went some miles
from the fort; in pursuing their game, the In-
dian, who generally marched before, beginning
to tire, went to rest himself upon the fallen
trunk of a tree, as he supposed it to be; but
when he was just going to sit down, the enor-
mous monster began to move, and the poor sa-
vage perceiving that he had approached a Li-
boya, the greatest of all the serpent kind,
dropped down in an agony. The soldier, who
perceived, at some distance, what had hap-
pened, levelled at the serpent's head, and, by
a lucky aim, shot it dead: however, he conti-
nued his fire until he was assured that the ani- .
rnal was killed ; and then going up to rescue
his companion, who was fallen motionless by
its side, he, to his astonishment, found him
dead likewise, being killed by the fright.
Upon his return to the fort, and telling what
had happened, Mr Wentworth ordered the
animal to be brought up, when it was mea-
sured, and found to be thirty-six feet long.
He had the skin stuffed, and then sent to Eu-
rope, as a present to the Prince of Orange, in
whose cabinet it is now to be seen at the
Hague ; but the skin has shrunk, by drying,
two or three feet.
In the East Indies they grow also to an
enormous size ; particularly in the island of
Java, where, we are assured, that one of them
will destroy and devour a buffalo. In a letter,
printed in the German Ephemerides, we have
an account of a combat between an enormous
serpent and a buffalo, by a person who assures
us that he was himself a spectator. The ser-
pent had, for some time, been waiting near
the brink of a pool, in expectation of its prey ;
when a buffalo was the first that offered. Hav-
ing darted upon the affrighted animal, it in-
stantly began to wrap it round with its volumi-
nous twistings ; and, at every twist, the bones
of the buffalo were heard to crack almost as
loud as the report of a cannon. It was in vain
that the poor animal struggled and bellowed ;
its enormous enemy entwined it too closely to
get free ; till, at length, all its bones being
mashed to pieces, like those ~of a" malefactor on
the wheel, and the whole body reduced to one
uniform mass, the serpent untwined its folds to
swallow its prey at leisure. To prepare for
this, and in order to make the body slip down
the throat more glibly, it was seen to lick the
whole body over, and thus cover it with its
mucus. It then began to swallow it at that
end that offered least resistance ; while its
length of body was dilated to receive its prey,
and thus took in at once a morsel that was three
times its own thickness. We are assured by
travellers, that these animals are often found
with the body of a stag in their gullet, while
the horns, which they are unable to swallow,
keep sticking out at their mouths.
But it is happy for mankind that the rapa-
city of these frightful creatures is often their
punishment ; for whenever any of the serpent
kind have gorged themselves in this manner,
whenever their body is seen particularly dis-
tended with food, they then become torpid, and
may be approached and destroyed with safety.
Patient of hunger to a surprising degree,
whenever they seize and swallow their prey,
they seem, like surfeited gluttons, unwieldly,
stupid, helpless, and sleepy,: they, at that time
seek some retreat, where they may lurk for se-
veral days together, and digest their meal in
safety : the smallest effort, at that time, is ca-
pable of destroying them ; they can scarcely
make any resistance ; and they are equally un-
qualified for flight or opposition : that is the
happy opportunity of attacking them with suc-
cess ; at that time the naked Indian himself
does not fear to assail them. But it is otherwise
when this sleepy interval of digestion is over:
they then issue, with famished appetites, from
their retreats, and with accumulated terrors,
while every animal of the forest flies before
them.
Carli describes the Long Serpent of Congo
making its track through the tall grass, like
mowers in a summer's day. He could not, with-
out terror, behold whole lines of grass lying
levelled under the sweep of its tail. In this
manner it moved forward with great rapidity,
until it found a proper situation frequented by
its prey : there it continued to lurk, in patient
expectation, and would have remained for
weeks together, had- it not been disturbed by
the natives.
Other creatures have a choice in their pro-
vision ; but the serpent indiscriminately preys
upon all ; the buffalo, the tiger, and the ga-
zelle. One would think that the porcupine's
quills might be sufficient to protect it; but
vvhatever has life serves to appease the hun-
412
HISTORY OF FROGS, LIZARDS, AND SERPEN1S.
ger of these devouring creatures: porcupines,
with all their quills, have frequently been
found in their stomachs, when killed and
opened ; nay, they most frequently are seen to
devour each other.
A life of savage hostility in the forest offeis
the imagination one of the most tremendous
pictures in nature. In those burning coun-
tries, where the sun dries up every brook for
hundreds of miles round; when what had the
appearance of a great river in the rainy season,
becomes, in summer, one dreary bed of sand
— in those countries, I say, a lake that is
never dry or a brook that is perennial, is con-
sidered by every animal as the greatest con-
venience of nature. As to food, the luxuriant
landscape supplies that in sufficient abundance:
it is the want of water that all animals endea-
vour to remove ; and inwardly parched by the
heat of the climate, traverse whole deserts to
find out a spring. When they have discovered
tliis, no dangers can deter them from attempt-
ing to slake their thirst. Thus the neighbour-
hood of a rivulet, in the heart of the tropical
continents, is generally the place where all the
hostile tribes of nature draw up for the engage-
ment. On the banks of this little envied spot,
thousands of animals of various kinds are seen
venturing to quench their thirst, or preparing
to seize their prey. The elephants are per-
ceived, in a long line, marching from the
darker parts of the forest ; the buffaloes are
(here, depending upon numbers for security ;
the gazelles, relying solely upon their swift-
ness ; the Hot) and tiger waiting a proper op-
portunity to seize ; but chiefly the larger ser-
pents are upon guard there, and defend the ac-
cesses of the lake. Not an hour passes with-
out some dreadful combat ; but the serpent, de-
fended by its scales, and naturally capable of
sustaining a multitude of wounds, is, of all
others, the most formidable. It is the most
wakeful also ; for the -whole tribe sleep with
their eyes open, and are, consequently, for ever
upon the watch : so that, till their rapacity is
satisfied, few other animals will venture to ap-
proach their station.
But though these animals are, of all others,
the most voracious, and though (he morsel
which they swallow without chewing is greater
than what any other creature, either by land
or water, the whale itself not excepted, can
devour, yet no animals upon earth bear absti-
nence so long as they. A single meal, with
many of the snake kind, seems to be the adven-
ture of a season ; it is an occurrence for which
they have been for weeks, nay, sometimes for
months, in patient expectation of. When
they have seized their prey, their industry, for
several weeks, is entirely discontinued ; the
fortunate capture of an hour often satisfies
them for the remaining period of their annual
activity. As their blood is colder than that
of most other terrestrial animals, and as it cir-
culates but slowly through their bodies, so
their powers of digestion are but feeble.
Their prey continues for a long time, partly
in the stomach, partly in the gullet, and a
part is often seen hanging out of the mouth. •
In this manner, it digests by degrees; and in
proportion as the part below is dissolved, the
part above is taken in. It is not therefore,
till this tedious operation is entirely performed
that the serpent renews its appetite and its
activity. But should any accident prevent it
from issuing once more from its cell, it still
can continue to bear famine for weeks, months,
nay, for years together. Vipers are often
kept in boxes for six or eight months without
any food whatever ; and there are little ser-
pents sometimes sent over to Europe from
Grand Cairo, the name of which I have not
been able to learn, that live, for several years,
in glasses, and never eat at all, nor even stain
the glass with their excrements. Thus the
serpent tribe unite, in themselves, two very
opposite qualities : wonderful abstinence, and
yet incredible rapacity.
If, leaving the consideration of their appe-
tites, we come to compare serpents, as to their
voices, some are found silent, some have a
peculiar cry ; but hissing is the sound which
they most commonly send forth, either as a
call to their kind, or as a threat to their ene-
mies. In the countries where they abound,
they are generally silent in the middle of the
day, when they are obliged to retire from the
heat of the climate ; but as the cool of the
evening approaches, they are then heard issu-
ing from their cells with continued hissings ;
and such is the variety of their notes, that
some have assured me they very much resem-
ble the music of an English grove. This
some will hardly credit — at any rate, such
notes, however pleasing, can give but very
little delight, when we call to mind the ma-
lignity of the minstrel. If considered, indeed,
as they answer the animal's own occasions,
they will be found well adapted to its nature,
and fully answering the purposes of terrifying
such as would venture to offend it.
With respect to motion, some serpents,
particularly those of the viper kind, move
slowly ; while others, such as the Ammodytes,
dart with amazing swiftness. The motion in
all is similar; but the strength of body in some
gives a very different appearance. The viper,
that is but a slow feeble-bodied animal,
makes way in a heavy undulating manner ;
advancing its head, then drawing up its tail
behind, and bending the body into a bow ;
then, from the spot where the head and tail
were united, advancing the head forward as
before. This, which is the motion of all
THE SERPENT.
413
serpents, is very different from that of the
earth-worm, or the naked snail. The serpent,
as was said above, has a back-bone with num-
erous joints, and this bone the animal has a
power of bending in every direction, but with-
out being able to shorten or lengthen it at
pleasure. The earth-worm, on the other
hand, has no back-bone ; but its body is com-
posed of rings, which, like a barber's puff, it
can lengthen or shorten as it finds necessary.
The earth-worm, therefore, in order to move
forward, lengthens the body; then, by the fore
part clings to the ground, where it has reached,
and then contracts and brings up its rear :
then, when the body is thus shortened, the
fore part is lengthened again for another pro-
gression ; and so on. The serpent, instead of
shortening the body, bends it into an arch ;
and this is the principal difference between
serpentine and vermicular progression.
I have instanced this motion in the viper,
as most easily discerned ; but there are many
serpents that dart with such amazing swift-
ness, that they appear rather to leap than
crawl. It is most probable, however, that no
serpent can dart upon even ground farther
than its own length at one effort. Our fears,
indeed, may increase the force of their speed,
which is sometimes found so fatal. We are
told by some, that they will dart to a very
great distance; but this my inquiries have
never been able to ascertain. The manner of
progression in the swiftest serpent we know,
which is the jacalus, is by instantly coiling
itself upon its tail, and darting from thence to
its full extent ; then carrying the tail as quick
as lightning to the head, coiling and darting
again ; and by this means proceeding with
extreme rapidity, without ever quitting the
ground. Indeed, if we consider the length
and the weakness of the back-bone in all these
animals ; if we regard the make of their verte-
brae, in which we shall find the junctures all
formed to give play, and none to give power; we
cannot be of opinion that they have a faculty
of springing from the ground, as they entirely
want a fulcrum, if I may so express it, from
whence to take their spring ; the whole body
being composed of unsupported muscles and
joints that are yielding. It must be confessed,
that they dart down from trees upon their prey ;
but their weight alone is sufficient for that
purpose without much effort of their own.
Though all serpents are amphibious, some
are much fonder of the water than others ; and,
though destitute of fins or gills, remain at the
bottom, or swim along the surface with great
ease. From their internal structure, just
sketched above, we see how well adapted they
are for either element ; and how capable their
blood is of circulating at the bottom, as freely
as in the frog or the tortoise. They can, how-
ever, endure to live in fresh-water only ; for
salt is an effectual bane to the whole tribe.
The greatest serpents are most usually found
in fresh-water, either choosing it as their fav-
ourite element, or finding thFnrpreyin such
places in the greatest abundance. But that
all will live and swim in liquids appears from
the experiment of Rhedi ; who put a serpent
into a large glass vessel of wine, where it
lived swimming about six hours ; though, when
it was by force, immersed and kept under that
liquid, it lived only one hour and a half. He
put another in common water, where it lived
three days ; but when it was kept under water,
it lived only about twelve hours.1 Their
motion there, however, is perfectly the reverse
of what it is upon land ; far, in order to sup-
port themselves upon an element lighter than
their bodies, they are obliged to increase their
surface in a very artificial manner. On earth
their windings are perpendicular to the sur.
face ; in water they are parallel to it ; in other
words, if I should wave my hand up and
down, it will give an idea of the animal's pro-
gress on land ; if I should wave it to the right
and left, it will give some idea of its progress
on the water.
Some serpents have a most horrible foetor at-
tending them, which is alone capable of inti-
midating the brave. This proceeds from two
glands near the vent, like those in the weasel
or polecat ; and, like those animals, in propor-
tion as they are excited by rage, or by fear, the
scent grows stronger. It would seem, how-
ever, that such serpents as are most venomous,
are least offensive in this particular ; since the
rattlesnake and the viper have no smell what-
ever : nay, we are told that at Calicut and
Cranganon, in the East Indies, there are some
very noxious serpents who are so far from being
disagreeable, that their excrements are sought
after, and kept as the most pleasing perfume.
The Esculapian Serpent is also of this number.
Some serpents bring forth their young alive,
as the viper ; some bring forth eggs, which are
hatched by the heat of their situation : as the
common black snake, and the majority of the
serpent tribe. When a reader, ignorant of
anatomy, is told, that some of those animals
produce their young alive, and that some pro-
duce eggs only, he is apt to suppose a very
great difference in the internal conformation,
which makes such a variety in the manner of
bringing forth. But this is not the case :
these animals are internally alike, in whatever
manner they produce their young ; and the
variety in their bringing forth is rather a
slight, than a real discrimination. The only
difference is, that the viper hatches her eggs,
and brings them to maturity within her body;
1 Rhedi, Er.per. p. 170.
4U
HISTORY OF FROGS, LIZARDS, AND SERPENTS.
the snake is more premature in her productions,
and sends her eggs into the light some time
before the young ones are capable of leaving
the shell. Thus, if either are opened, the
eggs will be found in the womb, covered with
their membranous shell, and adhering to each
other like large beads on a string. In the
eggs of both, young ones will be found, though
at different stages of maturity : those of the
viper will crawl and bite the moment the shell
that incloses them is broke open ; those of the
snake are not yet arrived at their perfect form.
Father Labat took a serpent of the viper
kind, that was nine feet lung, and ordered it
to be opened in his presence. He then saw
the manner in which the eggs of these animals
lie in the womb. In this creature there were
six eggs, each of the size of a goose egg, but
longer, more pointed, and covered with a mem-
branous skin, by which also they were united
to each other. Each of these eggs contained
from thirteen to fifteen young ones, about six
inches long, and as thick as a goose-quill.
Though the female from whence they were
taken was spotted, the young seemed to have
a variety of colours very different from the
parent ; and this led the traveller to suppose
that the colour was no characteristic mark
among serpents. These little mischievous
animals were no sooner let loose from the shell
than they crept about, and put themselves into
a threatening posture, coiling themselves up,
and biting the stick with which he was des-
troying them. In this manner he killed se-
venty-four young ones ; those that were con-
tained in one of the eggs escaped at the place
where the female was killed, by the bursting
of the egg, and their getting among the bushes.
The last distinction that I shall mention,
but the most material among serpents, is, that
some are venomous, and some inoffensive. If
we consider the poison of serpents as it relates
to man, there is no doubt but that it is a
scourge and an affliction. The various cala-
mities that the poison of serpents is capable of
producing, are not only inflicted by the animal
itself, but by men, more mischievous than even
serpents, who prepare their venom to destroy
each other. With this the savages poison
their arms, and also prepare their revengeful
potions. The ancients were known to preserve
it for the purposes of suicide ; and even among
semi-barbarous countries at this day, the ve-
nom of snakes is used as a philtre.
But, though the poison be justly terrible to
us, it has been given to very good purposes
for the animal's own proper support and
defence. Without this, serpents, of all other
animals, would be the most exposed and de-
fenceless ; without feet for escaping a pursuit ;
without teeth capable of inflicting a dangerous
wound, or without strength for resistance ; in-
capable, from their size, of finding security in
very small retieats, like the earth-worm, and
disgusting all from their deformity, nothing
was left for them but a speedy extirpation.
But furnished as they are with powerful
poison, every rank of animals approach them
with dread, and never seize them but at an
advantage. Nor is this all the advantage
they derive from it. The malignity of a few
serves for the protection of all. Though not
above a tenth of their number are actually
venomous, yet the similitude they all bear to
each other excites a general terror of the whole
tribe ; and the uncertainty of their enemies in
which the poison chiefly resides, makes even
the most harmless formidable. — Thus provi-
dence seems to have acted with double precau-
tion ; it has given some of them poison, for
the general defence of a tribe naturally feeble ;
but it has thinned the numbers of those which
are venomous, lest they should become too
powerful for the rest of animated nature.
From these noxious qualities in the serpent
kind, it is no wonder that riot only man, but
the beasts and birds, carry on an unceasing
war against them. The ichneumon of the
Indians, and the peccary of America, destroy
them in great numbers. These animals have
the art of seizing them near the head ; and it
is said that they can skin them with greal
dexterity. The vulture and the eagle also
prey upon them in great abundance ; and
often sousing down from the clouds, drop upon
a long serpent, which they snatch up struggl.
ing and writhing in the air. Dogs are also
bred up to oppose them. Father Feuille tells
us, that being in the woods of Martinico, he
was attacked by a large serpent, which he
could not easily avoid, when his dog imme-
diately came to his relief, and seized the
assailant with great courage. The serpent
entwined him, and pressed him so violently,
that the blood came out of his mouth, and yet
the dog never ceased till he had torn it to pieces.
The dog was not sensible of his wounds dur-
ing the fight ; but soon after his head swelled
prodigiously, and he lay on the ground as
dead. But his master having found hard by
a banana-tree, he applied its juice, mixed
with treacle, to the wounds, which recovered
the dog, and quickly healed his sores.
But it is in man that these venomous crea-
tures find the most dangerous enemy. The
Psylli of old were famous for charming and
destroying serpents. Some moderns pretend
to the same art. Casaubon says, that he knew
a man who could at any time summon a
hundred serpents together, and draw them
into the fire. Upon a certain occasion, when
one of them, bigger than the rest, would not
be brought in, he only repeated his charm,
and it came forward like the rest, to submit
THE SEBPENT.
415
to the flames. Philostratus describes par-
ticularly how the Indians charm serpents.
" They take a scarlet robe, embroidered with
golden letters, and spread it before a serpent's
hole. The golden letters have a fascinating
power ; and, by looking steadfastly, the ser-
pent's eyes are overcome and laid asleep."
These, and many other feats have been often
practised upon these animals by artful men,
who had first prepared the serpents for their
exercise, and then exhibited them as ad-
ventitiously assembled at their call. In In-
dia there is nothing so common as dancing
serpents, which are carried about in a broad
flat vessel, somewhat resembling a sieve.
These erect and put themselves in motion at
the word of command. When their keeper
sings a slow tune, they seem by their heads
to keep time ; when he sings a quicker
measure, they appear to move more brisk and
lively. All animals have a certain degree of
docility ; and we find that serpents them-
selves can be brought to move and approach
at the voice of their master. From this trick,
successfully practised before the ignorant, it
is most probable has arisen all the boasted
pretensions which some have made to charm-
ing of serpents ; an art to which the native
Americans pretend at this very day. One of
Linnasus's pupils, we are told, purchased the
secret from an Indian, and then discovered it
to his master ; but, like all secrets of the kind,
it is probable this ended in a few unmeaning
words of no efficacy.1
1 The incantation of serpents is one of the most curi-
ous and interesting facts in natural history. This won-
derful art, which disarms the fury, and soothes the wrath
of the deadliest snake, and renders it obedient to
the charmer's voice, is not an invention of modem
times: for we discover manifest traces of it in the re-
motest antiquity. It is asserted, that Orpheus, who pro-
bably flourished soon after letters were introduced into
Greece, knew how to still the hissing of the approaching
snake, and to extinguish the poison of the creeping ser-
pent. The Argonauts are said to have subdued by the
power of song, the terrible dragon that guarded the golden
fleece ; and Ovid ascribes the same effect to the soporific
influence of certain herbs, and magic sentences. It was
the custom of others to fascinate the serpent, by touching
it with the hand. Of this method Virgil takes notice,
in the seventh book of the .flSnead. But it seems to
have been the general persuasion of the ancients, that
the principal power of the charmer lay in the sweetness
of the music. Pliny says, accordingly, that serpents
were drawn from their lurking-places by the power of
music. Seneca held the same opinion.
The wonderful effect which music produces on the
serpent tribes is confirmed by the testimony of several
respectable moderns. Adders swell at the sound of £
flute, raising themselves up on the one half of their body,
turning themselves round, beating proper time and fol-
lowing the instrument. Their head, naturally round and
long like an eel, becomes broad and flat like a fan. The
tame serpents, many of which the Orientals keep in
their houses, are known to leave their holes in hot wea-
ther, at the sound of a musical instrument, and to run
upon the performer. Dr Shaw had an opportunity of
Though the generality of mankind regard
this formidable race with horror, yet there
have been some nations, and there are some
at this day, that consider them with venera-
tion and regard. The adoration paid by the
ancient Egyptians to a serpent is well known:
many of the nations at present along the west-
ern coast of Africa retain the same unaccount-
able veneration. Upon the Gold and Slave
coasts, a stranger, upon entering the cottages
of the natives, is often surprised to see the
roof swarming with serpents, that cling there
without molesting, and unmolested by the
natives. But his surprise will increase upon
going farther southward to the kingdom of
Widah, when he finds that a serpent is the
god of the country. This animal, which
travellers describe as a huge overgrown crea-
ture, has its habitation, its temple, and its
priests. These impress the vulgar with an
opinion of its virtues ; and numbers are daily
seen to offer not only their goods, their pro-
visions, and their prayers, at the shrine of
seeing a number of serpents keep exact time with the
dervishes in their circulating dances, running over their
heads and arms, turning when they turned, and stopping
when they stopped.
The rattle snake acknowledges the power of music as
much as any of his family ; of which the following in-
stance is a decisive proof. When Chateaubriand was
in Canada, a snake of this species entered their encamp-
ment ; a young Canadian, one of the party who could
play on the flute, to divert his associates, advanced
against the serpent with his new species of weapon.
" On the approach of his enemy, the haughty reptile
curled himself into a spiral line, flattened his head,
inflated his cheeks, contracted his lips, displayed his
envenomed fangs, and his bloody throat ; his double
tongue glowed like two flames of fire ; his eyes were
burning coals ; his body, awoln with rage, rose and fell
like the bellows of a forge ; his dilated skin assumed a
dull and scaly appearance, and his tail, which sounded
the denunciation of death, vibrated with so great rapidity,
as to resemble a light vapour. The Canadian now began
to play upon his flute ; the serpent started with surprise,
and drew back his head. In proportion as he was struck
with the magic effect, his eyes lost their fierceness, the
oscillations of his tail became slower, and the sound
which it emitted became weaker, and gradually died
away. Less perpendicular upon their spiral line, the
rings of the fascinated serpent were by degrees expanded,
and sunk one aftrr another upon the ground in concen-
tric circles. The shades of azure green, white, and
gold, recovered their brilliancy on his quivering skin,
and slightly turning his head, he remained motionless in
the attitude oi attention and pleasure. At this moment
the Canadian advanced a few steps, producing with his
flute sweet and simple notes. The reptile inclining his
variegated neck, opened a passage with his head through
the high grass, and began to creep after the musician,
stopping when he stopped, and beginning to follow -him
again as soon as he moved froward." In this manner
he was led out of the camp, attended by a great number
of spectators, both savages and Europeans, who could
scarcely believe their eyes, when they beheld this won-
derful effect of harmony. The assembly unanimously
decreed, that the serpent which had so highly entertained
them, should be permitted to escape. — Natural ffiflory
of the Bible.
416
HISTORY OF FROGS, LIZARDS, AND SERPENTS.
their hideous deity, but also their wives and
daughters. — These the priests readily accept
of, and after some days of penance, return
them to their suppliants, much benefited by
the serpent's supposed embraces. Such a
complicated picture of ignorance and imposture
gives no very favourable impressions of our
fellow-creatures; but \ve may say, in defence
of human nature, that the most frightful of
reptiles is worshipped by the most uncultivated
and barbarous of mankind.
From this general picture of the serpent
tribe, one great distinction obviously presents
itself ; namely, into those that are venomous,
and those that are wholly destitute of poison.
To the first belong the viper, the rattle-snake,
the cobra di capello, and all their affinities ;
to the other, the common black snake, the
liboya, the boiguacu, the amphisbaena, and
various others, that, though destitute of venom,
do not cease to be formidable. I will, there-
fore, give their history separately, beginning
with the venomous class, as they have the
strongest claims to our notice and attention.
CHAP. II.
OF VENOMOUS SERPENTS IN GENERAL.
THE poison of serpents has been for ages
one of the greatest objects of human considera-
tion. To us, who seldom feel the vengeful
wound, it is merely a subject of curiosity ; but
to those placed in the midst of the serpent
tribe, who are every day exposed to some new
disaster, it becomes a matter of the most serious
importance. To remedy the bite of a serpent
is considered, among our physicians, as one
of the slightest operations in medicine : but
among the physicians of the East, the antidotes
for this calamity make up the bulk of their
dispensaries. In our colder climates, the
venom does not appear with that instantaneous
operation which it exhibits in the warmer
regions ; for either its powers are less exquisite,
or our fluids are not carried round in such
rapid circulation.
In all countries, however, the poison of the
serpent is sufficiently formidable to deserve
notice, and to excite our attention to its nature
and effects. It will, therefore, in the firs!
place, be proper to describe its seat in the ani-
mal, as also the instrument by which the
wound is made, and the poison injected. In
all this venomous class of reptiles, whether
the viper, the rattle-snake, or the cobra di
capello, there are two large teeth or fang
that issue from the upper jaw, and that hang
out beyond the lower. The rest of the snake
tribe are destitute of these ; and it is most
probable that wherever these fangs are want-
ng, the animal "is harmless ; on the contrary,
wherever they are found it is to be avoided as
he most pestilent enemy. These are the
nstruments that seem to place the true dis-
inction between animals of the serpent kind ;
he wounds which these fangs inflict produce
he most dangerous symptoms ; the wounds
nflicted by the teeth only are attended with
nothing more than the ordinary consequences
ttending the bite of any other animal. Our
irst great attention, therefore, upon seeing a
serpent, should be directed to the teeth. If
it has the fang teeth, it is to be placed among
:he venomous class ; if it wants them, it may
oe set down as inoffensive. I am not igno-
rant that many serpents are said to be danger-
ous whose jaws are unfurnished with fangs ;
but it is most probable that our terrors only
have furnished these animals with venom ; for
of all the tribe whose teeth are thus formed,
not one will be found to have a bag for con-
taining poison, nor a conduit for injecting it
into the wound. The Black Snake, the
Liboya, the Blind Worm, and a hundred
others that might be mentioned, have their
teeth of an equal size, fixed into the jaws, and
with no other apparatus for inflicting a danger-
ous wound than a dog or a lizard : but it is
otherwise with the venomous tribe we are now-
describing- ; these are well furnished, not onl}
with an elaboratory where the poison is formed,
but a canal by which it is conducted to the
jaw, a bag under the tooth for keeping it
ready for every occasion, and also an aperture
in the tooth itself for injecting it into the
wound. To be more particular : the glands
that serve to fabricate this venomous fluid are
situated on each side of the head behind the
eyes, and have their canals leading from thence
to the bottom of the fangs in the upper jaw,
where they enter into a kind of bladder, from
whence the fangs on each side are seen to grow.
The venom contained in this bladder is a
yellowish thick tasteless liquor, which injected
into the blood is death, yet which may be
swallowed without any danger.
The fangs that give the wound come next
under observation ; they are large in propor-
tion to the size of the animal that bears them ;
crooked, yet sharp enough to inflict a ready
wound. They grow one on each side, and
sometimes two, from two movable bones in
the upper jaw, which by sliding backward or
forward, have a power of erecting or depress-
ing the teeth at pleasure. In these bones are
also fixed many teeth, but no way venomous,
and only serving to take and hold the animal's
prey. Besides this apt disposition of the
fangs, they are hollow within and have an
opening towards the point, like the slit of a
pen, through which, when the fang is pressed
THE SERPENT.
417
down upon Cue bladder where it grows, there
is seen to issue a part of the venom that lay
below. To describe this operation at once :
•when the serpent is irritated to give a venom-
ous wound, it opens its formidable jaws to the
widest extent ; the movable bones of the up-
per jaw slide forward ; the fangs that lay before
inclining are thus erected; they are struck with
force into the flesh of the obnoxious person ; by
meeting resistance at the points, they press upon
the bladders of venom from whence they grow;
the venom issues up through the hollow of the
tooth, and is pressed out through its slit into
the wound, which by this time the tooth has
made in the skin. Thus from a slight punc-
ture, and the infusion of a drop of venom
scarcely larger than the head of a pin, the
part is quickly inflamed, and, without a pro-
per antidote, the whole frame contaminated.
The appearance which this venom produces
is different, according to the serpent that
wounds, or the season, or the strength of the
animal that strikes the blow. If a viper
inflicts the wound, and the remedy be ne-
glected, the symptoms are not without danger.
It first causes an acute pain in the place af-
fected, attended with a swelling, first red,
and afterwards livid. This by degrees spreads
to the neighbouring parts; great faintness,
. and a quick, though low and interrupted,
pulse ensues ; to this succeed great sickness at
the stomach, bilious and convulsive vomitings,
cold sweats, pains about the navel, and death
itself. But the violence of these symptoms
depends much on the season of the year, the
difference of the climate, the size or rage of
the animal, and the depth and situation of the
wound. These symptoms are much more
violent, and succeed each other more rapidly,
after the bite of a rattle-snake ; but when the
person is bit by the cobra di capello,he dies
in an hour, his whole frame being dissolved
into a putrid mass of corruption .
Nothing surely can more justly excite our
wonder, than that so small a quantity of venom
should produce such powerful and deadly
effects. If the venom itself be examined
through a microscope, it will be found to shoot
into little crystals, that, to an imagination
already impressed with its potency, look like
so many darts fit for entering the blood-vessels,
and wounding their tender coats. But all
these darts are wholly of our own making : tlie
softest, mildest fluid whatever, possessed of any
consistency, will form crystals under the eye of
the microscope, and put on an appearance ex-
actly like the venom of the viper. In fart, this
venom has no acrid taste whatever ; and to all
experiments that our senses can make upon
it, appears a slimy insipid fluid. C haras,
who oi'ten tasted it, assures us of the fact; and
asserts, that it maybe taken inwardly without
any sensible effects, or any prejudice to the
constitution. But the famous experiments that
were tried by Rhedi and others in the pre-
sence of the Great Duke of_Tuscany and his
court, put this beyond any doubt whatsoever.
By these it appeared, that the serpent having
once bitten exhausted for that time the greatest
part of its poison : and though the wound caused
by its biting a second time was attended with
some malignant symptoms, yet they were
much milder than before. It appeared that
the serpent biting upon a sponge, or a piece of
soft bread, and then biting a dog immediately
after, did not inflict a wound more dangerous
than the prick of a needle. It appeared that
the venom being collected, and a needle dip-
ped therein, this produced almost as painful
effects as the tooth of the animal itself. But
what caused the greatest surprise in the court
was, the seeming rashness of one Tozzi, a vi-
per-catcher; who while the philosophers were
giving elaborate lectures on the danger of the
poison when taken internally, boldly desired
a large quantity of it might be put together;
and then, with the utmost confidence, drank i<
off before them all. The court was struck
with astonishment, and expected that the man
would instantly fall dead ; but they soon per-
ceived their mistake, and found that taken in
this manner, the poison was as harmless as
water; so true is that famous passage of Lu-
can,
Noxia serpentum est admixto sanguine pestis :
Morsu virus habent, et fatum in dente minimi ur:
Focula morte carent.
What then shall we say to the speedy et'
feet of so seemingly harmless a liquid taken
into the circulation ? Let us first observe, that
milk is one of the most mild and nourishing of
all fluids, and seemingly the most friendly to
the human constitution ; yet if milk be injec-
ted into a vein, it will quickly become fatal,
and kill with more certain destruction than
even the venom of the viper. From hence
then we may infer, that the introducing not
only the serpentine venom, but also a quantity
of any other mixture, into the circulation, will
be fatal; and that, consequently, serpents kill
as well by their power of injecting the wound
as by the potency of their poison. Some in-
deed may inject a more acrimonious mixture,
and this may produce more speedy effects ; but
any mixture thus injected would be danger-
ous, and many would be fatal.
Ray gives us an inslance of the potency of
the serpent-poison ; which, though it has all
the air of a fable, I cannot help transcribing.
" A gentleman who went over to the East
Indies, while he was one day sitting among
some friends, was accosted by an Indian jug-
gler, who offered to show him some experi-
ments respecting the venom of serpents; an ex-
3 Q
418
HISTORY OF FROGS, LIZARDS, AND SERPENTS.
hibition usual enough in that country. Hav-
ing first, therefore, produced a large serpent,
he assured the company that it was harmless;
and to convince them of what he said, he tied
up his arm, as is usual with those who are
going to be bled, and whipped the serpent till
it was provoked to bite him. Having drawn in
this manner about half a spoonful of blood from
his arm, he put the congealed clot upon his
thigh. He then took out a much smaller ser-
pent, which was no other than the cobra dica-
pello ; and having tied up his neck, he procured
about half a drop of its venom , which he sprink-
led on the clot of blood on his thigh, which
instantly began to ferment and bubble, and
soon changed colour from a red into a yellow."
This he pretended was caused by the ex-
treme malignity of that animal's venom : how-
ever, I have no doubt that the whole is either
a fable, or a trick of the Indian ; who, while
be seemed to mix the serpent's venom, actually
infused some stronger ingredient, some mineral
acid, into the mass of blood, which was capa-
ble of working such a change. It cannot be
supposed that any animal poison could act so
powerfully upon the blood already drawn and
coagulated ; for a poison that could operate
thus instantaneously upon cold blood, could not
fail of soon destroying the animal itself.
Be this as it will, the effects of serpent-poi-
son are but too well known, though the man-
ner of operation be not so clear. As none of
this malignant tribe grow to a great size, the
longest of them not exceeding nine feet, they
seldom seek the combat with larger animals,
or offend others till they are first offended. Did
they exert their malignity in proportion to their
power, they could easily drive the ranks of
Nature before them; but they seem uncon-
scious of their own superiority, and rather fly
than offer to meet the meanest opposer. Their
food chiefly consists of small prey, such as
birds, moles, toads, and lizards; so that they
never attack the more formidable animals, that
would seldom die unrevenged. They lurk
therefore in the clefts of rocks, or among stony
places; they twine round the branches of trees,
or sun themselves in the long grass at the bot-
tom. There they only seek repose and safety.
If some umvary traveller invades their retreats,
their first effort is to fly ; but when either pur-
sued or accidentally trod upon, they then make
a fierce and fatal resistance. For this purpose
they raise themselves according to their strength
upon their tail, erect the head, seize the limb
that presses them, the wound is given, and the
head withdrawn in a moment. It is not there-
fore without reason, that the Asiatics, who live
in regions where serpents greatly abound, wear
boots and long clothes, which very well pro-
tect their lower parts from the accidental re-
sentment of their reptile annoyers.
Tn the eastern and western Indies, the
numbers of noxious serpents are various ;
in this country we are acquainted only with
one.1 The viper is the only animal in Great
Britain from whose bite we have any thing
to fear. In the tropical climates, the rattle-
snake, the whip-snake, and the cobra di capello,
are the most formidable, though by no means
the most common, From the general notori
ety of those particular serpents, and the uni-
versal terror which they occasion, it would
seem that few others are possessed of such
powerful malignity.
Vipers are found in many parts of this island ;
but the dry, stony, and particularly the chalky
countries, abound with them.8 This animal
1 It is a curious fact, that since the introduction of
sheep farming into the Highlands of Scotland, the num-
ber of vipers has greatly diminished there. This is owing
to the flocks of sheep trampling them to death as they go
along. Formerly the viper used to be very destructive
to cattle, by biting them in the udder as they lay down:
from this the sheep are protected by their wool.
8 Common Viper or Adder. — The Common Viper is
happily the sole British representative cf any of the
poisonous groups of Serpents, and indued the only poison-
ous reptile indigenous to this country. It is far more
numerous in Scotland than the Common Snake, and is
found in abundance in all parts of England and Wales,
frequenting heaths, dry woods, and banks. In Ireland
it has never been seen; and it may, almost with cer-
tainty, be stated that it does not exist there. On the
continent of Europe it is extensively distributed, being
found from the northern parts of Russia to the south of
Italy and Spain. It is everywhere deservedly feared on
account of its venom, which, although less virulent than
that of many other species, is yet sufficiently so to pro-
duce severe symptoms, and sometimes, in the warmer
climates, even fatal results. In this country I have
never seen a case which terminated in death, nor have
I been able to trace to an authentic source any of the
numerous reports of such a termination, which have at
various times been confidently promulgated. At the
same time the symptoms are frequently so threatening,
that I cannot hut conclude that in very hot weather, and
when not only the reptile is in full activity and power,
but the constitution of the victim in a state of great
irritability and diminished power, a bite from the Com-
mon Viper would very probably prove fatal. The reme-
dies usually employed are the external application of
oil, and the internal administration of ammonia.
The poisonous fluid is perfectly innocuous when swal-
lowed. Dr Mead, and others, have made this experi-
ment, and never experienced the slightest ill eliects from
it. It is, however, clear that there would be danger in
swallowing it, were any part of the mouth, the throat, or
the oesophagus, in a state of ulceration, or having an
abraded surface.
It will not perhaps he wholly uninteresting to des-
cribe briefly the very beautiful apparatus by which the
poison wounds are inflicted, which render these, and so
many other serpents, so formidable. On each side of
THE SERPENT.
419
seldom grows to a greater length than two
feet ; though sometimes they are found above
three. The ground colour of their bodies is a
dirty yellow ; that of the female is deeper.
The back is marked the whole length with a
series of rhomboid black spots, touching each
other at the points ; the sides with triangular
ones ; the belly entirely black. It is chiefly
distinguished from the common black snake by
the colour, which in the latter is more beauti-
the upper jaw, instead of the, outer row of teeth which
are found, in nonvenomous serpents, there exist two or
three, or more, long, curved, and tubular teeth, the first
of which is larger than the others, and is attached to a
small movable bone, articulated to the maxillary bone,
and moved by a muscular apparatus, by which the ani-
mal has the power of erecting it. In a state of rest the
fang reclines backwards along the margin of the jaw, and
is covered by a fold of skin ; but when about to be called
into use, it is erected by means of a small muscle, and
brought to stand perpendicular to the bone. The tooth
itself is as it were perforated by a tube, the mode of for-
mation of which was not understood until it was demon-
strated by Mr Smith in the Philosophical Transactions
for 1818. This tube, although completely enclosed, ex-
cepting at its basal and apical orifices, must be considered
as formed merely by the closing round of a groove in the
external part of the tooth itself, and hence not in any
way connected with the inner cavity of the tooth, in
which exists the pulp upon which the substance of the
tooth is formed. The base of the tooth, and conse-
quently the basal orifice of the tube just described, is
embedded in a sac, into which the poison is poured from
the ducts of the glandular structure by which it is
secreted, and which is believed to represent the parotid
gland of the higher vertebrata. The poisonous fluid itself
is inodorous, tasteless, and of a yellow colour. It is
secreted in greater quantity, and its qualities are more
virulent in a high temperature than in cold. Its secre-
tion may be greatly increased by local irritation; as is
evidenced by the following fact. Some years since I
was dissecting very carefully and minutely the poison
apparatus of a large rattlesnake, which had been dead
for some hours ; the head had been taken off" immediately
after death ; yet as I continued my dissection the yellow
poison continued to be secreted so fast as to require to be
occasionally dried off with a bit of rag or sponge ; I
believe that there could not have been less altogether
than six or eight drops at the least.
When the animal inflicts the wound, the pressure on
the tooth forces a small drop of the poison through the
tube ; it passes through the external orifice, which is
situated on the concave side of the curved tooth, and is
in the form of a slit. The manner in which the blow is
inflicted is as follows. The animal generally throws
itself in the first place into a coil more or less close, and
Ihe anterior part of the body is raised. The neck is bent
somewhat abruptly backwards, and the head fixed almost
horizontally. In an instant the head is, as it were,
launched by a sudden effort towards the object of its
anger, and the erected tooth struck into it, and withdrawn
with the velocity of thought. It is found by experi-
ment that the effect of subsequent wounds is greatly di-
minished either by the diminution of the quantity of
venom, or by some deterioration of its strength ; so that
if a venomous serpent be made repeatedly to inflict
wounds, without allowing sufficiently long intervals for
it to recover its powers, each successive bite becomes
less and less effective. A gentleman of my acquaint-
ance had some years since received a living rattlesnake
from America. Intending to try the effects of its bite
upon some rats, he introduced one of these animals into
fully mottled, as well as by the head, which is
thicker than the body ; but particularly by the
tail, which in the viper, though it ends in a
point, does not run tapering to so great a length
as in the other. When, therefore, other dis-
tinctions fail, the difference of the tail can be
discerned at a single glance.
The viper differs from most other serpents
in being much slower, as also in excluding its
young completely formed, and bringing them
the cage with the serpent ; it immediately struck the
rat, which died in two minutes. Another rat was then
placed in the cage ; it ran to the part of the cage furthest
from the serpent, uttering cries of distress. The snake
did not immediately attack it ; but after about half an hour,
and on being irritated, it struck the rat, which did not
exhibit any symptoms of being poisoned for several min-
utes, and died at twenty minutes after the bite. A third,
and remarkably large rat, was then introduced into the
cage. It exhibited no signs of terror at its dangerous
companion, which, on its part, appeared to take no notice
of the rat. After watching for the rest of the evening,
my friend retired, leaving the serpent and the rat toge-
ther ; and on rising early the next morning to ascertain
the fate of his two heterogeneous prisoners, he found the
snake dead, and the muscular part of its back eaten by
the rat. I do not remember at what time of the year
this circumstance took place, but I believe it was not du-
ring very hot weather.
Although there is no reason to believe that the viper
employs this powerful means of destruction for the pur-
pose of disabling its prey before it is finally seized ; but,
on the contrary, all the observations which have been
made upon its mode of feeding, tend to show that, like
the snake, it seizes its prey at once, and immediately
begins to swallow it; yet it is not at all improbable, con-
sidering how instantaneously the poison begins to affect
small animals, that even in the act of seizing a mouse or
bird, or any other victim, it may instil a sufficient quan-
tity of venom into its system to paralyze and presently
destroy it. Still the action by which it takes its
prey is very different from that which it employs in
its defensive attack, and resembles that employed by the
innocuous tribes. Its favourite food consists of the
smaller mammalia, field-mice, shrews, and similar
little animals, of frogs also, though less commonly, and
occasionally of birds. It does not always confine its vo-
racity within the limits of its powers of deglutition ; for
I have in my possession a specimen of a small viper
which was taken on Poole Heath in Dorsetshire, in a
dying state, in the act of attempting to swallow a mouse
which was too large for it, the skin of the neck being so
distended as to have burst in several places.
The viper, like the other reptilia, seeks a secret and
secure place in which to hibernate during the cold months
of the year. Here several are found entwined together,
and in a very torpid condition ; and if at this period a
viper be made to wound an animal with its poison-fang,
no injury is likely to result from it ; the poison either
does not exist at all, or it is inert.
It frequents dry sandy heaths and waste places, not re-
quiring, like the snake, the neighbourhood of water, nor
swimming so readily as that species. In many parts of
the country it is even more common than the snake.
The name Adder, by which it is known in many parts
of England and Scotland, is anciently written nedre, and
afterwards eddre, the initial » being dropped. It is from
the Anglo Saxon ntedre, — neither, lower, — from its
creeping position, and the name was applied to all the
Serpent tribe. The word Viper, Latin Vipera, is de-
rived from its viviparous habit. — Bell's British Rep-
tiles.
420
HISTORY OF FROGS, LIZARDS, AND SERPENTS.
forth alive. The kindness of Providence
seems exerted, not only in diminishing the
speed, but also the fertility, of this dangerous
creature. They copulate in May, and are
supposed to be about three months before they
bring forth, and have seldom above eleven eggs
at a time. These are of the si/e of a black-
bird's egg, and chained together in the womb
like a string of beads. Each egg contains from
one to four young ones ; so that the whole of a
brood may amount to about twenty or thirty.
They continue in the womb till they come to
such perfection as to be able to burst from their
shell ; and they are said by their own efforts
to creep from their confinement into the open
air, where they continue for several days with-
out taking any food whatsoever. " We have
been assured," says Mr Pennant, " by intelli-
gent people, of the truth of a fact, that the
young of the viper, when terrified, will run
down the throat of the parent and seek shelter
in its belly, in the same manner as the young of
the opossum retire into the ventral pouch of the
old ones. From this," continues he, " some have
imagined, that the viper is so unnatural as to
devour its own young ; but this deserves no
credit, as these animals live upon frogs, toads,
lizards, and young birds, which they often
swallow whole, though the morsel is often
three times as thick as their own body."
The viper is capable of supporting very long
abstinence, it being known that some have
been kept in a box six months without food ;
yet during the whole time they did not abate
of their vivacity. They feed only a small part
of the year, but never during their confine-
ment; for if mice, their favourite diet, should
at that time be thrown into their box, though
they will kill, yet they will never eat them.
When at liberty, they remain torpid through,
out the winter ; yet, when confined, have never
been observed to take their annual repose.
Their poison, however, decreases in proportion
to the length of their confinement; and it is
thought that the virtues of the animal's flesh,
are, by the same restraints, considerably les-
sened.
They are usually taken with wooden tongs,
by the end of the tail, which may be done
without danger; for, while held in that posi-
tion, they are unable to wind themselves up
to hurt their enemy : yet, notwithstanding this
precaution, the viper-catchers are frequently
bit by them ; but, by the application of salad
oil, the bite is effectually cured.
One William Oliver, a viper-catcher at
Bath, was the first who discovered this admir-
able remedy. On the first of June, 1735, in
the presence of a great number of persons, he
suffered himself to be bit by an old black vi-
per, (brought by one of the company,) upon
the wrist and joint of the thumb of the right
hand, so that drops of blood came out of Ibe
wounds: he immediately felt a violent pain,
both at the top of his thumb and up his arm,
even before the viper was loosened from his
hand; soon after he felt a pain, resembling
that of burning, trickle up his arm ; in a few
minutes his eyes began to look red and fiery,
and to water much ; in less than an hour he
perceived the venom seize his heart, with a
pricking pain, which was attended with faint-
ness, shortness of breath, and cold sweats; in
a few minutes after this, his belly began to
swell, with great gripings, and pains in his
back, which were attended with vomitings and
purgings: during the violence of these symp-
toms, his sight was gone for several minutes,
but he could hear all the while. He said, that
in his former experiments he had never deferred
making use of his remedy longer than he per-
ceived the effects of the venom reaching his
heart ; but this time, being willing to satisfy
the company thoroughly, and trusting to the
speedy effects of his remedy, which was noth-
ing more than olive-oil, he forbore to apply any
thing till he found himself exceeding ill arid
quite giddy. About an hour and a quarter
after the first of his being bit, a chafing dish
of glowing charcoal was brought in, and his
naked arm was held over it, as near as he could
bear, while his wife rubbed in the oil with her
hand, turning his arm continually round, as if
she would have roasted it over the coals: he
said the poison soon abated, but the swelling
did not diminish much. Most violent purgings
and vomitings soon ensued ; and his pulse be-
came so low, and so often interrupted, that it
was thought proper to order him a repetition
of cordial potions : he said he was not sensible
of any great relief from these ; but that a glass
or two of olive-oil drank down, seemed to give
him ease. Continuing in this dangerous con-
dition, he was put to bed, where his arm was
again bathed over a pan of charcoal , and rub-
bed with salad oil, heated in a ladle over the
charcoal, by Dr Mortimer's direction, who was
the physician that drew up the account. From
this last operation he declared that he found
immediate ease, as though by some charm : he
soon after fell into a profound sleep, and, after
about nine hours' sound rest, awaked about six
the next morning, and found himself very well ;
but in the afternoon, on drinking some rum
and strong beer, so as to be almost intoxicated,
the swelling returned, with much pain and cold
sweats, which abated soon, on bathing the arm,
as before, and wrapping it up in brown paper
soaked in the oil.'
1 The treatment for the bite of the viper has been very
well indicated by Celsus in his treatise of medicine, and
it merits some attention, especially as naturalists are fre-
quently expnced to accidents from this reptile. The fir^t
precaution to be observed in a case of this kind, is, when
THE SERPENT.
421
Such are the effects of the viper's bite ; yet
its llesh has long been celebrated as a noble
medicine. A broth, made by boiling one
viper in a quart of water till it comes to a
pint, is the usual method in which it is given
at present ; and it is said to be a very power-
ful restorative in battered constitutions ; the
salt of vipers is also thought to exceed any
other animal salt whatever, in giving vigour
to the languid circulation, and prompting to
venery.
The Rattle-snake is bred in America, and
in no part of the old world. Some are as
thick as a man's leg, and six feet in length ;
but the most usual size is from four to five
feet long. In most particulars it resembles
the viper ; like that animal having a large
head and a small neck, being of a dusky
colour, and furnished with fangs that inflict
the most terrible wounds. It differs, however,
in having a .large scale, which hangs like a
pent-house over each eye. The eye also is
furnished with a nictitating membrane, that
preserves it from dust ; and its scales are of a
considerable degree of hardness. They are
of an orange, tawny, and blackish colour on
the back ; and of an ash-colour on the belly,
inclining to lead. The male may be readily
distinguished from the female, by a black
velvet spot on the head, and by the head being
smaller and longer. But that which, besides
their superior malignity, distinguishes them
the disposition of the parts will permit, to fix a ligature
above the wounded place, and not to tighten it too much,
for fear of giving rise to mortification. Immediately
after, a cupping-glass is applied on the wound, the parts
adjacent being first scarified, and tliis mode, highly
praised by Celsus, has very recently been attended with
happy results in the hands of Messrs Mangili, Barry, and
Bouillaud. This method, from analogy, affords an addi-
tional recommendation, to employ the plan of suction,
which has received the further confirmation of profes-
sional experiments tried by a number of physiologists and
physicians. When the cupping-glass has performed its
office, the lips of the wound, already scarified, should be
cauterized deeply and extensively. This should be done
with a red-hot iron, chlorine of antimony, or concreted
potassium. A variety of different substances, taken in-
ternally, has been lauded from time to time as efficacious
against the bite of the viper. Sndoi ifics have been espe-
cially recommended, and among them the flesh of the
lizard, of the coluber, and the viper itself, have been
preferred, in consequence of the great quantity of am-
monia which it lias been ascertained to contain. An
alexipharmic virtue of the same kind has been also attri-
buted to theriaca and other analogous electuaries.
The Cherscea (Swedish viper, Shaw) is common in the
environs of Upsal, in Sweden: also in Smaland, Scania,
and Pomerania, where it retires into thickets, under
hedges, and to the foot of tufted trees. It is sometimes
seen in Prussia, Poland, Denmark, and in the Pyrenees.
In Sweden it is known under the name of oesping, which
seems evidently a corruption of aspic, and it has been
sometimes called the red tiper. It is erroneously loca-
ted by Linnaeus, Wolf, and Laurenti, in the genus colu-
ber. Its resemblance to the common viper is very strik-
ing. The chersa;a of Sweden is a small reptile, about
from all other animals, is their rattle, an in-
strument lodged in their tail, by which they
make such a loud rattling noise, when they
move, that their approach may readily be per-
ceived, and the danger avoided. This rattle,
which is placed in the tail, somewhat resem-
bles, when taken out of the body, the curb-
chain of a bridle : it is composed of several
thin, hard, hollow bones, linked to each other,
and rattling upon the slightest motion. It is
supposed by some that the snake acquires an
additional bone every year ; and that, from
hence, its age may be precisely known : how-
ever this may be, certain it is, that the young
snakes, of a year or two old, have no rattles
at all : while many old ones have been killed,
that had from eleven to thirteen joints each.
Tliey shake and make a noise with these rattles
with prodigious quickness, when they are
disturbed : however, the peccary and the
vulture are no way terrified at the sound, but
hasten, at the signal, to seize the snake, as
their most favourite prey.
It is very different with almost every other
animal. The certain death which ensues from
this terrible creature's bite, makes a solitude
wherever it is heard. It moves along with
the. most majestic rapidity;1 neither seeking
to offend the larger animals, nor fearing their
insults. If unprovoked, it never meddles
with any , thing but its natural prey ; but
when accidentally trod upon, or pursued to be
six inches long, and as thii-k as one's little finger. That
of Switzerland and France differs from it much both in
size and number of plates. Herpetologists, however, ad-
mit the identity of these animals, and make but one spe-
cies of them. Be this as it may, the Swedish viper is a
reptile of the mo-t dangerous kind. Its bite is often mortal,
and its deleterious eliects are manifested with greater ra-
pidity than those which follow from the bite of the com-
mon viper.
The Ammodytet is a native of all the south of Europe.
It is found in Dauphine, and in the neighbourhood of
Lyons in France, and in the east of- Europe, in the
mountains of Illyria. It habitually frequents the rocks
which border on the Danube, the neighbourhood of the
city of Gorice and the Japirlian mountains. This reptile
passes the winter concealed in clefts and crevices of rocks,
from which it issues forth when the warmer rays of the
sun announce the return of spring. Then it casts its
skin, and the time of reproduction begins. Its habilinil
food differs in nothing from that of the common viper,
and its bite is not less dangerous.
The Cerastes has received its name from the Greek
word xi?<*s, in consequence of the eminences which sur-
round its eyes, and which, from the most ancient times,
have been erroneously compared to the horns of mammi-
fercus animals. Shunning humid and marshy situations,
it is found only in the burning and arid sands of Egypt,
Arabia, and Syria — sands in which it remains concealed
during the entire day, and notwithstanding its great agi-
lity, it waits patiently until some victim presents itself to
its insatiable voracity. It sometimes in this way gets
possession of the jerboa, whose hole, according to Bruce,
is very often contiguous to its own.
1 This is an error-, the movements of the raf.tle-suake
are extremely sluggish.
422
HISTORY OF FROGS, LIZARDS, AND SERPENTS.
destroyed, it then makes a dreadful and des-
perate defence. It erects itself upon its tail,
throws back its head, and inflicts its wound
in a moment ; then parts and inflicts a second
wound : after which, we are told by some,
that it remains torpid and inactive, without
even attempting to escape.
The very instant the wound is inflicted,
though small in itself, it appears more painful
than the sting of a bee. This pain, which is
so suddenly felt, far from abating, grows
every moment more excruciating and dan-
gerous : the limb swells ; the venom reaches
the head, which is soon of a monstrous size ;
the eyes are red and fiery ; the heart beats
quick, with frequent interruptions ; the pain
becomes insupportable, and some expire under
it in five or six hours ; but others, who are of
stronger constitutions, survive the agony for a
few hours longer, only to sink under a general
mortification, which ensues, and corrupts the
whole body.1
1 Death by the bite of a Rattle-snake. — At the meet-
ing of the Academy of Sciences of France on the 9th of
April, 1827, some documents were presented by M. Du-
merel, connected with the death of Mr Drake by the bite
of a rattle-snake, forming part of a collection of reptiles
which that person had exhibited at London, and had
taken to France for the same purpose. These docu-
ments were transmitted to the Academy by the Minister
of the Interior ; and seem to have excited fears in some
of the members, lest, the climate of France being favour-
able, some of these dangerous reptiles might escape and
propagate.
From these documents it appears, that Mr Drake
arrived at an inn in Rouen on the 8th of February, with
three live rattle-snakes and some young crocodiles, and
that, notwithstanding his care to preserve them from
cold on the road, he saw with grief on his arrival that the
finest of the three was dead. The dead animal was
removed from the cage, and the cage itself, with the
other two, were taken into the dining-room, and placed
near the stove. Here Mr Drake endeavoured to rouse
them with a stick ; but, perceiving that one of the two
gave no signs of animation, he opened the cage, took the
serpent by the head and tail, and approaching a window
to ascertain by handling if life was extinct, the animal
turned its head half round, and fixed one of its fangs in
the posterior external part of the left hand. Mr Drake
shrieked, pronounced some words in English, according
to the report, and was replacing the serpent in the cage,
when it again bit him on the palm of the same hand.
Mr Drake now ran out into the court calling eagerly for
a surgeon : and, not finding water readily, rubbed his
hand upon some ice, which he found at the door. Two
minutes after, having procured a cord, he himself made
a ligature on the arm above the hand. Notwithstanding
these precautions, his agitation from the fear of the con-
sequences continued to increase till the arrival of Dr
Pihorel. The presence of this gentleman somewhat
composed the feelings of Mr Drake ; and he saw with
eager joy the chafing-dish and irons arrive, with which
the wounds were to be cauterized. This operation was
instantly performed, and the patient took internally half
a glassful of olive oil. Drake seemed now to have re-
sumed his tranquillity. But in a few minutes more
symptoms made their appearance which rendered the
case hopeless, and he died in eight hours and three
quarters after the biles.
As a gentleman in Virginia was walking
in the fields for his amusement, he accidentlj
trod upon a rattle-snake, that had been lurk-
ing in a stony place ; which, enraged by the
pressure, reared up, bit his hand, and shook
its rattles. The gentleman readily perceived
that he was in the most dreadful danger ; but,
unwilling to die unrevenged, he killed the
snake, and carrying it home in his hand,
threw it on the ground before his family, cry-
ing out, " I am killed, and there is my
murderer." In such an extremity, the speed-
iest remedies were the best. His arm, which
was beginning to swell, was tied up near the
shoulder, the wound was anointed with oil,
and every precaution taken to stop the infec-
tion. By the help of a very strong constitu-
tion he recovered ; but not without feeling-
the most various and dreadful symptoms for
several weeks together. His arm, bel^w the
ligature, appeared of several colours, with a
writhing among the muscles, that, to his
The body was afterwards opened. The internal
organs appeared healthy ; the brain and spinal cord were
unaltered. The membrane which covered these parts,
however, was observed to have a reddish tinge. The
veins presented no trace of inflammation ; and the only
appearance of derangement in the system, consisted in
the veins of the aflected side having the blood curdled or
clotted.
In a curious memoir on the habits of the rattle-snake,
read by M. Audubon at the Wernerian Society, that
gentleman mentioned a circumstance which tends to
show that the poisonous fangs of this reptile, even when
withdrawn from the animal, retain their virulence for
years. A person had been bitten by a rattle-snake in
the wood, through a strong boot. He died without the
cause of his death being properly investigated. The
boots descended to his son, who, after putting them on,
was taken suddenly ill, and also died. The eflects of
this last were brought to sale ; and a younger brother
fancying the boots, or willing to preserve some memorial
of his father and brother, was the purchaser. He used
them only once, when he also fell ill and died. The
medical men, whom such an occurrence had led to
investigate its cause, at last ripped up the fatal boot, and
found, firmly fixed in the substance of the leather, the
fang of the rattle-snake, which had thus caused the death
of three individuals. Rattle-snakes, M. Audubon
further observed, are often found coiled up and torpid
when the temperature is low ; and he himself once nar-
rowly .escaped from perhaps a serious accident, in trust-
ing to their continued torpidity. He had found an ex-
cellent specimen coiled up and torpid, which he put in
his knapsack along with some wild ducks which he had
shot. The motion and heat of his body, together with
the additional heat afforded by a sportsman's fire at a
repast in the woods, had, however, revived the animal ;
and the motions of his knapsack, observed from the out-
side, indicated life within. M. Audubon at first thought
that some of his ducks, imperfectly killed, had found
their situation irksome, and were testifying their im-
patience ; but the recollection of the rattle-snake flash-
ing at once on his mind, he threw off his bag, duck, and
reptile, altogether. The removal of the animal to a
colder temperature brought on again its torpidity. Hu
carried the snake home; and the identical specimen, if w«
rightly understood him, is now in the Museum of the Ly
ceum of Natural History of New York. — Drewster't Jour
THE SERPENT.
423
terrified imagination, appeared like the mo-
dons of the animal that wounded him. A
fever ensued ; the loss of his hair, giddi-
ness, drought, weakness, and nervous faint-
ings ; till, by slow degrees, a very strong
habit overpowered the latent malignity of the
poison.
Several remedies have been tried to alleviate
this calamity. A decoction of the Virginian
snake-root is considered as the most effectual ;
and at the same time the head of the animal,
bruised and laid upon, the part affected, is
thought to assist the cure. In general, how-
ever, it is found to be fatal : and the Indians,
sensible of this, take care to dip their arrows
in the poison under the rattle-snake's fangs,
when they desire to take a signal revenge of
their enemies.
Thus much concerning this animal is agreed
upon by every naturalist : there are other cir-
cumstances in its history, which are not so
well ascertained. And first, its motion, which
some describe as the swiftest imaginable ;
asserting, that its Indian name of Ecacoalt,
which signifies the wind-serpent, implies its
agility : others, on the contrary, assert that it
is the slowest and the most sluggish of all
serpents ; and that it seldom moves from one
place. In this opposition of opinions, there
are others, who assert, that on even ground it
moves but slowly ; but then, among rocks,
lhat it goes at a great rate. If we may argue
from analogy, the opinion of those who con-
tend for its slow motion, seems the most pro-
bable ; as the viper, which it so very much
resembles, is remarkable among serpents for
its inactivity.
It is said also by some, that the rattle-snake
has a power of charming its prey into his
mouth ; and this is as strongly contradicted
by others. The inhabitants of Pennsylvania
are said to have opportunities of observing
this strange fascination every day. The
snake is often seen basking at the foot of a
tree, where birds and squirrels make their
residence. There, coiled upon its tail, its
jaws extended, and its eyes shining like fire,
the rattle snake levels its dreadful glare upon
one of the little animals above. The bird or the
squirrel, whichever it may be, too plainly per-
ceives the mischief meditating against it; and
hops from branch to branch, with a timorous
plaintive sound, wishing to avoid, yet incapable
of breaking through the fascination : thus it
continues for some time its feeble efforts and
complaints, but is still seen approaching lower
and lower towards the bottom branches of the
tree, until, at last, as if overcome by the po-
tency of its fears, it jumps down from the tree
dj rectly into the throat of its frightful destroyer.1
' The power said to be possessed by the Rattle-suake
In order to ascertain the truth of this story ,
a mouse was put into a large iron cage, where
a rattle-snake was kept, and the effects care-
fully observed. The mouse jremained motion-
less at one end of the cage ; while the snake,
at the other, continued fixed, with its eye gla-
ring full on the little animal, and its jaws
opened to their widest extent : the mouse lor
some time seemed eager to escape ; but every
effort only served to increase its terrors, and to
draw it still nearer the enemy ; till, after se-
veral ineffectual attempts to break the fascina-
tion, it was seen to run into the jaws of the
rattle-snake, where it was instantly killed.
To these accounts the incredulous oppose the
improbability of the fact : they assert, that
such a power ascribed to serpents, is only the
remnant of a vulgar error, by which it was
supposed that serpents could be charmed, and
had also a power of charming. They aver,
that animals are so far from running down the
throat of a rattle-snake in captivity, that the
snake will eat nothing in that state, but actu-
ally dies for want of subsistence.
A serpent, called the Whip-snake, is still
more venomous than the former. This ani-
mal, which is a native of the East, is about
five feet long, yet not much thicker than the
thong of a coachman's whip. It is exceed-
ingly venomous; and its bite is said to kill in
about six hours. One of the Jesuit mission-
aries, happening to enter into an Indian pa-
goda, saw what he took to be a whipcord lying
on the floor, and stooped to take it up ; but,
upon handling it, what was his surprise to find
that it was animated, and no other than the
whip-snake, of which he had heard such for-
midable accounts : fortune, however, seemed
favourable to him, for he grasped it by the
head, so that it had no power to bite him, and
only twisted its folds up his arm. In this
manner he held it, till it was killed by those
who came to his assistance.
To this formidable class might be added the
Asp, whose bite, however, is not attended with
those drowsy symptoms which the ancients as-
cribed to it. The Jaculus of Jamaica also is
one of the swiftest of the serpent kind. The Hse-
morrhois, so called from the haemorrhages which
its bite is said to produce; the Seps,* whose
of fascinating its prey, has been the theme of many an
astonishing tale, and the possession of this faculty is still
believed hy many. There is no doubt that the smaller
animals on which the reptile subsists are alarmed in the
presence of their known enemy, and that fear may
cause them to lose their self-possession, and thus they
are more readily seized by their cunning opponent.
* The Seps. — This word, which comes from a Greek
word, signifying to corrupt, was used by the ancients to
designate an animal which some considered a lizard and
others a serpent.
The Seps is no longer considered to be a lizard, nei-
ther is it quite a serpent. Its Jftugtbened body giVos, at
424
HISTORY OF FROGS LIZARDS, AND SERPENTS.
wound is very venomous, and causes the parti
aflected to corrupt in a very short time ; the
Coral Serpent, which is red, and whose bite is
said to be fatal. But of all others, the Cobra
di Capello, or Hooded Serpent, inflicts the
most deadly and incurable wounds.1 Of this
first sight, a striking resemblance to the Blind-worm, but
on closer examination it is found to possess two pair of
such very short paws, that they cannot possibly reach the
ground.
This animal belongs to the family of the Sdnoides,
which are all distinguished by the extreme smaliness of
their members, and of which some species present very
remarkable peculiarities. Some Seps are only provided
with one toe on each foot; the bipeds possess only one
pair of paws, situated at the hinder part of their body;
the foremost paws only are observable in the bimanus.
One species inhabits the southern part of France, but
is rare; in the north it is entirely unknown. In Italy,
where it is more common, it is known by the name of
Oicella or Ciciqua. The scales of its belly are separated
from those of its back by three lines. This reptile is not
dangerous, for nature has not bestowed upon it any ve-
nom, and even if it possessed any, its mouth is too small
fur it to bite a man, or any other large animal.
1 The naja or cobra di capello is equally remarkable
foi the elegance of its form, the strength of its body, and
the danger which accompanies its bite. It has received
the name of spectacle snake, in consequence of a black
mark which more or less exactly represents spectacles on
the extensible portion of its neck. When the animal is
in a state of repose, the neck has no greater a diameter
than the head, but under the influence of passion, the skin
of this part extends in the form of a coif or hood. This
serpent inhabits Coromandel, and is not found in Peru or
Mexico, as many modern naturalists have erroneously
slated, after Seba. It is very formidable from its enve-
nomed bite, which is as dangerous as that of any other
species of reptiles. When surprised by some imprudent
traveller, it slowly raises its head, swells its neck, and
advances against its aggressor in undulating movements
executed solely by the tail.
In the sixth volume of the " Asiatic Researches," Mr
Boaz, after having examined with care the ancient cu-
rative processes for the bite of venomous serpents, recom-
mends in the last place as a specific in the dreadful ma-
lady caused by the poison of the cobra di capello, nitrate
of silver, which was a remedy long since proposed by
Fontana in the case of the viper. In the second volume
of the same collection, Mr J. Williams has inserted a
paper on the caustic volatile alkali against the deleterious
eflects of the bite of different serpents, and particularly
that of the cobra di captllo. It seems that this medica-
ment should be applied both externally on the wound,
and at the same time administered internally. A re-
medy much boasted of by some of the ancient mission-
aries, who had travelled in the East Indies, and whopre.
tended to ewe the bite of the naja, as well as that of other
venomous animals, has been proved useless by the expe-
riments of the learned Redi. This is a calculous con-
cretion, which according to them is formed near the head,
or in the body of the serpent in question, and which is
named serpent or cobra-stone. This account of the ori-
gin of this pretended stone is assuredly false, and it is
formidable creature there are five or six differ-
ent kinds ; but they are all equally dangerous,
and iheir bite followed by speedy and certain
death. It is trotn three to eight feet long,
with two large fangs hanging out of the
upper jaw. It has a broad neck, and a mark
nothing but a factitious medicament composed by some
charlatan. It appears to be nothing but a blackish or
greenish argillaceous earth, which has the property of
absorbing with great facility the humours which are
formed at the surface of any wound whatever. But in
India it is believed to imbibe quickly the poison dis-
charged recently into the body of an animal bitten by the
naja.
The name of aspic has been given amongst all civilized
nations to a serpent rendered ever memorable by the
death of Cleopatra, whose beauty, glory, honours, and
deplorable end, have occupied the historians and poets
of all nations. It has been only since the expedition of
the French to Egypt that the true species of the aspic
has been ascertained. During the pei icd of that expedi-
tion, the French philosophers attached to the army ob-
served a species of ophidian, regarded as harmless by
Linnaeus and most herpetologists, but considered as ex-
tremely venomous by the traveller, Forskal. This ser-
pent is called haje by the inhabitants, and recent travel-
lers have incontestably proved that it is the true aspic
of the ancients, which never inhabited Europe; for the
reptile which some years since infested the forest of Fon.
tainbleau, and was called by this name, was nothing but
a variety of the common viper, and the cespiny of the
Swedes is quite another species from the oue in ques-
tion.
Forskal informs us that when the haje is provoked, is
swells and extends its neck greatly, and then springt
with a single bound upon its enemy. This habit of rear-
ing up when it is approached, caused the ancient inhabi-
tants of the countries watered by the Nile, to believe
that this serpent guarded the fields which it inhabited.
They made it in consequence the emblem of the protect-
ing divinity of the world. They sculptured it on the
two sides of a globe, on the portico of all their temples.
It is often exhibited by the jugglers at Cairo, apparently
metamorphosed into a rod or wand, which is done by
pressing its nape with the finger, and thus causing a sort
of catalepsy. They take care, however, to remove the
fangs, which might cause very serious accidents.
The poison of the haje is excessively violent, and far
more deleterious than that of the European viper, which
it resembles i" its yellowish tint, and its transparence.
Forskal relates, that having taken a very small drop of
it, and introduced it into a slight incision made in the thigh
of a pigeon, he saw this unfortunate bird perish in a
quarter of an hour in convulsions and vomitings. The
modes adopted against the bite of the haje are the same,
for the most part, as those used in the case of that of the
viper, particularly cauterization by fire, alcholized pot-
assum, &c., and the administration of sudorifics inter-
nally.— Supplement to the English edition of Cuvier by
Edward Griffith and others.
Serpents in South Africa. — The late excellent Mr
Thomas Pringle, whose residence in South Africa, though
unproductive to himself in a pecuniary sense, was fertile
in observation, and has added largely to our knowledge
of that portion of the globe, gives the following account
of the Venomous Serpents to be found there: —
" The serpents of South Africa (he says) commonly
accounted the most dangerous, are the Cobra Capello (or
hooded snake), the Puff-Adder, and the Berg-Adder (or
mountain snake). The first of these is exceedingly
fierce and active, and sometimes, it is sard, attains the
formidable length of ten feet ; I have, however, never
THE SERPENT.
425
of dark brown on the forehead ; which, when
viewed frontwise, looks like a pair of spec-
tacles; but behind, like the head of a cat.
The eyes are fierce, and full of fire; the head
met with any of much more than half that size. The
cobra has been known to spring at a man on horseback,
and to dart himself with such force as to overshoot his
aim. The puff-adder, on the other hand, is a heavy and
sluggish animal, very thick in proportion to its length,
and incapable, when attacked in front, of projecting
itself upon its enemy. To make amends, however, it
possesses the faculty of throwing itself backward with
perilous and unexpected effect ; but its disposition is
inert, and unless accidentally trod upon or otherwise
provoked, it will seldom attack mankind. The berg-
adder, though much smaller in size than either of the
preceding, is generally considered not less deadly, and it
is the more dangerous from its being less easily discov-
ered and avoided.
" During a residence of six years in the interior of the
Cape Colony, and in the course of various journeys
through the interior (extending to upwards of three thou-
sand miles), I have met with a considerable number of
snakes; yet 1 do not recollect of ever being exposed,
except in one instance, to any imminent hazard of being
bit by any of them. On the occasion referred to I was
superintending some Hottentots, whom I had employed
to clear away a patch of thicket from a spot selected for
cultivation, when one of the men, suddenly recoiling
with signs of great alarm, exclaimed, that there was a
cobra-capello in the bush. Not being at that time
fully aware of the dangerous character of this species of
make, I approached to look at him. The Hottentots
called out to me to take care, for he was going to spring.
Before they had well spoken, or I had caught a view of
the reptile, I heard him hiss fiercely, and then dart him-
self towards me amidst the underwood. At the same
instant, instinctively springing backward to avoid him,
I fell over a steep bank into the dry stony bed of a tor-
rent ; by which I suffered some severe bruises, but for-
tunately escaped the more formidable danger to which I
had too incautiously exposed mysel£ The Hottentots
then assailed the snake with sticks and stones, and forced
him (though not before he had made another spring and
missed one of them still more narrowly than myself) to
take refuge up a mimosa tree. Here he became a safe
and easy mark to their missiles, and was speedily beaten
down, with a broken bank, and consequently rendered
incapable of farther mischief. The Hottentots having
cut cfl'hls head, carefully buried it in the ground, a prac-
tice which they never omit on such occasions, and which
arises from their apprehension of some one incautiously
treading on the head of the dead snake, and sustaining
injury from its fangs ; for they believe that the deathful
virus, far from being extinguished with life, retains its
fatal energy for weeks, and even months afterwards.
This snake measured nearly six feet in length, and was
the largest cobra I have met with.
" My little Hottentot corporal, Piet (or Peter) Span-
dilly, who assisted in killing this cobra, had a still
narrower escape from a small but venomous snake, of
which I have forgotten the colonial appellation. Piet
and his men (six soldiers of the Cape Corps, placed at
that time under my direction for the protection of our
remote settlement against the Caflres) slept in a tent
adjoining to mine, pitched in a grove of mimosas on the
brink of the Bavian's river ; and one morning when he
rose from his couch of dry grass, Piet felt some living
creature moving about his thigh in the inside of his
leathern trousers. Thinking it was only one of the
harmless lizards which swarm in every part of South
Africa, he did not at first much mind it, but came out
to the open air, laughing, and shaking his limb to dis-
YOL. II.
is small, and the nose flat, though covered
with very large scales, of a yellowish ash-
colour ; the skin is white, and the large tumour
on the neck is flat, and covere_d with oblong,
lodge the vermin. But when a black wriggling snake
came tumbling down about his naked ancles, poor Span-
dilly, uttering a cry of horror, kicked the reptile ofl,
springing at the same moment nearly his own height
from the ground ; and, though he had in reality sus-
tained no injury, could scarcely for some time be per-
suaded that he was not ' a gone man.'
"It is, in fact, from apprehensions of danger, or the
instinct of self-defence, far more than from any peculiar
fierceness or innate malignity, that the serpent race ever
assail man or any of the larger animals. They turn,
of course, against the foot that tramples or the hand that
threatens them ; but happily nature has not armed them,
in addition to their formidable powers of destruction,
with the disposition of exerting these powers from
motives of mere wanton cruelty, or for purposes uncon-
nected with their own subsistence or security. Were it
otherwise, countries like the Cape would be altogether
uninhabitable. As it is, the annoyance experienced
from the numerous poisonous snakes is not such as, on
the whole, to affect in any considerable degree the
comfort of those accustomed to them.
"Conversing on this subject one day with my friend
Captain Harding, who had been for many years a resi-
dent and magistrate in the interior, I inquired whether
he had ever, in the course of his campaigns on the Caflre
and Bushman frontiers, and when necessarily obliged to
sleep in the desert or jungle in the open air, suffered
injury or incurred danger from serpents — he replied,
that the only occasion he recollected of incurring any
great hazard of this sort, was the following: —
" ' Being upon a military expedition across the fron-
tier, ' said he, ' I had slept one night, as usual, wrapt
in my cloak, beneath a tree. On awaking at daybreak,
the first object I perceived on raising my head from the
saddle, which served for my pillow, was the tail of an
enormous puff-adder lying across my breast, the head
of the reptile being muffled under the folds of the cloak
close to my body, whither it had betaken itself, appa-
rently for warmth, during the chillness of the night.
There was extreme hazard that if I alarmed it by
moving, it might bite me in a vital part ; — seizing it
therefore softly by the tail, I pulled it out with a sudden
jerk, and threw it violently to a distance. By this means
I escaped without injury: but had I happened to have
unwittingly offended this uninvited bedfellow before 1
was aware of his presence, 1 might in all probability
have fatally atoned for my heedlessness.'
" It is not very unusual for snakes of various sorts to be
found in the houses at the Cape, nor does it, in ordinary
cases, excite any violent alarm when such inmates are
discovered. They make their way both through tho
roofs and under the walls, in search of food and shelter,
and especially in pursuit of mice, which many of them
chiefly subsist upon. During my residence in the in-
terior, however, I recollect only two instances of theii
being found in my own cabin. On one of these occa-
sions I had sent a servant girl (a bare-legged Hottentot)
to bring me some article from a neighbouring hut. li
was after night-fall ; and on returning with it, she cried
out before entering the cabin — 'Oh, Mynheer ; Mynheer!
what shall I do ? A snake has twined itself round my
ancles, and if I open the door he will come into the
house.' 'Never mind,' I replied, 'open the door,
and let him come if he dare.' She obeyed, and in
glided the snake, luckily without having harmed the
poor girl. I stood prepared, and instantly smote him
dead ; and afterwards found him to be one of the very
venomous sort called Nuchtskmg .
3 H
426
HISTORY OP FROGS, LIZARDS, AND SERPENTS.
smooth scales. The bite of this animal is
said to be incurable, the patient dying in
about an hour after the wound ; the whole
frame being dissolved into one putrid mass of
corruption.
" People get used to these things, and even Europeans
by degrees come to regard them with much indifference.
Just before leaving the colony, I spent a week or two
with my friend Major Pigot, at his residence near Gra-
ham's Town ; and going one day to take a book from
some shelves in the drawing-room, I found a beautiful
yellow snake, about five feet long, lying asleep upon the
uppermost range of bocks. It Isy so still that I at first
thought it was a slutted specimen ; but perceiving a
slight movement in its tail, I lent him such a thwack
with a quarto volume as broke the poor fellow's back,
and enabled me to demolish him at my leisure. I
afterwards learned that another snake had been killed a
few days previously in the very same spot, and a third in
Major P.'s dressing-room. They had all entered through
a loop hole which had casually been left open, and
apparently had no other object in coming there (mousing
apart) than literary seclusion.
" Such as these are no very uncommon occurrences,
and as sucli pass even for subjects of jocularity amidst
the adventures of a wild country. Instances, however,
both frightful and revolting, sometimes occur.
" It is well known that the Bushmen, a tribe of wild
Hottentots who inhabit the mountains and deserts of
South Africa, imbue the points of their arrows in a
strong and subtle poison, and that the venom* of the
most dangerous serpents to be found in that country
forms a principal ingredient in its composition. The
boldness and dexterity displayed by these wild hunts-
men, and by many also of the colonial Hottentots,
in searching out and seizing alive the formidable
cohra-capello and puff-adder, are truly astonishing.
Still more surprising is it lo witness the snake-hunter
extracting from the yet living and writhing reptile,
held fast by his naked foot planted on its neck, the little
bag containing the secreted venom, which the rage of
the animal injects into the wound made by its fangs at
the moment it strikes its victim, — to see him take this,
and fearlessly drink its contents, as school-boys in
England would suck the blob of the honey-bee ! The
swallowing of this venom, they conceive, renders them
in time proof against its deleterious effects, when it is
brought into immediate contact with the blood, whether
by the bite of a snake or the barb of an arrow.
" Several of the most respectable Dutch colonists as-
sured me, as a fact which had come within their own
knowledge, that there are to be found among the wander-
ing Bushmen persons whom % they term slang meeitars
(snake masters), who actually possess the power of
charming the fiercest serpents, and of readily curing
their bite ; and who pretend that they can communicate
to others their mysterious powers and invulnerability,
by putting them through a regular course of poison-
eating.
" The more usual object, however, of the Bushman in
catching serpents (exclusive of their value to him as an
article of food), is to procure poison for his arrows. The
animal venom, too thin and volatile to preserve its
efficacy long unimpaired when used alone, is skilfully
concocted into a black glutinous consistency, by the
admixture of powerful vegetable and mineral poisons ;
the former being generally the juice of the root of a
species of amaryllis, called by the boors, from this cir-
cumstance, the gift-bol, or poison bulb ; the latter, a
bituminous or unctuous substance which is said to exudu
from certain rocks and caverns. With this deadly mix-
ture the dwarfish and despised African anoints the des-
To remedy the bite of all these animals, per-
haps salad oil would be very efficacious ; how-
ever, the Indians make use of a composition,
which is called in Europe, Petro de Cobra, or
the Serpent-stone ; and which applied to the
perate weapons with which he resists (though unavail-
ing!}') the aggressions of the colonists, and sometimes
cruelly revenges the injuries they have inflicted."
To the above interesting account, by Mr Pringle, of
the Serpents of South Africa, we may here add Mr
Watertou's observations on the Snakes of South America,
or, more properly, Demerara.
" Snakes," says that eccentric and enterprising na-
turalist, "are frequently met with in the woods betwixt
the sea-coast and the rock Saba, chiefly near the creeks
and on the banks of the river. They are large, beauti-
ful, and formidable. The rattle-snake seems partial to a
tract of ground known by the name of Canal, No. 3 ;
there the effects of his poison will be long remembered.
" The camoudi has been killed from thirty to forty
feet long ; though not venomous, his size renders him
destructive to the passing animals. The Spaniards in
the Oroonoque positively affirm that he grows to the
length of seventy or eighty feet, and that he will destroy
the strongest and largest bull. His name seems to con-
firm this : there he is called 'matatoro,' which literally
means 'bull killer.' Thus he may be ranked amongst
the deadly snakes ; for it comes nearly to the same thing
in the end, whether the victim dies by poison from the
fangs which corrupts his blood and makes it stink horri-
bly, or whether his body be crushed to mummy, and
swallowed by this hideous beast.
" The whip-snake, of a beautiful changing green, and
the coral, with alternate broad traverse bars of black and
red, glides from bush to bush, and may be handled with
safety; they are harmless little creatures.
"The labarri snake is speckled, of a dirty brown
colour, and can scarcely be distinguished from the
ground or stump on which he is coiled up ; he grows to
the length of about eight feet, and his bite often proves
fatal in a few minutes.
" Unrivalled in his display of every lovely colour of
the rainbow, and unmatched in the eflects of his deadly
poison, the counacouchi glides undaunted on, sole mon-
arch of these forest? ; he is commonly known by the
name of the bush-master. Both man and beast fly be-
fore him, and allow him to pursue an undisputed path.
He sometimes grows to the length of fourteen feet.
'' A few small caimen, from two to twelve feet long,
may be observed now and then in passing up and down
the river ; they just keep their heads above water, and
a stranger would not know them from a rotten stump.
"JSnakes in these wilds are certainly an annoyance,
though, perhaps, more in imagination than reality, for
you must recollect that the serpent is never the first to
offend ; his poisonousfang was not given him for conquest;
he never inflicts a wound with it but to defend exis-
tence. Provided you walk cautiously, and do not
absolutely touch him, you may pass in safety close by
him. As he is often coiled up on the ground, and
amongst the branches of the trees above you, a degree of
circumspection is necessary, lest you unwarily disturb
him. One morning I had been following a new species
of parouquet, and the day being rainy, 1 had taken an
umbrella to keep the gun dry, and had left it under a tree ;
whilst searching about for it I observed a young coula-
canara, ten feet long, moving slowly onwards in a path
where timber had formerly been dragged along ; I sow
he was not thick enough to break my arm in case he got
twisted round it. There was not a moment to be lost.
I laid hold of his tail with the left hand, one knee being
on the ground; with the ri^ht I took off my hat,
THE SERPENT.
427
v ound, is said to draw out the venom. The
composition of this stone, for it is an artificial
substance, is kept a secret; and perhaps its
effects in extracting the venom may be imag-
inary : nevertheless, it is certain that it has
a power of sticking to the skin, and sucking
a part of the blood from the wound. This it
may do somewhat in the same manner as we
see a tobacco-pipe stick to the lips of a man
who is smoking ; yet still we are ignorant of
the manner ; and the secret might probably
be of some use in medicine. It were to be
wished, therefore, that those who go to India
would examine into this composition, and give
us the result of their inquiries ; but I fear that
it is not to benefit mankind, that our travel-
lers now go to India.
CHAP. III.
OF SERPENTS WITHOUT VENOM.
THK class of serpents without poison may be
distinguished from those that are venomous by
their wanting the fang-teeth : their heads also
are not so thick in proportion to their bodies ;
and, in general, they taper off to the tail more
gradually in a point But, notwithstanding
their being destitute of venom, they do not
cease to be formidable : some grow to a size
by which they become the most powerful ani-
mals t«f the forest ; and even the smallest and
most Harmless of this slender tribe find protec-
tion from tlie similitude of their form.
The fangs make the great distinction among
serpents; and all this tribe are without them.
Their teeth are short, numerous, and, in the
smaller kinds, perfectly inoffensive : they lie
in either jaw, as in frogs and fishes, their
points bending backwards, the better to secure
their prey. They want, that artificial mecha-
nism by which the poisonous tribe inflict such
deadly wounds : they have no gland in the
head for preparing venom : no conduits for
conveying it to the teeth ; no receptacles there:
no hollow in the instrument that inflicts the
wound. Their bite, when the teeth happen to
be large enough to penetrate the skin (for, in
and held it as you would hold a shield for defence. The
snake instantly turned and came on at me with his head
shout a yard from the ground, as if to ask me what
business I had to take liberties with his tail. I let him
come, hissing and open-mouthed, within two feet of my
face, and then, with all the force I was master of, I drove
my fist, shielded hy my hat, full in his jaws. He was
stunned and confounded by the Wow, and ere he could
recover himself, I had seized his throat with both hands
in such a position that he could not bite me ; I then al-
lowed him to coil himself round my body, and marched
off with him as my lawful prize. He pressed me hard,
but not alarmingly so."— ff^aterton'g Wanderings.
general, they are too small for this purpose) is
attended with no other symptoms than those
of an ordinary puncture ; and many of thin
tribe, as if sensible of their_own impotence,
cannot be provoked to bite, though never so
rudely assaulted. They hiss, dart out their
forky tongues, erect themselves on the tail, and
call up all their terrors to intimidate their ag-
gressors ; but seem to consider their teeth as
unnecessary instruments of defence, and never
attempt to use them. Even among the largest
of this kind the teeth are never employed, in
the most desperate engagements. When a
hare or a bird is caught, the teeth may serve
to prevent such small game from escaping ;
but when a buffalo or a tiger is to be encoun-
tered, it is by the strong folds of the body, by
the fierce verberations of the tail, that the enemy
is destroyed : by thus twining round, and
drawing the knot with convulsive energy, this
enormous reptile breaks every bone in the ani-
mal's body, and* then, at one morsel, devours
its prey.
From hence we may distinguish the unve-
nomous tribe into two kinds: first, into those
that are seldom found of any considerable mag-
nitude, and that never offend animals larger
or more powerful than themselves, but which
find their chief protection in flight, or in the
doubtfulness of their form; secondly, into such
as grow to an enormous size, fear no enemy,
but indiscriminately attack all other animals
and devour them. Of the first kind is the
Common Black Snake, the Blind Worm, the
Esculapian Serpent, the Amphisbaena, and se-
veral others. Of the second, the Liboya, the
Boiguacu, the Depona, and the Boiquatrara.
The Black Snake is the largest of English
serpents, sometimes exceeding four feet in
length. The neck is slender ; the middle of
the body thick ; the back and sides covered
with small scales ; the belly with oblong, nar-
row, transverse plaits ; the colour of the back
and sides are of a dusky brown ; the middle of
the back marked with two rows of small black
spots, running from the head to the tail ; the
plaits on the belly are dusky ; the scales on
the sides are of a bluish white ; the teeth are
small and serrated, lying on each side of the
jaws in two rows. The whole species is per
fectly inoffensive; taking shelter in duriy hills.
428
HISTORY OF FROGS, LIZARDS, AND SERPENTS.
and among bushes in moist places ; from
whence they seldom remove, unless in the
midst of the day in summer; when they are
called out by the heat to bask themselves in
the sun. I {'disturbed or attacked, they move
away among the brambles with great swift-
ness ; but if too closely pursued, they hiss and
threaten, and thus render themselves formid-
able, though incapable of offending.1
The black snake preys upon frogs, insects,
worms, mice, and young birds: and, consider,
ing the smallness of the neck, it is amazing
how large an animal it will swallow. The
black snake of Virginia, which is larger than
ours, and generally grows to six feet long,
takes a prey proportionable to its size ; par-
tridges, chickens, and young ducks. It is ge-
nerally found in the neighbourhood of the hen-
roost, and will devour the eggs even while the
hen is sitting upon them : these it swallows
whole ; and often, after it has done the mis-
chief, will coil itself round in the nest.
The whole of this tribe are oviparous, ex-
cluding eighty or a hundred eggs at a time,
which are laid in dunghills or hot-beds ; the
heat of which, aided by that of the sun, brings
them to maturity. During winter they lie
torpid, in banks or hedges, and under old trees.
The Blind Worm is another harmless rep-
1 This snake, though not poisonous, is sometimes bold
enough to attack a man,. but may be driven off by a smart
soroke from a stick, or whatever weapon he may chance
to have in his hand. When it overtakes a person who
lias endeavoured toescape, (not having had courage enough
to oppose it,) it is said to wind itself round his legs in
such a manner as to throw him down, and then to bite
him several times in the leg, or whatever it can lay hold
of, and run off again.
The black snake is very greedy of milk, and it is diffi-
rult to keep it out when once it is accustomed to get into
a cellar where milk is kept. It has been seen taking
milk out of the same dish with the children without bit-
ing them, though they often gave it blows with their
spoons upon the head when it was too greedy.
These snakes are, however, found extremely useful in
America in clearing houses of rats, which they pursue
with wonderful agility, even to the very roofs of barns
and out-houses ; for which good services they are cher-
ished by the generality of the Americans, who are at
great pains to preserve and multiply the breed.
There are many species and varieties of this genus of
serpents, which it would be tedious to enumerate.
tile, with a formidable appearance. The usual
length of this species is eleven inches. The
eyes are red ; the head small ; the neck still
more slender ; from that part the body grows
suddenly, and continues of an equal bulk to
the tail, which ends quite blunt : the colour of
the back is cinereous, marked with very small
lines, composed of minute black specks ; the
sides are of a reddish cast ; the belly dusky ,
and marked like the back. The motion of
this serpent is slow ; from which, and from
the smallness of the eyes, are derived its
names ; some calling it the slow, and some the
blind worm. Like all the rest of the kind in
our climates, they lie torpid during winter ;
and are .sometimes found in vast numbers,
twisted together. This animal, like the for-
mer, is perfectly innocent ; however, like the
viper, it brings forth its young alive. Ges-
ner tells us, that one of these being struck on
the forehead when it was pregnant, it imme-
diately cast forth its young.
The Amphisbee-na, or the Double Headed
Serpent, is remarkable for moving along with
either the head, or the tail foremost ; and from
thence it has been thought to have two heads.*
This error took its rise from the thickness of
the tail, which, at a distance, may be
mistaken for another head. Upon a nearer
view, however, the error is easily discov-
ered, and the animal will be found formed
according to the usual course of nature. It is
as thick at one end as at the other ; and the
colour of the skin is like that of the earth, being
rough, hard, and variously spotted. Some
have affirmed that its bite is dangerous ; but
this must be a mistake, as it wants the fangs,
and, consequently, the elaboratory that pre-
pares the poison.
These animals are only formidable from
their similitude to the viper tribe. In some
* Amphisbaena literally signifies double -walker, and
was applied to these animals because they can move both
backwards and forwards. The amphisbaente of modern
naturalists all belong to America, and must therefore be
different from the amphishsenfe of the ancients. They
are not venomous. The White Amphisbcena is common
in Brazil, and feeds chiefly on ants. Its length is about
a foot and a half. All the amphisbsense which are varied
with brown and white are known under the name of/w/-
iginosa. The following cut represents a Punctated Aw -
phisbaer.a.
The tail of an amphisbsena is almost as bulky as the
head ; and as the eyes are extremely small, it is difficult
at first si«rht to say at which end the head is situated.
THE SERPENT.
429
countries, where such reptiles are common,
they make the distinction so exactly, that,
while they destroy serpents of one kind with
great animosity, they take others into their
houses, and even into their bosoms, with a kind
of unaccountable affection. The Esculapian
Serpent of Italy is among this number. It is
there suffered to crawl about the chambers ;
and jl'ten gets into the beds where people lie.
It is a yellow serpent, of about an ell long ;
ind though innocent, yet will bite when exas-
perated. They are said to be great destroy-
ers of mice ; and this may be the reason why
they are taken under human protection. The
Boyuna of Ceylon is equally a favourite among
the natives ; and they consider the meeting it
as a sign of good luck. The Surinam Ser-
pent, which some improperly call the Ammo-
dytes, is equally harmless and desirable among
the savages of that part of the world. They
consider themselves as extremely happy if this
animal comes into their huts. The colours of
this serpent are so many and beautiful, that
they surpass all description ; and these, per-
haps, are the chief inducements to the savages
to consider its visits as so very fortunate. A
still greater favourite is the Prince of Ser-
pents, a native of Japan, that has not its equal
for beauty. The scales which cover the back
are reddish, finely shaded, and marbled with
large spots of irregular figures mixed with
black. The fore part of the head is covered
with large beautiful scales; the jaws bordered
with yellow; the forehead marked with a black
marbled streak; and the eyes handsome and
lively. But, of all others, the GerendaoftheEast
Indies is the most honoured and esteemed.
To this animal, which is finely spotted with
various colours, the natives of Calicut pay
divine honours; and while their deity lies
coiled up, which is its usual posture, the peo-
ple fall upon their faces before it with stupid
adoration. The African Gerenda is larger,
and worshipped in the same manner by the
inhabitants of the coasts of Mosambique. The
skin is not so finely spotted as the former ; but
it is variegated all over the body with very
fine white, ash-coloured, and black spots.
The brilliancy of colouring in these reptiles
would only serve with us to increase our dis-
gust ; but in those countries where they are
common, distinctions are made ; and even in
this horrid class there are some eyes that can
discover beauty.
But in the larger tribe of serpents, there is
nothing but danger to be apprehended. This
formidable class, though without venom, have
something frightful in their colour, as well as
their size and form. They want that vivid
hue with which the savages are so much
pleased in the lesser kinds ; they are all
found of a dusky colour, with large teeth,
which are more formidable than danger-
ous.
The first of this class is the great Liboya
of Java and Brazil, which Legaut affirms, he
has seen fifty feet long.' Nor is he singular
1 The Boa Constrictor. — This is the largest of the
serpent race, reaching generally to thirty feet in
length. Its ground colour is yellowish gray, on which is
distributed, along the back, a series of large, chine-like,
reddish brown, and sometimes perfectly red variegations,
with other smaller and more irregular marks and spots.
They are readily distinguished from other serpents in the
under surface of the tail, being covered with scuta or
divided plates, like those on their belly, and in their body
not being terminated by a rattle. There are three
species, natives of Africa, India, the larger Indian
islands, and South America, where they chiefly reside
in most retired situations in woods and marshy retreats.
In those cases where the boa attacks a large quadruped,
such as an antelope, he entwines himself round his prey,
and by his great muscular power crushes the principal
bones, so that the dimensions of the victim are consider-
ably reduced, and after a series of efforts which some-
times approach to strangulation, the monster makes an
end of his meal. There are stories of the boa constrictor
destroying even the buffalo and the tiger, by crushing
them in this manner by the astonishing force of its
muscles. We shall confine ourselves at present to a
well-authenticated account of the voracious appetite of a
serpent of this species, which was brought from Batavia,
in the year 1817, on board a vessel which conveyed
Lord Amherst and his suite to England. This serpent
was of large dimensions, though not of the very largest.
A living goat was placed in his cage. He viewed his
prey for a few seconds, felt it with his tongue, and then,
withdrawing his head, darted at the throat. But the goat,
displaying a courage worthy of a* better fate, received the
monster on his horns. The serpent retreated, to return
to the combat with more deadly certainty. He seized
the goat by the leg, pulled it violently down, and twisted
himself with astonishing rapidity round the body, throw-
ing his principal weight upon the neck. The goat was
so overpowered that he could not even struggle for escape.
For some minutes after his victim was dead the serpent
did not change his posture. At length he gradually
slackened his grasp, and having entirely disengaged
himself, he prepared to swallow the lifeless body. Feel-
ing it about with his mouth, he began to draw the head
into his throat ; but the horns, which were four inches
in length, rendered the gorging of the head a difficult
task. In about two hours the whole body had disappeared.
During the continuance of this extraordinary exertion
the appearance of the serpent was hideous ; he seemed
to be suffering strangulation ; his cheeks looked as if
they were bursting ; and the horns appeared ready to
protrude through the monster's scales. After he had ac-
complished his task, the boa measured double his ordi-
nary diameter. He did not move from his posture for
several days, and no irritation could rouse him from his
torpor.
The Anaconda is a name which, like that of the Boa
Constrictor, has been popularly applied to all the larger
and more powerful snakes. It appears to be of Ceylonese
origin, and may therefore belong of right, as well as of
usage, to the Indian species.
Happily the appetite of these gigantic snakes bears no
proportion to their means of gratifying it, as a fu!l meal
is uniformly succeeded by a state of torpor, which fre-
quently lasts for a month or six weeks, or, during the
cold season, even for a longer period.
The term Python is bestowed on a genus approximat-
ing to the Boa, and which Cuvier conceives to contain all
the pietendcd Boas of the ancient continent. Among
430
HISTORY OF FROGS LIZARDS, AND SERPENTS.
in this report, as many of the missionaries
affirm the same ; and we have the concurrent
testimony of historians as a further proof.
The largest animal of this kind which has
been brought into Europe, is but thirty-six
feet long ; and it is probable (hat much greater
have been seen and destroyed before they were
thought worth sending so far to satisfy Euro-
pean curiosity. The most usual length, how-
ever, of the Liboya, is about twenty feet, and
the thickness in proportion. The teeth are
small in proportion to the body ; nor are they
used but when it seizes the smallest prey. It
lies in wait for wild animals near the paths,
and when it throws itself upon them, it wraps
them round so closely as to break all the
bones; then moistening the whole body over
with its slaver, it makes it fit for deglutition,
and swallows it whole.
The Boiguaca is supposed to be the next in
.magnitude, and has often been seen to swal-
low a goat whole. It is thickest in the mid-
dle of the body, and grows shorter and smaller
towards the head and the tail : on the middle
of the back there is a chain of small black
spots running along the length of it; and on
each side there are large, round, black spots,
the species of this genus is the Javan snake, which is as
large as any boa. It inhabits the rice fields of Java, and
feeds usually on birds, rats, &o. Its bite is not venom-
ous. The following cut represents a Python, called
Peron's Python.
The Bungai. like the boa, have simple plates under
the belly and under the tail. They inhabit the East
Indies, where they are called Rock-Serpents. Their
length is about seven feet. The following cut represents
d Banded Bungarum.
The Hydras have the posterior part of the body and
tail very much compressed, and greatly raised in the
vertical direction, which, giving them the faculty of
swimming, constitutes them aquatic animals. They are
common in some latitudes of the Indian seas. The
above is a figure of the Spiral Hydra.
at some distance from each other, which are
white in the centre; between these, near the
belly, there are two rows of lesser black spots,
which run parallel to the back. It has a
double row of sharp teeth in each jaw, of a
white colour, and shining like mother-of-pearl.
The head is broad ; and over the eyes it is
raised into two prominences ; near the ex-
tremity of the tail there are two claws, resem-
bling those of birds.
These serpents lie hid in thickets, from
whence they sally out unawares, and, raising
themselves upright on their tails, will attack
both men and beasts. They make a loud hissing
noise when exasperated ; and sometimes wind-
ing up trees, will dart down upon travellers,
and twist themselves so closely round theii
bodies, as to despatch them in a very few
minutes. Condamine, however, affirms that
their bite is not dangerous ; for though the
teeth are so large as to inspire the beholdei
with terror, yet the wound they make is
attended with no dangerous consequences
whatever. Dellon affirms, that they gener-
ally haunt desert places ; and though they are
sometimes seen near great towns, or on the
banks of rivers, yet it is generally after some
great inundation : he never saw any but what
were dead ; and they appeared to him like
the trunk of a great tree lying on the ground,
To this class of large serpents we niay refer
the Depona, a native of Mexico, with a very
large head and great jaws. The mouth is
armed with cutting crooked teeth, among
which there are two longer than the rest,
placed in the fore part of the upper jaw, but
very different from the fangs of the viper. All
round the mouth there is a broad scaly border;
and the eyes are so large, that they give it a
very terrible aspect. The forehead is covered
with very large scales ; on which are placed
others that are smaller, curiously ranged :
those on the back are grayish, and along it
runs a double chain, whose ends are joined in
the manner of a buckler. Each side of the
belly is marbled with large square spots, of a
chestnut colour, in the middle of which is a
spot which is round and yellow. They avoid
the sight of man ; and, consequently, never ,
do much harm.
Such are the most noted animals of the
serpent tribe; but to recount all, would be a
vain, as well as useless, endeavour. In those
countries where they abound, their discrimina-
tions are so numerous, and their colours so
various, that every thicket seems to produce a
new animal. The same serpent is often found
to bring forth animals of eight or ten differ-
ent colours ; and the naturalist who attempts
to arrange them by that mark,, will find that
he has made distinctions which are entirely
disowned by Nature : however, a very con
THE SERPENT
431
siderable number might be added to enlarge
the catalogue ; but having supplied a general
history, the mind turns away from a subject,
where every object presents something formid-
able or lothesometo the imagination. Indeed,
the whole tribe resemble each other so nearly,
1 Supplemental Note on Reptiles. — This department of
animated beings, forming the third class of vertebrate aui-
mals, according to the arrangement of Cuvier, has occu-
pied various situations in the classification of authors.
Many of this species were known to the ancients.
Pliny, in his Historia Naturalis, has given all the infor-
mation, respecting those that were known during his
time, which was, however, extremely limited, iu com-
parison to what is our present stock of knowledge. The
first of the moderns who increased our knowledge respect-
ing the Reptilia was Aldrovandus, a Bohemian noble-
man, and a professor of the university of Bologna : he
published the first volume of his Natural History in
folio, in the 1599, which was continued by his successors,
and completed in fourteen volumes, in the year 1640.
Gesnei-, a physician of Zurich, was the next who took
up this subject ; he published a work entitled a History
of Animals, in three volumes folio, which appeared iu
1620. To this work he added a treatise on Serpents.
He was followed by Topsel, a British author, who pub-
lished a History of Four-footed Beasts and Serpents
in folio, 1718. These several works contain much
curious information respecting reptiles, but so mixed up
with fable, and the romance of travellers, that the
accounts are not to be depended upon, and it is difficult
to separate the pure matter from the dross. The ani-
mals of this class have in all ages furnished matter for
fiction, from the dangerous qualities of many of the
species, or the disgusting forms and frightful appearance
of others. We are told that the march of the army of
Attilius Regulus was arrested by the power of an African
serpent, 120 feet long ; and the Basilisk was said to
possess the power of killing any person who looked at it,
with a glance from its eyes.
But it was not until the publication of the Synopsis
Methodica Animalium, Quadrupedum et Serpentini
generis, in the year 1693, by Ray, that we had any
distinct classification of reptiles which was worthy of
attention. His arrangement consists of three orders ;
first, oviparous animals, with red blood, which respire
by means of lungs, and which have a heart consisting of
one ventricle. This order includes frogs, divided into
aquatic and terrestrial, toads, and tortoises. Second,
Lizards, and their congeners, including the saurians of
Cuvier ; and third, Serpents, or the ophidians of Cuvier.
The next systematic writer who followed Ray was
Linnaeus, who arranged this class of animals under the
title of Amphibia in his Systema Natural : these he
divided into three orders : namely, Reptilia, Serpents,
and Nantes, which last most improperly included the carti-
laginous fishes ; these were removed to their proper
station by Gmelin, who published an edition of the
Systema Naturae, with additions, in the year 1758.
Linnteus was followed by Klein, who, in 1755, pub-
lished his Tentamen Erpetologite, in which he arranged
serpents into two orders ; first, those whose heads are
distinct from the body, with an elongated tail; and
second, those with the head not distinctly developed
from the body, and provided with an obtuse tail.
The next author was Laurentini, a physician of Vienna,
who published his Specimen Medicum exhibens Synopsin
Reptilium emendatam, in 1768, in which he divides
them into three orders; namely, 1. Leapers, including
frogs and their congeners; 2. Walkers, such as lizards ;
3. Serpents. But this author entirely omitted tortoises
in his classification.
The naturalist whose works are next worthy of notice,
that the history of one may almost serve for
every other. They are all terrible to the im-
agination, all frightful to behold in their fury,
and have long been considered as a race of
animals, between whom and~rnan there is a
natural antipathy.1
is Lacepede, who in 179S — 1800, published his His-
toire Naturelle, Generate et Particuti&re des Quadrupedes
ovipares et des Serpentes, intended as a continuation of
the Histoire Naturelle ot Bufibu. His classification
differs but little from that of Linnaeus, but contains a
great mass of new and interesting matter, and he gives
more accurate details, and more precise generic distinc-
tion than that author.
We now come to Brongniait, whose classification of
reptiles far outstripped all those who preceded him. In
1799, he first made known his arrangements, which was
published in 1805, under the title of Essai d'une Classi-
fication Naturelle des Reptiles. This has superseded all
other arrangements, and has been followed by Cuvier in
his Regne Animal His orders are constructed upon
their organization, such as generation and respiration,
together with the exercise of the animal function, such
as touch, digestion, and locomotion. Founded upon
these, he divides the class Reptiles into four orders ; viz.
1. Chelonians, in which the body is covered with a
shield or plate, comprehending the turtles and tortoises.
2. Saurians, having the body covered with scales, in-
cluding crocodiles, and their congeners. 3. Ophidians,
destitute of feet, such as serpents. Batrachians, whose
bodies are covered with a naked skin ; exemplified in
frogs, &c.
In the Htslotre Naturelle des Rer tiles of Latreille,
published in Deterville's edition of the Histoire Naturelle
of Buflbn, as also in his Families Naturelles du Regne
Animal, published in 1825, he has attempted some
trivial changes on the classification of Brongniart ; re-
taining, however, all the principal features of his arrange-
ment untouched.
Dume'ril, in his Siemens des Sciences Naturelles, has
also made some changes; but these are unimportant.
Daudin published his Histoire Naturelle des Reptiles,
in eight volumes 8vo., at Paris, in 1802, 1803. In this
elaborate work much curious information is brought for-
ward, and many particular facts, which were before un-
known; but in his arrangement he has followed Brong-
niart, with some slight modification in the genera.
In the Linnn:an Transactions and Zoological Journal
are some interesting papers on Reptiles by Mr Thomas
Bell. His monography of the tortoises having a mov-
able sternum in the second volume of the Zoological
Journal, and also his essay on Leptophina, a group of
serpents, contain some valuable additions to our know-
ledge of reptiles.
The heart in reptiles is so constructed, that at each of
its contractions, only a portion of the blood which it re-
ceives is transmitted to the lungs, the remainder of this
fluid is returned to circulate again, without having
passed into the lungs, and, consequently without having
been subjected to respiration ; hence it results that the
action of oxygen on the blood is greatly less than in
mammiferous animals and birds, where all the blood, by
passing through their lungs, is exposed to the action of
the air. Consequently, as respiration causes the heat in
the blood, and gives to the muscular fibre its suscepti-
bility for nervous irritation, the temperature of reptiles
is much lower, and their muscular power greatly weaker
than that of the mammalia, and birds. Therefore they
are said to be cold blooded animals. Their general
habits are also much less energetic, almost all their mo-
tions consisting of crawling and swimming, and although
several species run or leap, at times with considerable
facility, yet upon the whole, their actions are sluggish.
432
SUPPLEMENTAL NOTE ON REPTILES.
and their sensations obtuse, with a slow digestion ; and
in temperate countries they pass the winter in an almost
constant state of torpidity.
The brain in reptiles is proportionably small, and not
so essential to the exercise of their animal and vital
functions as to the mammalia and birds ; and their sen.
gallons appear to be referred to a common centre, for
they continue to live, and exhibit voluntary motions long
after being deprived of their brain, and in many instances
after the head has been cut off. The connection of the
nervous system with the muscular fibre is also less
necessary to its contractions, and their muscles preserve
their irritability after being severed from the body much
longer than in the higher animals. The pulsations of
the heart have been known to continue for many hours
after being separated from the body; and even without
it, the body will move t'orji considerable length of time.
It has been observed that the cerebellum in several of
the species is extremely small, which facts agree with
their slight propensity to motion.
The smallness of the pulmonary vessels in reptiles en-
ables them to suspend respiration without retarding the
circulation of the blood ; this enables them to dive with
more facility, and to remain longer under water than
quadrupeds or birds. The cells of their lungs are also less
numerous, and generally large, in consequence of their
having fewer vessels to lodge on their parietes, and the
lungs take sometimes the form of simple sacs, scarcely
cellular in their structure.
The whole class are provided with a trachea and
larynx, yet many of them are incapable of producing
articulate sounds.
As their blood is cold, teguments for retaining heat
are unnecessary, and instead of these, therefore, they are
clothed with scales, or simply with a naked skin.
The females are provided with a double ovaiy and two
oviducts, and the males of several genera are furnished
with furcated organs of generation, but the batrachians
are destitute of this organ. Those females which couple
deposit eggs which are protected by a shelly covering,
and those species which do not, produce soft and glary
eggs, destitute of any crust. These they abandon after
the deposition in some convenient situation ; but there
are a few species which carry them about with them.
The young is hatched perfect in its form in many species:
but there are other species, which, on quitting the ova,
have the organization of fishes, and whose form is not
perfectly developed until after a certain time has elapsed,
when they undergo a complete metamorphosis. This is
well exemplified in the frog being hatched as a tadpole.
These are provided with branchiae, or gills, like fishes,
and some of the genera retain these organs even after the
developement of their lungs. In several of the oviparous
reptiles, particularly in the coluber, the young animal in
the egg is formed and considerably advanced at the mo-
ment it is deposited by the mother ; aud there are even
some species which may be artificially rendered vivipar-
ous, by simply retarding the time of laying the egg,
which M. Geoffrey St Hilaire has proved by depriving
the colubra of water.
The quantity of respiration in reptiles is not fixed, as
is the case with mammalia and birds, but varies with the
proportions of the diameter of the pulmonary artery, com-
pared to that of the aorta. Tortoises and lizards, for
example, respire much more than frogs, &c. ; and hence
results a much greater difference of sensibility and ner-
vous energy than can exist between one mammiferous
animal and another, or between birds.
A greater variety of form prevails amongst reptiles
than is found among the mammalia and birds, and it is
in the production of these forms that Nature seems to
have imagined shapes of the most fantastic description,
and modifying in every possible manner the general plan
which she has pi-escribed to herself in the vertebrata,
and in the oviparous class in particular.
Reptiles are endowed with five senses, but none of
them iu great perfection. In those species which are
covered with scales or plates, the sense of touch is very
obtuse ; and in the species which have a naked skin, such
as the frog, it is also weak, in consequence of not being
adherent to the body, but invelopes it like a bag. In the
serpents, the eyes are immovable, and are destitute of
eyelids ; and the eyes covered with a corneous substance ;
iu some genera, three eyelids are distinguishable, while
others are destitute of sight. They have no cochlea, and
only provided with a small bone under the tympanum.
Their nostrils are small, and they appear tp have a veiy
weak sense of smell. They have no delicacy of taste, for
almost all the species swallow their food entire, and those
in which the tongue is soft and flexible, this organ serves
chiefly as an instrument for the seizure of their food.
None of them have true fleshy lips ; aud some, such as
the tortoises, are provided with a horny bill, like that of
a parrot ; others have teeth of various forms, which are
not, however, formed for mastication, but to assist in
holding their prey: various serpents have hollow fangs,
which they can erect at pleasure, when they open their
mouths to bite, and these fangs have apertures, from
which they inject into the wounds made by them an active
and deadly poison. The anal opening in serpents
serves for rejected matters, as well as for organs of gen-
eration.
The physical construction of reptiles varies consider-
ably in the different orders ; deviating in several essen-
tial particulars, to which no general characters will
apply. The following is an outline of these particulars.
I. The CJielonia, or Tortoises, have a heart with two au-
ricles, and a ventricle, divided into two unequal cavities,
which communicate with each other. The blood from
the body is poured into the right auricle, and from the
lungs into the left, but both kinds of blood are partially
mixed iu passing through the ventricle : their body is
inveloped by two plates, or bucklers, formed by the ribs
and sternum, supported by four feet. The envelope of
the body permits no part to project, except the head,
neek, tail, and four feet. The upper shield, which is
called the carpace, is formed by the ribs, of which there
are eight pairs ; these are widened and reunited by den-
ticulated sutures, and with plates adhering to the
annular portion of the dorsal vertebrae, in such a man-
ner, that all these parts are deprived of mobility. The
lower shell, called the plastron, is formed of pieces,
usually nine or ten in number, analogous to a sternum ;
and this has been denominated the sternum by the more
recent writers on natural history. A frame work, con-
sisting of bony pieces, which have been considered as
analogous with the cartilaginous portion of the ribs in
the mammalia, generally encompasses the upper shell,
uniting all the ribs which comprise it. The vertebrae
of the neck and tail are alone movable. These two
bony envelopes being covered with skin or by scales, the
scapula and all the muscles of the arms and neck, in-
stead of being articulated to the ribs and spine, as in
other animals, are attached beneath; the same arrange-
ment is found in the bones of the pelvis, and also in all
the muscles of the thigh, so that in this respect tor-
toises have been termed retroverted animals. The ver-
tebral extremity of the scapula is articulated with the
shield, and the opposite extremity of the clavicle with
the breastplate or sternum, in such a manner, that the
shoulders form a ring for the passage of the trachea and
oesophagus. A third and larger bony branch, is directed
downward and backwards, representing the coracoid
apophysis in birds. The lungs are extensive, and situated
in the same cavity with the other viscera. The thorax
being immovable in the greater number, it is by the
action of the mouth that the tortoise respires ; this pro-
cess being effected by keeping the jaws closed, and
alternately raising and depressing the os hyoides. The
first movement permits the air to enter by the nostrils,
and the tongue afterwards closing the interior opening,
the second movement forces the air into the lungs. Tor-
toises are devoid of teeth; their jaws are invested by a
horny covering, similar to the mandibles of birds, ex-
SUPPLEMENTAL NOTE ON REPTILES.
433
cent in the Chelids, where they are covered with a skin
only. Their tympanum and palatine arch are fixed to
the cranium and immovable; the tongue is short and
bristled with fleshy filaments; then- stomach simple and
strong; their intestines of medium length, and destitute
of a caecum. Tortoises lay numerous eggs, which are
invested by a hard shell . These are deposited in the
warm sand, under the influence of a southern sun, where
they are abandoned by the parents, and are hatched in
summer by the influence of the atmosphere. The ani-
mals of this order possess great tenacity of life, and they
have been known to move for several weeks after am-
putation of the head. They require but little nourish-
ment and can pass whole months, and even years, with-
out food.
II. The Sauria, or Lizards,\iave a heart with two au-
ricles, and a ventricle sometimes divided by imperfect
partitions and their body covered by scales, supported
by four or two feet. The ribs are movable, and par-
tially attached to the sternum, and can be raised or de-
pressed during respiration. The lung extends more or
less towards the posterior part of the body ; it frequently
penetrates very far into the lower part of the abdomen,
the transverse muscles of which pass under the ribs, and
even towards the neck to clasp it Those species in
which this organ is very large, possess the singular
faculty of changing the colours of their skin, according
to the excitement produced on them by their wants or
passions. Their mouth is invariably provided with
teeth, and in most instances, their toes are armed with
nails; their skin is covered with scales, more or less com-
pact, and in a few species with scaly granules. All the
species have a tail more or less long, which is very thick
at the base. Most of them have four legs, but a few have
only two. They subsist on animal food. Like the ani-
mals of the former order, they deposit their eggs favour-
ably to then: being hatched, where they abandon them ;
the young animal is hatched perfect Ln its form, and
never undergoes any metamorphosis.
III. The Ophidia, or Serpents, have a heart with two
auricles, and are destitute of feet, consequently they are
the only order of this class, to which the name reptile is
strictly applicable. Cuvier divides this order into three
families. In the first, the terms Anyuines, the te^th and
tongue of which are similar to those of the genus Seps,
of the preceding order, and the eye is provided with
three eyelids. In the second family, or the true serpents,
all the genera are destitute of a sternum or the slightest
developement of collar bones ; the ribs are articulated
to each other by a convex and a concave surface, and
encompass almost the entire circumference of the trunk.
They are devoid of the third eyelid and tympanum.
Although their heads are large, the true cranium forms
but a small portion of it. Their eyes are fixed, but they
are destitute of external ears. Their nostrils are short,
and but slightly developed, and are generally situate at
the extremity or sides of the muzzle. The Tongue
varies much with the species ; and although it is soft,
moist, long, and forked, it seems rather destined to assist
in seizing then- prey, than as an organ of taste. The scaly
covering with which they are invested, necessarily ren-
ders their sense of touch rather obtuse. They change
their skin at least once a year. The third family em-
braces the Naked serpents, or those remarkable animals |
which form the genus Ceecilia. -The whole animals of i
this order are provided with conical and curved teeth, |
which seem rather fitted for securing their prey, than i
for gnaAving their food. Some of the genera are furnished i
with previous fangs in the superior jaw, which, when j
erected, press a gland or sac, in which is a deadly !
poison, wliich flows through the tube, and is injected j
into the wounds pierced by the fangs. In many species, !
the jaws are united in the middle, which renders the
mouth susceptible of considerable dilatation, and en- !
ables them to swallow then- prey entire. The process
of digestion is extremely slow in all the animals of the
order ; and after feeding, they assume a lethargic con-
dition, in which they continue frequently for weeks.
Serpents possess a heart with two auricles and one ven-
tricle, divided into two compartments, and they have
only a single lung. Then- circulation is slow. The only
sound emitted by serpents is a hissing noise. The eggs
are usually protected by a covering, or shell, which is
somewhat calcareous ; when laid, they are commonly
VOL. II.
united like a string of beads, or in the form of a wreath
Some species are, however, viviparous.
IV. The Batradda are providi-d with a heart which
has but one auricle, and a single ventricle ; their body
is naked ; most of the species are metamorphosed from
the form of a fish, breathing by tile branchiae, or gills,
to that of a quadruped, breathing by lungs, when in a
perfect condition. In two genera, however, namely, the
Serena and Proteus, they retain the gills. In the
former condition the aorta leading from the heart is
branched into as many stems as there are gills. In
those species, the branches which lead to the gills are
all obliterated except two, which unite in a dorsal
artery, give off each a small branch to the lung. This
fact, as observed by Cuvier, is the circulation of a fish,
changed into that of a reptile. All the Batrachian rep-
tiles are destitute of scales, shields, or nails on their
toes : the whole body and limbs being covered only by
a naked skin. Their eggs have a membranous covering.
In some species fecundation is performed during the
extrusion of the eggs ; in others they are deposited in
some favourable situation, and afterwards impregnated
in the same manner as the spawn of fishes.
ORDER I.— CHELONIA.
Heart provided with two auricles ; body inveloped in
two bony plates or shields, which are formed from the
ribs and sternum ; furnished with four feet.
SUBDIVISION I. — LAND TORTOISES.
Testitdo.
Testudo radiata, the Radiated Tortoise. PI. 25, fig. 1.
SUBDIVISION II. — FRESHWATER TORTOISES.
Emys Europeea, European Eniys.
Em^s picta, the Painted Tortoise, pi. 25, fig. 2.
Cistuda.
Cisluda clausa, the Close Tortoise, pi. 25 fig. 3. In-
habits North America.
Chelonura Serperitina.
SUBDIVISION III.— SEA TORTOISES.
Olielonia.
Chelmna imbricata, the Hawk-billed Turtle. PI 25, f.
4. Inhabits the seas of the Torrid Zone.
Chelys fan liricata .
Trionyx feroae.
ORDER II.— SAURIA.
Body elongated, invested with scales, generally fur-
nished with four feet ; toes armed with claws, at least
in part ; tail more or less long ; mouth generally with
numerous teeth.
FAMILY I. — CROCODII-IDA
Body elongated, covered with square scales, of which
the upper and under are the largest, and those above,
raised into a ridge or corina in the middle ; provided
with four feet, with five toes before, and five behind, the
three interior armed with nails, and all of them more ot
less united by membranes ; each jaw provided with a
single row of acute teeth ; tongue fleshy, depressed,
and almost entirely attached to the lower jaw ; tail
compressed, and provided above with a strongly dentat-
ed crest. The whole animals of this family are large,
their bodies are covered with square, or oblong scales,
of which those above form elevated lines, which are
raised into a double crest on the tail. Their heads are
long in proportion to the body, and ponderous; their
jaws are articulated behind the cranium. Their nostrils
form an elongated canal, which has its origin in the
throat, and terminates at the point of the muzzle, where
it is provided with a semilunar orifice, which it can open
or shut at pleasure. Their eyes are furnished with
three eyelids ; the exterior ear is very small and can be
closed at the will of the animal, by means of two fleshy
coverings ; under the tin-oat there are two glands which
secrete a musky substance, through small orifices. The
crocodiles are the only family of this order which are
destitute of clavicles, or collarbones; but their coracoid
3i
434
SUPPLEMENTAL NOTE ON REPTILES.
apophysis is attached to the sternum, as in all the
others.
Gaviala.
Gaviala Gangetica, the Gangetic Crocodile. PI. 25, f.
6. Grows from twelve to eighteen feet in length. In-
habits the rivers of India, and is very numerous in the
Ganges.
Crocodilus.
Crocodilus vulgaris, the Common Crocodile. PL 25, f.
5. This animal grows to the great size of from twenty
to thirty feet in length.
Alligator.
Alligator sclerops, the Common Alligator. PI. 25, f. 7.
Grows from eighteen to twenty feet in length. Inhabits
Guiana and Brazil. Crocodile's Egg, f. 12.
FAMILY II. — LACERTINID^B.
The members of this family are characterised by a
slender extensible tongue, terminating in two long fila-
mentary processes like the viper. Their bodies are
elongated, and their motions rapid. All their feet are
provided witli five toes, armed with nails, which are
separate and unequal, particularly those on the hind
feet. Under the abdomen and around the tail, their
scales are disposed in traverse and parallel bands. Their
tympanum is on a level with the head ; the eyes are
protected by a produced skin, which is longitudinally
cleft, and which shuts by a sphincter. Under the an-
terior angle there is a rudimentary third eyelid. Their
false ribs do not form a complete circle.
Monitor.
This genus is divided into sections. 1. With a com-
pressed and carinated tail. 2. Tail nearly round, with
a dentated ridge above. 3. Tail nearly round without
a carinated ridge above. Of the last section is the land
Monitor, which inhabits Egypt, and is trained by the
jugglers of Cairo, to perform tricks, they having previous-
ly extracted their teeth.
Dracaena.
Dracaena Guianensis. PI. 25, f. 1 0. Body reddish
brown, blended with green. From four to six feet long.
Inhabits Guiana. Its flesh is eaten by the natives.
There are two sections of this genus, viz. 1. With a
carinated tail. 2. With the tail smooth and compressed
towards the point.
Teius. There are two sections of this genus. 1. Tail
carinated. 2. Tail smooth ; compressed towards the
point.
Teius Teguicin, the Teguixin Lizard. PI. 25, f. 15.
Body black, spotted with blue above, and of a bluish
hue below. Nearly six feet long. Inhabits Brazil.
Amevia.
Atmtvia lemniscata, the Striped Amevia. PI. 25, f. 1 1 .
Inhabits Africa.
Lacerta.
Tachydromus.
FAMILY III.— IGUANIDA
Lizard shaped ; with a thick, fleshy, and not exten-
sible tongue, which is notched at the point.
Cordylus. Head simple.
Stellio. Head inflated behind.
AiMyrhynchus. Head short and truncated.
Agama. With a tumid head.
Affama muricata, the Muricated Agama. PI. 25, f. 8.
Trapdus. Head tumid ; scales small and destitute of
spines. The only species of this genus is the Egyptian
Trapelus, which has the property of changing the col-
our of its skin, in a still more remarkable degree than
the cameleon.
Calotes. Upwards of a foot long. Inhabits New South
Wales.
Lophyrus.
BcutUem,
Basilicus mitratus, the Mitred Basilisk. PI. 25, f. 9.
Inhabits Brazil. The flesh is eatable. There are only
two species of this genus known, that above described,
and the Aboyna Basilisk ; they are disagreeable look-
ing animals, but are entirely destitute of the deadly
properties attributed by the ancients to the fabulous
animal of that name.
Draco.
Draco lineatus, the Flying Dragon. PI. 25, f. 16. Never
exceeding nine or ten inches in length. Inhabits Asia
and Africa.
Iguana.
Iguana vulgaris, the Common Guana. PL 25, f. 13. _
Polychrus. Like the chameleon, the animals of this
genus have the power of changing colour.
Anolius. There are two sections of this genus. 1.
With the tail crested. 2. With the tail rounded.
FAMILY IV.— GECKOTID^E.
Gecko. Head considerably depressed ; eyes large ;
tongue fleshy, but not extensible ; jaws provided with
a series of small close-set teeth, body flattened, covered
above with small shagreen-like scales, and frequently
tuberculate ; below the scales are smaller, flat, and
imbricated ; tail with circular folds ; toes widened their
whole length, or at the extremity only, with the skin
plated or scaly. The animals of this genus have the
power of ascending perpendicular walls, and they can
even walk on ceilings. Cuvier divides the genus into
the following subgenera : —
I. Platydactyli.
II. Hemidactyli.
III. Thecadactyli.
IV. Ptyodaciyli.
Ptyodactyli caudiverfera, the Scalloped-tailed Gecko.
PL 25, f. 1 4. Inhabits Arabia.
V. Phyluri. Animals similar in form to the Gecko.
FAMILY V. — CHAMJSLEONIDVE.
Cliamceleon. Tongue fleshy, cylindrical, and extremely
extensible ; teeth trilobed ; eyes large, but nearly cov-
ered by a skin, and with separate movements ; destitute
of an external ear ; occiput pyramidal ; body com-
pressed, back edged or carinated, the whole covered
with small shagreen-like granules ; all the feet furnished
with five toes, which are divided into two sets : the
one with three toes, and the other with two, eacli
united to the nails by a membrane ; tail round and
prehensile.
Chamceleon vulgaris, the Common Chameleon. PL '25,
f. 17. Twenty-two inches long, including the tail. In-
habits India and Africa.
FAMILY VI. — SCINCID.*;.
Tongue not extensible ; body covered with equal-
sized inbricated scales ; legs short.
Scincus.
Scincus occiduus, the Galley wasp. PL 25, f. 26. From
twelve to eighteen inches in length. Inhabits Jamaica.
Seps.
Seps palustris, the Great Water Newt. PL 25, f. 18.
Inhabits stagnant waters in Europe.
Bipes.
Bipes apus, the Apoidal Apus. PL 25, f. 27. Inhabits
the shores of the Volga.
Ckolcides.
Chirotea.
ORDER III.— OPHIDIA.
Body greatly cylindrical, elongated, generally covered
with scales, and destitute of feet.
FAMILY I. — ANGUINES.
With small teeth nearly of equal size : tongue uni-
formly notched ; ribs more or less united, being a sub-
stitute for a sternum : eyes provided with three eyelids.
Ophisaurus.
Anguis.
Acoidias.
FAMILY II. — SERPENTES.
The species of this family are very numerous, and are
all destitute of a sternum and scapular bones, and want
the third eyelid, and also the tympanum. Cuvier sub-
divides them. The first subdivision includes those
which have the lower jaw supported by a tympanal
bone articulated to the cranium ; the two branches
of this jaw fixed before, and those of the upper jaw to
the cranium, and to an .intermaxilltary bone : which
SUPPLEMENTAL NOTE ON REPTILES.
435
prevents their dilatation. The eyes are small ; the
body cylindrical and covered with scales ; the tongue
short ; the trachea long ; the heart situate far behind,
and provided with a single lung only.
I.— JAWS NOT DILATABLE.
Amphistieena.
Amphisl&itafuliginosa, the Shining Ampliisbaena. Two
feet long. Inhabits Ceylon. PI. 25. f. 25.
Tt/pklops.
II.— JAWS DILATABLE.
(1.) Body Cylindrical, with Short Tongue.
Tortruc.
(2.) Occiput more or less gibbous Tongue Forked and
Extensible.
Boa.
Boacanina, the South American Boa. PI. 25, f. 24. In-
habits South America. In this genus are included the
largest serpents, some of which peach from thirty to
forty feet in length.
Eric.
Erpeton.
(3.) Shields un ler the tail ranged in pairs.
Python.
Ifurria.
Dipsas.
Coluber.
Dryinus.
Leptophis.
Acrocliordus.
(4.) Serpents provided with Poison Fangs.
The teeth in this section are fewer in number in the
exterior row, than in the preceding section ; the first of
those teeth is larger than the others, it is hollow and
conducts the poison from the sac into the wound.
Pseudoboa.
Trimeresurus.
Hydropjiis.
Pelamts.
Chersydrus.
(5.) With isolated Fangs.
Crotalus.
Crotalus horridtts, the Common Rattlesnake. PI. 25,
f. 23. From four to six feet long. Inhabits America.
Scytalus.
Acanthophis.
Lanyalia.
(6.) Abdomen with Transverse Plates, divided into two
under the Tail.
Trigonooephalia.
Plataurus.
Naia.
Elaps.
Cobra.
Vipera.
FAMILY III.— NAKED SERPENTS.
CfBdlia. Eyes extremely small ; body cylindrical,
-ikin naked, with longitudinle folds.
ORDER IV.— BATRACHIA.
Heart with one auricle ; body covered with naked
skin ; lungs two, in the mature condition, but provided
with branchiae, like fishes, in their early state.
Rana.
Rana taurina, the Bull Frog. PI. 25, f. 21. Inhabits
North America.
Hyla.
Bufo.
Bufofuscus, the Brown Toad. PI. 25, f. 22. Inhabits
Germany.
Pipa.
Salamandra. •
This genus is divided into sections :
1. Terrestial — Tail rounded in' the adult state.
2. Aquatic — Tail compressed.
Proteus.
Proteus anffttinus, the Proteus. PI. 25, f. 20. This is
the only species of the genus, and has several remarka-
ble peculiarities. Besides being furnished with lungs,
it has three tufted branchiae on each side, which it
seems to retain through life. The skeleton is nearly
allied to that of the salamander, but is provided with
more numerous vertebrae ; and the general form of the
cranium is considerably different. It inhabits dark
subterraneous streams, in Carniola ; and is the only
animal known to exist in such situations.
Siren. Provided with a short thick adherent tongue ;
having both persistant branchiae and interior lungs ;
body elongated, cylindrical, and furnished with a com-
pressed tail ; it has two feet only, which are placed for-
wards on the body, each provided with four toes.
Siren laeertina, the Siren. PI. 25, f. 19. From two
to three feet long. Inhabits the marshes of South Car-
olina. There is but one species of this remarkable
genus : which, like the Proteus, retains during its life,
three free branchial tufts, situate on each side of the
neck, while it has at the same time lungs for breath-
ing, formed in the ordinary manner.
HISTORY OF INSECTS,
BOOK I.
INSECTS OF THE FIRST ORDER.
CHAP. I.
OF INSECTS IN GENERAL.
HAVING gone through the upper ranks of Na-
ture, we descend to that of insects ; a subject
1 Insects.^The following is Blummenhach's descrip-
tion of Insects. We have already given his account of
Birds and of Fishes.
Insects (he says) derive their name from the circum-
stance, that, at least in the perfect state, the head, thorax,
and abdomen are separated from one another, as though by
incisions, nay, in many cases, seem as though connected
only by a thread. Besides this, however, they are dis-
tinguished, with a few exceptions among the Genera of
the Apterous Order, by peculiar ;md often very sensible or-
gans, which, in the perfect state, are affixed to the head,
(Antennae or feelers,) which are always articulated at the
root and, in addition, often, formed into several joints;
and lastly, by their horny, jointed legs, the number
being always greater than in other animals; in perfect in-
sects at least six, and in many instances, as many as one
hundred and fifty, &c.
These characters excepted, insects, in general, have
but little in their external appearance that is common to
all. The almost incalculable number of species, the
endless variety of offices they are destined to perform,
and the consequent difference of their modes of life,
wants, &c. require an extreme diversity in their forms,
in which respect, as well as in the inequality of their
sizes, we find remarkable contrasts.
Even their external coverings are much more diver-
sified than is the case among other animals. Many are
protected by a horny coat, composed of several portions,
moving on one another like the pieces of a gauntlet,
which serve to secure them from the effects of various
accidents, and to compensate the deficiency of bones,
which in other animals afford attachment to muscles, &c.
Many are covered with fine hairs, and in butterflies, &c.
the wings with little feathers or rather scales, which are
occasionally of most beautiful colours : indeed, I may
remark, that many animals of undescribable beauty are
included in this class.
Insects also differ materially from other animals, with
regard to the disposition of their organs of sense, and, pro.
uahly, their mode of sensation, insomuch that, many
naturalists have refused them certain of our external
senses, as hearing and smell ; but without justice, as the
almost inexhaustible, from the number of its
tribes, and the variety of their appearance.
Those who have professedly written on this
subject, seem to consider it as one of the great-
est that can occupy the human mind, as the
most pleasing in animated nature. — " Alter
former clearly exists in many which emit certain sounds,
as an enticement at the time of breeding, and the latter
in a still greater number, which are capable of smelling
out their food, though hidden.
The eyes of insects are particularly remarkable, arid
with respect to their structure, are of two kinds. The
first are large hemispheres, mostly composed of thousands
of facets, but in some instances, of numerous conical
points, and covered on the inner surface with a layer
sometimes glittering, sometimes variegated. Such are
found in most winged insects, but also in many Aptera,
as the lobster, &c. Those of the second kind (stemma-
ta, ocelli,) are simple, small, and vary as well in num-
ber as position. Eyes of the first kind seem calculated
for seeing at a distance ; of the second, for looking at
near objects ; at least it may be supposed so, as we find
that butterflies, in their winged perfect state, have such
large, compound, telescopic eyes, whilst as caterpillars,
they have small myopic ones. Only a few insects,
crabs, for instance, can move their eyes.
The Antennse (feelers) which vary much in different
species, in many instances even according to the sex,
and which many naturalists have supposed to be organs
of smell, taste, &c., seem to be nothing more than their
name implies — organs of feeling, probes, which are of
great importance to insects on account of their hard, in-
sensible covering, and the immobility of their eyes in
most instances. They appear to possess their most acute
feeling in the Antennae, as man has in the tips of the
fingers ; and as for the most part they live in darkness,
supply the want of light by this contrivance. On the
other hand, the purposes of the Palpi, placed near the
organs of mastication, found in almost all insects, and
considered by some naturalists to be organs of sense, are
as yet undetermined.
In their internal structure also, insects differ ma-
terially from red-blooded animals. — For instance, what
has been considered as a heart in caterpillars, is a long
canal of unequal width, placed along the back, but with-
out any vessel arising from it ; consequently, the nutrition
of these insects must be effected in a peculiar manner,
totally different from that of red-blooded animals. On
INSECTS IN GENERAL.
437
an attentive examination," says Swammer-
dam, "of the nature and anatomy of the
smallest as well as the largest animals, I can-
not help allowing the least an equal, or, per-
the other hand, they are provided with an incalculable
number of air-vessels of an astonishingly delicate struc-
ture, and with numerous muscles, differing, however, as
well in form as in colour, from those of red-blooded ani-
mals.
Although insects stand in need of the exchange of
carbon of oxygen to effect the continuance for life, there
are but few, as crabs, grasshoppers, many cicada; and
chafers, in which a motion resembling respiration can be
observed. Insects in general breathe, not by the mouth,
but by many spiracula *. The greater number of them
can live in a vacuum much longer than red-blooded
animals, and many in mephitic atmospheres so fatal to
others, and in which animal and vegetable substances
become putrid, as carburetted hydrogen gas, &c.
The abode of insects on and under the surface of the
earth, is much less limited than that of the other classes
uf animals. They are found on almost all warm-blooded
animals, and even the larger insects, as bees, chafers,
&c., are infested by peculiar kinds of lice. There are but
few plants, also, (such as perhaps, the yew, savine, and
most tree-mosses,) which do not serve for the abode and
support of known insects. Many again, as the oak, are
frequented and inhabited by more than a hundred dis-
tinct species. Generally, however, as insects are diffused
over the earth, the residence of individual species is not
less frequently limited to a very small number of ani-
mals and plants, or even particular parts of them.
Only a few insects live in a social state, affording
mutual assistance in their labours. The greater number
follow their pursuits singly : many, as spiders, live in
society when young, but afterwards separate and live in
a state of solitude, seeing creatures of the same species
only at the time of pairing.
The remarkable edifices and habitations, which so
many insects are capable of executing, have been already
mentioned in speaking of instinct. There are but few
creatures of this class which do not, at least onc« in their
life, give proofs of this natural power of construction ;
either, as the cloth-moth and water-moth, form a habita-
tion in their complete and larva state ; or, like others,
spin and prepare a receptacle to contain them during
their metamorphosis and death. like sleep ; or like the
lion-ant, dig pits ; and like the spider, weave webs for
their prey ; or like many species of the genus Dyticus,
and some spiders, form bags or nets for the security of
their posterity, and in which they deposit their eggs.
Many of those which live in communities, build common
residences, by their united powers, and under the
guidance of an extremely regular, geometrical, innate
instinct.
As to the kind of nourishment in insects, it is easy to
see that it is not, as in most red-blooded animals, calcu-
lated merely for the preservation of the individual, but
more particularly for the purpose of consuming organized
matter. Insects must eat, not solely to satisfy hunger,
but also to destroy carrion, to annihilate other insects, to
extirpate weeds, &c. — An admirable provision, to the
execution of which, besides the almost incalculable num-
ber of species, the extremely rapid multiplication of
many, the unexampled voracity of others, and the quick-
ness with which digestion is carried on in their very
short intestinal canal, all tend to contribute. Thus it is
known that a caterpillar will in twenty-four hours con-
* On the other liand, this class, in proportion to its vast
number of species, contains but few aquatic animals : and of
these, but very few exist in the oc-ean, which forms the abode
or by far the greater number of species in the preceding and
succeeding classes.
haps, a superior degree of dignity. If, while
we dissect with care the largest animals, we
are filled with wonder at the elegant disposi-
tion of their parts ; to what a height is our
stime more than three times its own weight. — The organs
of mastication in insects are more diversified than in any
other class of animals : many are provided with jaws,
having teeth and moving laterally : others, with a horny,
pointed snout, (rostrum) for boring; others with a
fleshy snout having a wide opening, (proboscis} ; and
others with a tongue, so called, rolled into a spiral shape.
Some insects are secured from the attacks of their
enemies by their deceptive form ; others by having the
same colour as the plants on which they live, and con-
sequently being Jess readily noticed ; others, by the
powerful smell which they can diffuse in case of neces-
sity; others by their social mode of life ; others again by
their astonishing strength, &c. Many are provided
with weapons, as horns like forceps or nippers, or with
stings and venom.
In the mode of propagation of insects there are also
many peculiarities. Thus the two sexes in one and the
same species are often so extremely different in form
that they seem like animals of distinct kinds: in bee?,
and many similar insects, the greater number is without
sex ; that is to say, they are themselves produced with-
out being destined in the ordinary course of nature for
generation or impregnation.
This peculiarity extends in different insects to the
mode of copulation. In not a few species, for instance,
it is effected in flying, and many possess wings only
during the short season of breeding. In general, the
greater number live in a state of compulsory monogamy,
inasmuch as they are incapable of copulating more than
once in the course of life : death is with them so
inevitable a result of their first copulation, that life may
be prolonged by delaying the period of sexual connec-
tion.
Among other peculiarities of the business of propa-
gation in insects, many, as the cochineal-worm, the
land-flea, become of an enormous size during pregnancy:
thus, in the white aut, it has been calculated that the
abdomen of the female, when about to lay her eggs, is
2000 times larger than previous to impregnation.
Most insects lay eggs, which the mother, by a truly
wonderful instinct, always deposits precisely in the situa-
tions best adapted for the future progeny. Many, for in-
stance, lay their eggs in the bodies of living insects of
other kinds, as in caterpillars, pupae, &c. ; or even in the
eggs of other kinds of insects. The eggs of insects are
occasionally, particularly among butterflies, of very vari-
ous and remarkable form and appearance, and when de-
posited by the mother in the open air, are covered with
a kind of varnish, protecting them from the des-
tructive influence of rain and other accidents. Some few
insects are viviparous, and many, as the plant-lice
(Aphides), propagate in both ways.
A very remarkable phenomenon, almost confined to
this class of animals, or at least much less striking in the
others, is their metamorphosis. There is not any winged
insect which escapes from the egg as such, but al), as
well as many insects which have not wings, must firs!
undergo a kind of change at certain periods of their ex-
istence. By this, not only their external form, but also
at the same time their internal structure, contrary to com-
mon opinion, is altered in a certain degree, a circum-
stance which by no means coincides with the supposed
pre-existence of pre-formed germs.
If the moth existed already formed in .the caterpillar,
we should at least expect that similar moths should be
produced by similar caterpillars. But many American
caterpillars, which resemble European ones in the closest
mannerpossible, give origin to moths having totally clif-
438
HISTORY OF INSECTS.
astonishment raised, when we discover all
these parts arranged in the least in the same
regular manner ! Notwithstanding the small-
ness of ants, nothing hinders our preferring
ferent forms: — and on the other hand, many remarkably
similar moths of both these parts of the world, are devel-
oped from caterpillars altogether unlike.
Insects which undergo metamorphosis are called
Larva, whilst in the state in which they escape from
the egg. They are mostly very small on their first ap-
pearance, so that a full grown caterpillar ot the willow
moth for instance, is 72,000 times heavier than when it
issues from the egg. On the other hand, they grow
with great rapidity, so that as an example, the maggot
of the meat-fly, at the end of twenty-four hours, is 155
times heavier than at its birth. Some larvae have feet,
as caterpillars and the grubs of chafers ; others have not,
as maggots : none have wings. In this state also they
are incapable of propagating ; they merely feed, increase,
and change their covering several times.
The form into which the larva is converted is called
nympha. Many can move about and take food when in
this state. Others, on the contrary, are covered up, as
pupae (chrysalis, Aurelia), and pass this portion of their
life in a state of torpor without eating or moving.
During the time, however, that the creature thus lies
insensible and torpid within its coverings, a great change
is going forward, by which it quits the larva-state, and
is enabled to leave its prison as a perfect insect (Insectum
declaratum, imago). Many insects finish this last por.
tiou of their existence in a very short time. Several,
when they break from the coverings of the larva-state
are unprovided with a mouth, and cease to eat or grow.
These two functions of all organized bodies they per-
formed while larvae; a third only remains — to propa-
gate the species, and then to give way to their posterity
and perish.
The immediate utility of insects to man, is but
limited ; but, on the other hand, the parts which these small
and unnoticed animals perform in the general economy
of nature, is in an equal degree varied and incalculable.
Some destroy numerous kinds of weeds in the bud, or
extirpate them when full grown. Another extremely
useful object is effected by many insects which feed on
carrion, live in dung, &c., and by that means destroy,
disperse and change noxious animal substances ; on the
one hand, obviating the infection of the air, and on the
other, promoting the fertilization of the earth. It is in
this way, for instance, that flies are so serviceable in warm
climates. So again, there are innumerable insects which
effect the impregnation of plants in a very remarkable
manner, as a species of Cynips is employed for the
artificial fructifications of the fig. Various kinds of
insects are used as baits for fishing. Many animals of
this class, as crabs and some kinds of locusts, are eatable.
So also is the honey of bees, from which mead is pre-
pared in many parts of Europe arid Africa. Silk is em-
ployed for clothing and many other purposes. Several
insects afford excellent dyes, as cochineal, &c. Galls
are employed for ink, — wax for lights, and other pur-
poses. Lac, which is the product of certain Indian species
of coccus, is employed to make varnish, sealing-wax, &c.
As medicines, we have Spanish flies, wood-lice, ants —
the oil-beetle, recommended in hydrophobia, and many
beetles for relieving toothache.
Great as is the utility of insects, the injury done by
many is also very considerable. Many are noxious to
the products of the earth in general, cause scarcity, or
as locusts, destroy every thing in their course. Some are
especially injurious to corn ; others, as caterpillars,
grubs, &c., to garden-plant?, or fruit-trees; the various
species of coccus, to orange-trees in particular ; the
larv.T of some species of dermestes, &c. to forest trees ;
them to the largest animals ; if we consider
either their unwearied diligence, their won-
derful strength, or their inimitable propensity
to labour. Their amazing love to their young
is still more unparalleled among the larger
classes. They not only daily carry them to
such places as may afford them food ; but if,
by accident, they are killed, and even cut
into pieces, they, with the utmost tenderness,
will carry them away, piecemeal, in their
arms. Who can show such an example
among the larger animals, which are dignified
with the title of perfect? Who can find an
instance in any other creature, that can come
in competition with this ?"
Such is the language of a man, who, by
long study, become enamoured of this subject;
but to those who judge less partially, it will
be found that the insect tribe, for every reason,
deserve but the last and lowest rank in uni-
mated nature. As in mechanics the most
complicated machines are required to perform
the nicest operations, so in anatomy the noblest
animals are most variously and wonderfully
made. — Of all living beings, man oilers the
most wonderful variety in his internal confor-
mation; quadrupeds come next, and other
animals follow in proportion to their powers
or their excellencies. Insects seem, of all
others, the most imperfectly formed : from
their minuteness, the dissecting knife can go
but a short way in the investigation ; but one
thing argues an evident imperfection, which
is, that many of them can live a long time,
though deprived of those organs which are
necessary to life in the higher ranks of nature.
Many of them are furnished with lungs and a
heart, like nobler animals ; yet the caterpillar
continues to live, though its heart and lungs,
which is often the case, are entirely eaten
away.
But it is not from their conformation alone,
that insects are inferior to other animals, but
from their instincts also. It is true that the
ant and the bee present us with very strik-
ing instances of assiduity ; but how far are
theirs beneath the mark of sagacity exhibited
in the hound or the stag ! A bee, taken from
the swarm, is totally helpless and inactive,
incapable of giving the smallest variation to
its instincts : it has but one single method of
operating, and, if put from that, it can turn to
no other. In the pursuits of the hound, there
is something like a choice ; in the labours o'f
ants, &c. to meadows; cock-roaches, to victuals; the
white ants, &c. to furniture ; moths to woollen goods,
fur, &c. ; the larvae of many small insects, to books,
collections of natural history, &c. Lastly, some kinds
of vermin infest man, horses, sheep, fowls, other domes-
tic animals, and even other serviceable insects, as bees,
silk-worms. Others agtin, as scorpions, are formidable
by their venom.
INSECTS IN GENERAL.
439
the bee, the whole appears like necessity or
compulsion.
It' insects be considered as bearing a rela-
tion to man, and as assisting him in the plea-
sures or necessities of life, they will, even in
this respect, sink in the comparison with the
larger tribes of nature. It is true that the bee,
the silk-worm, the cochineal fly, and the can-
tharides, render him signal services ; but how
many others of this class are either noxious or
totally unserviceable to him ? Even in a coun-
try like ours, where all the noxious animals
have been reduced by repeated assiduity, the
insect tribes still maintain their ground, and
are but too often unwelcome intruders upon the
fruits of human industry. But in more un-
cultivated regions, their annoyance and devas-
tations are terrible. What an uncomfortable
life must the natives lead in Lapland, and some
parts of America, where, if a candle be lighted,
the insects swarm in such abundance, as in-
stantly to extinguish it with their numbers ;
where the inhabitants are obliged to smear their
bodies and faces with tar, or some other com-
position, to protect them from the puncture of
their minute enemies ; where, though millions
are destroyed, famished millions are still seen
to succeed, and to make the torture endless !
Their amazing number is also an argument
of their imperfection. It is a rule that obtains
through all nature, that the nobler animals are
slowly produced, and that nature acts with a
kind of dignified economy ; but the meaner
births are lavished in profusion, and thousands
are brought forth merely to supply the neces-
sities of the more favourite objects of creation.
Of all other productions in nature, insects are
the most numerous. Vegetables that cover
the surface of the earth, bear no proportion to
their multitudes ; and though, at tirst sight,
herbs of the field seem to be the parts of orga-
nized nature produced in the greatest abun-
dance ; yet, upon minuter inspection, we shall
iind every plant supporting a number of
scarcely perceptible creatures, that fill up the
various stages of youth, vigour, and age, in
the compass of a few days' existence.
All other animals are capable of some de-
gree of education ; their instincts may be sup-
pressed or altered : the dog may be taught to
fetch and carry ; the bird to whistle a tune ;
and the serpent to dance : but the insect has
but one invariable method of operating ; no
arts can turn it from its instincts ; and, indeed,
its life is too short for instruction, as a single
season often terminates its existence.
For these reasons, the insect tribe are deser-
vedly placed in the lowest rank of animated
nature; and, in general, they seem more allied
to the vegetables on which they feed, than to
the nobler classes above them. Many of them
are attached to one vegetable, often to a sin-
gle leaf ; there they increase with the flourish-
ing plant, and die as it decays ; a few days
fill up the measure of their contemptible lives ;
while the ends for which they-were produced,
or the pleasures they enjoyed, to us at least,
are utterly unknown.
Yet while I am thus fixing the rank of a
certain class of animals, it seems necessary to
define the nature of those animals which are
thus degraded. Definitions in general pro-
duce little knowledge ; but here, where the
shades of nature are so intimately blended,
some discrimination is necessary to prevent
confusion. The smallness of the animal, for
instance, does not constitute an insect ; for
then, many of the lizard kind, which are not
above two inches long, would come under this
denomination ; and if the smaller lizards, why
not the crocodile ? which would be a terrible
insect indeed ! In the same manner, small-
ness, with a slow creeping motion, does not
constitute an insect; for, though snails might
be called insects, with the same propriety the
whole tribe of sea shell-fish would then have
equal pretensions ; and a very troublesome in-
novation would be brought info our language,
which is already formed. Excluding such
animals, therefore, from the insect tribe, we
may define insects to be little animals without
red blood, bones, or cartilages, furnished with a
trunk, or else a mouth, opening lengthwise, with
eyes which they are incapable of covering, and
with lungs which have their opening on the sides.
This definition comprehends the whole class of
insects, whether with or without wings ; whe-
ther in their caterpillar or butterfly state ;
whether produced in the ordinary method of
generation between male and female, or from
an animal that is itself both male and female,
or from the same animal cut into several parts,
and each part producing a perfect animal.
From hence it appears, that in this class of
animals there are numerous distinctions, and
that a general description will by no means
serve for all. Almost every species has its
own distinct history ; and exhibits manners,
appetites, and modes of propagation, peculiarly
its own. In the larger ranks of existence, two
animals that nearly resemble each other iti
form, will be found to have a similar history ;
but here insects almost entirely alike will be
often found perfectly dissimilar, as well in
their manner of bringing forth and subsisting,
as in the changes which they undergo during
their short lives. Thus, as this class is proli-
fic beyond computation, so are its varieties
multiplied beyond the power of description.
The attempt to enumerate all the species of a
fly or a moth would be very fruitless ; but to
give a history of all would be utterly imprac-
ticable : so various are the appetites, the mari-
ners, and the lives of this humble class of
440
HISTORY OF INSECTS.
beings, that every species requires its distinct
history. An exact plan, therefore, of Nature's
operations in this minute set of creatures, is
not to be expected; and yet such a general
picture may be given, as is sufficient to show
the protection which Providence affords its
smallest as well as its largest productions, and
to display that admirable circulation in nature
by which one set of living beings find subsis-
tence from the destruction of another ; and by
which life is continued without a pause in
every part of the creation.
Upon casting a slight view over the whole
insect tribe, just when they are supposed to
rouse from their state of annual torpidity, when
they begin to feel the genial influence of
spring, and again exhibit new life in every
part of nature, their numbers and their varie-
ties seem to exceed all powers of calculation,
and they are indeed too great for description.
When we look closer, however, we shall find
some striking similitudes, either in their pro-
pagation, their manners, or their form, that
give us a hint for grouping several of them
into one description, and thus enabling us to
shorten the labour of a separate history for
every species. Swammerdam, Reaumur, and
Linnaeus, have each attempted to abridge the
task of description, by throwing a number of
similar animals into distinct classes, and thus
making one general history stand for all. I
will avail myself of their labours ; and uniting
their general distinctions, throw the whole
class of insects into four separate distributions,
giving under each the history of every species
that seems to me considerable enough to de-
serve our notice. Thus our labour will be
shortened ; and the very rank in which an in-
sect is placed, will, in some measure, exhibit
a considerable part of its history.1
1 Sketch of the History of Insects. — The observation
of this numerous, diversified, and interesting class of
beings, and, consequently, the origin of entomological
science, must necessarily have been coeval with the crea-
tion of man. About five hundred years before Christ
Hippocrates wrote upon insects. Aristotle describes them
as consisting of three parts — head, trunk and abdomen :
he then speaks of what he calls tribes of insects, dividing
them, from their mode of progression, into those that walk
and those that fly, noticing and commenting on their wings,
proboscis, antenna;, and feet, carefully observing the latter,
and exhibiting in this, as in every other department of
zoology, that accuracy whichsoeminently distinguished the
philosophical preceptor of Alexander the Great. Pliny is
the next author of any note whose attention seems to have
been directed to the study in question, for, in his ele-
venth book, he speaks of various bees, wasps, &c. From
this period, down to 1519, when the work of Albertus
Magnus upon insects was published, the science made a
silent but certain progress. Its advance in the succeed-
ing thirty years is visible in the efficient attempt at a
better system of classification than had hitherto prevailed,
in the De Animalibus Subterraneis of the last mentioned
author, in 1549. He there divides insects into three
classes —those th&t walk, those that Hy, and those that
In our cursory inspection of the insect tribe,
the first animals that offer themselves are those
which want wings, that appear crawling about
on every plant, and on every spot of earth we
swim, describing several species of each class. In 1552,
Wotton published his De Differentiis Ammulium, and
was followed by numerous writers ou the subject of in-
sects, whose books possessed more or less merit: some of
them were illustrated with figures, and all tended toren«
der the study more worthy of the name of a science.
We may mention in particular the folio of the learned
and liberal Aldrovandus, 1602, and M outlet's Jnsectorum
Theatrum. The Experimenta, &c. of Redi, 1671, also
deserves especial attention for its triumphant refutation
of the then popular error of equivocal generation — an er-
ror whose origin is buried in the remotest antiquity, up-
held by the ancient philosophers, and not even yet eradi-
cated from the minds of the common people. Redi de-
monstrated the fact, that every living animal is derived
from an egg, deposited by a parent every way similar to
itself.
Previous to this, in 1669, the great work of Swam-
merdam— Ilistoria Insectorum Generulis—vi&s given to
the public, but was utterly neglected until the death of
the author, in 16SO. when it was instantly discovered to
be of such value as to demand a translation. No book,
seller could be found who would risk the expense of
printing the Biblia Katurae, a serond work from the
same pen, until it accidentally fell into the possession of
the learned Boerhaave, who published it, together with
the life of Swammerdam, in 17.88. In that book, which
is still considered as one of the most valuable we possess
on the anatomy of insects, he divides them into the four
following classes : — 1. those whose characters are con-
stant, undergoing no change whatever, and which preserve
for life the form in which they leave the ovum ; spiders,
&c. : 2. those which, on their liberation from the ovum,
have the appearance of an insect without wings, hut
otherwise completely formed, and that pass into the staty
of a nymph or chrysalis, from which they issue provided
with wings, and fitted for continuing the species ; dra-
gon-flies, &c. : 3. those which, having existed in the
ovum in a disguised form, leave it under the appearance
of an insect (caterpillar), which feeds and increases in
size, while the various parts of the new animal, into
which it is to be converted, are forming under its skin,
and finally becomes a nymph ; moths, butterflies, &c. :
4. those which, having arrived at maturity, do not divest
themselves of their skin, but pass into the chrysalis state
under it, remaining there till the metamorphosis is com-
pletely effected, when, quitting both skins at once, they
come forth in their final and perfect form ; ichneumons,
&c.
Malpighi and Vallisnieri also enriched the science
with the results of their observations, in common with
others of less note. The Memoires, &c., of Perranlt
(Paris, 1671), Lister's book on spiders, the Historia
Animalium Angliae, &c., (1678), and those of Ferrand,
Mollerus, and Berelio, all tended to the same result. In
1685, a Latin edition of the works of Goedart was pub-
lished by Dr Lister, just named, a learned entomologist
of that period, and physician to queen Anne, who gave a
new arrangement to the materials collected by his indus-
trious though not very acute author, who was more of a
collector and painter of insects than a scientific observer.
In that work, Lister establishes ten classes of Insects :-
1. moths with erect wings, or diurnal butterflies; 2.
moths with horizontal wings, the perfect insect of the ca-
terpillar, called the geometra by Goedart; 3. moths with
deflected wings; 4. libellulse; 5. bees; 6. beetles; 7.
grasshoppers; 8. dipterous flies; 9. millipedes; and, 10.
spiders. There is nothing, however, in this mode of di.
vision, which merits any peculiar praise, or that should
INSECTS IN GENERAL.
441
regard with any degree of attention. Of these,
some never obtain wings at any period of their
existence : but are destined to creep on the ve-
getable, or the spot of earth, where they are
stationed for their whole lives. On the con-
prevent us from passing immediately to the microscopi-
cal discoveries of the celebrated Leuwenhoeck, from
whose inventive genius and patient observations the sci-
ence received such essential benefit, not more by what he
himself discovered, than by the foundation he laid for
that system of close and minute observation which alone
leads to truth. Our limits will only permit us to desig-
nate Blankaart and Geyerus, as occupying a similar rank
with Goedart.
Ray, however, deserves more particulai notice. His
descriptions are very exact and detailed, and his various
works, Synopis Methodica Animalium, &c., (Lond.,
1783), Synopsis Methodica Aviuin et Piscium, (Lond.,
1713), and the Historia Insectorum (Loud., 1710), suf-
ficiently demonstrate his claim to the title of the first
true systematise His was the glory of serving as a zoo-
logical guide to the illustrious Swedish reformer, of whom
we shall soon have to speak. Ray divides insects into
two great classes — those which undergo a metamorphosis
after having been produced, and those which do not.
He again subdivides each of these classes into orders,
characterized by the feet, or by their absence ; by their
habitations ; hy the size or conformation of the various
parts of the body; by their larvae, &c. In this arrange-
ment were included certain tribes of vermes, subsequently
separated by Linrueus. The voluminous productions,
upon this subject, of the indefatigable Reaumur who di-
rected his researches into every department of science,
appeared in Paris in 6 vols., 4fo., 1734. — 1742. His
Memoires pour servir a I' Histoire des Insects — for such
is its modest title — is an admirable work, both with res-
pect to the number and value of the observations it con-
tains. It is to no lamented that the 7th volume, which
is completed, remains unpublished. The intended re-
maining ones were not commenced when Reaumur died,
in 1757.
But a greater name than any we have yet mentioned
is that of the illustrious reformer of the nomenclature of
the natural sciences. Notwithstanding the labours of so
many ingenious, learned and acute observers of nature,
the history of animals, and that of insects in particular,
remained in a confused state until the illustrious Linnaeus
reduced the chaotic pile to order. Directing all the en-
ergies of his clear and comprehensive mind to the sub-
ject, he produced, in his well known Systema Naturae,
\ 735, the first truly methodical work. In a final edition
of the same book, we find an arrangement of insects dif-
fering from that contained in the former; and, as that is
the one always referred to at tlie present day, and as his
divisions are, to a certain extent, still retained, we deem
it proper to notice it here. He divides insects into
caleoptera, kemoptera, lepidoptera, neuroptera, hymenop-
tera, diptera, and aptera. In this class were also inclu-
ded the Crustacea and arachnides, now forming the first
and second classes of the third great division of the ani-
mal kingdom, or the animalia articulata. The system
of Linnrens, though not a natural one, was well adapted
to the limited number of animals then known, and which,
with respect to insects, did not exceed 800 or 900. Its
subsequent alterations necessarily arose from the immense
number of new ones which the increasing zeal of obser-
vers detected in every part of the globe.
L'Admiral, Letharding, Lesser, Degeer, Roesel, Sco-
poli, and Geoffrey, all contributed and some of them
greatly, to multiply facts and detect errors. Lyonnet,
however, merits something more than the bare mention
of his name. Animated by a zeal that no disappoint-
ment could damp, and armed with a patience that set
VOL. u
trary, others are only candidates for a more
happy situation ; and only wait their-growing
wings, when they may be said to arrive at their
state of full perfection.
Those that never have wings, but creep
obstacles at defiance, this untiring inquirer devoted seven
years of his life to the anatomy of a single insect — the
larva of a species of cossus that inhabits the willow. The
plates of his work, the Traiti Anatomique de la Chenille
du Saule (4to., 1762), eighteen in number, were all en-
graved by his own hand, with a minuteness, fidelity, and
elegance that have seldom, if ever, been equalled. The
ensemble is pronounced, by the greatest authority of our
age, a chef-d'oeuvre both of anatomy and engraving.
We cannot stop to notice particularly the labours of
Schacffer, Seba, Forster, and Drury, each of whom added
something to the general fund of knowledge. With res-
pect to those of Fabricius, it is otherwise. This cele-
brated entomologist, and pupil of Linnaeus, published nu-
merous and valuable works on his favourite science, of
which we will only cite the Entomologia Syslematica,
emendata et aucta (4 vols., 8vo., 1792 — 1794), the Sup.
plementum Entomologiae Systematicae (1798), and the
Systema Eleutheratorum, Rhyngotorum, &c., (from 1801
to 1805). He was the first who had recourse to the
parts of the mouth, or organs of manducation, as a basis
of distribution ; and a vast number of new species of in-
sects were described by him, in his remarkably concise
but clear mariner, with which Gmelin, a naturalist, or
or rather editor, of a very different class, enriched the
Systema of Linnaeus. The splendid and costly works of
Oliver (5 vols., fol., Paris, 1789— 18C8), Donovan
(London, 1778 — 1805), Palisot de Beauvois, (Paris,
fol., 1805, et seq.) Cramer, (4 vols., 4to, with 400 col-
oured plates, Amsterdam, 1779, continued by Stoll, in
1 vol., 4to., 1790 et seq.), together with a multitude of
others of a less magnificent description, bring our sketch
down to a period in the annals of the natural sciences
which is graced hy the name of Cuvier. It is to him
that we are indebted for what is termed the natural me-
thod, or an arrangement in which, to use his own words,
" all beings of the same genus are placed nearer to each
other than to those of all other genera of the same order
similarly disposed with respect to those of all other or-
ders, &c." The energy and discrimination of this mo-
dern oracle of the natural sciences, as he has justly been
.styled, aided by untiring industry, have fixed the foun-
dations of zoology upon the immutable basis of compara-
tive anatomy. From the moment his Table, au elemen-
taire de I' Histoire naturelle des Animauit, and his Le-
fons d' Anatomic Compar£e, made their appearance, the
entomologist, in common with the cultivators of every
other branch of zoology, was sensible that he at last held
the clew by which he could hope to traverse the hitherto
impracticable labyrinth. The study now became a
greater object of interest than ever. Lamarck produced
his work upon invertebral animals, and Latreille, guided
by Cuvier, scon gave to the world his famous entomologi-
cal system.
Among the modern writers of eminence on the sub.
ject of insects, MacLeay, Leach, and Kirby stand pre-
eminent in England. Prussia boasts of her King and
Illiger; Germany of her Knoch, Mannerheim, and Ger-
m&r ; Russia of her Fischer ; Sweden of her Paykull,
Gyllenhal, and Schoenherr ; and France, that favourite
seat of science, gave birth to Latreille, the greatest of
entomologists. There, too, count Dejean is busied with
his admirable work on coleopterous insects, which, when
completed, will leave nothing to be desired with respect
to that order. Leon Dufour, of the same country, by his
various memoirs on the anatomy of a new species of
brachinus, on that of the coleoptera, of the cicaderite, of
the cicadella, of the forficitlce, &c., has given ample
3*
442
HISTORY OF INSECTS.
about till they die, may be considered as con-
stituting the FIRST CLASS of insects. All these,
the flea and the woodlouse only e-xcepted, are
produced from an egg; and when once they
proofs of his devotion to the science, and of hi» title to
the rank of the first entomological anatomist of the age.
Savigny, also, who sacrificed his sight to his anatomical
investigations, and was one of the savants who accompa-
nied the expedition to Egypt, has rendered the most im-
portant services to this branch of zoology, by his work on
the mouths of insects. In America, Melsheimer (who
furnished Knoch with the greater part of his species),
Say, Hentz, Le Conte, Harris, and many others, have
successfully exerted themselves in detecting and describ-
ing the insects of the United States.
In the earlier writings of Lamarck, he included the
Crustacea, as well as the Arachnides, in his Class In-
secta. These have since been formed into separate
Classes by him, but as the latter of these is so nearly
allied to the true insects, we retain it at the head of that
Class, under its own proper title.
ARACHNIDES.
The Arachnides are oviparous animals, provided
with articulated members, but do not undergo a meta-
morphosis, similar to insects. They respire, either by
bronchiaj or by means of a trachea, the openings for
the admission of air being stigmatiform ; and they are
destitute of antennae.
ORDER I.— PULMONARI-ffi.
With a heart ; each side of the abdomen with bron-
chial sacs ; six to eight eyes ; two pedipulpi ; two jaws
and palpi ; and four pair of feet : sexual organs double.
SECTION I.— PEDIPALPI.
Very large palpi; abdomen distinctly annulated, hav-
ing no web-spinning papillae.
FAMILY I.— SCORPIONIDES.
With a sessile abdomen, provided with four spiracles,
the six terminal segments forming a tail ; the last one
pointed, and serving as a sting, perforated for the pas-
sage of poison ; palpi forceps-shaped. Scorpio Afer, pi.
FAMILY II.— TARANTUL.E.
With a pedimculated abdomen, each side below fur-
nished with two spiracles, and terminated by a stingless,
jointed filament ; palpi arm-shaped, with spinous ex-
tremities ; mandibles monodactyle ; anterior feet longer
than the others ; tongue long and dart-shaped. Thely-
phonus Caudatus, pi. 26. f. 2.
SECTION II.— ARANEIDES.
Palpi like small feet, ending in a hook ; last joint
bearing the sexual organs in the male ; four or six ma-
tt, illae placed near the anal opening, in both sexes, for
the purpose of spinning.
I- — TETRAPNEUMONES.
Provided with two spiracles, and two pulmonary sacs
on both sides. Mygale Ceementaria, pi. 26. f. 3.
II. — DIPNEUMONES.
Having only one spiracle, and one pulmonary sac, on
each side ; six spinning orifices ; the four exterior quad-
rangular, and two smaller ones in the middle.
FAMILY I.— TJJBITEI.A
Spinning orifices fasciculated, approximated, and cy-
lindrical ; feet strong. Aranea Domestica, pi. 26, f. 4.
FAMILY II. — IN.EQUITELL.E.
Spinning papillae converging and conical ; feet very
break the shell, they never suffer any further
change of form, but continue to grow larger
till they die. Thus the louse or the spider are
produced from an egg, never suffering any al-
slender ; first and last pairs are usually longer than the
others ; jaws inclined upon the labium. Scytodes thora-
cica, pi. '26, f. 5.
FAMILY III.— ORBITEI.^.
Differing from the preceding family, in the first and
second pair of feet being usually longest ; the jaws are
straight, and wider above. Epeira diadema, pi. 26, f. 6.
FAMILY IV. — LATERIGRAD.E.
When in a state of repose the feet are horizontally ex-
tended, four anterior longest and nearly equal ; eyes
forming the segment of a circle in one division, and in
two parallel lines in another. T/iomisus castaneas, pi. 26,
FAMILY V. — CITIGRADJE.
lar
their pr
FAMILY VI. — SALTIGRAD.E.
Legs formed for leaping ; eyes either in a single or
double quadrangular group, the smaller ones within the
other. Eresus moniligerus, pi. 26, f. 9.
ORDER II.— TRACHEARIJE.
Without a heart, but in its stead a single dorsal ves-
sel ; they respire through a radiated trachea, the air
passing through spiracles in the abdomen or thorax ;
eyes from two to four ; some are blind ; mouth usually
syphon-shaped ; sexual organs single.
FAMILY I.— PYCWOGONIDES.
With a projecting syphon ; four eyes placed on a sin-
gle tubercle ; feet mostly long, terminated by unequal
hooks ; at the base of the first are two oviferous feet.
Pycnogomn Balcenarum, pi. 26, f. 1 0.
FAMILY II. — PSEUDOSCORPIONES.
With very large, pediform palpi, with a didactyle
hand or a vascular button. Chelifir Cancroid™, pi. 26,
FAMILY III.— PIIALANGITA.
With slender filiform palpi, terminated by a hook
Siro rubens, pi. 26, f. 12.
FAMILY IV.— ACARIDES.
With an oval or globular extremely minute body ; ge-
nerally with two filiform palpi ; eyes minute ; eight
hairy feet, each terminated with two or three hooks.
Trombidium tinctorum, pi. 26, f. 1 3.
FAMILY V.— HYDRACHNELL^E.
Mouth generally produced and feet adapted for swim-
ming. Hydrachna ycngrapJiica, pi. 26, f. 14.
FAMILY VI.—
Mouth produced, legs formed for walking, wanderinz,
parasitical land animals. Argus rvfiexus, pi. 26, f. 15.
FAMILY VII.— MICROPHTHIRA.
Having six legs, and always parasitical. Leplits Au-
tumnalis. PI. 26, f. 15.
INSECTS.
ORDER L— THYSANOURA.
These are apterous insects, with six feet, and under-
INSECTS IN GENERAL.
443
teration when once they are excluded ; but,
like the chicken or the duck, remaining inva-
riably the same, from their birth to their dis-
solution.
go no metamorphosis ; head distinct ; two antennae,
which are longer than the head ; abdomen with a ter-
minal forked or filamentary tail.
FAMILY I. — LEPISMEN^E.
Antennae with many small joints ; palpi produced; ab-
domen provided with a series of movable appendages
on each side. Machilis polypoda, pi. 28, f. 1.
FAMILY II. — PODURELL.E.
Antennae four jointed ; mouth destitute of palpi ; no
lateral appendages on the abdomen ;"tail forked (used
in leaping) while in repose it is folded under the abdo-
men. Podura Plumbea, pi. 28, f. 2.
ORDER IL— PARASITA.
With six feet ; no abdominal appendages ; two or four
small eyes ; exterior mouth, nipple or snout-shaped, in-
closing a retractile sucker ; sometimes having membra-
nous lips, with doubly hooked mandibles.
FAMILY I. — MANDIBULATA,
Having two lips, mandibles, and jaws. Ricinus coi-vi-
coracis, pi. 28, f. 3.
FAMILY II. — SIPHUNCULATA.
No mandibles ; mouth consisting of a beak, from
which a sucker can be protruded at will. Pedicultts co-
twnicis, pi. 28, f. 4.
ORDER III.— SYPHONAPTERA.
With a compressed body ; mouth provided with a
two-pieced sucker, inclosed between two articulated
laminae ; these form a conical or cylindrical beak, co-
vered with scales at the base. It consists of but one
genus.
Pulex irritans, pi. 28, f. 5. With an oval compressed
body, consisting of twelve segments ; three of which
compose the thorax, and the remaining the abdomen ;
six feet ; beak, jointed, consisting of two plates inclosing
a sucker.
ORDER IV.— COLEOPTERA.
Having four crustaceous elytra or wings, the two up-
per ones in the form" of cases, and covering the under
ones when at rest, which are folded across ; they are
provided with mandibles and jaws for mastication ; the
suture betwixt the elytra straight.
SECTION I.— PENTAMERA.
Tarsi with five joints.
FAMILY I.— ADEPHAGI.
Each jaw with two palpi, in all six ; antennae gene-
rally filiform, and simple. Tribe i. — Cicendeletae. Ter-
restrial. Cicendda octonotata, pi. 28, f. 6. Tribe ii. —
Carabici. Brachinus Jurinae, f. 7. Tribe iii. — Hydro-
canthari. Aquatic. CoJymbetes marmoratus, f. 8. Tribe
iv. — Gyrinites. Gyrinus sulcatus, f. 9.
FAMILY II. — BRACIIYPTERA.
Body elongated, narrow ; antennae moniliform ; each
jaw provided with a palpus ; elytra shorter than the ab-
domen, but covering the wings ; anal appendages hairy.
Tribe i. — Fissilabri. Oxyporus rufus, pi. 28, f. 10. Tribe
ii. — Longipalpi. Paederus ruficollis, f. 11. Tribe iii. —
Depress!. Lesleva dichroa, f. 12. Tribe iv. — Microce-
phali. Tackiims atricapiUus, f. 13.
FAMILY III. — SERRICORNES.
With filiform or setaceous antennas, tufted, serrated,
The SECOND ORDER of insects consists of such
as have wings; but which, when produced
from the egg, have those wings cased up in
such a manner as not to appear. This casing
or pectinated in the males ; some ending in a toothed
club ; upper part of abdomen covered, by the elytra, ex -
cept in one genus ; tarsal penult joint frequently bi-
lobed. Tribe i. — Buprestides. Buprestis rufipes, pi. 28,
f. 14. Tribe ii.— Elaterides. Elater areolus, f. 15.
Tribe
Tribe iv.-
Tribe
Tribe vi.— Clerii. Opilo mullis, f. 19. Tribe vii.—
Xylotrogi. Hylecaetus Dennestoides, f. 21. Tribe viii.—
Ptiniores. Anobium tesselutum, f. 20.
FAMILY IV.— CLAVICORNES.
With four palpi, elytra nearly covering the abdomen-
antennae eleven jointed, knobbed at their points ; tarsi
five jointed. Tribe i.—Hystroida. Holokpta glal>ra,\A.
28, f. 22. Tribe ii.— Peltoides. Necrophorus mallei, f.
23. Tribe iii.— Palpatores. Mastiyus pa/patis, pi. 2.9,
f. 25. Tribe iv. — Dermestini. Dernutstes lardarius, pi. 28,
f. 26. Tribe v.— Byrrhi. Byrrhus pilula, f. 27. Tribe
vi. — Macrodactyli. Aquatic. Heterocerus nuirginatus,
pi. 29, f. 28.
FAMILY V.— PALPICORNES.
Antennae compressed, six or nine jointed, with a per-
foliated or solid claviform termination ; body hemisphe-
rical, or ovoid ; mentum large ; maxillary palpi long.
Tribe i. — Hydrophilii. Hydropldlus caraboides, pi. 29, f.
29. Tribe ii. — Sphaeridiota. Splueridium scarab&oides,
f.30.
FAMILY VI. — LAMELLICORNES.
Antennae eight to eleven jointed, but nine or ten the
prevailing number, placed in a furrow, short and clavi-
form, consisting of pectinated laminae ; two anterior
legs externally dentated ; chin large, frequently cover-
ing the labium. Tribe i. — Scarabaeides. Oryctes Che-
vrolatii, pi. 28, f. 31. The animals of this tribe are nu-
merous, subject to great variety, and are, in consequence,
arranged in six sub-tribes. Tribe ii. — Lucanides. Lu-
canus cinnamoneus, f. 32.
SECTION II.— HETEROMERA.
First four tarsi five, and last two four jointed.
FAMILY I. — MELASOMA.
Tarsal joints mostly entire ; antennae moniliform,
third joint elongated, always inserted under theproject-
ing borders of the head ; point of mandibles bifid ; in-
ternal side of jaws with a tooth or hook. Tribe i. — Pi-
meliariae. Pimelia vestita, pi. 28, f. 33. Tribe ii.— BJap-
sides. Slaps mortii>aga,f. 34. Tribe iii. — Tenebriomtes.
Crypt icus gibbulns, f. 35.
FAMILY II. — TAXICORNES.
Mandibles bifid at their points ; joints of tarsi, except
the anterior four, entire ; antennae length of head and
thorax, with claviform tips, and usually partly perfoli-
ated. Tribe i. — Diaperiales. Diaperis boleti, pi. 29, f.
36. Tribe ii. — Cossyphenes. Cossyphenes Hqffinanseggii,
pi. 28, f. 37. Tribe iii. — Crassicornes. Cnodalon nodo-
sum, f. 38.
FAMILY III. — STENELYTRA.
Mandibles sometimes pointed, jaws unarmed ; penult
joint of tarsi bilobate, antennas, filiform or setaceous,
often longer than the head and thorax. Tribe i. — He-
lopii. Helops violaceus, pi. 28, f. 39. Tribe ii.— Cistel-
ides. Oistelasulphurea,pl.29,fAQ. Tribe iii.— Securipalpi.
Melandrya caraboides, f. 41. Tribe iv.— CEdemerites.
(Edemera podoyraria, f. 42. Tribe v.— Rhynchostoma.
Stenostoma rostrata.
444
HISTORY OF INSECTS.
up of the wings, nowever, does not prevent the
animal's running, leaping, and moving with
its natural celerity ; but when the case bursts,
•and the wings have a power of expanding, all
FAMILY IV. — TRACHELIDES.
With a cordiform, triangular head, apart from the
thorax ; antennae simple, flabelliform, pectinated, or
serrated ; jaws without corneous teeth ; tarsal hooks
entire ; penult joint usually bilobed. Tribe i. — Lagria-
riae. Lagriaria hirta, pi. 29, f. 44. Tribe ii. — Pyrochro-
ides. Pyrochroa coccinea, f. 45. Tribe iii. — Mordellonas.
Mordella aculeata, pi. 28, f. 46. Tribe iv. — Anthicides.
Notoxus monoceros, pi. 29, f. 47. Tribe v. — Horiales.
fforia maculata, pi. 28, f. 48. Tribe vi. — Cantharidias.
Cuntharis vesicatoria, f. 49.
SECTION III.— TETRAMERA.
All the tarsi four-jointed.
FAMILY I. — RHYNCHOPHORA.
Head rostriform, mouth terminal ; antennas generally
claviform, geniculate, and inserted on the proboscis ;
abdomen large ; penult joint of tarsi usually bilobate.'
Tribe i.— Bruchelae. Bruchus pisi, pi. 29, f. 50. Tribe
ii. — Anthribides. Arithribus latirostris, f. 51. Tribe iii.
— Attelabides. Attelabus femoralis, pi. 28, f. 52. Tribe
iv. — Brentides. Brenius andiorago, pi. 29, f. 52. Tribe
v. — Curculionites. Curculio imperialis, pi. 28, f. 53.
FAMILY II. — XYLOPHAGI.
Tarsal joints usually entire, or when the penult joint
is bilobed, the palpi are small and conical ; antennae
frequently with less than eleven joints, claviform, and
perforated at the base. Tribe i. — Scolytarii. Scolytus
ttlmi, pi. 29, f. 54. Tribe ii. — Bostrichini. Bostrickus
capucinus, f. 55. Tribe iii. — Paussili. Paussus microce-
phalus, f. 56. Tribe iv. — Trogossitarii. Dasycerus sulca-
lus, f. 57.
FAMILY III. — PLATYSOMA.
Tarsal joints entire ; body depressed, oblong ; head
breadtli of body, narrowed behind into a sort of peak ;
mandibles projecting, especially in the males ; labram
small ; palpi short ; thorax nearly square ; antennae fili-
form. Cucujus Dejeanii, pi. 28, f. 58.
FAMILY IV. — LONGICORNES.
First three joints of tarsus provided with pencils be-
low, two intermediate broad, triangular, or cordiform,
third deeply bifoliate ; labium triangular, cordiform, or
notched ; antennas filiform, generally longer than the
body, sometimes inserted in a notch at the eyes, some-
times outside ; foot long, slender, with long tarsi ; body
FAMILY V. — EUPODA.
Body oblong, antennae filiform, gradually thickening
to the points, and inserted near the eyes ; about the
length of head and thorax, which is narrow, cylindrical,
or square : head sunk in the thorax to nearly the eyes;
exterior and terminal lobe of jaws widening towards the
extremity. Tribe i.— Sagrides. Sayra Cayanea, pi. 29,
f. 64. Tribe ii. — Criocerides. Orioceris merdigera, pi. 28,
f. 65.
FAMILY VI.— CYCLICA.
Labium thick, square, or oval, entire, or slightly
notched ; exterior and terminal division of jaws cylin-
drical ; body oval, ovoid, globular, or somewhat square;
"intennae filiform or setaceous, sometimes slightly clavi-
form. but not rounded or oval ; three first joints of tarsi
the animal's motions become more extensive,
and the animal arrives at full perfection. Thus
the grasshopper, the dragon-fly, and the ear-
wig, have their wings at first bound down ;
spongy, or provided with brushes below. Tribe i. —
Cassidarias. Cassida viridis, pi. 28, f. 66. Tribe ii. —
Chrysomejinse. CMamys cuprea, pi. 29, f. 67. Tribe iii.
— Galerucitse. Galeruca tanaceti, pi. 29, f. 68.
FAMILY VII. — CLAVIPALPI.
Three first joints of tarsi with brushes, and the last
bifid ; antennae with a terminal, oval, perfoliated club ;
jaws with a horny tooth interiorly ; palpi with a large
terminal joint ; body orbicular or oval. Erotylus mmn-
teus, pi. 28, f. 69.
SECTION IV.— TRIMERA.
Tarsi three jointed ; antennas clavate ; body hemi-
spherical or oval.
FAMILY I. — APHIDIPHAGI.
Tarsi with two terminal hooks, first joint distinct ;
elytra covering the abdomen ; antennas shorter than the
thorax, with a terminal club in the form of a reversed
triangle ; last joint of maxillary palpi being large, dola-
briform ; body hemispherical ; thorax short, and nearly
luniform. Cocinella septempunctuta, pi. 28, f. 70.
FAMILY II. — FUNGICOL^E.
Tarsi with two terminal hooks, the first joint distincf,
elytra covering the abdomen ; antennas longer than the
head and thorax ; maxillary palpi filiform, or simply
thickened towards the tips ; body oval. Eumoi-phus
tetraspilotus, pi. 29, f. 71.
FAMILY III. — PSELAPHII.
With short truncated elytra ; first tarsal joint short
and indistinct. Chennium bituberculatum, pi. 29, f. 72.
SECTION V.— MONOMERA.
Tarsi having but one joint.
FAMILY I. — DERMESTINI.
Antennas shorter than the thorax, radical joint large,
ovate, seven following short, slender, remaining three
forming an ovate compressed club, two lower joints
somewhat dilated in the inner side, terminal smaller and
rounded. Dermestes lardarius, pi. 29, f. 1 57.
ORDER V.— ORTHOPTERA.
With coriaceous elytra, the margin of the one cover-
ing that of the other ; mouth provided with mandibles;
wings longitudinally folded, and sometimes transversely
besides ; metamorphosis semi-complete.
SECTION I.
Elytra and wings horizontal ; feet formed for running.
FAMILY I. — FORFICULARI.E.
Tarsi three jointed ; elytra nearly crustaceous, not
reticulated, very short, posteriorly truncate, joining in
a straight suture, and covering the wings, which are
plicated, and their extremities projecting beyond the
elytra, while in repose ; abdomen terminating in a
horny forceps. Forjicula sponyiphora, pi. 28, f. 73.
FAMILY II. — BLATTARI.E.
Tarsi five jointed ; wings simply doubled longitudin-
ally, and covered by elytra, frequently coriaceous and
thin, reticulated or crossing each other ; body depressed,
oval, or orbicular ; head concealed under the semicircu-
lar or orbicular thorax ; maxillary palpi long, terminal
joint axe-shaped • feet spinous. Ulutta maculata, pL 28,
f. 74.
INSECTS IN GENERAL.
445
but when the skin, that like a pair of stays,
kept them confined, bursts, they are then ex-
panded, and the animal pursues the purposes
for which it was produced.
FAMILY III. — MANTIDES.
Tarsi five jointed ; wings simply folded longitudin-
ally ; body elongated, head uncovered ; palpi short,
filiform ; two anterior feet greatly longer than, the
others, haunches long, thighs strong, compressed ; legs
terminated by a strong hook, capable of being folded
under the thighs ; thorax large. Mantis rdigwsa, pi.
28, f. 75.
FAMILY IV. — SPECTRA.
Under lip unequally divided ; anterior margin of up-
per lip notched ; antennae placed nearer the mouth than
the centre of the head ; head projecting, elongated, and
posteriorly rounded ; eyes small ; first segment of the
thorax short, being scarcely longer than the second.
Phyllium vsama, pi. '29, f. 76.
SECTION II.
With the exception of the first family, the elytra and
wings are sloping like a roof ; posterior thighs and feet
very large, and formed for leaping.
FAMILY I.— GRYLLIDES.
Elytra and wings horizontal ; antennae setaceous or
filiform, tarsi three jointed. GrylLus trifasciatus, pi. 28,
f. 77.
FAMILY II. — LOCUSTARI^B.
Elytra and wings sloping like a roof ; tarsi four join-
ted, antennae setaceous. Locusta viridissima, pi. '29, f.
158.
SECTION III.
Elytra and wings sloping like a roof; posterior feet
formed for leaping ; tarsi five jointed ; elytra alike in
both sexes ; antennae sword-shaped, filiform in both sex-
es, claviform in the males only, in some species.
ACRIDITES.
Posterior feet weak, shorter than the body, hardly
formed for leaping ; abdomen turned. Acridium orna-
tum, pi. 28, f. 78.
ORDER VI.— HEMIPTERA.
Two wings covered by elytra ; mouth constructed for
suction ; the rostrum composed of a tubular articulated
sheath, enveloping four scaly seta?, instead of mandibles
and jaws ; elytra in some of the species crustaceous,
with the posterior extremity membranous ; in others
nearly similar to wings, but more extended, thicker, and
coloured.
SECTION I.— HETEROPTERA.
Rostrum placed on the anterior extremity of the
head ; elytra and wings horizontal, terminated abruptly
by a membranous appendage.
FAMILY I.— GEOCQRIS^E.
Antennae placed near the internal marain of the eyes,
and somewhat longer than the head ; tarsi three jointed,
the first in some species very short. Tribe i. — Longila-
bra. Scutellera vasalis, pi. '28, f. 79. Tribe ii. — Mem-
branaceae. Cimex lectularius, f. 80. Tribe iii. — Nudicollis.
Reduvius raptatorius,f. 81. Tribe iv. — Oculatae. Lep-
tnpus littoratis. Tribe v. — Ploteres. Hydrometra linea-
ris, pi. 29, f. 82.
FAMILY II. — HYDROCORIS*.
Antennae placed under the eyes, concealed, and even
The THIRD ORDER of insects is of the moth
and butterfly kind. These all have four
wings, each covered with a mealy substance of
various colours, which when handled comes off
longer than the head ; tarsi two jointed. Tribe i —
Nepides. Belostoma marginata, pi. 28, f. 84. Tribe ii.—
Notouectides. Noctonecta glattca, f. 85.
SECTION II.— HOMOPTERA.
Rostrum projected from the lower part of the head,
between the two anterior feet ; elytra generally inclined,
of equal thickness throughout, sometimes resembling
wings.
FAMILY III. — CICADARIJB.
With wings and elytra ; tarsi three jointed ; antennae
small, conical, or subulate ; three to six jointed, includ-
ing the setae, which terminate them ; female ovipositor
dentated. Tribe i. — Stridulantes. Cicada flavopunctata,
pi. 28, f. 86. Tribe ii. — Fulgorellse. Fidgora punctata,
f. 87. Tribe iii. — Membracides. Darnis camelus, f.
88. Tribe iv. — Cicadella. Ledra aurata.
FAMILY IV. — HYMENELYTRA.
Tarsi two jointed, generally with two terminal hooks,
or simply vesicular ; antennae ten or eleven jointed,
longer than the head ; body soft. Tribe i. — Psyllides.
Livui juncorum, pi. 28, f. 90. Tribe ii. — Physapi. Thrips
physapus, f. 9 1 . Tribe iii. — Aphidii. Aphis rosus, f. 9'2.
f. 92 a, larva of the same.
FAMILY V. — (JALLINSECTA.
Tarsi of one joint, with a terminal hook. Males two
winged, or with two elytra, and devoid of a rostrum.
Females apterous ; antennae eight, nine, and eleven
jointed, and in some instances twenty-two to twenty-
four. Coccus cacti, pi. 28, f. 93,
ORDER VII.— NEUROPTEKA
Wings four, naked, reticulated and transparent j
mouth formed for mastication ; jaws and lips straight-
extended ; joints of the tarsi various, mostly entire
SECTION I.— SUBULICORNES.
Antennae little longer than head ; subulate, seven
jointed, the last formed of a seta ; mandibles and jaws
covered by lips, or by an anterior projection of the
head ; eyes projecting, large ; wings extended horizon-
tally, or perpendicular.
FAMILY I.— LIBELLULIN^E.
Tarsi three jointed ; mandibles and jaws corneous,
very strong ; dentated ; wings equal. Libellula varia,
pi. 28, f. 94.
FAMILY II.— EPHEMERIN^E.
Tarsi four jointed ; body very soft ; lower wings much
smaller than the upper ones, in some species exceed-
ingly minute ; abdomen terminated by two or three fil-
aments. Ephemera bioculata, pi. 28, f. 95.
SECTION II.— FILKORNES.
Joints of antennae generally numerous, thickened to-
wards the end, filiform, or setaceous, and longer than
the head.
FAMILY III. — PLANIPENNES.
Tribe i. — Panorpatse. Panorpa rufa, pi. 28, f. fl6.
Tribe ii. — Myrmeleonides. Ascalapkus barbarus, f. 97.
Tribe iii. — Hemerobini. Hemerohius longicornis, pi. 29,
f. 98. Tribe iv. — Psoquillae. Psocus lipunctatus. Tribe
v. — Termitinae. Termes tucifuffiim. Tribe vi. — Raphidince,
Raphidia ophiopsis. Tribe vii. — Semblides. CorydaLii
cornuta. Tribe viii. — Perlides. Perla luiea.
446
HISTORY OF INSECTS.
upon the fingers; and, if examined by the
microscope, will appear like scales, with which
the wing is nicely embroidered all over. These
"insects also are produced in a manner peculiar
FAMILY IV. — PLICIPENNES.
Destitute of mandibles ; lower wings broader than
the upper, longitudinally folded ; antennae setaceous,
usually long, with numerous joints ; tarsi five jointed ;
maxillary palpi long and setaceous. Phryganea striata.
ORDER VIII.— HYMENOPTERA.
Four naked veined wings of unequal size ; mouth with
jaws, mandibles, and two lips ; lip tubular at its base,
terminating by a labium, either doubled or folded in-
wards, and forming a kind of sucker ; females provided
with a compound ovipositor.
SECTION I.— TEREBRANTIA.
Abdomen in many species sessile ; females furnished
with an ovipositor ; antennae twelve or thirteen jointed,
in some more or less.
FAMILY I. — SECURIFERA.
Abdomen perfectly sessile, or connected at its base to
the metathorax. Tribe i. — Tenthredinetae. Perga, scu-
te.llata, pi. 29, f. 101. Tribe ii. — Urocerata. Termea col-
umba, L 102.
FAMILY II. — PUPIVORA.
Wings of many species cellular, in others devoid of
nerves ; first abdominal segment posteriorly inclosing
the metathorax, and forming part of it ; the second,
which appears like the first, fixed to the preceding by a
pedicle. Tribe i. — Evaniales. Pelecinus policerator, pi.
'29, f. 103. Tribe ii. — Ichneumon ides. Ichneumon uni-
fasdatorius, pi. 28, f. 104. Tribe iii. — Gallicolae. Cinips
Qitercitsfblii. Tribe iv. — Chalcidites. Chalets clavipes, f.
106. tribe v.—Chrysides. Chrysis ignita, f. 107. Tribe
vi. — Oxyuri. Bethyllus hemipterus.
SECTION II.— ACULEATA.
Abdomen pedunculated, inclosing in the females and
neuters a sting ; antennas of the male thirteen jointed,
female twelve.
FAMILY III.— HETEROGYNA.
Females and neuters or those which live in society,
devoid of wings ; antennas geniculated ; labium small,
rounded, vaulted. Tribe i. — Formicariae. Formica
Herculanea, pi. 28, f. 109. Tribe ii.— Mutillarise. Mu-
tilla KluyiiJ. 110.
FAMILY IV.— FOSSORES.
Wings extended ; in some the prothorax laterally
prolonged, in others short. Tribe i.— Scolietse. Scolia
1.110. j e iv. — opnegiaes. roaium mgnpes, 1. 114.
Tribe v.—Bembecides. Btmbex rostrata, f. 115. Tribe
vi. — Labratae. Labra Ichneumoniformis. Tribe vii. —
Nyssonii. Nysson maculatus, pi. 29, f. 117. Tribe viii.—
Crabronites. Crabro cribrarius, f. 118.
FAMILY V. — DIPLOPTERA.
Wings longitudinally folded ; antennae geniculate,
clavate ; eyes notched ; prothorax reaching insertion of
upper wings ; feet not fitted for collecting pollen. Tribe
i. — Vespanse. Synayris cornuta, pi. 29, f. 119. Tribe ii.
— Masarides. Masitris apiformis, f. 120.
FAMILY VI. — MELIFERA.
Wings extended ; first joint of posterior tarsi large,
compressed, square, or triangular, provided with a tuft
of hair adapted for collecting pollen of flowers ; jaws
to themselves. They are at first hatched from
an egg, from whence proceeds a caterpillar
that eats, and often casts its skin ; the cater-
pillar having divested itself for the last time,
and lip long, narrow, produced into a proboscis ; chin
elongated, supported on a pedicle ; labinm mostly lan-
ceolate or filiform , long and hairy. Tribe i. — Andren-
etae. Andrena pilipes, pi. 29, f. 121. Tribe ii. — Apiaria,1.
Apis centhuncularia, pi. 28, f. 122.
ORDER IX.— LEPIDOPTERA.
Four membranaceous wings, covered with a farina
composed of minute scales, and having a trunk spirally
rolled up, inserted at the mouth.
FAMILY I. — DIURNA.
Wings free in repose, perpendicular to the plane of
position, and devoid of a scaly bristle at the base of the
inferior wings ; antennae, in many, claviform, or termi-
nating in a button, more or less conical or triangular, in
others slender, and hooked at the termination. Tribe i.
— Papilionides. Papilio Childreni, pi. 29, f. 123. Tribe
ii. — Hesperides. ffesperia malvte, f. 124.
FAMILY II. — CREPUSCULARI^E.
With a stiff, horny bristle near the insertion of the
lower wings, at their margin, entering a groove below
the upper ones, keeping them horizontal in repose; an-
tennae claviform elongated, frequently pectinated or ser-
rated. Caterpillars with sixteen large feet. Tribe i.—
Hesperia — Sphinges. Castnia acroeoides, pi. 29, f. 125.
Tribe ii. — Sphingides. Sphinx convolvuli, f. 126. Trite
iii. — Zygsenides. Zygcena pulchella, f. 127.
FAMILY III. — NOCTURNA.
Wings horizontal or inclined in repose; antennas seta-
ceous. Tribe i. — Bombycites. Boinbyx pavonia, pi. 29,
f. 128. Tribe ii. — Noctuo-Bombycites. Cossus liyniper-
da, f. 127. Tribe iii.— Tineites. Tinea tapizana, f. 129
Tribe iv. — Noctuaelites. Noctua oculata, f. 1 30. Tribe
v. — Tortrices. Herminia Sulonia, f. 131. Tribe vi. —
Phalaenites. Plialcena machaonaria, f. 1 32. Tribe vii. —
Crambites. Crambus retusulis, f. 1 33. Tribe viii. — Pte-
rophorites. Orneodes hexadadylus, f. 134.
ORDER X.— STREPSIPTERA.
Wings two, naked and membranous, accompanied by
two balancers, longitudinally folded, forming nearly the
quadrant of a circle; metamorphosis incomplete.
This order consists but of two genera. Htylops Child-
reni, pi. 29, f. 135.
ORDER XL— DIPTERA.
With two membranous extended wings, and a balan
eer under each in most species; six feet; provided with
a sucker, composed of a variable number of scaly, setae-
form pieces, either inclosed in the upper furrow of a
sheath, or inarticulated proboscis, terminated by two
lips, or cased in one or two plates.
SECTION I.
Head large or of medium size, distinct from the tho-
rax ; tavsal hooks simple, or unidentated ; sucker in-
closed in a sheath.
FAMILY I. — NEMOCERA.
Antennae with six joints at least, but usually with
fourteen to sixteen. Tribe i. — Culicides. CuLcx pipiens,
pi. 29, f. 136. Tribe ii.— Tipulariae. Tipiila oleracea,f. 137
FAMILY II. — TANYSTOMA.
Rostrum frequently lengthened, sometimes nearly
concealed ; sucker of six pieces. Tribe i. — T;ib;inii.
Tabanus Africanis, pi. 29, f. 138. Tribe ii. — Sicarii.
Ccenomyia pallida, f. 139. Tribe iii. — Mydasii. Mydat
Lusitanicus, f. 140, a and b. Tribe iv. — Leptides. Leptu
INSECTS WITHOUT WINGS.
447
assumes a new covering, which is called a
chrysalis, or the cone in the silkworm, in
which it continues hidden till it come forth a
perfect moth, or butterfly.
The FOURTH ORDER is of those winged insects
which come from a worm instead of a cater-
pillar, and yet go through changes similar to
those which moths and butterflies are seen to
undergo. They are first excluded from the
egg as a worm, and then become a chrysalis;
in some, their wings and legs are seen ; in
others, the animal is quite detached from the
cone in which it is concealed ; but all at length
break their prison and come out perfect winged
animals ; some furnished with two wings, and
some with four. The wings of all these differ
from those of the butterfly and moth kind, by
not having the mealy scales which are ever
found on the wings of the former. In this
class we may place the numerous tribes of
gnats, beetles, bees, and flies.
To these I will add, as a FIFTH ORDER, a nu-
merous tribe lately discovered, to which natu-
ralists have given the name of Zoophytes.
These do not go through the ordinary forms of
generation but may be propagated by dissection.
Some of these, though cut into a hundred parts,
still retain life in each, and are endued with
such a vivacious principle, that every part
will in a short time become a perfect animal.
They seem a set of creatures placed between
animals and vegetables, and Inalce the shade
that connects animated and insensible nature.
To this class belong the polypus, the earth-
worm, and all the varieties of the sea-nettle.
Having thus given a general distribution
of insects, I will proceed to describe eacli
class in the order I have mentioned them ;
beginning with insects without wings, as they
more nearly resemble the higher ranks of
nature, as well in their habits as their confor-
mation.
CHAP. II.
OF INSECTS WITHOUT WINGS.
EVERT moment's observation furnishes us
with instances of insects without wings ; but
the difficulty is to distinguish those which are
condemned continually to lead reptile lives,
from such as only wait the happy moment of
fasciatq, f. 141. Tribe v. — Dolichopoda. Porphyrops
diaplianus. f. 142. Tribe vi. — Asilici. Asilus crabroni-
Tribe x. — Bombyliarii. Bombylius major, f. 1 47. Tribe
xi. — Vesiculosa. Henops marginatus, f. 148.
FAMILY III.— NOTACANTHA.
Rostrum generally membranous, short, concealed, ex-
cept the terminal lips ; sucker of two pieces ; in others
long, syphon shaped, and concealed by a produced beak,
which supports the antennae ; terminal joint of antennae,
with many rings ; wings resting on the body, and pro-
vided with a central radiated ariola. Tribe i. — Xylo-
phagei. Beris violaceus, pi. 29, f. 149. Tribe ii. — Stra-
tiomydes. Stratiomys cliamcdeon, f. 150.
FAMILY IV. — ATHERICERA.
Sucker consisting of two or four pieces, the two con-
tiguous ones provided with palpi ; retracted within the
sucker into a furrow of the proboscis. Tribe i. — Syr-
phiae. ^Syrphus obscurus, pi. 29. f. 151. Tribe ii. — Co-
nopsarise. Conops macrocephala, f. 152. Tribe iii. —
(Estrides. (Estrus Bovis, f. 153. Tribe iv.— Muscides.
Musca Vomitoria, f. 1 54.
SECTION II.
Proboscis consisting of two seta?, emerging from the
buccal cavity, covered by two plates or palpi, instead of
a bheath.
FAMILY V. — PUPIPARJE.
Tribe i. — Coriacejr. Hippobosoa equina, pi. 29, f. 1.55.
Tribe ii. — Phthyromyiae. Nycteribia vesper tilianis, f. 1 56.
DESCRIPTION OF EXTERNAL PARTS OF
INSECTS.
PLATE XXVI.
THE HEAD AND ITS EXTERNAL ORGANS.
The Head furnishes the most distinctive characters of
insects. It is exceedingly varied in its general form, as
well as in its several parts. The most important of these
are the mouth, antenna, and eyes. The head of a Dipte-
rous insect is represented, figure 22, with all its appen-
dages ; but the head, independently of these is confined
within the limits of a a f. 22, 25.
Mouth. This organ is very complicated, and subject
to great diversity of form, and construction, admirably
adapted to the nature of its food. It consists of six parts,
the labrum, mandibles, mamllcB, palpi, laMum, and men-
turn. Labrum, or upper lip, figs. 22, 23, 25, e, e, e. Man-
dibles, f. 25, k, k. Maxillae, f. 24, i. Palpi, f. 22, 23, 24,
25, b, b, b, b, b, and f. 29, b. Labial lobes, f . 22, 23, 25, g,
g, ff. Menlum, f. 29, a. Proboscis, f. 29, b. Linyua or
tongue, f. 29, c.
Antennae. Horn -like processes consisting of several
joints ; considered by some naturalists as organs of
touch, and by others, organs of hearing, f. 24, 25, d, d.
Nasus or nose, f. 22,/ Eyes, f. 22, 1, 1. Neck, f. 22, h.
The Thorax and its several divisions; f. 26. Collar, or
prothoracic seutellum, f. 22, 26, m, m. Prcescutum, f. 26,
n. Scutum, o. Seutellum, p. Metathoradc Scutum, f. 26, q.
To the thorax are attached the Wings, r, r ; the rudi-
mental alulae or winglets s; the base of the intermediate
femur t ; the balancers u ; the base of the posterior femur
v, and the legs. Wings, f. 25, w. Elytra, are membra-
nous, or horny substances which cover the wings of in-
sects of the order Coleoptera, f. 25, x, tr. Upper or supe-
rior wing of a Lepidopterous insect, f. 27. Anterior
margin, or costal nerve, a. Interior margin, b. Exterior
margin, c. Post-costal nerve, d. Anal nerve, e. Com-
pound ocellus^ or the discoidal cell, f. Dentate fascia, g.
Lower or inferior wing of a Lepidopterous insect, f.
28. Anterior margin, a. Exterior margin, b. Interior
margin, c.
The Abdomen is that part which is attached to the
posterior extremity of the thorax, and consists of six
segments or wines, to which there are never any leas
attached, f. 29.
In the whole insect tribe, they are provided with but
six Legs: they are composed of five parts, f. 30. Coxa,
or haunch, is the first joint, a. 'Troclianter, or second
joint, b. Femur, or thigh, c. Tilria, or shank, d. Tar-
sus, e. This member consists of from three to five arti-
culate parts, among Coleopterous insects, and most
others. To the last of these articulations are attached
the claws.
448
HISTORY OF INSECTS.
transmutation. For this, nothing but a long
and intimate acquaintance will suffice ; but, in
general, all animals resembling the flea, the
fouse, the spider, the bug, the wood-louse, the
water-louse, and the scorpion, never acquire
wings, but are produced from the egg in that
iorm which they never change afterwards.
If we consider this class as distinct from
others, we shall find them in general longer
lived than the rest, and often continuing their
term beyond one season, which is the ordi-
nary period of an insect's existence. They
seem also less subject to the influence of the
weather; and often endure the rigours of
winter without being numbed into torpidity.
The whole race of moths, butterflies, bees, and
flies, are rendered lifeless by the return of
cold weather ; but we need not to be told, that
the louse, the flea, and many of these wingless
creatures, that seem formed to tease mankind,
continue their painful depredations the whole
year round.
They come to perfection in the egg, as was
said before ; and it sometimes happens, that
when the animal is interrupted in performing
the offices of exclusion, the young ones burst
the shell within the parent's body, and are
thus brought forth alive. This not unfre-
quently happens with the wood-louse, and
others of the kind, which are sometimes seen
producing eggs, and sometimes young ones
perfectly formed.
Though these creatures are perfect from the
beginning yet they are often, during their ex-
istence, seen to change their skin: this is a
faculty which they possess- in common with
many of the higher ranks of animals, and
which answer the same purposes. However
tender their skins may seem to our feel, yet,
if compared to the animal's strength and size,
they will be found to resemble a coat of mail,
or, to talk more closely, the shell of a lobster.
By this skin these animals are defended from
accidental injuries, and particularly from the
attacks of each other. Within this they con-
tinue to grow, till their bodies become so
large as to be imprisoned in their own cover-
ing, and then the shell bursts, but is quickly
replaced by a new one.
Lastly, these animals are endued with a de-
gree of strength , for their size, that at first might
exceed credibility. Had man an equal degree
of strength, bulk for bulk, with a louse or flea,
the history of Samson would be no longer
miraculous. A flea will draw a chain a hun-
dred times heavier than itself ; and to com-
pensate for this force, will eat ten limes its
own size of provision in a single day.
CHAP. III.
OF THE SPIDEK, AND ITS VARIETIES
THE animal that deserves our first notice in
this principal order of insects is the Spider,
1 Modern naturalists do not rank spiders among insect?,
because they have no antennae, and no division between
the head and the shoulders ; they breathe by leaf-shaped
gills, situated under the belly, instead of spiracles in the
sides ; have a heart connected with these ; have eight
legs instead of six ; and eight fixed eyes. But as spiders
are popularly considered insects, it will sufficiently suit
our purpose to introduce them here as such. The neat-
est, though the smallest spider's nest which we have seen,
was constructed in the chink of a garden post, which we
had cut out the previous summer in getting at the cells
of a carpenter-bee. The architect was one of the larger
hunting-spiders erroneously said by some naturalists to
be incapable of spinning. The nest in question was
about two inches high, composed of a very close satin-
like texture. There were two parallel chambers placed
perpendicularly, in which position also the inhabitant
reposed there during the day, going, as we presume,
only abroad to prey during the night. But the most re-
markable circumstance was, that the openings (two above
and two below) were so elastic, that they shut almost as
closely as the boat cocoon of the Tortrix chlorana. We
observed this spider for several months, but at last it dis-
appeared, and we took the nest out, under the notion that
it might contain eggs; but we found none, and 'there-
fore concluded that it was only used as a day retreat.
The account which Evelyn has given of these hunting-
spiders is so interesting, that we must transcribe it.
" Of all sorts of insects," says he, " there is none has
afforded me more divertisement than the venatoret
(hunters), which are a sort of lupi (wolves) that have
their dens in rugged walls and crevices of our houses ;
a small brown and delicately-spotted kind of spider?,
whose hinder legs are longer than the rest. Such I did
frequently observe at Rome, which, espying a fly at three
or four yards distance upon the balcony where I stood,
would not make directly to her, but crawl under the
rail, till being arrived at the antipodes, it would steal
up, seldom missing its aim ; but if it chanced to want
any thing of being perfectly opposite, would, at first
peep, immediately slide down again, — till, taking better
notice, it would come the next time exactly upon the
fly's back : but if this happened not to be within a com-
petent leap, then would this insect move so softly, as the
very shadow of the gnomon seemed not to be more im-
perceptible, unless the fly moved ; and then would the
spider move also in the same proportion, keeping that
just time with her motion as if the same soul had ani-
mated both these little bodies ; and whether it were for-
wards, backwards, or to either side, without at all turn-
ing her body, like a well managed horse : but if the
capricious fly took wing and pitched upon another place
behind our huntress, then would the spider whirl its body
so nimbly about, as nothing could be imagined more
swift; by which means she always kept the head towards
her prey, though, to appearance, as immovable as if it
had been a nail driven into the wood, till by that indis-
cernible progress (being arrived within the sphere of her
reach) she made a fatal leap, swift as lightning, upon the
fly, catching him in the pole, where she never quitted
hold till her belly was full, and then carried the remain-
der home."
One feels a little sceptical, however, when he adds,
" I hare beheld them instructing their young ones how
to hunt, which they would sometimes discipline for not
THE SPIDER.
449
whose manners are of all others the most sub-
tie, and whose instincts are most various.
Formed for a life of rapacity, and incapable
of living upon any other than insect food, all
its habits are calculated to deceive and sur-
well observing : but when any of the old ones did (as
sometimes) miss a leap, they would rim out of the field
and hide themselves in their crannies, as ashamed, and
haply riot to be seen abroad for four or five hours after ;
for so long have I watched the nature of this strange in-
sect, the contemplation of whose so wonderful sagacity
and address has amazed me ; nor do I find in any chase
whatsoever more cunning and stratagem observed. I
have found some of these spiders in my garden, when
the weather, towards spring, is very hot, but they are
nothing so eager in hunting as in Italy."
We have only to add to this lively narrative, that the
hunting spider, when he leaps, takes good care to provide
against accidental falls by always swinging himself
from a good strong cable of silk, as Swammerdam cor-
rectly states, and which any body may verify, as one of
the small hunters, known by having its back striped with
black and white like a zebra, is very common in Britain.
As a contrast to the little elastic satin nest of the
hunter, we may mention the largest with which we are
acquainted, — that of the labyrinthic spider. Our readers
must often have seen this nest spread out like a broad
sheet in hedges, furze, and other low bushes, and some-
times on the ground. The middle of this sheet, which
is of a close texture, is swung like a sailor's hammock,
by silken ropes extended all around to the higher
branches ; but the whole curves upwards and backwards,
sloping down to a long funnel-shaped gallery which is
nearly horizontal at the entrance, but soon winds obliquely
till it becomes quite perpendicular. This curved gallery
is about a quarter of an inch in diameter, is much more
closely woven than the sheet part of the web, and some-
times decends into a hole in the ground, though oftener
into a group of crowded twigs, or a tuft of grass. Here
the spider dwells secure, frequently resting with her legs
extended from the entrance of the gallery, ready to spring
out upon whatever insect may fall into her sheet net.
She herself can only be caught by getting behind her and
forcing her out into the web ; but though we have often
endeavoured to make her construct a nest under our eye,
we have been as unsuccessful as in similar experiments
with the common house spider.
The house spider's proceedings were long ago described
by Homberg, and the account has been copied, as usual,
by almost every subsequent writer. Goldsmith has,
indeed, given some strange mis-statements from his own
observations, and Bingley has added the original remark,
that, after fixing its first thread, creeping along the wall
and joining it as it proceeds, it " darts itself to the op-
posite side, where the other end is to be fastened ! '' Hom-
berg's spider took the more circuitous route of travelling to
the opposite wall, carrying in one of the claws the end of
the thread previously fixed, least it should stick in the
wrong place. This we believe to he the. correct state-
ment, for as the web is always horizontal, it would sel-
iom answer to commit a floating thread to the wind, as
is done by other species. Homberg's spider, after stretch-
ing as many lines by way of warp, as it deemed sufficient
between the two walls of the corner which it had chosen,
proceeded to cross this in the way our weavers do in
adding the woof, with this difference, that the spider's
threads were only laid on and not interlaced. The
domestic spiders, however, in these modern days, must
have forgot this mode of weaving, for none of their webs
will be found to be thus regularly constructed.
The geometric, or net-working spiders, are as well
known in most districts as any of the preceding; almost
VOL. it.
prise : it spreads toils to entangle its prey ; it
is endued with patience to expect its coming:
and is possessed ol arms and strength to des-
troy it when fallen into the snare.
In this country, where all the insect tribes
every bush and tree in the gardens and hedge rows hav-
ing one or more of their nets stretched out in a vertical
position between adjacent branches. The common
garden spider and the long-bodied spider are the best
known of this order.
The chief care of a spider o! this sort ]8 to form a
cable of sufficient strength to bear the net she means to
hang upon it; and, after throwing out a floating line as
above described, when it catches properly she doubles
and redoubles it with additional threads. On trying its
strength she is not contented with the test of pulling it
with her legs, but drops herself down several feet from
various points of it, as we have often se.en, swinging and
bobbing with the whole weight of her body. She pro-
ceeds in a similar manner with the rest of the frame-
work of her wheel-shaped net: and it may be remarked
that some of the ends of these are not simple, but in form
of a Y, giving her the additional security of two attach-
ments instead of one.
In constructing the body of the net, the most remark-
able circumstance is her using her limbs as a measure,
to regulate the distances of her radii or wheel-spokes, and
the circular meshes interweaved into them. These are
consequently always proportional to the size of the spider.
She often takes up her station in the centre, but not al-
ways, though it is so said by inaccurate writers ; for she
as frequently lurks in a little chamber constructed under
a leaf or other shelter at the corner of her web, ready to dart
down upon whatever prey may be entangled in her net.
The centre of the net is said also to be composed of more
viscid materials than itssuspensory lines, — acircumstance
alleged to be proved by the former appearing under the
microscope studded with globules of gum. We have not
been able to verify this distinction, having seen the
suspensory lines as often studded in this manner as those
in the centre.
A no less wonderful structure is composed by a sort
of spiders, natives of the tropics and the south of Europe,
which have been justly called the mason-spiders by M.
Latreille. One of these (Mygale nidulans, Walckn.)
found in the West Indies, " digs a hole in the earth
obliquely downwards, about three inches in length, and
one in diameter. This cavity she lines with a tough
thick web, which, when taken out, resembles a leathern
purse ; but what is most curious, this house has a door
with hinges, like the operculum of some sea-shells, ard
herself and family, who tenant this nest, open and shut
the door whenever they pass and repass. This history
was told me," says Darwin, " and the nest, with its door,
shown me by the late Dr Butt, of Bath, who was some
years a physician in Jamaica."
3 L
•i50
HISTORY OF INSECTS.
are kept under by human assiduity, the
spiders are but small and harmless. We are
acquainted with few but the house-spider,
which weaves its web in neglected rooms ; the
garden-spider, that spreads its toils from tree
to tree, and rests in the centre; the wander-
ing spider, that has no abode like the rest;
and the field-spider, that is sometimes seen
mounting, web and all, into the clouds. These
are the chief of our native spiders; which,
(hough reputed venomous, are entirely inoffen-
sive. But they form a much more terrible
tribe in Africa and America. In those regions,
where all the insect species acquire their great-
est growth, where the butterfly is seen to ex-
pand a wing as broad as our sparrow, and the
ant to build a habitation as tall as a man, it is
not to be wondered at that the spiders are seen
bearing a proportionable magnitude. In fact,
the bottom of the Martinico spider's body is as
large as a hen's egg, and covered all over with
hair. Its web is strong, and its bite danger-
ous. It is happy for us, however, that we
are placed at a distance from these formidable
creatures, and that we can examine their his-
tory without feeling their resentment.
Every spider has two divisions in its body.
The fore part, containing the head and breast,
is separated from the hinder part or belly
by a very slender thread, through which,
however, there is a communication from one
part to the other. The fore part is covered
with a hard-shell, as well as the legs, which
adhere to the breast. The hinder part is
clothed with a supple skin, beset all over with
hair. They have several eyes all round the
head, brilliant and acute; these are sometimes
eight in number, sometimes but six ; two be-
hind, two before, and the rest on each side.
Like all other insects, their eyes are immov-
able, and they want eye-lids; but this organ
is fortified with a transparent horny substance,
which at once secures and assists their vision.
As the animal procures its subsistence by the
most watchful attention, so large a number of
eyes was necessary to give it the earliest in-
formation of the capture of its prey. They
have two pincers on the fore part of the head",
rough, with strong points, toothed like a saw,
and terminating in claws, like those of a cat.
A little below the point of the claw there is a
small hole, through which the animal emits a
poison, which, though harmless to us, is
sufficiently capable of instantly destroying its
prey. This is the most powerful weapon they
have against their enemies ; they can open or
extend these pincers as occasion may require ;
and when they are undisturbed, they suffer
them to lie one upon the other, never opening
them but when there is a necessity for their ex-
ertion. They have all eight legs, jointed like
those of lobsters, and similar also in another
respect ; for if a leg be torn away, or a joint
cut off, a new one will quickly grow in its
place, and the animal will find itself fitted for
combat as before. At the end of each
leg there are three crooked movable claws,
namely, a small one, placed higher up, like
a cock's spur, by the assistance of which it
adheres to the threads of its web. There are
two others larger, which meet together like
a lobster's claw, by which they can catch hold
of the smallest depressions, walking up or
down the very polished surfaces, on which
they can find inequalities that are imperceptible
to our grosser sight. But when they walk
upon such bodies as are perfectly smooth, as
looking-glass or polished marble, they squeeze
a little sponge, which grows near the extrem-
ity of their claws, and thus diffusing a glutin-
ous substance, adhere to the surface until they
make a second step. Besides the eight legs
Among our native spiders there are several which,
not contented with a web like the rest of their congeners,
take advantage of other materials to construct cells where,
" hush'd in grim repose," they " expect their insect
prey." The most simple of those spider-cells is con-
structed by a longish-bodied spider, which is a little
larger than the common hunting spider. It rolls up a
leaf of the lilac or poplar, precisely in the same manner
as is done by the leaf-rolling caterpillars, upon whose
cells it sometimes seizes to save itself trouble, having
first expelled, or perhaps devoured, the rightful owner.
The spider however, is not satisfied with the tapestry of
the caterpillar, and always weaves a fresh set of her own,
much more close and substantial.
Another spider common in woods and copses weaves
together a great number of leaves to form a dwelling for
herself, and in front of it she spreads her toils for entrap-
ping the unwary insects which stray thither. These, as
soon as caught, are dragged into her den, and stored up
for a time of scarcity. Here also her eggs are deposited
and hatched in safety. When the cold weather ap-
proaches, and the leaves of her edifice wither, she
abandons it for the more secure shelter of a hollow tree,
where she soon dies ; hut the continuation of the species
depends upon eggs, deposited in the nest before winter,
and remaining to be hatched with the warmth of the
ensuing summer.
The spider's den of united leaves, however, which has
just been described, is not always useless when withered
and deserted ; for the dormouse, or the harvest mouse,
we are not certain which, usually selects it as a ready-
made roof for its nest of dried grass. That those old
spiders' dens are not accidentally chosen by the mouse,
appears from the fact, that out of about a dozen mouse -
nests of this sort found during winter in a copse between
Lewisham and Bromley, Kent, every second or third
one was furnished with such a roof.
That spiders may be able to breath under water, we
can well understand from their breathing like amphibious
reptiles by means of gills; but there is an aquatic spider
which is not contented, as a frog would be, with the air
furnished by the water, but actually carries down a sup-
ply of air from the atmosphere to her subaqueous nest.
This spider does not like stagnant water, but prefers
slow-running streams and ditches, where she may often
be seen, in the vicinity of London and elsewhere, living
in her diving-bell, which shines through the water like
a little globe of silver: her singular economy was first,
we believe, described by Clerck, L. M. de Lignac, and
Ue Geer. — Rennie's Insect Architecture.
THE SPIDER.
451
just mentioned, these animals hare two others,
which may more properly be called arms, as
they do not serve to assist motion, but are used
in holding and managing their prey.
The spider, though thus formidably equipped,
would seldom prove successful in the capture,
were it not equally furnished with other instru-
ments to assist its depredations. As it lives
wholly upon flies, and is without wings to
pursue them, it is obvious they must for ever
escape so important an adversary ; but the
spider is a most experienced hunter , and spreads
its nest to catch those animals it is enabled to
pursue. The spider's web is generally laid in
those places where flies are most apt to come
and shelter ; in the corners of rooms, round
the edges of windows, and in the open air
among the branches of trees. There the
little animal remains for days, nay, weeks to-
gether, in patient expectation, seldom chang-
ing its situation though never so unsuccessful.
For the purposes of making this web, na-
ture has supplied this animal with a large
quantity of glutinous matter within its body,
and five dugs or teats for spinning it into
thread. This substance is contained in a
little bag, and at the first sight it resembles
soft glue ; but when examined more accurately,
it will be found twisted into coils of an agate
colour, and upon breaking it, the contents
may be easily drawn out into threads, from
the tenacity of the substance, not from those
threads being already formed. Those who
have seen the machine by which wire is spun,
will have an idea of the manner in which this
animal forms the threads of its little net, the
orifices of the five teats above mentioned,
through which the thread is drawn, contract-
ing or dilating at pleasure. The threads
which we see, and appear so fine, are, notwith-
standing, composed of five joined together, and
these are many times doubled when the web
is in formation.
When the house-spider purposes to begin
a web, it first makes choice of some commo-
dious spot, where there is an appearance of
plunder and security. The animal then distils
one little drop of its glutinous liquor, which is
very tenacious, and then creeping up the wall,
and joining its thread as it proceeds, it darts
itself in a very surprising manner, as I have
often seen, to the opposite place, where the
other end of the web is to be fastened. The
first thread thus formed, drawn tight, and fixed
at each end, the spider then runs upon it back-
ward and forward, still assiduously employed
in doubling and strengthening it, as upon its
force depends the strength and stability of the
whole. The scaffolding thus completed, the
spider makes a number of threads parallel to
the first, in the same manner, and then crosses
them with others ; the clammy substance of
which they are formed, serving to bind them,
when newly made, to each other. The insect,
alter this operation, doubles and trebles all
thread that borders its web., by opening the
its teats at once, and secures the edges, so as
to prevent the wind from blowing the work
away. The edges being thus fortified, the
retieat is next to be attended to : and this is
formed like a funnel at the bottom of the web,
where the little creature lies concealed. To this
are two passages, or outlets, one above and
the other below, very artfully contrived, to
give the animal an opportunity of making ex-
cursions at proper seasons, of prying into every
corner, and cleaning those parts which are
observed to be clogged or encumbered. Still
attentive to its web, the spider, from time to
time, cleans away the dust that gathers round
it, which might otherwise clog and incom-
mode it: for this purpose, it gives the whole
a shake with its paws ; still, however, proper-
tioning the blow so as not to endanger the
fabric. It often happens, also, that from the
main web there are several threads extended
at some distance on every side; these are, in
some measure, the outworks of the fortifica-
tion, which, whenever touched from without,
the spider prepares for attack or self-defence.
If the insect impinging be a fly, it springs
forward with great agility ; if, on the con-
trary, it be the assault of an enemy stronger
than itself, it keeps within its fortress, and
never ventures out till the danger be over.
Another advantage the spider reaps from this
contrivance of a cell or retreat behind the web,
is, that it serves for a place where the creature
can feast upon its game with all safety, and
conceal the fragments of those carcases which
it has- picked, without exposing to public view
the least trace of barbarity, that might create
a suspicion in any insects that their enemy
was near.
It often happens, however, that the wind,
or rustling of the branches, or the approach
of some large animal, destroys in a minute
the labours of an age. In this case, the spider
is obliged to remain a patient spectator of the
universal ruin ; and when the danger is passed
away, it sets about repairing the calamity.
For this purpose, it is furnished with a large
store of the glutinous substance of which the
web is made ; and with this, it either makes
a new web, or patches up the old one. In
general, however, the animal is much fonder
of mending than making, as it is furnished
originally with but a certain quantity ol
glutinous matter, which when exhausted
nothing can renew. The time seldom fails
to come, when the reservoirs are entirely dried
up, and the poor animal is left to all the
chances of irretrievable necessity. An old
spider is thus frequently reduced to the great-
452
HISTOIIY OF INSEC'iS.
est extremity ; its web is destroyed, and it j
wants the materials to make a new one. But ;
as these animals have been long accustomed i
to a life of shifting, it hunts about to find out j
a web of another spider, younger and weaker j
than itself, with whom it ventures a battle, j
The invader generally succeeds; the young i
one is driven out to make a new web, and the
old one remains in quiet possession. If how-
ever, the spider is unable to dispossess any
other of its web, it then endeavours, for a
while, to subsist on accidental depredation ;
but in two or three months it inevitably dies
of hunger.1
The garden-spider seems to work in a dif-
ferent manner. The method with this insect
is, to spin a great quantity of thread, which
floating in the air in various directions, hap-
pens, from its glutinous quality, at last to
stick to some object near it, a lofty plant or
the branch of a tree. The spider only wants
to have one end of the line fast, in order to
secure and tighten the other. It accordingly
draws the line when thus fixed, and then by
passing and repassing upon it, strengthens the
thread in such a manner as to answer all its
intentions. The first cord being- thus stretched,
the spider walks along a part of it, and there
fastens another, and dropping from thence,
fastens the thread to some solid body below,
then climbs up again and begins a third, which
it fastens by the same contrivance. When
three threads are thus fixed, it forms a square,
or something that very nearly resembles one,
and in this the animal is generally seen to
reside. It often happens, however, when
1 From its having been frequently remarked that
ipiders spread their webs in solitary and confined,places,
to which it is difficult for flies to penetrate, M. de Vail-
lant naturally concluded that these creatures must often
remain long without food, and that consequently they
were capable of enduring considerable abstinence. To
ascertain the truth of this circumstance, he took a large
garden spider, whose belly was about the size of a nut,
and enclosed it under a glass bell, which he secured with
cement round it* bottom, and left it in that situation for
ten munths. Notwithstanding this deprivation of food,
it appeared during the whole time equally vigorous and
alert ; but its belly decreased, till at last it was scarcely
larger than the head of a pin. He then put under the
bell to it another spider of the same species. For a
little while they kept at a respectful distance from each
other, arid remained motionless, but presently the meagre
one, pressed by hunger, approached and attacked the
stranger. It returned several times to the charge; and,
in these different conflicts, its enemy became deprived
of almost all its claws ; it carried these away, and re-
tired to its former situation to devour them. The meagre
one had likewise lost three of its own claws, on which
also it fed ; and M. de Vaillant perceived that by this
repast, its plumpness was in some measure restored.
The day following, the new comer, deprived of all its
means of defence, fell a complete sacrifice. It was
speedily devoured ; and in less than twenty-four hours,
the old inhabitant of the bell became as plump as it was
at the first moment of its confinement.
the young spider begins spinning, that its was
becomes too buoyant, and not only the thread
floats in the air, but even the little spinster.
In this manner we have often seen the threads
of spiders floating in the air ; and what is still
more surprising, the young spiders themselves
attached to their own web. The reason is
obvious ; for as even gold itself may be so
finely drawn out as to float in the air, so the
finer threads of a spider are so buoyant as not
only to swim in the air, but also to lift the
spider itself ; which, like the tail of a kite,
rises with its own manufacture.
The spider's web being thus completed, and
fixed in a proper place, its next care is to seize
and secure whatever insect happens to be
caught in the toil. For this purpose, it re-
mains for weeks, and even months, upon the
watch, without ever catching a single fly ; for
the spider, like most other insects, is surpris-
ingly patient of hunger. It sometimes hap-
pens that too strong a fly strikes itself against
the web, and thus, instead of being caught,
tears the net to pieces. In general, however,
the butterfly or the hornet, when they touch
the web, fly off again, and the spider seerns
no way disposed to interrupt their retreat.
The large blue-bottle-fly, the ichneumon-fly,
and the common meat-fly, seem to be its
favourite game. When one of these strikes
into the toils, the spider is instantly seen alert
and watchful at the mouth of its hole, careful
to observe whether the fly be completely im-
rneshed ; if that be the case, the spider walks
leisurely forward, seizes its prey, and instantly
kills it by instilling a venomous juice into the
When two spiders of the same size meet in combat,
neither of them will yield ; they hold each other by the
fangs so fast, that in general one of the two must die be-
fore they are separated. M. Leeuwenhoeck says, he saw
one spider that was, however, only wounded in one leg
by his antagonist. A drop of blood as large as a grain
of sand issued from the sore ; and not being able to use
this wounded leg in running away from his adversary, he
held it up, and presently afterwards the whole limb
dropped away from his body. When spiders are wounded
in the breast, or upper parts of the body, they always die.
The spider, the ptiuus, and many insects of the beet e
kind, exhibit an instinct of a very extraordinary nature.
When put in terror by a touch of the finger, the spider
runs off with great swiftness ; but if he finds in what-
ever direction he takes he is opposed by another finger,
he then stems to despair of being able to escape, contracts
his limbs and body, lies perfectly motionless, and coun-
terfeits every symptom of death. "In this situation,
says Smellie, " I have pierced spiders with pins, and
torn them to pieces, without the ir discovering the small-
est marks of pain. This simulation of death has been
ascribed to a strong convulsion, or stupor, occasioned by
terror. But this solution of the plu nomeium is errone-
ous. I have repeatedly tried the experiment, and uni-
formly found, that, if the object of terror be removed, in
a few seconds the animal runs oil" with the greatest
rapidity. Some beetles, when counterfeiting death, will
snfler themselves to be gradually roasted without moving
a single joint."
THE SPIDER.
453
wound it makes. If, however, the fly be not
entirely irameshed, the spider patiently waits,
without appearing until its prey has fatigued
itself by its struggles to obtain its liberty ; for
if the ravager should appear in all its terrors
while the prey is but half involved, a despe-
rate effort might give it force enough to get
free. If the spider has fasted fora long time,
it then drags the fly immediately into its hole,
dnd devours it ; but if there has been plenty
of game, and the animal be no way pressed
by hunger, it then gives the fly two or three
turns in its web, so as completely to immesh
it, and there leaves it impotently to struggle
until the little tyrant comes to its appetite.
Why the spider should at one time kill its
prey, and at another suffer it to struggle in
the toils for several hours together, I am not
able to say ; perhaps it only likes its prey
newly killed, and therefore delays to put the
captive to death until it is to be eaten.
It has been the opinion of some philoso-
phers, that the spider was in itself both male
and female ; but Lister has been able to dis-
tinguish the sexes, and to perceive that the
males are much less in size than the females.
But this is not the chief peculiarity ; for, dif-
ferent from all other animals, except the fish
called the Ray, it has its instruments of gen-
eration placed in the fore arms, which have
been already described. When these ani-
mals copulate, they for some time seize each
other with their legs and 'arms, then appear
the instruments of generation in the male, as
if bursting out from the points of its fore-feet,
and are inserted into the receptacle beneath
the body of the female.
The female generally lays from nine hun-
dred to a thousand £ggs in a season ; they are
of a bluish colour, speckled with black, and
separated from each other by a glutinous sub-
stance, not unlike frog-spawn water. These
eggs are large or small in proportion to the
size of the animal that produces them. In
some they are as large as a grain of mustard-
seed ; in others they are scarcely visible. The
female never begins to lay till she be two
years old at the least, and her first brood is
never so numerous as when she has come to
her greatest maturity.
When the number of eggs which the spider
has brought forth have remained for an hour
or two to dry after exclusion, the little animal
then prepares to make them a bag, where
they are to be hatched until they leave the shell.
For this purpose she spins a web four or five
times stronger than that made for catching
flies ; and besides, lines it within-side by a
down, which she plucks from her own breast.
This bag, when completed, is as thick as pa-
per, is smooth within-side, but rougher with-
out. Within this they deposit their eggs ;
and it is almost incredible to relate the concern
and industry which they bestow in the pre-
servation of it. They stick it by means of
their glutinous fluid to the erid of their body ;
so that the animal, when thus loaded, appears
as if she had one body placed behind another.
If this bag be separated from her by any acci-
dent, she employs all her assiduity to stick it
again in its former situation, and seldom aban-
dons her treasure but with her life. When the
young ones are excluded from their shells,
within the bag, they remain for some time in
their confinement, until the female, instinc-
tively knowing their maturity, bites open their
prison, and sets them free. But her parental
care does not terminate with this exclusion ;
she receives them upon her back for some time,
until they have strength to provide for them-
selves, when they leave her never to return, and
each begins a separate manufactory of its own.
The young ones begin to spin when they can
scarcely be discerned ; and prepare for a life
of plunder before they have strength to over-
come. Indeed, Nature seems to have formed
them in every respect for a life of hostility. No
other insect is possessed of such various powers
of assault and defence ; and they are able to
destroy animals ten times bigger than them-
selves. Even after a severe defeat, they
quickly recover of their wounds ; and as for
their legs, they consider the loss of them as
but a small misfortune, as they grow again
very speedily to their former magnitude.
Thus there is no insect to which they are
riot an enemy ; but what is more barbarous
still, spiders are the enemies of each other.
M. Reaumur, who was fond of making experi-
ments upon insects, tried to turn the labours
of the spider to human advantage, and actually
made a pair of gloves from their webs.
For this purpose, he collected a large num-
ber of those insects together : he took care to
have them constantly supplied with flies, and
the ends of young feathers, fresh picked
from chickens and pigeons, which being full
of blood, are a diet that spiders are particularly
fond of. But, notwithstanding all his care,
he was soon convinced that it was impractic-
able to rear them, since they were of such a
malignant nature, that they could never be
brought to live in society; but instead of their
usual food, chose to devour each other. Indeed,
were it practicable to reconcile them to each
other, it would require too much attendance
to rear up a sufficient number to make the
project any way useful. Their thread is four,
if not five times finer than that of the silk-
worm ; so that, upon the smallest calculation,
there must have been sixty thousand spiders
to make a single pound of silk. That which
Reaumur made use of was only the web in
which they deposited their eggs, which is five
454
HISTORY OF INSECTS.
times stronger than theii ordinary manufac-
ture.
Of this animal, there are several kinds,
slightly differing from each other, either in
habits or conformation.1 The Water-spider
is the most remarkable of the number. This
insect resembles the common spider in its
appearance, except that its hinder part is made
rather in the shape of a nine-pin than a ball.
They differ in being able to live as well by
land as water ; and on being capable of spin-
ning as well in one element as the other.
Their appearance under water is very remark-
able ; for though they inhabit the bottom, yet
they are never touched by the element in which
they reside, but are inclosed in a bubble of air
that, like a box, surrounds them on every side.
This bubble has the bright appearance, at the
bottom, of quicksilver : and within this they
perform their several functions of eating,
1 The gossamer, bird-catching, and branded spiders
are among the most remarkable. Gossamer spiders first
appear in the beginning of October, in woods, gardens,
and meadows, where their eggs are hatched in safety ;
thence they spread themselves over whole districts, and,
during the rest of October, and till the middle of Nov-
ember, may be found in dry fields throughout Europe.
Extensive tracts of land are sometimes seen swarming
with them. In the beginning of October, when but very
few are hatched, some single threads of their webs, ex-
tending from twig to twig, are seen only in the sun.
shine : about the middle of the month their threads are
more perceptible ; and toward the end, if a person stand
in such a position as to see the sunbeams play upon
their slender threads, hedges, meadows, cornfields, stub-
ble land, and even whole districts, appear covered
as with a sort of white gauze. The gossamer spider
does not weave a web, but only extends its threads from
one place to another. These are so delicate, that a
single thread cannot be seen unless the sun shines on it.
One of them, to be visible at other times, must be com-
posed of at least six common threads twisted together.
In serene, calm days, these spiders work with great
diligence, especially after the disappearance of the morn-
ing fogs. Between twelve and two, however, their
industry excites the greatest admiration. A person
with a pretty quick eye, or by the help of a glass, may
sometimes perceive among the barley stubble such a
multitude of these insects extending their threads, that
the fields appear as if covered with swarms of gnats.
Several of the single threads become twisted together by
the gentlest breath of wind, and form perceptible threads,
which, being broken by stronger winds, unite into thick
threads, or even into balls, arid float through the atmo-
sphere. These are then called in Germany, the flying
summer, because the summer seems to fly away at the
same time. The spiders are conveyed in them : but it
is not uncommon to find spiders of other species in them,
which have been entangled and dragged away ; and even
the webs of other spiders, and the dried husks of insects
that have been caught by them, are often found in the
gossamer. The gossamer-spiders appear in swarms only
during the harvest; but single spiders are to be found
through the whole summer.
The Bird-catching Spider is of gigantic size, and great
muscular power, extending with its feet a space of near
ten inches. From the head to the extremity of the ab-
domen it often measures above three inches. The legs
are as thick as a goose's quill, and closely covered with
spinning, and sleeping, without its ever burst-
ing, or in the least disturbing their operations ;
sometimes the bubble is seen divided into three
distinct apartments ; and in the spring, the
male enters one of these to impregnate the
female in the manner mentioned above, while
the bubble in which he was contained unites
with the other, like two drops of water when
approached to each other. They spin their
webs as well in the water as upon land ; and
it is most probable that they make their footf
of the small insects of either element.
The Tarantula is also of this species, and
deserves particular notice, not for any remark-
able properties that really attend it, but for
the numerous falsehoods which have been pro-
pagated concerning it. What may be said
with truth concerning it is, that it is the lar-
gest of the spider kind known in Europe, and
is a native of Apulia in Italy. Its body is
hair. The body is brown, and the fangs are as strong
and sharp as in some of the rapacious species of birds. It
is not uncommon in many parts of America, but is gen-
erally found in the southern division of that continent,
and particularly in Guinea, and is a terror to all the
feathered tribe. It resides in the trees, and frequently
seizes on small birds, which it destroys by sucking their
blood, after having first wounded them by its fangs,
which distil a poisonous liquid into the wound. The
slit or orifice near the tip of the fangs, through which this
poison is emitted, is so visible as to be distinctly per-
ceived without a glass. The eight eyes of this terrible
insect are placed somewhat in the form of an oblong
square in the front of the thorax ; of these the two mid-
dle ones are so large as to be capable of being set in the
manner of glasses, and used as microscopes ; the rest
are smaller, and of an oval shape. The thorax is orbi-
cular, and has a transverse excavation. Captain Stedman,
while residing in Surinam, had one of them given t«
him, which he put into a case bottle above eight inches
long ; and, when this was filled with spirits, the ani-
mal reached the surface with some of its claws, while
others rested on the bottom. On the whole, he says,
this spider is so hideous a creature, that the very sight
of it is sufficient to occasion a tremor of abhorrence, even
in persons most accustomed to inspect the deformities of
nature.
The Banded Spider is a native of Barbary, and is as
large as a man's thumb. It has yellow bands round the
belly, and dusky rings round the legs. It inhabits
hedges and thickets. Its webs have large meshes, and
it resides in the centre ; the snares are spread for large
flies, wasps, drones, and even locusts ; the lesser insects
can escape through the meshes. The animal which it
entangles is soon bound with strong threads, killed by the
spider's jaws, and partly eat if the spider be hungry ;
the rest is concealed under some neighbouring dry leaves,
covered with a kind of web, and blackish blue in great
abundance : its larder is said to be often plentifully
stored. Its nest is of the size of a pigeon's egg, divided
horizontally, and suspended by the threads of the insect,
which are of a silvery white, and stronger than silk. The
young ones live in amity, but when grown up are mortal
enemies ; they never meet but they fight with violence,
and their battle only ends with the death of the weakest :
the dead body is carefully stored in the larder. Twelve of
these spiders, by way of experiment, were shut up together,
and after a battle of eight days the strongest only re-
mained alive. — Rennie.
THE FLEA.
455
three quarters of an inch long, and about as
thick as one's little finger ; the co'our is gene-
rally an olive brown, variegated with one that
is more dusky ; it has eight legs and eight
eyes, like the rest, and nippers, which are
sharp and serrated: between these and the
tore legs, there are two little horns, or feelers,
which it is observed to move very briskly
when it approaches its prey. It is covered. all
over the body with a soft down, and propa-
gates, as other spiders, by laying eggs. In
the summer months, particularly in the dog
days, the tarantula, creeping among the corn,
bites the mowers and passengers; but in win-
ter it lurks in holes, and is seldom seen.
Thus far is true; but now the fable begins:
for though the bite is attended with no dan-
gerous symptoms, and will easily cure of it-
self, wonderful stories are reported concerning
its virulence. The part which is bitten, as
we are told, is soon after discoloured with a
livid, black, or yellowish circle attended with
an inflammation. At first the pain is scarcely
felt ; but a few hours after, come on a violent
sickness, diificulty of breathing, fainting, and
sometimes trembling. The person bit, after
this does nothing but laugh, dance, skip about,
putting himself into the most extravagant pos-
tures, and sometimes also is seized with a most
frightful melancholy. At the return of the
season in which he was bit, his madness be-
gins again ; and the patient always talks of
the same things. Sometimes he fancies him-
self a shepherd, sometimes a king ; appearing-
entirely out of his senses. These troublesome
symptoms sometimes return for several years
successively, and at last terminate in death.
But so dreadful a disorder has, it seems, not
been left without a remedy; which is no other
than a well-played fiddle. For this purpose
the medical musician plays a particular tune,
famous for the cure, which he begins slow, anc
increases in quickness as he sees the patient
affected. The patient no sooner hears the
music, but he begins to dance; and continue!
so doing till he is all over in a sweat, whicl
forces out the venom that appeared so danger-
ous. This dancing sometimes continues fo
three or four hours, before the patient is weary
and before the sweating is copious enough t
cure the disorder. Such are the symptoms re
lated of the tarantula poison; symptoms which
some of the best and gravest physicians hav
credited, and attempted to account for. Bu
the truth is, that the whole is an imposition o
the peasants upon travellers who happen t<
pass through that part of the country, and wh<
procure a trifle for suffering themselves to b
bitten by the tarantula. Whenever they fim
a traveller willing to try the experiment, the;
readily offer themselves, and are sure to coun
terfeit the whole train of symptoms which mu
;c is supposed to remove. A friend of mine,
fho passed through that part of the country,
ad a trusty servant bitten, without ever ad-
ninistering the musical eure_: the only symp-
oms were a slight inflammation, which was
eadily removed, and no other consequence
ver attended the bite. — It is thus that false-
loods prevail for a century or two ; and man-
kind at last begin to wonder how it was possi-
le to keep up the delusion so long.
CHAP. IV.
OF THE FLE4-
THE history of those animals with which we
are the best acquainted, is the first object of
our chiefest curiosity. — There are few but who
are well-informed of the agility and blood-
hirsty disposition of the Flea ; of the caution
with which it comes to the attack ; and the
•eadiness with which it avoids the pursuit.
This insect, which is not only the enemy of
mankind, but of the dog, cat, and several other
animals, is found in every part of the world,
Dut bites with greater severity in some conn-
iries than in others. Its numbers in Italy
and France are much greater than in Eng-
and ; and yet its bite is much more trouble-
some here, than I have found it in any other
place. It would seem that its force increased
with the coldness of the climate ; and, though
less prolific, that it becomes move predaceous.'
1 The Common Flea. — At a meeting of a Scientific
Society at Oxford, some time ago, Mr Hussey, of Christ
Church, read a paper on the growth of the flea, in which
the changes through which the flea passes were described,
and an account was given of some observations of the
manner in which changes may be retarded. The flea,
it was stated, lays from eight to twelve eggs, which fall
down into crevices, or among dust, where they are
hatched in about five days; they produce small white
maggots like cheese-mites, which increase in size for
about fourteen days, when they spin a bag or case of silk
around them, and become chrysalids. Within this case
they gradually darken in colour, until, at the end of
about sixteen days, they come out of it perfect fleas ; hav-
ing been, on the whole, about thirty-four days from the
laying of the egg to the perfect state. M. Defrance's
opinion concerning the food of the young maggot, was
quoted : namely, that it is fed by small grains of dried
blood, which the parent has the power of extracting from
the skin of the animals on which it feeds.
The strength of this animal is astonishing for its size.
A flea will drag after it a chain a hundred times heavier
than itself; and, to compensate for this force, will eat
ten times its own weight of provisions in a day. Mr
Boverich, an ingenious watch-maker who some years
ago lived in the Strand, London, exhibited to the public
a little ivory chaise, with four wheels, and all its proper
apparatus, and a man sitting on the box, all of which
were drawn by a single flea. He made a small landau,
which opened and shut by springs, with six horses har-
nassed to it ; a coachman sitting on the box, and a dog
between his legs, four persons in the carriage, two foot-
456
HISTORY OF INSECTS.
If the flea be examined with a microscope,
it will be observed to have a small head, large
eyes, and a roundish body. It has two feel-
ers, or horns, which are short, and composed
of four joints : and between these lies its trunk,
which it buries in the skin, and through which
it sucks the blood in great quantities. The
body appears to be all over curiously adorned
with a suit of polished sable armour, neatly
jointed, and beset with multitudes of sharp
pins, almost like the quills of a porcupine. It
has six legs, the joints of which are so adapted,
that it can, as it were, fold them up one with-
in another ; and when it leaps, they all spring
out at once, whereby its whole strength is ex-
erted, and the body raised above two hundred
times its own diameter.
The young fleas are at first a sort of nits or
eggs, which are round and smooth; and from
these proceed white worms, of a shining pearl
colour : in a fortnight's time they come to a
tolerable size, and are very lively and active ;
but if they are touched at this time, they roll
themselves up in a ball: soon after this they
begin to creep like silk-worms that have no
legs; and they seek a place to lie hid in,
where they spin a silken thread from their
mouth, and with this they inclose themselves
in a small round bag or case, as white within
as writing-paper, but dirty without : in this
they continue for a fortnight longer; after
which they burst from their confinement per-
fectly formed, and armed with powers to dis-
turb the peace of an emperor.1
CHAP. V.
OF THE LOUSE AND ITS VARIETIES.
THE antipathies of mankind are various ;
some considering the toad, some the serpent,
men behind it, and a postilion riding on one of the fore
horses, which was easily drawn along by a flea. He
likewise had a cuain of brass, about two inches long,
containing two hundred links, with a hook at one end,
and a padlock and key at the other, which the flea drew
very nimbly along.
1 The Chigoe- — This troublesome insect, which is a
kind of small sand flea, i? so diminutive as to be almost
imperceptible. Its legs have not the elasticity of those
of fleas; for had the chigoes their power of leaping, there
is not a living creature of the climates where they abound
that would not be full of them ; and this lurking race
would destroy three-fourths of mankind by the evils they
would produce. They are common in Surinam, and in
many parts of America, and are always found among the
dust, and principally in filthy places ; they fix themselves
on the legs, to the soles of the feet, and even to the fin-
gers.
The chigoe gets in between the skin and the flesh,
and generally under the nails of the toes, in such a sub-
tile manner, that, at th« time, the person is not sensible
of it; nor is it to be perceived till it begins to extend it-
some the spider, and some the" beetle, with a
strong degiee of detestation : but while all
wonder at the strangeness of each other's aver-
sions, they all seem to unite in their dislike to
the Louse, and regard it as their natural and
most nauseous enemy. Indeed, it seems the
enemy of man in the most odious degree, for
wherever wretchedness, disease, or hunger,
seize upon him, the louse seldom fails to add
itself to the tribe, and to increase in proportion
to the number of his calamities.
In examining the human louse with the
microscope, its external deformity first strikes
us with disgust: the shape of the forepart of
the head is somewhat oblong ; that of the hind
part somewhat round : the skin is hard, and
being stretched, transparent, with here and
there several bristly hairs: in the forepart is a
proboscis or sucker, which is seldom visible
on each side of the head are antennas, or horns,
each divided into five joints, covered with
bristly hair ; and several white vessels .are
seen through these horns : behind these are
the eyes, which seem to want those divisions
observable in other insects, and appear encom-
passed with some few hairs : the neck is very
short, and the breast is divided into three
parts; on each side of which are placed six
self. At first it is not difficult to extract it; but, al-
though it may only have introduced its head, it makes s«
firm a lodgment that a part of the skin must be sacrificed
before it will quit its hold. If it be not soon perceived,
the insect completes its lodgment, sucks the blood, and
forms a nest of a white thin tunicle, in the shape of flat
pearl. It extends itself in this space in such a manner,
that its head and feet are towards the exterior side, for
the convenience of nourishment ; and the other part of
the body answers to the inner side of the tunicle, in or.
der to lay its eggs there. In proportion as these are
laid, the little pearl is enlarged ; and in four or five days
it is at least four or five lines in diameter. It is then of
the utmost consequence to have it extracted ; for if this
be neglected it bursts of itself, and spreads an infinity of
nits, which, when hatched, fill the whole part, and pro.
duce excessive anguish ; and the difficulty of dislodging
them becomes very great. These penetrate to the very
hones ; and even when the sufferer has got rid of them,
the pain will last till the flesh and skin are entirely
healed.
The operation of extracting them, at which the black
girls are extremely dexterous, is long and painful. It
consists in separating, with the point of a needle, the
flesh next to the membrane where the eggs are lodged ;
which is not easily done without bursting the tunicle.
After having separated even the most minute ligaments,
the nest is to be extracted. If unfortunately it bursts,
particular care must be taken to extract every root of it,
and especially not to leave behind the principal insect.
This would begin to lay its eggs again before the wound
could be healed ; and penetrating much farther into the
flesh, would increase the difficulty of extracting. During
the great heats extreme care must be taken not to wet
the parf aflected. Without this precaution, experience
has proved that the patient is subject to consequences that
frequently prove fatal. Tobacco ashes are put into the
orifice, by which, in a little time, the sore is perfectly
healed. Some, by .having neglected in time to root out
these detestable vermin, have not only lost their limbs by
amputation, but even their lives.
THE LOUSE.
457
legs, consisting of six joints, covered also with
bristly hairs; the ends of the legs are armed
with two smaller and larger ruddy claws, serv-
ing these insects as a ringer and thumb, by
which they catch hold of such objects as they
approach : the end of the body terminates in a
cloven tail, while the sides are all over hairy;
the whole resembling clear parchment, and,
when roughly pressed, crackling with a noise.
When we take a closer view, its white
veins and other internal parts appear, as like-
wise a most wonderful motion in its intestines,
from the transparency of its external covering.
When the louse feeds, the blood is seen to
rush, like a torrent, into the stomach ; and its
greediness is so great, that the excrements con-
tained in the intestines are ejected at the same
time, to make room for this new supply.
The louse has neither beak, teeth, nor any
kind of mouth, as Dr Hooke described it, for
the entrance into the gullet is absolutely closed.
In the place of all these, it has a proboscis or
trunk : or, as it may be otherwise called, a
pointed hollow sucker, with which it pierces
the skin, and sucks the human blood, taking
that for food only. The stomach is lodged
partly in the breast and back ; but the great-
est portion of it is in the abdomen. When
swollen with blood, it appears of a dark brown
colour, which is visible through the skin ; and
is either a taint red, or a full or bright brown,
as the contents of the stomach are more or less
changed. When it is empty, it is colourless ;
but when filled, it is plainly discernible, and
its motion seems very extraordinary. It then
appears working with very strong agitations,
and somewhat resembles an animal within an
animal. Superficial observers are apt to take
this for the pulsation of the heart : but if the
animal be observed when it is sucking, it will
then be found that the food takes a direct pas-
sage from the trunk to the stomach, where the
remainder of the old aliment will be seen mix-
ing with the new, and agitated up and down
on every side.
If this animal be kept from food two or
three days, and then placed upon the back of
the hand, or any soft part of the body, it will
immediately seek for food ; which it will the
more readily find, if the hand be rubbed till it
grows red. The animal then turns its head,
which lies between the two fore-legs, to the
skin, and diligently searches for some pore :
when found, it fixes the trunk therein, and soon
the microscope discovers the blood ascending
through the head, in a very rapid, and even
frightful stream. The louse has at that time
sufficient appetite to feed in any posture ; it is
then seen sucking with its head downward,
and its tail elevated. If, during this opera-
tion, the skin be drawn tight, the trunk is
bound fast, and the animal is incapable of dis-
VOL. n.
engaging itself ; but it more frequently sutlers
from its gluttony, since it gorges to such a de-
gree, that it is crushed to pieces by the slight-
est impression.
Whether lice are distinguished by the parts
of generation into males and females is not yet
discovered : Swammerdam is inclined to think
that they are hermaphrodites, having found an
ovary in all those he examined ; and he dis-
sected not less than forty-two. In one of
these animals were found ten large eggs ; and
forty-four smaller, that were not yet come to
their full perfection.
There is scarce any animal that multiplies
so fast as this unwelcome intruder. It has been
pleasantly said, that a louse becomes a grand-
father in the space of twenty-four hours : this
fact cannot be ascertained ; but nothing is more
true than that the moment the nit, which is no
other than the egg of the louse, gets rid of its
superfluous moisture, and throws off its shell,
it then begins to breed in its turn. Nothing
so much prevents the increase of this nauseous
animal as cold and want of humidity ; the nits
must be laid in a place that is warm, and mo.
derately moist, to produce anything. This is
the reason that many nits laid on the hairs in
the night-time, are destroyed by the cold of the
succeeding day ; and so stick for several
months, till they at last come to lose even their
external form.
The louse is found upon every part of the
human body : but particularly in the heads of
children.1 Those found upon the miners in
1 All lice live on blood, some on that of man, others on
that of quadrupeds. They suck it with their proboscis,
which is hardly ever perceived, unless it be in action.
There is no quadruped which has not its particular louse,
and some nourish several. Man, as we have already
seen, is attacked by three species.
Swammerdam, who has given us the anatomy of the
human louse, was unable to discover any male among
those which he examined. He always found in them
an ovary; which occasioned him to suspect that they
were hermaphrodites. But the observations of Leeuwen-
hock, differ much from those of that author. He has
observed individuals among these insects provided with
all the parts which characterize the male sex, and he
has given the figures of those parts. The same author
has also discovered in those which he regards as males,
a recurved sort of sting, situated under the abdomen,
with which, according to him, they can prickle. He
believes that the great itching which they occasion pro-
ceeds from the pricking of this sting, having remarked
that the introduction of their proboscis into the flesh
produces scarcely any sensation, unless perchance that
it touch on any of the nerves. Degeer tells us, that he
has seen a similar sting situated at the end of the abdo-
men in several human lice as well those of the body, as
of the head. The individuals, which according to the
opinion of Leeiiwenhock are the males, have, according
to Degeer, the end of the abdomen rounded, whereas
the females, or those which have no sting, have it emar-
giriated. M. Latreille has also observed, very distinctly
in a great number of individuals, the sting, or at least
the conical and scaly point of which the aforesaid authors
have made mention.
3*
458
HISTORY OF INSECTS.
Sweden, are said, by Linnaeus, to be very
large; and he is of opinion that the head and
the bady-louse differ in no respect from
ea'ch other. The phthiriasis, or lousy disease,
The multiplication of these insects is unfortunately
far too great, but they are not quite so prolific as some
have represented. Experiments have proved that in six
days a louse can lay fifty eggs, and that some will still
remain in the belly. The young ones soon issue from
the eggs, (at the end of six days,) and change their ski
several times, after which, they are in a state to repro-
duce. This occurs about eighteen days after, when they
begin to lay in their turn. According to these observa-
tion?, and the calculations to which they have given rise,
two female lice may have eighteen thousand descendants
in the course of two months.
LinnsBus considered the louse, which remains con-
stantly on the human head, as a variety of the common
louse. It is, however, from its characters, and also
from its undeviating locality, proved to be a distinct
species. This same great naturalist also informs us,
that the largest lice he ever met with, are to be found
in the warm caverns of Fahlun, in Sweden.
Children, and persons who totally neglect their hair,
and are otherwise of filthy habits, are generally infested
by the head.lice. When powder was fashionable,' and
preposterously esteemed an embellishment to the hair, it
frequently proved a productive cause of these vermin.
Those who left too long upon their head the dandriff
produced by the use of powder, or who employed adul-
terated powder for the ornament of their hair, were very
liable to the intrusion of these unamiable guests. The
other species, which is found 011 all parts of the body,
excepting those of generation, comes generally in con-
sequence of the neglect of personal cleanliness, and the
not changing the linen and internal garments sufficiently
often. It is from this same species that those persons
suffer who are afflicted with that most dreadful and dis-
gusting malady phthiriasis. It may be observed that
their appearance, though in fewer numbers, is some-
times indicative of the approach, or even of the crisis of
other diseases, and that where there is no neglect of per-
sonal cleanliness.
As for the third species, we believe, that its appear.
ance is invariably the result of indiscriminate debauch-
ery, accompanied of course with personal neglect.
Dirt attracts these insects, and prepares for them a
nidus favourable to the reproduction of their posterity.
This is the vice which must be first eradicated if we are
desirous of being protected from their inroads, or if al-
ready attacked by them, of rendering more efficacious
any other means employed for their destruction.
The remedies employed against these vermin act in
two ways. Some of them, such as oily and fatty sub-
stances, or such as contain azotic gas, close up the stig-
mata of these insects, or the apertures destined for the
admission of air, and smother them. Others, such as
the seeds of staphis agria, of larks-spur, tobacco, &c.
reduced to a powder, produce the effect of a violent
poison, and exercise their influence on the general or-
ganization of the animals. Mercurial preparations are,
of all others, the must certain and speedy agents of their
destruction. They may also be employed for the ex-
tinction of the species which infest our domestic ani-
mals.
It is said that lice, by piercing the skin, often produce
pustules which may be converted into itch or tinea.
Their multiplication, in certain subjects, is carried to
such an extent as to produce the mortal malady which
has been already noticed, namely, morbus pedicuiaris or
phthiriasis. History has afforded us many examples of
this; I'heretima, mentioned by Herodotus ; Sylla, An-
tiochus Epiphanes, the two Herods, Maximin, and
though very little known at present, was fre-
quent enough among the ancients : Herod,
Antiochus Epiphanes, Alcman the poet, Phe-
recydes, Cassander, Callisthenes, and Sylla,
Philip the Second, perished of this disease, or something
very analogous to it. Mr Kirby is prone to think that
it has fallen particularly as a judgment from God on the
oppressors of mankind and the persecutors of religion.
But this and all such notions ought to be admitted with
caution, or rather rejected altogether. Until it is shown
that the disease in question has fallen upon such persons
alone, and on no others, we must discard the idea of its
being an instrument of Divine vengeance. But this is
so far from being the case, that the reverend entomo-
logist himself informs us that " this most loathsome of
all maladies, or one equally disgusting, has been the
inheritance of the rich, the wise, the noble, and the
mighty; and in the list of those who have fallen victims
to it, you will find poets, philosophers, princes, kings,
and emperors." It would be somewhat hard to believe
that among all these there was not one less bloody than
the first, or less profligate than the second Herod, less
oppressive than Maximin, or less bigotted than Philip.
The fact is, diseases of all kinds, like the rain of heaven,
fall upon the just and the unjust. They follow, to be
sure, as a pretty certain consequence, the indulgence in
some vices. Intemperance of all kinds will entail them
on the practiser as a necessary, but a natural punish-
ment. But the man who unites a sound constitution to
a prudent care of his health, may be at once supremely
wicked and remarkably healthy. He may cheat and
rob, and oppress and murder, but while he avoids the
vices which are ruinous to health, he is more likely to
find the reward of his villanies here from the indigna-
tion of mankind than from any heaven-descended visita-
tion of disease.
Mr Kirby seems doubtful whether all the cases re-
corded as of morbus pedicuiaris are referrable to the
same specific cause. He believes there is sufficient
reason for thinking that three different kinds of insects
are concerned in the production of diseases which have
all been confounded under the name of phthiriasis. Be-
sides those produced by pcdicv,li, this eminent naturalist
refers many cases to the agency of acari, or mites, and
larvae in general.
It has never been proved, in any well authenticated
ivay, that the species of the genus pediculus burrow be-
neath the skin, or are subcutaneous. This remark is
equally applicable to man, and the lower animals, as far
as we know anything of the habits of the genus in ques-
tion. For this we have the highest medical authority,
as far as man is concerned. Dr Mead informs us that
the louse feeds on the surface of the skin," and Dr
Willan, in a work on cutaneous diseases, states, respect-
ing the body-louse, that " the nils or eggs, are deposited
on the small hairs of the skin, and the animals are found
on the skin, or on the linen, and not under the cuticle,
as some authors have represented." The same writer
informs us, '• that many marvellous stories are related
by Forestus, Schenkius and others, respecting lice bred
under the skin, and discharged in swarms from absces-
ses, strumous ulcers, and vesications. The mode in
which pediculi are generated being now so well ascer-
tained, no credit can be given to these accounts." He
thinks, however, that those authors have mistaken some
other insects for lice, as some such animals may some-
times be found in putrid ulcers.
It appears, therefore, that cases of disease from ani-
mals residing under the cuticle, cannot be referred to
pediculi. The poet Alcman, and Pherecydes Syrius,
the philosopher, are mentioned by Aristotle, as having
died of some complaint of this kind. But it could not
have been a true phthiriasis, as that great philosopher,
THE LOUSE.
459
all died of this disorder. The use of mercury,
which was unknown among the ancients, may
probably have .banished it from among the mo-
derns ; for certain it is, that these animals sel-
dom attack any in our climate, but such as
from sloth or famine invite their company.
Such is the history of the human louse,
which, from its connection with mankind, de-
serves first notice : but it would be endless to
describe the various tribes that go under this
name, and swarm upon every part of Nature.
There is scarce an animal, and scarce even a
vegetable, that does not suffer under its own
peculiar louse. The sheep, the horse, the hog,
and the elephant, are all teased by them ; the
whale, the shark, the salmon, and the lobster,
who attributed it to lice, imagined; for he tells us, that
"they are produced in the flesh, in small pustules, like
tumours, which have no pus, and from which, when
punctured, they issue." Dr Heberden, in his Com-
mentaries, informs us of a similar case, which he terms
morbus pedicularis, but which could not be so, for the
same reason. He represents the insect as inhabiting
tumours, from which, when opened, they issue. He
also tells u«, that in all respects they resemble the com-
mon louse, but in being whiier. But an observer not
accurately skilled in entomology, might, as Mr Kirby
very justly remarks, easily mistake an acarus for a
pediculus.
Dr Willan has cited two other cases, which he seems
to think may with propriety be referred to true phthiri.
asis. In one of these cases, it is stated that the pediculi
so abounded, that two black servants had no other em-
ployment than that of carrying baskets full of these in-
sects, and throwing them into the sea. This, as Mr
Kirby observes, appears to be somewhat exaggerated
and hyperbolical. We shall conclude this part of the
subject, by observing, that phthiriasis must vary in its
types, according to the species of pediculus by which it
is produced.
The facts mentioned by Cuvier, that lice abandon the
Spanish sailors, in a certain degree of latitude when
going to the Indies, and revisit them again on their re-
turn, and that body lice are unknown in India, are ob-
servations that have need of being corroborated by more
certain testimonies than we are yet in possession of.
But, if true, there would be nothing in the fact very
surprising. A degree of considerable heat, and a more
abundant transpiration, might prove unfavourable to the
propagation of the pediculi corporis. As their skin is
more tender, the influence of the air might prove detri-
mental to them in those burning climates.
The disgusting fact, of these vermin being eaten, is
not confined to the Hottentots, the Negroes of Western
Africa, and the Simiae. It has been observed to pre-
vail among some of the American tribes, and is not un-
common even in Europe, as amongst the beggars in
Spain and Portugal. Some authors have pointed out
the courses which should be adopted to protect or free
the person from these disgusting insects. The best of
all, in ordinary cases, is cleanliness. Of the medical
uses to which these animals have been applied, it is un-
necessary to dilate here. No one, we fancy, of the least
degree of intelligence, gives any credit to such remedies
at present. It was imagined that their introduction into
the uretha of new-born infants, troubled with suppression
of urine, might, by the titillation which they caused in
that canal, force the sphincter to relax, and give pas-
sage to the urine. Farriers used to employ the same
remedy with horses in similar cases.
The pediculi proper, are confined to men and quad-
are not without their company ; while ever)
hot-house, and every garden, is infested with
some peculiarly destructive. Linnaeus tells us,
that he once found a vegetable-louse upon some
plants newly arrived from America ; and, will-
ing to trace the little animal through its vari-
ous stages, he brought it with him from Lon-
don to Leyden, where he carefully preserved
it during the winter, until it bred in the
spring ; but the louse it seems did noi treat
him with all the gratitude he expected ; for it
became the parent of so numerous a progeny,
that it soon overran all the physic-garden of
that beautiful city; and leaves, to this day,
many a gardener to curse the Swecb's too in-
dulgent curiosity.
rupeds. The ricini, or bird-lice, to &9 feathered
race.
It appears that the ancients designated under the
name of ricinut, those acarides, or acari, vulgarly called
ticks, which attach themselves to the skin of dogs, oxen,
&c. Degeer might, therefore, have better employed
another denomination for the present genus, and which
preceding naturalists confounded with that of lice. Ac-
cordingly, Dr Leach has adopted, from Herman, the
denomination of nirmus.
It was by no means surprising, that the earlier natur-
alists did not distinguish these animals from the lice ;
their external physiognomy is almost the same, but their
organization is different in many essential points, and it
is evident that these two genera approximate in a natu-
ral series. From the consideration of their resemblances
and differences, and from some other facts, furnished by
the trachean arachuida, and the branchiopoda, we may
see that nature, in preserving always the same type of
general forms, is pleased to modify, and sometimes rather
abruptly, that of the manducatory apparatus, or that she
easily converts organs adapted for grinding, into sucking
organs, and vice versa. Her views in this respect are
subordinate to the model on which the body of the ani-
mal is at first formed. This consideration caused M.
Latreille to reject as a primary character, the division
of insects into two lines — one composed of the grinding,
and the other of the sucking insects.
The ricini live exclusively on animals of the class
A ves. Degeer, it is true, makes mention of a ricinus
found on the body of a dog; but this species M. La-
treille refers to pediculus, and could discover uo man-
dibles on it.
These insects remain by preference under the wings,
about the axilla, and on the head of birds ; they attach
themselves there very strongly, by means of the two ro-
bust and equal crotchets which terminate their tarsi.
They multiply there sometimes, in such quantities, that
the birds grow considerably thinner, and may even die
in consequence. Care should be taken to examine do-
mestic birds, supposed to be infested by these vermin,
and often to clean out the places in which they are kept,
and where they are accustomed to rest. By such means
they may also be protected from a species of mite, which
multiplies prodigiously in such places, and by which
these domestic animals are seriously incommoded.
The genus of the ricini is very numerous; there is
no bird without one or two species. Redi has figured a
great number of them, and though his figures are rude,
one may easily see how many varieties the forms of these
insects present. Their characters, manners, &c., are,
with the exceptions already stated, the same as those of
the lice. There is one singularity in the ricinus pavo-
nis, and that is, that the antennae are forked. — Supple-
ment to the English edition of Cuvier.
460
HISTORY OF INSECTS.
The animal which some have called the
Leaf-Louse, is of the size of a flea, and of a
bright green, or bluish-green colour ; the body
is nearly oval, and is largest and most convex
on the hinder part; the breast is very small,
and the head is blunt and green : the eyes may
be seen very plainly, being prominent on the
fore part of the head, and of a shining black
colour ; near these there is a black line on
each side ; and the legs are very slender.1
These animals are usually found on the
leaves of the orache, and other plants ; and the
weaker the leaves and buds are, these insects
swarm upon them in greater abundance. Some
plants are covered over with them ; though
they are not the cause of the plant's weakness,
but the sign : however, by wounding and suck-
ing the leaf, they increase the disease. They
generally assume their colour from the plant
on which they reside. Those that feed upon
pot-herbs and plum-trees, are of an ash-colour;
only they are greenish when they are young :
1 Of the Aphides, or Plant Lice. — The minute ani-
mals which compose this singular tribe live entirely on
vegetables, and the loftiest trees are as liable to their at-
tacks as the most humble plant. Their numbers are
often incalculably great. They prefer the young shoots
on account of their tenderness, and frequently insinuate
themselves into the very hearts of the plants, doing irre-
parable mischief even before they are discovered. But
for the most part they beset the foliage, and are always
found on the under side of the leaf. This they prefer,
not only on account of its being most tender, but because
it affords them protection from the weather.
Some of the species are constantly and unalterably at-
tached to one or more particular kind of plants ; but
others feed indiscriminately on most sorts of herbage.
These insects are sometimes winged, and sometimes
destitute of wings, without any distinction of sex. In
the spring they are viviparous, producing their offspring
alive; and in the autumn they are oviparous, depositing
their eggs, like most other insects, in places where they
remain secure through the winter till the ensuing spring,
when they are hatched. The aphides afford also another
surprising deviation from the general laws of nature; one
impregnation of a female is sufficient for nine genera-
tions*
The larva, chrysalides, and perfect insects, have so
little difference in external appearance, that they can-
not be distinguished from each other.
If the aphides had not many enemies, their increase
in summer would be so great, as by wounding and ex-
hausting the tender shoots of the trees, sometimes to sup-
press their vegetation. Among their enemies, one of
the principal is a small black species of ichneumon-fly,
which darts its pointed tail into the bodies of the aphi-
des, and at the same time deposits an egg in each. This
egg afterwards produces a grub, which feeds on the body
of the insect till it has acquired its full growth, when it
undergoes its change, and entirely destroys its living
nidus.
After a mild spring, most of the species of aphis be-
come so numerous as to do considerable injury to the
trees on which they are found. The best mode to re-
medy this evil is to lop off the infected shoots before the
insects greatly multiplied, repeating the same operation
before the time that the eggs are deposited. By the first
pruning, a very numerous present increase will be pre-
vented ; and by the second, the following year's supply
may in a great measure be cut off.
those that belong to the alder and cherry-tree,
are black ; as also those upon beans, and some
other-plants : those on the leaves of apples and
rose-trees, are white : but as they leap, like
grasshoppers, some place them in the number
of the flea kind. The most uncommon colour
is reddish ; and lice of this sort may be found
on the leaves of tansey ; and their juice, when
rubbed in the hands, tinges them with no dis-
agreeable red. All these live upon their res-
pective plants ; and are often engendered with
in the very substance of the leaf.
All these bring forth their young alive ; and
the foetus, when it is ready to be brought forth,
entirely fills the belly of the female; its fore
parts being excluded first, and then the hin-
der. The young one does not begin to move
till the horns or feelers appear out of the body
of the old one ; and by the motion of these it
first shows signs of life, moving them in every
direction, and bending all their joints. When
the horns and head are excluded, the two fore-
feet follow, which they move with equal agi-
lity ; after this follow the middle feet, and
then the hinder : still, however, the young one
continues sticking to its parent, supported only
at one extremity, and hanging, as it were, in
air, until its small and soft members become
hardened and fitted for self-support. The pa-
rent then gels rid of its burden ; by moving
from the place where she was sitting, and for-
cing the young one to stand upon its legs,
leaves it to shift for itself.
As the animal has not far to go, its provi-
sions lying beneath it, during the summer it
continues to eat and creep about with great
agility. But as it is viviparous, and must ne-
cessarily lurk somewhere in winter, where its
body may be defended from the cold, it endea-
vours to secure a retreat near the trees or plants
that serve to nourish it in the beginning of
spring. They never hide themselves in the
earth, like many other insects, because they
have no part of their bodies fitted to remove
the earth : nor can they creep into every chink,
as their legs are too long : besides, their bo-
dies are so tender, that the least rough particle
of the earth would hurt them. They, there-
fore, get into the deep chinks of the bark, and
into the cavities of the stronger stalks, from
whence they sally out upon the branches and
leaves when the warmth of the sun begins
to be felt. Neither the cold in the autumnal
season, nor the lesser degree of heat in the
spring, ever hurts them ; they seldom, there-
fore, seek for hiding-places before the fall of
the leaf, and are alert enough to take the ear-
liest advantage of the returning spring.
Like many other insects, they cast their
skins four several times : and, what is very
remarkable, the males have four wings, but
the females never have any. They all have
THE BUG.
461
long legs, not only to enable them to creep
over the long hairs of plants of leaves, but also
to travel from one tree to another when they hap-
pen to stand at a distance. Their trunk or
snout lies under their breast ; and this they
thrust into the pores of the plant to suck out
the juice, for they do not gnaw them, like the
caterpillar ; but so hurt them by sucking, that
the leaves become spotted, and as it were over-
run with scabs ; for which reason their edges
always turn up towards the middle.
It has been said, that these insects are often
carried away arid devoured by ants ; but this
Prysch, from whom this description is taken,
could never observe. The ants, indeed, are
fond of those trees where there is a great num-
ber of these insects ; but then it is only to suck
the juice which flows from the leaves that have
been just wounded. This more particularly
happens in the heat of summer, when other
moisture is wanting : however, he never found
them hurting or carrying away any of these
insects while alive ; nor, indeed, were they
able, for the leaf-louse is more than a match
for the ant at single combat. Whenever they
perceive the ant approaching behind them,
they kick back with their hinder-feet, and thus
drive oft' the invader, as a horse would a lion.
The three principal and constant enemies
to these insects are, first, the fire-fly, which
lays its eggs where these insects are in great-
est number, which, producing a worm, seizes
and devours all the leaf-lice that come near
it : another enemy is the worm of a peculiar
kind of beetle, which destroys them in great
numbers : but the most formidable of all ene-
mies, is the ichneumon fly, that seizes upon
one of the largest females, and laying its egg
upon her, this is hatched into a worm, which
soon devours and destroys the animal from
whose body it sprung.
CHAP. VI.
OF THE BUG AND ITS VAKIETIES.
THE Bug is another of those nauseous in-
sects that intrude upon the retreats of man-
kind ; and that often banish that sleep, which
even sorrow and anxiety permitted to approach.
This, to many men, is of all other insects the
most troublesome and obnoxious. The night
is usually the season when the wretched have
rest from their labour; but this seems the
only season when the bug issues from its re-
treats, to make its depredations. By day it
lurks, like a robber, in the most secret parts of
the bed; takes the advantage of every chink
and cranny, to make a secure lodgment; and
contrives its habitation with so much art, that
scarce any industry can discover its retreat.
It seems to avoid the light with great cun-
ning; and if candles be kept burning,
this formidable insect will not issue from its
hiding-place. But when darkness promises
security, it then issues from every corner of the
bed, drops from the tester, crawls from behind
the arras, and travels with great assiduity to
the unhappy patient, who vainly wishes for
rest and refreshment. It is generally vain to
destroy one only, as there are hundreds more
to revenge their companion's fate ; so that the
person who thus is subject to be bitten, re-
mains the whole night like a sentinel upon
duty, rather watching the approach of fresh
invaders, than inviting the pleasing approaches
of sleep.1
Nor are these insects less disagreeable from
their nauseous stench, than their unceasing
appetites. When they begin to crawl, the
whole bed is infected with the smell : but if
they are accidentally killed, then it is insup-
portable.
These are a part of the inconveniences that
result from the persecution of these odious in-
sects ; but happily for Great Britain, they
multiply less in these islands than in any part
of the continent.8 In France and Italy the
1 Bugs. — Female bugs lay their eggs four times a-
year, namely, iu March, May, July, and September, at
each season laying fifty eggs; in other words, producing
two hundred young in the space of a year. At the age
of eleven weeks the young bugs have arrived at maturi-
ty, and are ready to become parents in turn. With this
data, the following calculation may be made : — Suppose
one female bug is allowed to enter a house just before
laying time in spring, it will produce 50 young in
March, of which 25 may be females. In May, the 26
females (that is, including the mother) will produce 1300
young; take 750 of these as females, we have in July
35,500 young; take 15,750 of these as females, along
with the former 750, that will be 16,500 females, which
in September will bring forth 825,000 young; take
412,500 of these as females, along with the former,
16,500 females, that will make 429,000, which in the
ensuing March will produce 21,450,000; add to these
the 429,025 males not reckoned, there is a total of
21,909,025, or very nearly twenty-two millions of bugs,
all from a single parent in the course of twelve months.
If a knowledge of this fact will not induce activity in
extirpating the first bug which makes its appearance in
a dwelling, we do not know what will.
* The Bed Bug. — It is supposed to have been in.
troduced into this country in the fir timber that was
brought over for the purpose of rebuilding London, after
it had suffered by the great fire. For it is generally said
that bugs were not known in England before that time ;
and many of them were found almost immediately after-
wards in the new-built houses. Their most favourite
food is blood, dried paste, size, deal, beech, osier, and
some other kinds of timber, the sap of which they suck ;
and on any of these they are able to exist. They will
not feed on oak, walnut, cedar, or mahogany ; for seve-
ral pairs which, for the sake of experiment, were confined
with these kinds of wood, soon died, whilst those kept
with the other continued to thrive through the whole
year.
Bugs appear tc have been favourite ingredients among
462
HISTORY OF INSECTS.
beds, particularly in their inns, swarm with
them ; and every piece of furniture seems to
afford them a retreat. They grow larger also
with' them than with us, and bite with more
cruel appetite.
This animal, if examined minutely, appears
to consist of three principal parts ; the head,
the corselet, and the belly. It has two brown
eyes, that are very small, and a little promi-
nent, besides two feelers, with three joints ;
underneath these there is a crooked trunk,
which is its instrument of torture, and which,
when in motion, lies close upon the breast.
The breast is a kind of ring, in" which are
placed the two first pair of legs. The belly
consists of nine rings ; under which are placed
two pair of legs m~re, making six in all. Each
leg has three joints, which form the thigh, the
leg, and the foot, which is armed with a crooked
claw, like a hook. The body is smooth, ex-
cept a few short hairs, that may bu seen by
the microscope, about the vent, and on the two
last rings. Its motion is slow and unwieldy ;
yet its sight is so exquisite, that the instant it
perceives the light, it generally makes good
its retreat ; and they are seldom caught, though
the bed swarms with them.
If we examine this insect internally, we
shall find the great artery, which in all in-
sects performs the functions of the heart ; we
shall find the apertures of the lungs on the
right side and the left, through which the ani-
mal breathes ; we shall find a stomach and in-
testines, which, as in other animals, run from
the mouth to the anus. If the insect has been
long kept fasting, there will be a mucus found
in its body, like the white of an egg ; but if
crushed after a full meal, the human blood
which it has sucked in will appear a little
darkened, by having passed through the in-
sect's body.
The male and female of these animals are
plainly distinguishable from each other; and
the parts of generation are obvious enough.
They are often found coupling tail to tail ; and
the medicaments of ancient doctors. They were pre-
scribed in wine for colic, and an ancient writer says,
" It is no new remedy, and it is a certain cure; it once
helped a governor of Zurich, so that he had like to have
written a commendation in favour of them."
The Leek-Green Bug — The leek-green bug is to he
found in Great Britain, as well as in many other parts of
Europe. Its body is green, without spots ; the abdomen
black above, the margin spotted with yellow ; the body
beneath of a yellowish green ; with six yellow legs. The
antennae sometimes entirely reddish browu ; their last
joints are tipt with black.
The Harvest Bug. — This is one of the most teasing
little animals in nature. Though bred and intended,
like its congener, the red spider, to live on vegetables,
as currents, rasp-berries, and French beans, yet it will
desert these, whether by accident or design, to live on
and annoy the most delicate and sensitive portion of the
human race. These insects are so minute, that they are
only visible to the keenest eyes, and then only when
in this state are very easily destroyed. The
female has an ovary filled with eggs, joined
together liko a bunch of grapes ; each egg
being an oblong, almost cylindrical, inclining
to white, and pretty transparent. In about
two days after impregnation by the male, she
deposits her eggs to the number of about a
hundred and fifty, in some convenient place
where they are likely to receive no disturbance.
There they continue for some months ; during
which time, neither cold nor heat, neither
moisture nor fumigation, can in the least re-
tard their exclusion ; but they come forth ac-
tive, and ready for mischief.1 It is this hardi-
ness in the shell that seems to continue the
breed ; as the old ones die every winter, or
are easily destroyed by any fumigation that is
used for that purpose. But the eggs seem in-
capable of destruction ; even those men who
make a livelihood by killing these nauseous
insects, though they can answer for the parent,
can never be sure of the egg. For this reason
they usually pay those houses to which they
are called a second or a third visit, and at last
exterminate them by perseverance.
The manner of destroying them seems rather
the effects of assiduity than antidote ; for the
men called in upon this occasion, take every
part of the furniture asunder, brush every part
of it with great assiduity, anoint it with a li-
quid which I take to be a solution of corrosive
sublimate, and having performed this opera-
tion twice or thrice, the vermin are most usu-
ally destroyed.
Cleanliness, therefore, seems to be the best
antidote to remove these nauseous insects ; and
wherever that is wanting, their increase seems
but a just punishment. Indeed, they are
placed on any very smooth white surface ; in course, they
are only known by their effects. Ladies and children are
the first to complain of their attacks; and chiefly where
any part of the dress fits closely to the skin. There
they seat themselves at the intersection of the lines, and
lay such firm hold with their feet and jaws, that they
cannot be displaced by rubbing, nor by washing, unless a
powerful spirit or acid be used. A microscope readily
detects them ; and, by its assistance, they may be dis-
lodged with the point of a muslin needle, and, if placed
on writing-paper, will be seen to have eight legs, two
tentacula or feelers, and an abdomen something egg-
shaped ; colour livid red ; and in size no bigger than the
point of a small needle. They lacerate the epidermis in
some way or other, as a small hole is observable where
they have' been seated ; and cause extreme itching and
considerable inflammation of the part. — -Magazine Nal .
Hist.
1 The female bug (as we have stated in a previous
note) generally lays about fifty eggs at a time, which
are white, and when protruded are covered with a vis-
cous matter, which afterwards hardening sticks them
firmly to the place where they are deposited. These are
usually hatched in about three weeks. The young, for
some time after they first escape from the egg, are per-
fectly white, but they generally become brown in the
course of about three weeks. In eleven weeks they are at
full growth.
THE WOOD-LOUSE.
163
sometimes found in such numbers among old
furniture and neglected chambers, exposed to
the south, lhat. wanting other sustenance, they
devour each other. They are also enemies to
other vermin, and destroy fleas very effectu-
ally ; so that we seldom have the double per-
secution of different vermin in the same bed.
Of the bug kind Linnaeus reckons up forty.
CHAP. VII.
OF THE WOOD-LOUSE AND ITS VARIETIES.
THE common wood-louse is seldom above
half an inch long, and a quarter of an inch
broad. The colour is of a livid black, espe-
cially when found about dunghills, and on the
ground ; but those that are to be met with un-
.der tiles, and in drier places, are of the colour
of the hair of an ass. — It has fourteen feet,
seven on each side ; and they have only one
joint each, which is scarcely perceivable. It
has two short feelers, and the body is of an
oval shape. When it is touched it rolls itself
up into a sort of ball ; and the sides near the
feet are dentated like a saw. It is often found
among rotten timber, and on decayed trees :
in winter it lies hid in the crevices of walls
and all sorts of buildings. The male is easily
distinguishable from the female, being less
and more slender. The eggs they lay are
white and shining, like seed-pearls, and are
very numerous : however, more properly speak-
ing, although, when excluded, the young have
all the appearance of an egg, yet they are
alive, and, without throwing off any shell, stir
and move about with great vivacity; so that
this animal may properly be said to be vivi-
parous. The little worms at first seem scarcely
able to stir ; but they soon feed, and become
very brisk. These animals are of great use
in medicine, being impregnated with a saline
quality, which is diuretic and stimulating. Of
this insect, Linnaeus makes three species.
CHAP. VIII.
C? THE MONOCULUS; OR, ARBORESCENT
WATER- FLEA.
THIS animal, which is of the size of a flea,
appears to the sight, unassisted by the micros-
cope, to have but one eye; for the eyes, by
reason of the smallness of the head, seem to be
joined to each other : they are situated in the
trunk of this insect, and the beak is likewise
very small and sharp-pointed. The structure
of the eye is seen, by the microscope, to be re-
ticulated, or made like a net; and the trunk
of this insect, by which it feeds, is not only
small and sharp, but also transparent. The
insects are of a blood-red colour; and some-
times are seen in such multitudes on the sur-
face of standing waters, as to make them ap-
pear all over red, whence many fanciful people
have thought the water to be turned into blood.
Swammerdam tells us of a celebrated pro-
fessor at Leyden, who was at first astonished
by an appearance of this kind. Being once
intent upon his studies, he heard a noise, ot
which, as it increased by degrees, he was de-
sirous to know the cause. The maid-servant
attending to his summons, appeared quite pe-
trified with fear, and told him with a tremu-
lous voice, that all the waters of Leyden were
turned into blood ! Upon this he went di.
rectly, in a small bark, to the place where the
water was thus changed, and put some of the
bloody water into a glass ; but upon viewing
it with attention, he observed, that it abounded
with infinite numbers of these little red insects,
which tinged the whole body of the fluid with
that seemingly formidable colour. Thus his
sudden fright was changed into lasting admi-
ration.1
Of all parts of this animal, its branching,
arms, and the motion it makes with them in
the water, deserve our greatest attention. By
these the little creature can move in a straight
line; waving its arms, as a bird does its wings
in the air, sometimes upward, sometimes down,
ward, sometimes to ihe right, sometimes to the
left, yet still continuing to proceed in a right
line. By striking the water with its arms, it
can ascend with great velocity; and by strik.
ing it in a contrary direction, it dives with equal
ease. As these motions are very rapid, the
little animal appears to jump in the water, its
head always tending to the surface, and its
tail stretched downward. This insect is pro-
duced from an egg, which, when excluded, is
1 The Cancroid Monoculus. — This curious little ani-
mal has a convex shell rounded in front, and truncated
behind ; the tail is furnished with two bristle-shaped pro-
cesses. This insect is by far the largest of the European
monoculi; exhibiting with great distinctness the nume-
rous brachial and other parts, which in the smaller spe-
cies are only to be viewed by the assistance of the micro-
scope. The Linnaean genus monoculus has, by Fabricins
Muller, been subdivided into different distinct genera, on
account of the disposition of the eyes, which in some sp§-
cies are approximated, so as to appear as if single, while
in others they are remote from each other.
The Four-horned Monoculus. — This may be consi-
dered as one of the most common of the genus to which
it belongs, occuring during the whole year in the clearer
ponds of stagnant waters, wells. &c. In the size of the
body it scarcely exceeds a large mite, but if measured
from the extremities of its limbs, will sometimes be
found to equal the eighth of an inch in length. The fe-
male is, in general, distinguished by the remarkable ap-
pearance of the ovaries, which bear a resemblance to a
double cluster of grapes in miniature.
464
HISTORY OF INSECTS.
carried on the back of the female, and soon is
seen floating in the water round her., . Its ap-
pearance at first is that of a very smal/ whitish
insect, endued with a very nimhle 'motion.
Except in colour, it suffers no change, onlj
continuing to grow largei and redder as it
grows old. They sometimes remain several
days on the surface of the water ; and some-
times are seen at the bottom only ; but they
are never at rest. They change their skir,
like most other insects ; and the cast skiri re-
sembles the insect itself so exactly, that one
might mistake the mask for the animal.
CHAP. IX.
OF THE SCORPION AND ITS VARIETIES.1
THKBK is scarcely an insect without wings
that is not obnoxious to man : the smallest
have the power of annoying him, either by
biting or stinging him ; and though each is in
itself contemptible, they become formidable
from their numbers. But of all this class/
there is none so terrible as the Scorpion, whose
shape is hideous, whose size among the insect
tribe is enormous, and whose sting is generally
fatal. Happy for England, the scorpion is en-
tirely a stranger among us ! In several parts
of the continent of Europe it is but too well
known, though it seldom grows above four
inches long: but in the warm tropical cli-
mates it is seen a foot in length, and in every
respect as large as a lobster.
The scorpion is one of the largest of the in-
sect tribe, and not less terrible from its size
than its malignity. It resembles a lobstei
somewhat in shape, but is infinitely more hi-
deous. There have been enumerated nine
different kinds of this dangerous insect, chiefly
distinguished by their colour, there being scor-
pions yellow, brown, and ash coloured; others
that are the colour of rusty iron, green, pale
yellow, black, claret-colour, white, and gray.
There are four principal parts distinguish-
able in this animal ; the head, the breast, the
belly, and the tail. The scorpion's head
seems, as it were, jointed to the breast ; in the
middle of which are seen two eyes ; and a little
more forward, two eyes more, placed in the
fore-part of the head : these eyes are so small,
that they are scarcely perceivable; and it is
probable the animal has but little occasion for
seeing. The mouth is furnished with two
jaws ; the undermost is divided into two, and
the parts notched into each other, which serve
the animal as teeth, and with which it breaks
its food, and thrusts it, into its mouth : these
1 The Scorpion is placed by naturalists among the
Araehnides or Sliders.
the scorpion can at pleasure pull hack into its
mouth, so that no part of them can be seen.
On each side of the head are two arms, each
composed of four joints ; the last of which is
large, with strong muscles, and made in the
manner of a lobster's claw. Below the breast
are eight articulated legs, each divided into
six joints ; the two hindmost of which are each
provided with two crooked claws, and here and
there covered with hair. The belly is divided
into seven little rings ; from the lowest of which
is continued a tail composed of six joints,
which are bristly, and formed like little globes,
the last being armed with a crooked sting.
This is that fatal instrument which renders
this insect so formidable: it is long, pointed,
hard, and hollow : it is pierced near the base
by two small holes, through which, when the
animal stings, it ejects a drop of poison, which
is white, caustic, and fatal. The reservoir in
which this poison is kept, is in a small blad- .
der near the tail, into which the venom is dis-
tilled by a peculiar apparatus. If this blad-
der be gently pressed, the venorn will be seen
issuing out through the two holes above-men-
tioned; so that it appears, that when the ani-
mal stings, the bladder is pressed, and the ve-
nom issues through the two apertures into the
wound.
There are .ew animals more formidable, or
more truly mischievous, than the scorpion. As
it takes refuge in a small place, and is gene-
rally found sheltering in houses, so it cannot
be otherwise than that it must frequently sting
those among whom it resides. In some of the
towns of Italy, and in France, in the province
of Languedoc, it is one of the greatest pests
that torment mankind : but its malignity in
Europe is trifling, when compared to what the
natives of Africa and the East are known to
experience. In Batavia, where they grow
twelve inches long, there is no removing any
piece of furniture, without the utmost danger
of being stung by them. Bosman assures us,
that, along the Gold Coast, they are often
found larger than a lobster ; and that their
sting is inevitably fatal. In Europe, how-
ever, they are by no means so large, so veno-
mous, or so plentiful. The general size of
this animal does not exceed two or three inch-
es ; and its sting is very seldom found to be
fatal. Maupertuis, who made several experi-
ments on the scorpion of Languedoc, found it
by no means so invariably dangerous as had
till then been represented. He provoked one
of them to sting a dog, in three places of the
belly, where the animal was without hair : in
about an hour after, the poor animal seemed
greatly swollen, and became very sick; he
then cast up whatever he had in his bowels ;
and for about three hours continued vomiting
a whitish liquid. The belly was always
THE SCORPION.
465
greatly swollen, when the animal began to
vomit; but this operation always seemed to
abate the swelling ; which alternately swelled,
and was thus emptied, for three hours succes-
sively. The poor animal, after this, fell into
convulsions, bit the ground, dragged himself
along upon his fore-feet, and at last died, five
hours after being bitten. He was not partially
swollen round the place which was bitten,
as is usual after the sting of a wasp or a bee ;
but his whole body was inflated, and there only
appeared a red spot on the places where he
had been stung.
Some days after, however, the same expe-
riment was tried upon another dog, and even
with more aggravated cruelty; yet the dog
seemed no way affected by the wounds, but
howling a little when he received them, conti-
nued alert and well after them ; and soon after
was set at liberty, without showing the small-
est symptoms of pain. So far was thispoorcrea-
ture from being terrified at the experiment, that
he left his own master's house, to come to that
of the philosopher, where he had received more
plentiful entertainment. The same experi-
ment was tried by fresh scorpions, upon seven
other dogs, and upon three hens; but not the
smallest deadly symptom was seen to ensue.
From hence it appears that many circumstan-
ces, which are utterly unknown, must contri-
bute to give efficacy to the scorpion's venom.
Whether its food, long fasting, the season, the
nature of the vessels it wounds, or its state of
maturity, contribute to, or retard its malignity,
is yet to be ascertained by succeeding experi
ment. In the trials made by our philosopher,
he employed scorpions of both sexes, newlv
caught and seemingly vigorous and active.
The success of this experiment may serve to
show, that many of those boasted antidotes
which are given for the cure of the scorpion's
sting, owe their success rather to accident than
their own efficacy. They only happened to
cure, when the sting was no way dangerous ;
but in cases of actual malignity, they might
probably be utterly unserviceable.
The scorpion of the tropical climates being
much larger than the former, is probably
much more venomous. Helbigius, however,
who resided for many years in the East, as-
sures us, that he was often stung by the scor-
pion, and never received any material injury
from the wound : a painful tumor generally
ensued; but he always cured it, by rubbing
the part with a piece of iron or stone, as he
had seen the Indians practise before him, un-
til the flesh became insensible. Seba, Moore,
and Eosman, however, give a very different
account of the scorpion's malignity ; and as-
sert, that, unless speedily relieved, the wound
becomes fatal.1
1 Many experiments have been made to ascertain the
VOL. II.
It is certain that no animal in the creation
seems endued with such an irascible nature.
I have often seen them taken and put into a
place of security, exerting alLthejr rage against
the sides of the glass vessel that contained them.
I have seen them attempt to sting a stick, when
put near them ; and attack a mouse or a frog,
while those animals were far from offering any
injury. Maupertuis put three scorpions and
a mouse into the same vessel together, and
they soon stung the little animal in different
places. The mouse, thus assaulted, stood for
some time upon the defensive, and at last
killed them all, one after another. He tried
this experiment, in order to see whether the
mouse, after it had killed, would eat the scor-
pions; but the little quadruped seemed en-
tirely satisfied with the victory, and even sur-
vived the severity of the wounds it had re-
ceived. Wolkamer tried the courage of the
scorpion against the large spider, and enclosed
several of both kinds in glass vessels for that
purpose.2 The success of this combat was very
remarkable. The spider at first used all its
efforts to immesh the scorpion in its web,
which he immediately began spinning ; but
the scorpion rescued itself from the danger, by
stinging its adversary to death : it soon after
cut off, with its claws, all the legs of the spi-
der, and then sucked all the internal parts at
its leisure. If the scorpion's skin had not been
so hard, Wolkamer is of opinion that the spi-
der would have obtained the victory ; for he
had often seen one of these spiders destroy a
toad.
The fierce spirit of (his animal is equally
dangerous to its own species ; for scorpions are
strength of the poison ; and in warm climates it has uni-
formly been found fatal to the smaller animals. To man
the wound is extremely painful. The place becomes in-
flamed, and the surrounding parts often turn livid, and
require to be carefully dressed in order to prevent mor-
tification.
A French physician, who paid great attention to the
habits of these animals, has related many particulars re-
specting them. The care with which the female attended
upon her young, and, by degrees, instructed them in the
mode of hollowing out their burrow or nest, particularly
attracted his attention. He made also many curious ex-
periments on the effects of their poison ; by allowing
himself to he frequently stung, he discovered that these
effects became less and less painful at every repetition,
so that, by degrees, he became almost proof against their
venom. He describes the part affected as becoming
much swollen, and extremely painful, immediately after
the infliction of the injury; and, according to the con-
stitution of the individual, this painful feeling continued
from twenty-four to forty-eight hours, or even as much
as three clays. But the most peculiar effect is a sudden
and complete prostration of strength, to such an extent
that the patient becomes at once deprived of the power
of supporting himself. This curious symptom induced
the doctor even to propose the use of the sting of the
scorpion in medicine, in cases where it became neces-
sary suddenly to reduce the pulsations of the heart.
* Ruhnmerides, Dec. 2, 1687, Observ. 224. .
3 N
466
HISTORY OF INSECTS.
the cri-elest enemies to each other. Mauper-
tuis pi.t about a hundred of them together in
the same glass; and they scarce came into
contact, when they began to exert all their
rage in mutual destruction : there was nothing
to be seen but one universal carnage, without
any distinction of age or sex ; so that in a few
days there remained only fourteen, which had
killed and devoured all the rest.
But their unnatural malignity is still more
apparent in their cruelty to their offspring.
He enclosed a female scorpion, big with young,
in a glass vessel, and she was seen to devour
them as fast as they were excluded : there was
but one only of the number that escaped the
general destruction, by taking refuge on the
back of its parent ; and this soon after reven-
ged the cause of its brethren, by killing the
old one in its turn.
Such is the terrible and unrelenting nature
of this insect, which neither the bonds of
society nor of nature can reclaim : it is even
asserted that, when driven to an extremity, the
scorpion will often destroy itself. The follow-
ing experiment was ineffectually tried by
Maupertuis : but I am so well assured of it
by many eye-witnesses, who have seen it both
in Italy and America, that I have no doubt
remaining of its veracity. A scorpion, newly
caught, is placed in the midst of a circle of burn,
ing charcoal, and thus an egress prevented on
overy side : the scorpion, as I am assured, runs
for about a minute round the circle, in hopes of
escaping : but finding that impossible, it stings
itself on the back of the head, and in this man-
ner the undaunted suicide instantly expires.
It is happy for mankind that these animals
are thus destructive to each other; since other-
wise they would multiply in so great a degree
as to render some countries uninhabitable.
The male and female of this insect are very
easily distinguishable ; the male being smaller
and less hairy. The female brings forth her
young alive, and perfect in their kind.1 Rhedi
having brought a quantity of scorpions, selec-
ted the females, which by their size and rough-
ness were easily distinguishable from the rest,
and putting them in separate glass vessels, he
kept them for some days without food. In
about five days one of them brought forth
thirty-eight young ones, well shaped, and of
a milk-white colour, which changed every day
more and more into a dark rusty hue. An-
other female, in a different vessel, brought
forth twenty-seven of the same colour : and the
day following the young ones seemed all fixed
to the back and belly of the female. For near
* All the scorpion tribe are produced from eggs, of
which one female lays a considerable number. After
their escape from the egg, they undergo no farther trans-
formation, except occasionally casting their skin like the
spider.
a fortnight all these continued alive and well:
but afterwards some of them died daily ; until,
in about a month, they all died except two.
Were it worth the trouble, these animals
might be kept living as long as curiosity
should think proper. Their chief food is worms
and insects ; and upon a proper supply of
these, their lives might be lengthened to their
natural extent. How long that may be, we
are not told ; but if we may argue from ana-
logy, it cannot be less than seven or eight
years ; and perhaps, in the larger kind, double
that duration. As they have somewhat the
form of the lobster, so they resemble that ani-
mal in casting their shell, or more properly
their skin ; since it is softer by far than the
covering of the lobster, and set with hairs,
which grow from it in great abundance, parti-
cularly at the joinings. The young lie in the
womb of the parent each covered up in its own
membrane, to the number of forty or fifty, and
united to each other by an oblong thread, so
as to exhibit altogether the form of a chaplet.
Such is the manner in which the common
scorpion produces its young ; but there is a
scorpion of America, produced from the egg,
in the manner of the spider. The eggs are no
larger than piri-points; and they are deposited
in a web, which they spin from their bodies,
and carry about with them till they are hatched.
As soon as the young ones are excluded from
the shell, they get upon the back of the parent,
who turns her tail over them, and defends
them with her sting. It seems probable, there-
fore, that captivity produces that unnatural
disposition in the scorpion, which induces it
to destroy its young ; since, at liberty, it is
found to protect them with such unceasing as
siduity.2
CHAP. X.
OF THE SCOLOPENDRA AND G ALLY-WORM,
OF these hideous and angry insects we know
little, except the figure and the noxious quali-
* Black Scorpion. — The black Scorpion of Ceylon is
a very dangerous insect, and its stin-g is frequently mor-
tal. This species is about four inches long, and from one
to two broad over the middle of the body. When run-
ning, or disturbed, their tail is usually carried on their
backs. They bite with their fangs, or forceps, and in-
stantly dart the sting, which lies in their tail, into the
place they have bitten. Their sting emits a poison re-
sembling milk, but not altogether so white. When these
scorpions are attacked by their inveterate enemy the ant,
and cannot get rid of him, they sting themselves to
death.
The African Scorpion. — The general colour of this
animal is a deep brown, nearly approaching in some spe-
cimens to black. It grows to e very large size, some-
times nearly a foot long.
THE LEECH.
467
ties. Though with us there are insects some-
what resembling them in form, W8 are placed
at a happy distance from such« as are really
formidable. With us they seldom grow above
an inch long ; in the tropical climates they are
often found above a quarter of a yard.
The Scolopendra is otherwise called the
Centipes, from the number of its feet; and it
is very common in many parts of the world,
especially between the tropics. Those of the
East Indies, where they grow to the largest
size, are about six inches long, of a ruddy co-
lour, and as thick as a man's ringer : they con-
sist of many joints ; and from each joint is a
leg on each side : they are covered with hair,
and seem to have no eyes ; but there are two
feelers on the head, which they make use of
to find out the way they are to pass : the head
is very round, with two small sharp teeth, with
which they inflict wounds that are very pain-
ful and dangerous. A sailor that was bit- by
one on board a ship, felt an excessive pain, and
his life was supposed to be in danger : how-
ever, he recovered by the application of three
roasted onions to the part, and was soon quite
well. Of this animal there are different
kinds ; some living, like worms, in holes in
the earth ; others under stones, and among
rotten wood ; so that nothing is more danger-
ous than removing those substances, in the
places where they breed.1
1 The Great Centipede. — None of the insect tribe, the
scorpions excepted, are so formidable in appearance as
the centipede or great scolopendra. It is found in the
East and West Indies, and iu various parts of Africa, in-
habiting chiefly the woods, where it is preyed upon by
the different species of snakes. It is, however, some,
times found jn houses, and is said to be so common in
particular districts, that the inhabitants are obliged to
have the feet of their beds placed in vessels of water, in
order to prevent their being annoyed during night by
these horrible reptiles.
The scolopendra! vary greatly both in size and colour.
Some of them are of a deep reddish brown ; others of a
yellow ochre colour, livid yellow, or tinged with red ; and
are somutimes seen about a foot in length: they are, how-
ever, generally much less. Their legs terminate in very
sharp hooks, or nails, of a shining black colour; and all
the other legs are furnished with smaller ones of the same
kind.
Gronovius says, that all the legs of this detestable ani-
m&l are venomous; but its most formidable weapons are
the two sharp and hooked instruments that are placed
under its mouth, with which it destroys its prey. At the
extremity of each of these there is a small opening, and
from thence extends a tube, through which it is supposed
(he centipede emits the poisonous fluid into the wound
inflicted by these fangs.
Leeuwenhock, desirous of ascertaining the influence of
the poison, placed a large fly within reach of a centipede.
He seized it between a pair of the middle feet, then passed
it from one pair to the next, till it was brought under the
fangs, which were plunged into its body, and it died in-
stantly. St Pierre says, that in the Isle of France his
dog was bitten by one of them which was upwards of six
inches in length, and that the wound turned to a kind of
ulcer, which was three weeks in healing. He was highly
The Gally-worm differs from the scolopen-
dra, in having double the number of feet;
there being two on each side, to every joint of
the body. Some of them_ are smooth, and
others hairy; some are yellow, some black,
and some brown. They are found among de-
cayed trees, between the wood and the bark;
as also among stones that are covered with
moss. They all, when touched, contract them-
selves, rolling themselves up like a ball.
Whatever may be their qualities in the tropi-
cal parts of the world, in Europe they are per-
fectly harmless ; having been often handled
and irritated, without any vindictive conse-
quences.
All these, as well as the scorpion, are sup-
posed to be produced perfect from the parent,
or the egg ; and to undergo no changes after
their first exclusion. They are seen of all
sizes ; and this is a sufficient inducement to
suppose, that they preserve their first appear-
ance through the whole of their existence. It
is probable, however, that, like most of this
class, they often change their skins; but of
this we have no certain information.
CHAP. XL
OF THE LEECH.2
THE last of this wingless tribe that I shall
mention is the Leech, which, like all the for-
di verted in observing one of them overcome by a vast
number of ants, that attacked it in conjunction, and, after
seizing it by all its legs, bore it along as workmen would
do a large piece of timber. Its poison is not more inju-
rious than that of the scorpion, and seldom proves fatal
to the larger animals.
8 Cuvier classes leeches with worms, among the
Annelida, or invertebrated animals with red blood.
The Medicinal Leech, (Hirudo medicinalis), may be
known by having six yellowish lines, or striae, on its
back, while the under part is of a grayish hue, spotted
with black ; but, as we shall presently see, these mark-
ings are not uniformly found. The medicinal leech is
common throughout the whole of Europe, but is much
more abundant in the southern parts ^ it is generally
about three inches in length. Formerly it was very
abundant in Great Britain, but the improvements in
agriculture, and the consequent drainage of the land,
together with the great use made of it in medicine, have
of late years rendered it of less frequent occurrence.
On this account great quantities of leeches are imported;
these chiefly come from Bourdeaux and Lisbon. The
prevailing colour of the medicinal leech appears to vary
according to the nature of the soil on which it is found.
In winter the leech retires to waters of considerable
depth, and seeks shelter in the mud at the bottom ; but
in the summer it appears to delight iu shallow pools,
basking, as it were, in the warmth of the sun: but if the
water it frequents is in danger of being dried up by the
summer heat, the leech buries itself in the mud at a
considerable depth. Just before a thunder-storm, leeches
appear much agitated, and rise frequently to the surface
of the water; this, therefore, is considered by the teech-
468
HISTORY OF INSECTS.
mer, undergoes no varieties of transformation ;
but when once excluded from the body of the
parent, preserves its first figure to the end. I
place the history of the Leech among the first
class of insects ; while I have degraded the
earth-worm, the Taenia, and the Polypus , into
the class of zoophytes, or that imperfect tribe
which serves to make the shade between ani-
mal and vegetable nature. Not but that the
earth-worm or the polypus have their motions,
their appetites, and their vital principles, as
complete as the leech, and, to a cursory view,
appear every way as complete animals. But
there is one circumstance that lays the line
between them ; that exalts the one, and de-
grades the other. The earth-worm and the
polypus may be cut into pieces, and each piece
will produce a new and perfect animal: the
leech cannot suffer this dissection, but dies
when cut in two ; an evident instance that it
is possessed of a more perfect organization
than those animals which it otherwise very
much resembles.
The leech, from its uses in medicine, is one
of those insects that man has taken care to
provide ; but, of a great variety, one kind only
is considered as serviceable. The horse-leech,
which is the largest of all, and grows to four
inches in length, with a glossy black surface,
is of no use, as it will not stick to the skin ;
the snail-leech is but an inch in length ; and
though it will stick, is not large enough to ex-
tract a sufficient quantity of blood from the pa-
tient; the broad-tailed leech, which grows to
an inch and a half in length, with the back
raised into a sort of ridge, will stick but on
very few occasions : it is the large brown
-leech, with a whitish belly, that is made use
of in medicine, and whose history best merits
our curiosity.
The leech has the general figure of a worm,
and is about as long as one's middle finger.
Its skin is composed of rings, by means of
which it is possessed of its agility, and swims
in water. It contracts itself, when out of
water, in such a manner, that when touched it
is not above an inch long. It has a small
head, and a black skin, edged with a yellow
line on each side, with some yellowish spots
on the back. The belly also, which is of a
reddish colour, is marked with whitish yellow
gatherers as a favourable time for collecting them. The
property by which a leech anticipates thunder, has in-
duced some persons to employ it as a species of barom-
eter; but its indications are very uncertain.
The Horse-Leech, (Hirudo sanguisuga), is much
larger than the medicinal leech, and altogether of a
greenish black. It is said to be dangerous, from the
wounds which it inflicts; but much difference of opinion
exists, even among learned naturalists, as to its power of
drawing blood.
Leeches prey on worms, tadpoles, &c., which they
devour with avidity.
spots. But the most remarkable part of this
animal is the mouth, which is composed of
two lips, that take whatever form the insect
finds convenient. When at rest, the opening
is usually triangular ; and within it are placed
three very sharp teeth, capable of piercing not
only the human skin, but also that of a horse
or an ox. Still deeper in the head is disco-
vered the tongue, which is composed of a strong
fleshy substance, and which serves to assist
the animal in sucking, when it has inflicted
its triple wound ; for no sooner is this vora-
cious creature applied to the skin, than it
buries its teeth therein, then closes its lips
round the wounds which it has made ; and
thus, in the manner of a cupping-glass,
extracts the blood as it flows to the different
orifices.
In examining this animal's form farther to-
wards the tail, it is seen to have a gullet and
an intestinal canal, into which the blood flows
in great abundance. On each side of this are
seen running along several little bladders,
which, when the animal is empty, seem to be
filled with nothing but water ; but when it is
gorging blood, they seem to communicate with
the intestines, and receive a large portion of
the blood which flows into the body. If these
bladders should be considered as so many sto-
machs, then every leech will be found to have
twenty-four. But what is most extraordinary
of all in this animal's formation is, that though
it takes so large a quantity of food, it has no
anus or passage to eject it from the body when
it has been digested. On the contrary, the
blood which the leech has thus sucked remains
for several months clotted within its body,
blackened a little by the change, but no way
putrified, and very little altered in its texture
or consistence. In whajj, manner it passes
through the animal's body, or how it contri-
butes to its nourishment, is not easily accoun-
ted for. The water in which they are kept is
very little discoloured by their continuance ;
they cannot be supposed to return the blood by
the same passage through which it was taken
in : it only remains, therefore, that it goes off
through the pores of the body, and that these
are sufficiently large to permit its exclusion.
But it is not in this instance alone that the
leech differs from all other insects. It was
remarked in a former chapter, that the whole
insect tribe had the opening into their lungs
placed in their sides, and that they breathed
through those apertures as other animals
through the mouth. A drop of oil poured on
the sides of a wasp, a bee, or a worm, would
quickly suffocate them, by stopping up the
passages through which they breathe : but it
is otherwise with the leech, for this animal
may be immersed in oil without injury ; nay,
it will live therein ; and the only damage it
THE LEECH.
469
will sustain is, that, when taken out, it will
be seen to cast a fine pellucid skin exactly of
the shape of the animal, after which it is as
alert and vigorous as before. It appears from
hence that the leech breathes through the
mouth ; and, in fact, it has a motion that seems
to resemble the act of respiration in more per-
fect animals : but concerning all this we are
much in the dark.
This animal seems to differ from all others
in several respects : the rest of the reptile tribe
are brought forth from eggs ; the leech is vi-
viparous, and produces its young one after the
other, to the number of forty or fifty at a birth.1
It is probable that, like the snail, each insect
contains the two sexes, and that it impregnates
and is impregnated in the same manner. The
young ones are chiefly found in the month of
July, in shallow running waters, and particu-
larly when they are tepified by the rays of the
sun. The large ones are chiefly sought after ;
and being put into a glass vessel filled with
water, they remain for months, nay, for years,
without taking any other subsistence. But
they never breed in this confinement ; and,
consequently, what regards that part of their
history still remains obscure.
1 It was long a matter of dispute as to whether leeches
were produced from eggs or born alive, but it is now as-
certained that the ova are developed in a singular case,
having some resemblance to the cocoon of a silk-worm.
This cocoon is formed by the parent animal, and by it
deposited in the mud or clay which composes the bed of
the pool it inhabits.
The fact of the young leech being produced from these
cocoons, although only latterly ascertained by naturalists,
was long since well known to the dealers in leeches on
the French coast, who avail themselves of this knowledge
of their habits, to multiply them for the purpose of sale.
It was by these means the leech-dealers of Bretagne, and
particularly in Finisterre, replenished the ponds in which
they preserved those leeches which were intended for
the Paris market.
About the month of April or May, according to the
nature of the season, they send out labourers, provided
with spades and baskets, to the little muddy marshes,
where they are known to exist in abundance. These
workmen then set about removing those portions of mud
that are known to contain cocoons, which are afterwards
deposited in sheets of water previously prepared for their
reception; here the young leeches quit the cocoons, and
are allowed to remain six months, when they are re-
moved to larger ponds.
In this part of the world they seldom grow
to above four inches ; but in America and the
East they are found from six to seven. The
pools there abound with them on such num-
bers that it would be dangerous bathing, if for
no other consideration. Our sailors and sol-
diers, who the last war were obliged to walk
in those countries through marshy grounds,
talk with terror of the number of leeches that
infested them on their march. Even in some
parts of Europe they increase so as to become
formidable. Sedelius, a German physician,
relates, that a girl of nine years old, who was
keeping sheep near the city of Bomist in Pol-
and, perceiving a soldier making up to her,
went to hide herself in a neighbouring marsh
among some bushes; but the number of leeches
was so great in that place, and they stuck to
her so close, that the poor creature expired
from the quantity of blood which she lost by
their united efforts. Nor is this much to be
wondered at, since one of those insects which,
when empty, generally weighs but a scruple,
will, when gorged, weigh more than two
drachms.
When leeches are to be applied, the best
way is to take them from the water in which,
they are contained about an hour before, for
they thus become more voracious, and fasten
more readily. When saturated with blood,
they generally fall off of themselves ; but if it
be thought necessary to take them from the
wound, care should be used to pull them very
gently, or even to sprinkle them with salt if
they continue to adhere : for if they be plucked
rudely away, it most frequently happens that
they leave their teeth in the wound, which
makes a very troublesome inflammation, and
is often attended with danger. If they be slow
in fixing to the part, they are often enticed by
rubbing it with milk or blood, or water mixed
with sugar. As salt is a poison to most in-
sects, many people throw it upon the leech
when it. has dropped from the wound, by which
means it disgorges the blood it has swallowed,
and it is then kept for repeated application.
They seldom, however, stick alter this opera-
tion ; and as the price is but small, fresh leeches
should always be applied whenever such ap-
plication is thought necessarv.
BOOK II.
INSECTS OF THE SECOND ORDER.
CHAP. I.
OF THE SECOND ORDER OF INSECTS.
IN the former part we gave a concise history
of the most considerable insects that, without
wings, were produced in a perfect state ; either
from the body of the parent alive, like quad-
rupeds, or from the egg, in the manner of
birds. We come now to a second order of in-
sects, that are produced from the egg, like the
former, but not in a perfect state ; for when
first excluded, they are without wings. This,
however, does not hinder the exercise of their
animal functions ; the insect, although not yet
come to perfection, walks, leaps, and eats ;
nor is it ever deprived of motion, only that it
rests a little when it is about to cast that part
of its skin previous to its state of perfection.
It is then seen to assume two wings, which,
like a budding flower, burst through the case
that contained them, and the animal becomes a
winged insect in its state of highest perfec-
tion. To this order we may refer the Libella,
or Dragon-Fly ; the Formica Leo, or Lion-
Ant; the Grasshopper ; the Locust ; the Crick-
et; the Wood-Cricket ; the Mole- Cricket ;
the Flea-Locust ; the Flying-Bug ; the Ti-
pula ; the Water-scorpion ; the Notonect, or
Water-Fly ; and many others.
CHAP. II.
OF THE LIBELLA, OR DRAGON-FLY.
OF all the flies which adorn or diversify
the face of nature, these are the most various
and the most beautiful : they are of all colours ;
green, blue, crimson, scarlet, white: some
unite a variety of the most vivid tints, and ex-
hibit in one animal more different shades than
are to be found in the rainbow. They are called,
in different parts of the kingdom, by different
names; but none can be at a loss to know
them, as they are distinguished from all other
flies by the length of their bodies, by the large-
ness of their eyes, and the beautiful transpar-
ency of their wings, which are four in number.
They are seen in summer flying with great
rapidity near every hedge, and by every run-
ning brook ; they sometimes settle on the leaves
of plants, and sometimes keep for hours together
on the wing.
Dragon-flies, though there are three or four
different kinds, yet agree in the most striking
parts of their history, and one account may
serve for all. The largest sort are generally
found from two to three inches long ; their tail
is forked; their body divided into eleven
rings ; their eyes are large, horny, and trans-
parent, divided by a number of intersections ;
and their wings, that always lie flat when
they are at rest, are of a beautiful glossy trans-
parency ; sometimes shining like silver and
sometimes glistening like gold. Within the
mouth are to be seen two teeth covered with
a beautiful lip : with these the creatures bite
fiercely when they are taken ; but their bite
is perfectly harmless, as I have experienced
more than once.
These insects, beautiful as they are, are
produced from eggs, which are deposited in
the water, where they remain for some time
without seeming life or motion. They are
ejected by the female into the water in clus-
ters, like a bunch of grapes, where they sink
to the bottom by their natural weight, and
continue in that state till the young ones find
strength enough to break the shell, and to
separate from each other. The form in which
INSECTS OF THE SECOND ORDER.
471
they first show life, is that of a worm with six
legs, bearing a strong resemblance to the dragon-
fly in its winged state, except that the wings
are yet concealed within a sheath peculiar to
this animal. The rudiments of these appear
in bunches on the back, within which the
wings are folded up into each other, while all
colours and varieties of painting appear trans-
parent through the skin. These animals, upon
quitting the egg, still continue in the water,
where they creep and swim, but do riot move
swiftly. They have likewise a sharp sight,
and immediately sink to the bottom, if any
one come to the places wherein they live, or
whenever they perceive the least uncommon
object. Their food at that time is soft mud
and the glutinous earthy substances that are
found at the bottom.
When these animals prepare to change
from their reptile to their flying state, they
then move out of the water to a dry place, as
into grass ; to pieces of wood, stone, or any
thing else they meet with. They there firmly
fix their acute claws ; and, for a short time,
continue quite unmovable, as if meditating
on the change they are to undergo. It is
then observed, that the skin first opens on the
head and back ; and out of this opening they
exhibit their real head and eyes, and at length
their six legs ; whilst, in the mean time, the
hollow and empty skin, or slough of their legs,
remains firmly fixed in its place. After this,
the enclosed creature creeps forward by de-
grees ; and by this means draws first its wings
and then its body out of the skin ; and pro-
ceeding a little farther, sits at rest for some
time, as if immovable. During this time,
the wings, which were moist and folded, begin
by degrees to expand themselves, and to make
smooth and even all those plaits which were
laid against each other, like a closed fan. The
body is likewise insensibly extended, until all
the limbs have obtained their proper size and
dimensions. All these surprising and difficult
operations are accomplished by the force of the
blood and the circulating humours. The crea-
ture cannot at first make use of its new wings,
and therefore is forced to stay in the same
place until all its limbs are dried by the cir-
cumambient air. It soon, however, begins to
enter upon a more noble life than it had hither-
to led in the bottom of the brook ; and from
creeping slowly and living accidentally, it
now wings the air, and makes choice from
amidst the variety of its provisions.
Indeed, no animal is more amply fitted for
motion, subsistence, and enjoyment. As it
hunts and seeks after its food flying in the air,
Nature has provided it with two Targe eyes,
which make almost the whole head, and which
resemble glittering mother-of-pearl. It has
also four expansive silver-coloured wings, with
which, as with oars, it can turn itself with pro-
digious velocity; and to assist these, it is
furnished with a very long body, which, like
a rudder, directs its motions. As the wings
are long, and the legs sTiorT, they seldom
walk, but are ever seen either resting or fly-
ing. For this reason, they always choose dry
branches of trees or shrubs to remain on ; and
when they have refreshed themselves a little,
they renew their flight. Thus they are seen
adorning the summer with a profusion of
beauty, lightly traversing the air in a thousand
directions, and expanding the most beautiful
colours to the sun. The garden, the forest, the
hedges, and the rivulets, are animated by their
sports ; and there are few who have been
brought up in the country, who have not em-
ployed a part of their childhood in the pursuit.
But while these beautiful flies appear to us
so idly and innocently employed, they are in
fact the greatest tyrants of the insect tribe ;
and, like the hawk among birds, are only hov-
ering up and down to seize their^prey. They
are the strongest and the most courageous of
all winged insects ; nor is there one, how large
soever, that they will not attack and devour.
The blue-fly, the bee, the wasp, and the hor-
net, make their constant prey ; and even the
butterfly, that spreads so large a wing, is often
caught and treated without mercy. Their
appetite seems to know no bounds ; they spend
the whole day in the pursuit, and have been
seen to devour three times their own size in
the capture of a single hour. They seize their
prey flying with their six claws, and tear it
easily to pieces with their teeth, which are
capable of inflicting troublesome wounds.
But the males are upon the wing for another
purpose beside that of food, as they are very
salacious, and seek the females with great
ardour. The sun no sooner begins to warm
the fields, than the males are found assiduous-
ly employed each in seeking its mate ; and
no sooner does a female appear, but two or
three males are seen pursuing, and endeavour-
ing to seize her with all their arts and agility.
The instrument of generation in the male is
placed very different from that of any other
insect, being not at the end of the tail, as in
others, but immediately under the breast, and
consequently, at first view, incapable of being
united to the sexual part of the female : which,
as in order insects, lies in the tail. To per-
form this junction, Nature has provided the
male with a very peculiar manner of proceed-
ing, As soon as he perceives the female, and
finds himself sufficiently near, he seizes upon
the back of her head by surprise, and fasten-
ing his claws upon her, turns round his forky
tail, which he fastens round her neck, and in
this manner fixes himself so closely and firmly,
that no efforts can remove him. It is in vain
472
HISTORY OF INSECTS.
that she flies from one branch to another, and
settles upon them, he still keeps fixed, and of-
ten continues in this situation for three or four
hours successively. When he flies, she is
obliged to fly with him ; but he still directs
the way : and though she moves her wings,
she seems entirely guided by his motion. As
yet, however, the business of impregnation is
not performed ; for to this the female must con
tribute ; and she at last seems, by the continu-
ance of her constraint, to comply ; for, turn-
ing up the end of her tail to that part of the
breast of the male in which lies the part pro-
per for generation, both instruments meet, and
the eggs of the female receive the necessary
fecundation. An hour or two after this she
flies to some neighbouring pool, where she de-
posits her eggs, as was already mentioned.
There they continue in a reptile state for a
year ; and then are changed into a beautiful
fly, resembling the parent.1
CHAP. III.
OF THE FORMICA LEO, OR LION-ANT.
ALTHOUGH this animal properly belongs to
no order of insects, yet as it is changed into a
fly very much resembling that described in
the preceding chapter, it may not be improper
1 During the grub-state of the dragon-fly, it preys with
the most savage ferocity on all aquatic insects. It is,
likewise, at this period, furnished with an apparatus at
the end of the body, by which it can suck up and eject
water with such considerable force, that the stream is
perceptible to the distance of two or three inches from
their bodies. If they are kept some time out of water,
the desire or necessity of respiration is augmented : and
accordingly, when replaced in a vessel filled with water,
inspirations and respirations are repeated with unusual
force and frequency.
The Depressed Dragon-fly. — This beautiful insect,
the general manners or habits of which resemble those of
its cogenera, is of so different a colour in the different
sexes, that the shape is the chief criterion of the species.
The body of the male is of a bright blue, with brown
marginal variegations, while that of the female, on the
contrary, is of a bright yellow, with similar marginal
markings. Like the libellula grandis, this species is
principally seen towards the decline of summer, and flies
with great rapidity about the neighbourhood of brooks and
stagnant waters. It differs much from other species of
this genus, from the body being much flattened.
The Black-winged Drugon-fly. — This is one of the
most common species in this country, and is generally
seen flying, during the morning hours, about the banks
of rivers or stagnant waters. The general colour of the
body is deep blue-green, while the wings are marked in
the middle by a very large patch or area of bluish black.
The insect varies, however, in point of colour, more than
any other species, and is sometimes seen with the win^s
perfectly plain or unmarked, and sometimes, on the con-
trary, entirely blue-black : the tinge of the body also va-
ries, in a similar manner, being either bright golden-
green, deep livid blue, or sometimes brown.
to give its history here. If we consider the
life of this animal, in its different stages of
existence, we shall find it equally wonderful
in all; but as it changes to a dragon-fly, what
we have said of that animal above, need not
be repeated here. The lion-ant, when it be-
comes an inhabitant of air, in every respect
resembles that which has been already des-
cribed ; its glossy wings, its voracious appe-
tites, its peculiar manner of generation, are
entirely the same. It is in its reptile state
that it differs from all other insects ; and in
that state it will be amusing to pursue its his-
tory. '
The lion-ant, in its reptile state, is of the
size of a common wood-louse, but somewhat
broader. It has a pretty long head and a round-
ish body, which becomes a little narrower to-
wards the tail. The colour is a dirty gray,
speckled with black, and the body is composed
of several flat rings, which slip one upon ano-
ther. It has six feet, four of which are fixed
to the breast, and two to the neck. The head
is small and flat, and before there are two little
smooth horns or feelers, which are hard, about
a quarter of an inch long, and crooked at the
ends. At the basis of the feelers there are
two small black lively eyes, by which it can
see the smallest object, as it is easily discov-
ered by its starting from every thing that ap-
proaches.
To a form so unpromising, and so ill provid-
ed for the purposes of rapacity, this animal
unites the most ravenous appetites in nature ;
but to mark its imbecility still stronger, as
other animals have wings or feet to enable them
to advance towards their prey, the lion-ant is
unprovided with such assistance from either.
It has legs, indeed ; but these only enable it
to run backward, so that it could as soon die
as make the smallest progressive motion. Thus
famished and rapacious as it ever seems, its
prey must come to it, or rather into the snare
provided for it, or the insidious assassin must
starve.
But Nature, that has denied it strength or
swiftness, has given it an equivalent in cun-
ning, so that no animal fares more sumptuous-
ly, without ever stirring from its retreat. For
this purpose, it chooses a dry sandy place at
the foot of a wall, or under some shelter, in
order to preserve its machinations from the
n. The driest and most sandy spot is the
most proper for it ; because a heavy clogged
arth would defeat its labour. When it gees
about to dig the hole where it takes its prey,
it begins to bend the hinder part of its body,
which is pointed, and thus works backward ;
making, after several attempts, a circular fur-
row, which serves to mark out the size of the
lole it intends making, as the ancients mark-
d out the limits of a city with a plough.
THE ANT-LION.
473
Within tins first furrow it digs a second, then
a third, and afterwards others, which are al-
ways less than the preceding. Then it begins
to deepen its hole, sinking lower and lower
into the sand, which it throws with its horns
and feelers towards the edges, as we see men
throw up sand in a gravel-pit. Thus, by re-
peating its labours all round, the sand is thrown
up in a circle about the edge of the pit, until
the whole is quite completed. This hole is
always formed in a perfect circle ; and the pit
itself resembles the inside of an inverted fun-
nel.1 When this insect first leaves the egg
i The Ant- Lion. — The observations of the continental
naturalists have made known to us a pitfall constructed
by an insect, the details of whose operations are exceed-
ingly curious — we refer to the grub of the ant-lion
(Myrmeleonformicarius}, which, though marked by Dr
Turton and Mr Stewart as British, has not (at least of
late years) been found in this country. As it is not,
however, uncommon in France and Switzerland, it is
probable it may yet be discovered in some spot hitherto
unexplored.
The ant-lion grub being of a gray colour, and having
its body composed of rings, is not unlike a wood-louse
(Oniscus}, though it is larger, more triangular, has only
six legs, and most formidable jaws, in form of a reaping-
hook, or a pair of calliper compasses. These jaws, how-
ever, are not for masticating, but are perforated and tu-
bular, for the purpose of sucking the juices of ants upon
which it feeds. Vallisnieri was, therefore, mistaken, as
Reaumur well remarks, when he supposed that he had
discovered its mouth. Its habits require that it should
walk backwards, and this is the only species of locomotion
which it can perform. Even this sort of motion it exe-
Oruti of the Ant. Lion magnified, with one perfect Trap,
and another begun.
cutes very slowly; and were it not for the ingenuity of
its stratagems, it would fare but sparingly, since its chief
food consists of ants, whose activity and swiftness of foot
would otherwise render it impossible for it to make asin-
VOL. II.
and is newly hatched, the first pit it makes is
very small ; but as it grows bigger, it makes
a larger hole ; which is destined, like a pit-
fall, to entrap its prey. It js generally about
two inches deep, and as much in diameter.
gle capture. Nature, however, in this, as in nearly every
other case, has given a compensating power to the indi-
vidual animal, to balance its privations. The ant-lion is
stow. — but it is extremely sagacious ; — it cannot follow
its prey, but it can entrap it.
The snare which the grub of the ant-lion employs, con-
sists of a funnel-shaped excavation formed in loose sand,
at the bottom of which it lies in wait for the ants that
chance to stumble over the margin, and cannot, from the
looseness of the walls, gain a sufficient footing to effect
their escape. When the pitfall is intended to be small,
it only thrusts its body backwards into the sand as far as
it can, throwing out at intervals the particles which fall
in upon it, till it is rendered of the requisite depth.
By shutting up one of these grubs in a box with loose
sand, it has been repeatedly observed constructing its
trap of various dimensions, from one to three inches in
diameter, according to circumstances. When it intends
to make one of considerable diameter, it proceeds as me-
thodically as the most skilful architect or engineer
amongst ourselves. It first examines the nature of the
soil, whether it be sufficiently dry and fine for its pur-
pose, and if so, it begins by tracing out a circle, where
the mouth of its funnel-trap is intended to be. Having
thus marked the limits of its pit, it proceeds to scoop out
the interior. Getting within the circle, and using one
of its legs as a shovel, it places therewith a load of sand
on the flat part of its head, and it throws the whole with
a jerk some inches beyond the circle. It is worthy of re-
mark that it only uses one leg in this operation — the
one, namely, which is nearest the centre of the circle.
Were it to employ the others in digging away the sand, it
would encroach upon the regularity of its plan. Working
with great industry and adroitness in the manner we
have just described, it quickly makes the round of its
circle, and as it works backwards it soon arrives at the
point where it had commenced. Instead, however, of
proceeding from this point in the same direction as be-
fore, it wheels about and works a round in the contrary
direction, and in this way it avoids throwing all the fa-
tigue of the labour on one leg, alternating them every
round of the circle.
Were there nothing to scoop out but sand or loose
earth, the little engineer would have only to repeat the
operations we have described, till it had completed the
whole. But it frequently happens in the course of its
labours, sometimes even when they are near a close, that
it will meet with a stone of some size which would, if
suffered to remain, injure materially the perfection of its
trap. But such obstacles as this do not prevent the in-
sect from proceeding: on the contrary, it redoubles its
assiduity to remove the obstruction, as M. Bonnet re-
peatedly witnessed. If the stone be small, it can man-
age to jerk it out in the same manner as the sand; but
when it is two or three times larger and heavier than its
own body, it must have recourse to other means of re-
moval. The larger stones it usually leaves till the last,
and when it has removed all the sand which it intends,
it then proceeds to try what it can do with the less ma.
nageable obstacles. For this purpose, it crawls back,
wards to the place where a stone may be, and thrusting
its tail under it, is at great pains to get it properly ba-
lanced on its back, by an alternate motion of the rings
composing its body. When it has succeeded in adjusting
the stone, it crawls up the side of the pit with great care
and deposits its burden on the outside of the circle.
Should the stone happen to be round, the balance can be
kept only with the greatest difficulty, as it has to travel
with its load upon a slope of loose sand which is ready to
3o
474-
HISTORY OF INSECTS.
The work being thus, with great labour,
finished, the insidious insect places itself in
ambush, hiding itself in the bottom under the
sand, in such a manner that its two horns
encircle the bottom of the pit. All the sides
of this pit-fall are made of the most loose and
crumbling materials ; so that scarce any insect
can climb up that has once got down to the
bottom. Conscious of this, the lion-ant re-
mains in patient expectation, ready to profit
by that accident which throws some heedless
little animal into its den. If then, by misfor-
tune, an ant, a wood-louse, or a small cater-
pillar, walks too near the edge of the precipice,
the sand gives way beneath them, and they
fall to the bottom of the pit, where they meet
inevitable destruction. The fall of a single
grain of sand gives the murderer notice at the
bottom of its cave ; -and it never fails to sally
forth to seize upon its prey. It happens some-
give way at every step ; and often when the insect has
carried it to the very brink it rolls off its back and tum-
bles down to the bottom of the pit. This accident, so far
from discouraging the ant-lion, only stimulates it to more
persevering efforts. Bonnet observed it renew these at-
tempts to dislodge a stone, five or six times. It is only
when it finds it utterly impossible to succeed, that it
abandons the design and commences another pit in a fresh
situation. When it succeeds in getting a stone beyond
the line of its circle, it is not contented with letting it
rest there ; but to prevent it from again rolling in, it goes
on to push it to a considerable distance.
The pitfall, when finished, is usually about three inches
in diameter at the top, about two inches deep, and gra-
dually contracting into a point in the manner of a cone
or funnel. In the bottom of this pit the ant-lion stations
Itself to watch for its prey. Should an ant or any other
insect wander within the verge of the funnel, it can
scarcely fail to dislodge and roll down some particles of
sand, which will give notice to the ant-lion below to be
on the alert. In order to secure the prey, Reaumur,
Bonnet, and others have observed the ingenious insect
throw up showers of sand by jerking it from his head in
quick succession, till the luckless ant is precipitated within
reach of the jaws of its concealed enemy. It feeds only
on the blood or juice of insects; and as soon as it has ex-
tracted these, it tosses the dry carcase out of its den.
Its next care is to mount the sides of the pitfall and re-
pair any damage it may have suffered ; and when this is
accomplished, it again buries itself among the sand at the
bottom, leaving nothing but its jaws above the surface,
ready to seize the next victim.
When it is about to change into a pupa, it proceeds in
nearly the same manner as the caterpillar of the water-
betony moth (Cucullia scrophulariae). It first builds a
case of sand, the particles of which are secured by threads
of silk, and then tapestries the whole with a silken web.
Within this it undergoes its transformation into a pupa,
and in due time, it emerges in form of a four-winged fly,
closely resembling the dragon-flies (Likellula}, vulgarly
and erroneously called horse-stingers.
The instance of the ant-lion naturally leads us to con.
sider the design of the Author of Nature in so nicely ad-
justing, in all animals, the means of destruction and of
escape. As the larger quadrupeds of prey are provided
with a most ingenious machinery for preying on the
weaker, so are these furnished with the most admirable
powers of evading their destroyers. In the economy of
insects, we constantly observe, that the means of defence,
not only of the individual creatures, but of their larvse and
times, however, that the ant or the wood-louse
is too nimble, and runs up the sides of the pit-
fall before the other can make ready to seize
it. ' The lion-ant has then another contrivance,
still more wonderful than the former ; for, by
means of its broad head and feelers, it has a
method of throwing up a shower of sand,
which falls upon the struggling captive with
tremendous weight, and once more crushes it
down to the bottom. When the insect is once
fallen thus low, no efforts can retrieve or
release it ; the lion-ant seizes it with its feel-
ers, which are hollow, and darting them both
into its body, sucks out all the little animal's
juices with the utmost rapacity.
When the prey is thus reduced to a husk,
and nothing but the external form remains,
the next care of the murderer is to remove the
body from its cell ; since the appearance of
dead carcases might forewarn other insects of
pupse, against the attacks of other insects, and of birds,
is proportioned, in the ingenuity of their arrangements,
to the weakness of the insect employing them. Those
species which multiply the quickest have the greatest
number of enemies. Bradley, an English naturalist, has
calculated that two sparrows carry, in the course of a
week, above three thousand caterpillars to the young in
their nests. But though this is, probably, much beyond
the truth, it is certain that there is a great and constant
destruction of individuals going forward ; and yet the spe-
cies is never destroyed. In this way a balance is kept
up, by which one portion of animated nature cannot usurp
the means of life and enjoyment which the world offers
to another portion. In all matters relating to reproduc-
tion, Nature is prodigal in her arrangements. Insects
have more stages to pass through before they attain their
perfect growth than other creatures. The continuation
of the species is, therefore, in many cases, provided for
by a much larger number of eggs being deposited than
ever become fertile. How many larvae are produced, in
comparison with the number which pass into the pupa
state; and how many pupse perish before they become
perfect insects ! Every garden is covered with cater-
pillars ; and yet how few moths and butterflies, compara-
tively, are seen, even in the most sunny season ! In-
sects which lay few eggs are, commonly, most remark-
able in their contrivances for their preservation. The
dangers to which insect life is exposed are manifold ; and
therefore are the contrivances for its preservation of the
most perfect kind, and invariably adapted to the peculiar
habits of each tribe. The same wisdom determines the
food of every species of insect; and thus some are found
to delight in the rose-tree, and some in the oak. Had
it been otherwise, the balance of vegetable life would not
have been preserved. It is for this reason that the con-
trivances which an insect employs for obtaining its food
are curious, in proportion to the natural difficulties of its
structure. The antJion is carnivorous, but he has not
the quickness of the spider, nor can he spread a net over
a large surface, and issue from his citadel to seize a vic-
tim which he has caught in his outworks. He is there-
fore taught to dig a trap, where he site, like the unwieldy
giants of fable, waiting for some feeble one to cross his
path. How laborious and patient are his operations —
how uncertain the chances of success! Yet he never
shrinks from them, because his instinct tells him that
by these contrivances alone can he preserve his own ex-
istence, and continue that of his species. — Insect Archi-
tecture,
THE GRASSHOPPER, &c.
475
the danger of the place. The insect, therefore ,
takes up the wasted trunk with its feelers, and
throws it, with wonderful strength, at least six
inches from the edge of its hole ; and then
patiently sets about mending the breaches
which its fortifications had received in the last
engagement. Nothing can abate its indus-
try, its vigilance, its patience, or its rapacity.
It will work for a week together to make its
pit-fall; it will continue upon the watch for
more than a month, patiently expecting the ap-
proach of its prey ; and if it comes in greater
quantities than is needful, yet still the little
voracious creature will quit the insect it has
newly killed, and leave it half eaten, to kill
and attack any other that happens to fall with-
in the sphere of its malignity : though so vor-
acious, it is suprisingly patient of hunger ;
some of them having been kept in a box with
sand for six months and upwards, without feed,
ing at all.
When the lion-ant attains a certain age, in
which it is to change into another form, it
then leaves off its usual rapacious habits, but
keeps on its industry. It no longer continues
to make pits, but furrows up the sand all
a round in an irregular manner ; testifying those
workings and violent agitations which most
insects exhibit previous to their transformation.
These animals are produced in autumn, and
generally live a year, and perhaps two, before
they assume a winged form. Certain it is,
that they are found at the end of winter of all
sizes ; and it would seem that many of the
smaller kinds had not yet attained sufficient
maturity for transformation. Be this as it
may, when the time of change approaches, if
the insect finds its little cell convenient, it
seeks no other ; if it is obliged to remove, after
furrowing up th& sand, it hides itself under it,
horns and all. — It there spins a thread, in the
manner of the spider ; which being made of a
glutinous substance, and being humid from
the moisture of its body, sticks to the little
particles of sand among which it is spun ; and
in proportion as it is thus excluded, the insect
rolls up its web, sand and all, into a ball, of
which itself is the centre. This ball is about
half an inch in diameter ; and within it the
insect resides, in an apartment sufficiently
spacious for all its motions. The outside is
composed of sand and silk ; the inside is lined
with silk only, of a fine pearl-colour, extremely
delicate, and perfectly beautiful. But though
the work is so curious within, it exhibits no-
thing to external appearance but a lump of
sand ; and thus escapes the search of birds that
might otherwise disturb the inhabitant within.
The insect continues thus shut up for six weeks
or two months ; and gradually parts with its
eyes, its feelers, its feet, and its skin ; all which
are thrust into a corner of the inner apart-
ment,-like a rag. The insect then appears al-
most in its winged state, except that there is a
thin skin which wraps up the wings, and that
appears to be nothing else Jwt a liquor dried
on their outside. Still, however, the little
animal is too delicate and tender to venture
from its retreat ; but continues enclosed for
sometime longer: at length, when the members
of this new insect have acquired the necessary
consistence and vigour, it tears open its lodg-
ing, and breaks through its wall. For this pur-
pose it has two teeth, like those of grasshoppers,
with which it eats through, and enlarges the
opening, till it gets out. Its body, which is
turned like a screw, takes up no more than the
space of a quarter of an inch ; but when it is
unfolded, it becomes half an inch in length ;
while its wings, that seemed to occupy the
smallest space, in two minutes' time unfold,
and become longer than the body. In short,
it becomes a large and beautiful fly, of the
libellula kind, with a long slender body, of a
brown colour ; a small head, with large bright
eyes, long slender legs, and four large trans-
parent reticulated wings. The rest of its
habits resemble that insect whose form it bears;
except, that instead of dropping its eggs in
the water, it deposits them in sand, where
they are soon hatched into that rapacious
insect so justly admired for its method of
catching its prey.
CHAP. VI.
OF THE GRASSHOPPER, THE LOCUST, THE
CICADA, THE CRICKET, AND THE
MOLE-CRICKET.
BELONGING to the second order of insects,
we find a tribe of little animals, which, though
differing in size and colour, strongly resemble
each other in figure, appetites, nature, and
transformation. But though they all appear
of one family, yet man has been taught to hold
them in different estimation ; for while some of
this tribe amuse him with their chirpings, and
banish solitude from the fields, others come it)
swarms, eat up every thing that is green, and
in a single night convert the most delightful
landscape into a dreary waste. However, if
these animals be separately considered, the
devouring locust is not in the least more mis-
chievous than the musical grasshopper ; the
only difference is, that one species comes for
food in a swarm, the other feeds singly.
That animal which is called the grasshop-
per with us, differs greatly from the cicada of
antiquity ; for as our insect is active enough
in hopping through the long grass, from
whence it has taken its name, the cicada had
476
HISTORY OF INSECTS.
not this power, but either walked or "flew.1
The little hissing note also of our grasshopper
is very different from the song of the cicada,
which was louder and far more musical. The
> The Cicada is celebrated for its song, by the ancient
Greek poets, under the name of TSTT;|. The Romans
called it Cicada, which we sometimes, but erroneously,
translate " grasshopper ;" for the grasshoppers belong to
an entirely different order of insects. We shall, there-
fore, (says Mr Rennie) take the liberty of calling the
Cicadse, Tree-hoppers, to which the cuckoo-spit insect
(Tettigonia spumaria, Oliv.) is allied; but there is only
one of the true cicadte hitherto ascertained to be British,
namely, the Cicada hamatodes (Linn.) which was taken
iu the New Forest, Hampshire, by Mr Daniel Bydder.
M. Reaumur was exceedingly anxious to study the
economy of those insects; but they not being indigenous
in the neighbourhood of Paris, he commissioned his friends
to send him some from more southern latitudes, and he
procured in this way specimens not only from the South
of France and from Italy, but also from Egypt. From
these specimens he has given the best account of them
yet published ; for though, as he tells us, he had never had
the pleasure of seeing one of them alive, the more inter-
esting parts of their structure can be studied as well in
dead as in living specimens. We ourselves possess se-
veral specimens from New Holland, upon which we have
verified some of the more interesting observations of
Reaumur.
Virgil tells us, that in his time " the cicadse burst the
very shrubs with their querulous music;" but we may
well suppose that he was altogether unacquainted with the
singular instrument by means of which they can actually
(not poetically) cut grooves in the branches they select
for depositing their eggs. It is the male, as in the case
of birds, which fills the woods with his song; while the
female, though mute, is no less interesting to the natu-
ralist on account of her curious ovipositor. This instru-
ment, like all those with which insects are furnished by
nature for cutting, notching, or piercing, is composed of
a horny substance, and is also considerably larger than
the size of the tree-hopper would proportionally indicate.
It can on this account be partially examined without a
microscope, being, in some of the larger species, no less
than five lines * in length.
The ovipositor or auger (tariere) as Reaumur calls it,
is lodged in a sheath which lies in a groove of the termi-
nating ring of the belly. It requires only a very slight
pressure to cause the instrument to protrude from its
sheath, when it appears to the naked eye to be of an equal
thickness throughout except at the point, where it is
somewhat enlarged and angular, and on both sides finely
indented with teeth. A more minute examination of
the sheath demonstrates that it is composed of two horny
pieces slightly curved, and ending in the form of an elon-
gated spoon, the concave part of which is adapted to re-
ceive the convex end of the ovipositor.
When the protruded instrument is further examined
with a microscope, the denticulations, nine in number on
each side, appear strong, and arranged with great sym-
metry, increasing in fineness towards the point, where
there are three or four very small ones, beside the nine
that are more obvious. The magnifier also shows that
the instrument itself, which appeared simple to the na-
ked eye, is in fact composed of three different pieces, tw
exterior armed with the teeth before-mentioned, deno-
minated by Reaumur files, (limes), and another pointed
like a lancet, and not denticulated. The denticulated
pieces moreover are capable of being moved forwards and
backwards, while the centre one remains stationary, and
as this motion is effected by pressing a pin or the blade
of a knife over the muscles on either side at the crigii
* A line is about the twelfth part of an inch.
manner in which this note is produced by the
two animals is very different ; for the cicada
makes it by a kind of buckler, which the male
bas beneath its belly ; the grasshopper by a
of the ovipositor, it may be presumed that those muscles
are destined for producing similar movements when the
insect requires them. By means of a finely pointed pin
carefully introduced between the pieces, and pushed very
gently downwards, they may be, with no great difficulty,
separated in their whole extent.
The contrivance by which those three pieces are held
united, while at the same time the two files can be easily
put in motion, are similar to some of our own mechani-
cal inventions, with this difference, that no human work-
man could construct an instrument of this description so
small, fine, exquisitely polished, and fitting so exactly.
We should have been apt to form the grooves in the cen-
tral piece, whereas they are scooped out in the handles of
the files, and play upon two projecting ridges in the cen-
tral piece, by which means this is rendered stronger. M.
Reaumur discovered that the best manner of showing the
play of this extraordinary instrument is to cut it off with
a pair of scissors near its origin, and then, taking it be-
tween the thumb and the finger at the point of section,
ivork it gently to put the files in motion.
Beside the muscles necessary for the movement of the
files, the handle of each is terminated by a curve of the
same hard horny substance as itself, which riot only fur-
nishes the muscles with a sort of lever, but serves to
press, as with a spring, the two files close to the central
piece, as is shown in the lower figure.
M. Pontedera, who studied the economy of the tree-
hoppers with some care, was anxious to see the insect it-
self make use of the ovipositor in forming grooves in
wood, but found that it was so shy and easily alarmed,
that it took to flight whenever he approached; a circum-
stance of which Reaumur takes advantage to soothe his
regret that the insects were not indigenous in his neigh-
bourhood. But of their workmanship when completed,
he had several specimens sent to him from Provence and
Languedoc by the Marquis tie Caumont.
The gall-flies, when about to deposit their egg=, se-
lect growing plants and trees ; but the tree-hoppers, on
the contrary, make choice of dead, dried branches, for
the mother seems to be aware that moisture would injure
her progeny. The branch, commonly a small one, in
which eggs have been deposited, may be recognised by
being covered with little oblong elevations caused by
small splinters of the wood, detached at one end, but left
fixed at the other by the insect. These elevations are
for the most part in a line, rarely in a double line, nearly
at equal distances from each other, and form a lid to a
cavity in the wood about four lines in length, containing
from four to ten eggs. It is to be remarked, that the in-
sect always selects a branch of such dimensions, that it
can get at the pith, not because the pith is more easily
bored, for it does not penetrate into it at all, but to form
a warm and safe bed for the egg?. M. Pontedera says,
that when the eggs have been deposited, the insect closes
the mouth of the hole with a gum capable of protecting
them from the weather; but M. Reaumur thinks this
only a fancy, as out of a great number which he exam-
ined, he could discover nothing of the kind. Neither is
such a protection wanted; for the woody splinters above
mentioned furnish a very good covering.
The grubs hatched from these eggs (of which, M. Pon-
tedera says, one female will deposit from five to seven
hundred) issue from the same holes through which the
eggs have been introduced, and betake themselves to the
ground to feed on the roots of plants. They are not
transformed into chrysalides, but into active nymphs, re-
markable for their fore limbs, which are thick, strong,
and furnished with prongs for digging- and when we are
THE GRASSHOPPER, &e.
477
transparent membrane that covers a hole at
the base of its wings. There is still a greater
variety in all these with regard to shape and
colour. Some are green, some black, some livid,
and some variegated ; but many of them do not
show all their colours till they fly. Some have
long legs, some short, some with more joints,
others with i'ewer. Some sing, others are mute:
some are innocent, doing no damage to the
husbandman ; while others do such prodigious
mischief, that they are. looked upon in some
countries as one of the terrible scourges of
the incensed Divinity.
Of this variegated tribe, the little grass-
hopper that breeds in such plenty in every
meadow, and thatcontinues itschirping through
the summer, is best known to us ; and by having
its history, we shall be possessed of that of all
the rest. This animal is of the colour of green
leaves, except a line of brown which streaks
the back, and two pale lines under the belly
and behind the legs. It may be divided into
the head, the corselet, and the belly. The
head is oblong, regarding the earth, and bear-
ing some resemblance to that of a horse. Its
mouth is covered by a kind of round buckler
jutting over it, and armed with teeth of a
brown colour, hooked at the points. Within
the mouth is perceivable a large reddish
tongue, and fixed to the lower jaw. The
feelers or horns are very long, tapering off to a
point ; and the eyes are like two black specks,
a little prominent. The corselet is elevated,
narrow, armed above and below by two ser-
rated spines. The back is armed with a strong
buckler, to which the muscles of the legs are
(irmly bound, and round these muscles are seen
the vessels by which the animal breathes, as
white as snow. The last pair of legs are much
longer and stronger than the first two pair,
fortified by thick muscles, and very well formed
for leaping. It has four wings ; the anterior
one springing from the second pair of legs,
the posterior from the third pair. The hinder
wings are much finer and more expansive than
the foremost, and are the principal instruments
of its flight. The belly is considerably large,
composed of e-ight rings, and terminated by a
Forky tail, covered with down, like the tail of
a rat. When examined internally, besides
the gullet, we discover a small stomach ; and
behind that a very large one, wrinkled and
furrowed within side : lower down there is
still a third ; so that it is not without reason
that all the animals of this order are said to
chew the cud, as they so much resemble ru-
minant animals in their internal conformation.
A short time after the grasshopper assumes
told by Dr Le Fevre, that they make their way easily
into hard stifi'clay, to the depth of two or three feet, we
perceive ho>v necessary to them such a conformation
must be Ivs*vt Architecture.
its wings, it fills the meadow with its note ;
which, like that among birds, is a call to
courtship. The male only of this tribe is vocal;
and, upon examining at the-base of the wings,
there will be found a little hole in its body,
covered with a fine transparent membrane.
This is thought, by Linnaeus, to be the instru-
ment it employs in singing : but others are of
opinion the sound is produced by rubbing its
hinder legs against each other : however this
be, the note of one male is seldom heard, but
it is returned by another ; and the two little
animals, after many mutual insults of this
kind, are seen to meet and fight desperately.
The female is generally the reward of victory;
for, after the combat, the male seizes her with
his teeth behind the neck, and thus keeps her
for several hours till the business of fecundation
is performed. They are at that time so strong-
ly united, that they can scarcely be separated
without tearing asunder. Towards the latter
end of autumn the female prepares to deposit
her burden ; and her body is then seen greatly
distended with her eggs, which she carries to
the number of an hundred and fifty. In order
to make a proper lodgment in the earth for
them. Nature has furnished her with an in-
strument at her tail, somewhat resembling a
two-edged sword, which she can sheathe and
unsheathe at pleasure: with this she pierces
the earth as deep as she is able ; and into the
hole which her instrument has made, she de-
posits her eggs, one after the other.
Having thus provided for the continuation
of her posterity, the animal herself does not
long survive ; but as the winter approaches,
she dries up, seems to feel the effects of age,
and dies from total decay. Some, however,
assert, that she is killed by the cold : and
others, that she is eaten by worms : but certain
it is, that neither the male nor female are ever
seen to survive the winter. In the meantime
the eggs which have been deposited continue
unaltered, either by the severity of the season
or the retardation of the spring. They are of
an oval figure, white, and of the consistence of
horn ; their size nearly equals that of a grain
of anise : they are enveloped in the body with-
in a covering, branched all over with veins
and arteries; and when excluded they crack,
on being pressed between the fingers; their
substance within is a whitish, viscous, and
transparent fluid. In this manner they re-
main deposited beneath the surface of the earth
during the whole winter; till the genial re-
turn of spring begins to vivify and hatch them.
The sun, with its warmth, beginning to ani-
mate all nature, the insect eggs feel its benign
influence ; and generally, about the beginning
of May, every egg produces an insect about
the size of a flea. These, at first, are of a
whitish colour ; at the end of two or three days
478
HISTORY OF INSECTS.
they turn black ; and soon after they become
of a reddish brown.
They appear, from the beginning, like
grasshoppers, wanting wings ; and hop among
the grass, as soon as excluded, with great agi-
lity.
Yet still they are by no means arrived at
their state of full perfection, although they bear
a strong resemblance to the animal in its per-
feet form. They want, or seem to want, the
wings, which they are at last seen to assume ;
and can only hop among the grass, without
being able to fly. The wings, however, are
not wanting, but are concealed within four
little bunches, that seem to deform the sides of
the animal : there they lie rolled up in a most
curious manner ; and occupying a smaller
space than one could conceive who saw them
extended. Indeed, all insects, whatever trans-
mutations they seem to undergo, are yet
brought forth with those very limbs, parts, and
wings, which they afterwards seem to acquire.
In the most helpless caterpillar there is still to
be seen the rudiments of that beautiful plum-
age which it afterwards expands when a but-
terfly : and though many new parts seem un-
folded to the view, the animal acquires none
but such as it was from the beginning posses-
sed of. The grasshopper, therefore, though
seemingly without wings, is, in reality, from
the first, possessed of those instruments, and
only waits for sufficient force to break the
bonds that hold them folded up, and to give
them their full expansion.
The grasshopper, that, for above twenty
days from its exclusion, has continued without
the use of its wings, which were folded up to
its body, at length prepares for its emancipa-
tion, and for a life of greater liberty and plea-
sure. To make the proper dispositions for the
approaching change, it ceases from its grassy
food, and seeks about for a convenient place
beneath some thorn or thistle, that may protect
it from an accidental shower. The same la-
borious writhings and workings, heavings and
palpitations, which we have remarked in every
other insect upon an approaching change, are
exhibited in this. It swells up its head and
neck ; it then seems to draw them in again ;
and thus alternately, for some time it exerts
its powers to get free. At length, the skin
covering the head and breast is seen dividing
above the neck ; the head is seen issuing out
first from the bursting skin ; the efforts still
continuing, the other parts follow successively;
so that the little animal, with its long feelers,
legs and all, works its way from the old skin,
that remains fixed to the thistle or the thorn.
It is, indeed, inconceivable how the insect can
thus extricate itself from so exact a sheath as
that which covereth every part of its body.1
1 A curious circumstance regarding the grasshopper is
The grasshopper, thus disengaged from its
outer skin, appears in its perfect form; but
then so feeble, and its body so soft and tender,
that it may be moulded like wax. It is no
longer of that obscure colour which it exhibi-
ted before, but of a greenish while, which be-
comes more vivid as the moisture on the sur-
face is dried away. Still, however, the ani-
mal continues to show no signs of life, but ap-
pears quite spent and fatigued with its labour
for more than an hour together. During this
time, the body is drying, and the wings un-
folding to their greatest expansion ; and the
curious observer will perceive them, fold after
fold, opening to the sun, till at last they be-
come longer than the two hinder legs. The
insect's body also is lengthened during this
operation, and it becomes much more beauti-
ful than before.
These insects are generally vocal in the
midst of summer, and they are heard at sun-
setting much louder than during the heats of
the day. They are fed upon grass ; and, if
their belly be pressed, they will be seen to re-
turn the juices of the plants they have last fed
upon. Though unwilling to fly, and slow in
flight, particularly when the weather is moist
or cool, they are sometimes seen to fly to con-
siderable distances. If they are caught by
one of the hinder legs, they quickly disengage
themselves from it, and leave the leg behind
them. This, however, does not grow again,
as with crabs or spiders ; for as they are ani-
mals but of a single year's continuance, they
have not sufficient time for repairing those ac-
cidental misfortunes. The loss of their leg also
prevents them from flying ; for being unable
to lift themselves in the air, they have not room
upon the ground for the proper expansion of
their wings. If they be handled roughly,
they will bite very fiercely ; and when they
fly, they make a noise with their wings. They
generally keep in the plain, where the grass
related in the American Quarterly Review. The large
winged grasshopper, which flutters with so much viva-
city through our meadows during the autumn, feeds upon
vegetable matter, and deposits its eggs upon vege-
tables, for the purpose of being supported until matured.
Before the grasshopper takes wing another Jusect, the
ichneumon, lights upon its body, and thrusts under its
skin a number of its eggs, by means of a tubular awl.
shaped oviduct. Those eggs slowly acquire perfection,
become living worms, and feed upon the body of the hap-
less grasshopper, until themselves are ready to take
wing. So admirably do they perform their oflice, that
they do not injure the vital organs of the insect they are
internally devouring, until they are just ready to change
their state : and at the proper season, hundreds of grass-
hoppers, in this condition, have just strength enough
remaining to flutter to a tree or fence, and with a dying
effort fix their hooked feet so firmly as to retain their
position long after death. Examine their bodies at this
season, and you will find an empty shell or one filled with
large and active worms, just ready to burst their cover-
ings and become ttinged insects.
THE GRASSHOPPER, &c.
479
is luxuriant, and the ground rich and fertile :
there they deposit their eggs, particularly in
those cracks which are formed by the heat of
the sun.
Such are the habits and nature of those little
vocal insects that swarm in our meadows, and
enliven the landscape. - The larger kinds only
differ from them in size, in rapidity of flight,
and the powers of injuring mankind, by swarm-
ing upon the productions of the earth. The
quantity of grass which a few grasshoppers
that sport in the fields can destroy is trifling ;
but when a swarm of locusts, two or three
miles long, and several yards deep, settle upon
a field, the consequences are frightful. The
annals of every country are marked with the
devastation which such a multitude of insects
produces ; and though they seldom visit Eu-
rope in such dangerous swarms as formerly,
yet, in some of the southern kingdoms, they
are still formidable. Those which have, at
uncertain intervals, visited Europe, in our me-
mory, are supposed to have come from Africa,
and the animal is called the Great Brown Lo-
cust. It was seen in several parts of England
in the year 1748, and many dreadful conse-
quences were apprehended from its appear-
ance. This insect is about three inches long;
and has two horns or feelers, an inch in length.
The head and horns are of a brownish colour;
it is blue about the mouth, as also on the in-
side of the larger legs. The shield that covers
the back is greenish ; and the upper side of
the body brown, spotted with black, and the
under side purple. The tipper wings are
brown, with small dusky spots, with one lar-
ger at the tips; the under wings are more
transparent, and of a light brown, tinctured
with green, but there is a dark cloud of spots
near the tips. -This is that insect that has
threatened us so often with its visitations;
and that is so truly terrible in the countries
where it is bred. There is no animal in the
creation that multiplies so fast as these, if the
sun be warm, and the soil in which their eggs
are deposited be dry. Happily for us, the
coldness of our climate, and the humidity of
our soil, are no way favourable to their pro-
duction ; and as they are but the animals of a
year, they visit us and perish.
The Scripture, which was written in a coun-
try where the locust made a distinguished fea-
ture in the picture of nature, has given us se-
veral very striking images of this animal's
numbers and rapacity. It compares an army,
where the numbers are almost infinite, to a
swarm of locusts : it describes them as rising
out of the earth, where they are produced ; as
pursuing a settled march to destroy the fruits
of the earth, and co-operate with divine indig-
nation.
When the locusts take the field, as we are
assured, they have a leader at their head,
whose flighl they observe, and pay a strict at-
tention to all his motions. They appear, at a
distance, like a black cloud, which, as it ap-
proaches, gathers upon the horizon, and almost
hides the light of the day. It often happens
that the husbandman sees this imminent cala-
mity pass away without doing him any mis-
chief; and the whole swarm proceeds onward,
to settle upon the labours of some less fortun-
ate country. But wretched is the district upon
which they settle : they ravage the meadow
and the pasture ground ; strip the trees of their
leaves, and the garden of its beauty: the visi-
tation of a few minutes destroys the expecta-
tions of a year ; and a famine but too fre-
quently ensues. In their native tropical cli-
mates they are not so dreadful as in the more
southern parts of Europe. There, though the
plain and the forest be stripped of their ver-
dure, the power of vegetation is so great, that
an interval of two or three days repairs the ca-
lamity : but our verdure is the livery of a sea-
son ; and we must wait till the ensuing spring
repairs the damage. Besides, in their long-
flights to this part of the world, they are fa-
mished by the tediousness of their journey,
and are, therefore, more voracious wherever
they happen to settle. But it is not by what
they devour that they do so much damage as
by what they destroy. Their very bite is
thought to contaminate the plant, and to pre-
vent its vegetation. To use the expression of
the husbandman, they burn whatever they
touch , and leave the marks of their devastation
for two or three years ensuing. But if they
be noxious while living, they are still more so
when dead ; for wherever they fall, they infect
the air in such a manner, that the smell is un-
supportable. Orosius tells us, that, in the
year of the world 3800, there was an incredi-
ble number of locusts which infected Africa ;
and, after having eaten up every thing that
was green, they flew off, and were drowned
in the African sea: where they caused such a
stench, that the putrefying bodies of hundreds
of thousands of men could not equal it.
In the year 1690, a cloud of locusts was
seen to enter Russia in three different places ;
and from thence to spread themselves over
Poland and Lithuania, in such astonishing
multitudes, that the air was darkened, and the
earth covered with their numbers. In some
places they were seen lying dead, heaped upon
each other four feet deep ; in others, they co-
vered the surface like a black cloth : the trees
bent beneath their weight ; and the damage
which the country sustained exceeded compu-
tation. In Barbary their numbers are formid-
able, and their visits are frequent. In the
year 1724, Dr Shaw was a witness, in that
country, of their devastations. Their first ap-
480
HISTORY OF INSECTS.
pearance was about the latter end of March,
when the wind had been southerly for some time.
In the beginning of April, their numbers
were so vastly increased, that, in the heat of the
day they formed themselves into large swarms,
which appeared like clouds, and darkened the
sun. In the middle of May they began to dis-
appear, retiring into the plains to deposit their
eggs. In the nextmonth, being June, the young
brood began to make their appearance, form-
ing many compact bodies of several hundred
yards square ; which afterwards marching for-
ward, climbed the trees, walls, and houses,
eating every thing that was green in their way.
The inhabitants, to stop their progress, laid
trenches all over their fields and gardens, fill-
ing them with water. Some placed large
quantities of heath, stubble, and such like
combustible matter, in rows, and set them on
fire on the approach of the locusts. But all
this was to no purpose; for the trenches
were quickly filled up, and the fires put out
by the vast number of swarms that succeeded
each other. A day or two after one of these
was in motion, others that were just hatched
came to glean after them, gnawing off the
young branches and the very bark of the trees.
Having lived near a month in this manner,
they arrived at their full growth, and threw
off their worm-like state, by casting their
skins. To prepare themselves for this
change, they fixed their hinder feet to some
bush or twig, or corner of a stone, when im-
mediately, by an undulating motion used on
this occasion, their heads would first appear,
and soon after the rest of their bodies. The
whole transformation was performed in seven
or eight minutes' time ; after which, they were
a little while in a languishing condition ; but
as soon as the sun and air had hardened their
wings, and dried up the moisture that remained
after casting off their sloughs, they returned
again to their former greediness, with an ad-
dition both of strength and agility. But they
did not continue long in this state before they
were entirely dispersed ; after laying their
eggs, directing their course northward, they
probably perished in the sea. It is said that
the holes these animals make, to deposit their
eggs, are four feet deep in the ground ; the
eggs are about fourscore in number, of the size
of caraway comforts, and bundled up together
in clusters.1
It would be endless to recount all the mis.
chiefs which these famished insects have at
different times occasioned ; but what can have
induced them to take such distant flights, when
1 The Locust. — Dr Clarke, in liis Travels in Tartary,
on approaching Cufl'a, thus notices the number of locusts:
" We now began to perceive the truth of those surpri-
sing relations which we had often heard and read con-
cerning the locust in countries infested with that insect.
The steppes were entirely covered by their bodies ; and
their numbers falling, resembled flakes of snow, carried
obliquely by the wind, and spreading a thick mist over
the sun. Myriads fell over the carriage, the horses,
and the drivers. The stories of these animals, told us
by the Tartars, were more marvellous than any we had
before heard. They said that instances had occurred of
persons being suffocated by a fall of locusts in the steppes.
It was now the season, they further added, in which their
numbers began to diminish. When they first make
their appearance, a thick dark cloud is seen very high in
the air, which, as it passes, obscures the sun. I had al-
ways supposed the stones of the locust to exaggerate their
real appearance ; but found their swarms so astonishing
in all the steppes over which we passed in this part of our
journey, that the whole face of nature might have been
described as concealed by a living veil. They were of
two kinds ; the gryllus Tartaricus, and the gryllus mi-
gratorius, or common migratory locust. The first is al-
most twice the size of the second, and since it precedes
the other, bears the name of the herald or messenger.
The migratory locust has red legs, and its inferior wings
have a lively red colour, which gives a bright fiery ap-
pearance to the animal when fluttering in the sun's rays.
The strength of limbs possessed by it is amazing : when
pressed down by the hand upon a table, it has almost
power to raise the fingers ; but this force resides wholly
in the legs ; for if one of these be broken off, which hap-
pens by the slightest accident, the power of action ceases.
There is yet a third variety of locust, gryllus viridis-
simus of Linrifeus, found near the Don and the Kuban,
which is entirely of a green colour. This last 1 have
since seen upon the banks of the Cam in my own coun-
try, and felt for the moment intimidated, lest such a pre-
sage should be the herald of the dreadful scourge which
the locust bears wherever it abounds. On whatever spot
these animals fall, the whole vegetable produce disap-
pears. Nothing escapes them, from the leaves of the
forest to the herbs of the plain. Fields, vineyards, gar.
dens, pastures, everything is laid waste; and sometimes
the only appearance left upon the naked soil is a disgust-
ing superficies caused by their putrefying bodies, the
stench of which is sufficient to breed a pestilence."
Ravages of Locusts.' — When Captains Irby and Man-
gles were travelling round the southern extremity of the
Dead Sea, in the end of May, they had an opportunity
of observing these insect depredators. "In the morn-
ing," say they, " we quitted Shobek. On our way we
passed a swarm of locusts that were resting themselves
in a gully; they were in sufficient numbers to alter ap-
parently the colour of the rock on which they had alight-
ed, and to make a sort of crackling noise while eating,
which we heard before we reached them. Volney com-
pares it to the foraging of an army. Our conductors told
us they were on their way to Gaza, and that they pass
almost annually."
Even our own island has been alarmed by the appear-
ance of locusts, a considerable number having visited us
in 1748 ; but they happily perished without propagating.
Other parts of Europe have not been so fortunate. They
have frequently come also from Africa into Italy and
Spain. In the year 59 L an infinite army of locusts, of a
size unusually large, ravaged a considerable part of Italy,
and being at last cast into the sea, (as seems for the most
part to be their fate,) a pestilence, it is alleged, arose
from their stench, which carried oft' nearly a million of
men and beasts. In the Venetian territory, likewise, ii.
1478, more than 30,000 persons are said to have per-
ished in a famine chiefly occasioned by the depredations
of locusts.— Insect Transformation.
Mode of Dispersing Locusts. — We traversed the
grand steppe or desert of Astrakhan for two days. On
the evening of the 1st of August, we arrived at a Rus.
siau village, which was surrounded by a considerable tract
THE GRASSHOPPER, &c.
481
they come into Europe, is riot easy to be ac-
counted for. It seems most probable, that, by
means of a very dry season, in the heart of
Africa, they are propagated in such numbers,
that the vegetables of the spot where they are
produced are not sufficient to sustain them.
Thus being obliged to find out other countries,
they traverse the sandy deserts, where they
can find no sustenance : still meeting with no-
thing to allure them from their height, they
proceed forward across the sea, and thus come
into Europe, where they alight upon the first
green pastures that occur.
In some parts of the world the inhabitants
turn what seems a plague to their own advan-
tage. Locusts are eaten by the natives in
many kingdoms of the East ; and are caught
in small nets provided for that purpose. They
parch them over the fire in an earthen pan ;
and when their wings and legs are fallen off,
they turn reddish, of the colour of boiled
shrimps. Dampier has eaten them thus pre-
pared, and thinks them a tolerable dish. The
natives of Barbary also eat them fried with
salt ; and they are said to taste like cray-fish.
There is a locust in Tonquin, about the big-
ness of the top of a man's finger, and as long
as the first joint. It breeds in the earth, in
low grounds ; and in the months of January
and February, which is the season for taking
them, they issue from the earth in vast swarms.
At first they can hardly fly, so that they often
fall into the rivers in great numbers : however,
the natives in these months watch the rivers,
and take them up in multitudes in small nets.
They either eat them fresh, broiled on the
coals, or pickle them for keeping. They are
considered as a great delicacy in that part of
the world, as well by the rich as the poor. In
the countries where they are eaten, they are
regularly brought to market, and sold as larks
or quails in Europe. They must have been a
common food with the Jews, as Moses, in the
book of Leviticus, permits them to eat four
different kinds of this animal, which he takes
care to specify. This dish, however, has not
yet made its way into the kitchens of the lux-
of well-cultivated laud. While changing horses, I wit-
nessed what was to me a very curious sight — a vast
flight of locusts, extendin g fifteen mites, suddenly made
their appearance from the east, and came in a huge pha-
lanx to attack the crops. In an instant every villager
was on the road to his own field. Some took dogs, others
were on horseback, and others ran shouting and clapping
their hands all the way, the inhabitants finding from ex-
perience that the locusts very much dislike noise. My
fellow-traveller told me, that in the colony of Karass,
when the locusts come in sight, not only all the inhabi-
tants, but the military turn out, and endeavour to drive
them off, by drums and fifes, and a perpetual discharge
of musketry. The enemy, thus repulsed, make a speedy
retreat and commit their depredations on the land of
those who are less on the alert to resist them. — Captain
Keppel's Travels.
VOL. II.
urious in Europe ; and though we may ad-
mire the delicacies of the East, we are as yel
happily deprived of the power of imitation.
Of all animals, however, of this noxious
tribe, the Great West Indian" Locust, indivi-
dually considered, is the most formidable. It
is about the thickness of the barrel of a goose-
quill, and the body is divided into nine or ten
joints ; in the whole, about six or seven inches
long. It has two small eyes standing out oi
the head, like those of crabs; and two feelers,
like long hair. The whole body is studded
with small excrescences, which are not much
bigger than the points of pins. The shape is
roundish, and the body diminishes in circum-
ference to the tail, which is forked into two
horns. Between this, there is- a sort of a
sheath containing a small dangerous sting. If
any person happens to touch this insect, he is
sure to be stung ; and is immediately taken
with a shivering and trembling all over the
body ; which, however, may soon be put a
stop to, by rubbing the place that was affected
with a little palm oil.1
From the locust we descend to the Cricket,
which is a very inoffensive and pretty animal.
Though there be a species of this insect that
lives entirely in the woods and fields, yet that
with which we are best acquainted is the
House-cricket, whose voice is so well known
behind a country fire in a winter's evening.
There is something so unusual in hearing a
sound while we do not see the animal produc
ing it, nor discover the place from whence it
comes, that, among the country people, the
chirping of the cricket is always held ominous;
and whether it deserts the fire-side, or pays an
unexpected visit, the credulous peasantry al-
ways find something to be afraid of. In ge-
neral, however, the killing of a cricket is con-
sidered as a most unlucky omen : and though
their company is not much desired, yet no me-
thods must be taken to remove them.8
1 It is now known that every insect of this tribe is per-
fectly harmless.
2 The Cricket. — While many other insects must be
sought after in fields, and woods, and waters, the gryl-
lun domcsticus, or house-cricket, resides altogether with-
in our dwellings, intruding itself upon our notice whe-
ther we will or not. This species delights in new-built
houses, being, like the spider, pleased with the moisture
of the walls ; and, besides, the softness of the mortar en-
ables them to burrow and mine between the joints of the
bricks or stones, and to open communications from one
room to another. They are particularly fond of kitchens
and bakers' ovens, on account of their perpetual warmth.
Tender insects that live abroad either enjoy only the
short period of one summer, or else doze away the cold
uncomfortable months in profound slumbers; but these,
residing as it were in a torrid zone, are always alert and
merry; a good Christmas fire is to them like the heata
of the dog-days. Though they are frequently heard by
day, yet is their natural time of motion only in the night.
As soon as it grows dusk, the chirping increases, and
they come running forth, and are from the size of a flee
3P
482
HISTORY OF INSECTS.
The cricket very much resembles the grass- !
hopper in its shape, its manner of ruminating,
its voice, its leaping, and methods of propaga-
tion. It differs in its colour, which is uni-
formly of a rusty brown ; in its food, which is |
more various ; and in its place of residence,
which is most usually in the warmest chinks
behind a country hearth. They are in some
measure obliged to the bad masonry employed
in making peasants' houses for their retreats.
The smallest chink serves to give them shel-
ter ; and where they once make their abode
they are sure to propagate. They are of a
most chilly nature, seldom leaving the fire-
side : and, if undisturbed, are seen to hop
from their retreats to chirrup at the blaze
in the chimney. The wood-cricket is the
most timorous animal in nature ; but the
chimney-cricket, being used to noises, disre-
gards not only those, but the appearance of
people near it. Whether the voice of this
animal is formed in the same manner with
that of the grasshopper, by a fine membrane
at the base of the wings, which is moved by a
muscle, and which being coiled up, gives a
sound like a quail-pipe, is not yet ascertained;
nor do we well know the use of this voice,
to that of their full stature. As one should suppose, from
the burning atmosphere which they inhabit, they are a
thirsty race, and show a great propensity for liquids, be-
ing found frequently drowned in pans of water, milk,
broth, or the like. Whatever is moist they affect ; and,
therefore, often gnaw holes in wet woollen stockings and
aprons that are hung to the fire ; they are the house-
wife's barometer, foretelling her when it will rain ; and are
prognostics sometimes, she thinks, of ill or good luck; of
the death of a near relation, or the approach of an absent
lover. By being the constant companions of her solitary
hours, they naturally become the objects of her supersti-
tion. These crickets are not only very thirsty, but very
voracious; forthey will eat the scummingsof pots, and yeast,
salt, crumbs of bread, and any kitchen ofial or sweepings.
In the summer we have observed them to fly, when it be-
came dusk, out of the windows, and over the neighbour-
ing roofs. This feat of activity accounts for the sudden
manner in which they often leave their haunts, as it
does for the method by which they come to houses where
they were not known before. It is remarkable, that
many sorts of insects seem never to use their wings but
when they have a mind to shift their quarters and settle
new colonies. When in the air, they move volutu un-
doso, in waves, or curves, like woodpeckers, opening and
shutting their wings at every stroke, and so are always
rising or sinking.
When they increase to a great degree, as they did once
in the house where I am now writing, they become noi-
some pests, flying into the candles, and dashing into
people's faces ; but may be blasted and destroyed by
gunpowder discharged into their crevices and crannies.
In families, at such times, they are, like Pharaoh's
plague of frogs, " in their bed-chambers, and upon their
beds, and in their ovens, and in their knoading-troughs."
Their shrilling noise is occasioned by a brisk attrition of
their wings. Cats catch hearth-crickets, and, playing
with them as they do with mice, devour them. Crick-
ets may be destroyed, like wasps, by phials half filled
with beer, or any liquid, set in their haunts ; for, being
always eager to drink, they will crowd in till the bottles
aro full. — Natural History of Selborne,
since anatomical inspection has not yet been
able to discover the smallest organs of hear
ing. Still, however, we can make no doubt
of their power of distinguishing sounds, though
probably not in the same manner with the
more perfect ranks of nature. Certain it is,
that I have often heard them call, and this
call was as regularly answered by another, al-
though none but the males are vocal.
As the cricket lives chiefly in the dark, so
its eyes seem formed for the gloominess of its
abode ; and those who would surprise it, have
only to light a candle unexpectedly ; by
which it is dazzled, and cannot rind the way
back to its retreat. It is a very voracious
little animal, and will eat bread, flour, and
meat ; but it is particularly fond of sugar.
They never drink, but keep for months toge-
ther at the back of the chimney, where they
could possibly have had no moisture. The
warmth of their situation only serves to in-
crease their mirth and loquacity. Except in
the very coldest weather, they never cease
their chirruping, but continue that little pier-
cing note, which is as pleasing to some as it
is disagreeable to others. The great Scaliger
was particularly delighted with the chirruping
of crickets, and kept several of them for his
amusement, enclosed in a box, which he placed
in a warm situation. Others, on the contrary,
think there is something ominous and melan-
choly in the sound, and use every endeavour
to banish this insect from their houses. Le-
delius tells us of a woman who was very much
incommoded by crickets, and tried, but in vain,
every method of banishing them from her
house. She at last accidentally succeeded :
for having one day invited several guests to
her house, where there was a wedding, in or-
der to increase the festivity of the entertain-
ment, she procured drums and trumpets to
entertain them. The noise of these was so
much greater than what the little animals were
used to, that they instantly forsook their situ-
ation, and were never heard in that mansion
more.
But of all the cricket kind, that which is
called the Mole Cricket is the most extraordi-
nary. This animal is the largest of all the
insects with which we are acquainted in this
country, being two inches and a half in length,
and three quarters of an inch in breadth. The
colour is of a dusky brown ; and at the extre-
mity of the tail there are two hairy excrescen-
ces, resembling, in some sense, the tail of a
mouse. The body consists of eight scaly joints,
or separate folds; is brown on the upper part,
and more deeply tinged below. The wings
are long, narrow, and terminate in a sharp
point, each having a blackish line running
down it: however, when they are extended,
they appear to be much broader than could at
THE EARWIG, &c.
483
first sight be supposed. The shield of the
breast is of a firm texture, of a blackish col-
our, and hairy. The fore-feet, which are this
animal's principal instruments of burrowing in
the earth, are strong, webbed, and hairy ; it
generally, however, runs backward ; but it is
commonly under ground, where it burrows
even faster than a mole. It is thought also to
be amphibious, and capable of living under
water, as well as under ground.
Of all insects this is the most detested by
gardeners, as it chiefly resides in that ground
which lies light, and where it finds sufficient
plenty under the surface. Thus, in a single
night's time, it will run along a furrow, which
has been newly sown, and rob it of all its con-
tents. Its legs are formed in such a manner
that it can penetrate the earth in every direc-
tion ; before, behind, and above it. At night
it ventures from its under-ground habitation,
and, like the cvick-et, has its chirping call.
When the female is fecundated, she makes a
cell of clammy earth, the inside of which is
large enough to hold two hazel-nuts ; and in
this she lays her eggs. The whole nest is
about the size of a common hen's egg, closed
up on every side, and well defended from the
smallest breath of air. The eggs generally
amount to the number of a hundred and fifty,
being white, and about the size of a caraway
comfort. They are thus carefully covered, as
well to defend them from the injuries of the
weather, as from the attacks of the black-
beetle ; that being itself an under-ground in-
habitant, would, but for this precaution, de-
vour or destroy them. To prevent this, the
female mole-cricket is often posted as a senti-
nel near the nest ; and when the black inva-
der plunges in to seize its prey, the guardian
insect seizes him behind, and instantly bites
him in two.1
Nothing can exceed the care and assiduity
which these animals exhibit in the preserva-
tion of their young. Wherever the nest is
placed,there seems to be a fortification, avenues,
and entrenchments drawn round it: there are
numberless winding-ways that lead to it, and
a ditch drawn about it, which few of its insect
enemies are able to pass. But their care is
not confined to this only ; for at the approach
of winter they carry their nest entirely away,
and sink it deeper in the ground, so that the
frost can have no influence in retarding the
1 Among this tribe may he numbered the great Lan-
tern Fly of Peru, an insect the most splendid and lumi-
nous of all that are yet known. In the head is containec
a phosphorescent light, sufficiently vivid to serve the
purposes of a candle in a dark room; or, when two o
three are put together at the end of a stick, to light tra
vellers on the road like a lantern. It is about the size o
alargor kind of locust, and the wings and whole body ar<
beautifully variegated.
young brood from coming to maturity. As
he weather grows milder, they raise their
magazine in proportion ; till, at last, they
aring it as near the surface _as they can, to
receive the genial influence of the sun, with-
out wholly exposing it to view ; yet should the
Vost unexpectedly return, they sink it again
as before.
CHAP. V.
OF THE EARWIG, THE FROTH INSECT, AND
SOME OTHERS BELONGING TO THE
SECOND ORDER OF INSECTS.
WE should still keep in memory, that all
insects, of the second order, though not pro-
duced quite perfect from the egg, yet want
very little of their perfection, and require but
a very small change to arrive at that state
which fits them for flight and generation. The
natural functions in these are never suspended:
from the instant they leave the egg, they con-
tinue to eat, to move, to leap, and pursue their
prey: a slight change ensues; a skin, that in-
closed a part of their body and limbs, bursts
behind, like a woman's stays, and gives free-
dom to a set of wings, with which the animal
expatiates, and flies in pursuit of its mate.
Of all this class of insects, the earwig * un-
dergoes the smallest change. This animal is
so common, that it scarce needs a .description :
its swiftness in the repfile state is not less re-
markable than its indefatigable velocity when
upon the wing. That it must be very prolific,
appears from its numbers ; and that it is very
harmless, every one's experience can readily
testify. It is provided with six feet, and two
feelers ; the tail is forked ; and with this it
often attempts to defend itself against every
2 The Earwig. — The name of this insect, in almost
all European languages, has given it a character which
causes a feeling of alarm even at the sight of it. Whe-
ther or not they ever did enter the human ear is doubtful,
— that they might endeavour to do so, under the influ-
ence of fear, is more than probable; and this, perhaps,
has been the origin of their name, and the universal pre-
judice against them. As it is said that anatomists deny
the possibility of their deep or dangerous entrance into
the ear, it is a pity that this is not generally known, as
it might defend the constitutionally timid from unneces-
sary alarm, and give a more favourable idea of a part of
animal creation, which forms a most necessary link in the
chain of being. — Brande's Journal.
The great dread of the Ear-wig entering the ear is a
popular error, whence, indeed, the animal derives its
trivial name. Like many other insects, it enters any
cavity in search of food or shelter; and it may, like them,
enter the human ear as well as any other hole or hollow,
but that it has a special predilection for that situation is
a mistaken notion respecting the habits of the Forficula.
— " Miscellaneous Memoranda" in Notes on Nets, by the
Hon. and Rfv. C. Dathunt.
484-
HISTORY OF INSECTS.
assailant. But its attempts are only the
threats of impotence ; they draw down the re-
sentment of_ powerful animals, but no way
serve to defend it. The deformity of its figure,
and its slender make, have also subjected it
to an imputation, which though entirely found-
ed in prejudice, has more than once procured
its destruction. It is supposed, as the name
imports, that it often enters into the ears of
people sleeping ; thus causing madness from
the intolerable pain, and soon after death it-
self. Indeed, the French name which signi-
fies the Ear-piercer, urges the calumny against
the harmless insect in very plain terms ; yet
nothing can be more unjust : the ear is already
filled with a substance which prevents any
insect from entering ; and besides, it is well
lined and defended with membranes, which
would keep out any little animal, even though
the ear-wax were away. These reproaches,
therefore, are entirely groundless: but it were
well if the accusations which gardeners bring
against the earwig were as slightly founded.
There is nothing more certain than that it
lives among flowers, and destroys them.
When fruit also has been wounded by flies,
the earwig generally comes in for a second
feast, and sucks those juices which they first
began to broach. Still, however, this insect
is not so noxious as it would seern ; and sel-
dom is found but where the mischief has been
originally begun by others. Like all of this
class, the earwig is hatched from an egg. As
there are various kinds of this animal, so they
choose different places to breed in: in gene-
ral, however, they lay their eggs under the
bark of plants, or in the clefts of trees, when
beginning to decay. They proceed from the
egg in that reptile state in which they are
most commonly seen ; and as they grow lar-
ger, the wings bound under the skin begin to
bourgeon. It is amazing how very little room
four large wings take up before they are pro-
truded ; for no person could ever conceive such
an expansion of natural drapery could be rolled
up in so small a packet. The sheath in
which they are enveloped, folds and covers
them so neatly, that the animal seems quite
destitute of wings ;' and even when they are
burst from their confinement, the animal, by
the power of the muscles and joints which it
has in the middle of its wings, can closely fold
them into a very narrow compass. When
the earwig has become a winged insect, it flies
in pursuit of the female, ceasing to feed, and
is wholly employed in the business of propa-
gation. It lives in its winged state but a few
days; and having taken care for the continu-
ance of posterity, dries up, and dies to all ap-
pearance consumptive.8
1 Swammerdam, p. 114.
a The indefatigable M. de Geer has discovered that
To this order of insects w-e may also refer
the Cuckoo Spit, or Froth Worm, that is often
found hid in that frothy matter which we find
on the surface of plants. It has an oblong ob-
tuse body ; and a large head with small eyes.
The external wings, for it has four, are of a
dusky brown, marked with two white spots :
the head is black. The spume in which it is
found wallowing is all of its own formation,
and very much resembles frothy spittle. It
proceeds from the vent of the animal, and other
parts of the body; and if it be wiped away,
a new quantity will be quickly seen ejected
from the little animal's body. Within this
spume it is seen in time to acquire four tuber-
cles on its back, wherein the wings are en-
closed : these bursting, from a reptile it be-
comes a winged animal; and thus rendered
perfect, it flies to meet its mate, and propagate
its kind.
The Water Tipula also belongs to this class.
It has an oblong slender body, with four feet
fixed upon the breast, and four feelers near the
mouth. It has four weak wings, which do
not at all seem proper for flying, but leaping
only. But what this insect chiefly demands
our attention for, is the wonderful lightness
wherewith it runs on the surface of the water,
so as scarce to put it in motion. It is some-
times seen in rivers, and on their banks, es-
pecially under shady trees ; and generally in
swarms of several together.
The Common Water-fly also breeds in the
same manner with those above mentioned.
This animal is by some called Notonecta, be-
cause it does not swim, in the usual manner,
upon its belly, but on its back : nor can we
help admiring that fitness in this insect for its
situation, as it feeds on the under-side of
plants which grow on the surface of the water;
and therefore it is thus formed with its mouth
upwards, to take its food with greater conve-
nience and ease.
We may also add the Water- Scorpion,
which is a large insect, being near an inch in
length, and about half an inch in breadth. Its
body is nearly oval, but very flat and thin ;
and its tail long and pointed. The head is
small ; and the feelers appear like legs, re-
sembling the claws of a scorpion, but without
sharp points. This insect is generally found
in ponds ; and is, of all others, the most tyran-
nical and rapacious. It destroys, like a wolf
among sheep, twenty times as many as its
hunger requires. One of these, when put into
a basin of water, in which were thirty or forty
worms of the libellula kind, each as large as
itself, destroyed them all in a few minutes;
getting on their backs, and piercing with its
trunk through their body. These animals,
the female earwig sits over her eggs, and fosters hei
young, jn the same manner as a hen docs her chickens.
THE EPHEMERA.
485
however, though so formidable to others, are
nevertheless themselves greatly overrun with
a little kind of louse, about the size of a nit,
which very probably repays the injury which
the water-scorpion inflicts upon others.
The water-scorpions live in the water by
day: out of ^ which they rise, in the dusk of
the evening,'into the air, and so flying from
place to place often betake themselves, in quest
of food, to other waters. The insect, before
its wings are grown, remains in the place
where it was produced; but when come to its
state of perfection, sallies forth in search of a
companion of the other sex, in order to conti-
nue its noxious posterity.
CHAP. VI.
OF THE EPHEMERA.1
THE last insect we shall add to the second
order is the Ephemera; which, though not
1 Ephemera. — There are many species of these in-
sects, some larger and some smaller, some longer-lived
and some shorter, hut as few of them live to behold the
rising and the setting sun, they are all called ephemera,
or "things of a i!ay," their name is used to express all
things that are very fleeting.
In autumn any one who walks by the water-side when
the air is still, especially towards morning or evening,
may catch them by thousands. They have four-wings, of
a beautiful transparent membrane or film, spread out
upon a fine net-work, of a substance very similar to horn.
These fibres in the wings are called nerves, and the in-
sects which have such wings are by naturalists called
neuroptera, which is the Greek for " nerve-winged ;" but
these are not nerves. Nerves are understood to be or-
gans of feeling or sensation; whereas, the fibres in the
wings of those insects, merely support the membrane, just
as the arm-frames of a windmill, or the masts and yards
of a ship, support the canvas.
The eggs of the day-flies are all laid in the water, and
hatched there ; so that they so far partake of the nature
of the eggs, or race of fishes, that they " come into ac-
tive life," in less heat than land eggs, and do not need
any incubation, or sitting, of the mother. Each female
lays from 700 to 800, and she does it in less time than it
takes to speak the words. The eggs are expelled in two
portions, one of each at a time ; but so fast, that the eggs
seem two little knotted rods; but they separate and sink
to the bottom undiscovered by the keen eyes of the fish.
The female instantly dies, exhausted by the eflbrt, which
appears to be the only labour of her winged state of exis-
tence ; if, indeed, she is not captured in the midst of her
maternal duty by some darting fish, or skimming swal-
low; both of which prey upon countless thousands of the
day-flies. When the fly lights to deposit her eggs, she
raises her wings over her back, till they are nearly touch-
ing: and, at the same time, she elevates the hinder' part
of her body, and erects the three setae, or bristles, in
which it terminates. The wings and these bristles sup-
port her so that she barely touches the water, and so rises
and falls with the ripple.
The moment that the females are in a condition to lay
their eggs, they hasten to the waters, so that they are not
strictly belonging to it, yet seems more pro-
perly referred to this rank than any other. In-
deed, we must not attend to the rigour of me-
thod in a history where Nature seems to take
delight to sport in variety.
That there should be a tribe of flies whose
duration extends but to a day, seems, at first,
surprising ; but the wonder will increase, when
we are told, that some of this kind seem to be
born and to die in a space of a single hour.
The reptile, however, from which they are
bred, is by no means so short-lived; but is
sometimes seen to live two years, and many
times three years together.
All ephemeras, of which there are various
so often seen as the males, whose only occupation is to
sport in the air, in the neighbourhood of the cradle of
their future offspring. Of these the little day-fly, which
is born after dawn, produces her eight hundred, and is
dead and gone, before the first gleam of the sun breaks
over the eastern hill !
How long the eggs remain in the water before they
are hatched, is not known ; but possibly it varies with the
season and the weather. The larvae or young, in their
first state, not only burrow, or make holes in the mud,
but live on it; they are consequently not so numerous in
sand and grajel as in places that are fat and oozy.
In summer the ponds, brooks, and ditches, are full of
these larvae, and so are water tanks, cisterns, and butts,
if they are not kept clean. They (with the larvae of
other species) are among the chief summer impurities in
the water at London and other places. If the water is
not settled, they may come from the river; but the mud
and sediment will enable them to breed in vessels, and
the parent flies are every where. In themselves they are
not unwholesome, — and, as they are alive, they cannot
render the water putrid. The mud that breeds them, it
putrid, however, as it contains dead animal and vegetable
matter: and thus, though the young flies are not in them-
selves unwholesome, they are accompanied by substances
that are so.
The larvae remain in the mud two or three years ; hut
in that they probably vary. The banks of rivers, in some
parts of the continent, are so full of them, that to the
depth of some inches, they actually contain more living
matter than dead. They are all, however, lower than
the surface of the water, and they breathe water, like
fishes, by means of little gills on their sides. At length
they attain their full size, and change into nymphae,
which are not unlike the larvae, only they have wings
folded up under their coats, of which they still have
two, and must get out of both before they appear as flies.
The time that, they remain nymphs is uncertain, and
must vary, as the weather is one element in bringing
about their last change. When that is to take place,
they come out of the water, in vast numbers, and leave
their old coats so abundant as to cover the water like a
scum. After a little while they cast their inner coat;
their wings stretch and become firm, and they mount into
the air, to spend the hour, or the day, which is to them
the whole period of air-breathing life.
That period is short; but that is necessary : for, in
some places, if they were to live long, there would abso-
lutely not be room for them. They eat nothing, and so
destroy nothing ; but there are places in France and
Germany where, if they lived but for a month on the
wing, they would build up the air solid to the tops of the
trees. As it is, they sometimes fall on the ground near
the rivers in showers like snow, and the people collect
them in heaps as manure to the fields.
486
HISTORY OF INSECTS.
kinds are produced from the egg in the form
of worms ; from whence they change into a
more perfecj; form ; namely, that of aurelias,
which is a kind of middle state between a
worm and a fly ; and from thence they take
their last mutation, which is into a beautiful
fly, of longer or shorter duration, according to
its kind.
The ephemera, in its fly state, is a very
beautiful-winged insect, and has a strong si-
militude to the butterfly, both from its shape
and its wings. It is "about the size of a mid-
dling butterfly ; but its wings differ in not
being covered with the painted dust with which
those of butterflies are adorned, and rendered
opaque, for they are very transparent, and very
thin. These insects have four wings, the up-
permost of which are much the largest ; when
the insect is at rest, it generally lays its wings
one over the other, on the back. The body
is long, being formed of six rings, that are
larger at the origin than near the extremity ;
and from this a tail proceeds, that is longer
than all the rest of the fly, and consists some-
times of three threads of an equal length, or
sometimes of two long and one short. To ac-
quire this beautiful form, the insect has been
obliged to undergo several transmutations: but
its glory is very short-lived, for the hour of its
perfection is the hour of its death ; and it seems
scarcely introduced fo pleasure, when it is
obliged to part with life.
The reptile that is to become a fly, and that
is granted so long a term, when compared to
its latter duration, is an inhabitant of the wa-
ter, and bears a very strong resemblance to
fishes, in many particulars ; having gills by
which it breathes at the bottom, and also the
tapering form of aquatic animals. These in-
sects have six scaly legs, fixed on their corse-
let. Their head is triangular: the eyes are
placed forward, and may be distinguished by
their largeness and colour. The mouth is fur-
nished with teeth ; and the body consists of
six rings ; that next the corselet being largest,
but growing less and less to the end : the last
ring is the shortest, from which the three
threads proceed, which are as long as the
whole body. Thus we see that the reptile
bears a very strong resemblance to the fly ;
and only requires wings to be very near its
perfection.
As there are several kinds of this animal,
their aurelias are consequently of different col-
ours ; some yellow, some brown, and some
cream-coloured. Some of these also bore
themselves cells at the bottom of the water,
from which they never stir out, but feed upon
the mud composing the walls of their habita-
tion, in contented captivity ; others, on the
contrary, range about, go from the bottom to
the surface, swim between two waters, quit
that element entirely to feed upon plants by
the river side, and then return to their favour-
ite element for safety and protection.
The reptile, however, though it lives two or
three years, offers but little, in its long dura-
tion, to excite curiosity : it is hid at the bot-
tom of the water, and feeds almost wholly
within its narrow habitation. The most strik-
ing facts command our attention during the
short interval of its fly state ; into which it
crowds the most various transactions of its
little life. It then may be said to be in a
hurry to live, as it has but so small a time to
exist. The peculiar sign whereby to know
that these reptiles will change into flies in a
short time, consists in a protuberance of the
wings on the back. About that time the
smooth and depressed form of the upper part
of the body is changed into a more swollen
and rounder shape ; so that the wings are, in
some degree, visible through the external
sheath that covers them. As they are not na-
tives of England, he who would see them in
their greatest abundance must walk, about
sun-set, along the banks of the Rhine, or the
Seine near Paris ; where, for about three days,
in the midst of summer, he wiil be astonished
at their numbers and assiduity. The thick,
est descent of the flakes of snow in winter
seems not to equal their number: the whole
air seems alive with the new-born race ; and
the earth itself is all over covered with their
remains. The aurelias, or reptile insects, that
are, as yet, beneath the surface of the water,
wait only for the approach of evening to be-
gin their transformation. The most industri-
ous shake off their old garments about eight
o'clock ; and those who are the most tardy, are
transformed before nine.
We have already seen that the operation of
change in other insects is laborious and pain-
ful ; but with these nothing seems shorter, or
performed with greater ease. The aurelias
are scarcely lifted above the surface of the
water, than their old sheathing-skin bursts;
and through the cavity which is thus formed,
a fly issues, whose wings, at the same instant,
are unfolded, and, at the same time, lift it into
the air. Millions and millions of aurelias rise
in this manner to the surface ; and at once be-
come flies, and fill every quarter with their
flutterings. Rut all these sports are shortly lo
have an end ; for, as the little strangers live
but an hour or two, the whole swarrn soon falls
to the ground, and covers the earth, like a
deep snow, for several hundred yards, on every
side of the river. Their numbers are then in-
credible, and every object they touch becomes
fatal to them ; for they instantly die if they
hit even against each other.
At this time the males and females are very
differently employed. The males, quite in-
THE EPHEMERA.
487
active, and apparently without desires, seem
only born to die : no way like the males ot
other insects, they neither follow the opposite
sex, nor bear any enmity to each other : after
fluttering for an hour or two, they drop upon
land, without seeming lo receive wings for
scarce any other purpose but to satisfy an idle
curiosity. It is otherwise with the females ;
they are scarce risen from the surface of the
water, and have dried their wings, but they
hasten to drop their eggs back again. If they
happen also to flutter upon land, they deposit
their burden in the place where they drop.
But then it may be demanded, where, and in
what manner, are these eggs fecundated, as no
copulation whatever appears between the sexes
in their transitory visits in air? Swammer-
dam is of opinion, that they are impregnated
in the manner of fish-spawn, by the male, after
being ejected by the female ; but beside that
this doctrine is exploded even from the history
of fishes, it is certain that the males have not
time for this operation, as the eggs drop to the
bottom the instant they are laid on the water.
Reaumur is of opinion that they copulate ; but
that the act bears a proportion in shortness to
the small duration of their lives; and, conse-
quently, must be so soon performed as to be
scarcely visible. This, however, is at best for-
cing a theory ; and it is probable, that as there
are many insects known to breed without any
impregnation from the male, as we have al-
ready seen in muscles and oysters, and shall
hereafter see in the gnat, and a species of the
beetle, so the ephemera may be of this num-
ber. Be this as it may, the females are in
such haste to deposit their eggs, that multi-
tudes of them fall to the ground ; but the
greatest part are laid in the water. As they
flutter upon the surface, two clusters are seen
issuing from the extremity of their body, each
containing about three hundred and fifty eggs,
which make seven hundred in all. Thus, of
all insects, this appears to be the most prolific;
and it would seem that there was a necessity
for such a supply, as, in its reptile state, it is
the favourite food of every kind of fresh-water
fish. It is in vain that these little animals
form galleries at the bottom of the river, from
whence they seldom remove ; many kinds of
fish break in upon their retreats, and thin their
numbers. For this reason fishermen are care-
ful to provide themselves with these insects, as
the most grateful bait ; and thus turn the fish's
rapacity to its own destruction.
But though the usual date of those flies is
two or three hours at farthest, there are some
kinds that live several days ; and one kind in
particular, after quitting the water, has ano-
ther case or skin to get rid of. These are of-
ten seen in the fields and woods distant from
the water ; but they are more frequently found
in its vicinity. They are often found sticking
upon walls and Irees ; and frequently with the
head downwards, without changing place, or
having any sensible motion, -They are then
waiting for the moment when they shall be di-
vested of their last incommodious garment,
which sometimes does not happen lor two or
three days together.1
1 House-fly. — Of all insects, perhaps the most widely
distributed and abundant in number of individuals, is the
house fly, Musca Domentica, a species which from its
constant occurrence in every situation, will render any
precise description of it unnecessary ; and yet, many
of our readers are, perhaps, unaware that, of the flies
which crawl up our windows, there are not only several
distinct species, but also that the insect at whose torment-
ing attacks upon our legs in the showery days of summer,
we are so often enraged, does not even belong, notwith-
standing its apparent identity, to the same genus. If one
of these annoying tormentors (which is the Stomoxys
calcitrans) be caught and examined, it will be found that
the mouth is formed into a horny sharp-pointed weapon,
capable of piercing the flesh, whilst the soft bluut ap-
paratus of the mouth of the musca is quite incompetent
to such an operation, being fitted only for the sipping of
fluids, or the extraction of honied sweets; forming in
fact, a long tubular sucker, jointed in the middle so as
B A
Head of tke Jty, with the mouth extended; A. seen sidewayt,
B. teen from above.
to fold back close to the head (Fig. A. and B.),' and armed
at the base with a pair of exarticulate feelers and at the
extremity with two fleshy lobes, which are employed as
instruments of suction. This organ possesses very great
muscular power, and we have seen the insect by its
assistance alone cany ofT pieces of sugar much larger than
its head. The under surface of the terminal lobes is also
transversely ridged, which must necessarily give greater
facility to the actions of the organs, by enabling it to
adapt itself more readily to rough surfaces (Fig. c.). It
is essential, however, that the mouth should be provided
Extremity of the tucker of Hit fly, showtng its cumulated
appearance.
with some instrument for piercing even the soft substances
of which the food is composed, and we accordingly find
a fine point (the tongue) arising near the elbowed part of
the proboscis, which is for safety lodged in a stronger
point (the labrum), both when at rest fitting into the caiml
of the proboscis, as represented in our figure B,
488
HISTORY OF INSECTS.
In figure D. we have exhibited the mouth in another
position, showing the sharpened upper lip raised from
E D
the fleshy proboscis, and in figure E the mouth of the
hlue-bottle fly is represented, having the tongue disen-
gaged from the superior stronger labrum.
Another interesting peculiarity observable in the do-
mestic fly, arises from the structure of its feet, enabling it
to walk with the greatest facility, not only upon upright
surfaces, but also upon the ceilings of rooms, back down-
wards, without its position being disturbed inconsequence
of being contrary to gravity. Much diversity of opinion
has taken place amongst naturalists upon this curi-
ous subject, and even in the latest works we find the
matter still forming a " questio vexata." Dr Derham,
in his " Physico-Theology," speaking of the means
Leg of the fly highly m,,fnified,u'ith the terminal joint MUmore
tncreated, teen tn different position*, to show theaucken.
whereby insects maintain their position upon smooth
substances, states, that "divers flies and other insects,
besides their sharp-hooked nails, have also skinny palms
to their feet, to enable them to stick on glass and other
smooth bodies by means of the pressure of the atmosphere,
after the manner as I have seen boys carry heavy stoni'S
with only a wet piece of leather clapped on the top of the
stone." Gilbert White, of Selborne, adopted Derham's
opinion, adding, that although the flies are easily enabled,
from their lightness and alertness, to overcome the
weight of air in warm weather, yet that in the decline
of the year this resistance becomes too mighty for their
diminished strength, and we see flies labouring along
and lugging their feet in windows as if they stuck fast to
the glass, and it is with the utmost difficulty that they
can draw one foot from another, and disengage their
hollow caps from the slippery surface.
This opinion, which has been entertained by the
majority of Entomologists of the present day, has acquired
additional weight by the elaborate investigations of Sir
Everard Home, undertaken at the suggestion of Sir Joseph
Banks, with the assistance of that unrivalled microscopic
artist, M. Bauer, and published in the Philosophical
Transactions for 1816. The suckers, of which several
kinds of flies possess three to each foot, are attached, as
will be seen from our figures, beneath the base of the
claws, and are of an oval shape and membranous texture,
being convex above, having the sides minutely serrated,
and the under concave surface covered with down or
hairs. In order to cause the alleged vacuum, these
suckers are extended, but, when the fly wishes to raise
its legs, they are brought together and folded up as it
were between the hooks. Messrs. Kirby and Spence
have likewise adopted this opinion, considering it as
" proved most satisfactorily." Other authorsof no mean
repute have, however, entertained a different opinion,
and have entirely rejected the idea of a vacuum being
produced; thus Dr Hooke describes the suckers as palms
or soles, beset underneath with small bristles or tenters
like the cone teeth of a card for working wool, which he
conceived gives them a strong hold upon objects having
irregular or yielding surfaces ; and he imagined that
there is upon glass a kind of smoky substance, penetrable
by the points of their bristles. The same opinion is also
given by Shaw in his " Nature Displayed," and, more
recently, Mr Blackwall has considered that the motions
of the fly are to be accounted for upon mechanical prin-
ciples alone ; thus upon inspecting the structure of the
parts of the suckers (regarding which great want of ac-
cordance exists in the descriptions of authors), " it was
immediately perceived that the function ascribed to them
by Dr Derham and Sir E. Home is quite incompatible
with their organisation. Minute hairs veiy closely set
and directed downwards so completely cover the inferior
surface of the expanded membranes, improperly denom-
inated suckers, with which the terminal joint of the foot
of flies is provided, that it cannot possibly be brought
into contact with the object on which those insects move,
by any muscular force they are capable of exerting ; the
production of a vacuum between each membrane and the
plane of position is therefore clearly impracticable, unless
the numerous hairs on the underside of these organs
individually perform the office of suckers ; and there
does not appear to be any thing in their mechanism,
which in the slightest degree countenances such a hypo-
thesis. When highly magnified, their extremities, it is
true, are seen to be somewhat enlarged, but when they
are viewed in action or in repose, they never assume a
figure at all adapted to the formation of a vacuum." —
Moreover, on enclosing a house-fly in the receiver of an
air-pump, " it was demonstrated to the entire satisfac-
tion of several intelligent gentlemen present, that the
house-fly, while it retains its vital powers unimpaired,
cannot only traverse the upright sides, but even the in-
terior of the dome of an exhausted receiver, and that the
cause of its relaxing its hold, and ultimately falling from
the station it occupied, was a diminution of muscular
force, attributable to impeded respiration." Hence Mr
Blackwall is induced to believe, in the memoir above
referred to, that insects are enabled to take hold of any
roughness, or irregularity of surface, by means of the fine
hairs composing the brushes, the most carefully polished
THE EPHEMERA.
489
glass not being found free from flaws and imperfec-
tions, when viewed in a favourable light with a powerful
lens.
A still different opinion has been maintained by other
Authors upon this subject; who, setting aside all idea of
a vacuum, have conjectured that the suckers, as they
have been termed, contain a glutinous secretion, capable
of adhering to well-cleaned glass ; thus the Abbe de la
Pluche states, that when the fly marches over any pol-
ished body, on which neither her claws nor her points
can fasten, she sometimes compresses her sponge and
causes it to evacuate a fluid, which fixes her in such a
manner as prevents her falling, without diminishing the
facility of her progress ; '' but it is much more probable,"
he adds, " that the sponges correspond with the fleshy
balls which accompany the claws of dogs and cats, and
that they enable the fly to proceed with a softer pace,
and contribute to the preservation of its claws, whose
pointed extremities would soon be impaired without this
prevention." Notwithstanding the ridicule which has
been thrown upon this opinion in a recent entomological
work, it appears, from still more recent investigations, to
be the best founded of any hitherto advanced. Thus, an
anonymous writer has published an account of various
experiments and examinations upon this subject, which
appear satisfactorily to prove, that it is not by the ap-
plication of extremely small points to invisible irregular-
ities on the surface of glass, that the pulvilli or suckers
are attached, but by simple adhesion of the enlarged ends
of the hairs assisted by a fluid that is probably secreted
there, and the author is therefore reduced to refer the
effect to molecular attraction only. It is also stated,
that when the foot of the fly is detached, a distinct fluid
trace will often be left by each individual hair, the spotty
pattern thus left on the glass appearing to be of an oily
character, for if breathed on, it remains after the moisture
is evaporated. The contrary opinion, although contained
in a review of Mr Blackwall's Memoir above noticed,
was evidently written in ignorance of the subsequent
observations of that author contained in the appendix of
the volume in which it appeared, and in which several
facts are stated, which appear " quite inexplicable, ex-
cept on the supposition that an adhesive secretion is
emitted by the instruments employed in climbing ;"
and it is subsequently affirmed, that careful and re-
peated examinations made with lenses of moderately
high magnifying powers, in a strong light and at a favour-
able angle, speedily convinced Mr Blackwall that his
conjecture was well founded, as he never failed to dis-
cover " unequivocal evidence of its truth."
We have had a two-fold object in thus setting before
the reader, at considerable length, the various opinions
promulgated upon the subject, — the first being occasioned
by the interest attached to so peculiar a phenomenon ;
and the second resulting from a desire to show that, even
in the commonest insects, there are most ample ma-
terials of no ordinary or uninteresting kiud for the full
exercise of the mind of the ingenious observer of nature
It will seem extraordinary, but it is nevertheless true,
that there is scarcely any domestic insect of whose econ-
omy we are more ignorant than that of the Mttsca do~
mestica. — History of Insects, London 1835.
HISTORY OF INSECTS, &c.
BOOK III.
INSECTS OF THE THIRD ORDER.
CHAP. I.
OF CATERPILLARS IN GENERAL.
[F we take a cursory view of insects in general,
caterpillars alone, and the butterflies and moths
they give birth to, will make a third part of
the number. Wherever we move, wherever
vre turn, these insects, in one shape or another,
present themselves to our view. Some, in
every state, offer the most entertaining spec-
tacle ; others are beautiful only in their wing-
ed form. Many persons, of which number I
am one, have an invincible aversion to cater-
pillars and worms of every species : there is
something disagreeable in their slow crawling
motion, for which the variety of their colouring
can never compensate. But others feel no re-
pugnance at observing, and even handling,
them with the most attentive application.
There is nothing in the butterfly-state so
beautiful or splendid as these insects. They
serve, not less than the birds themselves, to
banish solitude from our walks, and to fill up
our idle intervals with the most pleasing spe-
culations. The butterfly makes one of the
principal ornaments of oriental poetry ; but in
those countries, the insect is larger and more
beautiful than with us.
The beauties of the fly may, therefore, very
well excite our curiosity to examine the reptile.
But we are still more strongly attached to this
tribe from the usefulness of one of the number.
The silk-worm is, perhaps, the most serviceable
of all other animals; since, from its labours, and
the manufacture attending it, near a third part
of the world are clothed, adorned, and sup-
ported.
Caterpillars may be easily distinguished
from worms or maggots, by the number of their
feet ; and by their producing butterflies or
moths.1 When the sun calls up vegetation, and
vivifies the various eggs of insects, the cater-
pillars are the first that are seen upon almost
every vegetable and tree, eating its leaves, and
preparing for a state of greater perfection.
They have feet both before and behind; which
not only enable them to move forward by a
sort of steps made by their fore and hinder
parts, but also to climb up vegetables, and to
stretch themselves out from the boughs and
1 There is one tribe of caterpillar called Surveyors, or
Geometers, which walk by first fixing the fore- feet, and
then doubling the body into a vertical arch; this action
brings up the hind part of the caterpillar, which is fur-
nished with prolegs, close to the head. The hind ex-
tremity, being then fixed by means of the prolegs situ-
ated at that part, the body is again extended into a
straight line ; and this process being repeated, the ca-
terpillar advances by a succession of paces, as if it were
measuring the distance, by converting its body into a
pair of compasses. At the same time that they employ
this process, they further provide for their security, by
spinning a thread, which they fasten to different points
of the ground, as they go along.
Many other species of caterpillar practise the same
art of spinning fine silken threads, which especially as-
sist them in their progression over smooth surfaces, and
also in descending from a height through the air. The
caterpillar of the cabbage-butterfly, is thus enabled to
climb up and down a pane of glass, for which purpose it
fixes the threads that it spins in a zigzag line, forming so
many steps of a rope-ladder. The material of which
these threads are made, is a glutinous secretion, which,
on being deposited on glass, adheres firmly to it, and very
soon acquires consistence and hardness by the actiou of
the air.
Other caterpillars, which feed on trees, and have often
occasion to descend from one branch to another, send out
a rope made with the same material, which they can pro-
long indefinitely ; and thus either suspend themselves at
pleasure in the air, or let themselves down to the ground.
They continue, while walking, to spin a thread as they
advance, so that they can always easily retrace their
steps by gathering up the clue they have left, and re-
ascend to the height from which they had allowed them-
selves to drop. — Dr Rogefs Bridgewater Treatise.
THE CATERPILLAR.
491
stalks to reach their food at a distance. All
of this class have from eight feet, at the least,
to sixteen ; and this may serve to distinguish
them from the worm-tribe, that never have so
many. The animal into which they are con-
verted is always a butterfly or moth ; and these
are always distinguished from other flies, by
having their wings covered over with a paint-
ed dust, which gives them such various beauty.
The wings of flies are transparent, as we see
in the common flesh-fly ; while those of beetles
are hard, like horn: from such, the wing of a
butterfly may be easily distinguished; and
words would obscure their differences.
From hence it appears, that caterpillars,
whether in the reptile state, or advanced to
their last state of perfection into butterflies,
may easily be distinguished from all other in-
sects ; being animals peculiarly formed, and
also of a peculiar nature. The transmutations
they undergo are also more numerous than
those of any insect hitherto mentioned ; and,
in consequence, they have been placed in the
third order of changes by Swamrnerdam, who
has thrown such lights upon this part of natu-
ral history. In the second order of changes,
mentioned before, we saw the grasshopper and
the earwig, when excluded from the egg, assume
a form very like that which they were after
to preserve ; and seemed arrived at a state of
perfection, in all respects, except in not having
wings ; which did not bud forth until they
were come to maturity. But the insects of this
third order, that we are now about to describe, go
through a much greater variety of transforma-
tions; for when they are excluded from the egg,
they assume the form of asmall caterpillar, which
feeds and grows larger every day, often chang-
ing its skin, but still preserving its form.
When the animal has come to a certain mag-
nitude in this state it discontinues eating,
makes itself a covering or husk, in which it
remains wrapped up, seemingly without life or
motion ; and after having, for some time, con-
tinued in this state, it once more bursts its
confinement, and comes forth a beautiful but-
terfly. Thus we see this animal put on no
less than three different appearances from the
time it is first excluded from the egg. It ap-
pears a crawling caterpillar ; then an insensi
ble aurelia, as it is called, without life or mo-
tion ; and, lastly, a butterfly, variously paint-
ed, according to its different kind. Having
thus distinguished this class of insects from al
others, we will first survey their history in
general; and then enter particularly into the
manners and nature of a few of them, which
most deserve our curiosity and attention.
CHAP. II.
OF THE TRANSFORMATION" OP THE CATF.R-
FILLAR INTO ITS CORRESPONDING
BUTTERFLY OR MOTH.
WHEN winter has disrobed the trees of their
eaves, nature then seems to have lost her in-
sects. There are thousands of different kinds,
with and without wings, which, though swarm-
ing at other seasons, then entirely disappear.
Our fields are re-peopled, when the leaves be-
_in to bud, by the genial influence of spring;
and caterpillars, of various sorts, are seen feed-
ng upon the promise of the year, even before
he leaves are completely unfolded. Those
caterpillars, which we then see, may serve to
_ive us a view of the general means, which
nature employs to preserve such a number of
insects during that season, when they can no
longer find subsistence. It is known, by
united experience, that all these animals are
batched from the eggs of butterflies ; and those
who observe them more closely, will find the
fly very careful in depositing its eggs, in those
places, where they are likely to be hatched,
with the greatest safety and success. During
winter, therefore, the greatest number of cater-
pillars are in an egg-state ; and in this lifeless
situation brave all the rigours and the humid,
ity of the climate ; and though often exposed
to all its changes, still preserve the latent
principles of life, which is more fully exerted
at the approach of spring. That same power
that pushes forth the budding leaf and the
opening flower, impels the insect into anima-
tion ; and nature at once seems to furnish the
guest and the banquet When the insect has
found force to break its shell, it always finds
its favourite aliment provided in abundance be-
fore it.
But all caterpillars are not sent off' from the
egg in the beginning of spring ; for many of
them have subsisted during the winter in
their aurelia state ; in which as, we have
briefly observed above, the animal is seem-
ingly deprived of life and motion. In this
state of insensibility, many of these insects
continue during the rigours of winter ; some
inclosed in a kind of shell, which they have
spun for themselves at the end of autumn ;
some concealed under the bark of trees ; others
in the chinks of old walls; and many buried
under ground. From all these, a variety of
butterflies are seen to issue in the beginning of
spring ; and adorn the earliest part of the year
with their painted flutterings.
Some caterpillars do not make any change
whatsoever at the approach of winter : but
continue to live in their reptile state through
all the severity of the season. They choose
492
HISTORY OF INSECTS.
themselves some retreat, where they may re-
main undisturbed lor months together ; arid
there they continue motionless, and as insensi-
ble as if they were actually dead. Their con-
stitution is such, that food at that time would
be useless ; and the cold prevents their mak-
ing those dissipations which require restora-
tion. In general, caterpillars of this kind
are found in great numbers together, inclosed
in one common web, that covers them all,
and serves to protect them from the injuries of
the air.
Lastly, there are some of the caterpillar
kind, whose butterflies live all the winter ; and
who, having fluttered about for some part of
the latter end of autumn, seek for some retreat
during the winter, in order to answer the ends
of propagation at the approach of spring.
These are often found lifeless and motionless
in the hollows of trees or the clefts of timber;
but by being approached to the fire, they re-
cover life and activity, and seem to anticipate
the desires of the spring.
In general, however, whether the animal has
subsisted in an egg state, during the winter ;
or whether as a butterfly, bred from an aurelia,
in the beginning of spring ; or a butterfly that
has subsisted during the winter, and lays eggs
as soon as the leaves of plants are shot for-
ward ; the whole swarm of caterpillars are in
motion to share the banquet that nature has
provided. There is scarcely a plant that has
not its own peculiar insects ; and some are
known to support several of different kinds.
Of these, many are hatched from the egg, at.
the foot of the tree, and climb up to its leaves
for subsistence ; the eggs of others have been
glued by the parent butterfly to the leaves ;
and they are no sooner excluded from the shell,
but they find themselves in the midst of plenty.
When the caterpillar first bursts from the
egg, it is small and feeble; its appetites are
in proportion to its size, and it seems to make
no great consumption ; but as it increases in
magnitude, it improves in its appetites ; so
that, in its adult caterpillar state, it is the
most ravenous of all animals whatsoever. A
single caterpillar will eat double its own weight
of leaves in a day, and yet seems no way dis-
ordered by the meal. What would mankind do,
ii their oxen or their horses were so voracious?
These voracious habits, with its slow crawl-
ing motion, but still more a stinging like that
of nettles, which follows upon handling the
greatest number of them, make these insects
riot the most agreeable objects of human curi-
osity. However, there are many philosophers
who have spent years in their contemplation ;
and who have not only attended to their habits
and. labours, but minutely examined their
structure and internal conformation.
The body of the caterpillar, when anatomi-
cally considered, is found composed of rings,
whose circumference is pretty near circular or
oval. They are generally twelve in number,
and are all membranaceous ; by which cater-
pillars may be distinguished from many other
insects, that nearly resemble them in form.
The head of the caterpillar is connected to the
first ring by the neck ; that is generally so
short and contracted, that it is scarce visible.
All the covering of the head iti caterpillars
seems to consist of a shell ; and they have nei-
ther upper nor under jaw, for they are both
placed rather vertically, and each jaw armed
with a large thick tooth, which is singly
equal to numbers. With these the ani-
mals devour their food in such amazing
quantities ; and with these, some of the
kind defend themselves against their ene-
mies. Though the mouth be kept, shut,
the teeth are always uncovered ; and while
the insect is in health they are seldom with-
out employment. Whatever the caterpillar
devours, these teeth serve to chop it into small
pieces, and render the parts of the leaf fit for
swallowing. Many kinds, while they are yet
young, eat only the succulent part of the leaf,
and leave all the fibres untouched ; others,
however, attack the whole leaf, and eat
it clean away. One may be amused, for a
little time, in observing the avidity with
which they are seen to teed ; some are seen
eating the whole day ; others have their hours
of repast ; some choose the night, and others
the day. When the caterpillar attacks a leaf,
it places its body in such a manner that the
edge of the leaf shall fall between its feet,
which keeps it steady while the teeth are em-
ployed in cutting it : these fall upon the leaf
somewhat in the manner of a pair of gardener's
shears ; and every morsel is swallowed as soon
as cut. Some caterpillars feed upon leaves
so very narrow, that they are not broader than
their mouths ; in this case the animal is seen
to devour it from the point, as we would eat
a radish.
As there are various kinds of caterpillars,
the number of their feet are various ; some
having eight, and some sixteen. Of these feet
the six foremost are covered with a sort of
shining gristle ; and are therefore called the
shelly legs. The hindmost feet, whatever be
their number, are soft and flexible, and are
called membranaceous. Caterpillars also, with
regard to their external figure, are either
smooth or hairy. The skin of the first kind
is soft to the touch, or hard like shagreen ; the
skin of the latter is hairy, and as it were
thorny ; and generally, if handled, stings like
nettles. Some of them even cause this sting-
ing pain if but approached too nearly.
Caterpillars, in general, have six small
black spots placed on the circumference of tho
THE CATERPILLAR.
493
fore ring, and a little to the side of the head.
Three of these are larger than the rest, and
are convex and transparent : these Reaumur
takes to be the eyes of the caterpillar; how-
ever most of these reptiles have very little oc-
casion for sight, and seem only to be directed
by their feeling.
But the parts of the caterpillar's body which
most justly demand our attention, are the stig-
mata, as they are called ; or those holes on the
sides of its body, through which the animal is
supposed to breathe. All along this insect's
body, on each side, these holes are easily dis-
coverable. They are eighteen in number,
nine on a side, rather nearer the belly than
the back ; a hole for every ring, of which the
animal's body is composed, except the second,
the third, and the last. These oval openings
may be considered as so many mouths, through
which the insect breathes ; but with this dif-
ference, that as we have but one pair of lungs,
the caterpillar has no less than eighteen. It
requires no great anatomical dexterity to dis-
cover these lungs in the larger kind of cater-
pillars : they appear, at first view, to be hollow
cartilaginous tubes, and of the colour of mother-
of-pearl. These tubes are often seen to unite
vvith each other ; some are perceived to open into
the intestines ; and some go to different parts of
the surface of the body. That these vessels
serve to convey the air, appears evidently, from
the famous experiment of Malpighi ; who, by
.stopping up the mouths of the stigmata with
oil, quickly suffocated the animal, which was
seen to die convulsed the instant after. In
order to ascertain his theory, he rubbed oil
upon other parts of the insect's body, leaving
the stigmata free ; and this seemed to have no
effect upon the animal's health, but it continued
to move and eat as usual : he rubbed oil on
the stigmata of one side, and the animal under-
went a partial convulsion, but recovered soon
after. However, it ought to be observed, that
air is not so necessary to these as to the nobler
ranks of animals, since caterpillars will live
in an exhausted receiver for several days to-
gether ; and though they seem dead at the
bottom, yet when taken out, recover, and re-
sume their former vivacity.
If the caterpillar be cut upon longitudinally
along the back, its intestines will be perceived
running directly in a straight line from the
month to the anus. They resemble a number
of small bags opening into each other ; and
strengthened on both sides by a fleshy cord by
which they are united. These insects are,
upon many occasions, seen to cast forth the
internal coat of their intestines with their food,
in the changes which they so frequently undergo, j
— But the intestines take up but a small part!
of the animal's body, if compared to the fatty i
substance in which they are involved. This |
substance changes its colour when the insect's
metamorphosis begins to approach ; and from
white it is usually seen to become yellow. If
to these parts we add the caterpillar's imple-
ments for spinning, (for all caterpillars spin at
one time or another,) we shall have a rude
sketch of this animal's conformation : how-
ever, we shall reserve the description of those
parts till we come to the history of the silk-
worm, where the manner in which these in-
sects spin their webs, will most properly find
a place.
The life of a caterpillar seems one contin-
ued succession of changes, and it is seen to
throw off one skin only to assume another ;
which also is divested in its turn : and thus
for eight or ten times successively.1 We
must not, however, confound this changing of
the skin with the great metamorphosis which
1 One of the most singular circumstances respecting
the moult of caterpillars, is the manner in which the
hairs are deposited in the new skin before moulting.
These are not, like the feet and other organs, sheathed
Moulting of caterpillars, a a, caterpillar magnified, b 6, t[i«
same when it lias just cast its skin, the hairs still moist; c, tlit
same, natural size; rf eSff. tufts of its hairs magnified; A, IP (fa™
foot magnified: », tlie caterpillar wedging through tlio old skin i
k, hair/caterpillar of the sycamore.
in the hairs of the old skin, hut smoothly folded down
in separate tufts ; and if the old skin be removed a short
49 1
HISTORY OF INSECTS.
it is afterwards to undergo. The throwing
one skin, and»assuming another, seems, in com-
parison, but a slight operation among these
animals : this is but the work of a day ; the
other is the .great adventure of their lives.
Indeed, this faculty of changing the skin, is
not peculiar to caterpillars only, but is com-
mon to all the insect kind ; and even to some
animals that claim a higher rank in nature.
We have already seen the lobster and the crab
outgrowing their first shells, and then bursting
from their confinement, in order to assume a
covering more roomy and convenient. It is
probable that the louse, the flea, and the spi-
der, change their covering from the same ne-
cessity ; and growing too large for the crust
in which they have been for some time enclos-
ed, burst it for another. This period is pro-
bably that of their growth ; for as soon as
their new skin is hardened round them, the
animal's growth is necessarily circumscribed,
while it remains within it With respect to
caterpillars, many of them change their skins
five or six times in a season ; and this cover-
ing, when cast off, often seems so complete,
that many might mistake the empty skin for
the real insect. Among the hairy caterpil-
lars, for instance, the cast skin is covered with
hair ; the feet, as well gristly as membrane-
ous, remain fixed to it; even the parts which
nothing but a microscope can discover, are vi-
sible in it ; in short, all the parts of the head;
not only the skull, but the teeth. *
In proportion as the time approaches in
which the caterpillar is to cast its old skin, its
colours become more feeble, the skin seems to
wither and grow dry, and in some measure re-
sembles a leaf, when it is no longer supplied
with moisture from the stock. At that time,
the insect begins to find itself under a neces-
sity of changing ; and it is not effected with-
out violent labour, and perhaps pain. A day
or two before the critical hour approaches, the
time before it would be naturally cast, these tufts may be
seen in a moist state, very similar to small wetted ca-
mel's hair pencils lying close to the inner skin, — those
on the fore part of the body laid towards the head, and
from the fourth ring backwards in a contrary direction.
Swammerdam, Reaumur, and other naturalists, repeat-
edly tried the experiment of cutting off the hair from ca-
terpillars about to moult, without in the least affecting the
hairs on the new skin ; but when a foot or any other
member is accidently mutilated, it is also wanting in the
moulted caterpillar. It is a still more singular circum-
stance, ascertained by Swammerdam, De Geer, Lyonnef,
and Bonnet, that caterpillars and grubs not only cast
their external skins, but also that which lines their
breathing-tubes and intestines. " Some days,'' says
Bonnet, "before the change, the caterpillar voids, along
with its excrements, the membrane which invests the in-
terior of its stomach and intestines. I have also re-
marked, that during the moult, packets of the tracheal
vessels may be seen attached to the cast skin, and thrown
ufl" along with it." — Insect Transformations.
insect ceases to eat, loses its usual activity,
and seems to rest immovable. It seeks somR
place to remain in security ; and no longer ti-
morous, seems regardless even of the touch.
It is now and then seen to bend itself and ele-
vate its back ; again it stretches to its utmost
extent; it sometimes lifts up the head, and
then lets it fall again ; it sometimes waves it
three or four times from side to side, and then
remains in quiet. At length, some of the
rings of its body, particularly the first and se-
cond, are seen to swell considerably, the old
skin distends and bursts, till by repeated
swellings and contractions in every ring, the
animal disengages itself, and creeps from its
inconvenient covering.
How laborious soever this operation may
be, it is performed in the space of a minute ;
and the animal, having thrown off its old skin,
seems to enjoy new vigour, as well as acquired
colouring and beauty. Sometimes it happens
that it takes a new appearance, and colours
very different from the old. Those that are
hairy still preserve their covering ; although
their ancient skin seems not to have lost a
single hair : every hair appears to have been
drawn like a sword from the scabbard. How-
ever, the fact is, that a new crop of hair grows
between the old skin and the new, and pro-
bably helps to throw off the external covering.
The caterpillar having in this manner con.
tinued for several days feeding, and at inter,
vals casting its skin, begins at last to prepare
for its change into an aurelia. It is most pro-
bable that, from the beginning, all the parts
of the butterfly lay hid in this insect, in its
reptile state ; but it required time to bring
them to perfection ; and a large quantity of
food, to enable the animal to undergo all the
changes requisite for throwing off these skins,
which seemed to clog the butterfly form.
However, when the caterpillar has fed suffi-
ciently, and the parts of the future butterfly
have formed themselves beneath its skin, it is
then time for it to make its first great and
principal change into an aurelia, or a chrysa-
lis, as some have chosen to call it ; during
which, as was observed, it seems to remain for
several days, or even months, without life or
motion.
Preparatory to this important change, the
caterpillar most usually quits the plant, or the
tree on which it fed : or at least attaches itself
to the stalk or the stem, more gladly than the
leaves. It forsakes its food, and prepares, by
fasting, to undergo its transmutation. In this
period, all the food it has taken is thoroughly
digested ; and it often voids even the internal
membrane which lined its intestines.
Some of this tribe, at this period also, are
seen entirely to change colour ; and the vi-
vacity of the tints, in all, seems faded.
THE CATERPILLAR.
495
Those of them which are capable of spin-
ning themselves a web, set about this oper-
ation ; those which have already spun, await
the change in the best manner they are able.
The web or cone, with which some cover
themselves, hides the aurelia contained within
from the view ; but in others, where it is more
transparent, the caterpillar, when it has done
spinning, strikes into it the claws of the two
feet under the tail, and afterwards forces in
the tail itself, by contracting those claws, and
violently striking the feet one against the
other. If, however, they be taken from their
web at this time, they appear in a state of
great languor; and, incapable of walking, re-
main on that spot where they are placed. In
this condition they remain one or two days,
preparing to change into an aurelia ; some-
what in the manner they made preparations
for changing their skin. They then appear
with their bodies bent into a bow, which they
now and then are seen to straighten : they
make no use of their legs ; but if they attempt
to change place, do it by the contortions of
their body. In proportion as their change
into an aurelia approaches, their body becomes
more and more bent; while their extensions
and convulsive contractions become more fre-
quent. The hinder end of the body is the
part which the animal first disengages from
its caterpillar skin; that part of the skin re-
mains empty, while the body is drawn up
contractedly towards the head. In the same
manner they disengage themselves from the
two succeeding rings; so that the animal
is then lodged entirely in the fore part of its
caterpillar covering: that half which is aban-
doned, remains flaccid and empty ; while the
fore part on the contrary, is swollen and dis-
tended. The animal, having thus quitted the
hinder part of its skin, to drive itself up into
the forepart, still continues to heaye and work
as before ; so that the skull is soon seen to
burst into three pieces, and a longitudinal
opening is made in the three first rings of the
body, through which the insect thrusts forth
its naked body with strong efforts. Thus at
last it entirely gets free from its caterpillar
skin, and for ever forsakes its most odious rep-
tile form.
The caterpillar, thus stripped of its skin
for the last time, is now become an aurelia :
in which the parts of the future butterfly are
all visible ; but in so soft a state, that the
smallest touch can discompose them. The
animal is now become helpless and motion-
less ; but only waits for the assistance of the
air to dry up the moisture on its surface, and
supply it with a crust capable of resisting ex-
ternal injuries. Immediately after being
stripped of its caterpillar skin, it is of a green
colour, especially in those parts which are dis.
tended by an extraordinary afflux of animal
moisture ; but in ten or twelve hours after
being thus exposed, its parts harden, the air
forms its external covering irra firm crust, and
in about four and twenty hours the aurelia
may be handled, without endangering the little
animal that is thus left in so defenceless a si-
tuation. Such is the history of the little pod
or cone that is found so common by every path
way, sticking to nettles, and sometimes shin-
ing like polished gold. From the beautiful
and resplendent colour with which it is thus
sometimes adorned, some authors have called
it a Chrysalis, implying a creature made of
gold.1
1 Transformations of the Butterfly. The metamor-
phoses which a butterfly undergoes will be found depicted
in the following Cuts. The eggs of a butterfly and moth
are first given, as they appear under magnifying glasses.
The eggs of insects vary much more in form than those
of birds, and the reason of this appears to be that the in-
sects themselves differ from each other in their general
form more than birds. In the annexed cut, fig. 1. re-
presents the larva just issued from the egg. Fig 2. the
496
HISTORY OF INSECTS.
Such are the efforts by which these little
animals prepare for a state of perfection ; but
their care is still greater to provide themselves
a secure retreat, during this season of their
imbecility. It would seem like erecting them-
selves a monument, where they were to rest
secure, until Nature had called them into a
new and more improved existence. For this
purpose, some spin themselves a cone or web,
in which they lie secure till they have arrived
at maturity : others, that cannot spin so copi-
ous a covering, suspend themselves by the tail,
in some retreat where they are not likely to
meet disturbances. Some mix sand with their
same in progress to maturity. 3. The same at its full
growth. 4. Us appearance when about to change into
the pupa state. 5. In the act of changing on the follow-
ing day. 6. The pupa come forth, the change having
been performed in about four minutes. The exuvia of
the larva being raised up to the point of suspension, was
thrown ohV, and is represented afterwards at fig. 7. After
remaining in the pupa state about twelve days, the per-
fect insect begins to appear as atfig. 8. 9 represents the
butterfly in the act of escape, and 1 1 a the pupa case.
The following (LI 6) is the insect totally extricated, with
the wings folded, collapsed, and humid. 15 is the
head of the larva magnified. We have now (12) the in-
sect gradually expanding the wings, during which oper-
ation it vofds a sanguineous-looking excrement. And
last (fig. 13) the perfect in<=ect (a papileo Urticce) is seen
with the wings expanded for flight. The whole of the pro-
cess from fig. 8. is performed in about seven minutes.
gummy and moist webs, and thus make them-
selves a secure incrustation ; while others, be-
fore their change, bury themselves in the
ground, and thus avoid the numerous dangers
that might attend them. One would imagine
that they were conscious of the precise time
of their continuance in their aurelia state ;
since their little sepulchres, with respect to
the solidity of the building, are proportioned
to such duration. Those that are to lie in
that state of existence but a few days, make
choice of some tender leaf, which they render
still more pliant by diffusing a kind of glue
upon it: the leaf thus gradually curls up, and
withering as it unfolds, the insect wraps itself
within, as in a mantle, till the genial warmth
of the sun enables it to struggle for new life,
and burst from its confinement.1 Others,
1 Leaf-Rolling Caterpillars. — The caterpillars which
are familiarly termed leaf-rollers, are perfect hermits.
Each lives in a cell, which it begins to construct almost
immediately after it is hatched ; and the little structure
is at once a house which protects the caterpillar from its
enemies, and a store of food for its subsistence, while it
remains shut up in its prison. But the insect only de-
vours the inner folds. The art which these caterpillars
exercise, although called into action but once, perhaps,
in their lives, is perfect. They accomplish their pur-
pose with a mechanical skill, which is remarkable for its
simplicity and unerring success. The art of rolling
leaves into a secure and immovable cell may not ap-
pear very difficult, nor would it be so if the caterpillars
had fingers, or any parts which were equivalent to those
delicate and admjrable natural instruments with which
man accomplishes his most elaborate works. And yet
the human fingers could not roll a rocket-case of paper
more regularly than the caterpillar rolls his house of
leaves. A leaf is not a very easy substance to roll. In
some trees it is very brittle. It has also a natural elasti-
city,— a disposition to spring back if it be bent, — which
is caused by the continuity of its threads, or nervures.
This elasticity is speedily overcome by the ingenuity
with which the caterpillar works ; and the leaf is thus
retained in its artificial position for many weeks, under
every variety of temperature. We will examine, in de-
tail, how these little leaf- rollers accomplish their task.
One of the most common as well as the most simple
fabrics constructed by caterpillars, may be discovered du-
ring summer on almost every kind of bush and tree. We
shall take as examples those which are found on the li-
lac, and on the oak.
A small but very pretty chocolate-coloured moth, abun-
dant in every garden, but not readily seen from its fre-
quently alighting ou the ground which is so nearly of its
own colour, deposits its eggs on the leaves of the lilac,
and of some other trees, appropriating a leaf to each egg.
As soon as the caterpillar is hatched, it begins to secure
itself from birds and predatory insects by rolling up the
lilac leaf into the form of a gallery, where it may feed in
safety. We have repeatedly seen one of them when just
escaped from the egg, and only a few lines long, fix se-
veral silk threads from one edge of a leaf, to the other,
or from the edge to the mid-rib. Then going to the
middle of the space, he shortened the threads by bending
them with his feet, and consequently pulled the edges of
the leaves into a circular form ; and he retained them in
that position by glueing down each thread as he short-
ened it. In their younger state, these caterpillars sel-
dom roll more than a small portion of the leaf, but
when farther advanced, they unite the two edges toge-
THE CATERPILLAR.
497
whose time of transformation is also near at
hand, fasten their tails to a tree, or to the first
worm-hole they meet in a beam, and wait in
that defenceless situation. Such caterpillars,
on the other hand, as are seen to lie several
months in their aurelia state, act with much
greater circumspection. Most of them mix
their web with sand, and thus make them-
selves a strong covering : others build in wood,
which serves them in the nature of a coffin.
Such as have made the leaves of willows
their favourite food, break the tender twigs
of them first into small pieces, then pound
them as it were to powder ; and, by means
of their glutinous silk, make a kind of paste,
in which they wrap themselves up. Many
are the forms which these animals assume in
this helpless state ; and it often happens, that
the most deformed butterflies issue from the
most beautiful aurelias.
In general, however, the aurelia takes the
rude outline of the parts of the animal which
is contained within it; but as to the various
ther iu their whole extent, with the exception of a small
opening at one end, by which au exit may be made in
case of need.
Nett of a Lilac-leaf Roller,
Another species Oi caterpillar closely allied to this,
rolls up the lilac-leaves in a different form, beginning at
the end of a leaf, and fixing and pulling its threads till it
gets it nearly into the shape of a scroll of parchment. To
retain this form more securely, it is not contented, like
the former insect, with threads fixed on the inside of the
leaf i but has also recourse to a few cables which it weaves
on the outside.
Another species of moth allied to the two preceding, is
of a pretty green colour, and lays its eggs upon the
leaves of the oak. This caterpillar folds them up in a
similar manner, but with this difference, that it works
ou the under surface of the leaf, pulling the edge down-
wards and backwards, instead of forwards and upwards.
This species is very abundant, and may readily be found
as soon as the leaves expand. In June, when the per-
fect insect has appeared, by beating a branch of an oak,
a whole shower of these pretty green moths may be shook
into the air.
Among the leaf-rolling caterpillars, there is a small
dark-brown one, with a black head and six feet, very
common in gardens on the currant-bush or the leaves of
the rose-tree. (Lozotienia Rosana, Stephens.) It is
exceedingly destructive to the flower-buds. The eggs
are deposited in the summer, and probably also in the
VOL. II.
colours which it is seen to assume, they are
rather the effect of accident ; for the same spe-
cies of insect does not at all times assume the
same hue, when it becomes- an. aurelia. In
some the beautiful gold colour is at one time
found ; in others, it is wanting. This bril-
liant hue, which does not fall short of the best
gilding, is formed in the same manner in
which we see leather obtain a gold colour,
though none of that metal ever enters into the
tincture. It is only formed by a beautiful
brown varnish, laid upon a white ground ;
and the white thus gleaming through the trans-
parency of the brown, give--* a charming golden
yellow. These two colours are found, one
over the other, in the aurelia of the little ani-
mal we are describing ; and the whole appears
gilded without any real gilding.
The aurelia thus formed, and left to time
to expand into a butterfly, in some measure
resembles an animal in an egg, that is to wait
for external warmth to hatch it into life and
vigour. As the quantity of moisture, that is
autumn or in spring, in little oval or circular patches of
a green colour. The grub makes its appearance with the
first opening of the leaves, of whose structure iu the half,
expanded state it takes advantage to construct its sum-
mer tent. It is not, like some of the other leaf-rollers,
contented with a single leaf, but weaves together as
many as there are in the bud where it may chance to
have been hatched, binding their discs so firmly with
silk, that all the force of the ascending sap, and the in-
creasing growth of the leaves, cannot break through ; a
farther expansion is of course prevented. The little in.
habitant in the moan while banquets securely on the par.
titions of its tent, eating door-ways from one apartment
into another, through which it can escape in case of dan-
ger or disturbance.
The leaflets of the rose, it may be remarked, expand in
nearly the same manner as a fan, and the operations of
this ingenious little insect retain them in the form of a
fan nearly shut. Sometimes, however, it is not con-
tented with one bundle of leaflets, but by means of its
silken cords unites all which spring from the same bud
into a rain proof canopy, under the protection of which
it can feast on the flower-bud, and prevent it from ever
blowing.
In the instance of the currant leaves, the proceedings
of the grub are the same, but it cannot unite the plaits
so smoothly as in the case of the rose leaflets, and it re-
quires more labour also, as the nervures being stiff, de-
mand a greater eflbrt to bend them. When all the ex-
ertions of the insect prove unavailing in its endeavours to
draw the edges of a leaf together, it bends them inwards
as far as it can, and weaves a close web of silk over the
open space between. This is well exemplified in one 01
the commonest of our leaf-rolling caterpillars, which may
be found as early as February on the leaves of the nettle
and the white archangel (Lamium album.') It is of a
light dirty-green colour, spotted with black, and covered
with a few hairs. In its young state it confines itself tc
the bosom of a small leaf, near the insertion of the leaf-
stalk, partly bending the edges inwards, and covering in
the interval with a silken curtain. As this sort of co-
vering is not sufficient for concealment when the animal
advances in growth, it abandons the base of the leaf for
the middle, where it doubles up one side in a very se-
cure and ingenious manner. — Rennie's Insect Architec-
ture.
3 a
498
HISTORY OF INSECTS.
inclosed within the covering of the aurelia,
continues to keep its body in the most tender
state, so it is requisite that this humidity
should be dried away, before the little butter-
fly can burst its prison. Many have been the
experiments to prove that nature may in this
respect be assisted by art ; and that the life of
the insect may be retarded or quickened, with-
out doing it the smallest injury. For this
purpose, it is only requisite to continue the
insect in its aurelia state, by preventing the
evaporation of its humidity ; which will conse-
quently add some days, nay weeks, to its life :
on the other hand, by evaporating its moisture
in a warm situation, the animal assumes its
winged state before its usual time, and goes
through the offices assigned its existence. To
prove this, Mr Reaumur enclosed the aurelia
iu a glass tube ; and found the evaporated
water, which exhaled from the body of the
insect, collected in drops at the bottom of the
tube : he covered the aurelia with varnish ;
and this making the evaporation more difficult
and slow, the butterfly was two months longer
than its natural term in coming out of its
case : he found, on the other hand, that by
laying the animal in a warm room, he hasten-
ed the disclosure of the butterfly ; and by
keeping it in an ice-house, in the same manner
he delayed it. Warmth acted, in this case,
in a double capacity: invigorating the animal,
and evaporating the moisture.
The aurelia, though it bears a different ex-
ternal appearance, nevertheless contains with-
in it all the parts of the butterfly in perfect
formation ; and lying each in a very orderly
manner, though in the smallest compass.
These, however, are so fast and tender, that
it is impossible to visit without discomposing
them. When either by warmth, or increas-
ing vigour, the parts have acquired the neces-
sary force and solidity, the butterfly then seeks
to disembarrass itself of those bands which
kept it so long in confinement. Some insects
continue under the form of an aurelia not
above ten days ; some twenty ; some several
months ; and even for a year together.
The butterfly, however, does not continue
so long under the form of an aurelia, as one
would be apt to imagine. In general those
caterpillars that provide themselves with cones,
continue within them but a few days after the
cone is completely finished. Some, however,
remain buried in this artificial covering for
eight or nine months, without taking the
smallest sustenance during the whole time :
and though in the caterpillar state no animals
were so voracious, when thus transformed they
appear a miracle of abstinence. In all, sooner
or later, the butterfly bursts frcm its prison ;
not only that natural prison which is formed
by the skin of the aurelia, but also from that
artificial one of silk, or any other substance in
which it has enclosed itself.
The efforts which the butterfly makes to
get free from its aurelia state, are by no means
so violent as those which the insect had in
changing from the caterpillar into the aurelia.
The quantity of moisture surrounding the but-
terfly is by no means so great as that attending
its former change ; and the shell of the aurelia
is so dry, that it may be cracked between the
fingers.
If the animal be shut up within a cone, the
butterfly always gets rid of the natural inter-
nal skin of the aurelia, before it eats its way
through the external covering which its own
industry has formed round it. In order to
observe the manner in which it thus gets rid
of the aurelia covering, we must cut open the
cone, and then we shall have an opportunity
of discovering the insect's efforts to emancipate
itself from its natural shell. When this oper-
ation begins, there seems to be a violent agi-
tation in the humours contained within the
little animal's body. Its fluids seem driven
by a hasty fermentation, through all the ves-
sels ; while it labours violently with its legs,
and makes several other violent struggles to
get free. As all these motions concur with
the growth of the insect's wings and body, it
is impossible that the brittle skin which co-
vers it should longer resist : it at length gives
way by bursting into four distinct and regular
pieces. The skin of the head and legs first
separates ; then the skin at the back flies open,
and dividing into two regular portions, disen-
gages the back and wings : then there like-
wise happens another rupture, in that portion
which covered the rings of the back of the
aurelia. After this, the butterfly, as if fa-
tigued with its struggles, remains very quiet
for some time, with its wings pointed down-
wards, and its legs fixed in the skin which it
had just thrown oil'. At first sight the animal,
just set free, and permitted the future use of
its wings, seems to want them entirely ; they
take up such little room, that one would won-
der where they were hidden. But soon after
they expand so rapidly, that the eye can scarce
attend their unfolding. From reaching scarce
half the length of the body, they acquire, in
a most wonderful manner, their full extent
and bigness, so as to be each five times larger
than they were before. Nor is it the wings
alone that are thus increased ; all their spots
and paintings before so minute as to be scarce
discernible, are proportionably extended ; so
that what a few minutes before seemed only
a number of confused unmeaning points, now
become distinct and most beautiful ornaments.
Nor are the wings, when they are thusexpanded,
unfolded in the manner in which earwigs and
grasshoppers display theirs, who unfurl them
THE BUTTERFLY.
499
like a lady's fan : on the contrary, those of
butterflies actually grow to their natural size
in this very short space. The wing, at the
instant it is freed from its late confinement, is
considerably thicker than afterwards; so that
it spreads in all its dimensions, growing thin-
tier as it becomes broader. If one of the wings
be plucked from the animal just set free, it may
be spread by the fingers, and it will soon be-
come as broad as the other which has been
left behind. As the wings extend themselves
so suddenly, they have not yet had time to
dry; and accordingly appear like pieces of
wet paper, soft and full of wrinkles. In
about half an hour they are perfectly dry,
their ' wrinkles entirely disappear, and the
little animal assumes all its splendour. The
transmutation being thus perfectly finished,
the butterfly discharges three or four drops of
a blood-coloured liquid, which are the last re-
mains of its superfluous moisture.1 Those
aurelias which are enclosed within a cone, find
that exit more difficult, as they have still an-
other prison to break through : this, however,
they perform in a short time ; for the butter-
fly, freed from its aurelia skin, butts with its
head violently against the walls of its artificial
prison ; and probably with its eyes, that are
rough and like a file, it rubs the internal sur-
face away ; till it is at last seen bursting its
way into open light ; and, in less than a quar-
ter of an hour, the animal acquires its full per-
fection.
Thus, to use the words of Swammerdam, we
see a little insignificant creature distinguished,
in its last birth, with qualifications and orna-
ments, which man, during his stay upon earth,
can never even hope to acquire. The butter-
fly, to enjoy life, needs no other food but the dews
of heaven, and the honeyed juices which are
distilled from every flower. The pageantry
of princes cannot equal the ornaments with
which it is invested ; nor the rich colouring
that, embellishes its wings. The skies are
the butterfly's proper habitation, and the air
is its element : whilst man comes into the
world naked, and often roves about without
habitation or shelter ; exposed on one hand to
the heat of the sun, and on the other to the
damps and exhalations of the earth : both
alike enemies of his happiness and existence.
1 These red drop?, which several of the butterfly tribe
discharge immediately upon their transformation, have
been recorded by ancient writers as showers of blood,
portending some convulsion of nature, or national cala-
mity. In the year ICO&, the inhabitants of the town of
Aix were in the utmost consternation, in consequence of
a discharge of' this kind, which fell in tile suburbs, and
for some miles round. But the philosopher Pieresc soon
quieted their alarms hy showing them that the whole of
this wonder originated in a flight of harmless butterflies,
that had just taken wing from their chrysalis state. —
Note by Goldsmith,
A strong proof that, while this little animal is
raised to its greatest height, we are as yet in
this world only candidates for perfection!
CHAP. III.
OF BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS.2
IT has been already shown, that all butter-
flies are bred from caterpillars ; and we have
8 Butterflies, Hawk tnoths, and Moths belong to the
order Lepidoptera, so called from the scales on their
wings. Their generic names are Papilio, Sphinx, and
Phalcena : recent writers have divided them according
to the seasons of their flight, into Diumal, Crepuscular,
and Nocturnal. "The term Butterfly, "says Mr Duncan,
in the Naturalist's Library, " is a literal translation of
the Saxon word Buttor-feosse, and is supposed to be ap-
plied because the insects first become prevalent in the
beginning of the season for butter. They are distinguished
from the other scaly-winged kinds, by possessing antennae
with a knob or club at the summit, * and holding their
wings, when in a state of repose, erect or very slightly
inclined. They are the most generally and familiarly
known of our insect tribes, and, by their conspicuous ap-
pearance, seldom fail to attract the notice even of those
whose perceptions are least alive to the beauty of natural
objects. The graceful curves of their outline — their gay
and fitful flight — the splendour of their colouring and
decorations, which present every variety of tint found in
the different kingdoms of nature, distributed in markings
and delineations of the most beautiful and diversified
character, seem to confer on them a kind of superiority
over other insects. Some naturalists have accordingly
considered them as entitled to stand at the head of the
insect class; and if, as Mr Kirby remarks, beauty, and
grace, arid gaiety, and splendour of colours were the
great requisite, and the law enjoined Dettir pulchriori —
they are doubtless deserving ot this preference. Their
wings are augmented to a size that seems quite dispro-
portioned to that of the body, as if nature had wished to
enlarge the surface on which she was to employ her
pencil, that it might 'admit of more varied and profuse
decoration. Even (lie under face of the wings, contrary
to what is observed in other flying animals, is usually as
much adorned as the surface, and often in an entirely
different manner. Each wing, therefore, presents what
may be called two different pictures. No kind of orna-
ment found among other insects is omitted in this fa-
voured tribe : and so many new modes of embellish-
ment are employed, that nature seems to have made
them the objects of her peculiar care, and designed
them, as has been remarked by the learned and pious
Ray, for the adornment of the universe, and to form
delightful objects for the contemplation of man, bearing
conspicuous marks of the hand of a divine Artist.
"The habits of these insects are well fitted to confirm
the preference we assign to their beauty. Unlike many
others of this class, which delight to riot among substances
most offensive to our senses, or which destroy the pro-
perty and lives of their less powerful companions, butter-
flies derive their sustenance from the nectareous juices
and secretions of fruits and flowers. Instead of grovel-
ling on the ' dungy earth,' they are generally seen either
sporting in the air, or resting on the disk of some ex-
* Certain foreign genera, however, such as Morpho ami
Urania, form an exception to this rule, as they have antenna-
either of equal thickness throughout, or taperiiig slightly toth«
summit.
500
HISTORY OF INSECTS.
exhibited the various circumstances of that
surprising change. It has been remarked,
that butterflies may be easily distinguished
from flies of eVery other kind, by their wings :
panded flower, and all their habits are such as beseem
' pure creatures of the element.' They are seldom
noticed but in fine weather, and never in profusion but
when the season is in its highest bloom, and their ap-
pearance thus becomes associated in our minds with the
charms of external nature, and is connected with those
images of life and beauty which give rise to many of
the genial influences of summer* Several species also
contrive to outlive the winter, although their frail forms
seem but ill adapted to resist the rigours of that incle-
ment season, arid issuing from their retreats in the first
warm days of spring, are among the earliest and not least
interesting heralds of the 'purple year*.' These cir-
cumstances, together with the very striking manner in
which they exhibit the phenomena of transformation,
have long rendered them general favourites, and caused
their history to be investigated with greater attention
than has been bestowed on insects of a less conspicuous
and attractive kind.
" The diurnal Lepidoptera (or butterflies) are very
numerous in species, although but a limited number in-
habit this country. Between 2000 and 3000 have been
described, and it is probable that no inconsiderable num-
ber yet remain undiscovered. About seventy-five diffe-
rent species are recorded as indigenous to Britain. A
great proportion of the largest and most highly orna-
mented kinds are natives of the new world, especially of
Brazil ; hut they abound in all tropical countries, and
some of these exotics present the most sumptuous ex-
amples of insect beauty. ' I should undertake an end-
less task,' say Messrs Kirby and Spence, or one or other
of these authors,' did I attempt to specify all the modes
of marking, clouding, and spotting, that variegate a wing,
and all the shades of colour that paint it, among the
lepidopterous tribes ; I shall therefore confine myself to
a few of the principal, especially those that distinguish
particular tribes and families. Of whole coloured wings,
I know none that dazzle the eye of the beholder so much
as the upper surface of those of Morpho Menelaus and
Telemachus. Linne justly observes, that there is scarcely
any thing in nature that, for brightness and splendour,
can be paralleled with this colour: it is a kind of rich
ultramarine, that vies with the deepest and purest azure
of the sky ; and, what must cause a striking contrast in
flight, the prone surface of the wings is as dull and dark
as the supine is brilliant, so that one can conceive this
animal to appear like a planet in full radiance, and under
eclipse, as its wings open and shut in the blaze of a tro-
pical sun. Another butterfly (Papilio Ulysses) by its
radiating cerulean disk, surrounded on every side by a
margin intensely black, gives the idea of light first emer-
ging from primeval obscurity : it was probably this idea
of light shining in darkness, that induced Linne to give
it the name of the wisest of the Greeks in a dark and
barbarous age. I know no insect upon which the sight
rests with such untired pleasure as upon the lovely but-
terfly that bears the name of the unhappy Trojan king
'P. Priamus) • the contrast of the rich green and black
of the velvet of its wings with each other, and with the
orange of its abdomen, is beyond expression regal and
magnificent.'
" Although our British butterflies can in no way com-
pete with the magnificent examples just referred to, we
* In the sunny rlime of Italy, where it may ho siid that na-
Uire never dies, and probably also in other southern countries
t Europe, most of the species which with us retire on the ap-
proach of winter into the crevices of walls, and other sheltered
situations, are seen upon the wing- throughout even the colder
months-at least we know that it is so with Van. citrdui, Ata-
lanta and a few others.
for, in others, they are either transparent, like
gauze, as we see in the common flesh-fly ; or
they are hard and crusted, as we see in the
wings of the beetle. But in the butterfly, the
yet possess many of great beauty, whether as regards the
brilliancy of their colour, or the harmonious manner in
which these colours are distributed. The bluish-purple
reflection that plays on the wings of the Emperor of tho
woods, has a richness and brilliancy of tint, which is not
often surpassed. The prevailing hue among the Lyccentc,
is fulgid copper colour, of a high degree of resplendency;
and the Polyommati, which are so abundant in our pas-
tures, are remarkable for exhibiting, in great variety of
shade, the most delicate and beautiful tints of blue. What
can exceed the fine pencilling and harmonious tinting on
the under surface of the wings of Cynthia Cardui, />»'-
menitis Camilla, and Vanessa jltalanta, ; or the richness
of the eye-like spots that decorate the wings of the pea-
cock butterfly, and numerous other species ? The warm
and beautiful shades of yellow in Colias and Gone.pteryx,
render them objects on which the eye rests with con-
tinual pleasure ; and the silvery spots and streaks on the
under side of the Fritillaries, form a fine relief, by their
brilliant metallic lustre, to the uniform and compara-
tively duller tints of black and brown which predominate
among that tribe.
" The mode of painting employed to produce these rich
tints, may not improperly be called a kind of natural
mosaic, for the colours invariably reside in the scales,
which form a dense covering over the whole surface.
These scales are usually of an oval or elongated form,
and truncated at the tip, where they are occasionally
divided into teeth ; but sometimes they are conical,
linear, or triangular. They are fixed in the wing by
means of a narrow pedicle, and are most commonly dis-
posed in transverse rows, placed close together, and over-
lapping each other like the tiles of a roof. In some in-
stances, they are placed without any regular order, and
in certain cases there appear to be two layers of scales on
both sides of the wings. When they are rubbed on", the
wing is found to consist of an elastic membrane, thin and
transparent, and marked with slightly indented lines,
forming a kind of groove for the insertion of the scales.
The latter are so minute that they appear to the naked
eye like powder or dust, and as they are very closely
placed, their numbers on a single insect are astonishingly
great. Leeuwenhock counted upwards of 400,000 on
the wings of the silk moth, an insect not above one-fourth
of the size of some of our native butterflies. But how
much inferior must this number be to that necessary to
form a covering to some foreign butterflies, the wings of
which expand upwards of half a foot: or certain species
of moths, some of which (such as the atlas moth of the
east, or the great owl moth of Brazil,) sometimes mea-
sure nearly a foot across the wings ! A modern mosaic
picture may contain 870 tesseriilaD, or separate pieces, in
one square inch of surface: but the same extent of a
butterfly's wing sometimes consists of no fewer (ban
100,736 I
'• In common with several other extensive races of
insects, butterflies derive their nourishment entirely from
liquid substances, and the structure of the mouth is con-
sequently very different from that of the masticating
kinds. They are hence classed among the haustellated
or suctorial tribes of insects. The most conspicuous and
elaborately constructed organ, is the long flexible tuhe
projecting from the mouth, which forms a canal through
which the alimentry juices are absorbed. This instru-
ment, which is sometimes of great length, is spirally con-
voluted when unemployed, but it can be unrolled with
great rapidity, and is admirably fitted to explore the
tubular corollas and deep-seated nectarias of flowers, for
the purpose of extracting their sweet secretions. It is of
THE BUTTERFLY.
501
wings are soft, opaque, and painted over with
a beautiful dust, that comes off with handling.
The number of these beautiful animals is
very great ; and though Linnaeus has reckoned
up above seven hundred and sixty different
kinds, the catalogue is still very incomplete.
Every collector of butterflies can show mi-
described species : and such as are fond of
minute discovery can here produce animals
that have been examined only by himself. In
general, however, those of the warm climates
are larger and more beautiful than such as are
bred at home ; and we can easily admit the
beauty of the butterfly, since we are thus freed
from the damage of the caterpillar. It has
been the amusement of some to collect these
animals from different parts of the world ; or
to breed them from caterpillars at home.
These they arrange in systematic order, or
dispose so as to make striking and agreeable
pictures ; and all must grant, that this specious
idleness is far preferable to that unhappy state
which is produced by a total want of employ-
ment.
The wings of butterflies, as was observed,
fully distinguish them from flies of every other
kind. They are four in number ; and though
two of them be cut off, the animal can fly with
the two others remaining. They are, in their
own substance, transparent; but owe their
opacity to the beautiful dust with which they
are covered; and which has been likened, by
some naturalists, to the feathers of birds; by
others, to the scales of fishes : as their imagi-
a cartilaginous substance, and owes its great flexibility
to its being composed of numerous rings or transverse
fibres, bearing some resemblance to the annulose struc-
ture of earth-worms and some other animals. It is
formed of two distinct pieces, which admit of being
separated throughout their whole length. Each of these
pieces is traversed longitudinally by a cylindrical tube,
and being grooved on their inner side, they form when
united another canal in the centre, of a somewhat square
form, and wider than either of the two lateral ones. The
junction of the two parts is so close that the enclosed tube
is perfectly air-tight : and this union is effected by means
of an infinite number of filets, resembling the lamina; of
a feather, which interlace and adhere to each other. Of
these three tubes, the central one alone serves for the
influx of the alimentary fluids, the two lateral ones being
probably employed in transmitting air in aid of respira-
tion, which, however, is mainly carried on by means of
stigmata or literal pores. The outer extremity of the
proboscis is frequently beset with many membraneous
papilla, resembling leaflets, which have been regarded
by some authors as absorbents. From having observed
them chiefly in long and slender trunks, Reaumur was led
to conceive, that their only use is to render that organ more
steady, byaflbrding numerous points of support, and adher-
ing in some degree to the substances into which it is in-
serted. In the coloured Plate 69, several of the most beauti-
ful species of the butterfly genus are shown, with a truth to
nature that must be very satisfactory to the observers and
admirers of these magnificent insects. Indeed, the figures
more resemble the actual objects laid upon the paper
than mere artistic representations.
rations were disposed to catch the resemblance.
In fact, if we regard the wing of a butterfly
with a good microscope, we shall perceive it
studded over with a variety-of -little grains of
different dimensions and lorms, generally sup-
ported upon a footstalk, regularly laid upon the
whole surface. Nothing can exceed the beauti-
ful and regular arrangement of these little
substanr.es : which thus serve to paint the but-
terfly's wing like the tiles of a house. Those
of one rank are a little covered by those that
follow : they are of many figures ; on the part
of the wing may be seen a succession of oval
studs ; on another part, a cluster of studs, each
in the form of a heart : in one place they re-
semble a hand open ; and in another they are
long or triangular ; while all are interspersed
with taller studs, that grow between the rest,
like mushrooms upon a stalk. The wing it-
self is composed of several thick nerves, which
render the construction very strong, though
light ; and though it be covered over with
thousands of these scales or studs, yet its
weight is very little increased by the number.
The animal is with ease enabled to support
itself a long while in air, although its flight
be not very graceful. When it designs to fly
to a considerable distance, it ascends and des-
cends alternately; going sometimes to the right
and sometimes to the left, without any appar-
ent reason. Upon closer examination, however,
it will be found that it flies thus irregularly
in pursuit of its mate ; and as dogs bait and
quarter the ground in pursuit of their game,
so these insects traverse the air in quest ot
their mates, whom they discover at more than
a mile's distance.
If we prosecute our description of the
butterfly, the animal may be divided into
three parts; the head, the corselet, and the
body.
The body is the hinder part of the butterfly,
and is composed of rings, which are generally
concealed under long hair, with which that
part of the animal is clothed. The corselet is
more solid than the rest of the body, because
the forewings and the legs are fixed therein.
The legs are six in number, although four
only are made use of by the animal; the two
forelegs being often so much concealed in the
long hair of the body, that it is sometimes
difficult to discover them. If we examine
these parts internally, we shall find the same
set of vessels in the butterfly that we observed
in the caterpillar ; but with this great difference,
that as the blood or humours in the caterpillar
circulated from the tail to the head, they are
found in the butterfly to take a direct contrary
course, and to circulate from the head to the
tail ; so that the caterpillar maybe considered
as the embryo animal, in which, as we have
formerly seen, the circulation is carried on
502
HISTORY' OF INSECTS.
differently from what it is in animals when ex-
cluded.
But leaving the other parts of the butterfly,
let us turn our attention particularly to tlie
head. The eyes of butterflies have not all
the same form ; for in some they are large, in
others small; in some they are the larger por-
tion of a sphere, in others they are but a small
part of it, and just appearing from the head.
In all of them, however, the outward coat has
a lustre, in which may be discovered the vari-
ous colours of the rainbow. When examined
a little closely, it will be found to have the
appearance of a multiplying-glass; having a
great number of sides or facets, in the manner
of a brilliant cut diamond. In this particular
the eye of the butterfly, and of most other in-
sects, entirely correspond; and Leuwenhoek
pretends there are about six thousand facets
on the cornea of the flea. These animals,
therefore, see not only with great clearness,
but view every object multiplied in a surpris-
ing manner. Puget adapted the cornea of a
fly in such a position as to see objects through
it by the means of a microscope ; and nothing-
could exceed the strangeness of its representation.
A soldier, who was seen through it, appeared
like an army of pigmies ; for while it multi-
plied, it also diminished the object; the arch
o\ a bridge exhibited a spectacle more mag-
nificent than human skill could perform ; the
Bame of a candle seemed a beautiful illumin-
ation. "It still, however, remains a doubt,
whether the insect sees objects singly, as with
one eye ; or whether every facet is itself a
complete eye, exhibiting its own object distinct
from all the rest.
Butterflies, as well as most other flying in-
sects, have two instruments, like horns, on their
heads, which are commonly called feelers.
They differ from the horns of greater animals,
in being movable at their base ; and in hav-
ing a great number of joints, by which means
the insect is enabled to turn them in every
direction. Those of butterflies are placed at
the top of the head, pretty near the external
edge of each eye. What the use of these in-
struments may be, which are thus formed with
so much art, and by a WORKMAN who does no-
thing without reason, is as yet unknown to
man. They may serve to guard the eye ; they
may be of use to clean it ; or they may be the
organ of some sense which we are ignorant of:
but this is only explaining one difficulty by an-
other. We are not so ignorant of the uses of the
trunk, which few insects of the butterfly kind
are without. This instrument is placed ex-
actly between the eyes ; and when the animal
is not employed in seeking its nourishment, it
is rolled up like a curl. A butterfly, when it
is feeding, flies round some flower and settles
upon it. The trunk is then uncurled, and
thrust out either wholly or in part ; and is em.
ployed in searching the flower to its very bot-
tom, let it be ever so deep. This search being
repeated seven or eight times, the butterfly
then passes to another; and continues to hover
over those agreeable to its taste, like a bird
over its prey. This trunk consists of two equal
hollow tubes, nicely joined to each other, like
the pipes of an organ.
Such is the figure and conformation of these
beautiful insects, that cheer our walks, and
give us the earliest intimations of summer.
But it is not by day alone that they are seen
fluttering wantonly from flower to flower, as the
greatest number of them fly by night, nnd ex-
pand the most beautiful colouring at those
hours when there is no spectator. This tribe
of insects has, therefore, been divided into
Diurnal and Nocturnal Flies ; or, more pro-
perly speaking, into Butterflies and Moths :
the one flying only by day, the other most
usually on the wing in the night. They may
be easily distinguished from each other by
their horns or feelers : those of the butterfly
being clubbed or knobbed at the end ; those
of the moth tapering finer and finer to a point.
To express it technically — the feelers of but-
terflies are elevated : those of moths are fili-
form.1
1 Moths are distinguished from butterflies, among
ether characters, by having at the base of the under
wings, near the anterior edge, a stiff bristle or hair
which passes through a hook on the under side of the
anterior wings and maintains them when at rest in a
horizontal or somewhat inclined position. The most
characteristic and distinctive mark of the hawk-moths
is to be found in the form of the antennae, which en-
crea«e in diameter from a slender base nearly to the apex,
forming a prismatic, fusiform club, and usually termin-
ating in a subulated point which is occasionally some-
what curved. This thickening of the antemife upwards
indicates affinity to the diurnal lepidoptera, hut in most
of their other properties they are more closely allied to
the moths or nocturnal kinds. The wings are narrow
and elongated, of a firm consistence, and never borne
perpendicularly in repose, but either parallel to the
plain of position or slightly dtflexed. The suctorial trunk
(marillce) is usually of great length, often equal to that
of the whole body : and appears, at least in some instances,
to be of a more simple structure than among butterflies,
consisting only of a simple semi-cylindric canal. When,
for example, that of the death's-head-moth, which is
short and rigid, and so sharply pointed as to be able to
pierce the skin of the hand, is cut across, only a single
perforation of an oval shape is visible. The palpi em-
brace the base of the trunk, consist of three articulations,
and are so densely invested with hairs and scales, that
their jointed structure is not discernible till these are
rubbed ofT. The eyes are large, globose, and prominent,
composed of a great number of facets. The tarsi are
all divided into five joints ; the intermediate tibiae are
furnished with two spines, and the hinder ones with
four ; and in the anterior pair, which are destitute cif
spines, there is a slender lobe lying along a part of (he
under side of the tibia, and attached to it by the upper
extremity.
These insects constituted the genus Sphinx of Linnaeus,
and they compose the family named Crepuscularia by
THE BUTTERFLY.
503
The butterflies, as well as the moths, em-
ploy the short life assigned them in a variety
of enjoyments. Their whole time is spent
either in quest of food, which every flower
Latreille. The latter term has been applied to them,
because many of the most conspicuous species are observed
on the wing chiefly during the morning and evening
twilight ; others, however, do not shun the "garish eye
of day," liut may be seen darting about in the sunshine
in company with butterflies and other exclusively diurnal
kinds. Their flight is exceedingly rapid, and continued
nearly in a direct line, somewhat like that of a bird,
differing greatly in this respect from the devious zig-zag
motion of most other lepidoptera, many of which seem to
float rather than to be impelled by muscular exertion.
The wings, notwithstanding, are rather of small size
compared with the body ; but the thickness and massive-
ness of the latter admits of great development in the
muscles by which these organs are moved, and a momen-
tum is thus communicated to them more than sufficient
to compensate for their somewhat limited extent of sur-
face. By their rapid vibration, the taper body of the
insect is poised in the air like that of a hawk, while it
hovers over the petals of a flower, and extracts the melli-
fluous juices by means of its long tubular proboscis. The
resemblance just alluded to has caused them to be named
hawk-moths : and as many of them, when thus hover-
ing in the air, produce a humming sound, and in this
respect, as well as in feeding on the wing and in the
darting rapidity of their movements, bear some likeness
to humming-birds, a few are named after these "winged
gems," and are well known under the somewhat com-
posite title of humming bird hawk-moths.
The number of these insects found in Britain is not
inconsiderable, and includes all the kinds indigenous to
Europe, except a few species. Several conspicuous kinds
have been admitted into our native lists, in consequence
of the occurrence of one or two examples ; but from what
we know of their history and geographical distribution,
it seems more proper to ascribe their appearance in this
country to fortuitous causes, — such as accidental importa-
tion along with foreign productions, than to their being
aboriginal natives of the soil.
Although moths (proper) may be characteristically said
to be nocturnal insects, it must not be understood that
their appearance is exclusively confined to the night, or
even the twilight. The gamma-moth, the majority of
the male bombycidte, and others too numerous to men-
tion, may often be seen " floating amid the liquid noon,1'
associated with the multitude of other tribes which the
sunshine awakes to active life and enjoyment. But with
far the larger proportion, night is the chosen and appro-
priate season of activity. During the day they conceal
themselves in clefts of trees, among tangled vegetation
and under leaves, and seldom issue from their retreats
till the light is beginning to fail. Some are on the wing
only in the earlier part of the night, others are later in
appearing, and continue their flight till the morning is
far advanced. During these excursions many fall a prey
to bats and night-birds of various kinds, which delight
to capture their insect food when on the wing, seldom
searching for it when at rest, according to the general
practice of their day-feeding companions.
The great beauty of many of these insects, the almost
infinite variety of their colours and marking;:, as well as
their curious habits and economy, have long rendered
this a favourite branch of study with the generality of
entomologists. A large proportion of the works relating
to insects, especially works of the illustrated class, are
devoted to the elucidation of this tribe ; and in almost
every collection of indigenous specimens, they occupy a
prominent place. The zeal with which the rarer and
more beautiful kinds have been sought after, and the
offers ; or in pursuit of the female, whose ap
proach they can often perceive at two miles*
distance. Their sagacity in this particular is
not less astonishing th:m true ; but by what
estimation in which they have been held when obtained,
is sufficiently evinced by the high-sounding names, by
means of which collectors have attempted to express
their admiration. Such designations as the Emperor,
Nonpariel, Kentish Glory, Richmond Beauty, &c., have
been applied to them almost as liberally as similar names
are used by the fanciers of gigantic gooseberries and
peerless tulips, in reference to the objects of their pre-
dilection. In proportion to the eagerness shown in the
pursuit, has been the variety of plans adopted to' obtain
specimens with the greatest ease, and in the best possible
condition. One of the most satisfactory methods is to
rear the larva;, when these can be obtained, till they
change to pupa;, and the moths are thus secured as soon
as they emerge, with the beauty of their plumage unim-
paired. Mr Kirby mentions, that the seasons in which
the London amateurs repair to the woods in search of
larvae, are the beginning of April, June, the beginning
of July, and September; and they dig for the pupae late in
July, and in January and February. The perfect insects
are to be found all the summer and autumn, and certain
kinds even in winter. The attractions of a youthful
female of their own species aflbrds a means of procuring
several of the larger Bombycidae, even in places » here they
might not previously be supposed to exist. Advantage
is often taken of the propensity which these insects show,
in common with many other nocturnal animals, to repair
to a light, when they may be readily seized as they con-
tinue to flutter around it in a kind of bewildered state.
As the most effectual means of employing a light, it is
recommended that it should be placed in a lanthorn, and
the latter fixed on the breast by means of a belt around
the waist, both hands being thus left at liberty. If in-
disposed, however, to make much personal exertion, the
Aurelian may often reap a rich harvest merely by open-
ing the windows of a lighted apartment, especially if his
dwelling be in the vicinity of woods, and securing such
visitors as make their appearance within. The following
extract shows with what success this plan has been
attended. " My success in obtaining lepidoptera, to
which I am particularly attached, " says the Rev. C. S.
Bird, " I owe to the use of a lamp to attract moths.
During the moonless nights of summer, I sit with a
Sinumbra-lamp, and perhaps one or two smaller lamps,
placed on a table close to the window. The moths
speedily enter the room, if the weather be warm. I have
had a levee of more than a hundred between the hours of
ten and twelve. In the spring, too, and autumn, I have
been frequently fortunate, though generally having my
patience sufficiently tried. In March, for instance, I
have taken many specimens of Biston prodromarius in
one evening ; Gleea rubricosa and Lyt<ea leucographa
have accompanied them. In April and May, Cucullia
Jissina and Perideea serrata have visited me. When
November has arrived, Petasia cassinea and Pacilocampa
populi have crowded into my room. Of course, at such
cool times of the year the window must be kept shut till
the moths knock for admittance. It at any time of the
year a warm mist pervade the air, there is almost a cer-
tainty of success. But should any one be induced by
this account to try the lamp, he must make up his mind
to experience more of unfavourable evenings than favour-
able. There is, however, this advantage in my seden-
tary plan of mothing, that it can be combined with read-
ing or writing ; and the intervals between the arrivals
need not be lost. Moths are extremely sensible of any
keenness in the air ; a north or east wind is very likely
to keep them from venturing abroad. Different species
have dillerent hours of flight. Thus, on a mild and dark
504
HISTORY OF INSECTS.
sense they are thus capable of distinguishing each
other at such distances is not easy to conceive.
It cannot be by the sight, since such small
objects as they are, must be utterly imper-
ceptible at half the distance at which they
perceive each other : it can scarcely be by the
sense of smelling, since the animal has no
organs for that purpose. Whatever be their
powers of perception, certain it is that the
male, after having fluttered, as if carelessly
about for some time, is seen to take wing, and
go forward, sometimes for two miles together,
November evening, P<scilocampa populi will occupy
from seven to ten o'clock, after which it will make way
for Petasia cassinea, which will fly till one or two in the
morning. I have for experiment's sake, sat up in the
summer till three o'clock, when the whole heaven was
bright with the rising sun, and moths of various kinds
have never ceased arriving in succession till that time.
Some of them must come from a considerable distance.
Scotophila porphyrea, being a heath moth, must come
nearly a mile. Moths like butterflies, have their pecu-
liar modes of flight, by which I can generally distinguish
them on their entrance, before I can see their colours.
Some announce themselves by a loud knock on the floor ;
this is the case with Leiocampa dictsa. Some ascend
instantly to the ceiling, as Agrotis corticea. Many, I
might say the majority, pass the lamp rapidly : and this
shows the comparative inutility of using the lamp out of
doors, where only those that loiter about it can be taken.
Some have a soft and gentle flight ; as, for instance,
Cosmia pyratina, one of my most welcome visitors,
whose entrance I am usually made aware of by seeing
something drop down on the table, as quick as hail, but
as light as a fleece of snow ; whilst, on the contrary, the
conceited vagaries and absurd violence of Clisiocantpa
neustria are absolutely amusing ; and cratcegi and populi
are nearly as bad. It is not the Nocturna alone that
come to me in the night — many of what Mr Stephens
calls the Semidiurna, the Geometridte, accompany them
at all hours. It may likewise be worth while to say a
word on my method of securing my prey. Suppose that,
either with or without a bag-net, I have imprisoned a
moth under an inverted wine-glass, I then light a small
piece of German tinder, half the size of a sixpence, or
less, and introduce it under the edge, and by means of
the smoke the insect is stupified almost immediately.
It is then wholly in my power, though it would quickly
revive : — I pierce it ; and, by means of a pin dipped in
oxalic acid, and thurst into the body beneath the thorax,
I prevent its revival, and fix it on the settling board.
The German tinder does not injure the colour, as brim-
stone would, whilst it puts the moth so completely in my
power for a few moments, that the specimens I thus take
and kill are often as perfect and beautiful as if I had bred
them. Of course, I use it for insects taken in the day,
or bred, as well as for those captured by the lamp." The
locality to which the above account refers is the vicinity
of Reading in Berkshire. The list given by Mr Bird
of the species taken in the manner described, includes
many of the rarer and most beautiful kinds found in this
country.
Another method of capturing moths has recently been
practised in the north of England by P. J. Selby, Esq. of
Twizel, and has been attended with so much success,
that we have much pleasure in being enabled to subjoin
the following account of it as communicated by that dis-
tinguished naturalist. " In the course of my entomol-
ogical pursuits — for that fascinating department of Zoo-
logy has for the last year engrossed a great part of my
leisure, — my attention was first directed to the mode I
have since adopted for the capture of nocturnal lepidoptera,
in a direct line, to where the female is perched
on a flower.
The general rule among insects is, that tlie
female is larger than the male ; and this ob-
tains particularly in the tribe I am describing.
The body of the male is smaller and slenderer ;
that of the female more thick and oval. Pre-
vious to the junction of these animals, they
are seen sporting in the air, pursuing and
flying from each other, and preparing, by a
mock combat, for the more important business
of their lives. If they be disturbed while
by the extraordinary success that I understood had at-
tended the exposure of a sugar-cask, recently emptied,
in a favourable situation ; and by means of which attrac-
tion a great variety of moths, some of them of very rare
occurrence, had been secured. As sugar casks are not
easily procured in this country, 1 bethought myself of
some succedaneum, and it presently struck me that a
beehive, or as it is generally called here, a shep, recently
emptied of its honey, or well anointed with the same,
might answer the purpose, as it was evident the insects
were attracted by the saccharine matter and smell. I
accordingly had one prepared, and the very first evening
was convinced that it would prove a very efficient trap,
as several moths of different species were seen and taken
upon it. Unfortunately, the best part of the season was
nearly over before I commenced operations, as it was not
exposed till after the middle of August; but from the
success I have had up to the present time, I am con-
vinced it is one of the most effectual modes of obtaining
the noctuidae, and that many which would otherwise
escape observation are thus to be obtained. Indeed,
some of those I have already procured, I had never be-
fore met with in this district ; and I dare say, but for
this attractive trap, they would have remained long un.
discovered, as some of them are in their force or full
flight at a much later period than we are generally ac-
customed to look after moths. I anticipate a rich harvest
during the ensuing spring and summer, not only of the
noctuidse, but also of the other large moths ; the Geome-
tridse and smaller species I know come to it, as some of
them have already been taken upon it. By this modo
also, many interesting particulars relating to their natural
history are likely to become known to us, such as the
period oi duration of different species, the proportion ol
males and females, &c. I find that in the early part oi
the season their duration is much shorter than at a later;
in many of those occurring in August and September, it
seldom exceeded two or three weeks ; whereas such as
did not appear till towards the end of October have con-
tinued till the present period, that is, nearly three
months ; as I have taken every mild evening specimens
of Cleea Satellitia up to the 26th of January, and Calo-
campa exoleta as late as the 7th of the same month.
The skep should be well anointed on the exterior with
honey (the refuse will answer perfectly well), and should
be supported on a forked stake about four feet from the
ground, or so that the insect can be easily got at and
enclosed in the flappers as they alight and settle upon it.
In this way they may be taken in as fine and perfect
condition as if they had been bred from the larvae within
doors. I generally select a sheltered situation and near
to wood ; of late I have had it near a service tree, whose
berries I had previously observed attracted the moths.
The following are a few of the species taken : — Agrotis
sufiiisa, Pyrophila Tragopogonis, Pyrophila tetra, Glaea
Vaccinii, Glaea spadirea, Apamea nictitans, Polia occults,
Polia Chi, Xanthiafulvago, Xanthia gilvago, Phlogophora
meticulosa, several species of Hadena, Caradrina glareosa,"
&c. &c. — Naturalist's Library. British Moths. Bj
James Duncan, Edin. 1SS6.
ENEMIES OF THE CATERPILLAR.
united, the female flies off with the male on
her back, who seems entirely passive upon
the occasion.
But the females of many moths and butter,
flies seem to have assumed their airy form for
no other reason but to fecundate their eggs,
and lay them. They are not seen fluttering
about in quest of food or a mate : all that
passes during their short lives, is a junction
with the male of about half an hour ; after
which they deposit their eggs and die, with-
out taking any nourishment, or seeking any.
It may be observed, however, that in all the
females of this tribe, they are impregnated by
the male by one aperture, and lay their eggs
by another.
The eggs of female butterflies are disposed
in the body like a bed of chaplets ; which,
when excluded, are usually oval, and of a
whitish colour: some, however, are quite round;
and others flatted like a turnip. The cover-
ing, or shell of the egg, though solid, is thin
and transparent : and in proportion as the
caterpillar grows within the egg, the colours
change, and are distributed differently. The
butterfly seems very well instructed by nature
in its choice of the plant, or the leaf, where it
shall deposit its burthen. Each egg contains
but one caterpillar : and it is requisite that
this little animal, when excluded, should be
near its peculiar provision. The butterfly,
therefore, is careful to place her brood only
upon those plants that afford good nourish-
ment to its posterity. Though the little winged
animal has been fed itself upon dew, or the
honey of flowers, yet it makes choice for its
young of a very different provision, and lays
its eggs on the most unsavoury plants ; the
rag-weed, the cabbage, or the nettle. Thus
every butterfly "chooses not the plant most
grateful to it in its winged state ; but such as
it has fed upon in its reptile form.
All the eggs of butterflies are attached to
the leaves of the favourite plant, by a sort of
size or glue ; where they continue unobserved,
unless carefully sought after. The eggs are
sometimes placed round the tender shoots of
plants, in the form of bracelets, consisting of
above two hundred in each, and generally
surrounding the shoot like a ring upon a ringer.
Some butterflies secure their eggs from the
injuries of air, by covering them with hair
plucked from their own bodies, as birds some-
times are seen to make their nests : so that
their eggs are thus kept warm, and also en-
tirely concealed.
All the tribe of female moths lay their eggs
a short time after they leave the aurelia ; but
there are many butterflies that flutter about
the whole summer, and do not think of laying
till the winter begins to warn them of their
approaching end : some even continue the
VOL. (I.
whole winter in the hollows of trees, and do
not provide for posterity until the beginning
of April, when they leave their retreats,
deposit their eggs, and die.- Their eggs soon
begin to feel the genial influence of the season :
the little animals burst from them in their
caterpillar state, to become aurelias and but-
terflies in their turn, and thus to continue the
round of nature.
CHAP. IV.
OF THE ENEMIES OF THE CATERPILLAR.
NATURE, though it has rendered some ani-
mals surprisingly fruitful, yet ever takes care
to prevent their too great increase. One set
of creatures is generally opposed to another:
and those are chiefly the most prolific that are,
from their imbecility, incapable of making any
effectual defence. The caterpillar has, per-
haps, of all other animals, the greatest number
of enemies ; and seems only to exist by its
surprising fecundity. Some animals devour
them by hundreds ; others more minute, yet
more dangerous, mangle them in various ways ;
so that, how great soever their numbers may
be, their destroyers are in equal proportion.
Indeed, if we consider the mischiefs these
reptiles are capable of occasioning, and the
various damages we sustain from their insa-
tiable rapacity, it is happy for the other ranks
of nature, that there are thousands of fishes,
birds, and even insects, that live chiefly upon
caterpillars, and make them their most fa-
vourite repast.
When we described the little birds that live
in our gardens, and near our houses, as des-
tructive neighbours, sufficient attention was
not paid to the services which they are fre-
quently found to render us. It has been
proved, that a single sparrow and its mate,
that have young ones, destroy above three
thousand caterpillars in a week ; not to men-
tion several butterflies in which numberless
caterpillars are destroyed in embryo. It is in
pursuit of these reptiles that we are favoured
with the visits of many of our most beautiful
songsters, that amuse us during their continu-
ance, and leave us when the caterpillars disap-
pear.
The maxim which has often been urged
against man, that he, of all other animals, is
the only creature that is an enemy to his own
kind, and that the human species only are
found to destroy each other, has been adopted
by persons who never considered the history
of insects. Some of the caterpillar kind, in
particular, that seem fitted only to live upon
leaves and plants, will, however, eat each other;
3 s
506
HISTORY OF INSECTS.
and the strongest Will devour the weak in pre-
ference to their vegetable food. That which
lives upon the oak is found to seize any of its
companions, which it conveniently can, by the
first rings, and inflict a deadly wound • it then
feasts in tranquillity on its prey, and leaves
nothing to the animal but the husk.
But it is not from each other they have the
most to fear, as in general they are inoffensive ;
and many of this tribe are found to live in a
kind of society. Many kinds of flies lay their
eggs either upon or within their bodies ; and,
as these turn into worms, the caterpillar is seen
to nourish a set of intestine enemies within its
body, that must shortly be its destruction :
Nature having taught flies, as well as all other
animals, the surest methods of perpetuating
their kind. — " Towards the end of August,"
says Reaumur, " I perceived a little fly, of a
beautiful gold colour, busily employed in the
body of a large caterpillar, of that kind which
feeds upon cabbage. I gently separated that
part of the leaf on which these insects were
placed, from the rest of the plant, and placed
it where I might observe them more at ease.
The fly, wholly taken up by the business in
which it was employed, walked along the
caterpillar's body, now and then remaining
fixed to a particular spot. Upon this occasion,
I perceived it every now and then dart a sting,
which it carried at the end of its tail, into the
caterpillar's body, and then draw it out again,
to repeat the same operation in another place.
It was not difficult for me to conjecture the
business which engaged this animal so ear-
nestly ; its whole aim was to deposit its eggs
in the caterpillar's body ; which was to serve
as a proper retreat to bring them to perfection.
The reptile thus rudely treated, seemed to
bear all very patiently, only moving a little
when stung too deeply ; which, however, the
fly seemed entirely to disregard. I took par-
ticular care to feed this caterpillar ; which
seemed to me to continue as voracious and
vigorous as any of the rest of its kind. In
about ten or twelve days, it changed into an
aurelia, which seemed gradually to decline,
and died : upon examining its internal parts,
the animal was entirely devoured by worms ;
which, however, did not come to perfection,
as it is probable they had not enough to sustain
them within."
What the French philosopher perceived
upon this occasion is every day to be seen in
several of the larger kinds of caterpillars,
whose bodies serve as a nest to various flies,
that very carefully deposit their eggs within
them. The large cabbage caterpillar is so
subject to its injuries, that, at certain seasons,
it is much easier to find them with than with-
out them. The ichneumon fly, as it is called,
particularly infests these reptiles, and pre-
vents their fecundity. This fly is of all others
the most formidable to insects of various kinds.
The spider, that destroys the ant, the moth,
and the butterfly, yet often falls a prey to the
ichneumon ; who pursues the robber to his
retreat, and despising his net, tears him in
pieces, in the very labyrinth he has made.
This insect, as redoubtable as the little quad-
ruped that destroys the crocodile, has received
the same name ; and from its destruction of
the caterpillar tribe, is probably more service-
able to mankind. This insect, I say, makes
the body of the caterpillar the place for depo-
siting its eggs, to the number of ten, fifteen or
twenty. As they are laid in those parts
which are not mortal, the reptile still continues
to live" and to feed, showing no signs of being
incommoded by its new guests. The cater-
pillar changes its skin, and sometimes under-
goes the great change into an aurelia : but still
the fatal intruders work within, and secretly
devour its internal substance : soon after they
are seen bursting through its skin, and moving
away, in order to spin themselves a. covering,
previous to their own little transformation. It
is indeed astonishing sometimes to see the
number of worms, and those pretty large, that
thus issue from the body of a single cater-
pillar and eat their way through its skin : but
it is more extraordinary still that they should
remain within the body, devouring its entrails,
without destroying its life. The truth is, they
seem instructed by nature not to devour its
vital parts ; for they are found to feed only
upon that fatty substance which composes the
largest partof the caterpillar's body. When this
surprising appearance was first observed , it was
supposed that the animal thus gave birth to a
number of flies different from itself; and that the
same caterpillar sometimes bred an ichneumon,
and sometimes a butterfly : but it was not till
after more careful inspection it was dis-
covered, that the ichneumon tribe were not the
caterpillar's offspring, but its murderers.
CHAP. V
OF THE SILKWORM.
HAVING mentioned, in the last chapter, the
damages inflicted by the caterpillar tribe, we
now come to an animal of this kind, that alone
compensates for all 4he mischief occasioned by
the rest. This little creature, which only
works for itself, has been made of the utmost
service to man ; and furnishes him with a
covering more beautiful than any other ani-
mal can supply. We may declaim indeed
against the luxuries of the times, when silk
is so generally worn ; but were such garments
THE SILKWORM.
507
fo fail, what other arts could supply the de
ficiency ?
Though silk was anciently brought in sraal
quantities to Rome l vet it was so scarce as t(
1 Silk was very little known at Rome till the reign o
Augustus and during a long succeeding period it re-
mained extremely costly, only a small quantity reaching
the imperial city by a circuitous and expensive land am
water carriage. The increasing luxury of the Roman
people caused the demand for silk manufacture to in-
crease much faster than the supply, and the price be-
came exorbitantly high.
Two monks, engaged as missionaries in China, suc-
ceeded in obtaining a quantity of silkworms' eggs, which
they concealed in a hollow cane ; and at length in the
year 552, they conveyed them in safety to Constanti-
nople. The eggs were hatched in the proper season by
the warmth of manure ; and the worms were fed with
the leaves of the wild mulberry-tree. These worms in
due time spun their silk, and propagated under the care-
ful tendence of the monks, who also instructed the Romans
in the whole process of manufacturing their production.
The insects thus produced were the progenitors of the
generations of silkworms which have since been reared
in Europe and the western parts of Asia. Thus, a cane-
ful of the eggs of an oriental insect became the means of
establishing a manufacture which fashion and luxury have
rendered so important.
The mulberry -tree was then eagerly planted in Europe,
for the nourishment of these valuable insect labourers;
and on this, their natural food, they were successfully
reared in different parts of Greece.
The Venetians soon after this time opened commercial
relations with the Greek empire, and continued for many
centuries the channel for supplying the western parts of
Kurope with silks. The estimation in which this manu-
facture was held, continued sufficiently high for it to be
considered worthy of being made a regal gift : it appears
that in tbe year 790, the Emperor Charlemagne gave
two silken vests to Ofl'a, king of Mercia.
Although at this period the Roman empire was fast
declining, they alone possessed the valuable breed of
silkworms, which COO years before had been transferred
from the remotest extremity of the East ; and none
others had manufactured its costly spoils. Roger I.,
king of Sicily, led into captivity a considerable number
of silk-weavers, whom he compulsorily settled in Palermo,
obliging them to impart to his subjects the knowledge of
their art. In twenty years from this forcible establish-
ment of the manufacture, the silks of Italy are described
as having obtained a decided excellence, being of diver-
sified patterns and colours : some fancifully interwoven
with gold. By degrees the manufacture spread over the
greater part of Italy, and was carried into Spain ; and in
the reign of Francis 1., took root in France.
A still longer interval occurred before its adoption into
England, and its introduction was very slow, till the
beginning of the sixteenth century. Bologna was the
only city of Italy which possessed proper throwing mijls,
or the machinery necessary for twisting and preparing
silken fibres for weaving.
The business of a silk-factory was considered a noble
employment in Venice, and might be followed without
degradation by the higher classes.
The silk trade made very little progress in France till
the reign of Francis I., who procured artisans from Milan,
and introduced them into Lyons. The French then
made rapid progress in this pursuit ; and, in addition to
those of Lyons, many manufactories were speedily
started in the southern provinces ; supplying sufficient
for their own consumption, and soon afterwards a super-
abundance for competition in foreign markets ; furnish-
ing many parts of Europe with the fruits of their newly-
be sold for its weight in gold ; and was con-
sidered as such a luxurious refinement in dress,
that it was infamous for a man to appear in
habits of which silk formed but half the corn-
cultivated art ; deriving great wealth from prosecuting
this branch of trade with England. Queen Elizabeth,
in the third year of her reign, 1560, was gratified by
being presented with a pair of knitted black silk stockings
by Mrs Montague, her silk woman ; at which she was so
delighted that she never afterwards condescended to wear
those of cloth. Sir Thomas Gresham presented Edward
VI. with a pair of long Spanish silk stockings, and, from
their rarity, this offering was deemed worthy of much
notice.
When Antwerp was captured by the Duke of Parma,
in 1585, it was consigned during three days to indis-
criminate plunder and destruction ; and about a third
part of their artisans and merchants who wrought and
dealt in silk, took refuge in England, where they finally
settled, and taught those arts by which they had long
prospered in their native land, by which means the
manufacture was materially improved in this country.
Every attempt at rearing silk-worms and producing
silk having, after endless trials, failed, attention was dir-
ected to the establishments for producing both raw and
wrought silks in the settlements at British India ; where
proximity to the country of its original production, the
fitness of the climate, and, above all, the cheapness of
labour, have contributed to insure complete success. The
island of Cossimbuzar and its neighbourhood, in the pro-
vince of Bengal, are particularly favourable to the labours
of the silkworm. There are at this time eight principal
silk-filatures, the produce of eight factories, belonging to
the East India Company, in Bengal. In every filature
there are employed, according to its size, from 3000 to
10,000 people ; and if to these were added the mulberry-
planters, worm feeders, &<•., the number dependent on
each establishment, would be from 10,000 to 40,000
men, women, and children. Silk requires so much care
and attention for its production, and so great a number
of persons must be employed in an establishment for
rearing silkworms, that it is only in countries where the
number of the poorer classes is in great proportion to
capital, and therefore labour very cheap, that silk can
e reared at an expense which ofiers successfully to com-
jete with other countries. The silk, consumed in Eng-
and alone, exceeds four millions of pounds in a year.
Fourteen thousand millions of animated creatures an-
ually live and die to supply this little corner of the
vorld with an article of luxury. The importation of
raw silk from China in 1829 amounted to 600,000 Ibs.
A Lyons newspaper in 1812 states that there were
^0,720 looms, employing 15,506 workmen. In 1824
here were 24,000 looms employing 36,000 hands.
In the year 1685, the revocation of the edicts of
Mantes compelled many merchants, manufacturers, and
artificers, to fly from France. About 70,000 made their
vay to England and Ireland ; many of them resorted to
"pitalfields, contributing much by their knowledge and
kill to the improvement of the silk manufacture. To them
ve are indebted for the art of manufacturing brocades,
atins, black and coloured mantuas, black paduasoys,
ucates, watered satins, and velvets, all of which fabrics
lad been imported up to the year 1718. Our machinery
'eing very defective, we were in a great degree depen-
lent on the throwsters of Italy for a supply of organzine;
ut at that time, Mr Lombe, of Derby, having, in the
isguise of a common workman, succeeded in taking
(•curate drawings of the throwing machinery in Pied-
mont, erected a stupendous mill for that purpose on the
iver Derwent, at Derby, and obtained a patent for the
ole and exclusive property in the same for fourteen
ears. This grand machine was construjte 1 with 26,588
508
HISTORY OF liNSECTS.
position. It was most probably brought among
them from the remotest parts of the East ;
since it was, at. the time of which I am speak-
ing, scarcely known even in Persia.
Nothing can be more remote from the truth,
than the manner in which their historians
describe the animal by which silk is produced.
Pausanias informs us, that silk came from the
country of the Seres, a people of Asiatic
Scythia ; in which place an insect as large as
the beetle, but in every other respect resembl-
ing a spider, was bred up for that purpose.
They take great care, as he assures us, to feed
and defend it from the weather ; as well dur-
ing the summer's heat as the rigours of winter.
This insect, he observes, makes its web with
its feet, of which it has eight in number. It
is fed for the space of four years upon a kind
of paste, prepared for it ; and at the beginning
of the fifth, it is supplied with the leaves of
the green willow, of which it is particularly
fond. It then feeds till it bursts with fat ;
after which they take out its bowels, which
are spun into the beautiful manufacture so
scarce and costly.
The real history of this animal was unknown
among the Romans till the time of Justinian ;
and it is supposed, that silk-worms were not
brought into Europe till the beginning of the
twelfth century ; when Roger, of Sicily,
brought workmen in this manufacture from
Asia Minor, after his return from his expedi-
tion to the Holy Land, and settled them in
Sicily and Calabria. From these the other
kingdoms of Europe learned this manufacture ;
and it is now one of the most lucrative carried
on among the southern provinces of Europe.
The silkworm is now very well known to be
a large caterpillar, of a whitish colour, with
twelve feet, and producing a butterfly of the
moth kind. ' The cone on which it spins, is
wheels, and 97,746 movements, which worked 73,726
yards of organzine thread with every revolution of the
water-wheel, whereby the machinery was actuated. So
rapid was the growth of the silk trade from this time,
that in 1783 the estimated value of silk goods manufactured
in England was £3,350,000.
A great improvement had been effected (ten years
before, viz. 1772) in Bengal raw silk. Better machinery
being brought into use on the Italian system, and com-
petent persons employed as heads of each factory. The
shipments about this period, being from 515,000 to
560,000 Ibs., have steadily increased to 1,500,000 Ibs.
annually. In Italy there is but one regular crop in the
year ; while in Bengal there are three at intervals of four
months, March, July, and November.
1 The silkworm, like all other insects of the same class,
undergoes a variety of changes during the short period of
its life ; assuming, in each of its three successive trans-
formations, a form wholly dissimilar to that with which
it was previously invested.
We will proceed to trace the changes which it under-
goes, commencing with the egg, which is about the size
of agrain, and of a yellow colour, when fresh ; but after a
few days, become rather dark, of a bluish cast. The
formed for covering it while it continues in the
aurelia state ; and several of these, properly
wound off, and united together, form those
strong and beautiful threads which are woven
period which the egg requires is dependent on the tern-
perature of the climate; so much so, that some eggs m«y
be preserved during the winter and spring ; or they may
be quickened by artificial means, when the natural food
appears in sufficient quantity for their support.
When hatched, it appears as a black worm, about a
quarter of an inch in length, gradually becomes larger
and whiter, and in about eight days its head enlarges
and it is attacked by illness, which lasts for three days ;
refusing food, and remaining in a state of lethargy. This
illness is supposed to be on account of the smallness of
the skin. The worm appears at the end of the third day
much wasted, and throwing off a kind of humour, which
has exuded between its body and the skin about to be cast
off, at the same time emits from its body silken cords, so
as to fasten the abandoned skin to a spot whilst the insect
forsakes it, which it performs in the following manner.
It first rubs its head among the leafy fibres, so as to dis-
encumber itself of the scaly covering, and then breaks
through that part of the skin nearest the head. Tin's
action causes the larva very great exertion. Soon after-
wards, it disengages its fore feet, and then the body is
quickly drawn from the skin, which remains stationary.
This operation occupies two or three minutes. The insect
then begins to feed with renewed vigour and health. The
skin sometimes refuses to separate from the body; in
which case, the pressure occasions swelling and inflam-
mation, and generally terminates in death.
Those worms which have recently shed their skin, aro
easily known from the others, by the pale colour and
wrinkled appearance of their new skin. The larva
changes its skin five separate times ; and, on each oc-
casion, increases in size and weight, as may be seen in
following table.
Inches,
When born . J
( )ne moult . I
Two . . I
Three . . IJ
Four . . 2
Five . 2J to 3
Thus, in the space of a few short weeks, the worm in-
creases in weight more than nine thousand times.
The annexed figures represent the worm iu its last
stage, the chrysalis, and the cocoon.
Takp to an ounce.
54,526
3,840"
610
144
35
6
The caterpillar, having arrived at its last moult, de-
vours its food most voraciously, and for ten days continues
increasing in size ; so that its structure can be better ex-
plained than in its former stages. It is now about three
inches in length, and is composed of twelve membranous
rings ; the head is scaly, hard, and tapering ; the mouth
is horizontal ; it has sixteen feet, six of which are placed
in front, armed with claws, on the three rings nearest to
the head ; the other ten feet are placed behind, eight of
which are on the sixth to the ninth and two on the Ic.st
THE SILKWORM.
50i>
into silk. The feeding these worms, the |
gathering, the winding, the twisting, and the
weaving their silk, is one of the principal
manufactures of Europe ; and, as our luxuries
increase, seems every day to become more and
more necessary to human happiness.
ring. These feet may be termed holders. There is also
a kind of tail on the upper part of the last ring but one.
At the end of the period above stated, the worm's
desire for food begins to lessen, though it continues to
nibble the leaves, which it scatters about; its colour is
now of a light green ; it is very restless and uneasy,
erects its head, and moves from side to side in a circular
manner, seeking a corner where it can commence its
labour of forming its cocoon, before which, however, the
body becomes firmer, more glossy, and somewhat trans-
parent towards its head ; it also lessens in size.
It may noC be out of place to mention here from
whence the silk proceeds : — The silk is secreted in the
form of a fine yellow gum, in two long slender vessels,
one on each side of the body. This silky material, when
drawn from the orifices beneath the mouth, anpears to be
one thread, but is, in'fact, composed of two fibres, which
are extracted from the orifices, and brought together by
means i>f two hooks placed in the mouth.
The worm, having fixed upon some corner that will
suit its purpose, commences the labour by spinning thin
and irregular threads, so as to support its future dwel-
ling; it then forms upon these a loose structure of an
oval shape, which is called floss silk ; in the three fol-
lowing days it forms a firm and consistent yellow ball,
the anterior of which is smeared with a peculiar gum,
so as to shield it against the rain and various changes
of temperatures. The filament is not spun in regular
concentric circles, but in stops, going backwards and
forwards with a sort of waving motion, which the
worm effects by means of its fore feet while it remains in
the interior.
Isnard, an old author, affirms, that the length of the
silk of one cocoon, when drawn out, will measure six
miles, that is, 10,5G5 yards ; but Count Dandolo says,
the probable length is 625 yards ; other authors state it to
he about 400 yards, while Pullein says the average length
is SCO yards. The latter author thus writes ;— '• There
is scarcely anything among the various wonders which
the animal creation affords, more admirable than the
variety of changes which the silkworm undergoes ; but
the curious texture of that silken covering with which it
surrounds itself, when it arrives at the perfection of its
animal life, vastly surpasses what is made by other ani-
There are two methods of breeding silk-
worms ; for they may be left to grow, and to
remain at liberty upon the trees where they
are hatched ; or they may bT kept in a place
built for that purpose, and fed every day with
fresh leaves. The first method is used in
mals of this class. All the caterpillar kind do, indeed,
undergo changes like those of the silkworm, and the
beauty of them in their butterfly state greatly exceeds it ;
but the covering which they put on before this change
into a fly is poor and mean, when compared to that
golden tissue in which the silkworm wraps itself. They,
indeed, come forth in a variety of colours, their wings
bedropped with gold and scarlet, yet are they but the
beings of a summer's day ; both their life and beauty
quickly vanish, and they leave no remembrance after
them, but the silkworm leaves behind it such beautiful,
such beneficial monuments, as at once record both the
wisdom of their Creator and his bounty to man."
The worm, having finished its cocoon, rests awhile
from its labour, and at the same time decreases in size
and bulk ; it then throws off its last skin, and undergoes
its metamorphosis into a chrysalis, which is of a chest-
nut colour, and smooth. The time during which the
insect remains in this state of lethargy is generally from
fifteen to thirty days, as it is influenced by the tempera-
ture of the climate in which this metamorphosis is about
to take place, viz. in England it requires thirty days, in
France twenty-one, in Spain and Italy eighteen to twenty,
and in India only eleven days.
After the above stated periodstrfe insect breaks through
the upper end of the cocoon, by emitting a liquid from its
mouth, which moistens the gum with which it has lined
the interior of its chamber. After this operation, it ap-
pears as the perfect insect, with four wings of a grayish
white colour, with two transverse undulated bands o i
the fore arid wings. The stationary and sluggish habits
of these moths are not entirely owing, as is generally
supposed, to the insect being confined within certain
limits during the period of several generations; as these
habits are also common to others of the same family,
which are only found in certain local districts ; and thus
proves that this valuable insect partakes of the same
mode of life in the domestic as in the wild or natural
state. Their life continues for the short period of two or
three days, in which time they are wholly occupied in
securing the continuance of their kind. Various ac-
counts are given as to the number of eggs which the
female lays, some stating 250, while others mention 400
to 500 as the usual number. — Natural History of Insects,
London, 1835. Vol. II.
510
HISTORY OF INSECTS.
China, Tonquin, and other hot countries ; the
other is used in those places where the ani-
mal has been artificially propagated, and still
continues a stranger. In the warm climates,
the silkworm proceeds from an egg, which has
been glued by the parent moth upon proper
parts of the mulberry-tree, and which remains
in that situation during the winter. The
manner in which they are situated and fixed
to the tree, keeps them unaffected by the
influence of the weather ; so that those frosts
which are severe enough to kill the tree, have
no power to injure tlie silkworm.
The insect never proceeds from the egg till
Nature has provided it a sufficient supply;
and till the budding leaves are furnished, in
sufficient abundance, for its support. When
the leaves are put forth, the worms seem to
feel the genial summons, and bursting from
their little eggs, crawl upon the leaves, where
they feed with a most voracious appetite.
Thus they become larger by degrees ; and
after some months' feeding, they lay, upon
every leaf, small bundles or cones of silk,
which appear like so many golden apples,
painted on a fine green ground. Such is the
method of breeding them in the East ; and
without doubt it is*the best for the worms, and
least troublesome for the feeder of them. But
it is otherwise in our colder European cli-
mates ; the frequent changes of the weather,
and the heavy dews of our evenings, render
the keeping them all night exposed, subject to
so many inconveniences, as to admit of no
remedy. It is true, that, by the assistance of
nets, they may be preserved from the insults
of birds; but the severe cold weather, which
often succeeds the first heats of summer,'as
well as the rain and high winds, will destroy
them all : and, therefore, to breed them in
Europe, they must be sheltered and protected
from every external injury.
For this purpose, a room is chosen, with a
south aspect ; and the windows are so well
glazed as not to admit the least air : the walls
are well built, and the planks of the floor ex-
ceedingly close, so as to admit neither birds
nor mice, nor even so much as an insect. In
the middle there should be four pillars erected,
or four wooden posts, so placed as to form a
pretty large square. Between these are dif-
ferent stories made with osier hurdles ; and
under each hurdle there should be a floor with
an upright border all round. These hurdles
and floors must hang upon pullies, so as to be
placed or taken down at pleasure.
When the worms are hatched, some tender
mulberry leaves are provided, and placed in
the cloth or paper-box in which the eggs were
laid, and which are large enough to hold a
great number. When they have acquired
some strength, they must be distributed on
beds of mulberry leaves, in the different stories
of the square in the middle of the room, round
which a person may freely pass on every side.
They will fix themselves to the leaves, and
afterwards to the sticks of the hurdles, when
the leaves are devoured. They have then a
thread, by which they can suspend themselves
on occasion, to prevent any shock by a fall ;
but this is by no means to be considered as the
silk which they spin afterwards in such abun-
dance. Care must be taken that fresh leaves
be brought every morning, which must be
strewed very gently and equally over them ;
upon which, the silkworms will forsake the
remainder of the old leaves, which must be
carefully taken away, and every thing kept
very clean ; for nothing hurts these insects so
much as moisture and uncleanliness. For this
reason their leaves must be gathered when the
weather is dry, and kept in a dry place, if it
be necessary to lay in a store. As these ani-
mals have but a short time to live, they make
use of every moment, and almost continually
are spinning, except at those intervals when
they change their skins. If mulberry leaves
be difficult to be obtained, the leaves of lettuce,
or hollyhock, will sustain them ; but they do
not thrive so well upon their new diet ; and
their silk will neither be so copious, nor of so
good a quality.
Though the judicious choice and careful
management of their diet is absolutely
necessary, yet there is another precaution of
equal importance ; which is, to give them air,
and open their chamber windows, at such
times as the sun shines warmest. The place
also must be kept as clean as posible ; not only
the several floors that are laid to receive their
ordure, but the whole apartments in general.
These things well observed, contribute greatly
to their health and increase.
The worm, at the time it bursts the shell,
is extremely small, and of a black colour ;
but the head is of a more shining black than
the rest of the body : some days after, they
begin to turn whitish, or of an ash-coloured
gray. After the skin begins to grow too
rigid, or the animal is stinted within it, the
insect throws it off, and appears clothed anew ;
it then becomes larger, and much whiter,
though it has a greenish cast; after some days,
which are more or less, according to the dif-
ferent heat of the climate, or to the quality of
the food, it leaves off eating, and seems to
sleep for two days together : then it begins to
stir, and put itself into violent motions, till the
skin falls off the second time, and is thrown
aside by the animal's feet. All these changes
are made in three weeks or a month's time ;
after which it begins to feed once more, still in
its caterpillar form, but a good deal differing
from itself before its change. In a few days'
THE SILKWORiM.
511
time it seems to sleep ag;iin ; and, when it
awakes, it again changes its clothing, and
continues feeding as before. When it has
thus taken a sufficiency of food, and its parts
are disposed for assuming the aurelia form,
the animal forsakes, for the last time, all food
and society, and prepares itself a retreat to
defend it from external injuries, while it is
seemingly deprived of life and motion.
This retreat is no other than its cone, 6Tball
of silk, which Nature has taught it to compose
with great art ; and within which it buries
itself, till it assumes its winged form. This
cone or ball is spun from little longish kinds
of bags that lie above the intestines, and are
lilled with a gummy fluid, of a marigold col-
our. This is the substance of which the
threads are formed ; and the little animal is
furnished with a surprising apparatus for
spinning it to the degree of fineness which its
occasions may require. This instrument in
some measure resembles a wire-drawer's
machine, in which gold or silver threads are
drawn to any degree of minuteness ; and
through this the animal draws its thread with
grtat assiduity. As every thread proceeds
Irom two gum-bags, it is probable that each
supplies its own ; which however, are united,
as they proceed from the animal's body. » If
we examine the thread with a microscope, it
will be found that it is flatted on one side, and
grooved along its length : from hence we may
infer, that it is doubled just upon leaving the
body : and that the two threads stick to each
other by that gummy quality of which they
are possessed. Previous to spinning its web,
the silkworm seeks out some convenient place
to erect its cell, without any obstruction.
When it has found a leaf, or a chink fitted to
its purpose, it begins to wreathe its head in
every direction, and fastens its thread on every
side to the sides of its retreat. Though all its
lirst essays seem perfectly confused, yet they
are not altogether without design : there ap-
pears, indeed, no order or contrivance in the
disposal of its first threads ; they are by no
means laid artfully over each other, but are
thrown out at random, to serve as an external
shelter against rain ; for nature having ap-
pointed the animal to work upon trees in the
open air, its habits remain, though i*_ is
brought up in a warm apartment.
Malpighi pretends to have observed six dif-
ferent layers in a single cone of silk : but what
may easily be observed is, that it is composed
externally of a kind of rough cotton-like sub-
stance, which is called floss ; within, the
thread is more distinct and even ; and next the
body of the aurelia, the apartment seems lined
with a substance of the hardness of paper, but
of a much stronger consistence. It must not
be supposed, that the thread which goes to
compose the cone, is rolled round, as we roll a
bottom ; on the contrary, it lies upon it in a
very irregular manner, and winds off now
from one side of the cone, and then from the
other. This whole thread, if measured, will
be found about three hundred yards long ; and
so very fine, that eight or ten of them are
generally rolled off into one by the manufac-
turers. The cone, when completed, is in form
like a pigeon's egg, and more pointed at one
end than the other: at the smaller end, the
head of the aurelia is generally found : and
this is the place that the insect, when con-
verted into a moth, is generally seen to burst
through.
It is generally a fortnight or three weeks
before the aurelia is changed into a moth;
but no sooner is the winged insect completely
formed, than having divested itself of its aurelia
skin, it prepares to burst through its cone, or
outward prison : for this purpose it extends its
head towards the point of the cone, butts with
its eyes, which are rough, against the lining
of its cell, wears it away, and at last pushes
forward, through a passage which is small at
first, but which enlarges as the animal in-
creases its efforts for emancipation ; while the
fattered remnants of its aurelia skin lie in con-
fusion within the cone, like a bundle of dirty
linen.
The animal, when thus set free from its
double confinement, appears exhausted with
fatigue, and seems produced for no other pur-
pose but to transmit a future brood. It neither
flies nor eats ; the male only seeking the fe-
male, whose eggs he impregnates ; and their
union continues for four days, without inter-
ruption. The male dies immediately after
separation from his mate ; and she survives
him only till she has laid her eggs, which are
not hatched into worms till the ensuing spring.
However, there are few of these animals
suffered to come to a state of maturity ; for as
their bursting through the cone destroys the
silk the manufacturers take care to kill the
aurelia, by exposing it to the sun, before the
moth comes to perfection. This done, they
take off the floss, and throw the cones into
warm water, stirring them till the first thread
offers them a clue for winding all off. They
generally take eight of the silken threads
together ; the cones being still kept under
water, till a proper quantity of the silk is
wound off: however, they do not take all;
for the latter parts grow weak, and are of a bad
colour. As to the paper-like substance which
remains, some stain it with a variety of colours,
to make artificial flowers ; others let it lie in
the water, till the glutinous matter which
cements it is all dissolved : it is then carded
like wool, spun with a wheel, and converted
into silk stuffs of an inferior kind.
HISTORY OF INSECTS, &c.
BOOK IV.
INSECTS OF THE FOURTH ORDER.
CHAP. I.
OF THE FOURTH ORDER OF INSECTS IN
GENERAL,.
IN the foregoing part we treated of caterpillars
changing into butterflies; in the present will
be given the history of grubs changing into
their corresponding winged animals. These,
like the former, undergo their transformation,
and appear as grubs or maggots, as aurelias,
and at last as winged insects. Like the for-
mer, they are bred from eggs ; they feed in
their reptile state ; they continue motionless
and lifeless, as aurelias ; and fly and propa-
gate, when furnished with wings. But they
differ in many respects : the grub or maggot
wants the number of feet which the caterpillar
is seen to have ; the aurelia is not so totally
wrapped up, but that its feet and its wings
appear. The perfect animal, when emanci-
pated, also has its wings either cased, or trans-
parent like gauze ; not coloured with that
beautifully painted dust which adorns the
wings of the butterfly.
In this class of insec's, therefore, we may
place a various tribe, that are first laid as
eggs, then are excluded as maggots or grubs,
then change into aurelias, with their legs and
wings not wrapped up but appearing ; arid,
lastly, assuming wings, in which state they
propagate their kind. Some of these have
four transparent wings, as bees ; some have
two membranous cases to their wings, as bee-
tles ; and somu have but two wings, which
are transparent as ants. Here, therefore, we
will place the bee, the wasp, the humble-bee,
-the ichneumon fly, the gnat, the tipula or long
legs, the beetle, the may-bug, the glow-worm,
and the ant. The transformation 9 which all
these undergo, are pretty nearly similar ; and
though very different animals in form, yet are
produced nearly in the same manner.
CHAP. II.
OF THE BEE.
To give a complete history of this insect in
a few pages, which some have exhausted vol-
umes in describing, and whose nature and
properties still continue in dispute, is impossi-
ble.1 It will be sufficient to give a general
idea of the animal's operations ; which, though
they have been studied for more than two
thousand years, are still but incompletely
known. The account given us by Reaumur
is sufficiently minute ; and, if true, sufficient-
ly wonderful : but I find many of the facts
which he relates, doubted by those who are
most conversant with bees : and some of them
actually declared not to have a real existence
in nature.
'It is unhappy, therefore, for those whose
method demands a history of bees, that they
are unfurnished with those materials which
have induced so many observers to contradict
so great a naturalist. His life was spent in
1 The varieties of the bee are figured in the coloured Plate
70. Figs. 1, 2, and 3 show the three different kinds of the
honey-bee ; namely, the worker, the male or drone, and the
queen. Figs. 4 and 5 are examples of the common humble-
bee. Figs. 6 and 7, the male and female of the lapidary-
bee, so named from its habit of forming its nest amongst
loose heaps of stones. Fig. 8 is the moss or carder-bee,
so named from the moss which it employs to cover its
dwelling, and that mechanical process by which it seems
to card or comb it, to render it suitable for its purposes.
Fig. 9, Donovan's humble-bee. Fig. 10, Harris' humble-
bee. Figs. 11 and 12 exhibit the Apathus vestalis and the
Apathus rupeslris, or false humble-bees, whose characteristic
is their apathy, by which they are led to appropriate the
nests and stores of other bees to their own use.
THE BEE.
513
the contemplation ; and it requires an equal
share ot' attention, to prove the error of his dis-
coveries. Without entering, therefore, into
the dispute, I will take him for my guide ;
and just mention, as I go along, those parti-
culars in which succeeding observers have be-
gun to think him erroneous. Which of the
two are right, time only can discover ; for my
part. I have only heard one side, for as yet
none have been so bold as openly to oppose
Reaumur's delightful researches.
There are three different kinds of bees in
every hive.1 First, the labouring bees, which
1 Functions of the inmates of a hive. — A hive consists
of the Queen, or mother-bee, the Workers varying in
numbers, from 10,000, to 20,000 or 30,000, and the
Males or Drones, from 700 to double that number.
Functions of the Queen. — The Queen is the parent
of the hive, and her sole province and occupation consist
in laying the eggs, from which originate those prodigious
multitudes that people a hive, and emigrate from it in
the course of one summer. In the height of the season,
her fertility is truly astonishing, as she lays not fewer
than 200 eggs per day, and even more when the season
is particularly warm and genial, and flowers are abun-
dant ; and this laying continues, though at a gradually
diminishing rate, till the approach of cold weather in
October. So early as February, she resumes her labours
in the same department, and supplies the great blank
made in the population by the numerous casualties that
take place between the end of summer and commence-
ment of spring. Her great laying of the eggs of workers
begins generally about the fifth day of her age ; and she
continues to deposit eggs of the same kind for the suc-
ceeding eleven months ; after which she commences
laying those of males. It is during the depositing of
these last, that the Bees are led by their instinct to lay
the foundation of royal cells, in which, if the population
be abundant, the Queen deposits eggs at intervals of one
or two days between each. In the operation of laying,
which we have a thousand times witnessed, the Queen
puts her nead into a cell, and remains in that position
about a second or two, as if to ascertain whether it is
in a fit state to receive the deposit. She then withdraws
her head, curves her body downwards, inserts her ab-
domen into the cell, and turns half round on herself;
having kept this position for a few seconds, she with-
draws her body, having in the meantime laid an egg.
The egg itself, which is attached to the bottom of the
cell by a glutinous matter with which it is imbued, is of
a slender oval shape, slightly curved, rather more point-
ed in the lower end than in the other. She passes on
from cell to cell, furnishing each with the germ of a
future inhabitant; and during these proceedings, she
receives the most marked and affectionate attention from
the workers. She is seen continually surrounded by a
circle of them, who caress her fondly with their antennte,
and occasionally supply her with food from their pro-
bosces. This appearance has given rise to the notion
commonly entertained, and asserted even by some Na-
VOL. II-
make up the far greatest number, arid are
thought to be neither male nor female, but
merely bom for the purposes of labour, and
continuing the breed, by supplying the young
with provision, while yet in their helpless state.
The second sort are the drones ; they arc of a
darker colour, longer, and more thick by one-
third than the former ; they are supposed to
be the males ; and there is not above a hun-
dred of them in a hive of seven or eight thou-
sand bees. The third sort is much larger
than either of the former, and still fewer in
number ; some assert that there is not above
turalists, that the Queen is followed in her progress
through the hive by a number of her subjects formed in
a circle round her, and these of course have been regard-
ed as the Queen's body guards. The truth is, however,
that her Bee-majesty lias no attendants, strictly speak-
ing; none who follow in her train; but wherever she
moves, the workers whom she encounters in her progress
instantly and hurriedly clear the way before her, and all
turning their heads towards their approaching sovereign,
lavish their caresses upon her with much apparent
affection, and touch her softly with their antennie ; and
these circumstances, which may be observed every hour
in the day, in a properly constructed glass hive, have
given rise to the idea of guards. The moment she
has left the circle, the bees who had surrounded her
instantly resume their labours, and she passes on, receiv-
ing from every group in her way the homage due to a
Mother and a Queen
Functions of the Worker -Bee. — The workers, to the
number of 10,000, 20,0(0, and even 30,000, constitute
the great mass of the population of a hive, and on them
devolve the whole labours of the establishment. Theirs
is the office of searching for and collecting (he precious
fluid which not only furnishes their daily food, as well as
that of their young, and the surplus of which is laid up
for winter stores, but also the materials from which they
rear their beautiful combs. In the little basket-shaped
cavity in their hind-legs, they bring home the pollen or
farinaceous dust of flowers, kneaded by the help of the
morning dew into tiny balls, which form an important
ingredient in the nourishment of the brood : and also the
propolis or adhesive gum extracted from willows, &o.,
with which they attach their combs to the upper part
and sides of the hive, and stop every crevice that might
admit the winter's cold. Exploring a glass hive in a
soft spring morning, and following with his eye a bee
loaded with farina, the observer will perceive the little
active forager, on her arrival in the interior, hurrying
over the surface of the comb in search of a proper cell in
which to deposit her burden; and having found one,
fastening herself by the two fore-feet on its superior bor-
der, then bending her body a little forward, that her hin-
der feet may catch hold of the opposite edge of the cell.
In this position she is next seen thrusting back her se-
cond pair of feet, one on each side, and sweeping with
them from top to bottom along the two hinder legs,
where the farina balls are fixed, and by this means de-
taching them from the hairy linings of the cavities, and
depositing them in the cell. To the workers, also, are
committed the various offices of guarding the entrance
3 T
514
HISTORY OF INSECTS.
one in every swarm : but this later observers
affirm not to be true, there being sometimes
five or six in the same hive. These are called
queen bees, and are said to lay all the eggs
of the hive by night and day, during the honey season ;
of repulsing marauders ; of keeping their abode free from
all offensive matters ; of renewing the air within by an
ingenious mode of ventilation ; of replacing a lost Queen,
and of destroying the drones at the decline of the honey
season. Receiving from nature these weighty charges,
they labour assiduously to fulfil them ; and, while each
member of the community acts by the impulse of its
individual instinct, it works less for private than for the
general good. These labours appear unceasing; yet do
the weary labourers sometimes snatch an interval of re-
pose. During the busy season, we have seen hundreds
of the workers retiring into the cells, and exhibiting all
the marks of profound sleep. This fact is very easily
observable, especially in those cells which are construct-
ed, as sometimes happens, against the glass, and where
that substance forms one side of the cell. There they
are, the fatigued labourers, stretched at full length, with
their heads at the bottom, and every limb apparently in
a relaxed state, while the little body is seen heaving
gently from the process of respiration. Huber thinks
he has ascertained that there are two kinds of workers in
a hive, one of which he calls IVax workers, and the other
Nurses. The office of the first class, according to Hu-
ber, is not only to collect honey, which both kinds do,
but also to elaborate the wax, and construct the combs.
The particular function of the other, is to take care of
the young. They may be distinguished in entering the
hive, by carefully examining their shape; the wax-work-
ers having their bellies somewhat cylindrical, while
those of the nurses retain their ovoidal figure. The
anatomical structure of the two is said to be differ-
ent, and the capacity of stomach not the same ; so that
the one species is incapable of fulfilling all the functions
of the other. Huber has also directed our attention to
a class of workers, which he calls Black Bees, and
which he first observed in 1809, and on several other
occasions from that time to the year 1813. In every
thing they bear a perfect resemblance to their fellow-
workers, except in colour, which in them is a deep
black. He describes them as persecuted by the other
workers, and finally expelled the hives, or destroyed.
We have noticed them, though rarely ; perhaps not more
than one or two in a season. The other bees did not molest
them, as far as we observed, nor indeed seem in any way
sensible of their presence. It is not improbable, as
Kirby and Spence conjecture, that they are merely aged
bees, and that their deeper colour arises from the hair or
down, with which the young are so thickly clothed, being
worn off their bodies.
In describing the functions of the Working Bee, it
would be improper to pass over unnoticed the fact, that
it sometimes exercises the functions of a mother. To
account for this apparent anomaly, \ve must remember
that it has been ascertained by minutely accurate dissec-
tion, that all the workers are females, though of imper-
fect organization; a fact confirmed by the very circum-
stance we are now discussing. We must also keep in
mind, that the larva of a Queen is nourished with food
of a different kind from that of common bees ; and
this difference, in conjunction with a more roomy cell,
has, in the opinion of naturalists, the effect of expanding
the ovarium, and qualifying her to become a mother.
It is evident, therefore, that, if the larva of a common
bee were fed with the royal jelly, the imperfection in her
bodily organs would, as far at least as depended on the
nature of the food, be removed, and she would become
capable of laying eggs. Now this does occasionally take
place ; some of the royal food is dropped, probably hy
from which the whole swarm is hatched in a
season.
In examining the structure of the common
working bee, the first remarkable part that
accident, into some of the cells adjoining that of the
Queen, and the bees therein reared acquire the power of
laying eggs. This fact was discovered by the naturalist
Riem, and has been confirmed by Huber. There i--,
however, a very material and hitherto unaccounted for
difference between these fertile workers and perfect
Queens ; the former lay the eggs of males only. We
would certainly have expected, a priori, that a differ-
ence between them should exist ; because the workers
have fed on the royal jelly only for a short time, and be-
cause their birth-place is so much smaller. But we
cannot easily conceive how these circumstances should
be the cause of their laying only male eggs. In truth,
it appears to be one of those mysteries in bee- economy,
which, with all our researches on the subject, we cannot
yet unravel. These fertile workers are never found in
any hives but such as have lost their natural Queen.
The natural term of the worker's existence does not
extend, we think, beyond six or eight months. It is
the opinion of Dr Bovan that all the bees brought into
existence at the Queen's great laying in spring die before
winter. But many never reach that period. Showers
of rain, violent blasts of wind, sudden changes of atmos-
phere, destroy them in hundreds. In the clear cold
mornings and evenings of autumn, their eagerness for
foraging entices them abroad early and late ; when,
alighting on the ground, many are chilled, and quickly
perish. And should they escape the blighting atmos-
phere at the close of autumn, a bright sunshine in a
winter day, when the ground perhaps is covered with
snow, brings them abroad in multitudes, and the half
of them never return. From these causes, independent
of the numbers which fall a prey to enemies, a swarm
which in July amounted to fifteen or twenty thousand,
will, by the following February or March, have dwindled
to a mere handful. It is otherwise with the Queen;
going seldom abroad, she is little exposed to accidents.
Her natural life is prolonged to several years, though
the precise extent has not been accurately ascertained.
In 1834 we had one in our possession, which we had
every reason to believe was not less than four years
old.
Functions of the Mule or Drone. — The sole office of
the Male, or at least the primary one, is to pair with
the Queen. He is the father of the hive. Indolent
and luxurious, he takes no part in the internal operations
of the domicile, and never leaves it with a view of shar-
ing in the labours of the field. When he does venture
abroad, it is only in the finest weather, and during the
waimest part of the day, at which time the young Queens
are instinctively led to go out in search of the male.
He is easily distinguished from the workers by his larger
size, by his heavy motion in flight, and by his loud hum-
ming sound. We have said that the primary function
of the drones is to perpetuate the race of bees by pairing
with the Queen, but some naturalists have assigned
them a secondary office, namely, that of contributing by
their numbers to the heat of the hive, and thus aiding in
bringing the brood to maturity. In some parts of the
THE BEE.
515
offers is the trunk, which serves to extract the
honey from flowers. It is not formed, like
that of other flies, in the manner of a tube, by
which the fluid is to be sucked up ; but like a
besom to sweep, or a tongue to lick it away.
continent, accordingly, Fehurier tells us, they have re-
ceived the name of Hatchers. There are occasionally
found drones of a small size in hives where the impreg-
nation of the Queen has been retarded. In such circum-
stances, her instinct is so impaired, that she lays her eggs
indiscriminately in all kinds of cells; those of males
sometimes in the cells of workers. The consequence is,
that these males, when hatched, are diminutive in size,
having been cramped in their growth by the smallness of
their birth-place.
The life of this vir gregis is extremely short ; the
favoured lover perishes soon after his union with the
female, and thus anticipates, though only by a short pe-
riod, the destruction which awaits his race. So early
as the beginning of August, the bees, as if wishing to
apply " the preventive check1' to a superabundant idle
population, begin to manifest deadly intentions towards
them ; and the unfortunate victims, as if to derive con-
solation from one another's society, or perhaps driven
together by their irascible superiors, may be seen about
tuat period clustering closely together in some corner of
the combs, where they remain without motion, and with-
out once venturing to approach the provision-cells. Thus
•"••eakened by hunger and captivity, and disqualified for
resistance by the want of a sting, they fall an easy prey
to their merciless assailants ; and a scene of carnage
takes place which it is difficult to describe. The un-
happy wretches are seen driven to the bottom of the hive
pursued with such fury, that, in spite of their strength,
which is greatly superior to that of their persecutors, and
which enables them to drag two or three of their assail-
ants along the board, and even to fly ofT with them, they
are unable to avoid the mortal thrust of their formidable
stings, and expire instantaneously from the effects of the
poison. But death overtakes them in various forms;
for their enemies sometimes seize them by the wings,
and with their strong mandibles gnaw them at the roots,
and disable them from flying. They may then be seen
in numbers crawling on. the ground, where they perish
from the cold, or are trampled under foot, and devoured
by birds or frogs. Such as escape for a while, may be
seen flying from destruction, lighting on the shrubs and
flowers to enjoy a moment's respite from their terrors ;
or buzzing about our windows, or wandering about from
hive to hive, into one of which they no sooner enter
than certain death awaits them. Nay, so bitter is the
fury of their tormentors, that, not satisfied with de-
stroying these unhappy beings themselves, they tear
from the cells such of the doomed rare as are yet in the
state of larva;, and sucking from their bodies, with in-
stinctive economy, the fluids they contain, cast the life-
less remains out of the hive. There are cases, however,
in which this destruction of males does not take place.
" In hives that have lost their Queen," says Huber, " the
males are spared ; and, while a savage massacre rages
in other hives, they here find an asylum. They are
tolerated and fed, and many are seen even in the middle
of January." The cause of this may perhaps be looked
for in the additional heat which they would generate in
winter ; or perhaps they may be preserved for the pur-
pose of pairing with a new Queen.
The impregnation of the Queen-bee is a branch o
Natural History which has given rise to more discussior
than almost any other fact, connected with the nature o
the insect. And indeed the difficulty, we might almosl
say impossibility of obtaining any thing like ocular evi-
dence on the subject, will readily account for the diver-
sity of opinion that has hitherto prevailed. And we
The animal is furnished also with teeth, which
serve it in making wax. This substance ia
gathered from flowers, like honey ; it consists
of that dust or farina which contributes to the
fecundation of plants, and is moulded into wax
should hope that this difficulty alone, and not any precon-
ceived theory or unreasonable prejudice, is the cause of
that determined pertinacity with which the discoveries
and conclusions of Huber, on this subject, are still in
some instances rejected. That justly celebrated natu-
ralist, instituted a set of experiments on the subject of
the Queen's impregnation, the result of which leads to the
conclusion that it takes place in the air.
There is a fact connected with this part of the natural
history of the mother-bee which involves great difficul-
ties. The fact itself was discovered by Huber, but its
cause he was unable to develope, and no succeeding
naturalist has been able to free it from the obscurity in
which he has left it, we mean the effects of retarded im-
pregnation. These effects are such as- we could hardly
credit, were not the fact confirmed by numerous experi-
ments. If impregnation be delayed longer than twenty
days from the Queen's birth, the consequence is, that
none but male eggs are laid, even during the whole of
the Queen's life. This phenomenon has baffled every
attempt to explain its cause. " There are mysteries,"
observes Feburier, " in the operations of nature, both in
reference to the rational and irrational creation, which
will, probably, for ever remain inscrutable to man." In
the natural state of things, that js, when fecundation has
not been postponed, the Queen lays the eggs of workers
in forty-six hours after her union with the male, and
continues for the subsequent eleven months to produce
these alone, and it is only after this period that a consi-
derable laying of the eggs of drones commences. These
male eggs require eleven months to attain to maturity,
but, under the effects of retardation, they are matured in
forty-six hours. The eggs of workers, which, in the
usual state of things, would have been laid first, never
come to light; their vitality has been destroyed by some
vitiation which has taken place, and the cause of which
has not yet been discovered. Huber, in reasoning on
the subject, and contemplating the difficulty attending
it, declares it to be " an abyss in which he is lost."
There is another circumstance which he has not adverted
to, and which seems to increase these difficulties. He
asserts that before a Queen commences her great laying
of male-eggs, she must be eleven months old. But
he acknowledges that " a Queen hatched in spring,
will perhaps lay fifty or sixty eggs of drones in whole,
during the course of the ensuing summer." We know
this to be true from our own experience ; and also as
the usual consequence of this appearance of male-eggs,
that the bees commence building royal cells ; the Queen
lays in them, and swarming takes place. Now this par-
tial laying of drone-eggs takes place only in the case of
very early swarms ; and if the weather be unfavourable,
it does not happen even in them. But if in the natural
state, the space of eleven months be necessary for the
male-eggs to acquire that degree of increment they must
have attained when laid, how are we to explain the fact
of two or three score of these male-eggs making their
appearance before the mother- bee is six weeks old ?
Leaving this matter in the obscurity which we cannot
dispel, we have only further to observe, that in every
case of retarded impregnation the instinct of the Quet;n
appears to be greatly impaired. She lays her eggs indis-
criminately in drone and worker cells ; now and then
even in royal cells ; and does not evince that jealousy
and irritable temperament towards her rivals, which, in
the natural state, characterize the Queen. — Naturalist'*
Library. Entomology. Vol. vi. Bees. Edinburgh,
1S40
516
HISTORY OF INSECTS.
by the little animal at leisure. Every bee,
when it leaves the hive to collect this precious
store, enters into the cup of the flower, parti-
cularly such as seem charged with the great-
est quantities of this yellow farina. As the
animal's body is covered over with hair, it
rolls itself within the flower, and soon becomes
quite covered with the dust, which it soon af-
ter brushes off with its two hind-legs, and
kneads into two little balls. In the thighs of
the hind-legs there are two cavities, edged
with hair, and into these, as into a basket, the
animal sticks itspellets. Thus employed, the
bee flies from flower to flower, increasing its
store, and adding to its stock of wax ; until
the ball upon each thigh become-s as big as a
grain of pepper : by this time, having got a
sufficient load, it returns, making the best of
its way to the hive.1
1 The celebrated John Hunter shrewdly remarked
that the pellets cf pollen seen on the thighs of bees are
of different colours on different bees, while the shade of
the new-made comb is always uniform ; and therefore he
concluded that pollen was not the origin of wax. Pol-
len also, he observed, is collected with greater avidity for
old hives, where the comb is complete, than for those
where it is only begun, which would hardly be the case
were it the material of wax. He found that when the
weather was cold and wet in June, so that a young
swarm was prevented from going abroad, as much comb
was constructed as had been made in an equal time
when the weather was favourable and fine. The pellets
of pollen on the thighs being thence proved not to be wax,
he came to the conclusion that it was an external secre-
tion originating between the plates of the belly. When
he first observed this, he felt not a little embarrassed to
explain the phenomenon, and doubted whether new
plates were forming, or whether bees cast the old ones
as lobsters do their shells. By melting the scales, he
ascertained at least that they were wax ; and his opinion
tvas confirmed by the fact, that the scales are only to be
found during the season when the combs are constructed.
But he did not succeed in completing the discovery by
observing the bees actually detach the scales, though he
conjectured they might be taken up by others, if they
were once shaken out from between the rings.
That wax is secreted, is proved both by the wax
pouches within the rings of the abdomen, and by actual
experiment. Huber and others fed bees entirely upon
honey or sugar, and, notwithstanding, wax was produced
and combs formed as if they had been at liberty to select
their food. " When bees were confined," says M. Hu-
ber, " for the purpose of discovering whether honey was
sufficient for the production of wax, they supported their
captivity patiently, and showed uncommon perseverance
in rebuilding their combs as we removed them. Our
experiments required the presence of grubs; honey and
water had to be provided; the bees were to be supplied
with combs containing brood, and at the same time it
was necessary to confine them, that they might not seek
pollen abroad. Having a swarm by chance, which had
become useless from the sterility of the queen, we devo-
ted it for our investigation in one of my leaf hives, which
was glazed on both sides. We removed the queen, and
substituted combs containing eggs and young grubs, but
no cell with farina; even the smallest particle of the
substance which John Hunter conjectured to be the ba-
sis of the nutriment of the young was taken away. No-
thing remarkable occurred during the first and second
day: the bees brooded over the young, and seemed to
The belly of the bee is divided into six
rings, which sometimes shorten the body, by
slipping one over the other. It contains with-
in it, beside the intestines, the honey-bag, the
take an interest in them: but at sunset, on the third, a
loud noise was heard in the hive. Impatient to discover
the reason, we opened a shutter, and saw all in confusion ;
the brood was abandoned; the workers ran in disorder
over the combs ; thousands rushed towards the lower part
of the hive ; and those about the entrance gnawed at its
grating. Their design was not equivocal; they wished
to quit their prison. Some imperious necessity evidently
obliged them to seek elsewhere what they could not find
in the hive; and apprehensive that they might perish if
I restrained them longer from yielding to their instinct,
I set them at liberty. The whole swarm escaped ; but
the hour being unfavourable for their collections, they
flew around the hive, and did not depart from it. In-
creasing darkness and the coolness of the air compelled
them very soon to return. Probably these circumstances
calmed their agitation ; for we observed them peaceably
remounting their combs; order seemed re-established,
and we took advantage of this moment to close the hive.
Next day, the 19th of July, we saw the rudiments of
two royal cells, which the bees had formed on one of the
brood combs. This evening, at the same hour as on the
preceding, we again heard a loud buzzing in the closed
hive ; agitation and disorder rose to the highest degree,
and we were again obliged to let the swarm escape.
The bees did not remain long absent from their habita-
tion ; they quieted and returned as before. We re-
marked on the 20th, that the royal cells had not been
continued, as would have been the case in the ordinary
state of things. A great tumult took place in the even-
ing ; the bees appeared to be in a delirium ; we sot them
at liberty, and order was restored on their return. Their
captivity having endured five days, we thought it need-
less to protract it farther ; besides, we were desirous of
knowing, whether the brood was in a suitable condition,
and if it had made the usual progress ; and we wished
also to try to discover what might be the cause of the perio-
dical agitation of the bees. M. Burnens (the assistant
of Huber) having exposed the two brood combs, the royal
cells were immediately recognized; but it was obvious
that they had not been enlarged. Why should they ?
Neither eggs, grubs, nor that kind of paste peculiar to the
individuals of their species, were there ! The other
cells were vacant likewise ; no brood, not an atom of
paste was in them. Thus the worms had died of hun-
ger. Had we precluded the bees from all means of sus-
tenance by removing the farina ? To decide this point,
it was necessary to confide other broods to the care of the
same insects, now giving them abundance of pollen.
They had not been enabled to make any collections while
we examined their combs. On this occasion they es-
caped in an apartment where the windows were shut ;
and after substituting young worms for those they had
allowed to perish, we returned them to their prison.
Next day we remarked that they had resumed courage ;
they had consolidated the combs, and remained on the
brood. They were then provided with fragments cf
combs, where other workers had stored up farina; and to
be able to observe what they did with it, we took this
substance from some of their cells, and spread it on the
board of the hive. The bees soon discovered both the
farina in the combs and what we had exposed to them.
They crowded to the cells, and also descending to the
bottom of the hives, took the pollen grain by grain in
their teeth, and conveyed it to their mouths. Those that
had eaten it most greedily, mounted the combs before
the rest, and stopping on the cells of the young worms,
inserted their heads, and remained there for a certain
time. M. Burnens opened one of the divisions of the
THE BEE.
517
venom-bag, and the sting. The honey-bag
is as transparent as crystal, containing the
honey that the bee has brushed from the
flowers ; of which the greater part is carried
to the hive, and poured into the cells of the
honey-comb, while the remainder serves for
the bee's own nourishment ; for, during sum-
mer, it never touches what has been laid up
for winter. The sting which serves to defend
this little animal from its enemies, is compos-
ed of three parts ; the sheath and two darts,
which are extremely small and penetrating.
Both the darts have several small points or
barbs, like those of a fish-hook, which render
the sting more painful, and make the darts
rankle in the wound. Still, however, this
instrument would be very slight, did not the
bee poison the wound. The sheath, which
has a sharp point, makes the first impression ;
which is followed by that of the darts, and
then the venomous liquor is poured in. The
sheath sometimes sticks so fast in the wound,
that the animal is obliged to leave it behind ;
by which the bee soon after dies, and the
wound is considerably inflamed. It might
at first appear well for mankind, if the bee
were without its sting ; but upon recollection,
it will be found, that the little animal would
then have too many rivals in sharing its la-
bours. A hundred other lazy animals, fond
of honey, and hating labour, would intrude
upon the sweets' of the hive ; and the treasure
would be carried off for want of armed guard-
ians to protect it.
From examining the bee singly, we now
come to consider it in society, as an animal
not only subject to laws, but active, vigilant,
laborious, and disinterested. All its provisions
are laid up for the community ; and all its
hive gently, and powdered the workers, for the purpose
of recognizing them when they should ascend the combs.
He observed them during several hours, and by this
means ascertained that they took so great a quantity of
pollen only to impart it to their young. Then with-
drawing the portions of comb which had been placed by
us on the board of the hive, we saw that the pollen had
been sensibly diminished in quantity. They were re-
turned to the bees, to augment their provision still far-
ther, for the purpose of extending the experiment. The
royal, as well as several common cells were soon closed;
and, on opening the hive, all the worms were found to
have prospered. Some still had their food before them ;
the cells of others that had spun were shut with a waxen
covering. We witnessed these facts repeatedly, and al-
ways with equal interest. They so decisively prove the
regard of the bees towards the grubs which they are en-
trusted with rearing, that we shall not seek for any other
explanation of their conduct. Another fact, no less ex-
traordinary, and much more difficult to be accounted for,
was exhibited by bees constrained to work in wax, seve-
ral times successively, from the syrup of sugar. Toward
the close of the experiment they ceased to feed the young,
though in the beginning these had received the usua
attention. They even frequently dragged them from
their cells, and carried them out of the hive."
arts in building a cell, designed for the bene-
fit of posterity. The substance with which
bees build their cells, is wax ; which is fash-
ioned into convenient apartments-for themselves
and their young. When they begin to work
in their hives, they divide themselves into
four companies : one of which roves in the
fields in search of materials ; another employs
itself in laying out the bottom and partitions
of their cells; a third is employed in making
the inside smooth from the corners and angles ;
and the fourth company bring food for the rest,
or relieve those who return with their respec-
tive burdens. But they are not kept constant
to one employment; they often change the
tasks assigned them : those that have been at
work, being permitted to go abroad; and those
that have been in the fields already, take their
rtlaces. They seem even to have signs, by
which they understand each other; for when
any of them wants food, it bends down its
trunk to the bee from whom it is expected,
which then opens its honey-bag, and lets some
drops fall into the other's mouth, which is at
that time open to receive it. Their diligence
and labour is so great, that in a day's time
they are able to make cells, that lie upon each
other, numerous enough to contain three thou-
sand bees.
If we examine their cells, they will be found
formed in the exactest proportion. It was
said by Pappus, an ancient geometrician, that
of all other figures, hexagons were the most
convenient; for when placed touching each
other, the most convenient room would be
given, and the smallest lost. The cells of the
bees are perfect hexagons : these, in every
honey-comb, are double, opening on either
side, and closed at the bottom. The bottoms
fart of Honey-comb with Queen's cell.
are composed of little triangular panes, which,
when united together, terminate in a point,
and lie exactly upon the extremities of other
panes of the same shape, in opposite cells.
These lodgings have spaces, like streets, be-
tween them, large enough to give the bees a
free passage in and out; and yet narrow en-
ough to preserve the necessary heat. The
mouth of every cell is defended by a border,
which makes the door a little less than the in-
side of a cell, which serves to strengthen the
518
HISTORY OF INSECTS.
whole. These cells serve for different purpo-
ses ; for laying up their young ; lor their wax,
which in winter .becomes a part of their food ;
and for their honey, which makes their prin-
cipal subsistence.
It is well known that the habitation of bees
ought to be very close ; and what their hives
want, from the negligence or unskilfulness of
man, these animals supply by their own in-
dustry: so that it is their principal care, when
first hived, to stop -up all the crannies. For
this purpose they make use of a resinous gum,
which is more tenacious than wax, arid differs
greatly from it. This the ancients called
propolis : it will grow considerably hard in
June ; though it will in some measure soften
by heat ; and is often found different in con-
sistence, colour, and smell. It has generally
an agreeable aromatic odour when it is
warmed ; and by some it is considered as a
most grateful perfume. When the bees be-
gin to work with it, it is soft, but it acquires a
firmer consistence every day; till at length it
assumes a brown colour, and becomes much
harder than wax. The bees carry it on their
hinder legs ; and some think it is met with on
the birch, the willow, and poplar. However
it is procured, it is certain that they plaster the
inside of their hives with this composition.
If examined through a glass hive, from the
hurry the whole swarm is in, the whole ap-
pears at first like anarchy and confusion ; but
the spectator soon finds every animal diligent-
ly employed, and following one pursuit, with
a settled purpose. Their teeth are the instru-
ments by which they model and fashion their
various buildings, and give them such sym-
metry and perfection. They begin at the top
of the hive ; and several of them work at a
time at the cells which have two faces. If
they are stinted with regard to time, they give
the new cells but half the depth which they
ought to have ; leaving them imperfect, till
they have sketched out the number of cells ne-
cessary for the present occasion. The con-
struction of their combs costs them a great deal
of labour : they are made by insensible addi-
tions ; and not cast at once in a mould, as some
are apt to imagine. There seems no end of
their shaping, finishing, and turning them
neatly up. The cells for their young are most
carefully formed ; those designed for lodging
the drones, are larger than the rest ; and that
for the queen-bee the largest of all. The cells
in which the young brood are lodged, serve at
different times for containing honey ; and this
proceeds from an obvious cause : every worm
before it is transformed into an aurelia, hangs
its old skin on the partitions of its cell ; and
thus, while it strengthens the wall, diminishes
the capacity of its late apartment. The same
cell, in a single summer, is often tenanted by
three or four worms in succession ; and the
next season by three or four more. Each
worm takes particular care to fortify the pan-
nels of its cell, by hanging up its spoils there:
thus, the partitions being lined six or eight
deep, become at last too narrow for a new
brood, and are converted into store-houses for
honey.
Those cells where nothing but honey is de-
posited, are much deeper than the rest. When
the harvest of honey is so plentiful that they
have not sufficient room for it, they either
lengthen their combs, or build more; which
are much longer than the former. Sometimes
they work at three combs at a time ; for when
there are three work-houses, more bees may
be thus employed, without embarrassing each
other.
But honey, as was before observed, is not
the only food upon which these animals sub-
sist. The meal of flowers, of which their wax
is formed, is one of their most favourite re-
pasts. This is a diet which they live upon
during the summer ; and of which they lay up
a large winter provision. The wax of which
their combs are made, is no more than this
meal digested, and wrought into a paste.
When the flowers upon which bees generally
feed, are not fully blown, and this meal or dust
is not offered in sufficient quantities, the bees
pinch the tops of the stamina in which it is
contained, with their teeth ; and thus antici-
pate the progress of vegetation. In April and
May, the bees are busy, from morning to even-
ing, in gathering this meal ; but when the
weather becomes too hot in the midst of sum-
mer, they work only in the morning.
The bee is furnished with a stomach for its
wax, as well as its honey. In the former of
the two, their powder is altered, digested, and
concocted into real wax, and is thus ejected
by the same passage by which it was swal-
lowed. Every comb, newly made, is white :
but it becomes yellow as it grows old, and al-
most black when kept too long in the hive.
Beside the wax thus digested, there is a large
portion of the powder kneaded up for food in
every hive, and kept in separate cells, for win-
ter provision. This is called by the country
people, bee-bread ; and contributes to the
health and strength of the animal during win-
ter. Those who rear bees, may rob them of
their honey, and feed them, during the win-
ter, with treacle; but no proper substitute has
yet been found for the bee-bread; and, with-
out it, the animals become consumptive, and
die.
As for the honey, it is extracted from that
part of the flower called the nectareum. From
the mouth this delicious fluid passes into the
gullet ; and then into the first stomach, or
honey-bag, which, when filled, appears like
THE BEE.
519
an oblong bladder. Children that live in
country places, are well acquainted with this
bladder; and destroy many bees, to come at
their store of honey. When a bee has suffi-
ciently filled its first stomach, it returns back
to the hive, where it disgorges the honey into
one of the cells. It often happens that the bee
delivers its store to some other, at the mouth
of the hive, and flies off for a fresh supply.
Some honeycombs are always left open for
common use ; but many others are stopped up,
till there is a necessity of opening them. Each
of these is covered carefully with wax ; so
close, that the covers seem to be made at the
very instant the fluid is deposited within them.
Having thus given a cursory description of
the insect, individually considered, and of the
habitation it forms, we next come to its social
habits and institutions : and, in considering
this little animal attentively, after the necessary
precautions for the immediate preservation of
the community, its second care is turned to the
continuance of posterity. How numerous
soever the multitude of bees may appear in
one swarm, yet they all owe their original to
a single parent, which is called the Queen-Bee.
It is indeed surprising that a single insect
shall, in one summer, give birth to above
twenty thousand young : but, upon opening
her body the wonder will cease; as the num-
ber of eggs appearing at one time, amounts to
five thousand.1 This animal, whose existence
1 On the conversion of the larva of a Worker into a
Queen. — Bee?, when deprived of their queen, are en-
dowed by nature with the power of remedying this ca-
lamity, by converting a worker larva into a royal one ;
and, by means of a cell of a larger size, and of a peculiar
kind of nourishment, of producing a female that shall be,
to all intents and purposes, a queen or mother-bee, cap-
able of perpetuating, her kind. The discovery of this
singular fact is generally attributed to Schirach, and,
probably, with justice ; for, although the practice of mak-
ing artificial swarms, which can only be effected by
causing the production of artificial queens, is said to have
pervailed amongst the modern Greeks and Italians from
a very early period, it does not follow, nor does it appear
from any authentic documents, that they were aware of
the reason why. The manner in which Schirach made
the discovery is interesting: — Having used a great
quantity of smoke in some of his operations, the bees
were so annoyed by it that numbers of them left the hive,
and, amongst them, the queen. Knowing the conse-
quences of her loss, he sought for her diligently, but in vain.
Next morning he observed a cluster of bees about the
size of an apple on the prop of the hive whose queen had
fled ; here he discovered a queen, and, having carried
her to the entrance of the hive which had lost its own, she
was immediately surrounded by the bees, and treated in
such a manner as plainly announced that she was their
queen. "What was my astonishment," he proceeds,
" when, wishing to introduce her among the combs, I
saw that the bees remaining had already planned and
almost finished three royal cells ! Struck with the ac-
tivity and sagacity of these creatures, to save themselves
from impending deotruction, I was filled with admira-
tion, and adored the infinite goodness of God in the care
taken to perpetuate his works. Having carried away two
is of so much importance to her subjects, may
easily be distinguished from the rest by her
size, and the shape of her body. On her
safety depends the whole welfare of the com-
monwealth ; and the attentions paid her by
all the rest of the swarm, evidently show the
dependence her subjects have upon her
security. If this insect be carefully observed,
of the cells to ascertain whether the bees would continue
their operations, I beheld, next morning, with the utmost
surprise, that they had removed all the food from around
the third worm left behind, on purpose to prevent its
conversion to a queen." The fact of this power possessed
by the bees is so extraordinary, that its reality was at
first called in question by several eminent naturalists,
among others, by the justly celebrated Bonnet. This
naturalist was at last, however, cbnvinced of its reality
by experiments instituted by himself, and, satisfied that
all the working-bees are females of imperfect organisa-
tion, expressed his opinion that the evolution of the germ
is effected by the action of the prolific matter as a stim-
ulant, as a substantial nutriment suitable for that pur-
pose ; and he supposes that a certain quality of food ad-
ministered more copiously than in ordinary cases, may
unfold those organs in the larvae of bees that never would
have appeared without it. He conceived, also, that a
habitation, like a queen-cell, considerably more spacious,
and differently placed, is absolutely necessary to the ctm-
plete development of organs, which the new nutriment
may cause to grow in all directions. It furnishes a sur-
prising evidence of the slow degrees by which scientific
facts make their way, if not essential to general utility,
when we consider that to this day, the knowledge of this
singularity in the natural history of this insect, is confined
almost exclusively to apiarians, and even rejected by
some of them. It has, however, been confirmed by so
many experiments instituted by many different individ-
uals, that no unprejudiced mind can withhold its assent
from its truth.
The proceedings of the bees, in order to supply the loss
of their queen, are extremely interesting. In about
twenty-four hours they are aware of the misfortune that
has befallen them, and, without loss of time, they set
about repairing the disaster. They fix upon a worm not
more than three days old, demolish the three contiguous
cells, and raise around it a regular cylindrical inclosure.
At the end of three days, the workers change the direc-
tion of the cell, which has hitherto been horizontal, into
a perpendicular position, working downwards till it assume
the appearance of a stalactite. In due time it is sealed,
and the larva undergoes its metamorphosis into a royal
nymph. Huber gives a detail of some interesting ex-
periments on this head, the substance only of which we
can present to our readers. He deprived a hive of its
queen, and put into it some pieces of comb containing
worker eggs. The same day several cells were enlarged
by the bees, and converted into royal cells, and the larvae
supplied with a profusion of jelly. He then removed
these worms from the royal cells, and substituted for
them as many common worms from workers' cells. The
bees did not seem aware of the change, they watched
over the new worms as intently as over those chosen by
themselves ; they continued enlarging the cells, and
closed them at the usual time. At the proper time, two
queens were hatched, almost at the same moment, of
the largest size, and well formed in every respect. Noth-
ing could be more conclusive than this experiment. It
demonstrated that bees have the power of converting the
worms of workers into queens, since they succeeded in
procuring them by operating on worms not chosen by
themselves, but selected for them.' — Naturalist's Library.
Edin. 1840.
520
HISTORY OF INSECTS.
she will be seen at times attended with a
numerous retinue, marching from cell to cell,
plunging the extremity of her body into many
of then), and leaving a small egg in each.
The bees which generally compose her
train are thought to be males, which serve to
impregnate her by turns. These are larger
and blacker than the common bees ; without
stings, and without industry. They seem
iormed only to transmit a posterity ; and to
attend the queen, whenever she thinks proper to
issue from the secret retreats of the hive, where
she most usually resides. Upon the union of
these two kinds depends all expectations of a
future progeny ; for the working bees are of
no sex, and only .labour for another offspring :
yet such is their attention to the queen, that
if she happens to die, they will leave off
working, and take no further care of posterity.
If, however, another queen is, in this slate of
universal despair, presented them, they im-
mediately acknowledge her for their sovereign,
and once more diligently apply to their labour.
It must be observed, however, that all tins
fertility of the queen-bee, and the great at-
tentions paid to her by the rest, are contro-
verted by more recent observers. They assert,
that the common bees are parents themselves ;
that they deposit their eggs in the cells which
they have prepared ;, that the females are im-
pregnated by the males, and bring forth a
progeny, which is wholly their own.1
However, to go on with their history, as
delivered us by Mr Reaumur. — When the
queen-bee has deposited the number of eggs
necessary in the cells, the working bees under-
take the care of the rising posterity. They
are seen to leave off their usual employments ;
to construct proper receptacles for eggs ; or to
complete those that are already formed. They
purposely build little cells, extremely solid,
for the young ; in which they employ a great
deal of wax: those designed for lodging the
males, as was already observed, are larger
than the rest ; and those for the queen-bees
the largest of all. There is usually but one
egg deposited in every cell; but when the
fecundity of the queen is such, that it exceeds
the number of cells already prepared, there
are sometimes three or four eggs crowded
together in the same apartment. But this is
an inconvenience that the working bees will
by no means suffer. They seem sensible that
two young ones, stuffed up in the same cell,
when they grow larger, will but embarrass
and at last destroy each other : they therefore
take care to leave a cell to every e°-o- ; and
remove or destroy the rest.
The single egg that is left remaining, is
fixed to the bottom of the cell, and touches it
1 See Note at the beginning of the chapter.
but in a single point. A day or two after it
is deposited, the worm is excluded from the
shell of the egg, having the appearance of a
maggot rolled up in a ring, and lying softly
on a bed of a whitish-coloured jelly ; upon
which also the little animal begins to feed.
In the meantime, the instant it appears, the
working bees attend it with the most anxious
and parental tenderness ; they furnish it every
hour with a supply of this whitish substance,
on which it feeds and lies ; and watch the
cell with unremitting care. They are nurses
that have a greater affection for the offspring
of others, than many parents have for their
own children. They are constant in visiting
each cell, and seeing that nothing is wanting;
preparing the white mixture, which is nothing
but a composition of honey and wax, in their
own bowels, with which they feed them.
Thus attended, and plentifully fed, the worm,
in less than six days' time, comes to its full
growth, and no longer accepts the food offered
it. When the bees perceive that it has no
further occasion for feeding, they perform the
last offices of tenderness, and shut the little
animal up in its cell ; walling up the mouth
of its apartment with wax : where they leave
the worm to itself ; having secured it from
every external injury.
The worm is no sooner left inclosed, but
from a state of inaction, it begins to labour,
extending and shortening its body ; and by
this means lining the walls of its apartment
with a silken tapestry, which it spins in the
manner of caterpillars, before they undergo
their last transformation. When their cell is
thus prepared, the animal is soon after trans-
formed into an aurelia ; but differing from
that of the common caterpillar, as it exhibits
not only the legs, but the wings of the future
bee, in its present state of inactivity. Time,
in about twenty or one and twenty days after
the egg was laid, the bee is completely formed,
and fitted to undergo the fatigues of ifs state.
When all its parts have acquired their proper
strength and consistence, the young animal
opens its prison, by piercing with its teeth the
waxen door that confines it. When just
freed from its cell, it is as yet moist, and in-
commoded with the spoils of its former situa-
tion -. but the officious bees are soon seen to flock
round it, and to lick it clean on all sides with
their trunks ; while another band, with equal
assiduity, are observed to feed it with honey :
others again begin immediately to cleanse the
cell that has been just left ; to carry the ordure
out of the hive, and to fit the place for a new
inhabitant. The young bee sooli repays their
care by its industry ; for as soon as ever its
external parts become dry, it discovers its
natural appetites for labour, and industriously
begins the task, which it pursues unremittingly
THE BEE.
521
through life. The toil of man is irksome to
him, and he earns his subsistence with pain ;
but this little animal seems happy in its
pursuits, and finds delight in all its employ-
ments.
When just freed from the cell, and pro-
perly equipped by its fellow-bees for duty, it
at once issues from the hive, and instructed
only by Nature, goes in quest of flowers,
chooses only those that yield it a supply,
rejects such as are barren of honey, or have
been already drained by other adventurers ;
and when loaded, is never at a loss to find its
way back to the common habitation. After
this first sally, it begins to gather the mealy
powder that lies on every flower, which is
afterwards converted into wax ; and with this,
the very first day, it returns with two large
balls stuck to its thighs.
When bees first begin to break their prisons,
there are generally above a hundred excluded
in one day. Thus, in the space of a few weeks,
the number of the inhabitants in one hive, of
moderate size, becomes so great, that there is
no place to contain the new comers ; and they
arc scarcely excluded from the cell, when they
are obliged, by the old bees, to sally forth in
(juest of new habitations. In other words, the
hive begins to swarm, and the new progeny
prepares for exile.1
1 Those not experienced in the nature of bees, may be
greatly deceived in the purchasing of hives for stock. It
cau only be by a minute examination of the interior of
the hive, that a just estimate of its value maybe gained;
this, however, is attended with much difficulty, and some
danger ; but by the outward appearance and weight of
the hive he may perhaps arrive at nearly a correct con-
jecture. The best season for purchasing is either in
February or at the swarming season ; in February it has
survived the rigour-of winter, and the purchaser has
then only to attend to the population of the hive, or its
apparent age. Lpt the purchaser observe with attention
the number of bees which enter the hive loaded with the
fruits of their industry ; and if an apparently equal num-
ber departs in great bustle and hurry, he may then con-
jecture the hi veto be in good health and well populated;
and if a loud humming noise is heard within the hive, it
is a certain sign of its strength and prosperity. The
weight of a hive in February should never be under fifteen
pounds, nor in autumn under thirty ; and care should be
taken that the hive is new, for in old hives a quantity of
farina or bee-head accumulates, which adds considerably
to its weight ; the purchaser should also reject a hive
when he ob erves its straw decayed and rotten, the
ligaments loose, and frequent blotches over it, for it will
cost him incessant trouble and vexation to keep it in a
sufficient state of preservation, so as to maintain the
health of his bees.
The apiary, or place where the bee-hives are placed,
should in very warm situations be made to face the east,
and in colder districts the south east. It should be well pro-
tected from high winds, which not only prevent the bees
from leaving the hive in quest of honey, but they also
surprise them in the fields, and often kill them by dashing
them against the trees and rocks or into rivers. The
hives in an apiary should always be placed in a right
line; but should the number of the hives be great, and
the situation not capacious enough toadmitof their being
VOL. II.
While there is room enough in the hive,
the bees remain quietly together ; it is neces-
sity alone that compels the separation. Some-
times, indeed, the young brood, with grace-
placed longitudinally it is more advisable to place them
over one another on shelves than in double rows on the
ground. A bee, on leaving the hive, generally forms an
angle of about forty-five with the horizon ; the elevation
of the hive should therefore be about two feet from the
ground, in order to protect it from humidity. The greater
the elevation of the hive, the longer is the flight of the
swarm ; and when they are at a certain point of eleva-
tion, the swarms are lost for ever to the proprietor. If
the hives are to be placed in a double row, the hinder
ones should alternate with, and be placed at such a dis-
tance from, the front ones, that when the bees take their
flight no obstruction is offered to their ascent. Huish
recommends placing every hive upon a single pedestal,
and at two or three feet distance from each other. By this
means, when any thing happens to one hive, the others
are less likely to be disturbed than when placed on a
shelf in a bee-house ; and the hive may be chained down
and locked. It is usual to have three or four legs or
supports to the bee-boards ; but those who have tried one
will never resort to more, as one is a much better pro-
tection from vermin and insects. The space in front of
the apiary should be kept clear of high plants for two or
three yards.
The variety of bees employed is a matter of some con-
sequence. To the common observer all working bees,
as to external appearance, are nearly the same ; but to
those who examine them with attention, the difference
in size is very distinguishable ; and they are, in their
vicious and gentle, indolent and active natures, essen-
tially different. Of the stock which Howison had in
18LO, it required 250 to weigh an ounce; but they were
so vicious and lazy that he changed it for a smaller
variety, which possessed much better dispositions, and of
which it required 296, on an average, to weigh an ounce.
Whether size and disposition are invariably connected,
is not determined.
The best material and form for hives is a straw thimble
or flower-pot placed in an inverted position. Hives
made of straw, as now in use, have a great advantage
over those made of wood and other materials, from the
effectual defence they afl'ord agaiust the extremes of heat
in summer and cold in winter.
The size of hives should correspond as nearly as pos-
sible with that of the swarms. This has not had that
attention paid to it which the subject demands, as much
of the success in the management of the bees depends on
that circumstance. From blind instinct bees endeavour
to fill with combs whatever hive they are put into, before
they begin to gather honey. Owing to this, when the
hive is too large for its inhabitants, the time for collect-
ing their winter store is spent in unprofitable labour ; and
starvation is the consequence. This evil also extends to
occasioning late swarming the next summer; it being
long before the hive becomes so filled with young bees as
to produce a necessity for emigration, from which cause
the season is too far advanced for the young colonies to
procure a winter stock. A full-sized straw hive will
hold three pecks ; a small-sized from one and a half to
two pecks.
The Polish hive appears to be the second in merit to
that described, and perhaps it may deserve the prefer-
ence, if the mode of using it were generally known. It
is simply the trunk of a tree, of a foot or fourteen inches
in diameter, and about nine feet long. It is scooped out
(boring in this country would be better) for about six fett
from one end, so as to form a hollow cylinder of that
length, and of six or eight inches in diameter within.
Part of the circumference of this cylinder is cut out dur-
ing the greater part of its length, about four inches wide,
3 u
522
HISTORY OF INSECTS.
less obstinacy, refuse to depart, and even
venture to resist their progenitors. The young
ones are known by being browner than the
old, with whiter hair ; the old ones are of a
lighter colour, with red hair. The two armies
are therefore easily distinguishable, and dread-
ful battles are often seen to ensue. But the
victory almost ever terminates with strict
political justice in favour of the veterans, and
the rebellious offspring are driven off, not
without loss and mutilation.
In different countries, the swarms make
their appearance at different times of the year,
and there are several signs previous to this
intended migration. The night before, an
unusual buzzing is heard in the hive ; in the
morning, though the weather be soft and in-
viting, they seem not to obey the call, be-
ing intent on more important meditations with-
in. All labour is discontinued in the hive ;
every bee is either employed in forcing, or re-
and a slip of wood is made to fit the opening. On the
sides of this slip, or segment, notches are made every two
or three inches, of sufficient size to allow a single bee to
pass. This slip may he furnished with hinges, and with
a lock and key ; but in Poland it is merely fastened in
by a wedge. All that is wanting to complete the hive
is a cover at top to throw ofl' the rain ; and then it re-
quires only to be placed upright like a strong post in the
garden, so as the bottom of the hollow cylinder may be
not nearer the ground than two feet, and the opening slip
look to the south. When a swarm is to be put in, the
tree, with the door or slip opened, is placed obliquely
over it ; when the bees enter, the door is closed, and the
holes stopped with clay till the hive is planted or placed
upright. When honey is wanted, the door is opened
during the finest part of a warm day, when most of the
bees are out; its entire state is seen from top to bottom,
and the operator, with a segar in his mouth, or with a
lighted rag, to keep ofl' the bees from his hands, cuts out
with a crooked knife as much comb as he thinks fit. In
this way fresh honey is obtained during the summer, the
bees are never cramped for room, nor does it become
necessary to kill them. The old comb, however, is
annually cut out, to prevent or lessen the tendency to
swarming, which, notwithstanding this and the size of
their dwelling, they generally do once a year ; for the
laws of nature are not to be changed. Though it be a
fact that a small swarm of bees will not do well in a large
hive ; yet, if the hive extend in length and not in
breadth, it is admitted both by Huher and Huish that
they will thrive in it. " If too great a diameter," says
Huber, " he not given to the abode of the bee, it may
without danger be increased in the elevation : their
success in the hollow trees, their natural domicile, incon-
testably proves the truth of this assertion."
The feeding of bees is generally deferred till winter
or spring ; but this is a most erroneous practice. Hives
should be examined in the course of the month of Sep-
tember, or about the time of killing the drones ; and if
a large hive does not weigh thirty pounds, it will be
necessary to allow it half a pound of honey, or the same
quantity of soft sugar made into syrup, for every pound
that it is deficient of that weight ; and in like proportion
to smaller hives. This woik must not be delayed, that
time may be given for the bees to make the deposit in
their empty cells before they are rendered torpid by the
cold. Sugar simply dissolved in water (which is a
common practice), and sugar boiled with water into a
luctantly yielding, a submission ; at length,
after some noise and tumult, a queen-bee is
chosen to guard, rather than conduct the young
colony to other habitations, and then they are
marshalled without any apparent conductor.
In less than a minute they leave their nat ve
abode, and forming a cloud round their pro-
tectress, they set oil without seeming to know
the place of their destination ; the world be-
fore them, where to choose their place of rest.
The usual time of swarming is from ten in the
morning to three in the afternoon, when the
sun shines bright, and invites them to seek
their fortunes. They flutter for a while in the
air, like flakes of snow, and sometimes un-
dertake a distant journey, but more frequently
are contented with some neighbouring asylum .
the branch of a tree, a chimney-top, or some
other exposed situation. It is, indeed, re-
markable, that all those animals, of whatever
kind, that have long been under the protection
syrup, form compounds very differently suited for the
winter store of bees. When the former is wanted for
their immediate nourishment, as in spring, it will answer
equally as a syrup ; but if to be laid up as store, the heat
of the hive quickly evaporating the water, leaves the
sugar in dry crystals, not to be acted upon by the trunks
of the bees. Hives may be killed with hunger while
some pounds' weight of sugar remain in this state in
their cells. The boiling of sugar into syrup forms a
closer combination with the water, by which it is pre-
vented from flying ofl", and a consistence resembling that
of honey retained. Howison had frequent experience of
hives, not containing a pound of honey, preserved in
perfect health through the winter with sugar so prepared,
when given in proper time and in sufficient quantity.
The quantity of food which ought to be given to a hive
may be calculated in the proportion of two pounds a
month ; but if the weather be very cold, a less quantity
will suffice. When a hive is fed in the spring, it should
always be after sunset, when the bees have returned from
the fields ; otherwise the most disastrous consequences
may ensue from the robberies committed by the bees of
other hives. If they are fed in the morning, it must be
before sunrise, and the entrance instantly stopped to keep
out depredators ; for as the bees leave the hive on the
very first appearance of day-light, a later period would
prevent the return of all those who had left the hive
previous to the entrance being secured. The following
receipt for bees is recommended as beneficial and eco-
nomical. To two quarts of good ale put one pound of
moist sugar ; boil them until the sugar is wholly dis-
solved, carefully skimming it ; when it is cold, it will be
found of the consistency of honey, and it may be given
to the bees in the following manner : If the bees are in
the plain cottage hive, an eek of the same diameter as
the hive must be provided, and from three to four hands
in height. When the sun is set, and the bees have
retired, let the hive be gently raised, and the eek placed
on the stool : then, having filled a soup-plate witli the
food, place it on the eek, and put down the hive. To
prevent the bees being drowned in the liquid, it is
necessary to place some straws over the plate, and nver
the straws a piece of paper, either thickly perforated or
cut into nicks ; these nicks, however, must not run
parallel with the straws, but either across or diagonally;
the entrance must then be closed, and the plate removed
on the following morning, and the whole of the liquid
will be transferred into the combs.
THE BEE.
523
of man, seem to lose a part of their natural sa-
gacity in providing for themselves. The rab-
bit, when domesticated, forgets to dig holes,
the hen to build a nest, and the bee to seek a
shelter that shall protect it from the inclemen-
cies of winter. In those countries where (he
bees are wild, and unprotected by man, they
are always sure to build their waxen cells in
the hollow of a tree ; but with us, they seem
improvident in (heir choice, and the first green
branch that stops their flight, seems to be
thought sufficient for their abode through win-
ter. However, it does not appear that the
queen chooses the place where they are to
alight, for many of the stragglers, who seemed
to be pleased with a particular branch, go and
settle upon it ; others are seen to succeed ; and,
at last, the queen herself, when she finds a
sufficient number there before her, goes to
make it the place of her head-quarters. When
the queen is settled, the rest of the swarm soon
follow ; and, in about a quarter of an hour, the
whole body seern to be at ease. It sometimes
is found, that there are two or three queens to
a swarm, and the colony is divided into par-
lies ; but it most usually happens, that one of
these is more considerable than the others, and
the bees, by degrees, desert the weakest, to
take shelter under the most powerful protec-
tor. The deserted queen does not long sur-
vive this defeat ; she takes refuge under the
new monarch, and is soon destroyed by her
jealous rival. Till this cruel execution is per-
formed, the bees never go out to work ; and if
there should be a queen-bee belonging to the
new colony left in the old hive, she always
undergoes the fate of the former. However,
it must be observed, that the bees never sacri-
fice any of their queens, when the hive is full
ot wax and honey ; for there is at that time no
danger in maintaining a plurality of breeders.
When the swarm is thus conducted to a
place of rest, and the policy of government is
settled, the bees soon resume their former la-
bours. The making cells, storing them with
honey, impregnating the queen, making pro-
per cells for the reception of the rising pro-
geny, and protecting them from external dan-
ger, employ their unceasing industry. But
soon after, and towards the latter end of sum-
mer, when the colony is sufficiently stored
with inhabitant*; a most cruel policy ensues.
The drone bees, which are (as has been said)
generally in a hive to the number of a hun-
dred, are marked for slaughter. These, which
had hitherto led a life of indolence and plea-
sure, whose only employment was in impreg-
nating the queen, and rioting upon the la-
bours of the hive, without aiding in the gene-
ral toil, now share the fate of most voluptuar-
ies, and fall a sacrifice to the general resent-
ment of society.
The working bees in a body declare war
against them ; and in two or three days' time
the ground all round the hive is covered with
their dead bodies. Nay, the working bees
will even kill such drones, as are yet in the
woim state, in the cell, and eject their bodies
from the hive among the general carnage.
When a hive sends out several swarms in
the year, the first is always the best, and the
most numerous. These having the whole
summer before them, have the more time for
making wax and honey, and consequently
their labours are the most valuable to the pro-
prietor. Although the swarm chiefly consists
of the youngest bees, yet it is often found that
bees of all ages compose the multitude of emi-
grants, and it often happens that bees of all
ages are seen remaining behind. The num-
ber of them is always more considerable than
that of some populous cities, for sometimes
upwards of forty thousand are found in a
single hive. So large a body may well be sup-
posed to work with great expedition ; and in
fact, in less than twenty-four hours they will
make combs above twenty inches long, and
seven or eight broad. Sometimes they will
half fill their hives with wax in less than five
days. In the first fifteen days, they are al-
ways found to make more wax than they do
afterwards during the rest of the year.
Such are the outlines of the natural history
of these animals, as usually found in our own
country. How they are treated, so as to pro-
duce the greatest quantity of honey, belongs
rather to the rural economist, than the natural
historian ; volumes have been written on the
subject, and still more remains equally curious
and new. One thing, however, it may be
proper to observe, that a farm, or a country,
may be over-stocked with bees, as well as with
any other sort of animal; for a certain num-
ber of hives always require a certain number
of flowers to subsist on. When the flowers
near home are rifled, then are these indus-
trious insects seen taking more extensive
ranges : but their abilities may be over taxed ;
and if they are obliged, in quest of honey, to
go too far fiom home, they are over-wearied in
the pursuit, they are devoured by birds, or
beat down by the winds and rain.
From a knowledge of this, in some parts of
France and Piedmont, they have contrived, as
I have often seen, a kind of floating bee-
house.
They have on board one barge threescore
or a hundred bee-hives, well defended from
the inclemency of an accidental storm : and
with these the owners suffer themselves to
float gently down the river. As the bees are
continually choosing their flowery pasture
along the banks of the stream, they are fur-
nished witb sweets before unrifled ; and thus
524
HISTORY OF INSECTS.
a single floating bee-house yields (he proprie-
tor a considerable income. Why a method si-
milar to this has never been adopted in Eng-
land, where we have more gentle rivers, and
more flowery banks, than in any other part of
the world, I know not : certainly it might be
turned to advantage, and yield the possessor a
secure, though perhaps a moderate income.
Having mentioned the industry of these ad-
mirable insects, it will be proper to say some-
thing of the effects of their labour of that wax
and honey which are turned by man to such
various uses. Bees gather two kinds of wax;
one coarse, and the other fine. The coarser
sort is bitter, and with this, which is called
propolis, they stop up all the holes and crevi-
ces of their hives.1 It is of a more resinous
nature than the fine wax, and is consequently
better qualified to resist the moisture of the
season, and preserve the wocks warm and dry
within. The fine wax is as necessary to the
1 It was strongly suspected by Reaumur, that the bees
collected the propolis from those trees which are known
to produce a similar gummy resin, such as the poplar,
the birch, and the willow; but he was thrown into doubt
by not being able to detect the bees in the act of procur-
ing it, and by observing them to collect it where none
of those trees, nor any other of the same description,
grew. His bees also refused to make use of bitumen,
and other resinous substances, with which he supplied
them, though Mr Knight was more successful.
Huber at length set the question at rest. " For many
years," says he, " I had fruitlessly endeavoured to find
them entrees producing an analogous substance, though
multitudes had been seen returning laden with it. In
July, some branches of the wild poplar, which had been
cut since spring, with very large buds, full of a reddish,
viscous, odoriferous matter, were brought to me, and I
planted them in vessels before hives, in the w-ay of the
bees going out to forage, so that they could not be insen-
sible of their presence. Within a quarter of an hour
they were visited by a bee, which separating the sheath
of a bud with its teeth, drew out threads of the viscous
substance, and lodged a pellet of it in one of the baskets
of its limbs : from another bud it collected another pellet
for the opposite limb, and departed to the hive. A se-
cond bee took the place of the former in a few minutes,
following the same procedure. Young shoots of poplar,
recently cut, did not seem to attract these insects, as
their viscous matter had less consistence than the for-
mer. Different experiments proved the identity of this
substance with propolis; and now, having only to disco-
ver how the bees applied it to use, we peopled a hive,
so prepared as to fulfil our views. The bees, building
upwards, soon reached the glass above ; but, unable to
quit their habitation, on account of rain, they were three
weeks without bringing home propolis. Their combs
remained perfectly white until the beginning of July,
when the state of the atmosphere became more favourable
for our observations. Serene warm weather engaged
them to forage, and they returned from the fields laden
with a resinous gum, resembling a transparent jelly, and
having the colour and lustre of the garnet. It was easily
distinguished from the farinaceous pellets then collected
by other bees. The workers bearing the propolis ran
over the clusters suspended from the roof of the Live,
and rested on the rods supporting the comos, or some-
times stopped on the sides of their dwelling, in expecta-
tion of their companions coming to discumber them of
their burden. We actually saw two or three arrive, and
carry the propolis from off the limbs of each with their
teeth. The upper part of the hive exhibited the most
animated spectacle : thither a multitude of bees resorted
from all quarters, to engage in the predominant occupa-
tion of the collection, distribution, and application of the
propolis. Some conveyed that of which they had un-
loaded the purveyors in their teeth, and deposited it in
heaps; others hastened, before its hardening, to spread
it out like a varnish, or form it into strings, proportioned
to the interstices of the sides of the hive to be filled up.
Nothing could be more diversified than the operations
carried on.
The bees, apparently charged with applying the pro-
polis within the cells, were easily distinguished from the
multitude of workers, by the direction of their heads to-
wards the horizontal pane forming the roof of the hive,
and on reaching it, they deposited their burden nearly
in the middle of intervals separating the combs : then
they conveyed the propolis to the real place of its destina-
tion. They suspended themselves by the claws of the
hind legs to points of support, afforded by the viscosity of
the propolis on the glass ; and, as it were, swinging
themselves backwards and forwards, brought the heap of
this substance nearer to the cells at each impulse. Here
the bees employed their fore feet, which remained free,
to sweep what the teeth had detached, and to unite the
fragments scattered over the glass, which recovered all
its transparency when the whole propolis was brought to
the vicinity of the cells. After some of the bees had
smoothed down and cleaned out the glazed cells, fueling
the way with their antenna?, one desistud, and having
approached a heap of propolis, drew out a thread with its
teeth. This being broken off, it was taken in the claws
of the fore feet, and the bee, re-entering the cell, imme-
diately placed it in the angle of two portions that had
been smoothed, in which operation the fore feet and teeth
were used alternately ; but probably proving too clumsy,
the thread was reduced and polished ; and we admired
the accuracy with which it was adjusted when the work
was completed. The insect did not stop here : return-
ing to the cell, it prepared other parts of it to receive a
second thread, for which we did not doubt that, the heap
would be resorted to. Contrary to our expectation, how-
ever, it availed itself of the portion of the thread cut off
on the former occasion, arranged it in the appointed
place, and gave it all the solidity and finish of which it
was susceptible. Other bees concluded the work which
the first had begun ; and the sides of the cells were speed-
ily secured with threads of propolis, while some were
also put on the orifices; but we could not seize the mo-
ment when they were varnished, though it may be easily
conceived how it is done."
This is not the only use to which bees apply the pro-
polis. They are extremely solicitous to remove such in-
sects or foreign bodies as happen to get admission into
the hive. When so light as not to exceed their powers,
they first kill the insect with their stings, and then drag
it out with their teeth. But it sometimes happens, as
was first observed by Maraldi, and since by Reaumur
and others, that an ill-fated snail creeps into the hive :
this is no sooner perceived than it is attacked on all
sides, and stung to death. But how are the bees to carry
out so heavy a burthen? Such a labour would be in
vain. To prevent the noxious smell which would arise,
from its putrefaction, they immediately embalm it, by
covering every part of its body with propolis, through
which no effluvia can escape. When a snail with a
shell gets entrance, to dispose of it gives much less
trouble and expense to the bees. As soon as it receives
the first wound from a sting, it naturally retires within
its shell. In this case, the bees, instead of pasting it a.]
over with propolis, content themselves with gluing ail
round the margin of the shell, which is sufficient to ren-
der the animal for ever immovably fixed.
THE BEE
525
animal's preservation as the honey itself.
With this they make their lodgings, with this
they cover the cells of their young, and in
this they lay up their magazines of honey.
This is made, as has been already observed,
from the dust of flowers, which is carefully
kneaded by the little insect, then swallowed,
and having undergone a kind of digestion, is
formed into the colls, which answer such a
variety of purposes. To collect this, the ani-
mal rolls itself in the flower it would rob, and
thus takes up the vegetable dust with the hair
of its body. Then carefully brushing it into
a lump, with its fore-paws it thrusts the com-
position into two cavities behind the thighs,
which are made like spoons to receive the
wax, and the hair that lines them serves to
keep it from falling.
As of wax, there are also two kinds of ho-
ney ; the white and the yellow. The white
is taken without fire from the honey-combs.
The yellow is extracted by heat, and squeezed
through bags, in a press. The best honey is
new, thick, and granulated, of a clear trans-
parent white colour, of a soft and aromatic
smell, and of a sweet lively taste. Honey
made in mountainous countries is preferable
to that of the valley. The honey made in the
spring is more highly esteemed than that of
autumn, when the flowers begin to fade, and
lose their fragrance.
The bees are nearly alike in all parts of
(he world ; yet there are differences worthy
our notice. In Guadaloupe, the bee is less
by one half than the European, and more
l)lack and round. They have no sting, and
make their cells in hollow trees ; where, if the
hole they meet with is too large, they form a
sort of waxen house of the shape of a pear,
and in this they lodge and store their honey,
and lay their eggs. They lay up their honey
in waxen vessels, of the size of a pigeon's egg,
of a black or deep violet colour ; and these are
so joined together, that there is no space left
Mr Knight, President oT the Horticultural Society,
discovered by accident an artificial substance, more at-
tractive than any of the resins experimentally tried by
Reaumur. Having caused the decorticated part of a
tree to be covered with a cement, composed of bees'-wax
and turpentine, he observed that tin's was frequented by
hive-bee?, who, finding it to be a very good propolis
ready made, detached it from the tree by their mandi-
l>!e=, and then, as usual, passed it from the first leg to
the second, and so on. When one bee had thus collect-
ed its load, another often came behind and despoiled it
of all it had collected; a second and a third load were
frequently lost in the same manner; and yet the patient
insect pursued its operations without manifesting any
signs of anger. Probably the latter circumstance, at
which Mr Knight seems to have been surprised, was no-
thing more than an instance of the division of labour so
strikingly exemplified in every part of the economy of
bees.
between them. The Loney never congeals,
but is fluid, of the consistence of oil, and the
colour of amber. Resembling these, there are
found little black bees, without a sting, in all
the tropical climates; and though these coun-
tries are replete with bees like our own, yet
those form the most useful and laborious tribe
in that part of the world. The honey they
produce is neither so unpalatable nor so sur-
i'eiting as ours ; and the wax is so soft that it
is only used for medicinal purposes, it being
never found hard enough to form into candles,
as in Europe.
Of insects that receive the name of bees
among us, there are several ; which, however,
differ very widely from that industrious social
race we have been just describing. The
Humble-bee is the largest of all this tribe,
being as large as the first joint of one's middle
finger.1 These are seen in every field, and
1 The humble-bees of this country are now divided
into two generic groups, Bomlus and dpathus. They
may be distinguished from the hive-bee, and other races
bearing affinity to them, by having the simple eyes ar-
ranged in a curve, instead of forming a triangle; by
having an impression in the shape of a cross on the
forehead ; the labrum transverse, and two distinct spines
at the apex of the posterior tibise. More obvious char-
acters are afforded by their large, comparatively rounded,
hirsute bodies, generally arionied with bands of light-
yellow or red. Upwards of forty different species are
described as inhabitants of Britain ; but as the three
distinct races of females, males, and workers, belonging
to the same specie?, often bear little resemblance to one
another, and as the hair or down covering their bodies,
often of the gayest colours, changes with age, like the
plumage of birds, it is by no means unlikely that indi-
viduals of the same family, and differing only in sex or
age, have in some instances, been described as of a dif-
ferent species.
The common humble-bee abounds in our fields and
gardens, and is almost equally common throughout all
Europe. It. is distinguished above its congeners for
strength and activity. It is one of the earliest insects
that appear in the spring, and one of the latest to leave
us in autumn. It forms its nest, as is well known, in
holes in the ground, sometimes excavated laboriously
by its own efforts, sometimes previously formed by other
animals and taken possession of by the foundress of the
colony. The females of this, as of all the other species,
are largest in size, the males next, and the workers
smallest. Early in spring, when the willows begin to
bloom, the female may be seen traversing the gardens
by sun-rise with her usual sonorous booming, and busied
in collecting honey and pollen from the catkins. The
workers do not appear till a somewhat later period, and
the males not till autumn, when the thistles are in blos-
som, upon the flowers of which they are found in great
numbers and in still greater, if possible, ur.on seeding
526
HISTORY OF INSECTS.
perched on every flower. They build their
nest in holes in the ground, of dry leaves,
mixed with wax and wood, defended with
moss from the weather. Each humble-bee
makes a separate cell about the size of a small
nutmeg, which is round and hollow, contain-
ing the honey in a bag. Several of these
cells are joined together in such a manner,
that the whole appears like a cluster of grapes.
The females, which have the appearance of
wasps, are very few, and their eggs are laid
in cells, which the rest soon cover ever with
wax. It is uncertain whether they have a
queen or not ; but there is one much larger
than the rest, without wings, and without
hair, and all over black, like polished ebony.
This goes and views all the works, from time
to time, and enters into the cell, as if it wanted
to see whether every thing was done right.
In the morning the young humble-bees are
very idle, and seem not at all inclined to la-
bour, till one of the largest, about seven o'clock,
thrusts half its body from a hole designed for
that purpose, and seated on the top of the nest,
beats its wings for twenty minutes succes-
sively, buz/ing the whole time, till the whole
colony is put in motion. The humble-bees
gather honey as well as the common bees ;
but it is neither so fine nor so good, nor the
wax so clean, or so capable of fusion.
Beside the bees already mentioned, there
are various kinds among us, that have much
the appearance of honey-makers, and yet make
only wax. The Wood-Bee is seen in every
garden. It is rather larger than the common
leeks and onions, where, on a single flower, may be seen
half a dozen at the same moment. At this early period
of the year, the female is a solitary being, and her flights
are directed in search of a place suitable fora habitation.
The females only, of all the former year's colony, have
survived the winter, and now dispersing, each seeks a
residence for herself, where she may become the found-
ress of a new community. Having pitched upon a con-
venient spot, the laborious insect proceeds to excavate
first the passage or gallery, then the nest itself, detaching
the soil, as it were, grain by grain; she seizes the mole-
cule with the first pair of legs, transfers it instantly to
the second, receives it next with the third, and finally
pushes it as far as possible behind her. These excava-
tions, situated often above a foot under the surface, are
wholly the work of the solitary female. Sometimes,
however, the nest is made close to, or even upon the
surface when partially hollow, and covered with dry
moss ; but this is not the usual mode pursued by this
species, and in such localities the colony is far less
numerous than when at a greater depth.
Having finished the excavation, and carpeted her new
dwelling with soft leaves, &c., the insect proceeds
to construct brood cells. The wax of which these
are formed is secreted, as in the domestic bee, in cer-
tain receptacles placed on each side of the middle pro-
cess of the abdominal scales, and is extracted by the bee
in the form of laminae, moulded to the shape of the
insect's body. Unlike the queen of the hive bee?, the
mother-bee of this family possesses these wax-secreting
organs as well as the workers, and produces the substance
in greater •juantity than her progeny.
queen-bee ; its body of a bluish black, which
s smooth and shining. It begins to appear
at the approach of spring, and is seen flying
near walls exposed to a sunny aspect. This
Dee makes its nest in some piece of wood,
which it contrives to scoop and hollow ior its
aurpose.1 This, however, is never done in
1 We have frequently witnessed, says Mr Rennie,
the operations of these ingenious little workers, who are
.particularly partial to posts, pa'.ings, and the wood-work
of houses which has become soft by beginning to decay.
Wood actually decayed, or affected by dry-rot, they seem
to reject as unfit for their purposes; but they make no
objections to any hole previously drilled, provided it be
ot too large ; and, like the mason-bees, they not uufre-
quently take possession of an old nest, a few repairs
l>eing all that in this case is necessary. When a new-
nest is to be constructed, the bee proceeds to chisel suf-
ficient space for it out of the wood with her jaws.
We say her, because the task in this instance, as in most
others of solitary bees and wasps, devolves solely upon
the female, the male taking no concern in the allair, and
probably being altogether ignorant that such a work is
going forward. It is at least certain the male is never
seen giving his assistance, and he seldom if ever ap-
proaches the neighbourhood. The female carpenter-bee
has a task to perform no less arduous than the mason-bee ;
for though the wood may be tolerably soft, she can only
cut out a very small portion at a time. The successive
portions which she gnaws off may be readily ascertained
by an observer, as she carries them away from the place.
In giving the history of a mason-wasp, we remarked the
care with which she carried to a distance little fragments
of brick, which she detached in the progress of excavation.
We have recently watched a precisely similar procedure
in the instance of a carpenter-bee forming a cell in a
wooden post. The only difference was, that the bee did
nut fly so far away with her fragments of wood as the
wasp did; but she varied the direction of her flight every
time ; and we could observe, that alter dropping the chip
of wood which she had carried off, she did not return in a
direct line to her nest, but made a circuit of some extent
before wheeling round to go back.
" On observing the proceedings of this carpenter-bee
next day, we found her coming in with balls of pollen
on her thighs ; and on tracing her from the nest into the
adjacent garden, we saw her visiting every flower which
was 1 kely to yield her a supply of pollen for her future
progeny. This was not all : w'e subsequently saw her
taking the direction of a clay-quarry frequented by the
mason-bees, where we recognized her loading herself with
a pellet of clay, and carrying it into her cell in the
wooden post. We observed her alternating this labour for
several days, at one time carrying clay, and at another
pollen ; till at length she completed her task, and closed
the entrance with a barricade of clay, to prevent the in-
trusion of any insectivorous depredator, who might make
prey of ber young ; or of some prying parasite, who might
introduce its own eggs into the nest she had taken so
much trouble to construct.
THE BEE.
527
trees that are standing, for the wood it makes
choice of is half rotfen. The holes are not
made directly forward, bat turning to one
side, and have an opening sufficient to admit
one's middle finger, from whence runs the
inner apartment, generally twelve or fifteen
inches long. The instruments used in boring
these cavities are their teeth ; the cavity is
usually branched into three or four apartments ;
and in each of these they lay their eggs, to
the number of ten or twelve, each separate
and distinct from the rest : the egg is involved
in a sort of paste, which serves at once for the
young animal's protection and nourishment.
The grown bees, however, feed upon small
insects, particularly a louse, of a reddish brown
colour, of the size of a small pin's head.
" Some days after it was finished, we cut into the
post, and exposed this nest to view. It consisted of six
cells of a somewhat square shape, the wood forming the
literal walls ; and each was separated from the one ad-
jacent by a partition of clay, of the thickness of a
playing card. The wood was not lined with any ex-
traneous substance, but was worked as smooth as if it
had been chiselled by a joiner. There were five cells,
arranged in a very singular manner — two being almost
horizontal, two perpendicular, and one oblique. The
depth to which the wood was excavated, in this instance,
was considerably less than what we have observed in
other species which dig perpendicular galleries several
inches deep in posts and garden-seats; and they are
inferior in ingenuity to the carpentry of a bee described
by Reaumur, which has not been ascertained to be a
native of Britain, though a single indigenous species of
the genus has been douhtingly mentioned, and is figured
by Kirby, in his valuable ' Monographia.' If it ever be
found here, its large size and beautiful violet-coloured
wings will render mistakes impossible.
" The violet carpenter-bee usually selects an upright
piece of wood, into which she bores obliquely for about
an inch ; and then, changing the direction, works per-
pendicularly, and parallel to the sides of the wood, for
twelve or fifteen inches, and half an inch in breadth.
Sometimes the bee is contented with one or two of these
excavations ; at other times, when the wood is adapted
to it, she scoops out three or four — a task which some-
times requires several weeks of incessant labour. The
tunnel in the wood, however, is only one part of the
work ; for the little architect hns afterwards to divide
Ui£ whole into cell*, somewhat less than an inch in depth.
It is necessary, for the proper growth of her progeny,
that each should be separated from the other, and be pro-
vided with adequate food. She knows, most exsctly,
the quantity of food which each grub will require, during
its growth ; and she therefore does not hesitate to cut it
ofl'from any additional supply. In constructing her cells,
she does not employ clay, like the bee which we have
mentioned above, but the sawdust, if we may call it so,
which she has collected in gnawing out the gallery. It
would not, therefore, have suited her design to scatter this
about, as our carpenter-bee did. The violet bee, on
the contrary, collects her gnawings into a little store-
heap for future use, at a short distance from her nest.
She proceeds thus : — At the bottom of her excavation
she deposits an egg, and over it fills a space nearly an
inch high with the pollen of flowers, made into a paste
with honey. She then covers this over with a ceiling
composed of cemented sawdust, which also serves for
the floor of the next chamber above it. For this purpo=e,
she cements round the wall a ring of wood chips, taken
Mason- Bees make their cells with a sort of
mortar made of earth, which they build against
Wall that is exposed to thejmn. The mortar,
which at first is soft, soon becomes as hard as
stone, and in this their eggs are laid. Each
nest contains seven or eight cells, an egg in
every cell, placed regularly one over the other.
If the nests remain unhurt, or want but little
repairs, they make use of them the year en-
suing ; and thus they often serve three or four
years successively. From the strength of
their houses, one would think these bees in
perfect security ; yet none are more exposed
than they. A worm with very strong teeth
is often found to bore into their little fortifica-
tions, and devour their young.
The Ground- Bee builds its nest in the earth ,
from her store-heap; and within this ring forms another,
gradually contracting the diameter till she has constructed
a circular plate, about the thickness of a crown-piece,
and of considerable hardness. This plate of course ex-
hibits concentric circles, somewhat similar to the annual
circles in the cross section of a tree. In the same man-
ner she proceeds till she lias completed ten or twelve
cells; and then she closes the main entrance with a bar-
rier of similar materials.
' Let us compare the progress of this little joiner with
a human artisan — one who has been long practised in his
trade, and has the most perfect and complicated tools for
his assistance. The bee has learned nothing by practice ;
she makes her nest but once in her life, but it is then as
complete and finished as if she had made a thousand.
She has no pattern before her — but the Architect of all
things has impressed a plan upon her own mind, which she
can realize without scale or compasses. Her two sharp
teeth are the only tools with which she is provided for
her laborious work; and yet she bores a tunnel, twelve
times the length of her own body, with greater ease than
the workman who bores into the earth for water, with
his apparatus of augers adapted to every soil. Her
tunnel is clean and regular; she leaves no chips at the
bottom, for she is provident of her materials. Further,
she has an exquisite piece of joinery to perform, when
her ruder labour is accomplished. The patient bee works
her rings from the circumference to the centre, and she
produces a shelf, united with such care with her natural
glue, that a number of fragments are as solid as one
piece.
'•The violet carpenter-bee, as may be expected, oc-
cupies several weeks in these complicated labours ; and
during that period she is gradually depositing her eggs,
each of which is successively to become a grub, a pupa,
and a perfect bee. It is obvious, therefore, as she does
not lay all her eggs in the same place — as eath is separ-
ated from the other by a laborious process — that the egg
which is first laid will he the earliest hatched ; and tl;at
the first perfect insect, being older than its fellows in'
the same tunnel, will strive to make its escape sooner,
and so on of the rest. The careful mother provides foi
this contingency. She makes a lateral opening at the
bottom of the cells ; for the teeth of the young bees
would not be strong enough to pierce the outer wood,
though they can remove the cemented rings of saw-dust
in the interior. Ileaumur observed these holes, in
several cases ; and he further noticed another external
opening opposite to the middle cell, which he supposed
was formed, in the first instance, to shorten the distance
for the removal of the fragments of wood in the lower
half of the building." — Insect Architecture.
528
HISTORY OF INSECTS.
wherein it makes round holes, five or six inches
deep ; the mouth being narrow, and only just
sufficient to admit the little inhabitant.
It is amusing enough to observe the patience
and assiduity with which they labour. They
carry out all the earth, grain by grain, to the
mouth of the hole, where it forms a little hil-
lock ; an Alps, compared to the power of the
artist by which it is raised. Sometimes the
walks of a garden are found undermined by
their labours : some of the holes running
directly downward, others horizontally beneath
the surface. They lay up in these cavities
provisions for their young, which consist of a
paste that has the appearance of corn, and is
of a sweetish taste.
The Leaf-cutting Bees make their nest and
fay their eggs among bits of leaves, very arti-
ficially placed in holes in the earth, of about
the length of a tooth-pick case. They make
the bits of leaves of a roundish form, and with
them line the inside of their habitations. This
tapestry is still further lined by a reddish kind
of paste, somewhat sweet or acid. These bees
are of various kinds ; those that build their
nests with chestnut leaves are as big as drones,
but those of the rose-tree are smaller than the
common bee.1
The Wall-Bees are so called because they
make their nests in walls, of a kind of silky
membrane with which they fill up the vacu-
ities between the small stones which form the
sides of their habitation. Their apartment
consists of several cells placed end to end, each
in the shape of a woman's thimble. Though
the web which lines this habitation is thick
and warm, yet it is transparent, and of a
whitish colour. This substance is supposed
to be spun from the animal's body. The
males and females are of a size, but the former
are without a sting. — To these varieties of the
bee kind might be added several others, which
are all different in their nature, but not
sufficiently distinguished to excite curiosity.2
1 A species of the leaf-cutting or upholsterer bee is
called the poppy. bee, from its selecting the scarlet petals
of the poppy as tapestry for its cells. Kirby and Spenre
express their doubts whether it is indigenous to this
country : but Mr Rennie is almost certain that he saw
the nests in Scotland. The poppy-bee may be known
by its being rather more than a third of an inch lon<r, of
a black colour, studded on the head and back with Ted-
dish gray hairs ; the belly being gray and silky, and the
rings margined with gray above, the second and third
having an impressed transversal line.
s The Rev. Mr Kirby has discovered that there are
CHAP. III.
OF THE WASP.
HOWEVER similar many insects may be in
appearance, this does not imply a similitude
in their history. The bee and the wasp re-
semble each other very strongly, yet, in ex-
amining their manner and their duration, they
differ very widely : the bee labours to lay up
honey, and lives to enjoy the fruits of its in-
dustry : the wasp appears equally assiduous :
but only works for posterity, as the habitation
is scarcely completed when the inhabitant
dies.
The wasp3 is well known to be a winged
no less than two hundred and twenty. one distinct species
of bees. He divides the Linnsean genus into mellitta
and apis, distinguishing them by thiir tongues; the in-
sects of the first having short flattish inflected tongues.
We shall here merely specify the Carditig-Bce, as one
ofpiculiar interest, and no ways uncommon about our
villages. This bee is yellow, with the hair of the throat
somewhat fawn-coloured. The caiding-bees nearly al!
perish in winter ; a few of the females only survive.
These usually make their appearance early in spring, as
soon as the catkins of the willows are in blossom ; upon
which, at this time, they may commonly be seen collect-
ing honey from the female, and pollen from the male
catkins. The neuters do not appear till the spring is
somewhat advanced, and the males are most common in
aujumn, when the thistles are in blossom, upon the
flowers of which they are abundant, sometimes appear-
ing to be asleep or torpid, and at other times acting as it
they were intoxicated with the sweets they have been
imbibing. When these insects of any sex are walking
on the ground, if a finger be moved to them, they lift up
three legs on one side, by way of defence, which give
them a very grotesque appearance. Their nests are
usually formed in meadows and pastures, sometimes in
groves and hedge-row?, where the soil is entangled with
roots ; but now and then these are found in heaps of
stones. When they do not meet with an accidental
cavity ready made, they excavate one themselves with
great labour. This they cover with a thick convex
vault of mos=, sometimes casting the interior surface
with a kind of coarse wax, to keep out the wet. At the
lower part of the nest there is an opening for the inhab-
itants to go in and out at. This entrance is often through
a long gallery or covered way, a foot or upwards in length,
by which the nest is more etieclually concealed from ob-
servation. The mode in which they transport the moss
which they employ in the formation of their ne&t is
singular. When they have discovered a parcel fitted to
that purpose, and conveniently situated, they place them-
selves in a line, with thtir backs turned towards the nest.
The foremost lays hold of some with their jaws, and
clears it, bit by bit, with her fore-feet. When this is
sufficiently disentangled, she drives it with her feet
under her belly, and as far as possible beyond, to the
second bee. The second, in like manner, pushes it on
to the third, and so on. Thus small heaps of prepared
moss are conveyed to the nest by a file of four or five in-
sects, where they are wrought with the greatest dexterity
by those that remain within. The nests are often six
or seven inches in diameter, and elevated to the height
of four or five inches above the surface of the ground.
8 The Wasps (I'espa), like the ants and bees, live in
society. They are comparable to the latter for their in-
THE WASP.
529
insect with a sting ; — to be longer in propor-
tion to its bulk than the bee, to be marked
with bright yellow circles round its body, and
to be the most swift and active insect of all
clustry, and approximate to the former in the extent of
their ravages. The bee, continually occupied with its
labours, lives only on what it gathers from flowers, and
the stiug with which it is armed, is merely a defensive
weapon, never unsheathed but for the protection of itself
or its country. But the wasp, on the contrary, is fero-
cious, and subsists only on rapine and destruction. Its
sting is an offensive weapon, a means of overpowering
animals more feeble than itself. Nevertheless it is not
less ingenious than the others, nor less attached to its
offspring. United in a single republic, the wasps spare
neither care nor labour. The works which they perform
evince their dexterity, their patience, and the delicacy
of their instinct. The peculiar style of their architec-
ture is worthy of admiration.
Among them we particularly distinguish two species, the
hornet (vespa crabro), and the common wasp (vulguris).
The first makes its nests sheltered from winds and heavy
rains, either in barns or the holes of old walls, but most
frequently in the large trunks of trees, the interior of
which is rotten. There these insects form a large cavity,
by detaching fragments of the wood, which is ready to
fall into dust. It is in spring that the females, after hav-
ing passed the winter in a lethargic state, and now re-
animated by the heat of the atmosphere, issue from their
retreat, to find out a suitable place in which to establish
their nest. This place once found, they lay there the
first foundations of the edifice, which consist of a thick
and solid pillar of the same material as the rest of the
nest, but much harder, and more compact. The mate-
rial of which the wasps makes use, is the bark of the
Blender branches of the ash, which they detach in fila-
ments. Then they grind and bruise it with their man-
dibles, so as to form a paste, which hardens after it has
been employed in building. They collect, at the same
time, a clear and saccharine fluid, which drops from the
places which have been recently gnawed from the branch
which they have been despoiling. This pillar is always
placed in the most elevated part of the vault, and the
hornets attach to it a sort of cap or covering of the same
material, which is to serve as a roof to the edifice, and
prevent the dirt, &c0 detached from the upper part of
the ground cavity, from falling on the combs. Within
this cavity or vault they place a second pillar, which is in
some sort only a continuation of the first. This is to
serve for a base to the first comb of the cells. These
cells are hexagonal, and their aperture is turned down-
wards. The mother constructs some of them. As none
but females are found in spring, it is probable that they
have been fecundated previously to the winter. What
is certain is, that the females commence laying as soon
as they have constructed a few cells in which to deposit
their eggs. These eggs soon disclose the young, and
the mother feeds the young larvae which issue from them,
with the products of the chase. When the latter have
acquired their full growth, they line their cells with silk,
and stop them with a covercle of the same material.
Beneath this envelope they undergo their metamor-
phoses. They do not come forth from it until they are
perfect insects. The wasps which are first born are
workers. Analogyleads us to the belief that, as among the
bees, they are only females destitute of the ovariae. They
are designed for the occupation of constructing the nest,
and nursing the larvse. As the female continues to lay,
the family increases, and the lodging becomes too small.
Then the workers increase the covering and the comb,
arid when the latter is pushed to the edge of this envelope,
they construct another immediately. This last is at-
tached to the first by one or many pillars. Speedily the
VOL. II.
the fly kind. On each side of the mouth this
animal is furnished with a long tooth, notched
like a saw, and with these it is enabled to cut
any substance, not omitting^ meat itself, and
covering is finished, and filled with new combs. Then
there remains but a single aperture to the nest. This
aperture corresponds to that of the hole which is the gate
through which the wasps arrive at their nest. It is
often no more than an inch in diameter.
It is only towards the commencement of autumn that
the young females and young males come forth from
their nymph state. All the larvse which could riot be-
come perfect insects until the month of October, usually
are put to death before this period, especially when the
cold begins to be sensibly perceptible. The wasps, in-
stead of continuing to nourish the larvae, are then solely
occupied in plucking them out of their cells, and flinging
them out of the nest. The nymphs, or pupse, meet with
no more mercy. The males and workers are daily
perishing, from the growing inclemency of the season ;
so that at the end of the winter, none but some females
remain, which have passed that season in a state of
lethargy, at the bottom of the nest.
In autumn, males and females are to be met with on
trees, from which acid and saccharine fluids exude.
They return no more to the nest, and perish miserably
on the first approach of cold. Thus invariably finishes
this society, whose largest population but little exceeds
one hundred, or one hundred and fifty individuals.
The common wasp makes its nest in the ground,
usually at the depth of about half a foot. The entrance
to it is a conduit of about an inch in diameter, and very
seldom in a straight line. The edges which are at the
surface of the earth look as if they were ploughed.
The most usual form of the vespiary is that of a ball.
It is thirteen or fourteen inches in diameter: its envelope
is a sort of paper or paste-board, which is sometimes
more than an inch in thickness. Its colour is a gray of
different shades, disposed in bands. This envelope is
rough, and appears formed of pieces, in the form of valves
of shells placed one upon the other, so that nothing is
seen but their convex exterior. When finished, this
envelope has two gates, which are two round holes,
through which the wasps enter and go out. The in-
terior of the nest is occupied by several combs, parallel,
and pretty nearly horizontal: they resemble those of the
bees in form, but are composed of a very different
material. The vespiary sometimes contains fifteen or
sixteen combs of a diameter proportioned to that of the
envelope. All these combs are, as it were, so many
floors, disposed in stories, which furnish the means of
lodging a great number of inhabitants. Free passages
are left between them. In these intervals are sorts of
columns, which serve to support the combs. The foun-
dations of the edifice, (if we may use such a solecism)
are, at its highest part, for the wasps, unlike other builders,
begin their work at the top, and descend as they go on
with it: these pillars, formed of the same material as the
combs and envelope, are massive ; their base and capital
are of greater diameter than the rest.
These wasps, which work under ground, are concealed
from our inspection ; they must therefore be drawn, that
we may observe the manner in which they construct
their nest. When a nest is procured, which is easily
done, there is no fear that they will abandon it. It may
then be placed under a glass hive, where we can have
the pleasure of seeing these insects at their work.
As soon as they are lodged, they begin by repairing
the disorders which the vespiary may have suffered, after
having attached it solidly to the hive, and they increase
the thickness of its envelope.
This envelope deserves a description a little more
detailed. Its thickness, which is often more than an inch,
3x
530
HISTORY OF INSECTS.
to carry it to its nest. Wasps live, like bees,
in community, and sometimes ten or twelve
thousand are found inhabiting a single nest.
Of all other insects the wasp is the most
fierce, voracious, and most dangerous, when
enraged. They are seen wherever flesh is
cutting up, gorging themselves with the spoil,
is not massive. It is formed of several layers, which
have vacancies between them: each layer is as thin as a
sheet of paper. In proportion as the wasps thicken this
envelope, they build another layer on those which are
already formed. The 'number of these layers sometimes
exceeds fifteen or sixteen.
Nothing can be more amusing than to see these wasps
working for the purpose of extending or thickening this
envelope. Several of them are engaged at this work,
which they perform with the greatest celerity, and with-
out the least confusion. They proceed into the country to
find the necessary materials: she that has collected some,
returns loaded with a little ball composed of a soft paste;
she holds it between her jaws. Arrived at the vespiary,
she takes it to the place where she intends to labour,
and immediately applies it there. She walks backwards;
at each step which she makes, she leaves before her a
portion of the ball, without detaching it from the rest,
which she holds between her two fore feet. When she
has thus applied it all, she unites and smooths it, by re-
passing over it several times. The materials which she
employs are filaments of wood, which she tears off with
her mandibles: she moistens and kneads them well pre-
viously to use.
These vespiaries contain males, females, and workers:
these last, as among the bees and other social insects,
are charged with all the labours of the society. Those
that go in search of provision are continually employed
in the chase ; some seize on insects by main force, which
they bring back almost entire to the nest; others pillage
the shops of butchers, where each one attaches herself to
the piece of meat which she prefers, and when she is
satiated, cuts off a piece, sometimes larger than herself,
to carry it home. Others again plunder the fruits of
gardens and orchards; they gnaw or suck them, and bring
back the juice. All share their spoils with the males
and females, and even with the other workers; and the
division is made with the most perfect good will on all
sides.
The mothers do not fly into the country, excepting
in spring and autumn. During the summer, they are
shut up in the interior of the vespiary, occupied in lay.
ing, and especially in nursing their larva;.
A vespiary which has all its combs usually contains
fifteen or sixteen thousand cells, each of which is filled
by an egg or a nymph. It is the larvse principally that
occupy the attention of the wasps. The latter feed them
in the same manner in which birds feed their young,
giving them from time to time the lill-full, after having
softened in their mouth the aliments which the larvje
could not otherwise digest.
Twenty days having elapsed since the eggs were laid,
the larva are now ready to be metamorphosed into
nymphs. Like those of the hornet, they inclose them-
selves in their cells, and become perfect insects eight or
nine days after they have been changed into nymphs.
The cell which a young wasp has quitted does not re-
main a long time vacant. An old wasp cleans it out
and renders it fit for the reception of a new egg.
The cells destined for the eggs which produce the
workers are never placed among those which contain the
eggs destined to give birth to males and females. The
edifice built by the wasps, and which occupies them during
some months, is to last no longer than a year. This habi-
tation, so populous during summer, is almost deserted in
and then flying to their nests with their reek,
ing prey. They make war also on every
other fly, and (he spider himself dreads their
approaches.
Every community among bees is composed
of females, or queens, drones or males, and
neutral or working bees. Wasps have similar
the winter, and entirely abandoned in the spring: most
of its inhabitants have perished the preceding autumn.
Some females destined to perpetuate the species pass the
winter in a state of numbness, and in the following spring
each of them becomes the foundress of a new republic, .
and the mother of all the individuals which compose it.
The workers, as being the most useful, are the first who
are born: the males and females do not appear until to-
wards the end of summer, or the commencement of
autumn: they couple in the vespiary itself in which they
were born.
The occupation of the males in the vespiary is limited
to cleaning it out and removing the dead bodies: they
are smaller than the females, and larger than the workers,
which are the smallest of the three kinds of individuals
which compose the society. Like the males of the bee?,
they are destitute of a sting. The mothers and the
workers are alone provided with this organ. The sting
of the females is longer than that of the workers, and the
wound which the wasps inflict is more severe, and causes
a sharper pain than that made by the bees. The violent
smarting which it produces is, however, caused in the
same manner, by a poisonous fluid, which is introduced
into the wound.
Peace does not always reign in the societies of the
wasps. Combats often take place among the workers,
or between them and the males. The last individuals
are more cowardly or weaker than the others ; but these
combats are rarely fatal.
When the cold weather first approaches, the workers
snatch from their cells the larvse which are not yet meta-
morphosed, and assisted by the males, turn them neck and
heels out of the nest. It appears that they know that
the little ones could not support cold and hunger during
the winter season, when at this early period they can
scarcely find wherewithal to nourish them. To cause
them thus to perish is, therefore, an act of mercy, not ot
cruelty. It is the quick prevention of a long and linger-
ing state of misery.
Notwithstanding all the admirable industry of the
wasp?, agriculturists are not the less desirous to get rid
of these inserts, which do most particular damage to
fruits, even previously to their maturity. Many means
have been pointed out for destroying the species which
live in a social state, especially the common wasp.
When the places which they inhabit can be discovered,
it is easy to dispatch thousands of them in a little time.
Some have adopted the plan of putting glue on blades of
straw, and placing them in the neighbourhood of the nest,
hut this method is long and troublesome. Builing water
cast into the hole may be used with success. But when
the nests are remote from houses, a sufficient quantity
cannot well be obtained to destroy the wasps: sulphur
matches are far more efficacious. The aperture of the
hole which conducts to the vespiary must be widened
a little, and lighted matches introduced into the hole,
after which its entrance must be closed with small stones,
so that the wasps cannot get out without mining, which
they cannot do in a little time: they will then assuredly
be suffocated by the vapour of the sulphur. Care must
be taken, however, not to close the hole so exactly as to
prevent all access of air, and give no issue to the smoke,
for then the matches would be too soon extinguished. —
Supplement to the English edition of the minimal King,
dum, by Baran Cuvier.
THE WASP.
531
occupations ; the two first are for propagating
the species, the last for nursing, defending,
and supporting the rising progeny. Among
bees, however, there is seldom above a queen
or two in a hive ; among wasps there are above
two or three hundred.
As soon as the summer begins to invigorate
the insect tribes, the wasps are the most of
the number, and diligently employed either
in providing provisions for their nest, if already
made ; or in making one, if the former habita-
tion be too small to receive the increasing
community. The nest is one of the most
curious objects in natural history, and con-
trived almost as artificially as that of the bees
themselves. Their principal care is to seek
out a hole that has been begun by some other
animal, a field-mouse, a rat, or a mole, to
build their nests in. They sometimes build
upon the plain, where they are sure of the
dryness of their situation ; but most commonly
on the side of a bank, to avoid the rain or
water that would otherwise annoy them.
When they have chosen a proper place, they
go to work with wonderful assiduity. Their
first labour is to enlarge and widen the hole,
taking away the earth, and carrying it off to
some distance. They are perfectly formed for
labour, being furnished with a trunk above
their mouths, two saws on each side, which
play to the right and left against each other,
and six strong muscular legs to support them.
They cut the earth into small parcels with
their saws, arid carry it out with their legs or
paws. This is the work of some days ; and
at length the outline of their habitation is
formed, making a cavity of about a foot and a
half every way. While some are working
in this manner, others are roving the fields to
seek out material's for their building. To pre-
vent the earth from falling down and crushing
their rising city into ruin, they make a sort of
roof with their gluey substance, to which they
begin to fix the rudiments of their building,
working from the top downwards, as if they
were hanging a bell ; which, however, at
length they close up at the bottom. The
materials with which they build their nests
are bits of wood and glue. The wood they
get where they can from the rails and posts
which they meet with in the fields and else-
where. These they saw and divide into a
multitude of small fibres, of which they take
up little bundles in their claws, letting fall
upon them a few drops of gluey matter, with
which their bodies are provided, by the help
of which they knead the whole composition
into a paste, which serves them in their future
building. When they have returned with
this to the nest, they stick their load of paste
on that part where they make their walls and
partitions ; they tread it close with their feet.
and trowl it with their trunks, still going
backwards as they work. Having repeated
this operation three or four times, the compo-
sition is at length flatted out-un4il it becomes
a small leaf of a gray colour, much finer than
paper, and of a pretty firm texture. This
done, the same wasp returns to the field to
collect a second load of paste, repeating the
same several times, placing layer upon layer,
and strengthening every partition in propor-
tion to the wants or convenience of the general
fabric. Other working wasps come quickly
after to repeat the same operation, laying
more leaves upon the former, till at length,
after much toil, they have finished the large
roof, which is to secure them from the tumb-
ling in of the earth. This dome being finished,
they make another entrance to their habita-
tion, designed either for letting in the warmth
of the sun, or for escaping, in case one door
be invaded by plunderers. Certain however,
it is, that by one of these they always enter,
by the other they sally forth to their toil ; each
hole being so small that they can pass but one
at a time. The walls being thus composed,
and the whole somewhat of the shape of a
pear, they labour at their cells, which they
compose of the same paper-like substance that
goes to the formation of the outside works.
Their combs differ from those of bees not less
in the composition than the position which they
are always seen to obtain. The honey-comb
of the bee is edge-ways with respect to the
hive ; that of the wasp is flat, and the mouth
of every cell opens downwards. Thus is their
habitation contrived, story above story, sup-
ported by several rows of pillars, which give
firmness to the whole building, while the
upper story is flat-roofed, and as smooth as the
pavement of a room, laid with squares of mar-
ble. The wasps can freely walk upon these
stories between the pillars to do whatever
their wants require. The pillars are very
hard and compact, being larger at each end
than in the middle, not much unlike the col-
umns of a building. All the cells of the nest
are only destined for the reception of the
young, being replete with neither wax nor
honey.
Each cell is like that of the bee, hexagonal :
but they are of two sorts ; the one larger, for
the production of the male and female wasps ;
the other less, for the reception of the working
part of the community. When the females
are impregnated by the males, they lay their
eggs, one in each cell, and stick it in with a
kind of gummy matter to prevent its falling
out. From this egg proceeds the insect in its
worm state, of which the old ones are extremely
careful, feeding it from time to time till it
becomes large, and entirely fills up its cell.
But the wasp community differs from that of
532
HISTORY OF INSECTS.
the bee in this ; that among the latter the
working bees take the parential duties upon
them, whereas among the wasps the females
alone are permitted to feed their young, and
to nurse their rising progeny. For this pur-
pose the female waits with great patience till
the working-wasps have brought in their pro-
visions, which she takes from them, and cuts
into pieces. She then goes with great com-
posure from cell to cell, and feeds every young
one with her mouth. When the young worms
have come to a certain size they leave off eat-
ing, and begin to spin a very fine silk, fixing
their first end to the entrance of the cell : then
turning their heads, first on one side, then on
the other, they fix the thread to different parts,
and thus they make a sort of door, which
serves to close up the mouth of the cell. After
this they divest themselves of their skins after
the usual mode of transformation ; the aurelia,
by degrees, begins to emancipate itself from
its shell ; by little and little it thrusts out its
legs and wings, and insensibly acquires the
colour and shape of its parent.
The wasp thus formed, and prepared for
depredation, becomes a bold, troublesome, and
dangerous insect : there are no dangers which
it will not encounter in pursuit of its prey,
and nothing seems to satiate its gluttony.
Though it can gather no honey of its own, no
animal is more fond of sweets. For this pur-
pose it will pursue the bee and the humble-
bee, destroy them with its sting, and then
plunder them of their honey-bag, with which
it flies triumphantly loaded to its nest to re-
gale its young. Wasps are ever fond of
making their nests in the neighbourhood of bees ,
merely to have an opportunity of robbing their
hives, and feasting on the spoil. Yet the bees
are not found always patiently submissive to
their tyranny, but fierce battles are sometimes
seen to ensue, in which the bees make up by
conduct and numbers what they want in per-
sonal prowess. When there is no honey to
be had, they seek for the best and sweetest
fruits, and they are never mistaken in their
choice. From the garden they fly to the city,
to the grocer's shops, and butcher's shambles.
They will sometimes carry off bits of flesh
half as big as themselves, with which they fly
to their nests for the nourishment of their brood.
Those who cannot drive them away, lay for
them a piece of ox's liver, which being with-
out fibres, they prefer to other flesh ; and when,
ever they are found, all other flies are seen to
desert the place immediately. Such is the
dread with which these little animals impress
all the rest of the insect tribes, whioh they
seize and devour without mercy, that they va-
nish at their approach. Wherever they fly,
like the eagle or the falcon, they form a de-
sert in the air round them. In this manner
the summer is passed in plundering the neigh,
bourhood, and rearing up their young : every
day adds to their numbers; and from their
strength, agility, and indiscriminate appetite
for every kind of provision, were they as long-
lived as the bee, they would soon swarm upon
the face of nature, and become the most noxi-
ous plague of man ; but providentially their
lives are measured to their mischief, arid they
live but a single season.
While the summer heats continue, they are
bold, voracious, and enterprising; but as the
sun withdraws, it seems to rob them of their
courage and activity. In proportion as the
cold increases, they are seen to become more
domestic ; they seldom leave the nest ; they
make but short adventures from home, they
flutter about in the noon-day heats, and soon
after return chilled and feeble.
As their calamities increase, new passions
soon begin to take place ; the care for posteri-
ty no longer continues ; and as the parents are
no longer able to provide their growing pro-
geny a supply, they take the barbarous reso-
lution of sacrificing them all to the necessity
of the times. In this manner, like a garrison
upon short allowance, all the useless hands are
destroyed ; the young worms, which a little
before they fed and protected with so much
assiduity, are now butchered, and dragged
from their cells. As the cold increases, they
no longer find sufficient warmth in their nests,
which grow hateful to them, and they fly to
seek it in the corners of houses, and places
that receive an artificial heat. But the win-
ter is still insupportable ; and before the new
year begins, they wither and die ; the work-
ing-wasps first, the males soon following, and
many of the females suffer in the general ca-
lamity. In every nest, however, one or two
females survive the winter, and having been
impregnated by the male during the preceding
season, she begins in spring to lay her eggs
in a little hole of her own contrivance. This
bundle of eggs, which is clustered together
like grapes, soon produces two worms, which
the female takes proper precaution to defend
and supply, and these, when hatched, soon
give assistance to the female, who is employed
in hatching two more ; these also gathering
strength, extricate themselves out of the web
that enclosed them, and become likewise as-
sistants to their mother; fifteen days after, two
more make their appearance ; thus is the com-
munity every day increasing, while the fe-
male lays in every cell, first a male and then
a female. These soon after become breeders
in turn, till from a single female, ten thousand
wasps are seen produced before the month of
June. After the female has thus produced
her progeny, which are distributed in differ-
ent districts, they assemble from all parts in
THE WASP.
533
the middle of summer, and provide for them-
selves the large and commodious habitation
which has been described above.1
Such is the history of the social wasp ; but,
as among bees, so also among these insects,
there are various tribes that live in solitude ;
these lay their eggs in a hole for the purpose,
and the parent dies long before the birth of its
offspring. In the principal species of the So-
litary-Wasps, the insect is smaller than the
working-wasp of the social kind. The fila-
ment by which the corselet is joined to the
body, is longer and more distinctly seen, and
the whole colour of the insect is blacker than
in the ordinary kinds. But it is not their
figure, but the manners of this extraordinary
insect, that claim our principal regard.
From the end of May to the beginning of
July, this wasp is seeti most diligently em-
ployed. The whole purpose of its life seems
to be in contriving and fitting up a commodi-
ous apartment for its young one, which is not
to succeed it till the year ensuing. For this
end it is employed, with unwearied assiduity,
in boring a hole in the finest earth some inches
deep, but not much wider than the diame-
ter of its own body. This is but a gallery
leading to a wider apartment destined Tor the
convenient lodgment of its young. As it al-
ways chooses a gravelly soil to work in, and
where the earth is almost as hard as stone it-
self, the digging and hollowing this apartment
is an enterprise of no small labour : for effect.
1 " One of the most remarkable of our native social
wasps is the Vespa Uritannica, or tree-wasp, which is
not uncommon in the northern, but seldom to be met
with in the southern parts of the island. Instead of bur-
rowing in the ground like the common wasp, or in the
hollows of trees like the hornet, it boldly swings its nest
from the extremity of a branch, where it exhibits some
resemblance, in size and colour, to a Welsh wig, hung
out to dry. We have seen more than one of these nests
on the same tree, at Catrine, in Ayrshire, and at Wemyss
Bay, in Renfrewshire. The tree which the Britannic
wasp prefers is the silver fir, whose broad flat branch
serves as a protection to the suspended nest both from the
sun and the rain.
" Reaumur has given a very interesting account of the
wasps of Cayenne, which hang their nests on trees. Like
the bird of Africa called the Loxia, they fabricate a per-
fect house, capable of containing many hundreds of their
community, and suspend it on high out of the reach of
attack. But the Cayenne wasp is a more expert artist
than the bird. He is a card-maker; — and travellers of
veracity agree that the card with which he forms the ex-
terior covering of his abode is so smooth, so strong, so
uniform in its texture, and so white, that the most skil-
ful manufacturer of this substance might be proud of the
work.
" The nest of the card-making wasp is impervious to
water. It hangs upon the branch of a tree ; and those
rain-drops which penetrate through the leaves never rest
upon its hard and polished surface. A small opening
for the entrance of the insects terminates its funnel-
shaped bottom. It is impossible to unite more perfectly
the qualities of lightness and strength." — Insect Archi-
tecture.
ing its operations, this insect is furnished with
two teeth, which are strong and firm, but not
sufficiently hard to penetrate the substance
through which it is resolved "lo make its way.
In order therefore to soften that earth which
it is unable to pierce, it is furnished with a
gummy liquor, which it emits upon the place,
and which renders it more easily separable
from the rest, and the whole becoming a kind
of soft paste, is removed to the mouth of the
habitation. The animal's provision of liquor
in these operations is, however, soon exhaus-
ted; and it is then seen taking up water either
from some neighbouring flower or stream, in
order to supply the deficiency.
At length, after much toil, a hole some
inches deep is formed, at the bottom of which
is a large cavity ; and to this no other hostile
insect would venture to find its way, from the
length and the narrowness of the defile through
which it would be obliged to pass. In this
the solitary wasp lays its egg, which is des-^
tined to continue the species; there the nas-
cent animal is to continue for about nine
months, unattended and immured, and at first
appearance the most helpless insect of the
creation. But Avhen we come to examine,
new wonders oft'er ; no other insect can boast
so copiously luxurious a provision, or such con-
firmed security.
As soon as the mother wasp has deposited
her egg at the bottom of the hole, her next
care is to furnish it with a supply of provi-
sions, which may be offered to the young in-
sect as soon as it leaves the egg. To this end
she procures a number of little green worms,
generally from eight to twelve, and these are
to serve as food for the young one the instant
it awakens into life. When this supply is
regularly arranged and laid in, the old one
then, with as much assiduity as it before
worked out its hole, now closes the mouth of
the passage ; and thus leaving its young one
immured in perfect security, and in a copious
supply of animal food, she dies, satisfied with
having provided for a future progeny.
When the young one leaves the egg, it is
scarcely visible, and is seen immured among
a number of insects, infinitely larger than it-
self, ranged in proper order around it, which,
however, give it no manner of apprehension.
Whether the parent, when she laid in the in-
sect provision, contrived to disable the worms
from resistance, or whether they were at first
incapable of any, is not known. Certain it is,
that the young glutton feasts upon the living
spoil without any control : his game lies at his
hand, and he devours one after the other as the
calls of appetite incite him. The life of the
young animal is therefore spent in the most
luxurious manner, till its whole stock of worms
is exhausted, when the time of its transforma
53*
HISTORY OF INSECTS.
tion begins to approach ; and then spinning a
silken web, it continues fixed in its cell till
the sun calls it fiom its dark abode the ensu-
ing summer.
The wasps of Europe are very mischievous,
yet they are innocence itself when compared
to those of the tropical climates, where all the
insect tribes are not only numerous but large,
voracious, and formidable. Those of the West
Indies are thicker, and twice as long, as the
common bee ; they are of a gray colour, striped
with yellow, and armed with a very danger-
ous sting. They make their cells in the man-
ner of a honey-comb, in which the young ones
are hatched and bred. They generally hang
their nests by threads, composed of the same
substance with the cells, to the branches of
trees, and the eaves of houses. They are seen
every where in great abundance, descending
like fruit, particularly pears, of which shape
they are, and as large as one's head. The in-
side is divided into three round stories full of
cells, each hexagonal, like those of a honey-
comb. In some of the islands these insects
are so very numerous, that their nests are
stuck up in this manner, scarce two feet asun-
der, and the inhabitants are in continual ap-
prehension from their accidental resentment.
It sometimes happens that no precautions can
prevent their attacks, and the pain of their
sting is almost insupportable. Those who
have felt it, think it more terrible than even
that of a scorpion ; the whole visage swells,
and the features are so disfigured, that a per-
son is scarcely known by his most intimate
acquaintance.
CHAP. IV.
OF THE ICHNEUMON FLY.
EVERY rank of insects, how voracious so-
ever, have enemies that are terrible to them,
and that revenge upon them the injuries done
upon the rest of the animated creation. The
wasp as we have seen, is very troublesome to
man, and very formidable to the insect tribe ;
but the ichneumon fly (of which there are
many varieties) fears not the wasp itself; it
enters its retreats, plunders its habitations, and
takes possession of that cell for its own young,
which the wasp had laboriously built for a
dearer posterity.
Though there are many different kinds of
this insect, yet the most formidable, and that
best known, is called the common ichneumon,
with four wings, like the bee, a long, slender,
black body, and a three-forked tail, consisting
of bristles; the two outermost black, and the
middlemost red. This fly receives its name
from the little quadruped, which is found to be
so destructive to the «crocodile, as it bears a
strong similitude in its courage and rapacity.
Though this instrument is, to all appear-
ance, slender and feeble, yet it is found to be
a weapon of great, force and efficacy. There
is scarcely any substance which it will not
pierce; and indeed it is seldom seen but em-
ployed in penetration. This is the weapon of
defence ; this is employed in destroying its
prey ; and still more, by this the animal de-
posits her eggs wherever she thinks fit to lay
them. As it is an instrument chiefly em-
ployed for this purpose, the male is unprovi-
ded with such a sting, while the female uses
it with great force and dexterity, brandishing
it when caught, from side to side, and very
often wounding those who thought they held
her with the greatest security.
All the flies of this tribe are produced in
the same manner, and owe their birth to the
destruction of some other insect, within whose
body they have been deposited, and upon
whose vitals they have preyed, till they come
to maturity. There is no insect whatever,
which they will not attack, in order to leave
their fatal present in its body; the caterpillar,
the gnat, and even the spider himself, so for-
midable to others, is often made the unwilling
fosterer of this destructive progeny.
About the middle of the summer, when
other insects are found in great abundance, the
ichneumon is seen flying busily about, and
seeking proper objects upon whom to deposit
its progeny. As there are various kinds of
this fly, so they seem to have various appe-
tites. Some are found to place their eggs
within the aurelia of some nascent insect,
others place them within the nest, which the
wasp had curiously contrived for its own
young: and as both are produced at the same
time, the young of the ichneumon not only de-
vours the young wasp, but the whole supply
of worms which the parent had carefully pro-
vided for its provision. But the greatest num-
ber of the ichneumon tribe are seen settling
upon the back of the caterpillar, and darting,
at different intervals, their stings into its body.
At every dart they deposit an egg, while the
wounded animal seems scarcely sensible of the
injury it sustains. In this manner they leave
from six to a dozen of their eggs within the
fatty substance of the reptile's body, and then
fly off to commit further depredations. In the
meantime, the caterpillar, thus irreparably in-
jured, seems to feed as voraciously as before ;
does not abate of its usual activity; and to all
appearance, seems no way affected by the in-
ternal enemies that are preparing its destruc-
tion in their darksome abode. But they soon
burst from their egg state, and begin to prey
upon the substance of their prison. As they
THE ANT.
535
grow larger, (hey require a greater supply ;
till at last the animal, by whose vitals they are
supported, is no longer able to sustain them,
but dies ; its whole inside being almost eaten
away. It often happens, however, that it
survives their worm-state, and then they
change into a chrysalis, inclosed in the cater-
pillar's body till the time of their delivery ap-
proaches, when they burst their prisons, and
fly away. The caterpillar, however, is irre-
parably destroyed, it never changes into a
chrysalis, but dies shortly after from the inju-
ries it had sustained.
Such is the history of this fly, which, though
very terrible to the insect tribe, fails not to be
of infinite service to mankind. The millions
which it kills in a single summer are incon-
ceivable ; and without such a destroyer, the
fruits of the earth would only rise to furnish a
banquet for the insect race, to the exclusion of
all the nobler ranks of animated nature.
CHAP. V.
OF THE ANT.
THOUGH the number of two- winged flies be
very great, and the naturalists have taken
much pains to describe their characters and
varieties ; yet there is such a similitude in
their forms and manners, that in a work like
this, one description must serve for all. We
now, therefore, come to a species of four-
winged insects, that are famous from all anti-
quity for their social and industrious habits,
that are marked for their spirit of subordina-
tion, that are offered as a pattern of parsimony
to the profuse, ami of unremitting diligence to
the sluggard,
In the experiments, however, which have
been more recently made, and the observations
which have been taken, much of their boasted
frugality and precaution seems denied them :
the treasures they lay up are no longer sup-
posed intended for future provision ; and the
choice they make in their stores, seems no way
dictated by wisdom. It is indeed somewhat
surprising, that almost every writer of anti-
quity should describe this insect, as labouring
in the summer, and feasting upon the produce
during the winter. Perhaps, in some of the
warmer climates where the winter is mild, and
of short continuance, this may take place ; but
in France and England, these animals can
have no manner of occasion for a supply of
winter provisions, as they are actually in a
state of torpidity during that season.
The common ants of Europe are of two or
three different kinds: some red, some black;
some with stings, and others without ; such as
have stings, inflict their wounds in that man-
ner ; such as are unprovided with these wea-
pons of defence, have a power of spurting from
their hinder parts an acid-pu»gent liquor,
which, if it lights upon the skin, inflames and
burns it like nettles.1
1 The formica rufa, or wood-ant, is the largest of our
British ants. It is called the Hill-ant by Gould, the
Fallow-ant by the English translator of Huber, and popu-
larly the Pismire. It invariably lives in or near woods
and forests. It may be readily distinguished from other
ants by the dusky black colour of its head and hinder
parts, and the rusty brown of its middle. The struc-
tures reared by this species are often of considerable
magnitude, and bear no small resemblance to a rook's
nest thrown upon the ground, bottom upwards. The ex-
terior of the nest is composed of almost every transport-
able material which the colonists can find in their vici-
nity; but the greater portion consists of withered grass
and short twigs of trees, piled up in apparent confusion,
but with sufficient regularity to render the whole smooth,
conical, and sloping towards the base, for the purpose,
we may infer, of carrying off rain water. When within
reach of a corn-field, they often also pick up grains of
wheat, barley, or oats, and carry them to the nest as
building materials, and not for food as was believed by
the ancients. The coping which forms the exterior of
the wood-ant's nest, though only a small portion of the
structure, which consists of a great number of interior
chambers and galleries, with funnel-shaped avenues lead-
ing to them, is one of the most essential parts, and we
cannot follow a more delightful guide than the younger
Huber, in detailing its formation.
" The labourers," he says, " of which the colony is
composed, not only work continually on the outside of
their nest, but, differing very essentially from other spe-
cies, who willingly remain in the interior, sheltered
from the sun, they prefer living in the open air, and do
not hesitate to carry on, even in our presence, the greater
part of their operations. To have an idea how the
straw or stubble roof is formed, let us take a view of the
ant-hill at its origin, when it is simply a cavity in the
earth. Some of its' future inhabitants are seen wander-
ing about in search of materials fit for the exterior work,
with which, though rather irregularly, they cover tip the
entrance; whilst others are employed in mixing the
earth, thrown up in hollowing the interior, with frag-
ments of wood and leaves, which are every moment
brought in by their fellow -assistants; and this gives a
certain consistence to the edifice, which increases in size
daily. Our little architects leave here and there cavi-
ties, where they intend constructing the galleries which
are to lead to the exterior, and as they remove in the
morning the barriers placed at the entrance of their nest
the preceding evening, the passages are kept open during
the whole time of its construction. We soon observed
the roof to become convex ; but we should be greatly
deceived did we consider it solid. This roof is destined
to include many apartments or stories. Having ob-
served the motions of these little builders through a pane
of glass, adjusted against one of their habitations, I am
thence enabled to speak with some degree of certainty
upon the manner in which they are constructed. I as-
certained, that it is by excavating or mining the under
portion of their edifice, that they form their spacious
halls, low, indeed; and of heavy construction, yet suffi-
ciently convenient for the use to which they are appro-
priated, that of receiving, at certain hours of the day, the
larva; and pupae. These halls have a free communication
by galleries, made in the same manner. If the materials
ot which the ant-hill is composed were only interlaced,
they would fall into a confused heap every time the ants
536
HISTORY OF INSECTS.
The body of an ant is divided into the head,
breast, and belly. In the head the eyes are
placed, which are entirely black, arid under
their eyes there are two small horns or feelers,
attempted to bring them into regular order. This, how-
ever, is obviated by their tempering the earth with rain-
water, which, afterwards hardened in the sun, so com-
pletely and effectually binds together the several substan-
ces, as to permit the removal of certain fragments from
the ant-hill without any injury to the rest ; it, moreover,
strongly opposes the introduction of the rain. I never
found, even after long and violent rains, the interior of
the nest wetted to more than a quarter of an inch from
the surface, provided it had not been previously out of
repair, or deserted by its inhabitants. The ants are ex-
tremely well sheltered in their chambers, the largest of
which is placed nearly in the centre of the building; it is
much loftier than the rest, and traversed only by the
beams that support the ceiling; it is in this spot that all
the galleries terminate, and this forms, for the most
part, their usual residence. As to the underground
portion, it can only be seen when the ant-hill is placed
against a declivity ; all the interior may be then readily
brought in view, by simply raising up the straw-roof.
The subterranean residence consists of a range of apart-
ments, excavated in the earth, taking a horizontal direc-
tion." ' ^ '«
There is this remarkable difference in the nest of the
wood-ants, that they do not construct a long covert way
as if for concealment, as the yellow and the brown ants
do. The wood-ants are not, like them, afraid of being
surprised by enemies, at least during the day, when the
whole colony is either foraging in the vicinity or em-
ployed on the exterior. But the proceedings of the
wood-ants at night are well worthy of notice ; and when
M. Huber began to study their economy, he directed
his entire attention to their night proceedings. " I re-
marked," says he, " that their habitations changed in
appearance hourly, and that the diameter of those spa-
cious avenues, where so many ants could freely pass each
other during the day, was, as night approached, gradu-
ally lessened. The aperture, at length, totally disap-
peared, the dome was closed on all sides, and the ants
retired to the bottom of their nest. In further noticing
the apertures of these ant-hills, I fully ascertained the
nature of the labour of its inhabitants, of which I could
not before even guess the purport ; for the surface of the
nest presented such a constant scene of agitation, and so
many insects were occupied in carrying materials in
every direction, that the movement offered no other image
than that of confusion. I saw then clearly that they
were engaged in stopping up passages ; and for this pur-
pose, they at first brought forward little pieces of wood,
which they deposited near the entrance of those avenues
they wished to close ; they placed them in the stubble ;
they then went to seek other twigs and fragments of
wood, which they disposed above the first, but in a dif-
ferent direction, and appeared to choose pieces of less size
in proportion as the work advanced. They, at length,
brought in a number of dried leaves, and other materials
of an enlarged form, with which they covered the roof ; an
exact miniature of the art of our builders, when they form
the covering of any building ? Nature, indeed, seems
everywhere to have anticipated the inventions of which
we boast, and this is doubtless one of the most simple.
Our little insects, now in safety in their nest, retire
gradually to the interior before the last passages are
closed, one or two only remain without, or concealed be-
hind the doors on guard, whilst the rest either take their
repose, or engage in different occupations in the most
perfect security. I was impatient to know what took
place in the morning upon these ant-hills, and therefore
visited them at an early hour. I found them in the
composed of twelve joints, all covered with a
fine silky hair. The mouth is furnished with
two crooked jaws, which project outwards, in
each of which are seen incisors, that look like
same state in which I had left them the preceding even-
;. A few ants were wandering about on the surface
of the nest, some others issued from time to time from
under the margin of their little roofs formed at the en-
trance of the galleries ; others afterwards came forth,
who began removing the wooden bars that blockaded the
entrance, in which they readily succeeded. This labour
occupied them several hours. The passages were at
length free, and the materials with which they had been
closed, scattered here and there over the ant-hill. Every
day, morning and evening, during the fine weather, I
was a witness to similar proceedings. On days of rain
the doors of all the ant-hills remained closed. When
the sky was cloudy in the morning, or rain was indicated,
the ants, who seemed to be aware of it, opened but in
part their several avenues, and immediately closed them
when the rain commenced."
The galleries and chambers which are roofed in as thus
described, are very similar to those of the mason-ants,
being partly excavated in the earth, and partly built with
the clay thence procured. It is in these they pass the
night, and also the colder months of the winter, when
they become torpid or nearly so, and of course require
not the winter granaries of corn with which the ancients
fabulously furnish them.
The Carpenter- Ants, or ants that' work in wood, per-
form much more extensive operations than any of the
other carpenter insects. Their only tools, like those of
bees and wasps, are their jaws or mandibles ; but though
these may not appear so curiously constructed as the
ovipositor file of the tree-hopper, or the rasp and saw of
the saw-flies, they are no less efficient in the perfor-
mance of what is required. Among the carpenter-ants
the emmet or jet-ant holds the first rank, and is easily
known by being rather less in size than the wood-ant,
and by its fine shining black colour. It is less common
in Britain than the others, though its colonies may oc-
casionally be met with in the trunks of decaying oak or
willow trees in hedges.
Among the foreign ai.ts, we may mention a small
yellow ant of South America, described by Dampier,
which seems, from his account, to construct a nest 01
green leaves. " Their sting," he says, " is like a spaik
of fire ; and they are so thick among the boughs in some
places, that one shall be covered with them before he is
aware. These creatures have nests on great trees,
placed on the body between the limbs ; some of their
nests are as big as a hogshead. This is their winter
habitation ; for in the wet season they all repair to these
their cities, where they preserve their eggs. In the dry
season, when they leave their nests, they swarm all over
the woodlands, for they never trouble the savannahs.
Great paths, three or four inches broad, made by them,
may be seen in the woods. They go out light, but bring
home heavy loads on their backs, all of the same sub-
stance, and equal in size. I never observed any thing
besides pieces of grean leaves, so big that I could scarcely
see the insect for his burden ; yet they would march
stoutly, and so many were pressing forward that it was a
very pretty sight, for the path looked perfectly green
with them.
Ants observed in New South Wales, by the gentlemen
in the expedition under Captain Cook, are still more in-
teresting. " Some," we are told, " are as green as a
leaf, and live upon trees, where they build their nests of
various sizes, between that of a man's head and his fist.
These nests are of a very curious structure : they are
formed by bending down several of the leaves, each of
which is as broad as » man's hand, and glueing the points
THE ANT.
537
teeth. The breast is covered with a fine silky
hair, from which project six legs, that are
pretty strong and hairy, the extremities of
each armed with two small claws, which the
of them together so as to form a purse. The viscous
matter used for this purpose is an animal juice which
nature has enabled them to elaborate. Another sort are
quite black. Their habitations are the inside of the
branches of a tree which they contrive to excavate, hy
working out the pith almost to the extremity of the
slenderest twig, the tree at the same time flourishing as
if it had no such inmate. A third kind we found nested
in the root of a plant, which grows on the bark of trees
in the mariner of misletoe, and which they had perfor-
ated for that use. This root is commonly as big as a
large turnip, and sometimes much bigger. When we
cut it we found it intersected by innumerable winding
passages, all filled with these animals, by which, how-
ever, the vegetation of the plant did not appear to have
suffered any injury. We never cut one of these roots
that was not inhabited, though some were not bigger than
a hazel-nut. The animals themselves are very small,
not more than half as big as the common red ant in
F.ngland. They had stings, but scarcely force enough
to make them felt ; they had, however, a power of tor-
menting us in an equal, if not in a greater degree ; for
tiie moment we handled the root, tiiey swarmed from in-
numerable holes, and running about those parts of the
body that were uncovered, produced a titillation more
intolerable than pain, except it is increased to great
violence."
The species called Sugar-slnts in the West Indies
are particularly destructive to the sugar-cane, as well as
to lime, lemon, and orange- trees, by excavating their
nests at the roots, and so loosening the earth that they
are frequently uprooted and blown down by the «inds.
If this does not happen the roots are deprived of due
nourishment, and the plants become sickly and die.
But the most extraordinary of ants is the HTiite-dnts
cr Termite', inhabiting the plains of East India, Africa,
and South America. Mr Smeathman has given in the
Philosophical Transactions a very complete account of
these wonderful creatures. He says that they are na-
turally divided into three orders : first, the working in-
sects, which he distinguishes by the name of labourers;
second, the fighters, or soldiers, which perform no other
labour than such as is necessary in defence of the nest ;
and third, the winged or perfect insects, which are male
and female, and capable of multiplying the specie?. The
latter he denotes the nobility or gentry, because they
neither labour nor fight. In their nest or hill, for they
build on the surface of the ground, the labourers are al-
ways the most numerous, there being at least a hundred
labourers for one of the righting insects, or soldiers. In
this state they are about a quarter of an inch in length.
The second order, or soldiers, tliiier in figure from the
labourers. These appear to be such insects as have un-
dergone one change towards their perfect state. Thty
are now nearly half an inch in length, and equal in size
to about fifteen of the labourers. The shape of the head
is likewise greatly changed. In the former state the mouth
is evidently formed for gnawing, or for holding bodies;
but in this state the jaws being shaped like two sharp
awls, a little jagged, are destined solely for piercing or
wounding. For these purposes they are well calculated,
being as hard as a crab's claw, and placed in a strong
horny head, which is larger than all the rest of the body.
The insect of the third order, or in its perfect state, is
still more remarkable. The head, the thorax, and the
abdomen, differ almost in the same parts in the labourers
and soldiers. The animals are also now furnished with
four large brownish transparent wings, by which they are
enabled at the proper season, to emigrate, and to es-
YOL ii.
animal uses in climbing. The belly is more
reddish than the rest of the body, which is of
a brown chestnut colour, shining as glass, and
covered with extremely fineTiair.
tablish new settlements. They are likewise greatly al-
tered in their size as well as figure, and have acquired
the powers of propagating the species. Their bodies now
measure nearly three quarters of an inch in length ; their
wings, from tip to tip, above two inches and a half; and
their bulk is equal to that of thirty labourers, or two sol-
diers. Instead of active, industrious, and rapacious little
animals, when they arrive at their perfect state, they be-
come innocent, helpless, and dastardly.
Their numbers are great, but their enemies are still
more numerous. They are devoured by birds, by every
species of ants, by carnivorous reptiles, and even by the
inhabitants of many parts of Africa. After such devas-
tation, it seems surprising that even a tingle. pair should
escape. Some, however, are so fortunate ; and being
found by some of the labouring insects, that are continu-
ally running about the surface of the ground under their
covered galleries, are elected kings and queens over new
states ; all those who are not so elected and preserved,
certainly perish. The manner in which these labourers
protect the happy pair from their innumerable enemies,
not only on the day of the massacre of almost all their
race, but for a long time after, justifies the use of the
term election. The little industrious creatures imme-
diately enclose them in a small chamber of clay suitable
to their size, into which at first they leave but one en-
trance, large enough for themselves and soldiers to go in
and out at, but too little for either of the royal pair to
use; and when necessity obliges them to make more en-
trances, they are never larger, so that of course, the' vol-
untary subjects charge themselves with the task of pro-
viding for the oflspiing of their sovereigns, as well as of
working and fighting for them, until they have raised a
progeny capable at least of dividing the task with them.
About this time a most extraordinary change takes
place in the queen; the abdomen begins to extend and
enlarge to such an enormous size, that an old queen will
sometimes have it so much increased, as to be nearly
two thousand times the bulk of the rest of her body. It
Queen distended wti/i eggs.
is now of an irregular, oblong shape, and is become one-
vast matrix full of eggs. When these are perfectly
formed, they begin to be protruded, and they come forth
so quickly, that about sixty in a minute, or upwards ot
eighty thousand in twenty-four hours, are deposited. The
eggs are immediately taken away by the attendants, and
carried to the nurseries : here they are hatched. The
young ones are attended and provided with every thing
necessary, until they are able to shift for themselves, and
take their share in the labours of the community.
The nests, or rather hills of these ants, (for they are
often elevated ten or twelve feet above the surface of the
ground,) are nearly of a conical shape ; and sometimes so
numerous, as at a little distance to appear like little vil-
lages of the Negroes. (See a representation of ant-hille
in plate I. fig. 1.) Jobson, in his history of Gambia,
says that some of thgm are twenty feet high, and that he
and his companions have often hidden themselves behind
them, for the purpose of shooting deer and other wild
animals. Each hill is composed of an exterior and inte-
rior part. The exterior cover is a large clay shell,
shaped like a dome, of strength and magnitude sufficient
3 Y
538
HISTORY OF INSECTS
From such a formation, this animal seems
bolder and more active, for its size, than any
other of the insect tribe, and fears not to attack
a creature often above ten times its own magni-
tude.
to enclose and protect the interior building from the in-
juries of the weather, and to defend its numerous inhabi-
tants from the attacks of natural or accidental enemies.
Different species of termites construct nests of very dif-
ferent forms. In the plate referred to, among others, are
represented turret-nests, the figures of which resemble a
pillar, with a large mushroom for a capital. These tur-
rets are composed of well- tempered black earth, and
stand nearly three feet high. One nest is represented
out through with the tipper part lying on the ground.
When one of these turrets is completed, the insects do
not enlarge them, when they become too small, but build
another at a short distance. They are so strongly built
that they w'ill sooner tear up from the roots than break.
The royal chamber is always situated as near the cen-
tre of the building as possible, is generally on a level
with the surface of the ground, and of an obtuse oval
shape within. In the infant state of the colony it is not
above an inch in length : but in time it becomes en-
larged to six or eight inches, or more. The entrance
into the royal chamber not admitting any animal larger
than the labourers or soldiers, it follows that the king
and queen can never possibly get out. This chamber is
surrounded by a hundred of others, of different sizes,
figures, and dimensions ; all of them arched either in a
circular or an elliptical form. These either open into
each other, or have communicating passages, which being
always clear, are evidently intended for the conve-
nience of the soldiers and attendants, of whom great num-
bers are necessary. The latter apartments are joined by
the magazines and nurseries. The magazines are cham-
bers of clay, and are at all times well stored with provi-
sions, which to the naked eye seem to consist of the
raspings of wood and plants, but, when examined by the
microscope, they are found to consist chiefly of the gums
or inspissated juices of plants thrown together in small ir-
regular masses.
The magazines are always intermixed with the nur-
series, buildings totally different from the rest of the
apartments. These are composed entirely of wooden
materials, which seem to be cemented with gum. They
are invariably occupied by the eggs, and the young ones,
which first appear in the shape of labourers. These
buildings are exceedingly compact, and are divided into
a number of small irregular-shaped chambers, not one of
which is half an inch wide. They are placed all around,
and as near as possible to the royal apartments. When
a nest is in an infant state, the nurseries are close to the
royal apartment. But as in process of time the body of
the queen enlarges, it becomes necessary, for her accom-
modation, to augment the dimensions of her chamber.
She then likewise lays a greater number of eggs, and re-
quires more attendants : of course it is necessary that
both the number and dimensions of the adjacent apart-
ments should be augmented. For this purpose, the small
first built nurseries are taken to pieces, rebuilt a little
farther off, and made a size larger, and their number at
the same time is increased. Thus the animals are con-
tinually employed in pulling down, repairing, or rebuild-
ing their apartments ; and these operations they perform
with wonderful sagacity, regularity, and foresight. The
nurseries are enclosed in chambers of clay, like those
which contain the provisions; but Jhey are much larger.
In the earlj state of the nest they are not bigger than a
hazel-nut ; but in great hills they are oftentimes four or
five inches across.
The royal chamber, as before observed, is situated as
oc&riy under the apex of the hill as possible, and is sur
As soon as the winter is past, in the first
fine day in April, the ant-hill, that before
seemed a desert, now swarms with new life,
and myriads of these insects are seen just
awaked from their annual lethargy, and pre-
rounded on all sides, both above and below, by what Mr
Smeathman calls the royal apartments, which contain
only those labourers and soldiers that are employed in
defence of the common parents. These apartmentF
compose an intricate labyrinth, which extends a foot or
more in diameter from the royal chamber on every side.
Here the nurseries and magazines of provisions begin ;
and, being separated by small empty chambers and gal-
leries, which surround them, and communicate with each
other, are continued on all sides to the outward shell, and
reach up within two-thirds, or three-fourths of its height.,
leaving an open a^ea in the middle under the dome.
This is surrounded by large pointed arches, which are
sometimes two or three feet h:gh next to the front of the
area, but diminish rapidly as they recede, and are soon
lost among the innumerable chambers and nurseries be-
hind them. The inferior building, or assemblage of nur-
series, chambers, and passages, has a flattish floor, with-
out any perforation. By this contrivance, if by accident
water should penetrate the external dome, the apartments
below are preserved from injury. The area has also a
flattish floor, which is situated above the royal chamber ;
it is likewise water-proof, and so constructed, that if
water gets admittance, it runs ofT by subterraneous pas-
sages, which are cylindrical, and some of them so much
as even thirteen inches in diameter. These subterrane-
ous passages are thickly lined with the same kind of clay
of which the hill is composed ; they ascend the internal
part of the external shell in a spiral form, and winding
round the whole building up to the top, intersect and
communicate with each other at different heights. From
every part of these large galleries, a number of pipes, or
smaller galleries, leading to different apartments of the
building, proceed. There are likewise a great many
which lead downward, by sloping descents, to a consider-
able depth under the surface of the ground. Other gal-
leries ascend and lead out horizontally on every side, and
are also carried under ground, but near the surface, to
great distances, for the purpose of foraging.
When a breach is made in one of the walls by an axe
or other instrument, the first object that attracts atten-
tion is the behaviour of the soldiers or fighting insects.
Immediately after the blow is given, a soldier comes
out, walks about the breach, and seems to examine the
nature of the enemy, or cause of the attack. He then
goes into the hill, gives the alarm, and in a short time
large bodies rush out as fast as the breach will permit.
It is not easy to describe the fury that actuates these
fighting insects. In their eagerness to repel the enemy,
they frequently tumble down the sides of the hill, but
quickly recover themselves, 87id hite everything they en-
counter. This biting, joined to the striking of their forceps
upon the building, makes a crackling or vibrating noise,
which is somewhat shriller and quicker than the ticking
of a watch, and may be heard at the distance of several
feet. While the attack proceeds they are in the most
violent bustle and agitation. If they seize hold of any
part of a man's body, they instantly make a wound which
gives some pain. When they attack the leg, the stain
of blood upon tha stocking exteiids more than an inch in
width. They make their hooked jaws meet at the first
stroke, and never quit their hold, but snfier themselves
to be pulled away piece after piece, without any attempt
to escape. On the other hand, if a person keeps out of
their reach, and gives them no further disturbance, in
less than half an hour they retire into the nest, as if they
supposed the monster that damaged their castle had fled.
Before the whole of the soldiers have got in, the labouring
THE BEETLE.
541
to obtain, that every insect that lives a year
after it is come to its full growth, is obliged to
pass four or five months without taking any
nourishment, and will seem to be dead all that
time. It would be to no purpose, therefore,
for ants to lay up corn for the winter, since
they lie that time without motion, heaped upon
each other, and are so far from eating, that
they are utterly unable to stir. Thus, what
authors have dignified by the name of a maga-
zine, appears to be no more than a cavity,
which serves for a common retreat when the
weather forces them to return to their lethargic
state.
What has been said with exaggeration of
the European ant, is however true, if asserted
of those of the tropical climates. They build
an ant-hill with great contrivance and regu-
larity, they lay up provisions, and as they pro-
bably live the whole year, they submit them-
selves to regulations entirely unknown among
the ants of Europe.
Those of Africa are of three kinds, the red,
the green, and the black; the latter are above
an inch long, and in every respect a most for-
midable insect. Their sting produces extreme
pain, and their depredations are sometimes
extremely destructive. They build an ant-hill
of a very great size, from six to twelve feet
high ; it is made of viscous clay, and tapers
into a pyramidal form. This habitation is
constructed with great artifice ; and the cells
are so numerous and even, that a honey-
comb scarce exceeds them in number and re-
gularity.
The inhabitants of this edifice seem to be
under a very strict regulation. At the slight-
est warning they will sally out upon whatever
disturbs them; and if they have time to arrest
their enemy, he is sure to find no mercy.
Sheep, hens, and even rats, are often destroyed
by these merciless insects, and their flesh de-
voured lo the bone. No anatomist in the
world can strip a skeleton so completely as
they; and no animal, how strong soever, when
they have once seized upon it, has power to
resist them.
It often happens that these insects quit
their retreat in a body, and go in quest of ad-
ventures. " During my stay," says Smith,
" at Cape Coast Castle, a body of these ants
came to pay us a visit in our fortification. It
was about day-break when the advanced guard
of this famished crew entered the chapel,
where some negro servants were asleep upon
the floor. The men were quickly alarmed at
the invasion of this unexpected army, and pre-
pared, as well as they could, for a defence.
While the foremost battalion of insects had al-
ready taken possession of the place, the rear-
guard was more than a. quarter of a mile dis-
tant. The whole ground seemed alive, and
crawling with unceasing destruction. After
deliberating a few moments upon what was
to be done, it was resolved to lay a large train
of gunpowder along the path they had taken:
by this means, millions were blown to pieces;
and the rear-guard perceiving the destruction
of their leaders, thought proper instantly to
return and make back to their original habi-
tation."
The order which these ants observe, seems
very extraordinary; whenever they sally forth,
fifty or sixty larger than the rest are seen to
head the band, and conduct them to their des-
tined prey. If they have a fixed spot where
their prey continues to resort, they then form
a vaulted gallery, which is sometimes a quar-
ter of a mile in length ; and yet they will hol-
low it out in the space of ten or twelve hours.
CHAP VI.
OF THE BEETLE, AND ITS VARIETIES.
HITHERTO we have been treating of insects
with four transparent wings, we now come to
a tribe with two transparent wings, with cases
that cover them close while at rest, but which
allow them their proper play when flying.
The principal of these are the Beetle, the
May-bug, and the Cantharis. These are all
bred like the rest of their order, first from
eggs, then they become grubs, then a chrysa-
lis, in which the parts of the future fly are dis-
tinctly seen ; and, lastly, the animal leaves its
prison, breaking forth as a winged animal in
full maturity.
Of the Beetle there are various kinds ; all,
however, concurring in one common formation
of having cases to their wings, which are the
more necessary to those insects, as they often
live under the surface of the earth, in holes
which they dig out by their own industry.
These cases prevent the various injuries their
real wings might sustain, by rubbing or
crushing against the sides of their abode
These, though they do not assist flight yet
keep the internal wings clean and even, and
produce a loud buzzing noise when the animal
rises in the air.
If we examine the formation of all animals
of the beetle kind, we shall find, as in shell-
fish, that their bones are placed externally and
their muscles within. These muscles are
formed very much like those of quadrupeds,
and are endued with such surprising strength,
that, bulk for bulk, they are a thousand times
stronger than those of a man. — The strength
of these muscles is of use in digging the ani-
mal's subterraneous abode, where it is most
usually hatched, and to which it most fro-
542
HISTORY OF INSECTS.
quently returns, even after it becomes a winged
insect capable of flying.
Beside the difference which results from the
shape and colour of these animals, the size
also makes a considerable one; some beetles
being not larger than the head of a pin, while
others, such as the elephant beetle, are as big
as one's fist. But the greatest difference
among them is, that some are produced in a
month, and in a single season go through all
the stages of their existence ; while others
take near four years to their production,
and live as winged insects a year more.
To give the history of all these animals,
that are bred prelty much in the same
way, would be insipid and endless ; it will
suffice to select one or two from the number,
the origin of which may serve as specimens
of the rest. I will, therefore, offer the history
of the May-bug to the reader's attention ; pre-
mising that most other beetles, though not so
long lived, are bred in the same manner.
The May-bug, or dorr-beetle, as some call
it, has, like all the rest, a pair of cases to its
wings, which are of a reddish brown colour,
sprinkled with a whitish dust, which easily
comes off. In some years their necks are seen
covered with a red plate, and in others with a
black ; these, however, are distinct sorts, and
their difference is by no means accidental.
The fore-legs are very short, and the better
calculated lor burrowing in the ground, where
this insect makes its retreat. It is well
known, for its evening buzz, to children ; but
still more formidably introduced to the ac-
quaintance of husbandmen and gardeners; for,
in some seasons, it has been found to swarm in
such numbers as to eat up every vegetable
production.
The two sexes in the May-bug are easily
distinguished from each other, by the superior
length of the tufts, at the end of the horns, in
the male. They begin to copulate in summer ;
and at that season they are seen joined toge-
ther a considerable time. The female being
impregnated, quickly falls to boring a hole
into the ground where to deposit her burden.
This is generally about half a foot deep, and
in it she places her eggs, which are of an ob-
long shape, with great regularity, one by the
other. They are of a bright yellow colour,
and no way wrapped up in a common covering,
as some have imagined. When the female
is lightened of her burden she again ascends
from her hole, to live as before upon leaves
and vegetables, to buzz in the summer evening,
and to lie hid among the branches of trees in
the heat of the day.
In about three months after these eggs have
been thus deposited in the earth, the contained
insect begins to break its shell, and a small
grub or maggot crawls forth, and feeds upon
the roots of whatever vegetable it happens to
be nearest.
All substances of this kind seem equally
grateful, yet it is probable the mother insect
has a choice among what kind of vegetables
she shall deposit her young. In this manner
these voracious creatures continue in the worm
state, for more than three years, devouring the
roots of every plant they approach, and mak-
ing their way under ground, in quest of food,
with great dispatch and facility. At length
they grow to above the size of a walnut, being
a great thick white maggot with a red head,
which is seen most frequently in new-turned
earth, and which is so eagerly sought after by
birds of every species. When largest, they
are found an inch and a half long, of a whitish
yellow colour, with a body consisting of twelve
segments or joints, on each side of which there
are nine breathing-holes, and three red feet.
The head is large in proportion to the body,
of a reddish colour, with a pincer before, and
a semi-circular lip, with which it cuts the
roots of plants, and sucks out their moisture.
As this insect lives entirely under ground, it
has no occasion for eyes, and accordingly it is
found to have none ; but is furnished with two
feelers, which, like the crutch of a blind man,
serve to direct its motion. Such is the form
of this animal, that lives for years in the worm
state under ground, still voracious, and every
year changing its skin.
It is not till the end of the fourth year, that
this extraordinary insect prepares to emerge
from its subterraneous abode, and even this is
not effected but by a tedious preparation.
About the latter end of autumn, the grub be-
gins to perceive the approach of its transforma-
tion; it then buries itself deeper and deeper
in the earth, sometimes six feet beneath the
surface, and there forms itself a capacious
apartment, the walls of which it renders very
smooth and shining by the excretions of its
body, its abode being thus formed, it begins,
soon after, to shorten itself, to swell, and to
burst its last skin, in order to assume the form
of a chrysalis. This, in the beginning, ap-
pears of a yellowish colour, which heightens
by degrees, till at last it is seen nearly red.
Its exterior form plainly discovers all the ves-
tiges of the future winged insect, all the fore-
parts being distinctly seen; while behind, the
animal seerns as if wrapped in swaddling
clothes.
The young May-bug continues in this state
for about three months longer ; and it is not
till the beginning of January, that the aurelia
divests itself of all its impediments, and be-
comes a winged insect, completely formed.
Yet still the animal is far from attaining its
natural strength, health and appetite. It un-
dergoes a kind of infant imbecility; und, un-
THE BEETLE.
543
like most other insects, that the instant they
become flies are arrived at their state of ful
perfection, the May-bug continues feeble anc
sickly. Its colour is much brighter than ir
the perfect animal, all its parts are soft, and
its voracious nature seems, for a while, to have
entirely forsaken it. As the animal is very
often found in this state, it is supposed, by
those unacquainted with its real history, thai
the old ones of the former season have buried
themselves for the winter, in order to revisit
the sun the ensuing summer. But the fact is,
the old one never survives the season, but dies,
like all the other winged tribe of insects, from
the severity of cold in winter.
About the latter end of May, these insects,
after having lived for four years under ground,
burst from the earth, when the first mild even-
ing invites them abroad. They are at that,
time seen rising from their long imprisonment,
from living only upon roots, and imbibing
only the moisture of the earth, to visit the
mildness of the summer air, to choose the
sweetest vegetables for their banquet, and to
drink the dew of the evening. Wherever
an attentive observer then walks abroad, he
will see them bursting up before him in his
pathway, like ghosts on a theatre. He will
see every part of the earth, that had its sur-
face beat into hardness, perforated by their
egression. When the season is favourable
for them, they are seen by myriads buzzing
along, hitting against every object that inter-
cepts their flight. The mid-day sun, how-
ever, seems too powerful for their constitutions;
they then lurk under the leaves and branches
of some shady tree ; but the willow seems par-
ticularly their most favourite food ; there they
lurk in clusters, and seldom quit the tree till
they have devoured all its verdure. In those
seasons which are favourable to their propaga-
tion, they are seen in an evening as thick as
flakes of snow, and hitting against every ob-
ject with a sort of capricious blindness. Their
duration, however, is but short, as they never
survive the season. They begin to join shortly
after they have been let loose from their prison,
and when the female is impregnated, she cau-
tiously bores a hole in the ground, with an in-
strument fitted for that purpose, which she is
furnished with at the tail, and there deposits
her eggs, generally to the number of three-
score. If the season and the soil be adapted
to their propagation, these soon multiply as
already described, and go through the noxious
stages of their contemptible existence. This
insect, however, in its worm state, though pre-
judicial to man, makes one of the chief repasts
of the feathered tribe, and is generally the
first nourishment with which they supply their
young. Rooks and hogs are particularly fond
of these worms, "and devour them in great
numbers. The inhabitants of the county of
Norfolk, some time since, went into the prac-
tice of destroying their rookeries, but in pro-
portion as they destroyed one plague, they
were pestered with a greater; and these insects
multiplied in such an amazing abundance, as
to destroy not only the verdure of the fields,
but even the roots of vegetables not yet shot
forth. One farm in particular was so injured
by them in the year 1751, that the occupier
was not able to pay his rent, and the landlord
was content not only to lose his income for that
year, but also gave money for the support of
the farmer and his family. In Ireland they
suffered so much by these insects, that they
came to a resolution of setting fire to a wood of
some miles in extent, to prevent their mischie-
vous propagation.1
1 Grubs. — We frequently, (says Mr Rentiie, hi his in.
tercsting work on Insect Transformations,) hear farmers
and gardeners complaining that their produce is de-
stroyed by " the grub ;" they might with equal propriety
accuse " the bird " when their ripe seeds are devoured
by sparrows, chaffinches, linnets, and other seed -eaters.
Instead of one sort of grub, as the expression seems to
indicate, we are far under the mark in reckoning a thou-
sand species indigenous to Britain, each peculiar in its
food and its manners. We shall, however, adhere as
nearly as possible to the terms in common use ; but as the
larvae of the crane-flies (Tipulidae Leach), being without
legs, cannot be accurately ranked with the legged grubs
of beetles, we shall consider them as maggots, though
they are usually termed grubs by the farmers.
The most destructive, perhaps, of the creatures usu-
ally called grubs, are the larvae of the may-bug or cock-
chafer (Meloluniha vulyaris), but too well known, par-
ticularly in the southern and midland districts of E'ig.
land, as well as in Ireland, where the grub is called the
Connaught worm; but fortunately not abundant in the
north. We only once met with the cockchafer in Scot-
land, at Sorn, in Ayrshire. Even in the perfect state,
this insect is not a little destructive to the leaves of both
forest and fruit trees. In 18^3, we remember to have
observed almost a.ll the trees about Dtihvich and Camber-
well defoliated by them ; and Salisbury says, the leaves
of the oaks in Richmond Park were so eaten by them,
that scarcely an entire leaf was left. But it is in their
previous larvae state that they are most destructive, as we
shall see by tracing their history.
The mother cockchafer, when about to lay her eggs,
digs into the earth of a meadow or corn-field to the depth
of a span, and deposits them in a cluster at the bottom of
:he excavation. Rb'jel, in order to watch their proceed-
ings, put some females into glasses half-fill< d with earth,
covered with a tuft of grass, and a piece of thin muslin.
[11 a fortnight, he found some hundreds of eggs deposited,
of an oval shape and a pale yellow colour. Placing the
glass in a cellar, the eggs were hatched towards autumn
and the grubs increased remarkably in size. In the fol-
owing May they fed so voraciously that they required a
resh turf every second day ; and even this proving toe
icanty provender, he sowed in several garden pots a crop
of peas, lentil-:, and salad, and when the plants came up,
le put a pair of grubs in each pot ; and in this manner
ie fed them through the second and third years. During
his period, they cast their skins three or four times,
;oing for this purpose deeper into the earth, and burrow-
ng out a hole where Uiey might effect their change
indisturbed; and they do the same in winter, during
vhich they become torpid and do not cat.
544
HISTORY OF LXSECTS.
Of all the beetle kind this is the most
numerous, and therefore deserves the chief at-
tention of history. The numerous varieties of
other kinds might repay the curiosity of the
When the grub changes into a pupa, in the third
autumn afier it is hatched, it digs a similar burrow about
U yard deep; and when kept in a pot, and prevented from
poing deep enough, it shows great uneasiness and often
dies. The perfect beetle comes forth from the pupa in
rnm sformatlons of the cockchafer (Melotontha vnlgari's). a
.lewiy hatched larvae. /,, larvas. one year old. c, the same larva;
t the second year of its jfroivth. rf," the game three years old.
f, section of a hank of earth, containing the chrysalis of the
fourth year, j", the chafer first emerging from the earth, g the
ffTVtet chafer in a sitting posture.
The following (A) represents the insect flying.
January or February: but it is then as soft as it was
whilst sti.l a grub, and dues not acquire its hardness and
diligent observer, but we must be content in
general to observe, that in the great outlines of
their history, they resemble those of which W3
have just been giving a description ; like them
colour for ten or twelve days, nor does it venture above
ground before May, on the fourth year from the time of
its hatching. At this time, the beetles may be observed
issuing from their holes in the evening, and dashing
themselves about in the air as if blind.
During the three summers then of their existence ir
the grub state, these insects do immense injury, burr w-
ing between the turf and the soil, and devouring the
r< ots of grass and other plants ; so that the turf may easily
be rolled off, as if cut by a turfing spade, while the soil
underneath for an inch or more is turned into soft mould
like the bed of a garden. Mr Anderson of Norwich,
mentions having seen a whole field of fine flourishing
grass so undermined by these grubs, that in a few weeks
it became as dry, brittle, and withered as hay. Bingley
also tells us that "about sixty years ago, a farm near
Norwich was so infested with cockchafers, that the farmer
and his servants affirmed they gathered eighty bushels
of them ; and the grubs had clone so much injury, that the
co.urt of the city, in compassion to the poor fellow's mis-
fortune, allowed him twenty. five pounds." In the year
1785, a farmer, near Blois, in France, employed a number
of children and poor persons to destroy the cockchafes at
the rate of two liards a hundred, and in a few days they
collected fourteen thousand.
" I remember,'" says Salisbury, "seeing, in a nurst-ry
near Bagshot, several acres of young forest trees, parti-
cularly larch, the roots of which were completely destroyed
by it, so much so, that not a single tree was loft alive."
We are doubtful, however, whether this was the grub of
the cockchafer, and think it more likely to have been
that of the green rose beetle (Cetonia auruta], which
feeds on the roots of trees.
The grub of an allied genus, the midsummer chafe
(Zantheumia Solstitialis, Leach), has for the last two years
been abundant on Lewisham Hill, Blackheath, doing
considerable injury to herbage and garden plants. This,
beetle may be known from being smaller and paler than
the cockchafer, and from its not appearing before mid-
summer. The grub is very similar.
The best way of preventing the ravages of these insects
would be to employ children to collect the perfect insects
when they first appeal', before they lay their eggs; but
when a field is once overrun with the larvae, nothing can
be done with it, except paring and burning the surface,
or ploughing it up, and turning in a fluck of ducks or other
poultry, or a drove of pigs, which are said to eat these
grubs, and to fatten on the fare. Drenching the field
with stable mine by means ot reservoir carts, like those
used for watering roads, would, if sufficiently done, both
kill the grub=, and beneficially manure the land.
The grub called the wife worm, though not very ap-
propriately, is the larva; of one of the spring or clid<
beetles (flemirftipus lincatus, and //. obscurus, Latreille)
known by their long flattish body, and their power of
springing with a clicking sound out of the hand when
caught. In some works on agriculture, the larva; of a
common crane fly ( Tipula otcracea or T. crocata} ia
called the wire worm, — -we suppose by mistake. The
grubs of the click beetles, just alluded to, are said by
Bierscander and by Mr Paul of Starston, Norfolk, who
watched their transformations, to continue five years be-
fore producing the perfect insect. During this time the
grub feeds chiefly on the roots of wheat, rye, oats, barley,
and grass; but seems also sometimes to attack the larger
roots of potatoes, carrots, and salads. Its ravages are
often so extensive as to cut on" entire crops of grain. It
appears to be most partial to land newly broken up ; and
has not been found so abundant in meadows and pastures.
THE BEETLE.
545
all other beetles are bred from the egg, which
is deposited in the ground, or sometimes, though
seldom, in the barks of trees, they change into
a worm; they subsist in that state by living upon
unless in fields recently laid down with grass. " The
wire worm," says Spence, "is particularly destructive
for a few years in gardens recently converted from pas-
ture ground. In the botanic garden at Hull, thus cir-
cumstanced, a great proportion of the annuals sown in
1813 were destroyed by it. A very simple and effectual
remedy, in such cases, was mentioned to me by Sir Joseph
Banks. He recommended that slices of potatoes stuck
upon skewers, should be buried near the seeds sown, ex-
amined every day, and the wire-worms, which collect
upon them in great number?, destroyed."
The wire worm is long, slender, and very tough and
Lard ; but otherwise it has no resemblance to wire, being
whitish in colour, of a flattish form, and jointed or ringed.
Its breathing spiracles, two in number, are on the back
of its last ring.
An insect of this family (Elater noctilucus, Linn.) is
exceedingly destructive in the West Indies to the sugar-
cane; the grub, according to Humboldt and Bonpland,
feeding on its roots and killing the plants The
insect most destructive to our peas is the pulse beetle
(Bruchus granarius, Linn.), which sometimes lays an
egg on every pea in a pod, which the grub, when hatched,
destroys. In the same way, clover seed is often attacked
by two or more species of small weevil (Aplon, Herbst),
known by the yellow colour of their thighs or their feet ;
and when the farmer expects to reap considerable profit,
he finds nothing but empty husks.
Great ravages are committed in granaries by the
caterpillars of small moths ; but these are rivalled in the
work of destruction by several species of grubs. One of
these grubs is called by the French cadelle (Trogosita
mauritanica, Olivier), and is reported to have done more
damage to housed grain than any other insect.* The
pest of the granaries, which is but too well known in
this country, is the grain weevil (Culandra granaria,
Clairville), the same, probably, which is mentioned by
Virgil,
Populalque ingentem fcrris acorvi.m
Curculio. Georg. i. 87.
• The high stacks of corn
Are wasted by the weevil. Trupp.
Kirby and Spence calculate that a single pair of weevils
may produce in one season GOOO descendants ; and they
were told by an extensive brewer that he had collected
and destroyed them by bushels, — meaning, no doubt, in.
sects and damaged grain together.
Another beetle grub, popularly called the meal worm,
the larvae of Tenebrio molitor, Linn., which lives in that
state two years, does no little damage to flour, as well as
to bread, cakes, biscuit, and similar articles. Accounts
are also given of the ravages committed by the grubs of
other beetles, of several species, apparently not well as-
certained, upon different sorts of provisions, such as ba-
con, ham, dried tongues, ship-biscuit, &c. Sparrman tells
us, that he has witnessed the ground peas on ship-board
so infested with these grubs, that they were seen in every
spoonful of the soup. In the case of soup, or of other
food which has been exposed to heat, the only inconveni-
ence is the disgust which must ensue ; but, unfortunately,
there may sometimes occur circumstances of a more
serious nature, — from either the eggs or the insects them-
selves being incautiously swallowed alive. We do not
wish, however, to create, so much as to allay, the fears
entertained by those who are unacquainted with the ha-
bits of insects ; and nothing, we are persuaded, will do this
* Oliver, ii. 19.
the roots of vegetables, or the succulent parts
of the bark round them. They generally live
a year at least before they change into an au-
relia ; in that state they are~not entirely mo-
more effectually than a statement of facts well ascertained.
" Several people," says Abbe de la pluche, "never eat fruit
because they believe that spiders and other insects scatter
their eggs upon it at random; but even if it were so, as
it is not, it would be impossible for the young, should
they be hatched in the stomach, to live there for an
instant."
Adhering (continues Mr Rennie) to the distinction of
terming those larvae which are destitute of feet, maggots,
we shall notice here a very destructive one, which is
sometimes popularly called the grub, and sometimes con-
founded with the wire worm. We allude to the larva of
one or two common species of crane flies (Tiptilidai), well
known by the provincial names of father-long-legs, Jenny-
spinners, and tailors. These insects are so common in
some meadows, that, being very shy and fearful of danger,
they rise in swarms at every step — some of them flying
high, others only skipping over the grass, and others
running and using their long legs as the inhabitants of
marshy countries use stilts, and employing their wings
like the ostrich to aid their limbs.
These flies deposit their eggs in the earth; sometimes
in grass fields or moist meadows, and sometimes in the
tilled ground of gardens and farms. For this purpose
the female is provided with an ovipositor well adapted to
the operation, consisting of a sort of pincer or forceps of
a horny consistence, and sharp at the point. By pres-
sure, as Reaumur says, the eggs may be extruded from
this in the same way as the stone can be easily squeezed
out of a ripe cherry.
The eggs are exceedingly small and black, like grains
of gunpowder, and each female lays a good many hun-
dreds. The position which she assumes appears some-
what awkward, for she raises herself perpendicularly on
her two hind legs, using her ovipositor as a point of sup-
port, and resting with her fore legs upon the contiguous
herbage. She then thrusts her ovipositor into the ground
as far as the first ring of her body, and leaves one or more
eggs in the hole; and next moves onwards to another
place, but without bringing herself into a horizontal posi-
tion. The maggot, when hatched from the egg, imme-
diately attacks the roots of the grass and other herbage
which it finds nearest to it; and of course the portion of
the plant above ground withers for lack of nourishment.
In many districts of England these insects cut on" a large
proportion of the wheat crop, particularly, it would appear,
when it has been sown on clover leys.
The maggot of a minute fly of the same family,
known by the name of the wheat fly, (Cecidomyia Tri-
tici, Kirhy), is frequently productive of great damage
in the crops of wheat. The parent fly is very small,
not unlike a midge (Culicoides punctata, Latr.), of an
orange colour, and wings rounded at the tip, and fring-
ed with hairs. The female is furnished with a re-
tractile ovipositor, four times as long as the body, and as
fine as a hair, for depositing her eggs, which she does in
the glumes of the florets of the grain.
The Hessian fiy of America is a little larger than our
wheat fly, more slender in the body, has longer legs, and
is not orange, but black and fulvous. The female depo-
sits from one to eight or more eggs on a single plant of
wheat, between the sheath of the inner leaf and the stem
nearest the roots ; in which situation, with its head to-
wards the root or first joint, the young larva passes the
winter, eating into the stem, and causing it to break.
The devastation committed by the Hessian fly seems
to have been first observed in 177f>, and it was errone-
ously supposed that the insect was conveyed among straw
by the Hessian troops from Germany. It was first
3 z,
546
HISTORY OF INSECTS.
tionless, nor entirely swaddled up without
form.
It would be tedious and endless to give a
description of all ; and yet it would be an un-
pardonable omission not to mention the par-
ticularities of some beetles, which are singular
rather from their size, their manners, or their
formation. That beetle, which the Americans
call the Tumble-dung, particularly demands
our attention; it is all over of a dusky black,
rounder than those animals are generally found
to be, and so strong, though not much larger
than the common black beetle, that if one of
them be put under a brass candlestick, it will
cause it to move backwards and forwards, as
if it were by an invisible hand, to the admira-
tion of those who are not accustomed to the
sight; but this strength is given it for much
more useful purposes than those of exciting
human curiosity, for there is no creature more
laborious, either in seeking subsistence, or in
providing a proper retreat for its young. They
are endowed with sagacity to discover subsis-
tence by their excellent smelling, which directs
them in flights to excrements just fallen from
man or beast, on which they instantly drop,
and fall unanimously to work in forming
round balls or pellets thereof, in the middle of
noticed in the wheat fields of Long Island, from which
it spread gradually at the rate of fifteen or twenty miles
round; and in 1789 it had advanced two hundred miles
from its original station in Long Island. Other accounts
state that it did not travel more than seven miles annu-
ally, and did little serious damage before 1 788. Their
numbers seem almost incredible. The houses in the in-
fested districts swarmed with them to so great a degree,
that every vessel was filled with them ; five hundred were
actually counted on a glass tumbler which had been set
down for a few minutes with a little beer in it. They
were observed crossing the Delaware river like a cloud ;
and even mountains do not seem to interrupt their pro-
gress. We can well understand, therefore, that so for-
midable a ravager should have caused a very great alarm ;
and even our own government was in fear lest the insect
should be imported. The privy council, indeed, sat day
after day in deep consultation what measures should be
adopted to ward off the danger of a calamity more to be
dreaded, as they well knew, than the plague or the pes-
tilence. Expresses were sent oft' in all directions to the
officers of the customs at the different outports respecting
the examination of cargoes, — despatches were written to
the ambassadors in France, Austria, Prussia, and Amer-
ica, to gain information, — and so important altogether
was the business deemed, that the minutes of council,
and the documents collected from all quarters, fill up.
wards of two hundred pages.
The cheese fly (Piophila Casei, Fallen) is very small
and black, with whitish wings margined with black. It
was one of those experimented upon by Redi to prove
that insects, in the fabric of which so much art, order,
contrivance, arid wisdom appear, could not be the pro-
duction of chance or rottenness, but the work of the same
Omnipotent hand which created the heavens and the
earth. This tiny little fly is accordingly furnished with
an admirable instrument for depositing its eggs, in an
ovipositor, which it can thrust out and extend to a great
length, so that it can penetrate to a considerable depth
into the cracks of cheese, where it lays its eggs, 256 in
number. " I have seen them myself," says Swammer-
dam, " thrust out their tails for this purpose to an amaz-
ing length, and by that method bury the eggs in the
deepest cavities. I found in a few days afterwards a
number of maggots which had sprung from those eggs,
perfectly resembling those of the first brood that had
produced the mother fly. I cannot but also take notice
that the rottenness of cheese is really caused by these
maggots; for they both crumble the substance of it into
small particles and also moisten it with some sort of li-
quid, so that the decayed part rapidly spreads. I once
observed a cheese which I had purposely exposed to this
kind of fly grow moist in a short time in those parts of it
where eggs had been deposited, and had afterwards been
1'atched into maggots ; though, before, the cheese was
perfectly sound and entire."
The cheese-hopper is furnished with two horny claw-
shaped mandibles, which it uses both for digging into the
cheese and for moving itself, being destitute of feet. Its
powers of leaping have been observed by every one ; and
Swammerdam says, " I have seen one, whose length did
not exceed the fourth of an inch, leap out of a box six
inches deep, that is, twenty.four times the length of its
own body : others leap a great deal higher." For this
purpose it first erects itself on its tail, which is furnished
with two wart-like projections, to enable it to maintain
its balance. It then bends itself into a circle, catches the
skin near its tail with its hooked mandibles, and after
strongly contracting itself from a circular into an oblong
form, it throws itself with a jerk into a straight line, and
thus makes the leap.
c
Cheese lioppcrs (Piophilit casez, Fallenl. a, the mug^n", ex-
tended ; l>, in a leBphisf position ; rf, the same magnified ; e, the
fly magnified ;J, g, the fly, natural size.
One very surprising provision is remarkable in the
breathing-tubes of the cheese maggot, which are not
placed, as in caterpillars, along the sides, but a pair near
the head and another pair near the tail. Now, when
burrowing in the moist cheese, these would be apt to be
obstructed ; but to prevent this, it has the power of bring-
ing over the front pair a fold of the skin, breathing in
the meanwhile through the tinder pair. Well may Swam,
merdam denominate these contrivances " surprising mir-
acles of God's power and wisdom in this abject creature."
Like the other destructive insects above mentioned,
the multiplication of the cheese fly is checked by some
insect, whose history, so far as we are aware, is not yet
known. Swammerdam found many of the maggots with
other larvse in their bodies; but he did not trace their
transformations. If they were the larva of an ichneumon,
it must be exceedingly minute.
THE BEETLE.
547
which they lay an egg. These pellets, in
September, they convey three feet deep in the
earth, where they lie till the approach of
spring; when the eggs are hatched the nests
burst, and the insects find their way out of
the earth. They assist each other with inde-
fatigable industry, in rolling these globular
pellets to the place where they are to be buried.
This they are to perform with the tail fore-
most, by raising up their hinder part, and
shoving along the ball with their hind-feet.
They are always accompanied with other
beetles of a larger size, and of a more elegant
structure and colour. The breast of this is
covered with a shield of a crimson colour, and
shining like metal ; the head is of the like co-
lour, mixed with green, and on the crown of
the head stands a shining black horn, bended
backwards. These are called the kings of the
beetles; but for what reason is uncertain, since
they partake of the same dirty drudgery with
the rest.1
1 The scientific name for beetles is Coleoptera. They
are readily distinguished, (says Mr Duncan, in the Natur-
alist's Library,) from other insect?, by having the inferior
wings covered and protected by a hard case or shell. This
peculiarity of structure has suggested the name, which
is composed of two Greek words, and signifies wings in
a sheath (»e\ia;, a sheath, and -rnoa,, wings}. The
term was first used by Aristotle, and as the character to
which it refers forms a very obvious mark of distinction,
it has been almost universally adopted by subsequent
writers. In several instances, however, it fails to be an
accurate definition of the order, for there are some beetles
without either wings or sheath, and many others in which
the latter only is present. To the other characters more re-
cently added, such as the transverse folding of the wings,and
the straight sutural line down the middle of the wingcases,
separating them into two equal portions, there are likewise
exceptions; but these are too fewand unimportant to inva-
lidate materially the general correctness of thn definition.
The insects to which these characters apply, constitute
one of the most numerous orders of their class. In this
countiy alone, they amount, by the latest and most ac-
curate census, to upwards of 3600, thus forming nearly
a third part of our entire insect population. This is con-
siderably more than double the number of phanogamous
or flowering plants indigenous to Britain, and greatly ex-
ceeds the whole amount of our native vertebrate animals.
When compared with the two other orders that are next
to it in extent in this country, it will be found that the
Coleoptera are nearlyone half more numerous than the Le-
pidoptera, and that they stand much in the same relation to
the Diptera or two winged flies. Of the latter, indeed, all
the species ascertained to inhabit Europe scarcely exceed
the amount of British Coleoptera ; for the most accurate en-
umeration of the European Diptera which we possess makes
them about 3760. The native Coleoptera of Sweden, ac-
cording to the enumeration of them given by Gyllenhal, in
his admirable Insecta Suecica, are about 4700 in number.
In advancing southwards, these insects increase in a ratio
similar to what is observed in other departments of na-
ture ; and in countries under the tropics, so redundant in
every kind of animal life, they may be said absolutely to
swarm. We are without sufficient data, however, from
which to form an accurate estimate of their total amount.
Some years since, the collection of the Count de Jean at
Paris, one of the most extensive that exists, contained
110 fewer than 20,000 species. Many others are no doubt
The Elephant-Beetle is the largest of this
kind hitherto known, and is found in South
America, particularly Guiana and Surinam,
as well as about the river Oroonoko. It is of
to be found in different collections ; and when we take
into account the discoveries daily made by the numerous
cultivators of this branch of zoology, and the extent and
fertility of the countries with the insect productions of
which we are wholly unacquainted, there seems reason
to believe that it cannot be much short of 30,000 — that
is, 10,000 above the estimate formed by Ray nearly a
century and a half ago, as the probable amount of the
whole class of insects !
This order comprehends some of the largest as well as
the most minute insects with which we are acquainted.
Certain orthopterous species belonging to the genus
Phasma surpass them in length, and several gigantic
moths are of greater superficial extent ; but in many
beetles length of body is combined with a proportionate
breadth and thickness, which renders them the most
bulky and massive of their class. A fine specimen of
Prionus giganteus measures nearly half a foot in length,
the breadth is about two inches, and the expansion of the
wings is nine inches. A handsome and scarce species^
of the same family (Prionus armillatus) is about five
inches long and one inch and three quarters broad, and
the antennae, which are very strong and rigid, are up-
wards of six inches in length. The Hercules beetle
(Dynastes Hercules'), and Scarabseus Actaeon, measure
respectively about four and a half inches in length in-
cluding the horns. The largest coleopterous insects in-
habiting Britain are the Hydrous piceus, and the Stag-
beetle (Lucanus cervus). The latter is nearly two inches
in length, including the mandibles ; and the former is
not much short of the same dimensions, besides being of
considerably greater breadth. These may be regarded
as the giants of this order of insects, occupying one ex-
tremity of the scale. At the opposite extremity may be
placed some species of the genera Trichopteryx, Ato-
maria, and Agathidium, which are so minute as not to
exceed one-eighth part of a line in length;* or, to adopt
an illustration sometimes employed, they are absolutely
not bigger than the full stop that closes this period.
The structure of these minute beings is perhaps even
more calculated to excite our admiration than that of the
larger animals. In the latter, most of the parts are of
sufficient size to come within the direct cognisance of
our senses, and there is no apparent discrepancy be-
tween their dimensions and the functions which they per-
form ; but when we reflect that a mere animated pointi
almost invisible to the naked eye, possesses all the at-
tributes which belong to the largest of its race — that ii
is furnished with an external covering made up of many
parts adjusted to each other with the nicest accuracy —
that it is supplied with all the requisite organs of sense
and motion, and has a nervous and respiratory system of
greater complexity than many of the larger animals —
that the various processes of digestion, assimilation, and
secretion, are continually going forward — that not a limb
can be put in motion without calling into play a multi-
tude of muscles — and that this atomic being is more-
over endowed with instincts which regulate with almost
unerring certainty all its habits and economy — we can
scarcely fail to regard it as affording a more striking in-
stance of consummate skill than if it had occupied a much
larger space.
" The shapely limb, and lubricated joint,
Within the small dimensions of a point,
Muscle and nerve miraculously spun,
His mighty work, who speaks and it is done i
The invisible in things scarce seen revealed.
To whom an atom is an ample field."
* A line is the twelfth part of a French inch.
548
HISTORY OF INSECTS.
a black colour, and the whole body is covered
with a very hard shell, full as thick and as
strong as that of a small crab. Its length,
from the hinder part to the eyes, is almost
four inches, and from the same part to the end
of (he proboscis, or trunk, four inches and
three quarters. The transverse diameter of
the body is two inches and a quarter, and the
breadth of each elytron, or case for the wings,
is an inch and three-tenths. The antennae, or
feelers, are quite horny ; for which reason the
proboscis, or trunk, is movable at its insertion
into the head, and seems to supply the place
of feelers. The horns are eight-tenths of an
inch long, and terminate in points. The
proboscis is an inch and a quarter long, and
turns upwards, making a crooked line, ter-
minating in two horns, each of which is near
a quarter of an inch long ; but they are not
perforated at the end like the proboscis of other
insects. About four-tenths of an inch above
the head, on that side next the body, is a pro-
minence or small horn, which, if the rest of
the trunk were away, would cause this part
to resemble the horn of a rhinoceros. There
is indeed a beetle so called, but then the horns
or trunk has no fork at the end, though the
lower horn resembles this. The feet are all
forked at the end, but not like lobster's claws.
To this class we may also refer the Glow-
worm, that little animal which makes such a
distinguished figure in the descriptions of our
poets. No two insects can differ more than
The coloured Plate 71 exhibits some of the most inte-
resting species of Coleoptera.
Fig. 1, the male of Scardbceus Hercules, or Hercules
Beetle, found in the Antilles and Guiana, at Rio Janeiro,
and in the American Islands.
Fig. 2, the male of Scardbasus Tityus, inhabiting Caro-
lina, Virginia, and other North American states.
Fig. 3, Elater lineatus, the Striped Click Beetle, abun-
dant in Brazil, Cayenne, and other parts of tropical America.
Fig. 4, Calosoma sycophanta, the Splendid Ground Beetle
rarely found in Britain, but of frequent occurrence in the
middle and southern countries of Europe.
Fig. 5, Lamia fonnosa, the Beautiful Capricorn Beetle,
found in most countries, Britain and colder climes excepted.
Fig. 6, Malacldus marginellus, the Margined Malachiua,
a native of France and England.
Fig. 7, Buprestris amcena, the beautiful Barncow Beetle,
found in Brazil and other tropical countries of America.
Fig. 8, Rhynchites pubescens, the Downy Weevil, a native
of France, Germany, and England.
Fig. 9, Curculio Latreillii, a brilliant insect found in
Brazil.
Fig. 10, Eumolpus nipreus, the Coppery Eumolpus, of
which about thirty different kinds inhabit this country.
Fig. 11, Coccinella punctata, the Spotted Lady-Bird
Beetle, a beautiful insect very common in Britain.
Fig. 12, Chrysomela fastuosa, the noble Golden Beetle,
found not unfrequently both in England and Scotland.
The Coleoptera surpass all other tribes of insects, as
well as the higher races of animals, in variety of form and
singularity of structure. We view these characteristics with
comparative disregard on account of the small size of the
beetle; but if similar features were observable in larger
animals they would strike us with terror and astonishment.
the male and female of this species from each
other. The male is in every respect a beetle,
having cases to its wings, and rising in the
air at pleasure ; the female, on the contrary,
has none, but is entirely a creeping insect,
and is obliged to wait the approaches of her
capricious companion. The body of the fe-
male has eleven joints, with a shield breast-
plate, the shape of which is oval ; the head is
placed over this, and is very small, and the
three last joints of her body are of a yellowish
colour ; but what distinguishes it from all
other animals, at least in this part of the world,
is the shining light which it emits by night,
and which is supposed by some philosophers
to be an emanation which she sends forth to
allure the male to her company. Most trav-
ellers who have gone through sandy countries,
must well remember the little shining sparks
with which the ditches are studded on each
side of the road. If incited by curiosity to
approach more nearly, he will find this light
sent forth by the glow-worm ; if he should
keep the little animal for some time, its light
continues to grow paler, and at last appears
totally extinct. The manner in which this
light is produced has hitherto continued inex-
plicable ; it is probable the little animal is
supplied with some electrical powers, so that
by rubbing the joints of its body against each
other, it thus supplies a stream of light, which
if it allures the male, as we are told, serves
for very useful purposes.1
1 We boast of our candles, our wax-lights, and our
Argand-Iamp?, and pity our fellow-men who, ignorant
of our methods of producing artificial light, are con-
demned to pass their nights in darkness. We regard
these inventions as the results of a great exertion of
human intellect, and never conceive it possible that other
animals are able to avail themselves of modes of illumin-
ation equally efficient; and are furnished with the means
of guiding their nocturnal evolutions by actual lights, simi-
lar in their effect to those which we make use of. Yet many
insects are thus provided. Some are forced to content
themselves with a single candle, not more \ivid than the
rush-light which glimmers in the peasant's cottage ;
others exhibit two or four, which cast a stronger radi-
ance ; and a few can display a lamp little inferior in
brilliancy to some of ours. Not that these insects are
actually possessed of candles and lamps. You are aware
that I am speaking figuratively. But Providence has
supplied them with an effectual substitute — a luminous
preparation or secretion, which has all the advantages of
our lamps and candles, without their inconveniences ;
which gives light sufficient to direct their motions, while
it is incapable of burning ; and whose lustre is main-
tained without needing fresh supplies of oil or the appli-
cation of the snuffers.
Of the insects thus singularly provided, the common
glow-worm (Lampyris noctiluca) is the most familiar
instance. Who that has ever enjoyed the luxury of a
summer evening's walk in the country, in the southern
parts of our island, hut has viewed with admiration these
" stars of the earth and diamonds of the night ?" And if,
living like me in a district where it is rarely met with,
the first time you saw this insect, chanced to be, as it
was in my case, one of those delightful evenings which
THE BEETLE.
549
The Cantharis i.i of the beetle kind, from
whence come cantharides, well known in the
shops by the name of Spanish flies, and for
their use in blisters. They have feelers like
an English summer seldom yields, when not a breeze
disturbs the balmy air, and " every sense is joy,'' and
hundreds of these radiant worms, studding their mossy
u< nch with mild effulgence, were presented to your won-
dering eye in the course of a quarter of a mile — you
rould not help associating with the name of glow-worm
the most pleasing recollections. No wonder that an
insect, which chiefly exhibits itself on occasions so inter-
esting, and whose economy is so remarkable, should have
afforded exquisite images and illustrations to those poets
who have cultivated natural history.
If you take one of these glow-worms home with you
for examination, you will find that in shape it somewhat
resembles a caterpillar, only that it is much more depres-
sed ; and you will observe that the light proceeds from
a pale-coloured patch that terminates the underside of
the abdomen. It is not, however, the larva of an insect,
but the perfect female of a winged beetle, from which it
is altogether so different, that nothing but actual observa-
tion could have inferred the fact of their being the sexes
of the same insect. In the course of your inquiries, you
will find that sexual differences even more extraordinary
exist in the insect world.
It has been supposed by many that the males of the
different species of Lampyris do not possess the property
of giving out any light ; but it is now ascertained that
this supposition is inaccurate, though their light is much
less vivid than that of the female. Ray first pointed out
this fact with respect to L. noctiluca. Geoffrey also
observed that the malo of this species has four small
luminous points, two on each of the two last segments of
the belly ; and his observation has been recently con-
firmed by Muller. This last entomologist, indeed, saw
only two shining spots ; but from the insect's having the
power of withdrawing them out of sight, so that not the
smallest trace of light remains, he thinks it is not impro-
bable that at times two other points still smaller may be
exhibited, as Geoffrey has described. In the males of
L. splendidida and of L. hemiptera the light is very dis-
tinct, and may be seen in the former while flying. The
females have the same faculty of extinguishing or con-
cealing their light — a very necessary provision to guard
them from the attacks of the nightingale and other noc-
turnal birds. Mr White even thinks that they regularly
put it out between eleven and twelve every night ; and
they have also the power of rendering it for awhile more
vivid than ordinary.
Authors who have noticed the luminous parts of the
common female glow-worm, having usually contented
themselves with stating that the light issues from the three
last ventral segments of the abdomen. I shall give you
the result of some observations I once made upon this
subject. One evening, in the beginning of July, meet-
ing with two of these insects, I placed them on my hand.
At first their light was exceedingly brilliant, so as to
appear even at the junctions of the upper or dorsal seg-
ments of the abdomen. Soon after I had taken them,
one withdrew its light altogetht'r, but the other continued
to shine. While it did this, it was laid upon its back,
the abdomen forming an angle with the rest of its body,
and the last or anal segment being kept in constant mo-
tion. This segment was distinguished by two round and
very vivid spots of light; which, in the specimen that
had ceased to shine, were the last that disappeared, and
they seem to be the first parts that become luminous,
when the animal is disposed to yield its light. The pen-
ultimate and antepenultimate segments each exhibited a
middle transverse band of yellow radiance, terminated
towards the trunk by an obtusely-dentated line ; a
bristles, flexible cases to the wings, a breast
pretty plain, and the sides of the belly wrinkled.
Cantharides differ from each other in their
size, shape, and colour ; those used in the
greener and fainter light being emitted by the rest of
the segment.
Though many of the females of the different species of
Lampyris are without w-ings, and even elytra, (in which
circumstance they differ from all other apterous Coleo-
ptera,) this is not the case with all. The female of L.
Italica, a species common in Italy, and which, if we may
trust to the accuracy of the account given by Mr Walh-r
in the Philosophical Transactions for 1C84, would seem
to have been taken by him in Hertfordshire, is winged ;
and when a number of these moving stars are seen to
dart through the air in a dark night, nothing can have
a more beautiful effect. Dr Smith tells us that the
beaus of Italy are accustomed in an evening to adorn
the heads of the ladies with these artificial diamonds, by
sticking them into their hair ; and a similar custom pre-'
vails amongst the ladies of India.
Besides the different species of the genus Lampyris,
all of which are probably more or less luminous, another
insect of the beetle tribe, Elater noctilucus, is endowed
with the same property, and that in a much higher de-
gree. This insect, which is an inch long, and about
one-third of an inch broad, gives out its principal light
from two transparent eye-like tubercles placed upon
the thorax ; but there are also two luminous patches con-
cealed under the elytra, which are not visible except
when the insect is flying, at which time it appears
adorned with fi.ur brilliant gems of the mo^t beautiful
golden-blue lustre ; in fact, the whole body is full of
light, which shines out between the abdominal segments
when stretched. The light emitted by the two thoracic
tubercles alone is so considerable, that the smallest print
may be read by moving one of these insects along t!:e
lines ; and in the West India Islands, particularly in St
Domingo, where they are very common, the natives were
formerly accustomed to employ these living lamps, which
they called Cucuij, instead of candles in performing their
evening household occupations. In travelling at night,
they used to tie one to each great toe ; and in fishing and
hunting required no other flambeau. Southey has hap-
pily introduced this insect in his " Madoc," as furnishing
the lamp by which Coatal rescued the British hero from
the hands of the Mexican priests.
" She beckoned and descended, and drew out
From underneath her vest a cage, or net
It rather might be called, so fine the twigs
Which knit it, where, confined, two fire-flies gave
Their lustre. By that light did Madoc first
Behold the features of his lovely guide."
The brilliant nocturnal spectacle presented by these
insects to the inhabitants of the countries where they
abound, cannot be better described than in the language
of the poet above referred to, who has thus related its first
effect upon the British visitors of the New World : —
" Sorrowing we beheld
The night come on ; but soon did night display
More wonders than it veil'd : innnmerous tribes
From the wood cover svvarm'd, and darkness made
Their beauties visible : one while they streamed
A bright blue radiance upon flowers that closed
Their gorgeous colours from the eye of day ;
Now motionless and dark, eluded search,
Self-shrouded ; and anon, starring the sky,
Rose like a shower of fire."
With regard to the immediate source of the luminous
properties of these insects, Mr Macartney, to whom we
are indebted for the most recent investigation on the
550
HISTORY OF INSECTS.
shops also do the same. The largest in these
parts are about an inch long, and as much in
circumference, but others are not above three
quarters of an inch.- Some are of a pure azure
subject, has ascertained that in the common glow-worm,
and in Elater noctilucus and ignitus, the light proceeds
from masses of a substance not generally differing, except
in its yellow colour, from the fnstertitial substance (corps
graisseux) of the rest of the body, closely applied under-
neath those transparent parts of the insect's skin which
afford the light. In the glow-worm, besides the last-
mentioned substance, which, when the season for giving
light is passed, is absorbed, and replaced by the common
instertitial substance, he observed on the inner side of the
last abdominal segment two minute oval sacs formed of
an elastic spirally-wound fibre similar to that of the
trachete, containing a soft yellow substance of a closer
texture than that which lines the adjoining region, and
affording a more permanent and brilliant light. This
light he found to be less under the control of the insect,
than that from the adjoining luminous substance, which
it has the power of voluntarily extinguishing, not by re-
tracting it under a membrane, as Carradori imagined,
but by some inscrutable change dependent upon its will;
and when the latter substance was extracted from living
glow-worms, it aflbrded no light, while the two sacs in
like circumstances shone uninterruptedly for several
hours. Mr Macartney conceives, from the radiated
structure of the instertitial substance surrounding the oval
yellow masses immediately under the transparent spots
in the thorax of Elater noctilucus, and the sub-transpar-
ency of the adjoining crust, that the instertitial substance
in this situation has also the property of shining — a sup-
position which, if De Geerand other authors be correct in
stating that this insect has two luminous patches under its
elytra, and that the incisures between the abdominal seg-
ments shine when stretched, may probably be extended
to the whole of the instertitial substance of its body. What
peculiar organization contributes to the production of
light in the hollow projections of Fulgora laternaria and
candelaria, the hollow antennae of Pausus spharocerus,
and under the whole integument of Scolopendra electrica,
Mr Macartney was unable to ascertain. Respecting this
last he remarks, what I have myself observed, thatHhere
is an apparent effusion of a luminous fluid on its surface,
that maybe received upon the hand, which exhibits a
phosphoric light for a few seconds afterwards ; and that
it will not shine unless it have been previously exposed
for a short time to the solar light.*
With respect to the remote cause of the luminous
property of insects, philosophers are considerably divided
in opinion. The disciples of modern chemistry have,
in general, with Dr Darwin, referred it to the slow
combustion of some combination of phosphorus secreted
from their fluids by an appropriate organization, and
entering into combination with the oxygen supplied in
respiration. This opinion is very plausibly built upon
the ascertained existence of phosphoric acid as an animal
secretion ; the great resemblance between the light of
phosphorus in slow combustion and animal light ; the
remarkably large spiracula in glow- worms ; and upon
the statement that the light of the glow-worm is ren-
dered more brilliant by the application of heat and oxy-
gen gas, and is extinguished by cold and by hydrogen
and carbonic acid gases. From these last facts, Spallan-
zani was led to regard the luminous matter as a com-
pound of hydrogen and carbonated hydrogen gas. Car-
radori having found that the luminous portion of the
belly of the Italian glow-worm (Lampyris ttalica) shone
* Phil. Trans. 1810, p. 281.— Mr Macartney's statement on
this point is not very clear. He probably means that the insect
will not shine in a dark place in the day time, unless previously
exposed to the solar Hi: lit : for it is often seen to shine at nipht
when it could have had no recent exposure to the sun.
colour, others of a pure £old, and others again
have a mixture of pure gold and azure colours ;
but they are all very brilliant, and extremely
beautiful. These insects, as is well known,
in vacuo, in oil, in water, and when under other circum-
stances where the pressure of oxygen gas was precluded,
with Brugnatelli ascribed the property in question to the
imbibition of light separated from the food or air taken
into the body, and afterwards secreted in a sensible form.
Lastly, Mr Macartney having ascertained by experiment
that the light of a glow-worm is not diminished by immer-
sion in water, or increased by the application of heat ;
that the substance affording it, though poetically em-
ployed for lighting the fairies' tapers, is incapable of in-
flammation if applied to the flame of a caudle or red-
hot iron; and when separated from the body, exhibits no
sensible heat on the thermometer's being applied to it-
rejects the preceding hypothesis as unsatisfactory, but
without substituting any other explanation ; suggesting,
however, that the facts he observed are more favourable
to the supposition of light being a quality of matter than
a substance.
Which of these opinions is the more correct, I do not
pretend to decide. But though the experiments of Mr
Macartney seem fairly to bear him out in denying tiie exis-
tence of any ordinary combination of phosphorus in lumin-
ous insects, there exists a contradiction in many of the
statements, which requires reconciling before final deci-
sion can be pronounced. The different results obtained by
Forster and Spallanzani, who assert that glow-worms
shine more brilliantly in oxygen gas, and by Becker-
heim, Dr Hulme, and Sir H. Davy, who could perceive
no such eflect, may perhaps be accounted for by the sup-
position that in the latter instances the insects having
been taken more recently, might be less sensible to the
stimulus of the gas than in the former, where possibly
their irritability was, as Brown would say, accumulated
by a longer abstinence : but it is not so easy to reconcile
the experiment of Sir H. Davy, who found the light of
the glow-worm not to be sensibly diminished in hydro-
gen gas, with those of Spallanzani and Dr Hulme, who
found it to be extinguished by the same gas, as well as
by carbonic acid, nitrous and sulphurated hydrogen
gases. Possibly some of these contradictory results were
occasioned by not adverting to the faculty which the
living insect possesses of extinguishing its lights at plea-
sure ; or different philosophers may have experimented
on different species of Lampyris.
The general use of this singular provision is not much
more satisfactorily ascertained than its nature. 1 have
before conjectured — and in an instance I then related it
seemed to be so — that it may be a means of defence
against their enemies. In different kinds of insects,
however, it may probably have a different object. Thus,
in the lantern-flies (Fulgora) whose light precedes them,
it may act the part that their name imports, enabling
them to discover their prey, and to steer themselves
safely in the night. In the fire-flies, (Elater) if we con-
sider the infinite numbers that in certain climates and
situations present themselves every where in the night,
it may distract the attention of their enemies or alarm
them. And in the glow-worm — since their light is
usually most brilliant in the female ; in some species, il
not all, present only in the season when the sexes are
destined to meet ; and strikingly more vivid at the very
moment when the meeting takes place — besides the
above uses, it is most probably intended to cvonduct the
sexes to each other. This seems evidently the design
in view in those species in which, as in the common
glow-worm, (L. noctiluca, L.) the females are apterous.
The torch which the wingless female, dooired to crawl
upon the grass, lights up at the approach of night, is a
beacon which unerringly guides the vagrant male to her
THE BEETLE.
551
are of the greatest benefit to mankind, making
a part in many medicines conducive to human
preservation. They are chiefly natives of
Spain, Italy, and Portugal; but they are to
be met with also about Paris in the summer
time, upon the leaves of the ash, the poplar,
and the rose-trees, and also among wheat, and
in meadows. It is very certain, that these
insects are fond of ash-leaves, insomuch that
they will sometimes strip one of these trees
quite bare. Some affirm that these flies de-
light in sweet-smelling herbs ; and it is very
certain, that they are fond of honey-suckles,
lilac, and wild-cherry shrubs; but some that
have sought after them declare they never
could find them on elder-trees, nut-trees, and
among wheat. We are told that the country
people expect the return of these insects every
seven years. It is very certain, that such a
number of these insects have been seen to-
gether in the air, that they appeared like
swarms of bees ; and that they have so dis-
agreeable a smell, that it may be perceived a
great way off, especially about sun-set, though
they are not seen at that time. This bad
smell is a guide lor those who make it their
business to catch them. When they are
caught they dry them, after which they are
so light, that fifty will hardly weigh a drachm.
Those that gather them tie them in a bag, or
a piece of linen cloth, that has been well worn,
and then they kill them with the vapours of
hot vinegar, after which they dry them in the
sun, and keep them in boxes. These flies,
thus dried, being chemically analysed, yield
a great deal of volatile caustic salt, mixed with
a little oil, phlegm, and earth. Cantharides
are penetrating, corrosive, and, applied to the
skin, raise blisters, from whence proceeds a
great deal of serosity. They are made use of
both inwardly and outwardly. However,
it is somewhat strange that the effects of
these flies should fall principally upon the
" love-illumined form," however obscure the place of her
abode. It has been objected, however, to this explana-
tion, that — since both larva and pupa, as De Geer ob-
served, and the males shine as well as the females — the
meeting of the sexes can scarcely be the object of their
luminous provision. But this difficulty appears to me
easily surmounted. As the light proceeds from a pecu-
liarly organized substance, which probably must in part
be elaborated in the larva and pupa states, there seems
nothing inconsistent in the fact of some light being then
emitted, with the supposition of its being destined solely
for use in the perfect state : and the circumstance of the
male having the same luminous property, no more proves
that the superior brilliancy of the female is not intendec
for conducting him to her, than the existence of nipples
and sometimes of milk in man, proves that the breast o
woman is not meant for the support of her offspring
\Ve often see, without being able to account for the fact
except on Sir E. Home's idea, that the sex of the ovum
is undetermined, traces of an organization in one sex
indisputably intended for the sole use of the other. — In
induction to Entomology, ly Kirby and Spcnce.
irinary passages ; for though some authors
mve endeavoured to account for this, we are
till in the dark, for all they have said amounts
0 no more than that they affect these parts in
1 manner which may be very learnedly des-
cribed, but very obscurely comprehended.
An insect of great, though perhaps not
equal use in medicine, is that which is known
)y the name of the Kermes ; it is produced
n the excrescence of an oak, called the berry-
bearing ilex, and appears at first wrapped up in
a membranaceous bladder, of the size of a
>ea, smooth and shining, of a brownish-red
;olour, and covered with a very fine ash-col-
oured powder. This bag teems with a num-
)er of reddish eggs or insects, which being
rubbed with the fingers pour out a crimson
iquor. It is only met with in warm countries
n the months of May and June. In the
month of April this insect becomes of the size
and shape of a pea, and its eggs some time
after burst from the womb, and soon turning
worms, run about the branches and leaves of
the tree. They are of two sexes, and the fe-
males have been hitherto described ; but the
nales are very distinct from the former, and
are a sort of small flies like gnats, with six
feet, of which the four forward are short, and
:he two backward long, divided into four
joints and fcrmed with three crooked nails.
There arc two feelers on the head, a line and
a half long, which are movable, streaked, and
articulated. The tail, at the back part of the
body, is half a line long, and forked. The
whole body is covered with two transparent
wings, and they leap about in the manner of
fleas. The harvest of the kermes is greater or
less in proportion to the severity of the winter,
and the women gather them before sun-rising,
tearing them off with their nails, for fear there
should be any loss from the hatching of the in
sects. They sprinkle them with vinegar, and
lay them in the sun to dry, where they acquire
a red colour.
An insect, perhaps, still more useful than
either of the former, is the Cochineal, which
has been variously described by authors ; some
have supposed it a vegetable excrescence from
the tree upon which it is found ; some have
described it as a louse ; some, as a bug ; and
some, as a beetle. As they appear in our
shops when brought from America, they are
of an irregular shape, convex on one side, and
a little concave on the other ; but are both
marked with transverse streaks or wrinkles.
They are of a scarlet colour within, and with-
out of a blackish red, and sometimes of a
white, reddish, or ash colour, which are ac-
counted the best, and are brought us from
Mexico. The cochineal insect is of an oval
form, of the size of a small pea, with six feet,
and a snout or trunk. 1 1 brings forth itd
552
HISTORY OF INSECTS.
young alive, and is nourished by sucking the
juice of the plant. Its body consists of seve-
ral rings, and when it is once fixed on the
plant, it continues 'immovable, being subject
to no change. Some pretend there are two
sorts, the one domestic, which is best ; and
the other wild, that is of a vivid colour ;
however, they appear to be the same, only
with this difference, that the wild feeds upon
uncultivated trees, without any assistance,
whereas the domestic is carefully, at a stated
season, removed to cultivated trees, where it
feeds upon a purer juice. Those who take
care of these insects, place them on the prickly
pear-plant in a certain order, and are very in-
dustrious in defending them from other insects;
lor if any other kind come among them, they
take care to brush them off with foxes' tails.
Towards the end of the year, when the rains
and cold weather are coming on, which are
fatal to these insects, they take off the leaves
or branches covered with cochineal, that have
not attained their utmost degree of perfection,
and keep them in their houses till win-
ter is past. These leaves are very thick and
juicy, and supply them with sufficient nour-
ishment, while they remain within doors.
When the milder weather returns, and these
animals are about to exclude their young, the
natives make them nests, like those of birds,
but less of tree moss, or soft hay, or the down
of cocoa-nuts, placing twelve in every nesf.
These they fix on the thorns of the prickly-
pear plant, and in three or four days' time
they bring forth their young, which leave
their nests in a few days, and creep upon the
branches of the plant, till they find a proper
place to rest in, and take in their nourish-
ment; and until the females are fecundated
by the males, which, as in the former tribe,
differ very widely from the females, being
winged insects, whereas the others only creep,
and are at most stationary. When they are
impregnated, they produce a new offspring, so
that the propagator has a new harvest thrice
a-year. When the native Americans have
gathered the cochineal, they put them into
holes in the ground, where they kill them
with boiling water, and afterwards dry them
in the sun, or in an oven, or lay them upon
hot plates. From the various methods of kill-
ing- them, arise the different colours which
they appear in when brought to us. While
they are living they seem to be sprinkled over
with a white powder, which they lose as soon
as the boiling water is poured upon them.
Those that are dried upon hot plates are the
blackest. What we call the cochineal are
only the females, for the males are a sort of
fly,. as already observed in the kermes. They
are used both for dying and medicine, and are
said to have much the same virtue as the
kermes, though they are now seldom used
alone, but are mixed with other things for the
sake of the colour.1
1 To the beetle kind also belong those animals which
cause such alarm to the superstitious by their ticking
noise, which is vulgarly called the death-watch. Vari-
ous species of this insect are to be found in Britain.
The Death-watch or Ptinvs, is a dusky or somewhat
hairy insect, with irregular brownish spots, about a
quarter of an inch in length. Notwithstanding its
smallness, this creature is often the cause of serious
alarm among the lower classes of people, from the noise
that it makes at a certain time of the year, resembling
the ticking of a watch. From this it has its name ; for,
whenever this faculty is exerted, it is esteemed portentive
of death to some one of the family in the house where it
is heard. It is chiefly in the advanced state of spring
that this insect commences its noise, which is no more
than a call or signal by which they are mutually attracted
to each other ; and it may be considered as analogous
to the call ofbirds. This noise does not arise from the voice,
but from the insect's beating on any hard substance with
the shield or fore-part of the head. The general number
of successive distinct strokes is from seven to nine, or
eleven. These are given in pretty quick succession,
and are repeated at uncertain intervals : and in old
houses, where the insects are numerous, they may be
heard, if the weather be warm, every hour in the day.
The noise exactly resembles that made by beating with
the nail upon a table. The insect being difficult to dis-
cover, from its obscure grayish brown colour, nearly re-
sembling that of decayed wood, it is not always easy to
say from what exactly the sound proceeds.
Mr Stackhouse observed carefully the manner of its
beating. He says the insect raises itself on its hinder
legs, and with the body somewhat inclined, beats its head
with great force and agility against the place on which
it stands. One of them, on a sedge-bottomed chair, ex-
erted so much force, that its strokes were impressed and
visible in the exterior coat of the sedge, for a space equal
to that of a silver penny. Mr Stackhouse took this insect
and put it into a box. On the following day he opened
the box, and set it in the sun. It seemed very brisk, and
crept about with great activity on the bits of sedge and
rotten wood, till at last getting to the end of the pieces,
it extended its wings, and was about to take flight ; he
shut down the lid, when it withdrew them, and remained
quiet. He kept it by him about a fortnight.
Strange as it may appear, this little animal is capa-
ble of being tamed. Dr Derham kept a male and fe-
male together in a box for about three weeks ; and by
imitating their noise, (beating with his nail, or the point
of a pen, on a table or board,) he made them beat when-
ever he pleased, and they would not only answer very
readily, but even continued their beatings as long as
required. At the end of this time one of them died, soon
after which the other gnawed its way out and escaped.
The Death-watch Termes. — This insect, which is
sometime mistaken for the ptinus just mentioned, is of
a very different tribe, and about a tenth of an inch long.
At first sight it has greatly the appearance of a louse: its
mouth, however, with a glass, is seen to be reddish, and
its eyes are yellow. The antennae are sharply pointed,
and somewhat long. It is sometimes, though very rarely,
observed to have wings.
This insect is usually found in old wood, decayed
furniture, museums, and neglected books ; and both
the male and female have the power of making a tick-
ing noise, not unlike that of a watch, to attract each
other. The female lays her eggs in dry and dusty places,
where they are likely to meet with the least disturbance:
these are exceedingly small, and are not unlike the nits
or eggs of lice. When they are disturbed, they are
THE GNAT TIPULA.
553
I shall end this account of the beetle tribe
with the history of an animal which cannot,
properly be ranked under this species, and yet
cannot be more methodically ranged under
any other. This is the insect that forms and
resides in the gall-nut, the spoils" of which are
converted to such useful purposes. The gall-
insects are bred in a sort of bodies adhering to
a kind of oak in Asia, which differ with re-
gard to their colour, size, roughness, smooth-
ness, and shape, and which we call galls.
They are not fruit, as some have imagined,
but preternatural tumours, owing to the wounds
given to the buds, leaves, and twigs of the
tree, by a kind of insects that lay their eggs
within them. This animal is furnished with
an implement, by which the female penetrates
into the bark of the tree, or into that spot
which just begins to bud, and there sheds a
drop of corrosive fluid into the cavity. Hav-
ing thus formed a receptacle for her eggs, she
deposits them in the place, and dies soon after.
The heart of the bud being thus wounded, the
circulation of the nutritive juice is interrupted,
and the fermentation thereof, with the poison
injected by the fly, burns the parts adjacent,
and then alters the natural colour of the plant.
The juice or sap, turned back from its natural
course, extravasates, and flows round the egg.
After which it swells and dilates by the assis-
tance of some bubbles of air, which get ad-
mission through the pores of the bark, and
which run in the vessels with the sap. The
external coat of this excrescence is dried by
the air, and grows into a figure, which bears
some resemblance to the bow of an arch, or
the roundness of a kernel. This little ball
receives its nutriment, growth, and vegetation,
as the other parts of the tree, by slow degrees,
very shy in making their tickings ; but if they can be
viewed, without being alarmed by noise, or moving the
place where they are, they will not only beat freely, but
even answer any person's beating with his nail. At
every stroke their body shakes, or seems affected as by a
sudden jerk ; and these jerks succeed each other so
quickly, that it requires great steadiness to perceive with
the naked eye that the body has any motion. They are
scarcely ever heard to beat before July, and never later
than the sixteenth of August. It appears strange that so
small an insect should be able to make a noise so loud as
is frequently to be heard from this ; sometimes equal to
that of the strongest beating watch. Dr Uerham, who
examined and first described this species, says, he had
often heard the noise, and in pursuing it found nothing
but these insects, which he supposed incapable of pro-
ducing it; but one day, by finding that the noise pro-
ceeded from a piece of paper loosely folded, and lying in
a good light in his study window, he viewed it through,
and with a microscope observed, to his great astonish-
ment, one of them in the very act of beating. In some
years they are more numerous than in others, and their
ticking is of course' more frequently heard. We are in-
formed by the above naturalist, that, during the month
of July, in one particular summer, they scarcely ever
ceased, either in the day or night.
VOL. II.
and is what we call the gall-nut. The worm
hat is hatched under this specious vault, finds
n the substance of the ball, which is as yet
very tender, a substance suitable to its nature;
jnaws and digests it till the time comes for
ts transformation to a nymph, and irom that
state of existence changes into a fly. After
:his, the insect, perceiving itself duly pro-
vided with all things requisite, disengages it-
self soon from its confinement, and takes its
light into the open air. The case, however,
is not similar with respect to the gall-nut that
jrows in autumn. The cold weather fre-
quently comes on before the worm is trans-
formed into a fly, or before the fly can pierce
through its inclosure. The nut falls with the
leaves, and although you may imagine that
the fly which lies within is lost, yet in reality
it is not so ; on the contrary, its being covered
up so close, is the means of its preservation.
Thus it spends the winter in a warm house,
where every crack and cranny of the nut is
well stopped up; and lies buried, as it were,
inder a heap of leaves, which preserves it from
the injuries of the weather. This apartment,
however, though so commodious a retreat in the
winter, is a perfect prison in the spring. The
fly, roused out of its lethargy by the first heats,
breaks its way through, and ranges where it
pleases. A very small aperture is sufficient,
since at this time the fly is but a diminutive
creature. Besides, the ringlets whereof its
body is composed, dilate, and become pliant in
the passage.
CHAP. VII.
OF THE GNAT TIPULA.
THERE are two insects which entirely re-
semble each other in their form, and yet wide-
ly differ in their habits, manners, and propa-
gation. Those who have seen the tipula, or
long-legs, and the larger kind of gnat, have
most probably mistaken the one for the other;
they have often accused the tipula, a harmless
insect, of depredations made by the gnat, and
the innocent have suffered for th« guilty; in-
deed the differences in their form are so very
minute, that it often requires the assistance of
a microscope to distinguish the one from the
other: they are both mounted on long legs,
both furnished with two wings and a slender
body; their heads are large, and they seem to
be hump-backed ; the chief and only differ-
ence, therefore, is, that the tipula wants a
trunk, while the gnat has a large one, which
it often exerts to very mischievous purposes.
The tipula is a harmless peaceful insect, that
offers injury to nothing ; the gnat is sanguin-
ary and predaceous, ever seeking out for a
4 A
554-
HISTORY OF INSECTS.
place in which to bury its trunk, and pumping
up the blood from the animal in large quantities.
The gnat proceeds from a little worm, which
is usually seen at thie bottom of standing wa-
ters. The manner in which the insect lays its
eggs is particularly curious : after having laid
the proper number on the surface of the water,
it surrounds them with a kind of unctuous mat-
ter, which prevents them from sinking, but at
the same time fastens them with a thread to
the bottom, to prevent their floating away, at
the mercy of every breeze, from a place, the
warmth of which is proper for their production,
to any other, where the water may be too
cold, or the animals' enemies too numerous.
Thus the insects, in their egg state resemble
a buoy, which is fixed by an anchor. As they
come to maturity they sink deeper ; and at last
when they leave the egg as worms, they creep
to the bottom.1 They now make themselves
lodgments of cements, which they fasten to
some solid body at the very bottom of the wa-
ter, unless by accident they meet with a piece
of chalk, which being of a soft and pliant na-
ture, gives them an opportunity of sinking a
1 We are hardly acquainted with any other than the
aerial life of the gnat, yet its aquatic life is also very in-
teresting. It is upon or under the water that the gnat
is in its stages of egg, larva, and nymph, that is, during
almost the whole of its existence, and that an existence
which in uo way annoys man.
The eggs of this insect have the lengthened form of
an olive ; their own weight is sufficient to sink them,
but 250 or 300 united, and stuck together with a natural
glue in the shape of a boat, float on the surface of the
water till the larva come out of them. The part of this
agglomeration which touches the water is convex, its
upper part concave ; and this skiff is so well balanced,
that the most furious tempest would not upset it. The
learned Kirby made the experiment himself, by placing
a dozen of these little boats in a glass half full of water;
he then violently troubled the water in the glass, by
pouring in water from a pitcher, without being able to
succeed in sinking these little boats, of which not one
contained a single drop of water when he had ended his
experiments.
The manner in which the gnat constructs this float-
ing apparatus is very singular. This insect, as every
one knows, is provided with six legs ; it places its four
front-feet on a dead leaf, a twig, or any other floating
substance ; its body thus remains horizontally on the sur-
face of the water, with the exception of the last segment
of its abdomen, which it keeps a little raised ; it then ex-
tends its long -hind legs, and crosses them in the shape
of the letter X, and thus forms a support for the first eggs
it is about to lay. Each egg, when laid, is enclosed in a
kind of glue ; the female supports the first in a vertical
position till the second egg is placed by its side, and
glued to it ; the third forms a triangle, and so on. When
the boat is completed, the gnat leaves it on the water,
mid flies away, to end, in a short time, that existence of
which it has fulfilled the most important task.
Boat ofgnat'i
retreat for themselves, where nothing but the
claws of a cray-fish can possibly molest them.
The worm afterwards changes its form. It ap-
pears with a large head, and a tail invested with
hair, and moistened with an oleaginous liquor,
which she makes use of as a cork to sustain her
head in the air, and her tail in the water, and
to transport her from one place to another.
When the oil with which her tail is mois-
tened, begins to grow dry, she discharges out
of her mouth an unctuous humour, which she
sheds all over her tail, by virtue whereof she
is enabled to transport herself where she
pleases, without being either wet or anywise
incommoded by the water. The gnat, in her
second state, is, properly speaking, in her form
a nymph, which is an introduction or entrance
into a new life. In the first place, she di-
vests herself of her second skin ; in the next,
she resigns her eyes, her antennas, and her
tail ; in short, she actually seems to expire.
However, from the spoils of the amphibious
animal, a little winged insect cuts the air,
whose every part is active to the last degree,
and whose whole structure is the just object of
our admiration. Its little head is adorned
with a plume of feathers, and its whole body
invested with scales and hair, to secure it from
any wet or dust. She makes trial of the ac-
tivity of her wings, by rubbing them either
against her body, or her broad side-bags, which
keep her in an equilibrium. The furbelow, or
little border of fine feathers, which graces her
wings, is very curious, and strikes the eye in
the most agreeable manner. There is nothing,
however, of greater importance to the gnat
than her trunk, and that weak implement may
justly be deemed one of nature's master-pieces.
It is so very small, that the extremity of it can
scarcely be discerned through the best micro-
scope that can be procured. That part which
is at first obvious to the eye, is nothing but a
long scaly sheath under the throat. At near
the distance of two-thirds of it, there is an
aperture, through which the insect darts out
four stings, and afterwards retracts them.
One of which, however sharp and active it
may be, is no more than the case in which
the other three lie concealed, and run in a long
groove. The sides of these slings are shar-
pened like two-edged swords; they are like-
wise barbed, and have a vast number of cut-
ting teeth towards the point, which turns up
like a hook, and is fine beyond expression.
When all these darts are stuck into the flesh
of animals, sometimes one after another, and
sometimes all at once, the blood and humours
of the adjacent parts must unavoidably be ex-
travasated; upon which a tumour must conse-
quently ensue, the little orifice whereof is
closed up by the compression of the external
air. When the gnat, by the point of her case,
THE GNAT TIPULA.
555
which she makes use of as a tongue, has tasted
any fruit, flesh, or juice, that she has found
out; if it be a fluid, she sucks it up, without
playing her darts into it ; but in case she
finds the least obstruction by any flesh what-
ever, she exerts her strength, and pierces
through it, if possibly she can. After this she
draws back her stings into their sheath,
which she applies to the wound in order to ex-
tract, as through a reed, the juices which she
finds inclosed. This is the implement with
which the gnat performs her work in the sum-
mer, for during the winter she has no manner
of occasion for it. Then she ceases to eat,
and spends all that tedious season either in
quarries or in caverns, which she abandons at
the return of summer, and fliesaboutin search
after some commodious ford, or standing water,
where she may produce her progeny, which
would be soon washed away and lost, by the
too rapid motion of any running stream. The
little brood are sometimes so numerous, that
the very water is tinged according to the col-
our of the species, as green, if they be green,
and of a sanguine hue, if they be red.
These are circumstances sufficiently extra-
ordinary in the life of this little animal; but'
it offers something still more curious in the
method of its propagation. However similar
insects of the gnat kind are in their appear-
ance, yet they differ widely from each other
in the manner in which they are brought forth,
for some are oviparous, and are produced from
eggs : some are viviparous, and come forth in
their most perfect form ; some are males, and
unite with the female; some are females, re-
quiring the impregnation of the male ; some
are of neither sex, yet still produce young,
without any copulation whatsoever. This is
one of the strangest discoveries in all natural
history ! A gnat separated from the rest of
its kind, and inclosed in a glass vessel, with
air sufficient to keep it alive, shall produce
young, which also, when separated from each
other, shall be the parents of a numerous pro-
geny. Thus, down for five or six generations,
do these extraordinary animals propagate with-
out the use of copulation, without any congress
between the male and the female, but in the
manner of vegetables, the young bursting from
the body of their parents, without any previous
impregnation. At the sixth generation, how-
ever, their propagation stops ; the gnat no
longer produces its like, from itself alone, but
it requires the access of the male to give it
another succession of fecundity.
The gnat of Europe gives but little uneasi-
ness; it is sometimes heard to hum about our
beds at night, and keeps off the approaches of
sleep by the apprehension it causes ; but it is
very different in the ill-peopled regions ot
America, where the waters stagnate, and the
climate is warm, and where they are produced
in multitudes beyond expression. The whole
air is there filled with clouds of those famished
insects, and they are found of all sizes, from
six inches long to a minuteness that even re-
quires the microscope to have a distinct per-
ception of them.1 The warmth of the mid-day
sun is too powerful for their constitutions; but
when the evening approaches, neither art nor
1 Under the common names of gnut and musquito , a
numerous family are confounded, as if there were only
one or two species; whereas Mr Stephen has enumerated
twenty-two species of the genera Cidex and Anopheles,
found in Britain alone ; and hence, it is probable, the
foreign musquitoes are also of several species, though to
common observers they do not appear to differ from the
common gnat.
The Musquito-fy is very common in the woody and
marshy parts of all hot climates. It also abounds, dur-
ing their short summer, throughout Lapland, Norway,
and Finland, and other countries equally near the pole.
The female bites, and sucks the blood in such a severe
manner, as to swell and blister the skin very severely,
and sometimes leave obstinate sores. These insects are
found in such swarms, in the woods, that whoever enters
them is sure to have his face covered, and he is scarcely
able to see his way before him. A swelling and dis-
agreeable itch instantly follows the puncture, and these
are succeeded by small white ulcers ; so that the face of a
person coming from the country is scarcely to be recog-
nised, and it appears full of blotches. Even gloves are
not always found a protection against these troublesome
insects, as they often pass their stings through the seams.
It is the female only that bites ; the buzzing, however, of
both males and females is so very loud, as to be alone
sufficient to disturb the rest of persons at night.
The Ox Gad-fly has brown unspotted wings ; and the
abdomen is marked with a black band in the middle, and
has dusky yellow hairs at the tip. The front is white,
and covered with down ; and the thorax is yellowish be-
fore, black in the middle, and cinereous behind. The
female differs from the male in having a black style at
the end of the abdomen. This insect deposits its eggs
in the back of the ox, and the larvae live beneath the
skin, between this and the cellular membrane. Its sac
or abscess is somewhat larger than the insect, and by
narrowing upwards, it opens externally to the air by a
small aperture. The Ox Gad fly is the largest of the
European species, and is very beautiful: it is, however,
the terror of cattle, as it inflicts great pain when depo-
siting its eggs.
The Horse Gad-fly is distinguished from the rest of
its tribe by having a black band in the middle and two
dots at the tip of its whitish wings. The abdomen is
yellow brown, with black spots at the divisions of the
segments. The female is more brown than the male,
and has her abdomen elongated with a cleft terminal
style. The larva) are those odd-looking grubs which are
commonly found in the stomachs of horses, and some-
times, though much less frequently, in Uie intestines.
Here they hang in clusters of from half a dozen to more
than a hundred, adhering to the inner membrane of the
stomach, by means of two small hooks or tentacula at
their heads, whose points turn outward. When they are
removed from the stomach, they will attach themselves
to any loose membrane, even to the skin of the hand.
To effect this they draw back their hooks, which have a
joint near their base, almost entirely within their skin;
till the two points come close to each other; then, keeping
them parallel, they pierce through the membrane, and
immediately afterwards expand in a lateral directicu:
and by these means they become perfectly *ixed.
556
HISTORY OF INSECTS.
flight can shield the wretched inhabitants
from their attacks; through millions are des-
troyed, still millions more succeed, and pro-
duce unceasing torment The native Indians,
who anoint their bodies with oil, and who
have from their infancy been used to their de-
predations, find them much less inconvenient
than those who are newly arrived from Europe;
they sleep in (heir cottages covered all over
with thousands of the gnat kind upon their
bodies, and yet do not seem to have their
slumbers disturbed by their cruel devourers.
If a candle happens to be lighted in one of
those places, a cloud of insects at once light
upon the flame and extinguish it: they are
therefore obliged to keep their candles in glass
lanterns ; a miserable expedient to prevent an
unceasing calamity !
HISTORY OF ZOOPHYTES.
BOOK V.
OF THE ZOOPHYTES.
CHAP. I.
OF ZOOPHYTES IN GENERAL.
WE now come to the last link in the chain
of animated nature, to a class of beings so con-
fined in their powers, and so defective in their
formation, that some historians have been at a
loss whether to consider them as a superior
rank of vegetables, or the humblest order of
the animated tribe. In order, therefore, to
give them a denomination agreeable to their
existence, they have been called Zoophytes, a
name implying vegetable nature endued with
animal life; and, indeed, in some the marks
of the animal are so few, that it is difficult to
give their place in nature with precision, or to
tell whether it is a plant or an insect that is
the object of our consideration.
Should it be asked what it is that consti-
tutes the difference between animal and vege-
table life ; what it is that lays the line that se-
parates those two great kingdoms from each
other, it would be difficult, perhaps we should
find it impossible, to return an answer. The
power of motion cannot form this distinction,
since some vegetables are possessed of motion,
and many animals are totally without it. The
sensitive plant has obviously a greater variety
of motions than the oyster or the pholas. The
animal that fills the acorn-shell is immovable,
and can only close its lid to defend itself from
external injury, while the flower which goes by
the name of the fly-trap, seems to close upon
the flies that light upon it, and that attempt to
rifle it of its honey. The animal in this in-
stance seems to have scarce a power of self-de-
fence ; the vegetable not only guards its pos-
sessions, but seizes upon the robber that would
venture to invade them. In like manner, the
methods of propagation give no superiority to
the lower rank of animals. On the contrary,
vegetables are frequently produced more con-
formably to the higher ranks of the creation,
and though some plants are produced by cut-
tings from others, yet the general manner of
propagation is from seeds, laid in the womb of
the earth, where they are hatched into the si-
militude of the parent plant or flower. But a
most numerous tribe of animals have lately
been discovered, which are propagated by cut-
tings, and this in so extraordinary a manner,
that, though the original insect be divided into
a thousand parts, each, however small, shall
be formed into an animal, entirely resembling
that which was at first divided ; in this res-
pect, therefore, certain races of animals seem
to fall beneath vegetables, by their more im-
perfect propagation.1
1 There is much less of acumen and solidity in these
remarks of our author thaa might have been expected.
That there is, to a certain extent, community of feature
and character between vegetable bodies and the zoophyte
tribes, is at once admitted, for the very name of the lat-
ter implies the junction of animal and vegetable charac-
teristics in the same individual. But there is never
wanting a broad and striking distinction between the
zoophyte and the mere vegetable. We may indeed pro-
duce plants possessing motion, and seemingly indued
with sensibility, but attentive examination and reflection
uniformly convince us that such motion and apparent
sensitiveness are mere mechanical properties, in nowise
the result of a voluntary principle. We may, again, in-
stance zoophytes in which, at first view, the vegetable cha-
racter is so predominant, and the animal powers so limi.
ted, that they scarcely appear to fall within the lowest
orders of animated existences. On close examination,
however, we discover that their motions are undoubtedly
influenced by volition, or will ; and that they have in.
st.incts approximating to those of more perfect animals.
We readily admit that it requires long and patient obser-
vation to distinguish, in many cases, between vegetables
and zoophytes ; but we believe no instance could be
brought forward in which the question of animality micht
not be determined by the presence or absence of a u-itt.
558
HISTORY OF ZOOPHYTES
What, therefore, is the distinction between
them:1 — or are the orders so intimately blended
as that it is impossible to mark the boundaries
of each? To me it "would seem, that all ani-
mals are possessed of one power, of which
vegetables are totally deficient; I mean,
either the actual ability, or an awkward at-
tempt at self-preservation. . However vege-
tables may seem possessed of this important
quality, yet it is with them but a mechanical
impulse, resembling the raising one end of the
lever when you depress the other ; the sen-
sitive plant contracts and hangs its leaves,
indeed, when touched, but this motion noway
contributes to its safety : the fly-trap flower
acts entirely in the same manner ; and though
it seems to seize the little animal that comes
to annoy it, yet, in reality, only closes me-
chanically upon it, and this inclosure neither
contributes to its preservation nor its defence.
But it is very different with insects, even of
the lowest order ; the earth-worm not only
contracts, but hides itself in the earth, and
escapes with some share of swiftness from its
pursuers. The polypus hides its horns ; the
star-fish contracts its arms upon the appear-
ance even of distant dangers ; they not only
hunt for their food, but provide for their safety ;
and however imperfectly they may be formed,
yet still they are in reality placed many de-
grees above the highest vegetable of the earth,
and are possessed of many animal functions,
as well as those that are more elaborately
formed.
But though these be superior to plants, they
are far beneath their animated fellows of ex-
istence. In the class of zoophytes, we may
place all those animals which may be propa-
gated by cuttings ; or in other words, which,
if divided into two or more parts, each part in
time becomes a separate and perfect animal ;
the head shoots forth a tail, and, on the con-
trary, the tail produces a head ; some of these
will bear dividing but into two parts, such as
the earth-worm ; some may be divided into
more than two, and of this kind are many of
the star-fish; others still may be cut into a
thousand parts, each becoming a perfect ani-
mal ; they may be turned inside out, like the
finger of a glove ; they may be moulded into
all manner of shapes, yet still their vivacious
principle remains, still every single part be-
comes perfect in its kind, and, after a few
days' existence, exhibits all the arts and in-
dustry of its contemptible parent! We shall,
therefore, divide zoophytes according to their
several degrees of perfection, namely, into
worms, star-fish, and polypi; contenting our-
selves with a short review of those nauseous
and despicable creatures, that excite our curi-
osity chiefly by their imperfections ; it must
not be concealed, however, that much has of
late been written on this part of natural his-
tory. A new mode of anirrr.il production, could
not fail of exciting not only the curiosity, but
the astonishment of every philosopher ; many
found their favourite systems totally over-
thrown by the discovery; and it was not with-
out a wordy struggle, that they gave up what
had formerly been their pleasure and their
pride. At last, however, conviction became
too strong for argument ; and a question,
which owed its general spread rather to its
novelty than to its importance, was given up
in favour of the new discovery.
CHAP. II.
OF WORMS.
THE first in the class of zoophytes, are ani-
mals of the worm kind, which, being entirely
1 " Tiie characters of insects are so distinct and in-
telligible, those of worms, on the contrary, so vague, ai'd
so far from positive, that the shortest way of defining tlio
latter might perhaps he as animals with white blood, not
insects ; differing from them by the deficiency as well of
antenna; as of articulated organs of motion. They have,
for the most part, soft glutinous bodies, a few only being
covered with hair, as the aphrodites, or with a calcare-
ous shell, as the sea-hedgehog. Many amphitrites
construct an artificial shell of grains of sand, &c;
whilst many other animals of this class, viz. the
testacea and certain polypes, inhabit a solid house re-
sembling porcelain or stone, congenital, and serving the
purposes of residence and defence ; in some cases it is
carried about by the animal, in others is firmly attached
to one spot. No animal of this class has wings, for the
springing of the cuttle-fish out of the water is not to be
called flying; neither has it any true legs for the support
of the body, or for motion. Earth-worms, sea-hedge-
hogs, sea-anemones, &c. have, however, particular organs,
which in some degree answer similar purpose?. In many
instances too, the deficiency of external organs of motion
in worms, is supplied by the power which they possess
of alternately elongating and shortening themselves.
Instead of antennae, many worms have teniamla, soft,
fleshy cords or fibres, attached to the head, flexible, not
articulated, in some cases of considerable length, and
serving a variety of purposes ; sometimes for touching,
at others for taking their prey, and so forth. Of the
senses of these animals and the organs devoted to them,
still less that is positive can be said than of those of
insect". Some have undoubtedly ttue eyes, as the sepise,
&c. and others, without having eyes, possess a most acute
feeling of sight. In their internal structure, most
worms differ as much from insects as these do frcm red-
blooded animals.
" This class also differs from insects in this, that no
animal belonging to it undergoes a true metamorphosis,
which is so generally the case amongst them. The
abode of these animals is generally in water ; and by far
the greater part of them in the ocean. Some live under
ground ; others exclusively in the living bodies of other
animals, as the intestinal worms, seminal animalcules,
&c. Their remarkable powers of reproduction serve to
insure the preservation of many animals of this clas?,
and some, as the animalcula of paste, the wheel-animal,
&t:., possess a kind of revivescence, which appears to
THE WORM.
559
destitute of feet, trail themselves along upon
the ground, and find themselves a retreat
under the earth, or in the water. As these,
like serpents, have a creeping motion, so
both, in general, go under the common appel-
lation of reptiles : a lothesome, noxious, ma-
lignant tribe, to which man by nature, as well
as by religion, has the strongest antipathy.
But though worms, as well as serpents, are
mostly without feet, and have been doomed to
creep along the earth on their bellies, yet their
motions are very different. The serpent, as
has been said before, having a back-bone,
which it is incapable of contracting, bends its
body into the form of a bow, and then shoots
forward from the tail ; but it is very different
with the worm, which has a power of contract-
ing or lengthening itself at will. There is a
spiral muscle, that runs round its whole body,
from the head to the tail, somewhat resembling
a wire wound round a walking-cane, which
when slipped off, and one end extended and
held fast, will bring the other nearer to it ; in
this manner the earth-worm, having shot out,
or extended its body, takes hold by the slime
of the forepart of its body, and so contracts and
brings forward the hinder part ; in this man-
ner it moves onward, not without great efforts;
but the occasions for its progressive motions
are few.
As it is designed for living under the earth,
and leading a life of obscurity, so it seems to-
rendcr them, in some degree, indestructible. The gen-
erality of the intestinal worms of animals, and, the scpiae
excepted, by far the greater number of worms, are true
hermaphrodites, of which each individual is capable of
propagating the species. The mode of copulation iu
many animals of this class is also very peculiar, as in the
common garden and tree snails, which at that time are pro-
vided with a remarkable little dart, composed of calcareous
matter, and having the shape of a four-edged lance. This
dart is fixed loosely in an opening in the neck, and when
the two snails meet, each presses its dart into the breast
of the other, this mutual excitement being precursory to
actual copulation.
" The vastnumbers of marine animals in this class, par-
ticularly the testacea and corals, are of extreme impor-
tance to the general economy of nature, inasmuch as they
in the ocean, in the same manner with insects upon the
earth, incessantly destroy, consume, and, as it were, me-
tamorphose an infinite variety of noxious or superfluous
substances. To man, they are in so far serviceable, that
many, particularly of the mollusca and testacea, are eat-
able; some, as for instance, the venus mercenaria, and
mytiliij Lidens, serving as a principal article of diet to
many navigators and inhabitants of sea coasts. The
purple dye was procured from certain shell-fish, more for-
merly than at present. Ink and Indian ink are procured
from the peculiar fluid of the cuttle-fish. The beard of
certain species of pinna affords a kind of brown silk, which
may be manufactured. Many kinds of shells contain
p«arls. Red coral is an important article of trade, par-
ticularly in the East Indies. Several kinds of shells,
either entire or divided, pass current as money among
some remote nations. From portions of similar shells,
the Iroquois and other North American people, made
their wompuui., which serves the purpose of records.
lerably adapted to its situation. Its body is
armed with small stiff sharp burrs or prickles,
which it can erect or depress at pleasure ; un-
der the skin there lies a slimy juice, to be
ejected as occasion requires, at certain perfora-
tions, between the rings of the muscles, to
lubricate its body, and facilitate its passage into
the earth. Like most other insects it has breath-
ing holes along the back, adjoining each ring;
but is withoutbones, without eyes, without ears,
and properly without feet. It has a mouth, and
also an alimentary canal, which runs along to
the very point of the tail. In some worms,
however, particularly such as are found in the
bodies of animals, this canal opens towards the
middle of the belly, at some distance from the
tail. The intestines of the earth worm are
always found filled with a very fine earth,
which seems to be the only nourishment these
animals are capable of receiving.
The animal is entirely without a brain, but
near the head is placed the heart, which is
seen to beat with a very distinct motion, and
round it are the spermatic vessels, forming a
number of little globules, containing a milky
fluid, which have an opening into the belly,
not far from the head ; they are also often found
to contain a number of eggs, which are laid in
the earth, and are hatched in twelve or four-
teen days into life, by the genial warmth of
their situation; like snails, all these animals
unite in themselves both sexes at once ; the rep-
Many savage people use muscle and snail shells for drink-
ing vessels, spoons, &c. The South sea islanders make
from them ingenious hooks and a variety of other fishing,
tackle. The North-western Americans point their har-
poons with angular pieces of muscle shells. In regard
to works of art: mother of pearl and many muscle and
snail shells are cut like onyx into cameos. The cuttle-
fish bone is employed by artists and workmen. Sponge
serves a variety of domestic purposes. Madrepore is
employed for paving and building on the coasts of the
Red sea. Numerous testacea (the shells) and corals
are burnt for lime. Some large thin shells are used as
glass in the south of China, and in India. The shells of
testacea are among the most common ornaments of sa-
vage nations. In the great collection of objects from
the South seas presented to the academical Museum of
Gottingen, is, among other articles, a necklace of neat
shells, carefully polished, bored, and ingeniously twisted
together with tendons, all the work of a race of men com-
monly considered as the most wretched outcasts of the
human species, viz. the natives of the Sierra del Fuego.
Lastly, the leech is of great importance in the treatment
of certain diseases. (See an account of the leech in the
present volume, page 467.)
"Among the noxious animals of this class, are, in par-
ticular, the worms of the human body, which either live
in the intestines, as the ascurides faeniae, &c., or as the
Guinea-worm, immediately under the skin. Others of a
similar character, are the flukes found in sheep, the hy-
ditids of swine, and the worms found in many quadru-
peds and fishes, producing disease. Earth-worms and
snails are injurious to plants. Certain species of tiie
genera teredo and pholas perforate ships and dams." —
Blumenliach.
560
HISTORY OF ZOOPHYTES.
tile that impregnates, being impregnated in
turn : few that walk out, but must have ob-
served them, with their heads laid against
each other, and so strongly attached, that they
suffer themselves to be trode upon.
When the eggs are laid in the earth, which,
in about fourteen days, as has been said, are
hatched into maturity, the young ones come
forth very small, but perfectly formed, and
suffer no change during their existence ; how
long their life continues is not well known, but
it certainly holds for more than two or three
seasons. During the winter, they bury them-
splves deeper in the earth, and seem in some
measure to share the general torpidity of the
insect tribe. In spring, they revive with the
rest of nature, and on those occasions, a moist
or dewy evening brings them forth from their
retreats, for the universal purpose of continu-
ing their kind. They chiefly live in a light,
rich, and fertile soil, moistened by dews or
accidental showers, but avoid (hose places
where the water is apt to lie on the surface of
the earth, or where the clay is too stiff for their
easy progression under ground.
Helpless as they are formed, yet they seem
very vigilant in avoiding those animals that
chiefly make them their prey; in particular,
the mole, who feeds entirely upon them be-
neath the surface, and who seldom ventures,
from the dimness of its sight, into the open air ;
him they avoid, by darting up from the earth
the instant they feel the ground move ; and
fishermen, who are well acquainted with this,
take them in what numbers they choose, by
stirring the earth where they expect to find
them. They are also driven from their re-
treats under ground, by pouring bitterer acrid
water thereon, such as that water in which
green walnuts have been steeped, or a ley
made of pot-ashes.
Such is the general outline of the history of
these reptiles, which, as it should seem, de-
grades them no way beneath the rank of other
animals of the insect creation: but now we
come to a part of their history which proves
the imperfection of their organs, from the easi-
ness with which these little machines may be
damaged and repaired again. It is well
known in mechanics, that the finest and most
complicated instruments are the most easily
put out of order, and the most difficultly set
right; the same also obtains in the animal ma-
chine. Man, the most complicated machine
of all others, whose nerves are more numerous,
and powers of action more various, is most
rasily destroyed; he is seen to die under
wounds which a quadruped or a bird could
easily survive ; and as we descend gradually
to the lower ranks, the ruder the composition,
the more difficult it is to disarrange it. Some
animals live without their limbs, and often are
seen to reproduce them ; some are seen to live
without their brain for many weeks together ;
caterpillars continue to increase and grow
large, though all their nobler organs are en-
tirely destroyed within ; some animals continue
to exist, though cut in two, their nobler parts
preserving life, while the othe.rs perish that
were cut away ; but the earth-worm, and all
the zoophyte tribe, continue to live in separate
parts, and one animal, by the means of cutting,
is divided into two distinct existences, some
times into a thousand !
There is no phenomenon in all natural his-
tory more astonishing than this, that man at
pleasure should have a kind of creative power,
and out of one life make two, each completely
formed, with all its apparatus and functions ;
each with its perceptions, and powers of mo-
tion and self-preservation ; each as complete in
all respects as that from which it derived its
existence, and equally enjoying the humble
gratifications of its nature.
When Des Cartes first started the opinion,
that brutes were machines, the discovery of
this surprising propagation was unknown,
which might, in some measure, have strength-
ened his fanciful theory. What is life in
brutes ? he might have said, or where does it
reside ? In some we find it so diffused, that
every part seems to maintain a vivacious prin-
ciple, and the same animal appears possessed
of a thousand distinct irrational souls at the
same time. But let us not, he would say,
give so noble a name to such contemptible
powers, but rank the vivifying principle in
these with the sap that rises in vegetables, or
the moisture that contracts a cord, or the heat
that puts water into motion ! Nothing, in fact,
deserves (he name of soul, but that which rea-
sons, that which understands, and by knowing
God, receives the mark of its currency, and
is minted with the impression of its great
Creator.
Such might have been the speculations of this
philosopher: however, to leave theory, it will be
sufficient to say, that we owe the first discovery
of this power of reproduction in animals to
Mr Trembley, who first observed it in the
Polypus, and after him, Spalanzani and others
found it taking place in the earth-worm, the
sea worm, and several other ill-formed ani-
mals of a like kind, which were susceptible
of this new mode of propagation. This last
philosopher has tried several experiments
upon the earth-worm, many of which succeed-
ed according to his expectation : every earth-
worm, however, did not retain the vivacious
principle with the same obstinacy ; some,
when cut in two, were entirely destroyed ;
others survived only in the nobler part ; and
while the head was living, the tail entirely
perished, and a new one was seen to bourgeon
THE STAR- FISH.
561
from the extremity. But what was most sur-
prising of all, in some, particularly in the
small red-headed earth-worm, both extremi-
ties survived the operation; the head produced
a tail, with the anus, the intestines, the annu-
lar muscle, and the prickly beards ; the tail
part, on the other hand, was seen to shoot
forth the nobler organs, and in less than the
space of three months sent forth a head, a
heart, with all the apparatus and instruments
of generation. This part, as may easily be
supposed, was produced much more slowly
than the former, a new head taking above
three or four months for its completion ; a
new tail being shot forth in less than as many
weeks. Thus two animals, by dissection,
were made out of one, each with their separate
appetites, each endued with life and motion,
and seemingly as perfect as that single ani-
mal from whence they derived their origin.
What was performed upon the earth-worm
Avas found to obtain also in many of the ver-
micular species. The sea- worm, the white
water-worm, and many of those little worms
with feelers, found at the bottom of dirty
ditches ; in all these the nobler organs are of
such little use, that if taken away, the animal
does not seem to feel the want of them ; it
lives in all its parts, and in every part ; and
by a strange paradox in nature, the most use-
less arid contemptible life is of all others the
most difficult to destroy.
CHAP. III.
OF THE STAR-FISH.
THE next order of zoophytes, is that of the
starfish, a numerous tribe, shapeless and de-
furmed, assuming at different times different
appearances. The same animal that now ap-
pears round like a ball, shortly after flattens
as thin as a plate. All of this kind are
formed of a semi-transparent gelatinous sub-
stance, covered with a thin membrane, and to
an inattentive spectator often appear like a
lump of inanimate jelly, floating at random
upon the surface of the sea, or thrown by
chance on shore at the departure of the tide.
But upon a more minute inspection, they will
be found possessed of life and motion ; they
will be found to shoot forth their arms in every
direction, in order to seize upon such insects
as are near, and to devour them with great
rapacity. Worms, the spawn of fish, and
even muscles themselves, with their hard re-
sisting shell, have been found in the stomachs
of these voracious animals ; and what is very
extraordinary, though the substance of their
own bodies be almost as soft as water, yet they
are no way injured by swallowing these shells,
which are almost of a stony hardness. They
increase in size as all other animals do. In
summer, when the water of the sea is warmed
by the heat of the sun, they float upon the
surface, and in the dark they send forth a kind
of shining light resembling that of phosphorus.
Some have given these animals the name of
sea-nettles, because they burn the hands of
those that touch them, as nettles are found to
do. They are often seen fastened to the rocks,
and to the largest sea-shells, as if to derive
their nourishment from them. If they be
taken and put into spirits of wine, they will
continue for many years entire : but if they
be left to the influence of the air, they are, in
less than four and twenty hours, melted down
into limpid and offensive water.
In all of this species, none are found to
possess a vent for their excrements ; but the
same passage by which they devour their food,
serves for the ejection of their faeces. These
animals, as was said, take such a variety of
figures, that it is impossible to describe them
under one determinate shape ; but in general
their bodies resemble a truncated cone, whose
base is applied to the rock to which they are
found usually attached. Though generally
transparent, yet they are found of different
colours, some inclining to green, some to red,
some to white, and some to brown. In some,
their colours appear diffused over the whole
surface, in some they are often streaked, and
in others often spotted. They are possessed
of a very slow progressive motion, and in fine
weather they are continually seen, stretching
out and fishing for their prey. Many of them
are possessed of a number of long slender
filaments, in which they entangle any small
animals they happen to approach, and thus
draw them into their enormous stomachs,
which fill the whole cavity of their bodies.
The harder shells continue for some weeks un-
digested, but at length they undergo a kind
of maceration in the stomach, and become a
part of the substance of the animal itself.
The indigestible parts are returned by the
same aperture by which they were swallowed,
and then the star-fish begins to fish for more.
These also may be cut in pieces, and every
part will survive the operation ; each becoming
a perfect animal, endued with its natural
rapacity. Of this tribe, the number is various,
and the description of each would be tedious
and uriinstructing ; the manners and nature
of all are nearly as described ; but I will just
make mention of one creature, which, though
not properly belonging to this class, yet is so
nearly related, that the passing it in silence
would be an unpardonable omission.
Of all other animals, the cuttle-rish, though
in some respects superior to this tribe, posses-
4 B
562
HISTORY OF ZOOPHYTES.
ses qualities the most extraordinary. It is about
two feet long, covered with a very thin skin,
and its flesh composed of a gelatinous sub-
stance, which, however, within-side, is strength-
ened by a strong bone, of which such great
use is made by the goldsmith. It is possessed
of eight arms, which it extends, and which are
probably of service to it in fishing for its prey:
while in life, it is capable of lengthening or
contracting these at pleasure ; but when dead,
they contract, and lose their rigidity. They
feed upon small fish, which they seize with
their arms; and they are bred from eggs,
which are laid upon the weeds along the sea-
shore.
The cuttle-fish is found along many of the
coasts of Europe, but .are not easily caught,
from a contrivance with which they are fur-
nished by nature ; this is a black substance,
of the colour of ink, which is contained in a
bladder generally on the left side of the belly,
and which is ejected in the manner of an ex-
crement from the anus. Whenever, there-
fore, this fish is pursued, and when it finds a
difficulty of escaping, it spurts forth a great
quantity of this black liquor, by which the
waters are totally darkened, and then it es-
capes by lying close at the bottom. In this
manner the creature finds its safety ; and men
find ample cause for admiration, from the
great variety of stratagems with which crea-
tures are endued for their peculiar preserva-
tion.
CHAP. IV.
OF THE POLYPUS.1
THOSE animals which we have described in
the last chapter are variously denominated.
i Dr George Johnston, in his elegant work on British
Zoophytes, recently published, (Edinburgh, 1838, 8vo),
has adopted a new and seemingly excellent classification
of the zoophyte division of the animal kingdom. Where
a plant-like aquatic production, such as the Sponge, can-
not be discovered to be the work of, or connected with,
a polype, he excludes it from the zoophyte class, limit-
ing that term to polypes and their polypidoms. This
arrangement clearly defines the class. Of the zoophytes
thus distinguished, ho forms t\vo sub-classes, radiated
zoophytes, and molltiscan zoophytes. The characters of
these sub-classes are thus described : The radiated
zoophytes have a body contractile in every part, arid
symmetrical ; one aperture for receiving food, and ex-
polling its refuse ; and are propagated both by globules
and by eggs. The molluscan zoophytes have a body
non-contractile and non-symmetrical; separate apertures
for the reception of food, and expulsion of refuse ; and
sre propagated both by globules and eggs. The radiated
zoophytes are so named from the star-like disposition of
the calcareous matter of their polypidoms, while the
molluscan zoophytes are so entitled, because their polypi-
doms, unlike those of the preceding clas?, are living por-
They have been called the Star-fish, Sea-net-
tles, and Sea-polypi. This last name has been
peculiarly ascribed to them by the ancients,
because of the number of feelers or feet of
tions of the polypes they contain, as is the case with the
shelled molluscous animals, of which the lobster is an
example. The radiated zoophytes, again, are divided
into throe orders, the hydroida,(so called from some affi-
nity in their character to those of the many-headed
hydra, a fabulous serpent), the asteroida, (from the star-
like marks which distinguish them), and the helianthoida.
(a word which expresses their likeness to certain flowers,
as the anemone and marygold.) The molluscan class of
zoophytes has but one order, termed the ascidoida, of
which the chief distinctive characteristic is the vitality
of their enclosing crusts or cases. Of all these orders,
there are a number of families and species. Most of the
polypi form compound animals, attached to one another
by lateral appendages, or by their posterior extremity,
participating in a common life, while at the same time
they enjoy their individual and independent existence.
Many of this tribe are supposed to be gemmiferous, or
to extend the race by buds in the same manner as plants,
while others propagate their species by means of eggs.
In the lowest races of polypi, the distinctive characters
of animal life are so slightly developed, that, there is murh
difficulty in distinguishing them from the cryptogamic
families of the vegetable kingdom. The resemblance of
these animals to plants consists in this, that from the egg
is formed a bulb, which shoots up into a stem, and sends
oft' branches ; there is also a root, which, however, is
merely the organ of attachment, affording no nourish-
ment to the animals. Boing thus immovably fixed to a
particular spot, they have no other means of providing
themselves with food, but by their long tentacula, which
act as arms to convey the food to the mouth ; these
members only are capable of voluntary motion. The
vegetable structure of this class, long obtained for them
the name of animal plants. Some of them, however,
float about in the ocean, as the pennatula, or sea pens.
About the year 1C99, Imperati and Gesner had re-
marked the animal structure of polypi or corals ; and
Peysonnell, in 1727, was the first who ascertained the
living inhabitants of those stony and horny structures,
and his discoveries have been confirmed by Trembley's
treatise upon the hydrie, published in 1740 ; and subse-
quently by Reaumur, Jussieu, Donati, Ellis, Boccone,
Degeer, Baster, Cavolini, Pallas, Linnaeus, and Cnvier.
All the animals of this class were placed by Limueus as
an order of his class Ferrnes, under the distinctive ap-
pellation of lithophytse. The sagacity of that t,reat
naturalist enabled him to form a superstructure, upon
which has been built the more improved, because better
known classifications of Pallas, Bruguiere, and Lamarck;
whose arrangement we mean to follow, as being more
comprehensive than that of Cuvier, who divides his class
polypi into two orders; the first of which embraces those
that are naked, and the second, such as live in polypi-
ferous masses, formed by the united labours of the com-
munity. These he subdivides into many families.
Minute as the beings are which construct and inhabit
those stony masses called corals, they form one of the
largest, and undoubtedly the most singular of the whole
classes of animated being. Such is the enormous accu-
mulation of the stony envelopes formed by them in tro-
pical seas, that islands are produced, coasts extended,
and harbours blocked up by them. It was the opinion of
Lamarck, that it was these minute beings who originally
formed the calcareous strata of the globe.
In contemplating the structure of the polypi, the hy.
dra, for example, we find their nutritive organs the sim-
plest of all possible forms ; consisting of a mere stomach
adapted to receive and digest food, without any other
THE POLYPUS.
563
which they are all possessed, and with which
they have a slow progressive motion ; but the
moderns have given the name of Polypus to a
reptile that lives in fresh water, by no means
apparent organ, being destitute of brain, nerves, or or-
gans of sense ,• nor is there the slightest appearance of
any tiling corresponding to lungs, heart, or even vessels
of any kind. We have given a magnified representation
of the hydra, laid open by a longitudinal section, pi. 30,
f..79, exhibiting the cavity into which the food is received
and digested. The walls of this cavity must be adapted
not only to prepare and pour out the fluids by which the
food is digested, but also to permit of the transudation
through its substance, — probably by means of invisible
pores, — of the nutritious particles thus extracted from the
food for the purpose of its being incorporated and identi-
fied with the gelatinous pulp, of which the body appears
wholly to consist. The researches of Trembley have
brought to light the extraordinary fact, that not only the
internal surface of the polypus is endowed with the
power of digesting food, but that the same property be-
longs also to the external surface, or what we might call
the skin of the animal. He found that by a dexterous
manipulation, the hydra may be completely turned in-
side out, like the finger of a glove, and that the animal,
after having undergone this singular operation, will very
soon resume all its ordinary functions, just as if nothing
had happened. It accommodates itself in the course of a
day or two to the transformation, and resumes all its natural
habits, eagerly seizing animalcules with its tentacula, and
introducing them into its newly formed stomach, which
has for its interior surface what before was the exterior
skin, and which digests them with perfect ease. The
truth of this wonderful discovery was subsequently con-
firmed by Bonnet and Spallanzani.
Still more complicated are the forms and economy of
the aggregated polypi, which prolific nature has spread
in countless multitudes, over the rocky shores of the
whole globe. These grow in the form of plants, and are
supported on one common stem, with widely extended
flowering branches. These many-headed monsters pre-
sent myriads of open mouths, each surrounded by single
or numerous rows of tentacula, which are extended to
catch their prey; these are provided with a multitude of
cilia, which, by their incessant vibrations, determine
currents of water to flow towards their mouths, carrying
with them the floating animalcules on which the entire
mass of polypi subsists.
Each mouth leads into a separate stomach, whence the
food, after its digestion, passes into several channels,
generally five in number, which proceed in different di-
rections from the cavity of each stomach, dividing into
many branches, and being distributed over all the sur-
rounding portions of the flesh. These branches commu-
nicate with similar channels, proceeding from the neigh-
bouring stomachs, so that the food which has been taken
in by one of the mouths, contributes to the general nou-
rishment of the whole mass of aggregated polypi.
The polypi appear in general not to be provided with
any distinct channels for conveying aerated water into
the interior of their bodies, so that it may act in succes-
sion on the nutritive juices, and, after performing this
office, may be expelled, and exchanged for a fresh sup-
ply. It lias accordingly been conjectured, on the pre-
sumption that this function is equally necessary to them
as it is to all other animals, that the vivifying influence
of the surrounding element, is exerted through the me-
dium of the surface of the body. Thus it is very possible
that in polypi, while the interior surface of the sac di-
gests the food, its external surface may perform the office
of respiration ; and no other mode of accomplishing this
function has been distinctly traced in the animals of the
ordur acalepha.
so large orobservable. These are found at the
bottom of wet ditches, or attached to the under
surface of the broad-leafed plants that grow
and swim on the waters. The same difference
The form of the shelly covering which invests most of
the polypi, admits of almost infinite variety. In some it
encloses the flesh in a general sheath, leaving only an
opening at the end, sufficient for the expansion of each
set of tentacula, surrounding the various mouths of the
respective animals. In some species these tubes are
placed parallel to each other, in the manner of the pipes
of an organ, with transverse partitions at regular inter-
vals for their support ; as exemplified in the Tubipora
Musica, pi. 30, f. 34 and 66. This last figure repre-
sents a portion of the tubes highly magnified, and laid
open to show the polypi in their interior. Sometimes
the tubes are united together endwise, like the branches
of a tree, leaving lateral apertures for the animals to
extend their tentacula through as exemplified in the
sertularia frutescens, pi. 30, f. 4 and 10. In some
species the horny base is formed into a number of cells,
each of which answers the purpose of protecting its re-
spective polype. These are usually situated «t the ex-
tremity of the branches, and have all the appearance of
flowers, as may be seen in the tabularia ramosa, pi. 30,
f. 59, 60« The different species of the genus Flustra, —
as will be seen in the species carbacea, pi. 30, f. 61, and
F.foliacea. f. 12, — have the cells excessively minute.
These are extended over a flat membraneous substance,
having all the appearance of the leaves of plants. These
Cells are formed in very regular rows, as in the magnified
representation of F. foliacca, f. 1, and are arranged
with as much regularity as the cells of a honeycomb.
Nearly the whole of the animals which constitute the
other polipiferous masses have an internal inorganic base
of support, constituting a kind of skeleton or axis ; the
mouths of the polypi being developed at intervals over
the surface of the fleshy layer by which this skeleton is
covered. This is especially the case with the genera
Gorgonia, Antipathes, and Corallium, as they bear the
strongest similitude to the branched forms of the stems
of vegetables. The flesh contains grains of calcareous
matter, which, in the dried specimens, adhere to the
surface of the stems. Plate 30, f. 6, is a branch of
Coralium rubrum, exhibiting the appearance presented
by the polypi in their expanded and contracted condi-
tions. F. 7 is the polype of the same, greatly magnified.
In many instances the polypi are located in cup-like de-
pressions, situate in the surface of the calcareous axis,
which protects them considerably. In the genus Madre-
pora, these depressions are intersected by radiating
plates, adapted to the number and construction of the
tentacula ; and in the Millepora the cells are closer and
more minute, and do not exhibit any of the star-like
radiations. In some species the plates have more of a
parallel arrangement ; and in others they form a reticu-
lated appearance.
The materials of which the axis is composed are inva-
riably arranged in concentric layers, thus indicating that
their deposition has been successive, and the surface is
always marked by longitudinal lines corresponding to the
figure of the animal covering the flesh. In some genera
the stem consists of hornyand calcareous parts alternately
disposed, composing a jointed structure. This has been
by some naturalists considered an approximation to an
articulated skeleton ; as it is susceptible of considerable
flection, and yields readily to the currents or waves,
without being broken. An example of this structure is
seen in the I sis Hippuris, pi. 30, f. 21.
Almost the entire class of polypi are attached, by the
root of the stem or base, to submarine rocks or other
extraneous bodies. The roots are possessed of a very
strong adhesive quality.
56-i
HISTORY OF ZOOPHYTES.
holds between tliese and the sea-water poly-
pus, as between all the productions of the sea,
and of the land and the ocean. The marine
vegetables and anirrials grow to a monstrous
The reproduction of all the adhesive polypi depends
upon the detachment of gemmules,* or imperfectly
formed portions of their soft substance. These gemmules
are possessed of active powers of locomotion, apparently
for the sole purpose of seeking a place whereon to raise
its future habitation at a distance from its parents. This
situation once chosen, it is immovably fixed to that spot
during its natural life. In the earlier state these gem-
mules appear on the surface of the parent animal, in the
form of small specks, which are visible to the naked eye.
In the course of a few months they enlarge in size, and
each becomes pyriform, and are observed to protrude
from the sides of the internal canals of the parent, ad-
hering by their narrow ends. This form in particular
applies to the young of sponges. Shortly after, they are
freed, the one after the other, and are borne along by
the currents of fluid, which are quickly passing out of
the larger openings. PI. 30, f. 75, represents one of
these detached gemmules. Were these devoid of life,
they would naturally sink to the bottom by their own
gravity, but on the contrary they spontaneously swim
about for two or three days, with their broad end for-
wards. These gemmules, upon microscopic examina-
tion, are found to he about two-thirds covered with short
cilia, which are in constant and rapid motion : they are
extremely minute and transparent, broadest at the base,
and tapering to almost invisible points. The strokes of
tliese cilia are made without any regular order, but con-
spiring to propel the gemmule withHhe broad end for-
wards, but without seeming to have an apparent object
in view, by a slow gliding motion, quite unlike the zig-
zag course of animals in search of prey. They appear,
however, to have a consciousness of impressions made
on them ; for if they come in collision with each other,
or if they strike against any object, the motion of their
cilia is for a short time suspended ; they wheel round
the spot for some seconds, then renew their vibratory
motion, and proceed in their former course.
It is by the narrow extremity that these gemmules
become adherent, which soon begins to expand itself
laterally, so as to form a broad base of attachment.
While this is proceeding, the cilia continue to move
rapidly, but their motions soon become languid, and in
a very few hours cease entirely to move, and finally dis-
appear, being no longer of use. The same mode of pro-
ceeding is common to the gemmules of all the class
polypi, except that there is a variety in the head of the
gemmules which swims first. The time of their remain-
ing in a free condition varies with the species, from a
few hours to three days.
The tentacula of polypi are exquisitely sensible, and
are frequently seen, either singly or collectively, curving
their extremities towards the mouth, when any minute
floating body comes in contact with them. During the
time a polype is expanded, a constant current of water
is directed towards the mouth : the currents are never
produced by the motions of the tentacula themselves,
but are always the effects of rapid vibrations of the cilia
placed on the tentacula. The polypi of the Flustra
carbasea, for example, f. 62, pi. 30, have" each tentacula,
provided with a single row of cilia, extending along both
the lateral margins, from their base to their termination ;
as we have represented at f. G3, in a portion of one of
their tentacula, highly magnified. Every polype is fur-
nished with twenty-two tentacula, and there are about
fifty cilia on each side of a tentaculum, so that every
* Tho word Gemmufe is taken from the Latin word ffeinma,
a Imd ; and its meaning, ns applied t-i polypi, is that of a youiiff
animal, not contained within an envelope'or ogg.
size. The eel, the pike, or the bream, of
fresh-xvaters is but small ; but in the sea they
grow to an enormous magnitude. The herbs
of the field are at most but a few feet high ;
individual polype has no less than two thousand two
hundred cilia. Every square inch contains about one
thousand eight hundred cells ; the branches of an ordi-
nary specimen present about ten square inches of sur-
face, so that an ordinary specimen of this species pre-
sents a congregation of not less than eighteen thousand
polypi: with three hundred and ninety-six tentacula, and
thirty-nine millions six hundred thousand cilia ; while
other species undoubtedly contain more than ten times
these numbers. Dr Grant has estimated that there are
about four hundred millions of cilia on a single Flustra
foliacea ! the species which we have represented, f. 12.
We have given a representation of a gemmule of the
Flustra carbasea, pi. 30, f. 64.
It is still an unsettled point whether the aggregated
mass is to be considered as one individual, endowed witli
a common principle of life and growth, or whether each
mouth is to be regarded as the organ of a separate ani-
mal. Dr Grant is of opinion that the detached polypi
called pennatula, or sea pens, f. 14, pi. £0, do not pos-
sess a voluntary power of locomotion, but that they are
carried along by the currents of the ocean. Indeed,
none of all this extensive tribe of being? which are inves-
ted in a stony covering, or which have a horny or calca-
reous axis, have the power of locomotion ; and it is not
until we descend to animals divested of these, that we
can trace animals having this power. The fresh-water
polypi, called hydra, are locomotive. These animals
present us with the simplest kind of structure which has
yet been ascertained. The hydra consists simply of a
fleshy tube, open at both extremities, and the aperture
of the tube serving as a mouth, which is situate in the
more dilated end, and this month is provided at its mar-
gin with a single row of tentacula. Looking to this ani-
mal, we may suppose that nature has formed it, to prove
that animal life may be carried on without the aid ol
the complicated machinery which she has given to the
higher orders of creation. The hydra can change place
at will. F. 69, pi. 30, represents the hydra viridis.
This animal has the power of fixing itself in an erect
position by the foot, and if it wishes to change place, it
slowly bends till its head touches the plane on which it
is moving, and adheres to it by the mouth, or by one or
two of its tentacula ; the foot is then detached, and by
a curve of the body placed close to the head, where it is
again fixed, preparatory to a new step, which it performs
by a repetition of the same movements.
Sponges, in their general aspect, have much the ap-
pearance of plants, and they were by many regarded as
such ; but it has been satisfactorily ascertained that they
are composed of soft flesh, intermixed with a tissue of
fibres, some of which are solid, others tubular, and the
whole being curiously interwoven into a kind of network.
It will be perceived, on examining f. 70, pi. 30, that
every part of a living sponge presents to the eye two
kinds of orifices, the larger being somewhat round in its
shape, with the margins raised, forming projecting pa-
pillae ; the smaller being much more numerous, exceed-
ingly minute, and are usually termed the pores of the
sponge.
For many ages, indeed, so far back as the time of
Aristotle, who died 322 years before the birth of Christ,
sponges were supposed to be so sensitive, that they
shrunk from the touch ; and later naturalists asserted
that, if punctured by sharp instruments, they would ex-
hibit visible tremulous motions. But Dr Grant has
most effectually refuted this error, by subjecting sponges
to the most severe experiments, such as lacerating, punc-
turing, burning, or otherwise wounding their texture, by
THE POLYPUS.
5G5
those of the sea often shoot forlh a stalk of a
hundred. It is so between the polypi of both
elements. Those of the sea are found from
two feet in length to three or four, and Pliny
the application of corrosive chemical agents. He has
discovered the true nature of the currents of fluid issuing
at different points, which he thus graphically describes :
" I put a small branch of the spongia coalita, with some
sea- water, into a watch-glass, under the microscope, and,
on reflecting the light of a candle through the fluid, I
soon perceived that there was some intestine motion in
the opaque particles floating through the water. On
moving the watch-glass, so as to bring one of the aper-
tures on the side of the sponge fully into view, I beheld,
for the first time, the- splendid spectacle of this living
fountain, vomiting forth, from a circular cavity, an im-
petuous torrent of liquid matter, and hurling along, in
rapid succession, opaque masses, which it strewed every
where around. The beauty and novelty of such a scene
in the animal kingdom, long arrested my attention, but
after twenty-five minutes of constant observation, 1 was
obliged to withdraw my eye from fatigue, without having
seen the torrent for one instant change its direction, or
diminish, in the slightest degree, the rapidity of its
course." It thus appears that the large orifices on the
surface of a living sponge, are destined for the discharge
of a constant stream of water from the interior of the
body. We have attempted to represent the particles
thrown out by these currents in f. 70. These currents,
issuing from the larger orifices, are best seen by placing
the living animal in a shallow vessel of sea-water, and
strewing a little powdered chalk over the surface, the
motions of which render the current very sensible to the
naked eye. It is by the myriads of minute pores, which
exist in every part of the surface, that this water enter?,
conveying with it the materials necessary for the sub-
sistence of the animal. These pores conduct the fluid
into the interior, where, after percolating through the
numerous channels of communication which pervade the
substance of the boily, it is collected into wider passages,
terminating in the focal orifices above described, and is
finally discharged. The mechanism by which these cur-
rents are produced, is involved in much obscurity.
The genus vorticclla is constituted of a small tribe of
animals which difler from the polypi in one particular,
namely, that of being destitute of tentacnla, and having
cilia only, surrounding the margin of a bell-shaped body,
which is mounted upon a long, slender peduncle. The
animals of this genus are always attached to some extra-
neous body by this footstalk, as represented in vorticella
polypina, pi. 30, f. 75, but have the power of moving
about in all directions, to the extent of the range of the
footstalk. Currents are, as usual, excited by the vibra-
tions of the cilia, and these are the efficient instruments
of progressive motion. The ordinary position of the
peduncle of the vorticella is spiral, but it can extend it
quite in a straight line when in search of food ; but it
suddenly retreats from danger, by resuming the spiral
folds of its peduncle.
Lamarck arranges the polypi under five orders, with
the following characters : —
I. POLYPI NATANTES. — Polypi provided with tenta-
cula, united in a common fleshy mass, placed on an axis,
free, and floating in the water.
II POLYPI TUBIFEIU. — Tentaculated polypi united
in a common fleshy body, without any solid axis, and
covered with tubiform cylinders.
III. POLYPI VAGINATI. — Polypi with tentacula, always
fixed, in an inorganic covering, and forming in general
compound animals.
IV. POLYPI DENUDATI. — Tentaculated polypi not
forming a common envelop, fixed either constantly or
spontaneously.
V. POLYPI CILIATI. — Polypi without any tentacula:
has even described one, the arms of which
were no less than thirty feet long. Those in
fresh waters, however, are comparatively mi-
nute ; at their utmost size seldom above three
but instead of them, vibratile cilise, at or near the
mouth.
ORDER I.— POLYPI NATANTES.
Polypi united in a common fleshy body, or congre-
gated mass, free, elongated, enveloping an inorganic
tixis, cartilaginous, osseous, or stony; each polypus pro-
vided with tentacula placed around the mouth, and ra-
diating. The animals of this order are congregated on
a common body, in which they all participate, while
each appears to enjoy a separate existence, and distinct
powers of volition. The common body has the appear-
ance of a naked fleshy mass, with the polypi protruding
from its surface, and in the centre is placed an inorganic
axis resulting from some deposition of the animals, in
the same manner as the outer covering in the other or-
ders. Some of these compound animals float freely in
the water, and others remain at the bottom in the mud
or sand. Many of them diffuse a vivid phosphorescent
light. Umbellularia Greenlandica, pi. 30, f. 13. Body
free, consisting of a long simple st em, with a bony inar-
ticulated axis, enveloped by a fleshy membrane. In-
habits the Northern ocean. Virgulwia ; body free, fili-
form or linear, greatly elongated. Inhabits the North-
ern ocean. Renilla; body free, depressed, kidney-
shaped, polypi provided with six rays each. Pennatu/a
plosphorea, pi. 30, f. 14. Body free, fleshy, penniform,
polypi with radiated tentacula. Fig. 65 represents
some of the polypes greatly magnified. Inhabits the
British seas. Funiculina; body free, filiform, very sim-
ple, long, fleshy, and provided with warts. Inhabits
the American ocean. Veretillum ; body free, fleshy ,-sim-
ple, cylindrical, polypiferous above, and with the base
naked.
ORDER II.— POLYPI TUBIFERI.
Polypi united in a common fleshy body, either simple,
lobed, or ramified, and constantly fixed at its base, des-
titute of any solid internal axis; surface entirely or in
part covered with tubiform cylinders, rarely retractile;
mouth terminal, provided with eight pectinated tenta-
cula. The tubiferous polypi always exist in the form
of a fleshy subgelatinous body, invariably fixed by their
base. They are more or less simple, convex, lobed, or
slightly ramified. The upper part of the surface of their
body is covered with a vast number of small tubiform
movable cylinders; having at their summit a roundish
sub-octagonal mouth surrounded by eight pectinated
tentacula. Lobularia diyitata, pi. 30, f. 1 5. Common
body of a fleshy consistence, elevated upon the base.
Inhabits the coast of Europe. Fig. 16 is a magnified
view of a portion of this species. Ctiona ; of a fleshy, ir-
ritable substance, provided with siliceous spicula, gen-
erally embedded in the cavities of shells. Inhabits
empty oyster shells on the British coasts. Ammothea ;
with the common body divided into many short and
branched stems. Inhabits the coasts of the Red sea.
Xenia; the common body provided with thick, some-
what short, naked stems, emanating from the base, and
divided at their summit. Anthelia ; common body
spread out in a thin plate, or depressed over marine
substances. Inhabits the shores of the Red sea.
ORDER III.— POLYPI VAGINATI.
Each individual polype tentaculated, constantly fixed
in an inorganic body, or sheath, which completely enve-
lops them, and forming in general compound animals.
This is the most extensive class of polypi, and is divided
into seven sections. The animals are very delicate,
transparent, and extremely contractile, usually fixed in
an inorganic body of their own formation. This calcare-
ous mass is increased in size with every successive gen-
eration; and these, in the course of time, accumulate to
such a size, that they raise islands in the midst of the
ocean. The cells arc short, lona;, or tubular, the orifice
566
HISTORY OF ZOOPHYTES.
parts of an inch long, and when gathered up
into their usual form, not above a third even
of those dimensions.
It was upon these minute animals that the
sometimes irregular, and at others regular: the interior
walls, being simple, longitudinally striated, or lamel-
latcd, and stelliform.
SECTION I.
The polypiferous masses composed of two distinct
parts; the first consisting of numerous horny fibres,
either in fasciculi, radiated, interlaced, crossed, or fitted
together; the second is composed of a fleshy or gelatin-
ous pulp ; covering, enveloping, or attaching the fibres,
containing the polypi, and assuming in drying a consist-
ence more or less firm. Alcyoniumfforgcmoules,p].bO,f. 9.
The polypiferous masses polymorphous, soft, or fleshy,
when recent, but somewhat coriaceous and firm when
dried. Geodia; the polypiferous mass free, fleshy, tuber-
ous, hollow interiorly. Tethia ; with a knotty subglobu-
lar polypiferous mass, the interior with numerous, fasci-
culated fibres. Sponyia tubulosa, pi. 30, f. 5. Polypiferous
mass soft, gelatinous, very flexible, and fixed; the car-
tilaginous matter supported by calcareous or siliceous
spicula; pores excessively numerous and irregular. The
spicula are represented 'at figs. 71 and 72. It will be
seen by the Spongia coalita, f. 70, that there are two kinds
of orifices; the Lirger having a rounded shape_, provided
generally with raised margins, which form projecting pa-
pillre, the smaller being much more numerous, exceed-
ingly minute, and constituting what are termed the pores
of the sponge. Flabcllaria pavonia, pi. 30, f. 17. The
polypiferous mass caulescent, fan-shaped, incrusted, and
frequently divided. Inhabits the seas of America. Fin-
crassata, pi. 30, f. 2. Penicillus capitatus, pi. 30, f. 18.
Polypiferous mass, supported on a simple, exteriorly
incrusted stalk, filled interiorly with many horny fasci-
culated fibres, and divided at its summit into a cluster
of filiform, dichotomous, articulated branches. Fig. 19
shows the articulations magnified.
SECTION II.
The polypiferous masses branched like plants, and
composed of two kinds of substance, namely, a central
solid axis, and a fleshy incrustation, which invests and
contains the polypi; axis inorganic, corneous, or stony;
when dried the polypiferous crust is porous, cellula'r,
and friable. Corallina coriiiculata, pi. 30, f. 1 1 . Polypi-
ferous mass adherent, greatly branched. Inhabit the
American and European seas. Fig. 4 is a magnified
view of some branches. Gorgonia verriculata, pi. 30. f.
8. Polypiferous mass branched and adherent. Indian
seas. Antipatltes spiralis, pi. 30, f. 20. Polypiferous
mass adherent and branched. Indian ocean. " his Mp-
puris. pi. 30, f. 21. Polypiferous mass arborescent, and
fixed. Indian ocean. Mtlitten ; adherent, tree-shaped,
having a jointed knotty axis. Corallium rulrum, pi. 30,
F._ 6. Adherent, branched, stiff, and devoid of articula-
tion. Fig. 7 represents one of the polypi greatly mag-
nified. Indian ocean.
SECTION III.
With stony polypiferous masses, having star-sliaped,
or waved laminar furrows.
1. WITH LATERAL STARS, OR SPREAD OVER THE SURFACE.
Oculina prolifera, pi. 30, f. 22. Polypiferous mass of a
stony consistence. Northern ocean. Seriatupora sul»dut<i
pi. 30, f. 23. Adherent, stony, with slender, subcylindri-
cal branches. Madreporafun(jitus,p\. 30, f. 24. Adherent
subdendroidal, branching. West Indian seas. Pocillopora;
adherent, branched, lobed, and stony. Potvtes davaria
pi. 30, f. 2.5. Adherent, stony, branched, or lobed and
obtuse, with a stclliferous surface. American and In-
dian ocean. Fig. 26, this species greatly magnified.
Asirea radwta, pi. 30, f. 27. Adherent, incrusting marine
substances, or forming a hemispherical or globular mass.
American seas. Astoria denticulata, pi. 30, f. 26. Ex-
power of dissection was first tried in multiply-
ing their numbers. They had been long con-
sidered as little worthy the attention of obser-
vers, and were consigned to that neglect in
planaria mesenterina, pi. 30, f. 28. Adherent, stony, ex-
hibiting a free, foliaceous membrane. Indian ocean.
Echinoptera; adherent, stony, depressed, and extended
into a free membrane. Montimlaria ; adherent, stony,
incrusting marine substances. Meandrina labyrintMca,
pi. 30, f. 29. Adherent, stony, forming a simple, con-
vex, or hemispherical mass. American ocean. A;iuri-
cia ampliata, pi. 30. f. 30. Adherent, stony, with de-
pressed foliaceous expansions. Indian ocean. Pavonia
((f/ni-icites, pi. 30, f. 31. Adherent, stony, frondescent,
with depressed subfoliaceous lobes. American seas.
2. STARS TERMINAL.
Fungia afjariciformis ; free, stony, simple, orbicu-
lar, or oblong, convex and lamellar above. Indian
seas. Cydolites; free, stony, elliptical or orbicular,
convex and lamellar above, with a hollow centre, de-
pressed below. TuMnoHa; free, simple, turbinated, or
wedge-shaped, and acute at the base. Caryophyllia
cyatkus, pi. 30, f. 33. Mass free, stony, simple, or
branched. Mediterranean. Fig. 67, C. Smithii. Ffg.
68, animal fully expanded. Sartinula; free, stony, con-
sisting of a simple, polypiferous, and thick mass. Sty-
Una; mass stony, simple, exteriorly rough ; tubes nu-
merous.
SECTION IV.
With a stony polypiferous, solid, and interiorly com-
pact mass: cells perforated, or tubular, and destitute of
laminae. Tulipora mum'ca, pi. 30, f. 34. Stony, com-
posed of cylindrical tubes, which are straight, "and in-
dividually separate. Indian seas. Fig. Gti is a mag-
nified portion of the tubes. Catenipora; stony, com-
posed of parallel tubes, inserted in the thickness of
vertical plates, anastomosed like net-work. Favorites;
stony, simple, variable in form, composed of parallel
prismatic tubes. Millepora calcarea, pi. 30, f. 35. Stony,
interiorly solid, polymorphous, branched, or fronde-
scent. European seas. DistichojMra ; adherent, solid,
stony, with slightly compressed branches. Orbulittn;
free, stony, orbicular, depressed, or slightly concave.
Lunulites; free, stony,orbicular, depressed. Orulites; free,
stony, egg-shaped, or cylindrical ; known only in a fossil
state.
SECTION V.
Polypifurous masses of a substony consistence, witli
frondescent or crustaceous expansions ; cells small, short,
sometimes in a regular series, at other times irregular,
and usually disposed at the surface of the expansions
of marine substances. Dacti/lojwra ; free, stony, cylin-
drical, obtuse at one extremity, contracted and' perfor-
ate at the other. Ocellaria; stony, depressed as a mem-
brane, variously twisted, somewhat funnel-shaped.
Alveolites; stony, either forming incrustations, or a free
mass disposed in numerous concentric layers^ covering
one another. Retepora cellulosa, pi. 30, f. 36. Stony,
interiorly porous, with thin depressed expansions.
Adeona; nearly stony, caulescent, or fan-shaped. Es-
chara foliacea, pi. 30, f. 37. Nearly stony, but not flexi-
ble. Cellepora pumicosa, pi. 30, f. 3fJ. Nearly stony,
interiorly porous, spreading in a raised, foliaceous crust.
Fig. 39 is a magnified view of this mass of polypi.
European seas. Dincopora ; subcrustaccous, depressed,
extended in an undulated, discoid, stony plate, with
the upper surface cellular. Ttdmlipora transversa, pi.
30, f. 40. Consisting of a parasitical or incrusting mass,
lil- „_! 1 _ 11 JJ« _ 1 . i ,
crust is composed. Mediterranean, flui-tra foliucca,
pi. 30, f. 12. Flexible, submembranous, stony and fron-
descent, or consisting of a thin crust, formed of contigu-
ous cells. Fig. 1 is a magnified view of the cells.
European seas. Flustra carbasea, pi. 30, f. 61, is the
THE POLYPUS.
567
which thousands of minute species of insects
remain to this very day. It is true, indeed,
that Reaumur observed, classed, and named
them. By contemplating their motions, he
was enabled distinctly to pronounce on their
being of the animal and not of the vegetable
kingdom ; and he called them polypi, from
their great resemblance to those larger ones
that were found in the ocean. Still, however,
their properties were neglected, and their his-
tory unknown.
Mr Trembley was the person to whom we
owe the first discovery of the amazing proper-
ties and powers of this little vivacious crea-
ture. He divided this class of animals into
four different kinds : into those inclining to
green, those of a brownish cast, those of a
flesh colour, and those whichhe calls \hepo1ype
de panache. The differences of structure in
these, as also of colour, are observable enough ;
but the manner of their subsisting, of seiz-
polypiferous mass. Fig_. 62 represents the tentacula in
the polypes of this species. Fig. 63 is a portion of one
of these tentacuia highly magnified. Fig. 64 is a de-
lineation of one of the gemmules, greatly magnified.
Fig. 70 is a part of F. vertitiliata greatly magnified.
SECTION VI.
Polypifcrous masses consisting of one substance only,
slender, fistulous, membranous, or horny stems, flexible
and branched, containing polypi in their interior. Poly-
I'hysa; polypiierous mass fungoid, with a calcareous
crust. Acetabulum ; fungoid, with a calcareous crust.
Tiliiuna ; adherent, tubular, membranaceous, or horny.
Dichotomariafruiiailosa, pi. 30, f. 43. Polypiferous mass
with tubular, subarticulate, dichotomous stems, and a
calcareous incrustation. American seas. Fig. 44 repre-
sents the D. olttitsata, an inhabitant of the coasts of the
Bahama islands. Amjuinaria spatulata, pi. 30, f. 45.
Adherent, and extending itself in the form of a plant.
Fig. 46 is a magnified portion. Ctllaria t/iuia, pi. 30, f.
47. Adherent, with the stems tubular and branched.
Fig. 48, a portion of a stem magnified. European seas.
Liriozou CtirHicea, pi. 30, f. 49. Adherent, branched,
calcareous ; with tubular stems, jointed, creeping. Fig.
,50, a portion of a stem magnified. West Indian seas.
Serialaria lendujrra, pi. 30, f. 51. Adherent, branched,
horny, stems, slender. Fig. 5'2, a portion of a stem
magnified. European seas. Plumularia myriophillum,
pi. 30, f. 53. Adherent, branched, horny, stalks slender.
Fig. 54, a portion of a stem magnified. European seas.
Antenmilarut ramosa, pi. 30, f. 55. Adherent, horny,
with the stems fistulous, simple, or branched. Fig. 56,
a portion of a stem magnified. European seas. Sertu-
l< triii frtttescens, pi. 30, f. 10. Adherent, horny, stems
slender and fistulous. Fig. 4, a portion of a stem mag-
nified. European seas. S. aliietina, pi. MO, f. 73 and 77.
C'ampanullaria vcrticillata, pi. 30, f. 57. Adherent, stems
fistulous, filiform, horny, simple, or branched. Fig. 58,
a magnified portion of a branch. Cornularia ; adherent,
horny, with simple, funnel-shaped stems. Tubularia
ramosa, pi. 30, f. 59. Adherent, slender, tubular, sim-
ple, or branched, horny. Fi.tr. 60, a magnified portion
of a branch. British seas. Fig. 74, T. magnified. Tro-
pical seas. Plumutella; adherent, slender, tububir,
branching, submembranous, extremities of stems and
branches terminated each by a polypus.
SECTION VII.
Polypiferous masses either free, isolated, and floating
in the water, or adherent, and agglomerated in cellular
masses, composed of one substance on aquatic bodies ;
polypi provided with numerous tentacula, which do not
ing their prey, and of their propagation, is
pretty nearly the same in all.
Whoever has looked with care into the bot-
tom of a wet ditch when the water is stag-
nant, and the sun has been powerful, may re-
member to have seen many little transparent
lumps of jelly, about the size of a pea, and
flatted on each side ; such also as have exa-
mined the under side of the broad-leafed
weeds that grow on the surface of the water,
must have observed them studded with a num-
ber of these little jelly-like substances, which
were probably then disregarded, because their
nature and history were unknown. These
little substances, however, were no other than
living polypi, gathered up into a quiescent
state, and seemingly inanimate, because either
undisturbed, or not excited by the calls of appe-
tite to action. When they are seen exerting
themselves, they put on a very different appear-
ance from that when at rest: to conceive a just
complete the circle round the mouth. The animals of
this section chiefly inhabit fresh water. Alcyonella; in-
crusting, thick, convex, and irregular, consisting of an
aggregation of vertical subpentangular tubes, open at
thair summit. SpongiUa ; adherent polymorphous, cel-
lular, irregular, composed of subpiliferous lamina.
Cristatetla ; free, globiilar, gelatinous, covered by short,
thick, polypiferous tubercles, each of which encloses a
polypus. Difflitffia; body small, gelatinous, contractile,
enclosed in a testaceous tube, projecting.
ORDER IV.— POLYPI DENUDATI.
Polypi provided with tentacula,and not formingapoly-
piferous mass ; greatly diversified in form, in the num-
ber and situation of their tentacula, and fixed either
constantly or spontaneously. Pedicellaria ; adherent,
formed of a stiff peduncle. Coryne ; fleshy, seated on a
peduncle. Hydra viridis, pi. 30", f. 76. Oblong, linear,
in the form of a reversed cone, narrowed below, gelatin-
ous, transparent, and fixed spontaneously by the base,
a. exhibits the body extended, and b. the body in a
contracted state. Fig. 69, body expanded. Inhabits
fresh waters.
ORDER V.— POLYPI CILIATI.
Mouth provided with ciliated and gyratory organs
which agitate the water, but do not seize the food.
SECTION I.— ROTIFERI.
With one or many organs in a circular form, ciliated,
and rotatory at the opening of the mouth. Tuliieolariu ;
body contractile, oblong, contained in a tube fixed on
aquatic bodies. Vorticella, polypina, pi. 30, f. 75.
Body naked, pedunculated, fixed spontaneously, or con-
stantly by its base. Inhabits stagnant waters. Urceo-
laria ; body free, contractile, urceolate, sometimes elon-
gated, without tail or peduncle. Furcularia ; body free,
contractile, oblong, provided with a short or elongated
tail. Brachionus; body free, contractile, nearly oval,
covered, at least partly, by a transparent sheath. Fol-
liculina; body contractile, oblong, inclosed in a trans-
parent sheath.
SECTION II.— VIBRATILES.
Cili?e placed near the mouth, moving in interrupted
vibrations. Vaffinicola; body minute, oval, or oblong,
anteriorly ciliated, and provided with a tail; enclosed in
a transverse sheath, but not attached. Trichocerca;
body minute, oval, or oblong, anteriorly truncated.
Rattulus; body minute, oblong, truncated, or anteriorly
obtuse.
5b'8
HISTORY OF ZOOPHYTES.
idea of their figure, we may suppose the finger
of a glove cut oft' at the bottom ; we may sup-
pose also several threads or horns planted round
the edge like a fringe. The hollow of this finger
will give us an idea of the stomach of the ani-
mal ; the threads issuing forth from the edges
may be considered as the arms or feelers with
which it hunts for its prey. The animal, at
its greatest extent, is seldom seen above an
inch and a half long, but it is much shorter
when it is contracted and at rest ; it is furnished
neither with muscles nor rings, and its man-
ner of lengthening or contracting itself more
resembles that of the snail, than worms, or any
other insect. The polypus contracts itself
more or less, in proportion as it is touched, or
as the water is agitated in which they are
seen. Warmth animates them, and cold be-
numbs them ; but it requires a degree, of cold
approaching congelation before they are re-
duced to perfect inactivity ; those of an inch
have generally their arms double, often thrice
as long as their bodies. The arms, where
the animal is not disturbed, and the season
not unfavourable, are thrown about in various
directions, in order to seize and entangle its
little prey ; sometimes three or four of the
arms are thus employed, while the rest are
contracted like the horns of a snail, within the
animal's body. It seems capable of givino-
what length it pleases to these arms ; it con-
tracts and extends them at pleasure, and
stretches them only in proportion to the re-
moteness of the object it would seize.
These animals have a progressive motion,
which is performed by that power they have
of lengthening and contracting themselves at
pleasure ; they go from one part of the bot-
tom to another ; they mount along the margin
of the water, and climb up the side of aquatic
plants. They often are seen to come to the
surface of the water, where they suspend
themselves by their lower end. As they ad-
vance but very slowly, they employ a great
deal of time in every action, and bind them-
selves very strongly to whatever body they
chance to move upon as they proceed ; their
adhesion is voluntary, and is probably per-
formed in the manner of a cupping-glass applied
to the body.
All animals of this kind have a remarkable
attachment to turn towards the light; and this
naturally might induce an inquirer to look for
their eyes ; but however carefully this search
has been pursued, and however excellent the
microscope with which every part was ex-
amined, yet nothing of the appearance of this
organ was found over the whole body ; and it
is most probable that, like several other insects
which hunt their prey by their feeling, these
creatures are unfurnished with advantages
which would be totally useless for their support.
In the centre of the arms, as was said be-
fore, the mouth is placed, which the animal
can open and shut at pleasure, and this serves
at once as a passage for food, and an opening
for it after digestion. The inward part of the
animal's body seems to be one great stomach,
which is open at both ends ; but the purposes
which the opening at the bottom serves are
hitherto unknown, but certainly not for ex-
cluding their excrements, for those are ejected
at the aperture by which they are taken in.
If the surface of the body of this little creature
be examined with a microscope, it will be
found studded with a number of warts, as also
the arms, especially when they are contracted;
and these tubercles, as we shall presently see,
answer a very important purpose.
If we examine their way of living, we shall
find these insects chiefly subsisting upon
others, much less than themselves, particularly
a kind of millepedes that live in the water,
and a very small red worm, which they seize
with great avidity. In short, no insect what-
soever, less than themselves, seems to come
amiss to them; their arms, as was said before,
serve them as a net would a fisherman, or
perhaps, more exactly speaking, as a lime-
twig does a fowler.
Wherever their prey is perceived, which
the animal effects by its feeling, it is sufficient
to touch the object it would seize upon, and it
is fastened without a power of escaping. The
instant one of this insect's long arms is laid
upon a millepede, the little insect sticks with-
out a possibility of retreating. The greater
the distance at which it is touched, the greater
is the ease with which the polypus brings the
prey to its mouth. If the little object be near,
though irretrievably caught, it is not without
great difficulty that it can be brought to the
mouth to be swallowed. When the polypus
is unsupplied with prey, it testifies its hunger
by opening its mouth; the aperture, however,
is so small that it cannot be easily perceived ;
but when, with any of its long arms, it has
seized upon its prey, it then opens the mouth
distinctly enough, and this opening is always
in proportion to the size of the animal which
it would swallow : the lips dilate insensibly
by small degrees, and adjust themselves pre-
cisely to the figure of their prey. Mr Trembley,
who took a pleasure in feeding this useless
brood, found that they could devour aliments
of every kind, fish and flesh, as well as in-
sects ; but he owns they did not thrive so well
upon beef and veal, as upon the little worms
of their own providing. When he gave one
of these famished reptiles any substance which
was improper to serve for aliment, at first it
seized the prey with avidity, but after keep-
ing it sometime entangled near the mouth, it
dropped it again with distinguishing nicety.
TEIE POLYPUS.
569
When several polypi happen to fall upon
the same worm, they dispute their common
prey with each other. Two of them are often
seen seizing the same worm at different
ends, and dragging it at opposite directions
with great force. It often happens, that while
one is swallowing its respective end, the other
is also employed in the same manner, and thus
they continue, swallowing each his part, until
their mouths meet together ; they then rest,
each for some time in this situation, till the
worm breaks between them, and each goes off
with his share ; but it often happens that a
seemingly more dangerous combat ensues,
when the mouths of both are thus joined upon
one common prey together ; the largest poly-
pus then gapes and swallows his antagonist ;
but what is very wonderful, the animal thus
swallowed seems to be rather a gainer by the
misfortune. After it has lain in the conquer-
or's body for about an hour, it issues unhurt,
and often in possession of the prey which had
been the original cause of contention. How
happy would it be for men if they had as little
to fear from each other !
These reptiles continue eating the whole
year, except when the cold approaches to con-
gelation ; and then, like most others of the in-
sect tribe, they feel the general torpor of na-
ture, and all their faculties are for two or three
months suspended: but if they abstain atone
time, they are equally voracious at another,
and, like snakes, ants, and other animals, that
are torpid in -winter, the meal of one day suf-
fices them for several months together. In ge-
neral, however, they devour more largely in
proportion to their size, and their growth is
quick exactly as they are fed ; such as are best
supplied, soonest acquire their largest size, but
they diminish also in their growth with the
same facility if their food be taken away.
Such are the more obvious properties of
these little animals, but the most wonderful
still remain behind : their manner of propaga-
tion, or rather multiplication, has for some
years been the astonishment of all the learned
of Europe. They are produced in as great a
variety of manner as every species of vegeta-
ble. Some polypi are propagated from eggs,
as plants are from their seed : some are pro-
duced by buds issuing from their bodies, as
plants are produced by inoculation ; while
all may be multiplied by cuttings, and this to
a degree of minuteness that exceeds even phi-
losophical perseverance.
With respect to such of this kind as are
hatched from the egg, little curious can be
added, as it is a method of propagation so com-
mon to all the tribes of insect nature ; but with
regard to such as are produced like buds from
their parent stem, or like cuttings from an ori-
ginal root, their history requires a more de-
vot. n.
tailed explanation. If a polypus be carefully
observed in summer, when these animals are
chiefly active, and more particularly prepared
for propagation, it will be found to bourgeon
forth from different parts of its body several tu-
bercles or little knobs, which grow larger and
larger every day ; after two or throe days' in-
spection, what at first appeared but a small
excrescence takes the figure of a small ani-
mal, entirely resembling its parent, furnished
with feelers, a mouth, and all the apparatus
for seizing and digesting its prey. This little
creature every day becSmes larger, like the
parent to which it continues attached; it
spreads its arms to seize upon whatever insect
is proper for aliment, and devours it for its
own particular benefit : thus it is possessed of
two sources of nourishment, that which it re-
ceives from the parent by the tail, and that
which it receives from its own industry by the
mouth. The food which these animals receive
often tinctures the whole body, and upon this
occasion the parent is often seen communicat-
ing a part of its own fluids to that of its pro-
geny that grows upon it ; while, on the con-
trary, it never receives any tincture from any
substance that is caught and swallowed by its
young. If the parent swallows a red worm,
which gives a tincture to all its fluids, the
young one partakes of the parental colour ; but
if the latter should seize upon the same prey,
the parent polypus is no way benefited by thu
capture, but all the advantage remains with
the. young one.
But we are not to suppose that the parent is
capable of producing only one at a time ; se-
veral young ones are thus seen at once, of dif-
ferent sizes, growing from its body, some just
budding forth, others acquiring their perfect
form, and others come to sufficient maturity,
and just ready to drop from the original stem
to which they had been attached for several
days. But what is more extraordinary still,
those young ones themselves that continue at-
tached to their parent, are seen to bourgeon,
and propagate their own young ones also, each
holding the same dependence upon its respec-
tive parent, and possessed of the same advan-
tages that have been already described in the
first connection. Thus we see a surprising
chain of existence continued, and numbers of
animals naturally produced without any union of
the sexes, or other previous disposition of nature.
This seems to be the most natural way by
which these insects are multiplied ; their pro-
duction from the egg being not so common ;
and though some of this kind are found with a
little bladder attached to their bodies, which
is supposed to be filled with eggs, which after-
wards come to maturity, yet the artificial me-
thod of propagating these animals is much
more expeditious, and equally certain. It is
4 c
570
HISTORY OF ZOOPHYTES.
indifferent whether one of them be cut into ten,
or ten hundred parts, each becomes as perfect
an animal as that which was originally divi-
ded; but it must be observed, that the smaller
the part which is thus separated from the rest,
<he longer it will be in coming to maturity, or
in assuming its perfect form. It would be
endless to recount the many experiments that
have been tried upon this philosophical pro-
digy : the animal has been twisted and turned
into all manner of shapes ; it has been turned
inside out, it has been cut in every division,
yet still it continued to move ; its parfs adapted
themselves again to each other, and in a
short time it became as voracious and industri-
ous as before.
Besides these kinds mentioned by Mr Trem-
bley, there are various others which have been
lately discovered by the vigilance of succeed-
ing observers, and some of these so strongly
resemble a flowering vegetable in their forms,
that they have been mistaken by many natu-
ralists for such. Mr Hughes, the author of
the natural history of Barbadoes, has described
a species of this animal, but has mistaken its
nature, and called it a sensitive flowering
plant ; he observed it to take refuge in the
holes of rocks, and, when undisturbed, to
spread forth a number of ramifications, each
terminated by a flowery petal, which shrunk
at the approach of the hand, and withdrew into
the hole from whence before it had been seen
tp issue. This plant, however, was no other
than an animal of the polypus kind, which is
not only to be found in Barbadoes, but also on
many parts of the coast of Cornwall, and along
the shores of the continent.
CHAP. V.
OF THE LITHOPHYTES AND SPONGES.1
IT is very probable that the animals we see
and are acquainted with, bear no manner
1 See the preceding note. There are about fifty diffe-
rent species of sponges, of which nine or ten belong to this
country. They are found in the Mediterranean and those
seas in warm and temperate latitudes.diminishing in num-
ber and becoming of inferior quality on the approach to
cold regions. They adhere to rocks in places the least
exposed to the action of currents and waves, which the ebb-
ing tide does not leave uncovered. The best sponges known
to us are those which come from the Archipelago, where
they abound near many of the islands, whose inhabitants
may be said to subsist by the sponge-fishery, if we may
so call it. At the Cyclades, for instance, sponge. diving
forms the chief employment of the population. The sea
is at all times extremely clear, and the experienced di-
vers are capable of distinguishing from the surface the
points to which the sponge is attached below, when an
unpractised eye could but dimly discern the bottom.
Each boat is furnished with a large stone attached to a
rope, and this the diver seizes in his hand on plunging
of proportion to those that are concealed from
us. Although every leaf and vegetable
swarms with animals upon land, yet at sea
they are still more abxmdant ; for the greatest
part of what would seem vegetables growing
there, are in fact nothing but the artificial for-
mation of insects, palaces which they have
built for their own habitation.
If we examine the bottom of the sea along
some shores, and particularly at the mouths of
several rivers, we shall find it has the appear
ance of a forest of trees under water, millions
of plants growing in various directions, with
their branches entangled in each other, and
sometimes standing so thick as to obstruct na-
vigation. The shores of the Persian Gulf,
the whole extent of the Red sea, and the wes-
tern coasts of America, are so choked up in
many places with these coraline substances,
that though ships force a passage through
them, boats and swimmers find it impossible
to make their way. These aquatic groves are
formed of different substances, and assume va-
rious appearances. The coral plants, as they
are called, sometimes shoot out like trees with-
out leaves in winter ; they often spread out a
broad surface like a fan, and not uncommonly
a large bundling head like a faggot ; some-
times they are found to resemble a plant with
leaves and flowers ; and often the antlers of a
stag, with great exactness and regularity. In
other parts of the sea are seen sponges of vari-
ous magnitude, and extraordinary appearan-
ces, assuming a variety of fantastic forms, like
large mushrooms, mitres, fonts, and flower-
pots. To an attentive spectator, these various
productions seem entirely of the vegetable
kind ; they seem to have their leaves and their
flowers, and have been experimentally known
to shoot out branches in the compass of a year.
Philosophers, therefore, till of late, thought
themselves pretty secure in ascribing these
productions to the vegetable kingdom ; and
Count Marsigli, who has written very labori-
ously and learnedly upon the subject of corals
and sponges, has not hesitated to declare his
opinion, that they were plants of the aquatic
kind, furnished with flowers and seeds, and
head foremost from the stern. He does this in order to
increase the velocity of his descent; thus economizing his
tock of breath, as well as to facilitate his ascent when
ixhausted at the bottom, being then quickly hauled np
:iy his companions. Few men can remain longer than
about two minutes below; and, as the process of detach-
ing the sponge is very tedious, three, and sometimes four
divers descend successively to secure a particularly fine
specimen.
The best sponge is that which is the palest and light-
est, has small holes, and is soft to the touch. By the
old physicians, sponge was regarded as a cure for a long
list of maladies; this list is now much abridged, though
burned sponge, in which form only it is used, still has a
place in the materia medica.
THE LITIIOPI1YTES AND SPONGES-
571
endued with & vegetation entirely resembling
that which is found upon land. This opinion,
however, some time after, began to be shaken
by Rumphius and Jussieu, and at last by the
ingenious Mr Ellis, who, by a more sagacious
and diligent inquiry into nature, put it past
doubt, that corals and sponges were entirely
the works of animals, and that, like the honey-
comb which was formed by the bee, the coral
was the work of an infinite number of reptiles
of the polypus kind, whose united labours
were thus capable of rilling whole tracts of the
ocean with those embarrassing tokens of their
industry.1
1 Coral. — The method in which the polypus secretes
the coral, which, when taken from the sea, is in stalks
about a foot high and half an inch thick, is understood
to l>e as follows : An egg or new animal, when ejected,
falls upon some body, to which, from its gelatinous na-
ture, it adheres. On this foundation it spreads and
moulds itself, till at length from the middle of it a sort
of excrescence rises upwards, containing the germ of
a new animal, which attains its growth by degrees,
and sends up a similar extension. These deposite cal-
careous or chalky matter in the middle, and by the con-
stant generation of new polypi, and the secretion of ad-
ditional matter, the coral, at the end often years, which
is the period necessary for its perfect growth, has at-
tained the height and thickness mentioned. It is of
various colours — red, vermilion, and white, the latter
being most common, and consequently least valuable.
When taken out of the sea, it is covered with moss and
marine vegetable matter, and is generally somewhat
softer and duller in hue than it ultimately becomes.
The coral fisheries form a very considerable trade in
several parts of the Mediterranean. From the hollows
and caverns of the rocks, where it takes root, the coral
is brought up with nets ; it also grows, but in less quan-
tities, on the sides of the ocean crags. The greatest
height to which it attains is never above a foot, and its
usual thickness is about that of the little finger, though
often much less. The most extensive fisheries are those
carried on in the straits of Messina, off the Sicilian coast,
and about three miles distant generally from the land.
The fishermen have divided the whole tract, about six
miles in length, into ten parts. Every year they fish
only in one of these parts, and do not interfere with it
again till ten years have elapsed, for the purpose of
bringing away only such coral as has attained its fdll
growth .
The appearance of the coral as it is observed in the
sea, is said to resemble a miniature forest, from its great
quantity and branching character. The greatest portion
is procured from a depth of from sixty to a hundred and
twenty-five feet ; but some fisheries are carried on to
the depth of nine hundred feet. Those of the coasts of
Marseilles, Barbary, and Trapani, are the principal
rivals to the Sicilian fisheries in the European market,
but none of them produce the coral in equal quantities,
or of equal quality, with the latter. From Messina 3000
pounds are said to be exported annually ; the price of
which is so much aflected by the colour and quality, that,
while some of it is valued at ten guineas a pound, other
portions are considered not worth ten pence. The ver-
milion-coloured coral, being the rarest, is the most ex-
pensive. The common red, however, brings a high
price also, when the quality is good. Chemical analysis
has proved that the coral consists of carbonate of lime, a
species of chalk, for it dissolves completely in aquafortis,
or nitric acid.
Though we may regard with some degree of wonder
If, in our researches after the nature of
these plants, we should be induced to break
off a branch of the coraline substance, and
observe it carefully, we shall perceive its
the production of stalks of coral by a small oyster-like
polypus, our astonishment cannot fail to be increased
when we consider, that, by an animal of the same size
and species as the coraliferous polypus, whole reefs of
great extent, and even islands, have been founded and
originated. The animal or polypus that accomplishes
this is called the Madrepore, and has long been errone-
ously considered as identical with the coral polypus ;
hence the masses of land alluded to have received the
appellation of coral reefs and islands. These have never
yet been found in any extent excepting in the Pacific and
Asiatic seas, but in these Immense waters the coral rocks
and reefs are abundant.
The principal groups ot islands of coral formation are,
from the New Hebrides, eastward, the Friendly islands.
Navigation islands, and the Society islands ; and, to
the northward of the latter group, the Marquesas. These
groups are separated from each other by channels or seas,
wider than those which separate the individual islands
which form the respective groups; but all these waters
abound with shoals and minor islets, which indicate the
existence of a common base, and show that the processes
by which they will hereafter be united above the level of
the sea, are in constant operation.
The structure and progress of these islands towards a
state of fitness for the habitation of man, has been thus
described. At a vast but unknown depth, below the
surface of the sea, the insects attach themselves to the
upper points and ridges of rocks, which form the bottom
of the ocean, and many of which, in the Pacific ocean,
are supposed to be of volcanic origin. Upon these foun.
dations, the little architects labour, building up by mean?
of the secretion before described, pile upon pile of their
rocky habitations, until at length the work rises above
the sea, and is continued to such a height, as to leave it
almost dry at low water, when the insect leaves offbuild-
ing upon that part. A solid rocky base being thus formed,
sea-shells, fragments of coral, and sea-sand, thrown up by
each returning tide, and broken and mixed together, by
the action of the waves, become in time converted into
a sort of stone, and thus raise up the surface higher and
higher. The heat of the sun so penetrates this mass of
stone, that it, brakes off into flakes, and these flakes are
again raised one upon another by the vvaves, at high
water. The ever active surf continues to throw up the
shells of marine animals, arid other materials, which fill
up the crevices between the stones, and the sand upon
the surface being now undisturbed, ofiers to the seeds of
trees and plants cast upon it by the waves, a soil upon
which they rapidly grow, and over-shadow the dazzling
whiteness of the new formed lands. Trunks of trees,
washed into the sea by the rivers from other countries
and islands, find here a resting place, and with these
come some small animals, chiefly of the lizard and insect
tribes. Even before the trees form a wood, the sea-birds
nestle among them, and soon the stray land-bird takes
refuge in the bushes. At a latter period, man appears,
builds his hut upon the fruitful soil formed by the cor-
ruption of the vegetation, and calls himself lord and pro-
prietor of this new creation.
These islands vary in extent, as well as in the degree
of finish to which they have arrived. Of thirty-two ex-
amined by captain Beechey, the largest was thirty miles
in diameter, and the smallest somewhat less than a mile-
They were of various shapes, and all formed of living
coral, except one, called Henderson's island, which was
partially surrounded by it ; and they all appeared to be
increasing in size by the active operations of the zoo-
phytes, which are gradually extending, and building up
572
HISTORY OF ZOOPHYTES.
whole surface, which is very rugged and irre-
gular, covered with a mucous fluid, and al-
most in every part studded with little jelly-
like drops, which, when closely examined,
will be found to be no other than reptiles of
the polypus kind. These have their motions,
their arms, their appetites, exactly resembling
those described in the last chapter ; but they
soon expire when taken out of the sea, and
our curiosity is at once stopped in its career,
by the animals ceasing to give any mark of
their industry : recourse, therefore, has been
had to other expedients, in order to determine
the nature of the inhabitant, as well as the ha-
bitation.
If a coraline plant be strictly observed,
while still growing in the sea, and the animals
upon its surface be not disturbed, either by the
agitation of the waters, or the touch of the ob-
server, the little polypi will then be seen in in-
finite numbers, each issuing from its cell, and
in some kinds the head covered with a little
shell, resembling an umbrella, the arms spread
abroad, in order to seize its prey, while the
above the level of the sea the?e parts which are at pre-
sent below the water. Twenty-nine of the number had
lagoons, (or morasses) in the centres, within which, it
has been observed, the smaller species of coral seek a
quiet abode, and labour silently and slowly, in throwing
up banks, which, in process of time, unite with islets
that surround them, and at length fill up the lagoon, so
that >vhat was at first a ring of little islands, becomes one
connected mass of land. All these islands are situated
within the action of the trade wind, except one (Oeno,)
which is on the verge of it, and follow one general rule
in having their windward side higher, and more pro-
tected than the other, and not (infrequently, well wooded,
while the other is only a half drowned reef, or wholly
under water. At Gambier and Matilda islands this in-
equality is very conspicuous j the weather-side of both
being wooded, and, of the former, inhabited, while the
other sides were twenty or thirty feet under water, where
they might be perceived equally narrow and well defined.
One of these islands (Maiden island,) presented the sin-
gular appearance of perpendicular coral cliffs, elevated
eighty i'eet above the level of the sea; these were of
dead coral, but the outside of the island was surrounded
with a belt of living coral, sloping from the dill's, to
from three to twenty-five fathoms under water, after
which it descends abruptly to a depth where a 200-fa-
thom line does not reach the bottom. The surface of
this island is flat ; and it is not easy to account for its
present elevation, unless by an earthquake or sub-marine
volcanic explosion.
Gambier Group consists of five large islands and seve-
ral smaller ones, the whole (as well as the five separate
islands,) being enclosed in a reef of coral, forming an
irregular diamond-shaped space. The older islands are
volcanic, and the largest rises in two peak?, 1248 feet
above the level of the sea. The outer belt of coral des-
cends abruptly outside to an unfathomable depth, but
slopes inward by a decreasing declination, to about 120
or 150 fathoms below the surface; and within this en-
closure, a number of low islands are already formed, and
others are in progress, rendering it almost certain that,
in process of time, the whole space will become one
island, each of the original islands being also inclosed with
its own reef. These are inhabited by a race of men with
fine Asiatic countenances, wearing mustachios and
hinder part still remains attached to its habita-
tion, from whence it never wholly removes.
By this time it is perceived, that the number
of inhabitants is infinitely greater than was at
first suspected ; and that they are all assidu-
ously employed in the same pursuits, and that
they issue from their respective cells, and re-
tire into them at pleasure. Still, however,
there are no proofs that those large branches
which they inhabit, are entirely the construc-
tion of such feeble and minute animals. But
chemistry will be found to lend a clue to ex-
tricate us from our doubts in this particular.
Like the shells which are formed by snails,
mussels, and oysters, these coraline substan-
ces effervesce with acids : and may therefore
well be supposed to partake of the same ani-
mal nature. But Mr Ellis went still farther,
and examined their operations, just as they
were beginning. Observing an oyster-bed
which had been for some time neglected, he
there perceived the first rudiments of a coral-
ine plantation, and tufts of various kinds shoot-
ing from different parts of this favourable soil.
beards, and they appeared to be more civilized than those
of many other islands. Specimens of spars, crystals, alu-
mine, jasper, and chalcedony, have been procured on
these islands by the naturalists who accompanied captain
Beechey. They are covered with a deep soil, and well
wooded with trees and evergreens of different kinds.
It is a fact worthy of remark, that on all these island1?,
a plentiful supply of fresh and sweet water may be ob-
tained, by digging three or four feet into the coral; ai:d
that even within one yard of high water mark, such a
supply is to be found. This is an important considera-
tion to the navigators of those seas, where such a resource
is so valuable, on account of the extreme heat to which
they are exposed ; and it shows also the powerful proper-
ties of the coral, in divesting the sea-water of its saline
particles. These properties, which are probably chemi-
cal, and not merely the effect of filtration, have never
been examined or experimented upon, but they furnish a
subject of consideration for the naturalist, and the man of
science.
Of the rapidity with which the coral grows, we are not
in possessioii of sufficient information, on which to form
a correct judgment. Matilda, or Osnaburg island, is
supposed to have been only a reef of rocks, when the Ma-
tilda was wrecked there, in 1792; it is now an island,
fourteen miles in length, and covered on one side with
tall trees, and the lagcou in the centre is dotted with col-
umns. The coral, therefore, has probably made a rapid
growth since 1792, although Captain Beechey found two
anchors of a ton weight each, and a kedge anchor, which
he supposes belonged to the Matilda, thrown upon the
sunken reef of live coral, and around these anchors, the
coral had made no progress in growing, while some large
shell-fish, adhering to the same rock, were so overgrown
with coral, as to have only space enough left to open
about an inch. It is probable, however, that the oxide
proceeding from the anchors may have been prejudicial,
as far as its efi'ects extended, to the coral insect, and thus
have prevented its growth. All navigators, who have
visited these seas, state that no charts or maps are of any
service after a few years, owing to the number of fresh
rocks and reefs which are continually rising to the sur-
face ; and it is perfectly accordant w itli the instincts of
animals, to continue working without intermission, until
their labours are consummated or their lives are extinot.
THE LITHOPHYTES AND SPONGES.
573
It \vas upon these he tried his principal expe-
riment. He took out the oysters which were
thus furnished with coralines, and placed them
in a large wooden vessel, covering them with
sea-water. In about an hour, he perceived
the animals, which before had been contracted
by handling, and had shown no signs of life,
expanding themselves in every direction, and
appearing employed in their own natural man-
ner. Perceiving them, therefore, in this state,
his next aim was to preserve them thus ex-
panded, so as to be permanent objects of curi-
osity. For this purpose, he poured, by slow
degrees, an equal quantity of boiling water into
the vessel of sea-water in which they were
immersed. He then separated each polypus
with pincers from its shell, and plunged each
separately into small crystal vases, filled with
spirit of wine mixed with water. By this
means the animal was preserved entire, with-
out having time to contract itself, and he thus
perceived a variety of kinds, almost equal to
that variety of productions which these little
animals are seen to form. He has been thus
able to perceive and describe fifty different
kinds, each of which is seen to possess its own
peculiar mode of construction, and to form a
coraline that none of the rest can imitate. It
is true, indeed, that on every coraline sub-
stance there are a number of polypi found, no
way resembling those which are the erecters
of the building : these may be called a vaga-
bond race of reptiles, that are only intruders upon
the labours of others, and that take possession
of habitations which they have neither art nor
power to build for themselves. But, in general,
the same difference that subsists between the
honeycomb of the bee, and the paper-like
cells of the wasp, subsists between the differ-
ent habitations of the coral-making polypi.
With regard to the various forms of these
substances, they have obtained different names
from the nature of the animal that produced
them, or the likeness they bear to some well-
known object, such as corallines, fungi-madre-
pores, sponges, astroites, and keratophytes.
Though these differ extremely in their out-
ward appearances, yet they are all formed in
the same manner by reptiles of various kinds
and nature. When examined chemically,
they all discover the marks of animal forma-
tion ; the corals, as was said, dissolve in
acids, the sponges burn with anjodour strongly
resembling that of burnt horn. We are left
somewhat at a loss with regard to the precise
manner in which this multitude of cells, which
at last assume the appearance of a plant or
flower, are formed.
If we may be led in this subject by analogy,
it is most probable, that the substance of coral
is produced in the same manner that the shell
of the snail grows round it : these little reptiles
are each possessed of a slimy matter, which
covers its body, and this hardening, as in the
snail, becomes a habitation exactly fitted to
the body of the animal that is to reside in it ;
several of these habitations being joined to-
gether, form at length a considerable mass ;
and as most animals are productive in propor-
tion to their minuteness, so these multiplying
in a surprising degree, at length form those
extensive forests that cover the bottom of the
deep.
Thus all nature seems replete with life ;
almost every plant on land has its surface
covered with millions of these minute creatures,
of whose existence we are certain, but of whose
uses we are entirely ignorant ; while numbers
of what seem plants at sea, are not only the
receptacles of insects, but also entirely of in-
sect formation. This might have led some
late philosophers into an opinion, that all na-
ture was animated ; that every, even the most
inert, mass of matter was endued with life and
sensation, but wanted organs to make those
sensations perceptible to the observer : those
opinions, taken up at random, are difficultly
maintained, and as difficultly refuted; like
combatants that meet in the dark, each party
may deal a thousand blows without ever
reaching the adversary. Those, perhaps, are
wiser who view nature as she offers; who,
without searching too deeply into the recesses
into which she ultimately hides, are contented
to take her as she presents herself; and stor-
ing their minds with effects rather than with
causes, instead of the embarrassments of sys-
tems, about which few agree, are contented
with the history of appearances, concerning
which all mankind have but one opinion.
SUPPLEMENT
ON
CRUSTACEA AND MOLLUSCA,
NATURALISTS have experienced much difficulty
in finding an appropriate place for Crustacea.
In the present volume, they will be found
described along with Mollusca, in book iv. of
Goldsmith's history of Fishes, p. 326, et seq.
To Goldsmith's description we have added
most copious notes ; and little more will be
required here than to give the scientific ar-
rangement of the animals, as figured in the
illustrative plates.
The Crustacea (which include crabs, lobsters,
prawns, shrimps, &c.) rank among those ani-
mals which are destitute of a back bone ; and
are comprehended in the division termed
Articulata, or animals whose members or limbs
consist of segments or rings, articulated into
each other, to the inside of which their mus-
cles are attached. -Chemists have found the
shells of crustaceous animals to consist of
phosphate of lime in combination with animal
matter, while those of the testaceous mollusca
are composed of lime along with the gelatin-
ous substance. But a still more obvious dis-
tinction exists between these animals ; the
shells of oysters and other testaceous animals
generally consist of one or two pieces, enve-
loping the whole animal, (except in the Cirri-
pedes,seenoteon Conchology, p. 350-358) and
adheres permanently during life: while the
coverings of the Crustacea are cast and renewed
periodically, and invest the animals as it were
in a coat of mail.
Linnaeus placed Crustacea between the fishes
and mollusca, united them to his class Insecta.
In the earlier writings of Cuvier and Latreille,
they adopted the views of Linnaeus, while
Lamarck followed the ideas of Brisson, who
formed them into a separate class, as well as
spiders ; giving the former the name Crustacea
and the latter Arachnoides. This improve-
ment has been generally acknowledged, and
followed by subsequent writers on Natural
History.
Crustaceous animals present remarkable
physiological distinctions. They respire by
means of branchiae, or by branchial plates,
usually attached to their feet or to their jaws ;
they have from five to seven pairs of feet; their
head is frequently not distinct from the trunk,
provided with from two to four jointed setace-
ous antennae ; and two compound movable
eyes seated on peduncles, which are some-
times movable, and at others fixed ; they have
a distinct heart, and a regular circulating
system : their organs of reproduction are placed
either in the feet or tail.
In those genera where the head is not sep-
arated from the trunk, the shield or covering
envelopes the whole thorax. In other genera
the head is distinct from the body, which is
divided into seven segments, to the lower sides
of which the feet are attached ; these for the
most part have a tail, consisting of many seg
ments. The limbs vary from ten to fourteen,
each having six articulations. The two an-
terior limbs, and sometimes even three on each
side, are provided with forceos ; at other times
they are terminated by simple hooks, and in
many instances by appendages which fit them
for swimming.
The branchias in crustaceous animals, un-
like those of fishes, are external, although fre-
quently concealed, and placed at the sides of
the feet, limbs, or under the tail ; they are,
however, more frequently at the sides of the
feet ; and consist either of fikmentary tufts,
or pyramidal lamina?.
The mouth has usually two mandibles, a
labium, or lip below, and from three to five
pairs of jaws. The first, or first three pairs
of these, have been termed feet-Jaws. These
small leg-shaped appendages are not fitted
57G
SUPPLEMENT.
for locomotion, but, being situated near the
mouth, assist in the operation of feeding.
The nervous system consists of a ganglion
or brain situated above and before the intes-
tinal canal, with a continuous elongated double
chord, having ganglions placed on the lower
surface of the body, extending, in some in-
stances, its whole length ; while in others, it
consists of a central medullary circle, with
radiated elongations.
Many of the crustaceous animals have an
acute faculty of sight ; a number of them also
possess the senses of smell and taste ; but from
their shelly envelope their sense of feeling
must be very blunt : while their touch must
be very sensible, from the number of tentacula
possessed by many of them.
Lamarck divides the Crustacea into five or-
ders.
ORDER I.— DECAPODA.
The head is not distinct from the trunk; branchiae
formed like leaflets, close to the base of the four feet-
jaws, and hidden under the sides of the shell.
SECTION I.— BRACHYURA.
Branchiae, seven on each side, moving on a common
axis; post-abdornen, bent underneath; generally re-
ceived into a cavity beneath the prasi abdomen; without
a fin at the termination.
FAMILY I. — QUADRILATERA.
Thorax nearly square, frequently heart-shaped ; an-
terior angles expanded; posterior extremity transverse-
ly truncated; front protruded, more or less inclined;
none of the feet terminated by a fin. The genera of
this family are Octypoda, Gelasimus, Myctris, Pinno-
therel, Gecarcinus, Plagusia, Grapsus, Gonoplax, Thes-
phusa, and Eriphia. T/ielphusafluviatilis, pi. 23, fig. 1.
FAMILY II. — ARCUATA.
The shell anteriorly arched, to nearly the centre of
the sides ; posteriorly narrowed and truncated. The
genera are, Pilumnus, Cancer, Pirimela, Atelecyclus,
Podophthalmus, Ltipa, Portunus, Thia, and Portunus
corrugutus, pi. 23. f. 2.
FAMILY III.— ORBICULATA.
Orbicular, narrowed before, usually with two furrows ;
exterior feet-jaws with their third joint triangular. The
genera are, Matuta, Orithyia, Corystes, Leucosia, and
Hepatus. Leucosia Urania, pi. 23, f. 3.
FAMILY IV.— CRYPTOPODA.
Nearly triangular; vaulted, and dilated at the pos-
terior angles, for the feet in repose : with large, crested,
and compressed forceps. The genera are, CEthra and
Calappa tuLerculata, pi. 23, f. 4.
FAMILY V.— TRIGONA.
Subovoid or triangular ; anterior extremity compressed
and pointed; claws in the males frequently longer than
in the females. The genera are, Parthenope, Eury-
nome, Pisa, Maia,Stenopus,Hyas,Inachus, Macropodia,
Leptopodia, Pactolus, and Lithodes. Pisa tetraodon.
pi. 23, f. 5.
FAMILY VI. — NOTOPODA.
Having two or four posterior feet, inserted on the
buck, or somewhat above the line of the rest. The
genera are, Homola, Ranina, Dromia, and Dorippe no
dulusa, pi. 23, f. 6.
SECTION II.— MACROURA.
Bodies longer than in former section; post-abdomen
carinated above ; antennae terminated by filaments.
FAMILY I. — HIPPIDES.
Last abdominal segment lengthened, and foliaceous ;
two anterior feet, tapering; frequently with a monodae-
tylous hand; sometimes with a claw; the other six feet
with their last joint fin-shaped. The genera are, Al-
bunea, Hippa, and Remipes testudinarius, pi. 23, f. 7.
FAMILY II.— PAGURII.
Shell but slightly crustaceous ; two anterior feet di-
dactyle; next four pairs with long acute tarsi; last four
pairs smaller, terminating with a forceps; sometimes
with a pointed hook. The genera are, Birgus, and Pa-
gurus laticauda, pi. 23, f. 8.
FAMILY III. — PALINURINI.
Terminated by a fan-shaped post-abdomen, produced
by the lateral appendages of the last and preceding
segments. There is but one genus: Pulinurus locusta,
pi. 23, f. 9.
FAMILY IV. — SYLLARIDES.
Having the peduncle formed like a depressed crest.
The genera are, Thenus and Scyllarus.
FAMILY V.— GALATHIN^;.
Feet all alike, but the two anterior, which are didac-
tyle. The genera are, Eryon, Magalopa, Galathea.
Porcellana platt/cMes, pi. 23, f. 10.
FAMILY VI.— ASTACIN.E.
Four or six of the anterior feet didactyle; terminating
abdominal exterior leaflets, entire in some, and in others
divided by a suture. The genera are, Thalassina, Gebia,
Axius, Callianassa, Nephrops, and Astacus Marinus, pi.
23, f. 11.
FAMILY VII. — CARTDES.
Intermediate antennae placed above the lateral ones,
protruding with two or three filamentary terminations,
The genera are, Penseus, Stenopus, Alpheus, Hippolyte.
Autonomea, Gnathophyllum, Hymenocera, Nika,
Athanas, Atya, Egeon, Crangon, Pandalus, Pasiphaea,
and Palcemon Serratus, pi. 23, f. 12.
FAMILY VIII.— SCHIZOPODA.
Feet slender, filiform, fitted for swimming only; one
of them hand-shaped, but having either a long, lateral
appendage, or deeply cleft, Or multifid at their extrem-
ity. The genera are, Mysis, Zoea, and Nebalia Herbstii.
pi. 23, f. 13.
ORDER II.— STOMAPODA.
The branchiae suspended, in the form of tufts, on the
lower appendages of the post-abdomen ; head, distinct
from the trunk, large, and separated into two parts;
shell, membranaceous; intermediate antennae with two
or three filaments at their terminations ; six posterioi
feet filiform; body tenninated by a foliaceous fin.
FAMILY I. — UNIPELTATA.
With an elongated and narrow body ; eyes and inter-
mediate antennae placed on an anterior elongation of
the thorax; exterior feet-jaws, and four anterior limbs,
terminated by a monodactyle forceps; the other six
limbs fitted for swimming, with the last joint brush -
shaped; lateral antennas having a scale at the base; in-
termediate ones trifilamentary. The genera are, Squilla.
Erichthus, and Alima Hyalina, pi. 23, f. 14.
CRUSTACEA.
577
FAMILY II. — BIPELTATA.
Body depressed, membranous, and thin; thorax with
twin shields; anterior, very large, oval; posterior one
supporting the feet -jaws, and five pairs of transverse
and angular feet ; intermediate antennae with two fila-
ments. It has but one genus, Phyllosoma.
ORDER III.— LuEMODIPODA.
Head not distinct from the trunk; the second and
third segments, having four vesicular bodies under
them; antennae four, multi-articulate; mandibles desti-
tute of palpi ; post-abdomen short.
FAMILY I. — OVALIA.
An oval body with transverse segments ; limbs strong,
of medium length; those of the second and third seg-
ments imperfect, with a long, cylindrical, blunt ter-
mination, each provided with an elongated vesicle at
the base. It has but one genus. Cyamus ceti, pi. 23,
f. 15.
FAMILY H.-«-FILIFORMIA.
With an elongated, linear body, and narrow longi-
tudinal segments; limbs long and slender; last portion
of the upper antennae jointed. The genera are, Caprella,
Proto, and Leptomera.
ORDER IV.— AMPHIPODA.
Head separate from the segment, to which the an-
terior feet-jaws are attached; post-abdomen provided
with branchial and swimming appendages beneath.
They are narrow, lengthened, and multi-articulate,
transversely striated, or branched; mandibles provided
with palpi; some of the feet having vesicles.
FAMILY I.— GAMMARIN^E.
Body posteriorly furnished with cylindrical or conical
Etyliform appendages, or with none in some genera.
The genera are Cerapus, Melita, Amphithoe, Dexamine,
Gammarus, Pherusa, Orchestia, Talirus, Atylus, Coro-
phium, Podocerus, Jassa, Phronima, and Leticot/toe ar-
tlculosa, pi. 23, f. 16.
FAMILY II.— UROPTERA.
Lateral appendages at the posterior extremity of the
body, in the form of leaflets, and acting as fins. The
genera are Hyperia and Phrosine.
FAMILY III.— DECEMPEDES.
Animals provided with ten feet only. The genera
are Typhis, Anceus, and Praniza.
FAMILY IV.— HETEROPA.
AVith fourteen feet, in most instances all fitted for
swimming on the four last only. The genera are, lone,
and Apseude talpas, pi. 23, f. 1 7.
ORDER V.— ISOPODA.
Having a distinct head; mandibles devoid of palpi;
three pairs of jaws, the lower ones appearing like two
small feet united at their base, or a lip having two palpi ;
body somewhat depressed, divided into from three to
seven segments; feet ten or fourteen; tail varying from
one to nine segments, with branchials; destitute of
shell; eyes granulated; antennas generally four.
SECTION I.— AQUATICA.
Antennae four, anterior with three or four joints;
sometimes without antennae ; lower appendages of post-
abdomen usually vesicular, having no openings for the
entrance of air.
FAMILY I. — EPICAIUDES.
Body much depressed above, and concave below, hav-
ing neither eyes, antennae, mandibles, nor caudal fin.
But one genus, Bopyrus.
FAMILY II. — CYMOTHOADES.
Eyes and antennae four, sometimes indistinct ; mandi-
bles horny; feet fitted for walking and prehension; pos-
terior extremity with a fin on each side: post abdomen
with four or six segments. The genera are, Cymothoe,
Cirolana, Eurydice, Nelocira, Limnoria, Scrolls, and
JEga. Marginata, pi. 23, f. 18.
FAMILY III. — SPEUEROMIDES.
Post- abdomen with three segments, the last with two
leaflets. The genera are, Zuzara, Sphseroma, Campe-
copea, Naesa, Dynamene, Cymodocea, and Anthura gra-
cilis, pi. 23, f. 19.
FAMILY IV. — ASELLOTA.
Last abdominal segment devoid of swimming afpen-
dages. The genera are, Asellus, Janira, and Jiera.
FAMILY V.— IDOTEIDES.
Branchial appendages situated under the post-abdo-
men, covered by the valves of the last segment; four
antennae in a transverse line, lateral ones with a fila-
mentous termination: post- abdomen of three segments.
The genera are, Idotea, and Stenosoma lineare, pi. 23,
f. 20.
SECTION II.— TERRESTRIA.
The two intermediate antennae hardly visible, one or
two jointed; post-abdomen of six segments; posterior
margin of the last with two or four cleft styles.
FAMILY VI.— ONISCIDES.
Consisting of the true Oniscae. The genera are, Ligia,
Philoscia, Qniscus, Porcellio, and Armadillo Vulyaris,
pi. 23, f. 21.
ORDER VI.— LOPHYROPODA.
Head not distinct from the trunk; eye, or eyes, com-
pound and sessile; shell sometimes of two pieces, usually
large; no palpi on the mandibles; jaws destitute of
branchiae ; feet variable in number, fitted for swimming,
simple, or branched, or formed of hairy laminae, organs
of respiration supposed to be situated in them.
FAMILY I. — UNIVALVIA.
Shell in one piece, the most part of the body being
uncovered. Cyclops quadricornis, pi. 23. f. 22.
FAMILY II. — OSTRACODA.
Shell either folded in two, or in the form of two valves
united by a hinge, and enveloping the body. The genera
are Polyphemus, Daphnia, Lynceus, Ceytherina, and
Cypris ornata, pi. 23, f. 23.
ORDER VII.— PHYLLOPODA.
Head not distinct from the trunk; eyes sessile, smooth,
and approximate; antennae very short; shield crusta-
ceous, free behind; mandibles two; destitute of palpi;
the first pair of feet oar-shaped, the other sixty set in
pairs, and fitted for swimming.
FAMILY I. — ASPIDIPHORA.
Eyes not placed on peduncles. The genera are, Lim-
nadia and Apus.
FAMILY II.— CERATOPHTHALMA.
Having no shell, and the eyes seated on peduncles.
The genera are, Artemia and Branchipus staynahs, pi.
23, f. 24.
4 D
573
SUPPLEMENT.
ORDER VIII.— XYPHOSURA.
Body in two parts; without a siphon; base of the
feet, except the last, spinous, which serve as jaws; with
a hard twin shell covering the whole body, haying
longitudinal furrows above; termination of the body
sabre-shaped. This order consists of but one species,
Liinulus Polyphemus.
ORDER IX.— SIPHONOSTOMA.
FAMILY I. — CALIGIDES.
Body somewhat oval, with a distinct shell. The
genera are Ar</uhis, Caligus, Cecrops, and Antfiosoma
Smilhii, pi. 23, f. 25.
FAMILY II. — LERN^IFORMES.
Destitute of shell; body nearly cylindrical, jointed,
and worm-shaped. Thisfamily consists but of one species,
Dichelesthium Sturionis. Many fossil species hare been
found, which naturalists refer to existing genera.
ANATOMY OF A PLAGUSIA. — Order I. Family I. PI.
30, f. 3 1 , head : a , a, eyes ; f. 32, an eye seated on its pedi-
cle; f. 35, tail; f. 29 and 34, teeth; f. 38 and 30, antennas;
f. 27, post abdomen; f. 26, internal structure of thorax;
f. 33, internal structure of abdomen.
MOLLUSCOUS ANIMALS.
MOLLUSCOUS ANIMALS, like Crustacea, are com-
prehended in the second great division of the
animal kingdom — animals without a back-
bone. They are destitute of an articulated
skeleton or vertebral column. The nervous
system is not developed in the form of a spi-
nal cord, but simply into a certain number of
medulary masses situated in different points
of the body, the principal of which is called
the brain, and is placed transversely on the
oesophagus, and envelopes it with a nervous
collar. The organs of sensation and motion
have not the same uniformity in point of num-
ber and position as in the vertebrate animals,
and a greater aberration is observable in the
position of the heart and organs of respiration,
as well as in the structure of the latter. Some
species are formed for breathing elastic air,
and others fresh or salt water. Their organs
of locomotion, and others, which are external,
are generally symmetrically arranged on the
two sides of an axis.
The mollusca have a double circulation,
their pulmonary system invariably describing
a distinct circle. The function of breathing
is always assisted by, at least, one ventrical,
situated between the pulmonary veins and the
arteries of the body and not, as in fishes, be-
tween the veins of the body and pulmonary
arteries. It is then an aortic ventrical. It
is only the cephalopoda1 that are provided
with a pulmonary ventrical, which is subdi-
vided. The aortic ventrical is likewise divided
in some genera, as in the area2 and lingu-
li.3 In some other bivalves, the auricle only
1 See note on Conchology, in the present volume,
Class I., Order II., p. 354.
8 Ib. Class II., Order II., p. 355.
8 Ib. Older I., p. 355.
is divided. When more than one ventrical
exists, they do not consist of a single mass,
as in warm-blooded animals, but are remote
from each other.
The blood in molluscous animals is white,
or bluish- white, and seems to contain a smaller
proportion of fibrin than that of vertebrate
animals. Cuvier supposes that the veins per-
form the functions of absorbent vessels.
The muscles in this class are attached to
their skin by various points, forming, in those
places, tissues which possess more or less den-
sitv. Their motions consist of different con-
tractions, varying in their direction, produc-
ing inflections and prolongations, together
with relaxations of their several parts, by
means of which they creep, swim, and seize
upon such objects as the formation of these
parts are adapted to. They are, however, in-
capable of rapid progress, their limbs not being
supported by articulated and solid levers.
Most of the mollusca are possessed of great
irritability, frequently continuing after they
are cut asunder. Their skin is naked, ex-
tremely sensible, and usually covered with a
mucous substance, which is secreted from its
pores. No organ of smell has yet been de-
tected in them, although they appear to pos-
sess that sense. Cuvier thinks it probable
that the whole skin may be susceptible of dis-
tinguishing odours. All the cephala.brachio-
poda, cirripeda, and part of the gasteropoda,
and pteropoda are destitute of eyes, while ths
cephalopoda enjoy them in as complicated a
degree as the warm-blooded animals. The
eyes are situated sometimes at the base, some-
times at the middle, and frequently at the ex-
tremity of the tentacula. The cephalopoda
are the only ones in which have been disco-
vered the organ of hearing, and where the
brain is enveloped in a kind of case, of a car-
tilaginous consistence.
Almost all molluscous animals have a pe-
culiar development of the skin, which covers
their body, like a mantle, and has received
that appellation. This process, however, is
sometimes narrowed into a simple disk, or is
tubiform, or hollowed into a sac, and in some
cases it is divided and extended in the shape of
fins. There are two distinct kinds of mollus-
cous animals, namely, cephalous, or such as
are provided with a head, and acephalous, or
destitute of a head. These are again distin-
guished by such as are naked mollusca and
testaceous mollusca, or with a shelly envelop.
The naked mollusca have a membranous or
fleshy mantle ; which, however, has frequently
one or more hard laminae in its texture. These
are increased in dimensions and thickness, by
a deposit of earthy and animal matter com-
bined ; the new layers overlapping the old
ones. When this substance remains concealed
MOLLUSCOUS AN1MAL3.
579
within the tissue of the mantle, the animals
are called naked mollusca. The common
field-snail, (Limax agrestis, pi. 24, f. 5.) and
the black-snail, (L. ater, pi. 27, f. 25.) are
examples of animals of this kind. More fre-
quently however, this shelly matter becomes
so greatly developed that the animal, in a
state of repose, can contract itself within it ;
it is then termed a shell, or a testaceous ani-
mal, which is exemplified by the common
garden snail-shell. (Helix aspersa, pi. 24, f.
1 5.) The epidermis which covers these ani-
mals, is very thin and sometimes dessicated,
or of a woolly texture-
The variety of forms, surface, colour, bril-
liancy, and substance isalinost infinite. They
are nearly all calcareous, although some are
simply of a horny consistence ; but in both
cases they consist of matter deposited in lay-
ers, or exuded from the skin under the epider-
mis, in the same manner as the hardened
mucous covering, nails, hairs, horns, scales,
and even teeth. The shelly tissue differs ac-
cording as its transudation is deposited, either
in parallel laminae, or in close set vertical fila-
ments.
Every mode of mastication and deglutition
is illustrated in the mollusca; for we find their
stomachs simple, complicated, and frequently
provided with a peculiar armature ; the ali-
mentary canal is variously prolonged. Most
species have salivary glands, and always a
liver, but neither pancreas nor mesentery.
Several have peculiar secretions.
Several of the mollusca are bisexual. Some
produce their young alive, while others are
oviparous. The eggs in some are covered by
a shelly envelop, and others only by a simple
viscosity.
The turbinated mollusca appear to be ani-
mals in a slight state of development; they
possess but little industry, and are only pre-
served by their great fecundity, and extreme
tenacity of life. They are all oviparous; their
reproduction consequently dependingon sexual
impregnation.
Some genera of mollusca inhabit the sea
and fresh waters, while others are entirely
terrestrial: and a few species are amphibious,
as may be exemplified in the succinea, amphi-
bia, pi. 3\,f. 75.
They feed on all substances, both animal
and vegetable; some will eat these even in a
putrid state, while others will only consume
them fresh.
The uses of this numerous class are ex-
tremely varied. Many of them are taken as
food by man, and others supply nutritious prey
for birds and fishes. Their shelly coverings
are converted into many useful articles of com-
merce ; and from the veins of certain species
of shells called purpura, is extracted the beau-
tiful dye of the ancients called Tyrian purple.
The P. lapillus, which is common on the Bri-
tish shores, adhering to stones, yields this dye ;
it is represented in pi. 24, f. 79. For a des-
cription and figures of the different parts of
testaceous mollusca, see the note on Concho-
logy, in this volume, p. 350 — 358.
CLASS I.
CEPHALOUS MOLLUSCA, OK SOFT ANIMALS WITH A HEAD,
Lamarck divides the turbinated testaceous mollusca
into five orders, depending upon the complication of
their internal organization. These are first: —
ORDER I.— HETEROPODA.
Destitute of arms arranged around the head; unpro-
vided with a foot under the belly or throat for locomo-
tion, but furnished with one or more irregularly set
fins.
The animals of this order are distinguished from all
the other mollusca by the form of their foot, which, in
place of a horizontal disk, is compressed into a circular
lamina, and is used as a fin, and on the edge of which,
in several species, is a dilatation forming a hollow cone,
representing the disk of the other orders. Their bran-
chiae are situated on the posterior part of the back, and
composed of plumiform lobes, directed forward; imme-
diately behind these are the heart, a small liver, with
part of the viscera and internal organs of generation.
Their bodies are of a gelatinous, transparent substance,
lined with a muscular layer, elongated, and terminated
by a compressed tail, in most species. There is a mus-
cular mass belonging to the mouth, and the tongue is
provided with little hooks; the oesophagus is very long;
the stomach thin; on the right side of the visceral mass
are two prominent tubes affording a passage for the
faeces, ova, &c. They generally swim on their back,
with the foot upwards. They possess the property of
distending their body by filling it with water, in a way
which is not yet properly understood. Carnaria Gym-
bium, pi. 31, f. 1.
ORDER II.— CEPHALOPODA.
Lower part of the body enveloped in a bag-shaped
mantle, with the head issuing from the sac, and having
inarticulated arms, to which are attached cups, sur-
rounding the mouth of the animal, which is furnished
with two horny mandibles. The mantle unites under
the body; in several species the sides are extended into
fleshy fins: head projecting from the sac, is provided
with two large eyes, and crowned with longer or shorter
fleshy arms or feet, capable of motion in all directions,
their surface provided with cup-shaped suckers, by
means of which they can adhere firmly to other bodies;
these feet are used for prehension, natation, and walk-
ing. They swim with the head behind, and crawl in
all directions, with the head under the body. At the
opening of the sac in front of the neck, is placed a fleshy
funnel as a passage to the excretions. See the note on
Conchology, p. 350 — 358.
Division I. — CepJtalopoda Sepiaria.
Loligo vulyaris. Medium cuttle-fish, pi. 27, f. 6.
Division II. — Cephalopoda Monotlialama.
Shell unilocular, entirely external, and enveloping
the animal. Arqonauta Argo. Paper Nautilus, pi.
31, f. 2. and pi. 24, f. 1.
Division III. — Cephalopoda Polylhalama.
FAMILY i. — AMMONACEA.
Septa sinuous, lobed and cut at the margin, meeting
together upon the inner wall of the shell, and articu-
lated by jagged sutures. Shell multilocular, partly or
580
SUPPLEMENT.
entirely internal, and inserted in the posterior part of
the body.
All the species of this division are fossil. See the
note on Organic Remains, vol. i. p. 22.
FAMILY n. — NAUTILACEA.
Shell disciform, with a central spine, and short cells,
w Inch do not extend from the centre of the circumfer-
ence.
Nautilus Pompilius, pi. 31, f. 3, and pi. 24, f. 63.
The other genera are fossil. See the note on Organic
Remains.
FAMILY in. — RADIOLACEA.
All the genera are fossil. See the Note on Organic
Remains, vol. i. p. 22 — 27.
FAMILY iv. — SPHERULACEA.
Fossil, except one species found near Corsica, which
is so minute that the animal has not been ascertained.
See as above.
FAMILY v. — GRISTACEA.
All the species are fossil. See as above.
FAMILY vi. — LITUOLACEA.
Shell partially spiral; the last volution continued in a
straight line. Spirula Peronii, pi. 31, f. 4. Animal a
cephalopode, pi. 24, f. 2. The body or that part which
inhabits the shell, a.
FAMILY VH. — ORTHOCERATA.
Animals of the genera unknown. See the Note on
Conchology, p. 350 — 358.
ORDER III.— TRACHELIPODA.
Body usually spirally convoluted, and separated from
the foot, which is free, flat, and attached to the neck
at its base for the purpose of locomotion; the body
always enveloped by a spiral shell.
SECTION I.— ZOOPHAGOUS TRACHELIPODA.
FAMILY i. — INVOLUTA,
Shell destitute of a canal, but with the base of its
aperture notched or effuse, and its volutions broad, com-
pressed, and rolled up in such a manner, that the last
nearly covers all the others. Conus generalis, pi. 24. f. 3.
Cyprtea Europea, pi. 24. f. 8. Buccinum undattim, pi. 24,
f. 19, 20. The extracted animal; a a, the foot; b, the
head; c, a kind of platform raised above the thoracic
cavity, on which the point of the boring trunk rests.
This organ is represented at f. 31, 32, and 33. d, d, d,
the cavity of the thorax; e, the mantle; f, the rectum;
<7, the stomach ; A, the heart, thrown below, and to the
right side of its natural situation, to allow the opening
of the tube to be seen; i, the respiratory trunk; k, the
organs of the muscles of the boring trunk ; /, the course
of the tube by which the foot is supplied with water;
TO, its termination; f. 34, magnified representation of the
stomach and alimentary tubes; a, the throat; b, the
outer coating; c, the alimentary canal; d, the opening
from the stomach.
FAMILY n. — COLUMELLARIA.
No canal at the base of the aperture, but asubdorsal
notch more or less apparent, and a fold upon thecolu-
mella. Valuta scapha, pi. 31,f. 14. The animal has
a large thick and fleshy foot, and the head is provided
with a vail, from the sides of which issue the tcntacula:
the proboscis is rather long, and there is an appendage
on each side of the base of the siphon. When the pro-
boscis is extended, it can bend in all directions, by
means of the retractor muscles, acting with opposing
forces. This interesting mechanism is illustrated by
f. 32, wherein the proboscis is represented retracted
about a half; the external cylinder, a, is seen envelop-
ing, a portion of the inner one, b, the point of which c
is the termination of the proboscis; the muscles which
draw it within the body, d d, are in a state of contrac-
tion, and at e is represented the great annular muscle,
which pushes forward the inner cylinder, and conse-
quently lengthens the organ.
FAMILY in. — PURPURIFERA.
Shell with a short canal ascending posteriorly, or
with an oblique notch at the base of its aperture, di-
rected backwards. They are all operculate. Purpura
lapillus, pi. 24, f. 79.
FAMILY iv. — ALATA.
Shell with a greater or less canal at the base of the
aperture, of which the right lip changes its form as the
animal advances in age, and has a sinus at the lower
part. Strombus Succinctus.
FAMILY v. — C&NALIFERA.
Shell with a canal more or less long at the base of
the aperture, and of which the right margin does not
change its form as the animal advances in age. Mu-
rex acanthopterus, pi. 31, f. 32.
SECTION II.— PHYTIPHAGA.
Destitute of projecting siphon, and respiring general-
ly by an orifice, furnished with jaws, and feeding on
vegetables, shell with the aperture entire, and without
any notch or canal. Many of the species live upon
land, and respire air, while others inhabit fresh water,
either stagnant or running. Many are marine. Some
families are furnished with an operculuin attached to
the foot of the animal.
FAMILY i. — TURBINACEA.
Shell turreted or conoid, having an oblong or rounded
aperture, not widened, and the margin disunited. Tur-
bo smaraydus, pi. 31 , f. 45. Turbo littoreus, pi. 24, f. liJ.
FAMILY u. — SCALARIDES.
Shell devoid of plicfe or folds on the colnmella ; the
margins of the aperture are united in circular forms.
Scalaria coronata, pi. 31, f. 51.
FAMILY in. — PIJCACEA.
Shell with the aperture not widened, and folds on the
columella. Tornatella Jlammid, pi. 31, f. 54.
FAMILY iv. — MACROSTOMA.
Shell auriform, with the aperture very wide, and the
margins disunited; destitute of eolumefla and opercu-
lum. Haliotis tuberaikita, pi. 31, f. 55, and pi. 24, f.
12. Sigaretus Huliotoideus, pi. 24, f. 42. Shell con-
cealed in the mantle; m, the membranous shield under
which the shell is concealed; », a sinus through which
an arm is sometimes protruded; o, the tentacula, at the
base of which the eyes are placed.
FAMILY v. — IANTHENIA.
Shell gibbous, conoidal, thin, transparent, aperture
triangular, columella straight, surpassing the base of
the right margin ; destitute of an operculum. lanthena
eirigua, pi. 31, f. 59.
FAMILY vi. — NERITACEA.
Shells semiglobular or oval, destitute of a columella,
and the left margin edged and transverse, provided with
an operculum ; inhabit fresh waters and the sea.
Natica manilifera, pi. 24, f. 35. A front view, with
tentacular head and mantle reflected; c, the head; f.
37, a view of the head from beneath ; f. 38, one of the
cartilaginous jaws. Neritinajluviatilis, pi. 24, f. 18.
FAMILY vu. — PERISTOMIDA.
Shell conoid or sub-conoid with an opercnlum, and
the margins of the aperture united. All the spedes
MOLLUSCOUS ANIMALS.
581
are fluviatile, the animals respiring in water. Paludina
impura, pi. 24, f. 1 1. Vahata piscinalis, pi. -'4. f. 61.
FAMILY vui. — MELANIDES.
The margins of the aperture disunited, and the right
one edged; animal provided with two tentaeula. Pi-
rena Madagascar ensis, pi. 31, f. 67.
FAMILY ix. — LYMN^ECEA.
With an oblong acutely tapering spire, generally
smooth on the external surface, and having the outer
margin of the aperture always acutely edged, and not
reflected. Animal amphibious, generally destitute of
an operculum, and the tentaeula flattened. Lymnaea
stagnate, pi. 24, f. 4.
FAMILY x. — COLIMACEA.
Shells acutely spiral, with no projecting parts on their
exterior, except the markings of their periodical addi-
tions; the right margin of the aperture frequently re-
flected outwards; the tentaeula are cylindrical, and
usually four in number, but two in others, and destitute
of operculum. They are terrestrial animals. Cydostoma
elegans, pi. 24, f. 10. Succinea amphibia, pi. 24, f. 58.
Pupa sexdentatus, pi. 24, f . 57. Helix afpersu, pi. 24. f. 1 5 ;
f. 92, apparatus of vision in Helix Pomatea ; f. ti5, toothed
cartilage of do.
ORDER IV.— GASTEROPODA.
Body never spiral, destitute of any shell, provided with
a muscular foot attached its whole length under the
belly, for the purpose of locomotion. Some of the animals
of this division are naked and destitute of any calcareous
covering, others are provided with a dorsal plate, and a
third series have a shell which is more or less concealed
in their mantle. The animals of this order are limited
by Lamarck to those whose bodies are straight, and
never spirally convoluted, and which are provided with
a muscular disk or foot, united to the body nearly its
whole length. F. 6fi, pi . 24, exhibits the nervous system
of the Aplysia; f. 67,* Clio Borealis; f. 67, the same in
the act of swimming.
SECTION L— PNEUMOBRANCHI^S.
Branchiae in the form of a vascular net on the wall of
a particular cavity, opening by a hole, which the animal
contracts and dilates at pleasure.
FAMILY i. — LIMACIN.E.
Branchiae in the form of a vascular net on the parti-
tion of a particular cavity, the aperture of which the
animal can contract or dilate at pleasure. The body of
the animals is elongated, and they crawl by means of a
ventral disk bordered on the sides by a very narrow
mantle. Vitrina beryllina, pi. 24, f. 7. Testacella Scutu-
lum, pi. 24, f. 6. Limax ater, pi. 27, f. 25. Onhidium
Typlia, pi. 27, f. 7.
SECTION II.— HYDROBRANCHI^E.
FAMILY in. — I.APHYSIACEA.
The branchiae are situated in a particular cavity to-
wards the posterior part of the back, and covered by an
opercular scutellum; they are provided with tentaeula.
The animals of this family resemble large snail?, but
have a thicker body, and are broader towards the pos-
terior part, and have a larger margin to their mantle;
the head projects, and is provided with four tentaeula,
two of which are placed near the mouth, and the other
two more behind. The branchial scutellum is corneous
or cretaceous. Dolabclla callosa, pi. 31, f. 88. Laphysia
dcplians, pi. 27, f. 8, pi. 24. f. 17.
FAMILY in. — BULLACEA.
Head very distinct: the branchiae are situate in a
particular cavity, towards the posterior region of the
back, and covered by a mantle ; they are destitute of
tentaeula, and branchial operculum. Some species are
unprovided with either exterior or interior shell, and
in others the shell is completely concealed in the man-
tle, and there are several which have an external shell
attached by a muscle. Bulla hydatis, pi. 24, f. 86.
This figure exhibits the back of the shell, with the
lateral fin-like membranes protruded a. F. 87. The
gizzard magnified, a, a, a, the tips of the plates cover-
ed by a thin membrane, and surrounding a muscular
integument, thickened at the upper part b; the part
attached to the mouth c, with the oesophagus communi-
cating with the gizzard; rf,the intestinal canal. F. 88.
The gizzard laid open at its anterior end, showing the
three corrugated corneous plates e, e, e, with their con-
necting ligaments/1, magnified. Bulla aperta, pi. 24, f. 83
and 68. Lateral lobes of the foot thickened and reflect-
ed upwards; head indistinct; destitute of tentaeula;
branchiae dorsal; shell concealed in the mantle, a. F.
84, the gizzard composed of three testaceous plates,
showing the smaller plate b, with the connecting liga-
ment c. F. 85, another view of the gizzard, showing
the two larger plates d d, with their connecting liga-
ments; e, the gullet,/, the alimentary canal.
FAMILY iv. — CALYPTRACEA.
The branchiae are situate in a cavity on the back near
the neck, and projecting beyond or included in the ca-
vity; shell always placed exteriorly Ancylusfluviatilis,
pi. 24, f. 9.
FAMILY v. — SEMIPHYLLIDIACEA.
The branchiae are situated under the margin of the
mantle, and disposed in a longitudinal series on the
right side of the body ; respiring in water. Pteurolran-
chus plumula, pi. 24, f. 14, f. 22. Alimentary canal; a
the first stomach; c the second stomach; d the third
stomach ; e the fourth stomach. The oesophagus dilates
into a membranous- crop a; at the lower part of which,
b, the bile is poured in. It communicates by a narrow
cardia with the second stomach c, which is a gizzard
with thin but muscular parietes. The third stomach
d, is membranous, and precisely resembles the plicated
stomach of ruminants, in being disposed in large but
delicate folds, .by means of which the alimentary mat-
ter contained in it is moulded into long whitish cords.
The fourth stomach e, is membranous, like the crop,
but smaller. It is remarkable that the gizzard contains
a narrow groove, running through its whole length,
leading from the first to the fourth stomach, and pro-
bably subservient to a species of rumination. F. 44.
Another view of the animal ; a, its protracted foramen ;
h h, the lower lamina, or border of the sustentaculum ;
i, the upper lamina, under the middle of which the shell
is concealed; k, a plumose feeler; /, the tentaeula, at
the base of which the eyes are placed.
FAMILY VI. — PHYLLIDIACEA.
The branchiae are situate under the margin of the
mantle, and disposed in a longitudinal series around
the body. The animals all respire in water. Patella
vulgata, pi. 24, f. 21. F. 23. The alimentary canal, a,
the mouth; b, the buccal mass; c, the tongue; d, the
stomach ; e e, the intestine. F. 24, represents the tongue
of the patella of its natural size; f. 25, is a portion mag-
nified; f. 26, 27, and 28, are the cartilaginous jaws.
Chiton cinereus, pi. 24, f. 78. F. 93. The animal extracted.
a a, the ventre ; c c c, the intestinal canal ; e, the anal
opening; d d d d, the liver;/, the ovarium.
FAMILY VII. — TIUTONIACEA.
The branchise are placed exteriorly, and situated
above the mantle on the sides or on the back. The
animals respire in water. The animals of this family
are distinguished from those of the other Gasteropoda,
by the situation of their branchiae, which are all exter-
ior; in several genera these appear to be a degeneration
of the mantle, or to be formed by portions of it having
become branchial; the body is always destitute of a,
shelly covering, and neither have they one internally.
All the animals inhabit the sea. Doris art/us, pi. 27, f.
9. TeOiys Icporina, pi. 24, f. .'»0. The alimentary canal,
a, the proboscis: />, the oesophagus; c, the stomach; rf,
the intestine; e, the hepatic duct; J\ the liver; g, the
hepatic artery ; k h, salivary glands — the parts are laid
open ; f. 29. the horny jaws of a Tritonia.
582
SUPPLEMENT.
ORDER V.-PTEROPODA.
Destitute of any shell, foot or arms, either for loco-
motion or seizing theiy prey; but provided with two
opposite and similar fins, fitted for swimming. The
animals of this order are provided with two opposite
fins; they are mostly of a small size, and either desti-
tute of appendages, or having very short ones, situate
at the head; some species are provided with a thin
cartilaginous or horny shell. Hyaltea tridentata, pi. 24,
f. 36.
CLASS II.
ACEPHALOUS MOI.LUSCA, OR SOFT ANIMALS DESTITUTE
OF A HEAD.
The second great division of testaceous Mol-
lusea, consists of animals which are destitute of
any apparent head, and have been denominated
by Lamarck, CONCHIFERA. Their mouth is con-
cealed in the bottom, or between the folds of
their mantle, which is usually doubled and
incloses the body, in the same manner as a
book is clasped over by its cover ; but it often
happens, that, in consequence of the two lobes
uniting before, it forms a tube ; sometimes it
is closed at one end, and then it represents a
sac. The mantle is generally covered by a
calcareous, testaceous bivalve shell united by
a hinge or ligament, and in some instances
the shell is multivalve ; in two genera, how-
ever, it is only of a cartilaginous or tnembrana-
ceotis nature. The animal is always attached
to this shelly covering by strong muscles, by
means of which it can open or close the sides
of its covering at pleasure. The brain is
situated over the mouth, where one or two
other ganglia are observable. The branchiae
or gills, generally consist of large lamella;
covered with vascular meshes, under or between
which passes the water ; and are more simple
in those genera which are destitute of a shell.
The leaflets of which the branchiae are com-
posed are generally crescent-shaped, placed
on each side of the cloak, covering the abdomen
of the animal upon the sides of which they are
attached in pairs ; they are formed of a tissue
of small vessels arranged close together, like
the pipes of an organ. From these branchiae
the blood proceeds to the heart, which is placed
towards the back, is very small, but provided
with venous and arterial vessels. The liver
is extensive, and embraces the stomach and
the greater proportion of the alimentary canal.
The mouth is always devoid of teeth, arid is
capable of only receiving the molecules, con-
ducted to it by the water ; at each side of the
mouth are four thin triangular leaflets, which
are the extremities of the lips. Some species
are provided with two stomachs. The whole
animals of this division fecundate themselves,
and in many of the species, the young ones
are extremely numerous, and pass some time
in the thickness of the branchiae before quitting
the parent. The whole acephala are aquatic
animals. The foot of the animal when if;
exists is a m,ere fleshy mass, the motions of
which are effected by a mechanism analogous
to that which acts on the tongue of the mam-
malia.
The Conchifera of Lamarck are separated
into two orders as follows : —
ORDER I.— MONOMYARIA.
With but one internal muscle of attachment, and the
shell marked interiorly with one subcentral muscular
impression.
SECTION I.
Ligament none, or at least unknown, or replaced by a
tendinous cord, which supports the shell.
FAMILY I. — BRACHIOPODA.
W
mo
\Vith two opposite ciliated arms, placed near the
iuth, rolled up in a spiral form when the animal is in
a state of repose; mantle provided with two separate
lobes before, which envelope the body. Shell bivalve,
adhering directly, or by means of a tendinous cord, to
marine substances. Linyula anatina, pi. 32, f. 1.
FAMILY II. — RUDISTA.
Nothing is known of the animal, nor of the ligament
and hinge of the shell; the valves are very unequal; and
no distinct hooks are visible. Crania persanata. pi. 24,
ft* ~ i
. to.
SECTION II.
Ligament not marginal, but inclosed in a hollow space
under the beak, always perceptible, and never forming
a tendinous cord under the shell.
FAMILY I. — OSTRACEA.
Ligament interior, or at least partly so; shell irregular,
foliaceous, and sometimes papyraceous. The animal
has neither foot, arm, nor projecting siphon. Anomia
ephippium, pi. 244 f. 4 1 . Ontrea Edulis, the Edible oyster,
pi. 24, f. 73. f. 9R, muscle of the oyster.
FAMILY II. — PECTENIDES.
Ligament either interior, or partly so, being discov-
erable in some through an opening in the joint; shell in
general regular, compact, and not folutceous. Some
genera fix themselves to marine bodies, by a byssus,
while in others the lower valve is immovably attached;
and many of the pcctens are at liberty. Spomh/lus
yaderopus, pi. 24, f. 52. d e, the branchiae; l>, the mouth;
ff h i, the abdomen ; k, the great adductor muscle. Pccten
JacolxBus, pi. 24, f. 77. abed, the two lobes of the
mouth; e e, the byssus; ff, the abdomen; z, the intes-
tinal canal; ff, the month, ornamented with a fringe; h,
the great adductor muscle. The animals of this genus
possess considerable powers of locomotion, which was
well known at the time Aristotle wrote. They have the
power of removing themselves from one place to another,
on dry land, by successive leaps. This has been fully
established by recent experiments. A brisket filled
with the Pecten opercularis, or common edible scallop,
has been placed on the sea shore, near the edge of the
water, when all the individuals have speedily found
their way to the sea. Lima squamosa, pi. 24, f. 72.
SECTION III.
Ligament marginal and elongated.
FAMILY I. — MALLEACEA.
Ligament marginal, sublinear, and either simple or
interrupted by crenulations; shell foliaceous or more
or less inequivalve. Avicula Turcnlina, pi. 24, f. 90.
abed, the mantle, the duplicate of which contains the
MOLLUSCOUS ANIMALS.
583
ovarium, ffgy; the byssus, h i; the abdomen, k; s, the
anal opening.
FAMILY II. — MYTILACEA.
Hinge with a sub-interior ligament, which is marginal,
linear, and very entire, occupying a great part of the
anterior border; shell but seldom foliaceous. Nearly
the whole of this family attach themselves to marine
bodies by a byssus. They have a tongue-shaped foot, by
the aid of which they attach their byssus to extraneous
substances. Pinna nobilis, pi. 24, f. 91 . a, b, c, d, lobes of
the mantle: p .<?, h Ti, adductor muscles: * f, part of the
abdomen. Mjt&i edulis, pi. 24, f. 7 1 . f. 76, the animal.
FAMILY III.— TRIDACNITES.
The shell is transversely equivalve, with the muscular
impressions situated under the middle of the upper
margin, and prolonged on each side; the mantle is close
and perforated by three holes, through one of which
passes the foot ; the second furnishes an entrance and
.exit for the water requisite for respiration; and the
third is a passage for the excretions; the two latter
not being prolonged into tubes as in the Mytilacea
Tridacna ffiyas, pi. 24, f. 64. The tendinous byssus by
which these gigantic shells — sometimes weighing 300
pounds— attach themselves to rocks, is so thick and
strong that an axe is required to sever it. Nearly allied
to this species is Tridacna squamosa, pi. 32, f. 27.
ORDER II.— DIMYAIRA.
Shell having two distinct and lateral muscular im-
pressions, which are deep and widely separated, being
placed near the lateral extremities of the valves.
SECTION I.
Shell always inequivalve and irregular.
FAMILY I. — CHAMACEA.
Shell inequivalve, irregular, and adherent; with two
separate muscular impressions; ligament placed exter-
nally ; the animal provided with short, separate siphons,
C/iama f/ryptioides, pi. 24, f. .54. Ckama atttiquata, pi. 24.
f. 55. a 6, the lobes of the mantle; c, the abdomen; d d,
the foot.
SECTION II.— LAMELLIPEDES.
FAMILY I.— NAYADES.
This family consists of fresh water shells; the hinge
sometimes provided with an irregular, simple, or cleft
tooth, and a longitudinal prolonged one; sometimes
destitute of any; or is furnished in its whole length with
irregular granular tubercles ; the posterior muscular im-
pression compound; and the umbones often decorti-
cated; the muscular impressions are lateral and dis-
tant, that of the posterior side being composed of two
or three distinct, unequal impressions ; the animal is
destitute of any projecting tube or siphon; the foot is
elongated, transverse, and rounded, which it protrudes
between the valves, and uses to change its position.
Anadonta cygnea, pi. 24, f. 43. a, the mouth, into which
a bristle has been introduced; b, the stomach, under
which the intestine makes five turns in the foot amidst
the ovary, and then as it returns, runs posteriorly along
the back of the animal beneath the hinge, and above
the respiratory organs, passing through the midst of the
heart, c, and opening at d above the posterior muscle
closing the shells, beneath the small tube of the cloak.
This description applies generally to most trivalves, but
in the oyster the rectum does not pass through the
heart, tfnio pictorum, pi. 24, f. 49.
FAMILY II. — TRIGONACEA.
Primary teeth of the shell lamelliform, and striated
transversely; ligament exterior. Castalia ambiyua, pi.
32. f. 35.
FAMILY III. — ARCACEA.
Primary teeth of the shell small, numerous, and dis-
posed in a line on each valve of the shell, either in a
straight or interrupted series. The valves do not close
perfectly in the centre, in consequence of having a horny
plate or'fillet placed before the abdomen of the animal,
that serves as a foot, and by which it adheres to sub-
merged bodies. Area Note, pi. 24, f. 59. Area larbata,
pi. 24, f. 70. a, the foot. Pectunculus Pilosus, pi. 24, f.
56. f . 74, animal of do.
FAMILY IV. — CARDIACEA.
Primary teeth of the shell irregular, both in their
form and situation, and having generally one or two
lateral teeth. In the animal, the mantle is open before,
and there are besides, two separate apertures, one for
respiration and the other for the fteces, which are pro-
longed in tubes, sometimes distinct, and at others
united in one single mass. There is always a transverse
muscle at each extremity, and a foot generally used
for locomotion. Those which are provided with long
tubes always live in ooze or sand. Isocardia cor, pi. 24,
f. 98. Cardium rusticum, pi. 24, f. 60. a e, the tracheae ;
a, part of the abdomen; 1 6, the branchiae; c, the adduc-
tor muscle.
FAMILY V. — CONCHACEA.
Shell with three primary teeth, at least in one valve,
and the other with a similar number, or less in some
species ; sometimes provided with lateral teeth. The
animal has generally two tubes or siphons projecting
from its mantle, one of which answers the purpose of a
passage for the water to the branchiae, and the other
for dejected matters; the foot is lamelliform. All the
animals of this family inhabit sand or mud.
Subdivision I. Generally destitute of lateral teeth ;
inhabiting the ocean ; siphons of the animal elongated
and unequal; the foot broad and projecting. Venus
Verrucnsa, pi. 24, f. 39. CytJierea Chione, pi. 24, f. 48.
Artemis orbiculata, pi. 24, f. 53.
Subdivision II. Fresh water shells covered with a
spurious epidermis, and having lateral teeth. Cyclas
cornea, pi. 24, f. 50. Piscidium obliauum, pi. 24. f. 51.
SECTION III.— TENUIPEDES.
FAMILY I. — NYMPHACEA.
Shell never having more than two primary teeth in
each valve; frequently gaping at its lateral extremities;
ligament exterior. The foot of the animal is small, and
often compressed ; the species all inhabit the shores of
the sea. Donax tmncuhts, pi. 24, f. 46. The animal has
two long slender tubes, which are received into a sinus
of the mantle; and provided with a broad foot. F. 47.
The right valve removed, a a, the adductor muscles;
A the foot; s .«, the right lip; m n. the two lobes of the
branchiae ;b d,ce, the two tracheae; the left vein is at i.
Tellina pianola, pi. 24, f. 97.
FAMILY II. — LITHOPHAGI.
The shells gape more or less at their anterior side ;
ligament exterior; they bore into rocks and clay, with-
out the aid of accessory shells, but by what means
naturalists have not yet discovered. Venerupis irus, pi.
24 f. 69.
FAMILY III. — CORBULACEA.
Shell inequivalve, with the ligament placed interiorly.
/ andora rostrala, pi. 32, f. 72.
FAMILY IV. — MACTRACEA.
Shell equivalve, frequently gaping at the lateral ex-
tremities; ligament placed interiorly, or partly exter-
iorly; animal with the foot small and compressed; the
tubes are united and short. Mactra Neapolitana, pi. 24,
f. 40. b c, the trachaea; rf, the foot.
581
SUPPLEMENT.
SECTION IV.— CRASSIPEDES.
The mantle, either entirely or in part united before
the foot, thick, placed posteriorly ; the shell gaping when
shut.
FAMILY I. — MYAKIA.
Shell with a broad spoon-shaped tooth in each valve,
or in one only, and gaping at both lateral extremities,
or at one only; ligament placed interiorly. Live sunk
in ooze or sand. Mya arenaria, pi. 24, f. 45.
FAMILY II. — SOLENIDES.
Shell transversely elongated, without accessory pieces,
and gaping at the lateral extremities only ; ligament
placed exteriorly ; the foot issues from the anterior ex-
tremity or from that side in which the teeth are nearest.
Solen Va<iina, pi. 24, f. 96. The foot of the animal is
conical, which enables it to burrow with great facility
in the sand, e, the trachiae ; k, the cloak ; n n, the ad-
ductor muscles; the foot, b c.
FAMILY III. — PHOLADARIA.
Shell bivalve, with accessory pieces to the valves;
they generally gape much anteriorly. The whole fa-
mily are borers. Plwlas dactylus, pi. 24, f. 95. f. 89,
muscle of do.
FAMILY IV. — TCBICOLA.
Shell contained in a testaceous sheath, distinct from
its valves, incrusted entirely or in part in the wall of
this tube, or projecting outwards. Teredo navalis, pi.
24, f. 16. These acephala, while quite young, penetrate
and establish their habitations in submerged pieces of
wood, such as piles and the bottoms of ships ; completely
destroying them in a very short space of time, a, the
oesophagus, which is very short, and lies on the left side
of the neck ; the canal swells out, and becomes a stomach,
b, which, in its external appearance, is a large bag, ex-
tending the whole length of the cavity of the abdomen,
but, when laid open, it is found to have a septum, c,
dividing it longitudinally into two equal cavities, except
at the lowest part, where they communicate at d, the
septum being wanting. The intestine has its origin
close to the termination of the oesophagus, is extremely
small, dilates into a cavity containing a hard, white
spherical body, the size of a pin's head, and then makes
a turn upon itself. The course it follows is shown by
the letters e e.
CLASS CIRRIPEDA.
The Cirripeda form an intermediate group
between the Mollusca and Articulata. The
bodies are enveloped in a mantle, and tes-
taceous plates or valves, which are nearly
allied to those of the Acephala. The mouths
of the animals are provided with lateral jaws,
and the abdomen with filamentary jointed pro-
cesses, named cirri, arranged in pairs, com-
posed of numerous little ciliated articulations,
and corresponding to feet or fins, similar to
those which exist under the tail of crustaceous
animals. Their heart is situated in the back,
and the branchiae emanate from the sides ; the
nervous system forms a series of ganglions,
on the lower part of the abdomen. These cirri,
however, may be considered as analogous to
the articulated appendages of some species of
Terredo, while the ganglions are in some
measure repetitions of the posterior ganglion
of the bivalve Mollusca. The position of these
animals in the shell is such, that the mouth is
at the bottom, and the cirri near the orifice.
Between the last two cirri is a long fleshy
tube, that has sometimes, but erroneously, been
taken for their proboscis, and at the base of
which, near the back, is the anal opening.
Internally, a stomach is found inflated by a
multitude of small cavities in itsparietes, which
appear to fulfil the functions of a liver, a simple
intestine, a double ovary, and a double serpen-
tine oviduct, whose walls produce the prolific
fluid, and which, prolonged in the fleshy tube,
open at its extremity. The animals of this
class are incapable of locomotion, being always
fixed. This class was all ranked under a
single genus by Linnaeus, by the title of Lepas.
Brugieres divided them into two, and Lamarck
has subdivided them still further, at the sug-
gestion of Dr Leach, and they now form a
class of themselves. The animals of this class
are always protected by a multivalve shelly
covering, which is composed of a number of
separate pieces ; these are connected by a
membrane in the pedunculata, and those of the
sessilia — six in number — are articulated at
their sides, and kept together from their base,
being attached to a calcareous plate, which is
firmly attached to some extraneous substance.
These last form a conical covering, open at
the top, which is protected by an operculum
or lid, composed of four pieces. The first order
of cirripeda have but five valves, and these
are placed on the summit of a tubular, mem-
braneous peduncle, varying in length in dif-
ferent species. In one genus, besides the five
principal valves, other smaller ones are found,
which are termed accessory valves. All the
animals are hermaphrodite and marine. The
characters of the class are, soft animals, des-
titute of head and eyes, covered with a plur-
ality of shells, and always fixed to a certain
spot ; the bodies are inarticulated, provided
with a mantle, tentacula, and cirri ; arms
issuing from above, and many-jointed.
ORDER I.— PEDUNCULATA.
The body compressed, and supported on a tubular
peduncle. Otion Cuvieri,r>\. 33, f. 26. Cineras vittata, pi.
33, f. 27. Pollicipes mitella, pi. 33, f. 28. Anutifa vtirea,
pi. 33, f. 30.
ORDER II.— SESSILIA.
Body destitute of a peduncle, and inclosed in a shell
of various parts, fixed immovably by its base, with a
testaceous lamina to extraneous marine bodies; the
mouth at the upper and anterior part of the body. In
the interior of the opening is placed an operculum formed
of two or four movable pieces, which the animal opens
in the centre while projecting its tentacular arms.
Pynioma crenata, pi. 33, f. 31. Balanus communis, pi.
24, f. 94. aa, the ventre; 7nj,the liver; axe, the ovarinm;
h, the spermatic ducts; AB, the oesophagus.
SUPPLEMENT.
585
CLASS ANNELIDES.
This class is the first of the great division
Articulata, consisting of animals which have
their bodies or members composed of articu-
lated rings. The characters of the Annelides,
are, the body soft, more or less elongated, and
either naked or enclosed in a tube, and divided
into a number of segments ; and are the only
animals devoid of a backbone, which have red
blood circulating in a double system of com-
plicated vessels. Their nervous system con-
sists in a double knotted cord, like that of
insects. Some species have a head, and others
are devoid of one ; when it exists it is merely
a slight anterior thickening, distinct from the
first segment of the body, and upon which the
eyes and antennae are placed. The antennas
consist of articulated filaments, sometimes short
and thick, and never exceed five. They have
either two or four eyes, situate behind the an-
tennas. The tentacula are either situated on
the head or fore part of the body, they consist
of articulated filaments, or papillae more or
less elongated. They are provided with a
fleshy contractile proboscis, of either one or
two rings, inclosing horny or calcareous jaws.
The body of the Annelides in many species
is naked, arid free from hairs ; some are fur-
nished with contractile bristles. The whole
class respire by branchiae, and inhabit the
waters, sand, mud, or moist earth. The bran-
chiae are extremely variable in form and situa-
tion ; as are also the tubes or sheaths, which
are either membranous or horny, incrusted
exteriorly with minute fragments of shells or
grains of sand ; in others they are solid testa-
ceous tubes. They are all carnivorous, suck-
ing the blood of other animals ; and are her-
maphrodite.
ORDER I.— SEDENTARY.
The animals inhabit a testaceous tube, which they
never leave; they are destitute of eyes; the branchiae
are situated at one end of the body. The animal is
elongated, worm-shaped, having the sides of the body
provided with subulate short bristles; and also with
hooked bristles to enable it to move in its tube.
FAMILY I. — SERPULACEA.
Branchiae separate, or covered by an operculum ; tube,
solid and testaceous; destitute of tentacula, eyes, or
jaws; body furnished on the sides -with setaceous pa-
pillae, and hooked retractile bristles. Serpula vermicu-
Uiris, pi. 24, f. 8'2.
FAMILY II. — AMPHITEIT^A.
Branchiae neither separated nor covered by an oper-
culum, and disposed towards the anterior part of the
body ; with a horny or membranous tube, more or less
arenaceous; the branchiae are placed at or near the
VOL. a.
anterior extremity, they are sometimes large, project-
ing above the mouth, and sometimes they are short.
Many of the animals have tentacula, but all of them
are destitute of eyes, proboscis, OF jaws. AmphitrUe
magnified, pi. 24, f. 81.
FAMILY III. — MALDANIJE.
The branchiae are indeterminate; and the tube is open
at both ends. Dentalium entails.
FAMILY IV.— DORSALI^E.
The branchiae are dorsal, or disposed longitudinally
along the body. SUiquaria anguina, pi. 33, f. 51.
ORDER II.— ANTENNAT^E.
The head is antenniform, provided with two eyes,
and a projectile proboscis, frequently armed with jaws,
and setiferous retractile pediform papillae; branchiae
disposed longitudinally.
SECT-ION I.
Branchiae in the form of complicated leaves or tufts,
or very ramose, always large and apparent ; destitute of
spines.
FAMILY I. — AMPHINOMJE.
Branchiae and cirri placed superiorly at all the pairs
of pediform papillae, and having no jaws.
SECTION II.
Branchiae in the form of small crests or lamina?, or
filamentous and pectinated on one side; sometimes not
distinct.
FAMILY II.— EUNICE.
While the branchiae are distinct, all the pediform
papillaa are placed without interruption; jaws numerous,
and always more than two, but fewer on the right than
on the left side; destitute of the first pair of feet.
FAMILY III. — NEREIDES.
When the branchiae are distinct, there are superior
cirri on all the pairs of pediform papillae ; two jaws or
none. Spio quodricornis, pi. 27. f. 14.
FAMILY IV. — APHRODITE.
The upper branchiae and cirri alternating in their
position to the twenty-third or twenty-fifth pair of
pediform papillae; having four jaws. Halitheo- aculcata,
pi. 27 f. 4.
ORDER III.— APODES.
Animals destitute of feet, or setiferous and retractile
papillae ; when provided with branchiae, they are dis-
posed interiorly along the body; but they have no an-
tenniferous head. Although the animals of this order
have red blood, and a true circulation, they are other-
wise the most imperfect in their form. They are des-
titute of head, tentacula, and pediform papillae; their
branchiae are situated internally, either in or under the
skin. They are usually naked, and have no retractile
spines.
FAMILY I. — ECIIIURE.E.
Body with bristles projecting, but not retractile.
LumLricus terrestris, pi. 27, f. 39. The earth worm.
FAMILY II. — HIRUDINE^E.
Body without projecting bristles. Hirudo geometra,
pi. 27, f. 1 3. Leech. See it described in the present
volume, at p. 467.
4 K
MICEOSCOPIC DISCOVERY.
INTRODUCTION.
«•_
THE invention of the microscope is justly con-
sidered one of the most important achieve-
ments of human science and art, claiming at
least equal eminence with the discovery of the
telescope. The latter instrument brings us
into comparative intimacy with other worlds,
or what we infer to be such from the analogies
discoverable between them and our terrestrial
globe ; the former instrument carries us to the
opposite bounds of creation, and reveals the
atomic miracles with which we are immedi-
ately surrounded. The results of astronomical
research usually strike us with more awe than
those of microscopical inquiry ; yet perhaps we
regard the latter with deepest interest, and for
this reason , — the telescope communicates a
lew particulars concerning things on which we
can bring but few analogies to bear, and con-
sequently imparts a vague and indefinite know-
ledge to the mind ; the microscope, on the con-
trary, refers us to objects wonderfully minute,
yet usually so analogous to larger existences,
that the information derived concerning them
is satisfactory and complete.
To estimate duly the value of the micro-
scope, as a means of enlarging the boundaries
of human knowledge, we must refer to the
utter ignorance concerning some things, and
the gross misconceptions regarding others, that
prevailed prior to its introduction. Before the
invention of this instrument, the mite was con-
sidered the least of animal beings, and the ex-
istence of living atoms, with which compared,
the mite may rank as an elephant, had never
been conjectured. The wondrous beauty and
contrivance in the formations and appendages
of the insect tribes had never been beheld.
The miracles of creative power, folded up in
every plant and blossom, had not been fully
displayed. Vague and indefinite opiniona
were held regarding the vital fluid in ani-
mals ; and the manner of its circulation through
the body was very imperfectly understood.
The strange fallacy of equivocal generation
was universally maintained, and fetid corrup-
tion was deemed the parent of animal and ve-
getable life. It would occupy much space to
name all the instances of ignorance and mis-
conception that characterized the times in
which the microscope was unknown : let those
to which we have alluded suffice to show how
limited was the sphere of human knowledge
concerning many things that daily metthe eye,
and how totally unconscious were the philoso-
phers of those ages of the wonderful creations
that science and art were preparing to unveil.
" Who," says Baker, " would have imagined
it possible to distinguish myriads of living
creatures in a single drop of water ! Or, that
the purple tide of life, and even the globules
of the blood, should be seen distinctly rolling
through veins and arteries smaller than the
finest hair? That millions of millions of ani-
malcules should be discovered in the semen
masculinum of all creatures? That not only
the exterior form, but even the internal struc-
ture of the bowels, and (he motion of the fluids
in a gnat or louse should be rendered objects
of sight? Or, that numberless species of
creatures should be made visible, though so
minute, that a million of them are less than a
grain of sand? These," he continues, "are
noble discoveries, whereon a new philosophy
has been raised, that enlarges the capacity of
the human soul, and furnishes a more just and
sublime idea than mankind had before, of the
grandeur and magnificence of nature, and the
588
SUPPLEMENT
infinite power, wisdom, and goodness of na-
ture's Almighty Parent."1
At the period when Goldsmith wrote, the
microscope had certainly been long in use,
and allusion is made in his Natural History
to some of the interesting facts it had then
made known. When, however, we consider
the inefficient construction of the instrument,
the consequent unsatisfactory results of many
observations, and the prevailing tendency to
exaggerate the discoveries of that day, we are
at no loss to comprehend the reason why our
author lays comparatively little stress on mi-
croscopic inquiry. Subsequent editions of the
Natural History have, it is true, supplied in
a good measure this deficiency in the original
work, and presented to the popular view a
large amount of discoveries in the minute
world; this information, however, has usually
been conveyed in a desultory form, ill cal-
culated to impress upon the rnind the vast
accessions of knowledge progressively derived
from microscopic investigation. The attention
which has, in late years, been given to the
construction of the microscope and the im-
provement of its elements, has given a new
impulse to inquiry, and led to the elucidation
of facts so astonishing, and to the discovery of
formations and phenomena so replete with
interest to the natural historian, that a new
edition of Goldsmith's work could scarcely be
deemed complete if it did not include a con-
nected view of the most remarkable discoveries
that have been made in the various kingdoms
of nature by the aid of optical science. This
digest we propose to give in three consecutive
chapters, dividing the subject as follows: —
CHAP. I. The results of microscopical in-
quiry concerning the minute formations and
phenomena of the natural world.
CHAP. II. Infusorial Animalcules.
CHAP. III. Spermatic Animalcules.
CHAP. I.
THE RESULTS OF MICROSCOPICAL, INQUIRY
CONCERNING THE MINUTE FORMATIONS
AND PHENOMENA OF THE
NATURAL WORLD.
MICROSCOPIC investigation has been carried
to a greater or less extent through all the
kingdoms of nature. We shall, for the sake
of orderly arrangement, commence with the
Mineral Kingdom, the discoveries in which
though less diversified, are equally interesting
with those in the animal and vegetable
1 See article Microscope, in the Supplement to the
Popular Encyclopedia.
worlds. In this division of the subject our
attention is more particularly called to the
remarkable phenomena connected with con-
gelation and crystallization, to the formation
of minute mineral bodies, and to fossil remains
of insects, animalcules, and vegetables. We
shall first advert to the singular appearances
presented in the congelation of water and
snow crystals ; for though these cannot be in-
cluded amongst mineral bodies, they can be
more conveniently reviewed in this place than
in any other department of our essay.
If water be exposed to a freezing atmos-
phere in a capacious vessel, thin laminaj, or
plates, of ice will shortly be observed on its
surface. These cross and intersect each other
in a most surprising manner, and present the
appearance of a fancifully tesselated device.
If one of these plates be separated from tlie
rest with a knife and brought under the mi-
croscope, a moderate power will develope its
conformation, which much resembles that of
a herring bone: a large stem runs through
the centre, and from each side of this diverge
a number of parallel spines, inclined to the
central stem in an angle of about sixty
degrees. In the Micrographia of Dr Hooke
notice is taken of a peculiarity in the congela-
tion of water thinly spread on smooth marble,
which is said to exhibit a variety of figures
resembling feathers ; these forms are however
nearly allied to the plates before mentioned, and
the points of difference between them are not
particularly remarkable. Urine when slightly
frozen discovers a numberof very beautiful six-
branched figures ; but as the same formations,
or others very closely resembling them, may,
be observed in a congelation of common salt
and water, we prefer directing our remarks to
the latter. These star-like figures commence
at the centre, which elevates itself, and ulti-
mately forms the apex of a solid angle ; from
the centre six branches jut out, each two in-
closing an angle of sixty degrees ; from these
main branches proceed a number of smaller
shoots, all on the same side of the branch being
parallel to each other, and forming with it an
angle of sixty degrees ; from these shoots issue
forth smaller branchings in like manner, and
from these latter others still more minute, till
at length the figure becomes too complicate
to be analysed, and presents merely the ap-
pearance of an even mass of ice. It is how
ever to be observed, that the beauty of these
stars is greatly enhanced by accidental cir-
cumstances, which disturb the regular process
of congelation, and cause the branches at times'
to throw out a number of circular plates curi-
ously overlapping each other. It may be
necessary to add that these figures differ ma-
terially from those observed in the ordinary
crystallization of common salt by evaporation.
ON MICROSCOPIC DISCOVERY.
589
The fantastic and picturesque formations so
commonly observed on the windows in the
winter season, will, if closely examined, be
found to consist of a series of branches dis-
posed under the uniform angle of sixty de-
grees ; and all the irregular variety is merely
the result of numerous small impediments to
the freezing process.
An almost infinite variety of configuration
maybe observed in the flakes of falling snow,
all however thus far resembling each other, j
that they uniformly consist of six branches i
radiating from a centre. The side shoots are
also disposed according to the general prin-
ciple, and in all the peculiarities of figure we
discover the angle of sixty degrees determin-
ing the formation. Plate 35, figs. 50 and 51,
are two snow flakes. In fig. 50 we observe
the branchings from the centre, and the side
shoots disposed according to the general law.
The hexagonal figures terminating the main
branches are explained thus : the two sides
connecting with the branch are lateral shoots
from it, the two next are lateral shoots from
tlie former two, and the other two sides are
similar shoots from the second two. And it
is in this mariner by a little consideration of
the figure, that we are enabled, in almost every
instance, to trace out a uniform principle of
conformation. In fig. 51 we see the six
branches and the lateral shoots as before, and
the leaf-like outline of the figure is nothing
more than the natural result of the lateral
shoots near to the centre pressing upon each
other, and the central ones extending farther
out than those more recently put forth.
Congelation and crystallization, though
closely resembling each other, are distinct
operations. Congelation fixes the whole fluid
mass ; but the process of crystallization causes
the particles of mineral bodies, when sus-
pended in fluid or separated by fusion, to
assemble in regular figures, agreeably to
ascertained principles of formation.
Notwithstanding the variety of figure observ-
able in crystals, their primitive forms are few,
such as the cube, parallelopipedon, &c. ; and
all eccentric formations arise from a peculiar
arrangement of their laminae on the faces of
the primitive crystal. Dr Hooke suggested
that crystallization merely exhibited the vari-
ous regular forms resulting from the combina-
tion of small globular particles ; and this
opinion has been adopted by many writers.
There is, however, a difficulty in conceiving
how globular particles should with undeviat-
ing exactness constantly assume the same
primitive figure, in (for instance) the crystal-
lization of common salt. The simple form of
these crystals is always a cube ; now we can-
not comprehend the reason why this should be
the case on the supposition that they are
merely an accumulation of globular particles ;
for these particles can unite only by mutual
attraction, and might, for ought w'e perceive to
the contrary, assemble in any other primitive
form as readily as that of the cube. A more
recent theory supposes the particles to have
either the figure of the primitive crystal or
that of a cube, a solid angle, or a paral-
lelopipedon ; and we can pretty well discover
in every instance, on this hypothesis, how the
primitive form is invariably determined. Much
light has been thrown upon this subject by the
microscope, which brings immediately under
the eye of the observer the whole process of
crystallization, from (in several cases) the
primitive form, to the most intricate combina-
tion which it ultimately develops. A more
beautiful sight cannot be conceived than that
which is presented when any saline solution
is suffering gradual evaporation under the mi-
croscope, and the crystals bogin to shoot and
extend themselves over the field of the instru-
ment. It is not exaggeration to say that it
partially draws aside the veil that is cast over
the first creation of material forms. Adopting
the hypothesis, that primitive chaos was a
fluid holding in solution the particles of all
solid matter, we may imagine the small drop
of water on the stage of the microscope to be
that chaos, from which we see glaciers and
rocks rising up with a rapidity, precision, and
beauty truly astonishing.
In Plate 35 the figs. 44 and 45 exhibit
the compound crystals of common salt. These
have been selected for illustration in conse-
quence of their showing the process of super-
position in the most simple manner. The
figures closely resemble each other ; but
in fig. 44 the various laminae are not so
easily recognized as in fig. 45. The crystal
commences with the formation of the nucleus,
which in this case is a very minute cube, com-
posed of cubic particles ; a layer of four
similar cubes immediately begin to form under
this nucleus, and raise it up, or propel it for-
ward ; a third layer of nine similar cubes then
form under the layer of four ; and thus the
crystal goes on increasing, each successive
layer taking an additional cube into the side.
Now as the cubic particles are small beyond
our comprehension, and since the aggregation
will frequently be affected by the superposi-
tion of laminas, the thickness of these particles
only, it is easy to conceive the reason why,
even in microscopic crystals, the sides frequently
present to our weak vision, and its limited
aids, a perfectly polished surface free from
all irregularities. In fig. 44, the laminas
are not perceptible towards the apex of the
crystal ; whilst in fig 45 the layers are dis-
tinctly recognised : these varieties are the
result of mere accidental circumstances, in the
590
SUPPLEMENT
one case facilitating and in the other retard-
ing the formation of the successive layers.
Fig. 48 is all irregular formation, in which,
however, the different laminae exhibit them-
selves with much distinctness. Figs. 47 and
52 are likewise crystalline structures of com-
mon salt ; but their integral parts are too
minute to be particularly noted; they are
drawn exactly as they appear under a super-
ficial magnifying power of 90,000. Fig. 46
shows the crystals of saliva, under the same
amplifying power ; these, as might naturally
be expected, bear strong resemblance to, indeed
are nearly identical with, fig. 52.
Our limits will not permit us to enter ex-
tensively into the subject of crystallization ;
but we deem it sufficient to have called atten-
tion to the fact that the microscope is an inva-
luable assistant in detecting the process by
which crystalline structures are matured. For
the instruction of young experimentalists, we
may add, that the salts whose crystals they
wish to examine must be dissolved in water ;
metallic substances, and those which have me-
tallic bases, on being heated, give out
crystals as they gradually cool; these latter
exhibit beautiful conformations when immer-
sed in solutions that act upon them chemically.
We conclude with an extract, relevant to our
subject, from Gould's Companion to the Mic-
roscope, a useful little treatise, by a talented
and practical man:
" Another important field of inquiry by the
microscope is chemical action. This opens an
endless subject of investigation of a very rich
order. The mode of pursuing this class of
observations is very simple. Prepare a few
pieces of thin and perfectly flat glass, of a size
suitable to the stage of the microscope ; some
of these 'should be the eighth of an inch less
every way than the others. A variety of che-
mical agents should be provided in small glass
bottles with stoppers, and a few glass rods
about four inches long, with a rounded end,
for the purpose of taking up a small drop of
liquid. In experimenting, at the outset adapt
the focus of the microscope to one of the glass
plates. Then, upon one of the larger plates,
spread thinly any chemical substance with
which you wish to work. Lay the glass upon
the stage, and examine leisurely the character
and form of the substance. Then, upon one
of the smaller glasses, lay, with a glass rod, a
small drop of any acid or other fluid with which
you wish to act ; and, having spread it on
the glass, lower it down nearly upon the other
glass, so that the edges of the upper glass
shall not reach beyond the under one ; as the
upper glass, when once brought in contact,
should never be disturbed. The two substan-
ces will thus, by pressure, be reduced to one
uniformly thin film ; and the action which
takes place may be very accurately investiga-
ted.
" For instance, let the first glass receive a
very minute portion of the carbonate of cop-
per, and the upper glass a drop of nitric acid ;
on contact, the carbonic acid of the carbonate
will be seen coming away in globules, whilst
the carbonate of copper breaks down and dis-
appears. The field is gradually occupied with
a solution of nitrate of copper ; and this is seen
to crystallize in minute rhombic crystals.
Lift up the upper glass, and add a small drop
of ammonia, and slip down the glass again ;
the crystals of the nitrate disappear ; a new
combination takes place; and you see the
beautiful foliations of the nitrate of ammonia
interspersed with groups of the still more beau-
tiful prisms of the deep blue ammoniuret of cop-
per. Or, instead of the ammonia, add muriatic
acid ; the nitrate is changed into a grass-green
solution of the muriate of copper, which crys-
tallizes in bundles of spears shooting in all di-
rections across the field of vision.
" These phenomena may be multiplied to
any extent by the use of the numerous chemi-
cal agents to be obtained. Iodine presents an
endless variety of aspects in combination with
different agents. The crystallization of hy-
driodate of potass is very beautiful, if a drop
of the solution is put on a glass. Put on the
other glass sulphuric acid. When brought in
contact, the acid takes the potass, and forms
crystals of the sulphate of potass, and the iodine
is developed both in solution, which passes off
by evaporation, and in the crystalline structure
of the substance itself. Again : combine solu-
tion of iodine with solution of sulphate of
soda. The alcohol, in the solution of iodine,
takes part of the water from the soda, and the
rest of the sulphate of soda crystallizes in
prisms. The iodine, deprived of the alcohol,
is developed in cherry-red drops of liquid and
in dark rhombic crystals.
" To these observations may be added, the
examination of various crystallizations in po-
larized light. Between the reflecting mirror
and the stage of the microscope insert a plate
of tourmaline, so that the condensed light of
the mirror be thrown upon the object through
the tourmaline. This polarizes the light re-
ceived. Then above the eye-piece lay another
plate of tourmaline, or, what is better, an ana-
lysing prism of Iceland spar. This enables
the observer to perceive the changes produced
by the polarized light. Many crystals so ob-
served, as sulphate of potass, &c. exhibit the
most beautiful colouring, according as the up-
per plate of tourmaline is turned round on its
axis. Some crystals, as nifrate of potass; ex.
hibit these colours without the upper, or ana-
lysing plate. The laminae of the crystal itself,
as is the case with the mineral called iolite or
ON MICROSCOPIC DISCOVERY.
591
dichroite, serve to polarize the light passing
through it, and to make it visible.
" A few other similar experiments may be
mentioned:
" 1. Add sulphuric acid to common salt, or
muriate of soda, or to carbonate of ammonia.
" 2. Add sulphuric acid to bichromate of pot-
ass or muriate of soda. The result is crystals
of sulphate of soda, with chloro-chromic acid.
" 3. Add acetic acid to the bichromate of pot-
ass. The crystallization of the bichromate
takes place in very beautiful forms,
" 4. Add sulphate of alumina and potass to
muriate of cobalt. The crystals of the alum
form in great perfection.
"5. Add acetic acid to nitrate of copper. The
biperacetate of copper forms slowly and crystal-
lizes in great beauty.
" 6. Add terrocyanate of potass to sulphate
of iron.
"7. Add nitrate of potass, or aqua potassas, to
sulphuric acid. The sulphate of potass forms
in solution. Raise the upper glass with a
knife the smallest degree, and let it fall again ;
the crystallization is instant.
" 8. The smallest drop of any liquid contain-
ing lead may be examined by the usual tests
for lead ; and wine may, in the same way, be
tested in a. drop not bigger than a pin's point.
" 9. The ben-iodide of mercuryis a beautiful
crystal, and open to a variety of experiments.
" 10. Investigate the comparative purity of
successive crystallizations of nitrate of potass."1
In proceeding to consider the formation of
minute mineral bodies, our attention is called,
in the first place, to what are designated the
active molecules of matter. With the excep-
tion of bodies perfectly soluble in water,
metals that cannot be reduced to atoms suf-
ficiently minute, and a few other substances,
the whole range of matter exhibits the phe-
nomena of molecular activity. The method of
bringing these atoms under microscopic in-
vestigation is very simple. On a slip of glass,
adapted to the stage of the microscope, place
a small drop of water ; then with any sub-
stance sufficiently hard, rub the mineral body
whose atoms you require; touch the water
with the rubber, and it will transfer to the
fluid the minute particles separated by friction.
Apply a deep power, say a one-twentieth inch
doublet, and a vast number of apparently small
spheres will be seen in rapid and continual
motion. This motion of the particles will not
cease in any definite time, if care be taken to
supply fresh water as the other evaporates.
The movement of these atoms very closely re-
sembles that of the infusorial monads and the
spermatic animalcules. The writer was led
himself to experiment on the nature of these
1 Gould's Companion to the Microscope, p. 62, et seq
active molecules, and from a variety of phe-
nomena presented by minute particles of cam-
phor floating in spirits of turpentine, he was
led to attribute the activity to electric or mag-
netic agency. Having put a drop of spirits
of turpentine on a slip of glass, he added
thereto an extremely thin shaving of camphor,
which was rapidly decomposed by the spirit,
and fell down into minute crystals, spheres,
cylinders, circular planes, &c. The activity
of these tiny forms was truly wonderful and
delightful to witness ; and. though this is not
the great point to which he would now direct
attention, he still thinks that a detailed ac-
count of the appearances will be interesting
to all who have not made similar observations.
The crystals were rhomboidal, and frequently
revolved with greater or less rapidity on their
longest axis ; after turning one way for some
time, they would then reverse their motion ;
at other times, the revolving movement would
be entirely suspended, and they would direct
alternately the two ends (poles?) of their axis
to some particular point in the field. The
spheres exhibited the same phenomena in re-
volving, with this peculiarity, that the rapidity
of their motion far exceeded that of the crystals ;
and whenever they ceased to revolve, it was
to fly off in a right line to another quarter of
the field. It should be remarked that whilst
revolving, neither the crystals nor the spheres
made any progressive advance, at least speak-
ing generally. The circular planes revolved
in like manner on a diametric axis ; and these
progressed over the field in the direction of the
revolution. The small cylindric forms pointed
their ends alternately to the same point, fre-
quently revolved on their axes, and occasion-
ally exhibited all the lively motions of the
most active vibrio animalcules. When the
crystallizing process began, as the turpentine
evaporated round the edges of the field, these
several forms cleared from the centre and
united themselves to the foliations. It was
then that a vast number of very minute par-
ticles were discovered, moving rapidly in the
manner of ordinary molecular atoms ; as the
star-shaped crystals began to form in the
midst of them, they were seen to strike rapidly
and repeatedly against the projecting points,
till at length they adhered to the mass, and
were incorporated with it. The phenomenon
was precisely that of an insulated cork ball
striking against the conductor of an electrical
machine, in which case it becomes electrified
itself and is repelled, when quickly losing the
electricity it had acquired, it again strikes the
conductor. It seems probable then that mole-
cular activity is the mere result of successive
attraction and repulsion among a vast number
of suspended particles ; and it does not appear
difficult to conceive that motion will be-
592
SUPPLEMENT
get motion in such a host of atoms, and that
tlieir activity may be indefinitely prolonged.
We shall again refer to the activity of mole-
cules when we come to speak of infusorial and
spermatic animalcules whose movements they
greatly resemble.
Ores and minerals should first be examined
in very small portions in their native state ;
as their complex structure cannot be so well
understood from an artificial crystallization,
which rather developes primitive forms and
elementary principles. The crystalline for-
mations and foliations of any mineral may be
subjected to microscopic examination, by dis-
solving a few particles in muriatic or nitric
acid. It would answer no purpose to enter
into an extended description of the crystalline
structures of minerals, as exhibited under the
microscope ; since these can only be adequately
comprehended from actual observation, or from
very elaborate illustrative engravings. We
shall therefore confine ourselves to the mention
of a variety of minute native bodies discovered
by various observers.
On the sea shore, along the banks of rivers,
and in many inland places, various species of
sand are discovered, widely differing from
each other, and all exhibiting a beauty of
structure and finish well worthy of observation.
" These species differ in colour, figure and
size ; and as among stones some are called
precious for their excellency, so also amongst
sands there are some that deserve the same
epithet for their beauty. The grains of sea-
sand are very large, and afford great variety
of all shapes and colours, both opaque and
transparent. River sands are smaller grained,
of different colours and forms ; and the in-
land, or pit sands, vary also exceedingly,
being some white, some brown, some yellow,
&c." " These varieties are very agreeable to
examine by the microscope, which shows, in
some of the shining kinds, grains having all
numbers of sides and angles, and so finely
polished, that no diamond is more exquisitely
beautiful. On others, grotesque figures, or
representations of landscapes, buildings, plants
and animals at once surprise and please."
There are several kinds of black sand brought
from the East Indies, and also from Virginia
and other parts of America, which exhibit
beautifully polished surfaces, and may be
attracted by the load-stone. A red-coloured
sand is also brought from abroad (we believe
from Africa) which presents a delightful pic-
ture under the magnifier, resembling a heap
of gems carelessly thrown together.
Small, irregularly shaped particles of the
precious stones, are very interesting micro-
scopic objects. Leuwenhoeck's method of
examining the diamond, and the phenomena
it presented, are thus described by Baker.
" He broke a small one between two hammers,
and placing the pieces before his microscope.
in the sun-shine, he saw many sparkling
flames issue from them, with a continual cor-
ruscation, in some, like faint lightning.
Then viewing them in the shade, he observed,
among other pleasing appearances, a little
flame that seemed to dart from each particle
of the diamond : and it was a glorious sight
to behold multitudes of sparkling flames, most
of a bright fire colour, and others greenish,
flashing faintly and like lightning at a dis-
tance. In other pieces of the diamond the
lamellae, or layers, were very plainly distin-
guished.'' This description is somewhat
grandiloquent, yet perfectly agrees with later
observations : the powerful refractions of this
gem and its structure are both very distinctly
developed by the microscope. Minute crystal-
line formations, vulgarly called diamonds, are
frequently found in the cavities of flint or
rock ; these vary considerably in form, and
by their action on the rays of light become
objects of great interest to the microscopical
observer. Sir David Brewster has called
attention to the singularly shaped microscopic
cavities in gems and other mineral bodies,
" containing two fluids unknown to the
chemist, groups of crystals, floating balls, and
exhibiting actual chemical operations going
on in these minute laboratories when exposed
to changes of temperature. In some of the
precious stones, particularly in diamond,
garnet, &c., these cavities are perfect spheres."
In his recent Treatise on the microscope, this
unwearied observer gives diagrams of " the
cavities containing the two new fluids that
will not mix, though in the same cavity ; "
and also of the beautiful spear-shaped cavities
formed in topaz.
The examination of the inferior minerals,
such as common free-stone, &c., whilst it has
gratified the observer with a view of their
structure, has also developed serviceable truths
relative to the value and capabilities of the
materials in the ordinary concerns of life.
Their compactness or porosity, their durable
or perishable nature, may be determined with
much exactness by the aid of the microscope.
What is called Kettering stone (from the
locality of the quarry whence it is dug) is
shown, for example, to be eminently adapted
for filters, as it is composed of small globular
particles cohering so firmly together as to form
a substance harder then free-stone, yet is
filled with innumerable interstices arising
from the spherical surfaces touching only in
certain points.
Before dismissing this portion of our sub-
ject, it may be interesting to transcribe the re-
marks of the old micrographers regarding the
minute globules of steel produced by the cora.
ON MICROSCOPIC DISCOVERY.
593
mon operation of striking fire from flint and
steel.
'; In the common way of striking fire with
a flint and steel, fiery sparks fly out at every
blow ; which sparks are nothing more than
small pieces of the flint or steel, (but usually
of the steel) broken off by the violence of the
stroke, and either melted instantaneously into
steel globules, or made at least red hot, and
thereby capable of kindling tinder or touch-
wood. The heat is likewise so intense as
sometimes even to vitrify the broken particles.
Dr Hooke struck fire over a sheet of very
white paper, and observing diligently where
the sparks seemed to vanish, he discovered
there certain very small, black, but glittering
and movable specks, which when examined
with his microscope, appeared to be little round
globules; some whereof did, from their sur-
face, yield a very bright and strong reflection
on that side next the light, and resembled iron
balls. The melting of the particles of steel,
instantaneously, upon the collision, is very
wonderful, and comes up nearly to the effects
of lightning.'' The combustible nature of iron
and steel is evidenced by the simple experi-
ment of letting drop the filings of either
through the flame of a candle, when a num-
ber of the particles will be found melted into
small globules. On burning a red wafer over
a piece of glass, and submitting the latter to
the microscope, several very regularly formed
globules of lead will be discovered.
We must now glance at the minute petri-
factions, and fossil remains, of marine animals,
insects, animalcules and vegetables; and this
division of our subject will bring before us
startling discoveries, to which the mind is
scarcely disposed to give credence. A little
reflection, however, upon the mighty opera-
tions which are continually going forward in
the microscopic world, will lead us to appre-
hend so much of these wonders as is necessary
to excite our belief in them. We shall of
course be understood to refer to the infusorial
organic remains discovered by Ehrenbef^.
Referring to the remains of marine animals,
Mr Pritchard has the following observations,
in his Microscopic Illustrations, p. 20 : — *' Look
at the discoveries of Agassiz on the fossil crea-
tures of the deep! By a microscopic investi-
gation of such portions of them as have with-
stood the destructive power of time, namely,
their scaly covering, he has been able so to
group and class them, that the characters and
habits of the genera belonging to each distinct
era are clearly demonstrated. A microscopic
examination also of the testaceous remains of
sundry Entomostraceans, found in slate-clay
formations, now elevated much above the le-
vel of the sea, prove them to have been at some
time or other imbedded in the Waters. And
the naturalist may even determine by an in-
spection of the shell, whether the species were
the inhabitants of fresh or salt water, and con-
sequently whether the strata themselves were
the indurated beds of the sea, or of some river
or lake."
Fossil remains of insects have hitherto
rarely been met. with ; and of those which
have been discovered very few are satisfacto-
rily developed by the microscope. Blumenbach
divides them into three sections.
I. " The Determinable ; such for instance as
those found in the schist at Oeningen, larvas
of Libellulee, Notonectas, &c. II. Dubious;
to which head belong most of those inclosed in
amber, as also most of the petrified crabs.
III. Unknown; such are the celebrated Dudley-
fossils, which are found in various places, but
no where finer than at Dudley, in Worcester,
shire, and frequently retaining their crab-like
shell." Plate 4, figs. 39,40,41,42,43, 50,95,
represent a few of the insects that have been
discovered in a fossil state ; as these are par-
ticularly noticed in the general summary of
organic remains, it would be needless repeti-
tion to describe them here. Plate 35, fig. 41,
exhibits a singular insect, much resembling a
mite, discovered in a siliceous formation at
Uckfield in Sussex. It is drawn with nearly
four times the surface it exhibited under a
doublet of one thirtieth inch focus. Its real
size seems to vary from 1 -3000th to 1-1 500th
of an inch in diameter.
The recent discovery of animalcular fos-
sils by Dr Ehrenberg of Berlin, has caused a
great sensation in the philosophical world, and
promises to aid in no small degree the ad-
vancement of geological science. " These re-
mains," says Sir David Brewster,"are the si-
liceous shells of animalcules belonging to the
division Bacillaria, and form strata of tripoli,
or poli-schiefer (polishing-slate), at Franzen-
bad, in Bohemia. M. Ehrenberg has still
more recently discovered them in the semi-
opal found along with the polishing-slate in
the tertiary strata of Belin, in the chalk flints,
and even in the semi-opal or noble opal, of the
porphyritic rocks. The size of a single indi-
vidual of these animals is about l-288th of
a line, or l-3456th of an inch. In the po-
lishing slate from Belin, in which there ap-
pear to be no vacuities, a cubic line contains, in
round numbers, 23 millions of these animals,
and a ci.bic inch contains 41,000 millions of
them. The weight of a cubic inch of the po-
lishing-slate is 270 grains. There are, there-
fore, 187 millions of these animals in a single
grain, or the siliceous covering of one of these
animals weighs the 187th millionth part of a
grain !"
We anticipate the questions which will
arise on a perusal of this brief statement: —
594
SUPPLEMENT
How can animalcules so inconceivably minute
be congregated in such masses? What new
powers have been added to the microscope by
which it is enabled to develope these delicate
formations ? In reply to the latter question,
we simply state the fact, that recently a high
degree of defining and penetrating power has
been given to the microscope, for want of
which, at an earlier period, researches into the
minutiae of nature were frequently inconclu-
sive and deceptive. Deeper magnifiers than
any formerly known are now, also, brought
into effective use. The first inquiry, — how
can these animalcules be collected in such
countless myriads of myriads? — will be satis-
factorily answered in the following extracts
from a most talented article in Chambers'
Edinburgh Journal.
" The productions of the kindred zoophytes,
in the innumerable coral reefs and islands
which bestud the ocean, are truly wonderful ;
but not less astonishing certainly is it, that the
organic remains of these invisible atoms should
abound to such an extent, as actually, in the
language of Dr Ehrenberg, (o swell in no small
measure the amount of the solid matter of
the crust of the globe. Many of these ani-
malcules are of a beautiful green colour. If
water, then, containing some of these, be taken
from a pool or marsh, and conveyed into a co-
vered vessel, a layer of fine powder, speedily
becoming a green crust, will ere long be found
on its surface, and more particularly near the
margin of the glass. This crust, at first a
bright green, gradually assumes a brown and
yellow hue. This constitutes the well known
Priestley matter of former days, which at one
time so much engaged the attention of philo-
sophers. It seems formed of the more solid
portions of these animalcules, which, in succes-
sive generations, have ceased to live." The
fecundity of these small animals is beyond all
conception: each individual produces a host;
and " generation succeeds to generation with
a rapidity which cannot be estimated, and
their remains thus accumulate in countless
myriads, and to a vast extent.'' The slimy
substance which not unfrequently covers stag.
nant waters, and is sometimes spread over
wet and marshy soils, has been discovered (o
consist of large masses of animalcules in thin
layers. " When we are thus informed of lay-
ers of dead infusoria formed on common
marshes, or in ditches, we are in some mea-
sure prepared to understand how the same
substances may have formed great layers or
•strata, taking their place amongst the other
rocks which fall under the attention of the ge-
ologist. The fact, however it may be received,
is so. Vast layers of rock, at or near the sur-
face of the earth, and many feet in thickness,
have been discovered in various parts of the
world, which the microscope has found to be
composed solely of the shields or hard parts of
Infusoria ; these remains of Infusoria having,
of course, been deposited from great bodies of
water which formerly overspread the place.
Dr Ehrenberg has actually shown, by experi-
ment in the royal deer park at Berlin, how such
rocks may be formed by means of the Infus-
ory tribes ; and the only difference between
the crust formed in experiments like his, and
a layer of rock several feet thick, and of
large extent, is in the scale on which the
phenomenon takes place. In the one case
we have a natural operation on a large
scale, and in the other an artificial operation
on a small one. All the other features of
the process must be considered as identical."
The writer from whom we have been quoting,
dismisses his subject with these apposite re-
marks:— " No doubt the abundant vegetation
of the elder world, to which we are also in-
debted for our beds of coal, had something to
do with the production of these vast quantities
of animalcules, which never fail to be found
where the least amount of dead vegetable mat-
ter has been allowed to rest in still water.
Extensive seas of fresh water, commingled
with decaying forests, or which had passed
over such, would be the birth place of our fossil
Infusoria, the remains of which, as generation
after generation perished, would sink in an im-
palpable powder to the bottom , and there in time
be accumulated in the form of a layer of rock."
The fossil remains of vgetabl°s present
most interesting phenomena to the geologist:
these have been already referred to and illus-
trated in the course of the work, and in this
place we have only to notice that the micro-
scope affords considerable aid in the develop-
ment of this class of objects, particularly the
fossil woods, specimens of which can now be
procured cut so extremely thin as to admit of
their being viewed by transmitted light, by
which means all their peculiarities of struc-
ture can be readily ascertained. We shall
lay before the reader Mr Pritchard's eloquent
and philosophical remarks on this subject : —
" To the botanist the aid of the microscope is
indispensable. In the investigation of our
fossil-flora, what does it not exhibit to us!
How beautiful and delicate is the structure
of the envelope of some of the fossil-fruits;
those, for instance of our London clay,
when viewed under this instrument! And
how important is it, that, by its assistance,
we can determine with accuracy (he natural
orders, genera, and sometimes the very species
of the trees and plants of former epochs '
How, beyond all question, is now demonstrated
the vegetable origin of our coal ! Preserved
wilhin a bituminous lump of coal, which has
been deposited for thousands of years deep in
ON MICROSCOPIC DISCOVERY.
595
the bowels of the earth, you may discern not
only the woody fibre, its arrangement, and
the disposal and form of the medullary rays,
but even the most delicate of the vegetable
organs, such as the spiral vessels and the
beautiful terminations of those vessels ! These
are distinctly discoverable as in the finest pre-
parations of a recent plant. And what can
lie more amusing and instructive than the
t'xaminationof the silicified woods, when formed
into sections no thicker than the paper of a
bank-note? Thus rendered pervious to light,
the organic structure of the wood becomes
plainly distinguishable. And emanating from
this, what can be a more interesting subject
than the inquiry into the mode in which the
silicifying process has been carried on — by
which the constituent elements of the inmost
and minutest portions are changed — whilst
their form and situation and colour remain the
&ame ? In investigating also that extinct genus
of plants, the Lepidodendra, a similar idea is
raised in the mind, as to what must have been
the particular state of the earth with respect
to atmosphere and temperature at the period
of their growth, and what the changes which
have since taken place, in order to bring it to
its present condition." — " In the foregoing
remarks on the application of the microscope
to botanical purposes, I have given the reader
only a general outline ; to enter upon any thing
like details, would of necessity extend our in-
troductory chapter of this description far be-
yond its proper bounds. I may, nevertheless,
be permitted to make use of one example by
way of illustration. But how shall I select
one where the materials suited to construct it
are so superabundant, and where they all
present so many points of interest? It will
be readily admitted that this is by no means
an easy choice. I will limit my observations,
however, to a single microscopic slider, and see
what instruction is derivable from it. Suppose
this slider to contain some sections of a fossil
wood ; for instance, three specimens or shavings
of such extreme tenuity, that if they were ex-
posed, they would be wafted away on the
slightest breeze. Let them be weighed, and
they will not exceed a grain. Hand them to
the chemist, and he can only prove to you
that their primary constituents are oxygen,
hydrogen, carbon, &c., and in so doing, he will
destroy them. What, then, does an inspec-
tion of them under the microscope reveal? It
will tell you, in the first place, whether they
grew up, like our forest trees, by yearly ad-
ditions to the outside of their woody centres,
or by internal accessions, like most of the pro-
ductions of the tropics. It will tell you
whether their leaves were veined or not —
whether their embryos were dicotyledons or
monocotyledons — whether the trees from which
they were cut had branches or not — and, if
they had, whether these were (hick and sturdy,
like the boughs of the oak ; or thin and flexible,
like the branches of the fir tribe. It will tell
you whether the wood might be easily cleft
asunder, like deal ; or would sooner break,
like beech ; whether it was elastic, like the
pine — so admirably suited for the masts of
ships ; or like the stubborn oak, would rather
snap than yield to the wind. These are some
of the ordinary properties developed by the
microscope. Again, in taking a more minute
physiological survey, our information will be
by no means less complete. For these same
specimens will disclose to us, under the mi-
croscope, the form and arrangement of their
woody fibres, the disposition of their barks,
the beautiful structure of the tubular recep-
tacles by which their secretions have beet'
carried on, and their growth promoted. In
short, so much will be revealed by them in
this manner, that the actual distinction between
a wild and a cultivated tree may be, in some
cases, clearly traced." '
We now proceed to the second branch of
our subject, namely, the consideration of the
minute formations and phenomena of the
Vegetable Kingdom. Here opens a rich field
of interesting observation, and the more in-
teresting because it embraces an extensive-
range of objects with which readers in general
can claim familiar acquaintance, so far as their
features are obvious to the unassisted eye. Ifc
would, we venture to say, be difficult to find
a person, young or old, who, in his rural walk,
has not stopped to look upon the broad and
massive foliage of the oak, or rested beneath
the shade of its far spreading branches, — who
has not gathered the wild flowers that em-
broidered his sylvan couch, and wondered at
theirsurpassing loveliness, — or has not lingered
with pleasing delight amidst the luxuriant
display of vegetable beauty in the carefully
tended flower-garden. And to those who look
with admiration on trees, plants, and flowers,
as they exhibit themselves to the unaided
sight, and in a passing glance, it cannot be
uninteresting to know that under these obvious
beauties lie concealed formations so exquisite,
and mechanical powers so wonderfully con-
trived by the great Artificer of nature to pro-
duce, sustain, and carry on the vegetable or-
ganization, that, wanting a knowledge of
these, we can scarcely be said to know any-
thing of the vegetable creation. And here
again we call Mr Pritchard to our aid : —
" Vegetable organography," he observes,
<( upon which the modern botanist depends so
much for his systematic arrangement, "and
1 Prilchnrd's Microscopic Illustrations, New Edition,
pp. 21 and 25.
596
SUPPLEMENT
with which the student is so greatly interested,
and amused, owes almost its very existence
to the microscope. This observation will be
lound to apply in an especial manner both to
the cellular and vascular tissues of plants.
The membraneous cellules of cellular tissue
are sometimes not more than 1-1 000th of an
inch in diameter ; and those of the ordinary
size, are about l-200th or l-300th. How then
is it possible that we could become acquainted
with their forms and arrangement but by the
aid of the microscope? And so with respect
to vascular tissue : it is absolutely indispensa-
ble toward acquiring an accurate knowledge
of the structure and forms of these membrane-
ous tubes, and of the spiral, or annular, fibre
that surrounds them. A knowledge of the
fructification, if I may so express myself, of
that numerous and curious class of plants, the
Acrogens, could not be obtained without it;
nor could the existence of many of them, such
as the Fungi, Algas, and some of the Musci,
be proved. By its powers, even the ashes of
vegetables may be seen to contain the decisive
characteristics of organic structure ; and the
long debated question of the antiquarian,
whether the " fine linen of Egypt" in the times
of the Pharaohs, was of linen or cotton fibre,
seeing the latter is now indigenous to that
country, is for ever set at rest."
But, not to insist in this place on the aid
afforded by the microscope to the professed
botanist or the scientific inquirer, let us glance
at those simple yet highly interesting and
pleasing observations, which appeal so forcibly
to every one who has a mind constituted to
relish and enjoy the beauties of nature. In
an ordinary survey of flowers, we found our
admiration on the beautiful shape and texture
of the petals, their number, colour and arrange-
ment ; and the singular or striking disposition
of the stamina and other parts reposing in the
cup of the blossom. But when we take a
single flower and subject it in detached parts
to microscopic, examination, what a fund of
pleasing knowledge is opened to us ! The
velvet surface of the petals is resolved into a
fabric which no human art can imitate ; and
the stamens and adjacent parts when examined
in detail, exhibit formations which could not
have been conceived to exist in so small a
space. Every flower has microscopic beauties
peculiar to itself; and it would occupy the
leisure of an extended life, to make one min-
utely acquainted with the floral products of
the humblest village garden. Then, again,
what a variety of shape and character is to be
observed in seeds ; some with beautiful shining
surfaces, others most singularly marked and
figured, or strangely peculiar in form, or pro-
vided with curiously wrought appendages,
vel all strikingly adapted to further ami assist
the reproduction of the plants to which they
respectively belong. The fibres, veins, pe-
culiarities of surface, &c., of the plant leaves
demand careful investigation ; and the young
wood of the shoots is likewise worthy of being
minutely examined. A thin transverse sec-
tion of the latter discovers under the micros-
cope a structure resembling, but far surpassing,
the richest lace work. It is time, however,
to leave these desultory remarks, and proceed
with our subject in an orderly manner.
We have before alluded to the active mole-
cules of matter in connection with the mineral
kingdom, and we are now briefly to notice the
same phenomenon of atomic activity in vege-
tables. Indeed, it was during a course of ex-
perimental observations on the latter sub-
stances, that this phenomenon was first wit-
nessed by Robert Brown, Esq. F.R.S. Hav-
ing found that the pollen of plants, when
suspended in water, exhibits a most remarkable
activity, evidently resulting from other causes
than the agitation of the fluid or the breath of
the observer, he naturally concluded, that the
minute particles of inorganic bodies might
present similar appearances, if similarly sus-
pended.1 This conclusion is proved to be cor-
rect. So far as the writer has observed, there
is no difference between the motions of mineral
and vegetable molecules, beyond what may
be explained by the different principles on
which these two species of atoms are presumed
to combine, for the formation of inorganic and
organic bodies Our space will not permit
us to speculate on this point of identity between
the vegetable and mineral kingdoms ; it must,
however, strike the reflecting reader as a re-
markable circumstance, that the minutest
atoms of vegetable and mineral bodies are con-
trolled by one common law ; and he may be
led to the inference that probably organic and
inorganic bodies are produced by one and the
same principle, modified by secondary agen-
cies. There is, notwithstanding, this broad
and decisive distinction between organic and
inorganic structures ; the former are mere ag-
gregations of atoms, the latter are laboratories,
in which complicated operations are continu-
ally going forward to prepare matter, so that
it may assimilate with and enter into their
constitution.
The circulation of the fluids in plants seems
to link them with animal existences ; but we
find, on close examination, that the motion of
vegetable fluids differs widely from that of
the blood. Blumenbach observes ; — " How-
ever varied the rtticular and other connections
of the vessels may be, no relation can be
1 This molecular activity is exhibited, not in the vege-
table dust, palpable to the naked eye, and usually named
the pollen, but in (he particles of the true farina hereafter
to be noticed.
ON MICROSCOPIC DISCOVERY.
597
detected between them, of such a nature as to
keep up a circulation of fluids, such as is
found in all red-blooded, and so many white-
blooded animals." Most probably what is
termed 'the circulation in plants is nothing
more than the nutritive juices proceeding
through capillary vessels to all parts of the
plants, whence they do not return. The
reader may, however, choose to hear Mr
Pritchard's remarks on this subject, the more
particularly as they are the result of careful
observation with the finest instruments that
can be constructed. — " The circulation in
plants, termed ci/closis, is a revolution of the
fluid contained in each cellule, and is dis-
tinct from those surrounding it. It can be
observed in all plants in which the circu-
lating fluid contains particles of a different
refra tive power or intensity, and the cellules
are of sufficient size and transparency. Hence
alt lactescent plants, or those having a milky
juice, with the other conditions, exhibit this
phenomenon. The following aquatic plants
are generally transparent enough to show the
circulation in every part of them : — Nitella
Hyalina, Nitella translucens, Chara vulgaris,
and Caulinia frigalis. In the Frog-bit
(Hydrocharis) it is best seen in the stipules of
the leaves and the ends of the roots. The
magnifying powers suited for the above are
between 100 and 250 times linear. In the
Spider-wort (Tradescantia virginica) it is
seen in the filaments surrounding the stamens
of the flowers: power required, 300 to 500
times linear. In the common groundsel
(Senecio vulgaris) it is said to be seen in the
hairs surrounding the stalks and flowers."
The respiration of plants is another feature
in which we trace-a similarity between vege-
table and animal bodies. The leaves in
plants answer the same purpose as the lungs
in animals, " for the execution of the phlogis-
tic process, which in the latter, is effected
principally by the inspiration of the respira-
ble part of the air on its basis, oxygen ; and
which, in plants, is performed almost exclu-
sively by the leaves. In plants also, this re-
spirable gas, or its basis, is, as in animals,
indispensable to the support of life; particu-
larly as Ingen-Housz's experiments have
rendered probable, for the purpose of prepar-
ing in their vital laboratory their principal
material of nutrition, carbonic acid, the excess
of which they subsequently exhale in the form
of carbonic acid gas. This important process
is carried on in its greatest activity in the
dark. During the day-time, on the contrary,
and particularly in sun-shine, it is much
more languid : hence at such time, plants
prepare and consume carbonic acid in smaller
quantities ; and, on the contrary, evolve
oxygen, the respirable part of the atmosphere,
from their leaves." By the assistance of the
microscope we discover, in the cuticle on the
under side of the leaves, a number of small
openings, termed stomata, which are considered
subservient to the respiration of plants, as well
as to the exhalation of the fluids which are
evaporated from them in considerable quantities.
It is worthy of remark with reference to the
evaporation of moisture, that this process is as
necessary to vegetable, as that of perspiration
is to animal life ; for if the stomata of the leaf
be closed up artificially, or otherwise, the
plant, or that immediate part of it, becomes
diseased and withers. The alternate exhala-
tion of oxygen and carbonic acid gas from the
leaves of plants, must appear a remarkable
provision, subservient to the health and comfort
of man. During the day, when mankind are
in activity and requiring a full supply of re-
spirable air, the plants, in place of taking
from, add to its healthy qualities ; and when,
at night, the human race are wrapt in slum-
bers, and the functions of the animal body are
performed with less activity, and when conse-
quently less oxygen is required to carry them
on, the plants, in turn, take in their supply of
this gas, evolving it again with the morning
light for the benefit of the awakening world.
Let us notice a few of the interesting facts
ascertained from a microscopic examination ot
a flower. We will begin with the petals, or
leaves, which surround and protect the repro-
ductive organs of the vegetable, arid constitute
the largest portion of the flower. The upper
and under surface of these are first to be ex-
amined, and the disposition of the downy
covering, or spines, or other remarkable fea-
tures, carefully noted. If then we are able to
separate the cuticle on the under side, it will
discover to us the stomata ; and the removal
of the cuticle exposes the absorbents of the
petal, whose use is to absorb the elements of
vegetable nutrition from the atmosphere.
Strip off the remaining petals from the flower,
and leave only the reproductive organs on the
receptacle, or base. Take one of the stamens
and carefully observe it ; it consists of two
parts, {\\ejilament, and the anther. The former
of these is found to be a capillary tube for the
conveyance of nutrition to the anther, a vari-
ously shaped body placed on the summit of
the stamen. The anther is the'principalt>bject
of regard. When submitted to microscopic
examination, a number of minute particles are
seen scattered over its surface, but it it be
pressed, audits interior displayed, the particles
become innumerable ; — these are, what is
usually termed, the pollen or fertilizing dust
necessary for the impregnation of the pistil,
or female organ of the blossom. They exhibit
a most wonderful variety of structure in dif-
ferent flowers, and have always been objects
598
SUPPLEMENT
of great interest to the microscopic observer.
Plate 34, fig. 28, is the pollen of the marsh-
mallow, consisting of small globes thickly
studded with prickles. 'These atoms are not,
however, the actual farina ; for on examination
with deep powers they are found to be delicate
little bags, containing an inconceivably fine
powder, the true vegetable semen. The pistil
is the next object for observation : it consists
of three parts, the germen, the style, and the
stigma. The style is a hollow tube, forming
a communication between the olher parts of the
pistil ; the stigma is usually a small bulbous
substance supported by the style ; and the
germen is the lower extremity of the pistil,
reposing within the corolla of the flower. At
the time of fecundation the farina falls on the
stigma^ whence it is presumed to pass through
the style to the germen, the seeds in which
thus become impregnated and indued with
vegetable vitality. The stigma in some
flowers is either divided, or has a small open-
ing which contracts and expands at intervals ;
in others this organ exhibits a porous surface ;
in either case it is suitably constructed for the
office it fulfils. The germen is the most re-
markable part of the pistil, answering to the
ovaries in animals. If the outer covering be
carefully removed, the seeds will be discovered,
clustered like grapes, and a considerable dif-
ference of formation will be observed in the
germen of different flowers. We have here
slightly glanced at a few leading facts elicited
from a microscopic examination of blossoms ;
and in connection with them, we would men-
tion the singular means by which the impreg-
nation of the pistil by the farina is frequently
effected Some flowers are hermaphrodite,
and contain within themselves both the male
and female organs of reproduction ; others are
either male or female. " The motion which
is observed at the time of impregnation in
those flowers which unite the sexes is very
remarkable : thus, for example, the stamina of
the common barberry, when touched on their
inner side, (that turned towards the germen)
as may happen when an insect settles on
the flower, to suck the honey from its basis,
suddenly move inwards, and strike their
anthers against the stigma, by that means
effecting the fecundation." When (he organs
are in separate flowers, and, as is the case
with the hop, hemp, &c.,on different plants,
the farina will frequently be carried from the
stamen of the male flower to the stigma of
the female, by the honey bee, which visits
the various blossoms to collect their sweetness,
and almost invariably bears away on its wings
and body a portion of the farina from one
flower, and unconsciously deposits it on the
stigma of another. There arc olher means of
impregnation in these cases, more obvious;
such as the agency of the wind, or the actual
deposition by the florist of the farina on the fe-
male organ.
When the impregnation of the germen is
effected, all the superfluous parts of the plant
fall off, and the former increases in size till
the seeds contained in it have reached matu-
rity. " The form, as well of the different
seeds, as of the coverings in which they are
inclosed, is as various as that of the flowers,
and adapted in the most admirable manner to
the preservation of the species as regards their
extended dispersion, their security, &c. The
provision, too, is remarkable, by means of
which, whatever may be their position in the
ground, when they germinate, they invariably
shoot their radicle downwards, and the plumula
upwards." The principal parts of a seed are the
cotyledons, or seed-lobes, which after germina-
tion become leaves, and the corculum or heart,
consisting of the radicle and the plumula. Seeds
require, in general, to be prepared for micro-
scopic examination, by steeping them in hot
water, when the several parts just named separ-
ate and discover their respective formations.
The exterior of many seeds is, however, so re-
markable, that without any preparation they are
most interesting objects under every power Unit
will afford light sufficient to develope their
structure. To attempt a description of all the
varieties, is impossible; we must simply refer to
some of their singular appendages, and des-
cribe a few whose formation is most striking.
The pappus, or down, with which many
seeds are provided is a wonderful characteristic,
whether we regard the structure of the down
itself, or the ends it is intended to serve.
Plate 34, fig. 9, exhibits a filament of thistle
down, as it appears under a linear magnify-
ing power of 80. This down, with some
variety of form, is either placed on the top of
seeds in the manner of a crown, or on each
side like wings, or it covers the entire surface ;
in any case the purpose is much the same,
namely, to provide the seed with means of
transit from the seed-case to the spot of earth
on which it is destined to fall and germinate.
And to this wonderful contrivance of nature
for the propagation of vegetable life, we are
to attribute much of the verdure and floral
loveliness of those wild, sequestered spots,
where the cultivating hand of man has never
been employed, and where the human foot
has rarely trod. The down is sometimes
designed as a protection to the seed ; it either
repels the moisture which would injure it, or
prevents undue pressurefromconliguousbodies.
And in some cases, it is so disposed, that it not
only directs the seed into a proper position for
germination, but also, if the seed be placed in
the earth with its plumula downwards, will
work it up to the surface again, and re -de-
ON MICROSCOPIC DISCOVERY.
599
posit It with the plume upwards ! The only
other appendage to which we shall refer, is
the a/a, or wing, a fine membrane attached
either to the back or margin of certain seeds.
On a microscopic examination, this does not
appear to be intended so much for a means of
transit, as for absorbing nutriment to facilitate
the germination of the seed. It is, in most
instances, a layer or reticulation of capillary
tubes, protected by a double membrane.
The conformation of poppy seeds is exceed-
ingly curious. In outline they somewhat re-
semble a kidney, and their surfaces are divided
into angular compartments, by means of re-
ticulated fibres connected by an exceedingly
thin and transparent membrane. Plate 34,
fig. 29, is the seed of the Calampelus Scaber,
in which the ala, or wing, is a characteristic
feature ; the external tunic, or outer integu-
ment of the seed, is also worthy of observa-
tion. Fig. 30, represents a seed of the French
Marygold ; and in this we notice the wing-
like disposition of the down before adverted
to. Had the object been sufficiently magni-
fied, this down would have exhibited the char-
acter of fig. 9. It is barbed, or spinated ;
and whilst it serves as a vehicle for the transit
of the seed, it also controls its position when
placed in the earth, as previously stated. Fig.
42, exhibits the Theca. or seed vessel of Moss,
under a superficial magnifying power of 100.
Without the aid of the microscope, the fructi-
fication of the mosses could never have been
understood. Botanists are now enabled to
distinguish the various genera, by observing
the character of the fringe round the mouth of
the seed-vessel, and the peculiarities of figure
in the seed itself. The powder, or seed, of
PufF-ball, a species" of Fungus, is an object of
great interest, under a high magnifying power.
Baker describes it in these words : — " The
seed of the Puff-ball seems to the naked eye
like a smoke or vapour ; but when examined
by one of the greatest magnifiers (for else it
cannot be distinguished) it appears to be in-
finite numbers of little globules, of an orange
colour, somewhat transparent, whose axis is
not above the fiftieth part of the diameter of a
hair : so that a cube of a hair's-breadth diame-
ter, would be equal to an hundred and twenty-
five thousand of them." The same author's '
remarks on the seed-vessels of ferns, the
second order of Cryptogamian plants, agree
with recent observations. " The ancients,"
he says, " imagined the capillary plants and
many other kinds to produce no seeds at all,
but (he microscope has discovered that all the
several species of fern are so far from being
barren in this respect, that they are amazingly
fruitful : that the seed-vessels are on the backs
of the leaves, and that the dust which flies off
when we meddle with them, is nothing but
their minute seeds. These seed-vessels appear
to the naked eye like a black or brown scurf
on the back side of the leaf ; bat, when viewed
by the microscope, resemble little circular
tubes, divided into many cells, containing seeds.
When the seed is ripe, the vessels fly open
with a spring, and spirt the seeds out on every
side, in the form of dust : and if at that season
some of the leaves are put in a paper cone,
and that be held to the ear, the seed-vessels
may be heard to burst with a considerable
noise. Some of these minute vessels contain
at least one hundred seeds, invisible to the
naked eye. Fig. 33, shows the pod and seed
of a kind of fern, named polypodium, that
vegetates on the bark of the oak. The seeds
contained in each pod correspond in number
to the divisions on its circumference. The
figures exhibit all the details observed under
a superficial magnifying power of 40,000."
The plant, or tree leaves, require to be
considered distinctly from the petals of the
blossom ; for though the two have some things
in common, the latter affect the flower only,
whilst the former are organs on which the
health and vitality of the whole vegetable
structure principally depends. We have al-
ready adverted to the cuticle, stomata, and
absorbent vessels, and the important offices
they fulfil ; the other points of microscopic
interest are included in the following observa-
tions'by Blumenbach. " The leaves are es-
sentially the same in composition with the
trunk and branches, inasmuch as it is possible
to distinguish in them cuticle, bark, woody
substance and medullary cellular structure.
The latter occupies the middle of the leaf, be-
tween the two reticular layers of woody sub-
stance, from which the other parts may be
removed by corrosion and similar processes,
leaving a skeleton leaf, as it is called. This
reticular woody substance is covered on both
sides of the leaf with a peculiar membrane,
generally called cuticle, but differing mater-
ially from the proper cuticle already men-
tioned, (which is really expanded over the
outer surface of the leaves,) and penetrated by
numerous absorbing vessels."
We extract some interesting remarks con-
cerning leaves, from an author before quoted ; *
and the reader will admire the acuteness with
which he has anticipated the comparatively
recent discovery of the cyclcsis, or circulation
in plants.
" The leaves of trees or plants are full of
innumerable veins arid ramifications, that con-
vey the perspirable juices to the pores, for
their discharge. Whether or no there be any
circulation in them is still a matter of doubt;
but as their juices, when let out, immediately
* Baker. The Microscope made Ea«y, p. 216.
GOO
SUPPLEMENT
break, corgulate. and become a stiff jelly, it
seems probable there may be some circulation
which prevents the same effects in the vessels.
The sudden shrinking, 'closing, and opening
of flowers, the rising and sinking of the heads
of poppies, &c., the vermicular motions of the
veins of plants when exposed to the air, seem
also to imply somewhat like sensation. The
microscope may perhaps be of service to dis-
cover much more on these subjects than we
yet know. Mr Leeuwenhoeck tearing to
pieces a leaf of the species of box called Palma
cereris, that he might examine it the better,
computed one side of it to be furnished with
one hundred and seventy-two thousand and
ninety pores ; and as the other side must have
as many, (?) the whole number of pores in a
single leaf of box will be three hundred and
forty-four thousand, one hundred and eighty.
The leaves of rue seem full of holes, like a
honey-comb ; all the kinds of St John's wort
appear likewise struck full of pin-holes to the
naked eye ; but the microscope shows that the
places where those holes seem to be, are really
covered with an exceeding thin and white
membrane. The under side of the herb Mer-
cury, looks as if rough cast with silver, and the
ribs full of white round transparent balls, like
numberless grapes, fastened by slender foot-
stalks. A sage leaf appears like rug or shag,
full of knots, tasseled with silver thrums, and
embellished with fine round crystal beads or
pendants, fastened by little foot-stalks. The
under side of a rose leaf, but especially of
sweet-briar, looks diapered Avith silver."
" Every body knows that the leaves of sting-
ing nettles are thick set with sharp prickles,
that penetrate the skin when touched, and
occasion pain, heat, and swelling . which
symptoms were imagined, formerly, to ensue
from the prickles being left in the wounds
they make. But the microscope discovers
something much more wonderful in this com-
mon vegetable, and shows that its prickles are
formed and act in the same manner as the
stings of living animals. For every one of
them is found to be a rigid, hollow body, ter-
minating in the most acute point imaginable,
with an opening near its end. At the bottom
of this cavity lies a minute vessel or bag, con-
taining a. limpid liquor, which, upon the least
touching of the prickles, is spirted through the
little outlet ; and, if it enters the skin, pro-
duces the mischief before mentioned by the
pungency of its salts. Hence it comes to pass,
that when the leaves of the nettles are consid-
erably dried by the heat of the sun, they sting-
but very little ; whereas such as are green
and juicy, produce violent pain and inflamma-
tion. But the quite contrary to this would
happen, if the symptoms were only owing to
the breaking of the prickles in the flesh : since
when dry, they must be more brittle, as well
as more rigid, than when they abound with
ce." Our author concludes his remarks
3y suggesting this query : — " Are there any
valves in the vessels of vegetables, as in those
of animals, to let the juices pass, but hinder
their return ?" To this inquiry we believe
no answer has yet been returned by any sub
sequent observer; it is scarcely necessary to
say that it is deserving of patient investiga-
tion.
We must now briefly glance at the general
structure of those cryptogamian plants, whose
parts are too minute to be distinctly seen by
the naked eye. Of these plants there arc
four Orders: — the Ferns, the Mosses, the
Algae, and the Fungi.
The most remarkable features in the ferns,
namely, their seed-vessels and seeds, have al-
ready been noticed. The seed-vessels are
termed capsules, and are usually surrounded
by an elastic ring ; the seeds themselves are
named sporules. These are objects that re-
quire considerable magnifying power to de-
velope them. The leafy stem of the fern (the
frond) is an object of great interest when viewed
on the under side, which exhibits all the seed-
vessels arranged in regular dotted lines.
The mosses are a numerous family of very
minute plants. " They are supposed to be
devoid of woody fibre and vascular tissue.
When a leaf is carefully examined, the septa
which divide the different cells that compose
it, will in many species be found to consist of
a single spiral line, taking a spiral course from
one end of the cell to another. To observe
this, it will be advisable previously to soak
the moss in water, in order to expand the cells.
In collecting mosses, it is essential to procure
them with the theca (before noticed and illus-
trated,) " as without it, it is very difficult to
determine the genera to which they belong."
Plate 35, fig. 37, is a leaf of sphac/num, more
usually known under the name of bog-moss.
By reflected light, and when laid on a dark-
coloured stage, it appears delicately white,
and the fibrous structure of the septa is readily
perceived. When viewed by transmitted
light, the regularly disposed hexagonal cells
present the appearance of delicate tracery, or
lattice work. It is here shown under the low
power of 100 on the surface. " Mosses of all
kinds are agreeable objects, and appear, by
the microscope, to be as perfect in their leaves,
flowers and seeds, as the largest plants or trees.
Those, particularly, that grow on the rocks
and coastsof the sea, exhibit amazingbeauties."
The order, named alyce, includes the lichens,
fuci, and confervae ; and those exceedingly
minute vegetations which compose the green
matter on unfrequented paths, and also the
various kinds of mouldiness, may be placed
ON MICROSCOPIC DISCOVERY.
601
under this onlor. The lichens grow on rock,
the trunks of trees, old palings, &c., and are
more usually known by the names of wall-
moss and tree-moss. Their generic distinc-
tions are founded on a microscopic examina-
tion of their organs of fructification, which
commonly resemble little cups or shields. The
fuci (or sea-weeds) form a most interesting
class of microscopic objects ; there is a won-
derful variety of them, and the structure of
every genera is either exceedingly beautiful,
or singularly curious in its details. Plate 35,
fig. 38, exhibits a species of sea-weed, under
a superficial amplification of 100. The con-
fervas are aquatic vegetations consisting of
capillary tubes only, and in many of them
the mode of propagation is extremely simple :
in the conferva fontinalis, it consists merely in
" the enlargement of one end of the thread-like
plant into a globular ball, which afterwards
tails off and expands into a thread of the same
kind." The confervfce include the genera
Chara, and Nitella, in which, as before ob-
served, the cellular circulation is distinctly
seen. The appearances presented under the
microscope, by the differertt kinds of mouldi-
ness is most remarkable. Every species is
resolved into a perfect plant, " bearing," says
Baker, " leaves, flowers, and seeds, and in-
creasing in a manner almost incredible : for
in a very few hours the seeds spring up, ar-
rive at full maturity, and bring forth seed
themselves; so that a day produces several
generations of them." The usual form of these
minute plants consist of a capillary tube, the
stem, and a small round head, the fruit or seed
vessel ; this latter ripens, bursts open, and
scatters the seed around it. The fungi, of
which the common- mushroom is a representa-
tive, " consists of plants mostly of a spongy or
cork-like texture ; they are generally of short
duration, and bear their seeds in gills or tubes,
or attached to fibrous or spongy substances.
Their generic characters are taken from the
disposition of their seeds, or from their external
figure or appearance. The greater number
of the fungi are indigestible poisonous matter,
and the edible mushrooms ought to be collected
with care."1 Mr Pritchard observes, — "their
structure is simple, and mostly consists of cell-
ular tissue, in which the minute seeds or
sporules are disposed. They are found in all
damp places in which there is not a free cur-
rent of air." Before the invention of the mi-
croscope, it was believed that the various kind
of fungi " might be generated at any time,
and from any kind of putrified substance, either
animal or vegetable, without seed ; merely by
the friendly concurrence of either natural or
artificial heat and moisture." In reference to
1 See Botanical Chart in the Popular Encyclopedia.
VOL. II.
this opinion, an old niicrograplier justly re-
marks : — '• It must be owned, that heat and
moisture, and oftentimes a degree of putrefac-
tion in the substance, are requisite to make
these little plants thrive ; but that such prin-
ciples should be able to create them, must, I
think, be past belief." The destructive fungi
of wood, (merulius destruens and vastator^) more
popularly known as the dry rot, are singular
microscopic objects when examined in detail ;
as are also the uredo seg6tum,8ic., which cause
rust, smut, &c., in grain, and whose fructifica-
tion consists in a mealy powder, under the
cuticle of the plants.
With a brief mention of the microscopid
phenomena exhibited in the woody formations
of trees, shrubs, &c., we shall conclude our
survey of the vegetable kingdom. " The stem
of trees and shrubs is covered externally with
a very fine cuticle, (rind,) under which lie
the bark and the liber (Bass,) the latter con-
sisting almost entirely of the most active sap
vessels, and consequently, one of the parts most
essential to the support of the plant. Placed
more internally, is the alburnum (sap ;) next
to it is the true wood, and next, the medulla
(pith) partly within the interstices of the wood,
partly down the middle of the stem ; its quan-
tity gradually diminishing as the age of the
tree increases. In plants of this kind too, one,
or more properly, two new layers of wood are
produced yearly, probably by the alburnum,
whence it is possible, from the number of such
concentric layers, to form an estimate of the
probable age of the plant. The wood of palms
forms an exception to this disposition, in which
no such concentric layers exist, the trunk being
equally dense throughout, very hard, and ap-
parently traversed by partial tubes of albur-
num. This circumstance is of importance in
assisting the decision as to the nature of fossil
woods." In thin transverse and vertical sec-
tions of woods, (such as are prepared by Mr
Pritchard for the gratification of the micros,
copic observer,) all, or the greater part, of the
characteristics above named, are clearly dis-
tinguishable under a moderate magnifying
power. The great points of inquiry and ex-
amination in this class of objects, are the form
and disposition of the cellular tissue, woody Jibre,
and vascular tissue. "The cellular tissue com poses
the pith and soft parts of a tree or plant ; when
minutely examined, it is found to consist of
distinct vesicles of various forms cohering
together: they vary in size from l-30th ot an
inch to 1-GOOth ; the largest are found in
aquatic plants and in the gourd tribe." This
cellular tissue, or the vesicles of which it is
composed, is filled with the nutritive juices
of the plant, whether absorbed by the bark or
furnished by capillary tubes from the root ;
and in these small reservoirs, it is probable,
4o
602
SUPPLEMENT
the fluids undergo a preparation for (lie pur-
poses they are to serve. " The woody-fibre is
best observed in the vertical sections, cut either
parallel or perpendicula'r to the medullary
rays : it consists of slender tubes gradually
diminishing towards the ends. The fibres
vary greatly in diameter ; the largest are in
the coniferae : in the lime-tree they often ex-
ceed l-50th of an inch. The vascular tissue
consists of membraneous tubes, with conical
extremities, internally furnished with fibre.
When the fibre consists of one or more threads
coiled spirally like a screw, it is called a spiral
vessel ; when the fibre consists of rings, it takes
the name of annular vessel; and if in small
pieces, ducted vessels, either reticulated or dotted."
The vascular tissue of plants acts in concert
with the cellular tissue for the collection and
preparation of the nutritive fluids. Our mi-
croscopic knowledge of the economy of vege-
table organization, is far from being complete ;
and, perhaps, at present we can do little more
than express our admiration at the wonderful
operations which muslbe continually going for-
ward in that laboratory, the trunk or stem of a
tree. " Every tree," Adams observes, "may be
considered as consisting of numerous concen-
tric strata or flakes, forming so many cones,
inscribed one within the other, and whose
number is almost indefinite. »The most ex-
terior contain the rudiments of the bark ; the
more interior, those of the wood. In the
germ they are gelatinous, by degrees they
become herbaceous, and in process of time
assume the consistence of wood. Thus the
stem, the root, and the branch, may be con-
sidered as formed of a prodigious number of
concentric vertical strata, each composed of
different fascicles of fibres ; which fibres are
again formed of smaller ones. The spaces
between these, and among the fibres, are filled
up, interwoven with, and connected by the
cellular tissue, of which the radial insertions
are formed."
Plate 35, fig. 39, exhibits the singular
formation of the aloe as developed in a trans-
verse section, under the amplifying power of
100 on the surface. This object discovers the
character of cellular tissue in a very pleasing
manner.
Fig. 40, shows the fine longitudinal fibres of
the palm, under a superficial power of 90,000.
Fig. 49, is a transverse section of the
clematis, showing, under a superficial power
of 400, the wonderful arrangement and ex-
quisite structure of its tissues.
We come now to consider the minute for-
mations and phenomena of the animal kingdom.
A large volume would scarcely suffice for a
particular and detailed examination of animal
minutiae : all therefore, that we can propose
to ourselves in a division of a single chapter,
is to take a general and comprehensive survey,
particularizing only in a few instances by way
of illustration
We commence with a slight notice of the
bony structures in animals. These are brought
under microscopic examination, in the same
way as the cuttings of wood ; viz. by obtaining
extremely thin vertical and transverse sections,
which are to be viewed both in a dry state and
moistened with water. We are instantly struck
with the resemblance between them and
vegetable formations : in the transverse sec-
tions we observe the cavity formerly occupied
by the marrow, answering to the medulla in
plants; the perforations, resembling cellular
tissue ; and the concentric circles, indicating
the process by which the structure is enlarged.
In verticle and oblique sections the vegetable
analogy is still preserved, in the disposition
and character of the fibres. The muscles of
animals are to be examined in like manner ;
by cutting thin slices of dried flesh in various
directions, and viewing them first in their dry
state, and afterwards when saturated with
water. The formation of the fibres and
muscular vessels, (the latter much resembling
the vascular tissue of plants,) is worthy of at-
tentive examination ; it is not, however, the
mere beauty or singularity of formation that
renders them interesting, for from a micro-
scopic investigation of these structures we are
enabled to infer with certainty concerning the
strength and activity of the animals to which
they respectively belong. The horns, hoofs,
nails, &c. of animals form a class of objects
that are brought under view in the same man-
ner as the preceding. Thin slices cut in
two or three directions exhibit the fibres and
cellular cavities ; and a vegetable structure is
farther evidenced by treating them as opaque
objects, and observing the character of the ex-
terior. If, for instance, the outer surface of
the human nails be attentively examined, it
will be found to consist of a vast number of
layers ; and if we fake a hedgehog or porcu-
pine's quill (the slructure of which is the same
in principle with that of the nails, hoofs, &c.)
we shall discover the true nature of these
layers, which are, in fact, conical cups shoot-
ing successively one out of the other. Plate
34, fig. 27, exhibits a transverse section of a
hedge-hog's quill, wherein we see a medulla
or pith, cellular cavities, and other vegetable
characteristics. We perceive, then, a won-
derful analogy in these structures to the
woody formations of trees, both in the internal
disposition of parts, and the exterior accessions
arising from progressive growth. The hairs
of different animals are very similar to the
horns and nails, &c. inasmuch as they consist
of cups inserted within each other, and in-
teriorly exhibit, (so far as micrographers have
ON MICROSCOPIC DISCOVERY.
603
succeeded in examining transverse sections,)
nearly the same vegetable characteristics. In
general, however, the cups are more readily
distinguished in hairs than in the nails, or
porcupine's quills, and other objects of this
class ; there is also a much greater variety of
structure in the former than in the latter.
Plate 34, figs. I to 7, exhibit some interesting
varieties of hairs, of which we shall speak in
order. We give no illustration of the human
hair, because in the adult its character is so
much defaced by friction, that it exhibits,
even under a deep power, little more than the
appearance of a polished cylinder. In the
hair of an infant newly born, the serratures
on the sides, or more properly, the cup shaped
processes, are readily distinguished ; we had
not, however, when engaged on our drawings,
an opportunity of procuring a specimen. Hairs
may be described generally as cylindrical
bodies, composed of a vast number of minute
fibres, with cellular cavities interposed ; some
have spiral lines running up the interior ; and
from observation of a few varieties, it may be
inferred that all are furnished with an appa-
ratus resembling the stomata in the leaves of
vegetables. We proceed at once to describe
the figures before referred to.
Fig. 1. The hair of the Dermesfes. — This
insect belongs to the order coleoptera, and is
remarkable for the beautifully formed hair
which covers it in the larva state. There is
a variety in the structure ; some of the hairs
resemble an oat beard, and others exhibit the
character shown in our specimen. A more
delicate and beautiful object than the spear-
shaped hair can scarcely be submitted to the mi-
croscope. The lowest power by which it can
be seen, is 100 linear ; but to develope its
details satisfactorily, a power of 200 linear is
requisite, which is the one we have used.
This object is considered an excellent test of
the defining power of a good microscope.
Fig. 2. The hair of a mouse. — The char-
acteristics of this subject, when viewed by
transmitted light, are dark, transverse stripes,
some of which are broken, whilst others extend
quite across the hair. On closer and more
attentive observation, these appearances are
discovered to arise from a kind ot spiral spring
occupying the tube of the hair, and a number
of imperforations on the surface.
Fig. 3. The hair of a bat. — From the re-
semblance between the mouse and the bat, it
will excite a little surprise to observe the very
decisive difference of structure in the hairs of
these two animals. That of the latter some-
times presents the appearance of a screw, or
of a number of small conical cups inserted
into eacli other ; other specimens seem to be
formed of two distinct hairs twisted together ;
and some exhibit in connection with these pe-
culiarities, striped markings resembling those
on the hair of the mouse.
Fig. 4. The hair of a bee. — This is a very
beautiful object, but requires a good defining
power to show the structure satisfactorily.
The hair itself resembles a jointed bamboo
cane ; and from each joint small delicate
spines shoot out. The hair terminates in a
number of these spikes, one of which is uni-
formly longer than the rest.
Fig. 5. The hair of a. dormouse. — This is
very similar to the hair of a mouse. The
points of difference seem to consist in the
regularity of the stripes on that of the dormouse,
and its greater delicacy.
Fig. 6. The hair of a mole. — This is a most
singular structure. The interior exhibits the
remarkable transverse stripes observed in the
hair of the mouse and dormouse, and the ex-
terior presents a formation somewhat resem-
bling that of the bat's hair.
Fig. 7. The hair of a caterpillar. — We
notice a great similarity between this object
and the hair of a bee. The tube of the hair
is not jointed, however, in the caterpillar, and
the lateral spines curve the contrary way.
These objects are all shown as developed
by a doublet linear power of 200.
The next animal appendage to which we
shall allude is the feathers of birds, wherein
we notice very distinctly the same degree of
analogy to vegetable formations, as is found
to exist in the hair, &c. The microscopic in-
quirer is frequently called upon to pause and
admire the wonderful adaptation of parts in the
various structures he examines; and to note
the absolute dependency ot the largest forma-
tions on the microscopic elements of which
they are composed. Let us illustrate this
remark in the case of feathers. — The feathers
of birds unite to form the wing, a locomotive
member which must be light, yet at the same
time impervious to air ; which must have
great freedom of motion, and yet not be liable
to permanent disarrangement of its parts. The
most superficial observer will have noticed the
way in which the feathers are disposed in the
wing; they over-lap each other through their
whole length, and this principle of over lap-
ping extends to all the divisions and minute
subdivisions of the feathers. Another thing
also is loo obvious to have escaped notice, that
the upper side of every feather is convex, and
the under side concave, and that the convex
side of one feather lies partly within the con-
cave side of another. This principle of forma-'
tion likewise extends to the most minute parts.
Then again there is an elastic force exerted in
every feather, and in every part of a feather,
for preserving and restoring the natural ar-
rangement. There is, in short, a beautiful
display of creative Wisdom in the wing of a
604
SUPPLEMENT
bird, whether we regard the material of which
it is wrought, the elegance of its several parts,
or the admirable dependency of those parts
on each other. A feather consists of three
distinct parts — the quill, the stem, and the
fibres that clothe the stem on each side. The
quill is at once the root of the structure, and
a reservoir for the nutriment required to sus-
tain it. The stem is the tree trunk ; and the
literal fibres are the branches which it puts
forth. When we examine one of these fibres
microscopically, we find smaller fibres arranged
along its edges ; and if these last be subjected
to a very deep power, we discover that they
are, in like manner, fringed with fibres cor-
respondingly minute. The most delicate
filaments of the feather exhibit a hair-like
structure, being composed of cups inserted one
within another ; or they present the appear-
ance of a jointed cane. The last named pecu-
liarity is illustrated in plate 34, fig. 8, which
shows an exceedingly minute filament of fea-
ther down as it appears under a linear magni-
fying power of 300. The exquisite finish of
the joints is very remarkable. We shall offer
only one general illustration of the structure
of feathers, selecting our specimens from the
delicate plumage of the humming-bird, as ex-
hibited and detailed in plate 34, figs. 26, 31,
34, 35, 36. Before entering into a descrip-
tion of these objects, we step aside to notice a
remark by Mr Pritchard on the hair of the
bird-catching spider of South Amercia, (Micro-
scopic Objects, pi. 9.) " That taken from the
palpi is branched, and towards the extremity
the central stem enlarges, becomes fluted, and
assumes a bright orange colour. The use of
this augmentation in bulk towards the end is
not ascertained ; but I may remark that a
similar structure, on a larger scale, may be
observed in the small feathers from the breast
of the Indian humming-bird." Now from
observing a number of these feathers in dif.
ferent stages of developement, the writer was
enabled to ascertain the real character of the
formations to which Mr Pritchard alludes ;
and the reader will, we think, be disposed to
admire their singular use and remarkable
structure. Figs. 31 and 35, are perfect fea-
thers, about one-tenth of an inch in length ;
the latter exhibits the orange-coloured " en-
largements" just named and a number of
downy fibres of a pearly-gray tint. It forms
a most beautiful opaque object for the micro-
scope ; the rich colour of the pods contrasting
very pleasingly with the other parts of the
feather. Fig. 34, is one of the pods much
enlarged ; and we call particular attention
to the lateral fibres which are escaping from
crevices or fissures on each side of the pod.
We could have given other illustrations on
this point, showing the gradual opening of the
pod, and the expansion of the fibres therein
contained. Fig. 26, exhibits the ultimate
character of the pod when it has burst, and
suffered the formation within fully to expand
itself. In this state it still retains the bright
orange tint. Fig. 31, presents a faithful de-
lineation of the feather when all the pods have
opened. The three tufts which terminate
each division are worthy of regard ; and the
beautiful regularity of the whole must excite
admiration. It will be noticed that in under-
going this wonderful alteration of form, the
feather loses much of the fine downy filaments
observable in fig. 35. We should likewise
remark, that the perfect developement of the
feather is in some degree dependent on the
position it occupies on the body of the bird ;
for we observed several specimens in which the
pods gave no sign of opening, though the fea-
thers were as mature in other respects as those
which were on the point of full expansion.
Fig. 36, is one of the finest fibres of fig. 35,
magnified 300 times in diameter. In passing
from this brief notice of feathers, we would
earnestly recommend the admirer of natural
beauty, (if he should be a person with sense
sufficient not to despise small thimjs^) to amuse
his leisure hours by attentively examining the
structure of the various plumage that adorns
the feathered race.
We proceed to remark upon the scales and
perspiratory pores of the human skin. The
scarf-skin of the human body is covered in all
parts with rows of exceedingly minute scales,
disposed three deep, that is, the first line of
scales is in a good degree covered by the se-
cond, and the second by the third. The white-
ness of the exterior skin is probably owing to
this triplication of the scales, since on the lips,
where they scarcely overlay each other at all,
the minute blood vessels shine distinctly.
Owing to the constant friction of the hands
and feet, and their becoming callous by con-
tinued use, it is not easy to procure good spe-
cimens of the scales from these members ;
but from any of the unexposed parts of the
body they are readily obtained, by scraping
the skin with the back of a penknife. To the
naked eye they appear a mass of indistin-
guishable white-dust; but if they be suspend-
ed in a drop of water, which causes them to
separate, their true form is very pleasingly
developed. Their figure resembles the upper
half of a spear's head. To obtain a microsco-
pic view of the arrangement of the scales, cut
from between the fingers with a very sharp
penknife, an extremely thin piece of the skin
and submit it to a powerful magnifier. The
shortest diameter of these scales does not ex-
ceed 1- 1 500th of an inch; and their number
on a square inch of the human body is not
less than one million.
ON MICROSCOPIC DISCOVERY.
605
The pores of the skin are minute excretory
ducts, discharging the superfluous humours
oi' the body ; they also convey to the absorbent
vessels of the true skin, the fluid and gaseous
products of the surrounding atmosphere.
Hence it is, that a derangement of these mi-
nute valves, or a suspension of their functions,
causes serious injury in the animal economy ;
and it is almost a demonstrable fact, that all
the diseases to which the human body is lia-
ble, take their origin from a partial or gene-
ral interruption to the porous machinery oi' the
skin. It will readily be conceived that great
disorders must arise in the system when the
exhalation of humours is stopped, and those
active agents the absorbents, are inactive. As
a preservative of health, nothing is more wor-
thy of attention than this simple precept ; —
wash the skin clean, remove with flesh-brushes
all the scales which are daily shed, and which
it' suffered to remain upon the skin, mat toge-
ther and impede the action of the pores; when
the perspiration is too scanty, as evidenced
by extreme dryness of the skin, use medicines
that will determine the humours to the sur-
face ; when the perspiration is too profuse, as
indicated by an excess on the least exertion,
take medicines to moderate the activity of the
secretory organs. Here is a volume of do-
mestic medicine in a few lines.
To view the pores, it is necessary with a
keen-edged penknife, to shave off the outer
surface of the skin as thinly as possible, and
then to cut a second piece from the same place ;
there is no fear of inconvenience from the ope-
ration, if it be performed with a light hand,
and the skin be taken from between the fin-
gers. The pores are covered by the scales ;
indeed it would appear that the latter are prin-
cipally, if not wholly designed, as a protecting
covering to these minute vessels. The num-
ber of the pores dispersed over the human
skin is too large for our conceptions ; and when
we state, that on thelowestestimate,it amounts,
in round numbers, to two thousand millions ;
we offer this announcement, simply as an ef-
fective comment on the scriptural declaration,
that "we are fearfully and wonderfully made."
The process of perspiration may be pleasing-
ly observed on a warm day, in the following
manner : — wash the hands with soap and warm
water, and dry them thoroughly, then with a
magnifier of one half inch focal distance, ob-
serve the small ridges in the palm of the hand,
and along the edges of these, the perspiration
will be seen arranged like rows of pearls, or
more properly, like dew drops on a flower.
The scales of fishes are objects of great in-
terest to the microscopic inquirer, from the
variety of form and texture observable in them.
Exceedingly minute scales have been detected
by the microscope lying between the epider-
mis and the true skin of an eel. We extract
a few general remarks on this class of objects
from Baker. " These scales are not supposed
to be shed every year, nor during the whole
life of the fish, but have an annual addition
of a new scale, growing over and extending
every way beyond the edges of the former, in
proportion to the growth of the fish ; some-
what in the same manner as the wood of trees
enlarges yearly, by the addition of a new cir-
cle next the bark ; and as the age of a tree
may be known by the number of ringlets its
trunk is made up of, so in fishes, the number
of plates composing their scales denote to us
their age. Mr Leeuwenhoeck took some
scales from an extraordinary large carp, forty-
two inches and a half long, and thirty-three and
a quarter in the round, which were as broad as
a dollar. These he macerated in warm water,
to make them cut the easier ; and then cutting
obliquely through one of them, beginning witli
the first formed, and very little scale in the
centre, he by his microscope, plainly distin-
guished forty lamellae or scales, glued as it
were over one another ; whence he concluded
that the fish was forty years of age." To the
arguments here used we have sundry objec-
tions to offer: in the first place, the scale of a
fish increases exactly in the same manner as
a crystal, (say the crystal of common salt), by
superposition of thin laminas, and so far as
we have observed, it is as impracticable to as-
certain the exact number of layers in the one
as in the other; and consequently we can de-
rive from the scales no perfect data whence
to compute the age of the fish. And in the
second place, the yearly addition of a layer to
the scale, is nothing more than a mere suppo-
sition, from an overstrained analogy. If then,
the superpositions be effected in other than
yearly intervals, the age cannot be determin-
ed; neither, we presume, can it be determined
by admitting the yearly additions, for we are
not assured when using the deepest magnifiers,
that we see the ultimate divisions. Indeed
Leeuwenhoeck himself states, that the scales
of fishes are composed of an infinitude of layers
or laminae ; an admission founded in fact, and
altogether fatal to the fanciful hypothesis we
have noticed. These objects require to be
viewed both by transmitted and reflected light,
in order that all their peculiarities of surface
and structure may be satisfactorily observed.
The crystalline lenses of fishes and other ani-
mals exhibit a most astonishing structure un-
der the microscope. We are indebted to Sir
David Brewster for a minute and particular
description of these formations, which we shall
present to the reader in his own words, intro-
ducing it by two or three sentences from Mr
Pritchard's Microscopic Objects. "If the crys-
talline lens in the eye of a fish, be minutely
606
SUPPLEMENT
examined by the aid of the microscope, it will
be found to be composed of concentric strata
or layers, somewhat resembling the coats of
an onion. One of these laminae separated,
and placed under a powerful microscope, will
be seen to consist of flat fibres or bands, aris-
ing from each pole of the globular lens, and
expanding towards the equator, like the spaces
between the meridians on the artificial globe.
The edges of these fibres are serrated, and
fit into each other like the teeth of a double
rack, or the sutures of the human skull."
" When the power," observes Sir D. Brews-
ter, "is small, or the microscope not good, or
the laminas too thick and riot nicely detached,
each row of interlocking teeth appears as a
dark line, sometimes as sharp as a black line
drawn upon paper with a pen. Sometimes
the lines appear rough and ragged, and as
the fibres become less in approaching the
poles, the black lines are as difficult to resolve
into teeth, as the lines on test objects. The
following measures will show what a wonder-
ful structure in the eye has been disclosed to
us by the microscope. The calculations refer
to the lens of a cod, four-tenths of an inch in
diameter.
Numbe of fibres in ench laminae, . 2500.
Numbe of teeth in each fibre, . . 12,500.
Numbe of teeth in each laminae, . 31,250000.
Numbe of fibres in the whole lens, . 5,000,000.
Numbe of teeth in the lens, . 62,500,000,000.
Or the lens of a cod contains five millions
of fibres, and sixty two thousand five hundred
millions of teeth ; and if we reckon the curved
end of the tooth as one surface, each tooth
will have six surfaces, which come into
contact with the corresponding surfaces of (he
adjacent tooth, so that the number of touching
surfaces will be three hundred and seventy-five
thousand millions, and yet this little sphere of
tender jelly is as transparent as a drop of the
purest water, and allows a beam of light to
pass across these almost innumerable joints,
without obstructing or reflecting a single ray."
We have here given Sir D. Brewster's des-
cription verbatim ; but we must enter our pro-
test against the system of wonder-making,
into which it appears even this eminent philoso-
pher can occasionally fall. No useful end
is obtained by entering into minute numeri-
cal details, of which the human mind can con-
jure up no idea ; this practice prevailed with
the early micrographers, and the consequence
was, that their writings fell into neglect, and
ultimately excited little attention, except from
those who delighted to number the repetitions
of a letter in the Bible, or to resolve the vast
bulk of the ocean into separate drops of wa-
ter. It is this practice, and it only, that has
caused a distaste for microscopic inquiry, and
exhibited it as a puerile pastime which should
give place to loftier pursuits. Let all the
wonders of the minute world be unveiled; but
let this be done without ridiculous exaggera-
tion or valueless precision. The microscope
will never be other than a childish toy, so
long as the observer's aim be rather to bewil-
der than to inform the popular mind. We
have deemed it right to make these observa-
tions, at a time when the instrument is ap-
proaching, possibly, to its highest perfection,
and when, in the words of Dr Goring, " a
new and golden age of observation may be
expected to commence."
The nature of the blood, and Us circulation
through the veins and arteries of animal bo-
dies, can be thoroughly understood only by
microscopic observation. " When Dr Har-
vey made his grand discovery of the circula-
tion of the blood, and first lectured upon it in
St Bartholomew's hospital in 16 19, he was
ridiculed, and lost his practice through main-
taining what was then supposed to be so ab-
surd and wild a theory. The idea was sug-
gested to his mind by reflecting on the valves
of the heart and veins, which were evidently
so planned as to allow a fluid to pass but one
way. All the philosophical reasoning, how-
ever, of this celebrated man, could riot esta
blish what appears to us so plain a truth, un-
til it was evidenced in the circulation of cold
blooded animals by means of the microscope,
and thus placed beyond a doubt. Discerning,
as we can do, the very forms of the globules
of that fluid, as they flow through the capilla-
ries from the arteries to the veins, in obedience
to the laws impressed upon them by the A\
mighty Creator — viewing this sublime phe-
nomenon, by which life itself is diffused
throughout, and sustained in every part of (he
system, — who can resist conviction of the
great truth?" The same eloquent writer (Mr
Pritchard,) observes in another place : " The
globules of the blood may be seen passing ra-
pidly along the capillary ends of the arteries
into those of the veins, where the intervening
member is sufficiently diaphanous, as in the
ear of the young mouse, the fins and tail of
the carp, gold-fish, stickle-back, tadpole, and
of most small fish; and in the web between
the toes of the frog, lizard, eft, &c. In the
arachnoida, (spider tribe,) at the joints of the
legs, I have observed the circulation very dis-
tinctly, the current of dark globules passing
rapidly at each pulsation of the dorsal vessel.
In the antennae and wings of terrestrial in-
sects, it has also been seen when they have
just emerged from (he chrysalis, as in the
perla viridis and semblis bilineata. In several
aquatic larvae and small Crustacea, the circu.
lating fluid traverses the limbs, antennae and
tail, and thence moves along the dorsal vessel
towards the head, and down the sides of the
body, in cavities, and not distinct vessels j
ON MICROSCOPIC DISCOVERY.
(J07
hence called diffused circulation. The most
favourable subjects lor viewing this are the
larva of the ephemera, larva of hydrophilus,
small dysticus, &c. In several of the polypi-
ferous zoophytes, as the tubularia indivisa,
sertulariae, campanulariae, plumularias, &c.
Mr Lister has, by means of the achromatic
engiscope, discovered a circulation to exist,
which in many respects resembles that in
plants.'' We notice in the serum of the blood,
when microscopically examined, two distinct
kinds of bodies, named glubules and discs ; and
accordingly as the one or the other preponde-
rate in the fluid mass, the vital stream is
healthy or diseased. The globules appear to
be the true particles of the blood, and the discs
a simple cohesion of a number of these into a
circular plane ; a certain proportion of these
discs may probably give impulse to and assist
the circulation, whilst an undue quantity may
render the motion either too tardy or too vio-
lent. " Upon submitting the blood to the mic-
roscope, a remarkable fact will strike every
observer, viz. there will be seen a continual
motion of the globules, as if they were acted
upon by some unknown agency. This motion
appears completely vibratory, like a balance
which has received an impulse. It is difficult
to account for this phenomenon, but the fol-
lowing hypothesis is hazarded ; this seeming
tendency to motion in the globules may be
a material assistance to the impulse given by
the heart, whose mere mechanical force, (how-
ever great,) appears hardly sufficient to propel
the globules through such inconceivably mi-
nute ramifications, through which we know
it does pass, previous to reaching the organ of
circulation by the large veins."
We now direct oar remarks to the structure
of insects and their transformations, from which
we shall pass to a slight review of purely mi-
croscopical insects, or such as require the mag-
nifier to develope their entire figure: these
points accomplished, the present chapter must
be taken as complete.
The eggs of insects " assume a vast variety
of forms: some are furnished with covers, the
surfaces of many are elegantly embossed or
fluted, whilst others, as those of the bug, (ci-
mex lectularius,) have their surface curiously
granulated." ''The eggs are contained and
arranged in the body of the insect, in vessels
which vary in number and figure in different
species. It is a general rule, that eggs do
not increase in size after they are laid ; among
insects, however, we find an exception to this;
the eggs of the tenthredo of Linnaeus increase
after they are laid, but their shell is soft and
membranaceous. The eggs of insects differ in
their colours ; some may be found of almost
every shade, of yellow, green, brown, and
even black." The eggs of the lion puceron
are deposited on the leaves o'f the plum-tree,
and several other trees, in clusters of ten or
twelve. Each egg has a filament attached to
it; and sometimes the egg bursts, in which
state it resembles a minute flower with its
stem. These flower-like forms are the shells of
those eggs from which the insect has emerged.
" Divine Providence instructs the insects, by
a lower kind of perception, to deposit their
eggs not only in saiety from their numerous
enemies, but also in situations where a suffi-
cient quantity of food is on the spot, to sup-
port and nourish the larva, immediately on
breaking the shell. Some deposit their eggs
in the oak-leaf, producing there the red gall ;
others choose the leaf of the poplar, which
swells into a red node or bladder. The leaves
of the veronica and cerastium, are drawn into
a globular head by the eggs of an insect lodged
therein. In the Lapland Alps there is a fly
covered with a downy hair, called the rhein-
deer gad-fly ; it hovers all day over these ani-
mals, whose legs tremble under them. They
prick up their ears, and flee to the mountains
covered with ice and snow, to escape from a
little hovering fly, but generally in vain, for
the insect but too soon finds an opportunity to
lodge its egg in the back of the deer ; the
worm hatched from this egg perforates the
skin, and remains under it during the whole
winter : in the following year it becomes a
fly. The gnat, the ephemera, the libellula,
and the phryganea, hover over the water all
day to drop their eggs, which are hatched in
the water, and continue there all the time they
are in the larva state. The gnat lays but one
egg at a time, which she deposits on the water
in a very ingenious and simple manner ; she
stretches her legs out, and crosses them, thus
forming an angle to receive and hold the first
egg, a second egg is soon placed next the first ;
then a third, and so on, till the base is capa-
ble of supporting itself ; these, as they come
to maturity, sink deeper. The fecundity of
insects exceeds in an astonishing degree that of
all the productions of nature. The follow-
ing is an experiment of M. Lyonet on the
generation of a moth which comes from
the chenille a brass e : out of a brood of 350
eggs, produced by a single moth of this kind,
he took eighty, from which he obtained, when
they were arrived at their perfect state, fifteen
females ; whence he deduces the following
consequence : if eighty eggs give fifteen females,
the whole brood of 350 would have produced
sixty-five ; these sixty-five, supposing them
as lertile as their mother, would have pro-
duced 22,750 caterpillars, among which there
would have been at least 4265 females, who
would have produced for the third generation
a million and a half of caterpillars. It is not
surprising, therefore, that these insects should
COS
SUPPLEMENT
be so numerous in years favourable to their
propagation." Few insects, however, long sur-
vive their last transformation ; and notwith-
standing their amazing fecundity , mankind suf-
fer comparatively small annoyance from them,
in consequence of the voracity with which they
prey on each other, and the avidity with which
they are sought and devoured by birds and other
animals. The eggs of insects are for the most
part opaque objects, and admit only the ex-
amination of their outer surface ; in some few
instances, however, they can be viewed by
transmitted light when the interior structure
presents not unfrequently the most surprising
and interesting phenomena.
From the egg the insect emerges into the
larva, or caterpillar state, which exhibits a won-
derful variely of structure and beauty of detail,
wholly dependent upon the microscope for their
satisfactory developement. This period of
insect existence, with all the interesting phe-
nomena therewith connected, will be rendered
perfectly familiar by the instances we have
selected for description and illustration.
" The larva of the musca chamelion lives
in the water, breathes by the tail, and carries
its legs within a little snout near its mouth.
Itappears to consist of twelve annular divisions;
by these it is separated into a head, thorax,
and abdomen ; but as the stomach and intes-
tines lie equally in the thorax and abdomen,
it is not easy to distinguish their limits till
the insect approaches the pupa state. The
parts most worthy of notice are the tail and
snout. The tail is furnished with an elegant
crown or circle of hair, disposed quite round
in an annular form ; by means of this the
tail is supported on the surface of the water,
while the worm or larva is moving therein,
the body in the meanwhile hanging towards
the bottom ; it will sometimes remain in this
situation for a considerable time, without the
least sensible motion. When it is disposed
to sink to the bottom by means of its tail, it
generally bends the hairs of that part towards
each other in the middle, but much closer
towards the extremity ; by these means a
hollow space is formed, and the bladder of air
pent up in it, looks like a pearl. It is by the
assistance of this bubble, or little balloon, that
the insect raises itself again to the surface of
the water. If this bubble escape, it can re-
place it from the pulmonary tubes ; sometimes
large quantities of air may be seen to arise in
babbles from the tail of the worm to the sur-
face of the water, and there mix with the in-
cumbent atmosphere. This operation may be
easily seen by placing the worm in a glass
lull of water, where it will afford a very en-
tertaining spectacle. The snout is divided
into three parts, of which that in the middle
is immovable ; the two other parts grow from
the sides of the former ; these are movable,
vibrating in a very singular manner, like the
tongues of lizards and serpents. The greatest,
strength of the creature is fixed in these
lateral parts of the snout ; it is on these that
it walks when it is out of the water, appear-
ing, as it were to walk on its mouth, using it
to assist motion, as a parrot does its beak, to
climb, with greater advantage."
" We shall now consider the external
figures of this worm, as it appears with the
microscope. It is small towards the head,
larger about those parts which may be con-
sidered as the thorax ; it then again diminishes,
converging at the abdomen, and terminates
in a sharp tail, surrounded with hairs in the
form of the rays of a star."
" This worm, the head and tail included,
has twelve annular divisions. Its skin resem-
bles the covering of those animals that are
provided with a crustaceous habit, more than
it does that of naked worms or caterpillars ; it
is moderately hard, and like the rough skin
called shagreen, being thick set with a num-
ber of grains, evenly distributed. The sub-
stance of the skin is firm and hard, and yet
very flexible. On each side of the body are
nine spiracula or holes, for the purpose of re-
spiration ; there are no such holes visible on
the tail ring, nor on the third ring counting
from the head ; for at the extremity of the tail
there is an opening for the admission and ex-
pulsion of air ; in the third ring the spiracula
are very small, and appear only under the
skin, near the place where the embryo wings
of the future fly are concealed. The skin
has three different shades of colour ; it is
adorned with oblong black furrows, with spots
of a light colour, and orbicular rings, from
which there generally springs a hair, as in the
figure before us. Only the hair that grows on
the insect's side is represented. The differ-
ence in colour in this worm arises from the
quantity of grains in the same space ; for in
proportion as there is a greater or less quantity
of these, the furrows or rings are of a deeper
or paler colour. The head is divided into
three parts, and covered with askin, the grains
on which are hardly discernible. The eyes
are rather protuberant, and lie forwards near
the snout. It has also two small horns on the
fore part of the head, and a little above these
the eyes are situated. The snout is crooked,
and ends in a sharp point.
" The tail is constructed and planned with
great skill and wisdom. The extreme verge
or border, is surrounded by thirty hairs, and
the sides adorned with others that are smaller;
here and there the large hairs branch out into
smaller ones, which maybe reckoned as single
hairs. These hairs are all rooted in the outer
skin,which in this place is covered with rough
ON MICROSCOPIC DISCOVERY.
G09
grains. The hairs are very seldom disposed
in so regular a manner as they are represented,
except when the insect floats with the body
in the water, and the tail with its hairs a little
lower than the surface, for they are then dis-
played exactly as delineated in the cut annexed.
The tail serves the larva both for the purposes
of swimming and breathing, and it receives
through the tail that which is the universal
principle of life and motion in animals. By
means of the hairs it can stop itself at pleasure
when swimming, or remain suspended quietly
in the water for any length of time. The mo-
tion of the insect in swimming is very beauti-
ful, especially when it advances with its whole
body floating on the surface of the water: after
rilling itself with air by the tail. To set out,
it first bends the body to the right or left, and
then contracts in the form of the letter S, and
again stretches it out in a straight line : by
thus alternately contracting and extending the
body, it moves along on the surface of the
water. These larvas are generally to be found
in shallow standing waters, about the begin-
ning of June."
We are permitted by Mr Pritchard to copy
from the new edition of his Microscopic Illus-
trations (p. 70 et seq.) the following descrip-
tion and illustration of the larva of a British
Hydrophilus (Hydrophilus caraboides)
" In examining the peculiarities of the
structure and habits of this larva, what most
strikingly attracts our attention is its ferocious
and savage disposition, and the fitness of its
organs for the exercise of its ravenous propen-
sities. It may be safely asserted that no spe-
cies of larvae is known to be provided with
weapons of destruction so powerful, so numer-
vuz. n.
ous, and so well adapted to their end, as those
which this creature possesses. It is on this
account that it has been properly called the
Water Devil, -j. Its size is but little inferior to
that of the larvae of any of the British cole-
optera, as it measures, when arrived at ma-
turity, an inch and a half in length, while the
superior strength and courage manifested in
its attacks on small fish, and other animals
larger that itself, is truly surprising.
" About the latter end of April, and during
the month of May, small nests of these insects
are often found floating among weeds and
water plants, in stagnant pools, and are fre-
quently taken in the nets of those who are
searching for the early kinds of larva. They
are in the form of balls, of a dusky white
colour, and a silky texture, and have each a
small stem of the same nature as the nest, but
more dense. By means of this filament they
are attached to the roots or stalks of weeds at
the bottom of the water. In this situation
they remain during the winter, and are thus
effectually preserved from the effects of intense
cold. Early in the spring, the stem or cable
to which we have referred is detached from
the weeds, by the winds which at that time
prevail, and the nest rises to the surface of
the water, and there floating, receives the
genial influence of the sun. These nests may
be taken and placed in a basin of water, and,
as the season advances, hatched by the heat
of the sun. On the larva leaving the nest,
which it accomplishes by gnawing a hole in
the side, the infant immediately descends to
the bottom of th,e vessel, with its jaws extended
in search of prey, and eagerly devours all the
small aquatic insects that are within its reach ;
if however, there is a scarcity of food in the
immediate neighbourhood of the nest, they
may be seen to attack and devour each other."
" These larvas, as well as most of those of
the larger kind, are found at a greater depth
of water than are the smaller ones ; although,
in their pursuit of small prey, they may oc-
casionally be taken in shallow places. In its
infant state, this larva is very transparent ;
hence its internal structure may be clearly
distinguished. When about a quarter of an
inch in length, it swims very nimbly. The
colour of the head is a strong Indian yellow,
with darker shadings of a bright chestnut ; the
eyes are now bright carmine. It is more
sparingly covered with hairs, and its swim-
ming appendages are shorter than at a more
advanced period; and the head is larger, in
proportion to the size of the body, than when
the creature has arrived at maturity. In this
respect it resembles many other creatures in
its mode of growth, the head seeming to be
developed and perfected before the rest of the
system.'*
4 u
610
SUPPLEMENT
" The manner in which this larva treats its
prey evinces an extraordinary degree of in-
stinct. Many of the creatures on which it
feeds are crustaceous about the head and back ;
hence they are most vulnerable at the under
part of the body. This part, therefore, the
larva attacks ; and, to accomplish its aim,
swims underneath the intended victim, and
bending back its head, is enabled thus to reach
its prey by means of its jointed antennas. (The
illustrative figure represents a magnified view
of the larva taken while young.) Its next
operation is to pierce its prey with the curved
mandibles. Having thus secured its object,
it immediately ascends to the top of the water,'
and, holding it above the surface, so as to pre-'
vent its struggling, shakes it as a dog would
a rat. It next inserts the piercer and sucker,
(between the mandibles) which are capable'
of being thrust out or withdrawn at pleasure.
When the juices of the victim are not easily
procured by suction or exhaustion, the serrated
forceps are employed to tear and masticate it,
and thus cause the juices to be more easily
obtained. If its food be plentiful, this larva
arrives at its full growth in the course of three
or four months, and is then nearly opaque and
covered with hair. It can be kept several
days without food, and by this exinanition
its structure becomes considerably more trans-
parent ; while its natural ferocity w greatly
increased, so that it will attack and tight with
creatures much larger than itself, and even
with its own species. It may be remarked,
that it studiously avoids any contest with the
nepa, or water scorpion."
" On a fine sunny day the larvas rise to the
surface of the water, and delight to bask in
the sun ; but if watched they remain motion,
less, with their claws extended. If a stick,
or any other substance, be presented to them,
they will immediately seize it, and will some-
times suffer themselves to be cut into pieces
before they relinquish their hold. Their bife
has been considered poisonous by m;iny
persons, as it takes a greater length of time to
heal than other wounds of the same extent : so
that caution should be used in taking them.
Touching the anatomy of this creature, it may
be observed, that the sucker is contained in a
crustaceous sheath, and may be considerably
protruded or completely withdrawn at the
pleasure of the larva : in the annexed cut it
is shown extended to about three quarters of
its length. The eyes are compound, but of a
peculiar formation, consisting of seven oval
apertures ranged like leaves upon a branch.
The whole of the head and thorax are curi-
ously marked with a number of lines and
spots. The legs are six in number ; they are
thickly set with rows of hair on their opposite
sides, and each is furnished with a sharp claw.
The number of swimmers on each side is
seven ; they are covered with hairs, and to
the specimen from which the drawing was
taken, a vast number of vorticellce convcllaricB,
or bell-polypi, were attached. These will be
recognized in a subsequent engraving by their
bell-shaped figure. They sometimes infest
this species of larvae to such a degree as con-
siderably to impede its motion in swimming.
On each side of the abdomen, which com-
mences near the origin of the first pair ol
swimmers, arise the great tracheae, or air-
vessels, distinguished in the cut by a deeper
shade than the other parts; the two approach
each other near the tail, where an exceedingly
curious process is also distinctly exhibited.
The whole surface of the body is thickly
covered with hairs, and several tufts are dis-
posed in clusters with some regularity, down
the back and sides. The flexible pulsatory
organ, or dorsal vessel, situated at the lower
part of the body, is in perpetual motion. Its
form somewhat resembles the letter S inverted :
it however varies a little during its vibrating
motions. The use of the curious appendages
at the lower extremity of the body is unknown.
Its tail is bi-forked and crustaceous, and is
marked as shown in the cut. The short
line shows the natural size of the larva,
at the same period of its growth as that at
ON MICROSCOPIC DISCOVERY.
611
which the magnified drawing was made.
As it approaches maturity, it casts its skin
several times, from each of which it escapes
by a rent formed down the back."
" In this larva the air is supplied for res-
piration by proper orifices situated at the tail ;
and the creature is obliged to ascend to the
surface of the water, and elevate its tail out
of it, at every inspiration. When the air thus
inhaled has become unfit for inspiration, it is
expelled at the same orifice, and a small j
bubble may frequently be seen issuing from
the tail, and ascending in the water. On a
careful examination of the skin, which by the
bye affords an excellent object for the micro-
scope, there will not appear any spiraculae
along the sides, as in perfect insects."
We have been compelled to abridge Mr
Pritchard's description from want of space,
and we have likewise made a few necessary
verbal alterations to connect it with our wood
engraving : in the Microscopic Illustrations,
the figure is exhibited in a most elaborately
executed coloured plate.
The preceding instance has shown us the
voracious and fierce propensities of insects in
the larva state ; we now reverse the picture,
and discover the sufferings and inconveniences
to which they are themselves exposed. The
following are the curious observations of an
ingenious naturalist. " As I was observing,"
says he, ' ' one day some caterpillars which were
feeding voluptuously on a cabbage leaf, my
attention was attracted to a part of the plant,
about which a small ichneumon fly was buzz-
ing on its wing, as if deliberating where to
settle: 1 was surprised to see the herd of cater-
pillars, creatures of twenty times its size, en-
deavouring, in an" uncouth manner, by various
contortions of the body, to get out of its way,
and more so whenever the fly poised on the
wing as if going to drop ; at length the crea-
ture made its choice, and seated itself on the
back of one of the largest and fairest of the
cluster : it was in vain the unhappy larva en-
deavoured to dislodge the enemy. If the
caterpillar had shown terror on the approach
of the fly, its anguish at intervals now seemed in-
tolerable, and I soon found that it was in con-
sequence of the strokes or wounds given by
the fly. At every wound the poor caterpillar
wreathed and twisted its whole frame, en-
deavouring to disengage itself, by shaking off
the enemy, sometimes aiming its mouth to-
wards the place ; but it was all in vain, its
little, but cruel, tormentor kept its place.
When it had inflicted thirty or forty of these
wounds, it took its flight with a visible triumph ;
in each of these wounds the fly had deposited
an egg. I took the caterpillar home with me
to observe the progress of the eggs which
were thus placed in its body, taking care to
give it a fresh supply of leaves from time to
time; it recovered, to all appearance, in a few
hours, from the wounds it had received, and
from that time, for the space of four or five
days, seemed to feed with its usual avidity.
The eggs were all hatched into small oblong
voracious worms, which fed from the moment
of their appearance, on the flesh of the cater-
pillar, in whose body they were inclosed, and
seemingly without wounding the organs of
respiration or digestion ; and when they had
arrived at their full growth, they ate their
way out of the sides of the larva, at the same
time destroying it. The caterpillar, thus at-
tacked by the larvae of the ichneumon fly, never
escapes — its destruction is infallible ; but then
its life is not taken away at once ; the larva,
while it is feeding thereon, knows how to
spare the parts which are essential to its life,
because its own is at that time tied up in that
of the caterpillar. No butterfly is produced
from the caterpillar ; the worms that feed on
the wretched creature, are no sooner out of
its body, than every one spins its own web ;
and under this they pass the state of rest ne-
cessary to introduce them to their winged
form."
We conclude our notices of larvse with an
extract from Burt's " Observations on the
Curiosities of Nature," which appeared in
Chambers's Edinburgh Journal. The details
here offered are very similar to those just
given ; there are, however, several new and
interesting facts, connected with the present
instance, which justify the partial repetition.
" The capada worm, or insect-fly carrier,
is produced, like the silk-worm, from the eggs
which its mother scatters everywhere, after
she has undergone her metamorphosis into a
white butterfly. It begins to live at the end
of July, and at its birth is arrayed in a robe
of the most brilliant and variegated colours.
When on the point of undergoing its meta-
morphosis, in August, it throws off this superb
livery, and puts on another of an admirable
sea-green hue. This fundamental colour re-
flects all its various shades, according to the
different undulations of the animal, and the
different accidents of light ; but this new de-
coration announces the approach of a period
when it is doomed to undergo great tortures.
It is immediately assailed by a swarm of
ichneumon flies, one of which inserts itself into
each of the pores of its body, not an opening
'being left unoccupied. All its struggles to
get free of its tormentors are in vain. These
flies, which are so small they can only be
studied by the microscope, drive their stings
into the skin of their victim, over the whole
extent of its back and sides. Afterwards, and
all at the same moment, they slip their egga
into the bottom of the wounds which they have
612
SUPPLEMENT.
inflicted. No sooner is this operation per-
formed, than the ichneumon flies disappear,
and the patient remains for an hour in a
drowsy and even motionless state, out of which
it awakens to feed with its former voracity.
It then appears much larger, and its size in-
creases every day. Its green colour assumes
a deeper hue, and the tints produced by the
reflection of the light are more strongly marked.
About a fortnight after the worm has been
encumbered with this factitious pregnancy,
the prospect of a numerous progeny begins to
be apparent. By the aid of a microscope the
eggs may be seen hatching in the body of the
animal ; and as they are all produced at the
same instant, a single glance reveals the
capada worm covered with a living robe of
(larvae of) ichneumon flies. They issue from
every pore, all the body being covered with
them, only the top of the head appearing bare.
Its- colour then changes to dirty white, and the
little worms assume a black appearance to the
eye, although their true colour is a deep brown.
This operation lasts about an hour, and it is
followed by another, which is not much more
protracted, but still more singular. Immedi-
ately that the ichneumon worms are hatched,
without quitting the spot where they separate
themselves from the eggs, they yield a liquid
gum, which becomes solid on exposure to the
air. At the same time, and by a simultaneous
motion, they elevate themselves on their lower
extremities, shake their heads and one half of
their bodies, and swing themselves in every
direction. And now they commence a very
curious operation. Each of these animalcules
works himself a small and almost impercepti-
ble cocoon in the shape of an egg, in which
he wraps himself up. The formation of these
cocoons occupies only about two hours, and
myriads of them being crowded close together,
form a white robe, with which the capada
worm appears elegantly and comfortably
clothed ; but while they are thus busily array-
ing him in his new attire, he remains appar-
ently unconscious of their assiduities ; he is then
in a state of insect paralysis. As soon as this
covering has been completed, and the little
artists who wove it have retired to their cells,
the worm endeavours to rid himself of his
officious guests, and of the robe which con-
tains them, but he does not succeed in the at-
tempt without the greatest efforts. At length
he contrives to get rid of the encumbrance ;
but instead of his former fat and shining ap-
pearance, he presents all the decrepitude of
extreme old age. He is flaccid and dull ; his
skin is wrinkled and dirty ; and, in short,
symptoms of approaching dissolution begin to
show themselves. He still makes a desperate
effort to gnaw a few leaves, but he no longer
devours them with that voracity which indi-
cates a vigorous constitution. Shortly after-
wards he passes into the state of a chrysalis,
and in giving life to thousands of eggs, he
relinquishes his own."
The pupa state of insects is the intermediate
stage between the larva and the perfect deve-
lopement, and affords many opportunities to
the microscopical observer for detecting curi-
ous and interesting formations and phenomena.
" When the larva has attained to its full
growth and the parts of the future insect are
sufficiently formed beneath its skin, it prepares
for its change into the pupa state ; it seeks
for a proper place in which to perform the
important business. The different methods em-
ployed by these little animals to secure this
state of rest, may be reduced to four : 1. Some
spin webs or cones, in which they inclose
themselves. 2. Others conceal themselves in
little cells, which they form under ground.
3. Some suspend themselves by their posterior
extremity ; 4. While others are suspended
by a girdle that goes round their body. In
proportion as the change into the pupa form
approaches, the body is observed often to ex-
tend and contract itself ; the hinder part is
that which is first disengaged from the larva
skin ; when this part of the body is free, the
animal contracts and draws it up towards the
head ; it then liberates itself in the same man-
ner from the two succeedingrings, consequently
the insect is now lodged in the fore part of its
larva covering : the half which is abandoned
remains flaccid and empty, while the forepart
is swollen and distended. The animal, by
strong efforts, still forcing itself against the
fore part of the skin, bursts the skull into three
pieces, and forms a longitudinal opening in
the three first rings of the body ; through this
it proceeds drawing one part after the other,
by alternately lengthening and shortening,
swelling and contracting the body and differ-
ent rings ; or else, by pushing back the
exuvia, gets rid of its odious reptile form. The
larva, thus stripped from its skin, is what we
call the pupa, chrysalis, or aurelia, in which
the parts of the future insect are inclosed in a
crustaceous covering, but are so soft, that the
slightest touch will discompose them. The
exterior part of the chrysalis is, at first, ex-
ceedingly tender, soft, and partly transparent,
being covered with a viscous fluid ; this soon
dries up, thickens, and forms a new covering
for the animal, capable of resisting external
injuries ; a case, which is at the same time
the sepulchre of the larva, and the cradle of
the insect ; where, as under a veil, this won-
derful transformation is carried on. The chrys-
alis of the common white butterfly furnishes
a most beautiful object for the microscope.
Those who are desirous to examine the various
members of the insect in its pupa state, should
ON MICROSCOPIC DISCOVERY.
613
examine it before the forementioned fluid is
dried up, when it will be" found to be the per-
t'ect insect with the members glued together ;
these, by degrees, acquire sufficient force to
break their covering, and disengage them-
selves from the bands which confine them.
While in this state, all the parts of the insect
may be traced out, though so folded and laid
together, that it cannot make use of them ;
nor is it expedient that it should, as they
merely pass through this state to be hardened
and strengthened."
The exuviae or cast skins, of insects, in
their larva, pupa, or perfect state, form most in-
teresting microscopic objects. " \Ve find in
the exuviae of the caterpillar, the skull, the
jaws, and all the exterior parts, both scaly and
rnembranaceous, which compose its upper and
under lip, its antennae, palpi, and even those
crustaceous pieces within the head, which
serve as a iixed basis to a number of muscles ;
we further find the spiracula, the claws, and
sheaths of the interior limbs, and in general
all that is visible of the caterpillar." From
an attentive examination of the various exuviae
which are cast oft by insects in different stages
of their existence, we are led to consider them
a compound system of organized bodies, con-
tained one within another ; for we not only
find in the cast skins all the exterior charac-
ters of the insect, but even the coats of the
gullet, pulmonary tubes, tracheal vessels, &c.
Indeed, there is not in animated nature a
more incomprehensible phenomenon than the
faculty which insects possess of throwing off,
repeatedly, the first surface of their exterior
members and internal organs. The writer
was walking, some years since, on a warm
summer evening, along the banks of a river
in the south of England, when a number of
small ephemerae settled on his dress; he paid
particular attention to one that had alighted
on his arm, and witnessed, in the course of a
quarter of an hour, no few6r than five exuviae
thrown off by the insect. These moultings,
as they may be termed, appeared to be effected
with much effort and suffering : the body of
the insect swelled, and deepened in colour,
and seemed to be exerting great muscular
energy to detach the exuviae. Another change
of colour to dusky white, indicated the mo-
ment when the skin was about to be cast off ;
the insect appeared to emerge from it easily ;
and for an instant the rejected covering pre-
sented a perfect skeleton, but immediately
afterwards collapsed and shrivelled up. What
is very remarkable, the insect suffered no ap-
parent diminution of bulk from these repeated
skinnings, and at length flew off and joined
the countless swarrn that hovered about the
water, into which, after a very brief interval,
they would fall lifeless.
The jmago, or fly state of insects, is the
ultimate development of their forms, and
usually exhibits structures which for beauty
and delicacy are the very antipodes of the
larvae whence they are derived. For instance,
the unsightly caterpillar, crawling painfully
from leaf to leaf, or gorging itself with gross
nutriment, is transformed into the butterfly,
that skims lightly over the earth, or mounts
with sylph-like wing into the very clouds ;
which feeds daintily, and sips only the purest,
nectar of the opening flowers. It was a most
happy thought of the early times to make the
butterfly an emblem of immortality ; it was,
however, reserved for latter ages to discover all
the pertinence and value of the type. By the
aid of the microscope we have ascertained, that
not only the ravenous jaws and the whole exterior
parts of the larva are thrown off, even to the
eyes themselves, but that the internal system,
the stomach, lungs and various organs, are all
exchanged for other organs, members, and fa-
culties, suited to that higher state of existence
to which the insect form is summoned. Surely
we may, with no irreverent fancy, admire this
lively emblem of the corruptible putting on
incorruption, and the mortal putting on im-
mortality.
We proceed to notice the wonderful struc-
ture observable in the different parts and
members of insects.
The antenna and palpi are fine slender
articulated horns, movable in nearly all direc-
tions, and constituting Tone of the distinguish,
ing characteristics of the insect tribes. The
antennae are beautiful and various in form, of
a delicate structure, and so minutely jointed
as to be instantaneously movable at the plea-
sure of the insect. They are situated on the
fore part of the head. The articulations differ
in shape, length and number, and vary greatly
in different species ; the antennas of the male
differ also from those of the female. The
greater number of insects have only two an-
tennae, but some few have four. Regular rows
of minute holes are said to have been discovered
in the antennae. Several insects cover their
eyes with them whilst they sleep. Many
conjectures have been formed regarding the
use of these appendages : some have con-
sidered them organs of smelling and hearing,
others have supposed them to be appropriated
to a delicate species of feeling. From the
use to which the creature applies them, we
are perhaps justified in considering them the
organs of touch and hearing. If any sudden
noise be made close by an insect provided
with antennas, the motion of these horns suf-
ficiently indicates that they are affected by the
vibrations of the air; and, indeed, it is rational
to suppose that their delicate structure and
articulations must convey a sensation of sound
SUPPLEMENT
to the insect. That an acute sense .of touch
resides in the antennas, cannot be doubted by
any one who has noticed how carefully insects
pilot their way with them", and that they
never, except when flying, pass from one twig
or leaf to another without first testing its
security with their horns.
The annexed cut represents one of the an-
tennas of the Bombyx antiqua, highly magnified.
In the following figure, a portion of the an-
tennae is seen vertically, covered with an im-
brication of white scales or feathers, under
which the pectens issue on each side.
The head of the Bombyx caja, exhibiting
one antenna;, and the insertion of the other, is
represented by the following figure.
The palpi are small filiform articulated
horns, from four to six in number, placed
near the mouths of insects. These are usually
termed the feelers, as the creature is observed
to thrust them in every matter, as a hog
would its nose, when in search of food. Some
have supposed them to be a provision by which
the insect is enabled to hold its food near the
mouth.
The eyes of insects are a wonderful piece
of mechanism, differing considerably in their
construction from those of other animals.
" Among the exterior parts of insects, none
are more worthy of minute investigation, and
very few persons can be found who are insen-
sible to the beauties of this organ when ex-
hibited under the microscope, which instru-
ment alone can point out to us the prodigious
art employed in its organization." The eyes
of insects differ in different species ; they vary
also in number, situation, connection, and
figure. " In other creatures they are move-
able, and two in number ; in insects, the
genus cancri excepted, they are fixed ; they
have no eyebrows or eyelids, but the outer
coating is hard and transparent. The greater
part of insects have two eyes ; some have a
larger number varying from three to eight.
The eyes of insects are of two kinds : the
stemmata, or single eyes ; and the reticulated,
or clustered eyes." The stemmata were first
noticed by M. de la Hire ; they are three
lucid protuberances placed on the back part
of the head of many insects : their surface is
glossy, of an hemispheric figure, and a coal
black colour. Reaumur made experiments on
these eyes, and found that when they were
covered the insects flew to a small distance
only, and apparently at random; the reticu-
lated eyes appear to be adapted only for long
vision, and do not give distinct images of
objects close at hand. The reticulated eyes
are wonderful structures when examined by
the microscope : they are those hemispherical
protuberances on the sides of the insect's head,
which in the mass are obvious to the unas-
sisted eye, and are even seen, without optical
assistance, to be composed of a kind of net
work. Each protuberance, in its natural
state, is a body cut into a number of faces,
like an artificial multiplying glass ; but with
this superiority in the workmanship, that as
there, every face is a. plane, here, every one is
convex, immensely more numerous, and con-
tained in a much smaller space. If one of
these protuberances be taken from the head of
the insect, washed clean, and placed before
the microscope, its whole structure is seen,
and it becomes an object worthy of the highest
admiration. Each separate eye is found to
have an hexagonal, a quadrangular, or other
regular sided figure, varying in size according
to its situation in the head, and including a
convex, or in point of fact, a meniscus lens,
composed of a number of layers, which may
be separated by maceration, and subjected tc
special examination.
" The eyes of the libellula, or dragon-fly,
on account of their size, are peculiarly adapted
for microscopical examination ; and by the as-
sistance of the instrument, you will find that
ON MICROSCOPIC DISCOVERY.
615
they are divided into a number of hexagonal
cells, each of which forms a complete eye.
The external parts of these eyes arc so perfectly
smooth, and so well polished, that, when
viewed as opaque objects, they will, like so
many mirrors, reflect the images of all the
surrounding objects. The figure of a candle
may be seen on their surface multiplied almost
to infinity, shifting its beam to each eye, ac-
cording to the motion given to it by the hands
of the observer. Other creatures are obliged
to turn their eyes towards the object, but
insects have eyes directed thereto, on whatso-
ever side it may appear : they more than
realize the wonderful accounts of fabulous
history : poets gave to Argus an hundred eyes ;
insects are furnished with, thousands, having
the benefit of vision on every side with the
utmost ease and speed, though without any
motion of the eye or flexion of the neck."
The reticulated eyes in some of the fly class are
not inferior in appearance to the richest gems :
they exhibit nearly every variety of colour
under a brilliant and surpassing lustre. In con-
nection with the general description, we have
only to add that the number of separate lenses
in the hemispherical reticulations of some
insects are almost beyond belief: the agrion
rras no fewer than 12,000 distinct lenses, or
separate eyes, the common house fly 8,000,
the hawk moth 20.000, the libellula 12,544,
the melolontba 8,820, the mordella 25,088,
papilio 17,008, phaelana cossus 11,300, the
scarabseus 3,180. We in vain attempt to
reason regarding these lucid points, each of
which is a meniscus lens of several layers, con-
nected with a pyramid of fibres and pulmon-
ary tubes whose uses we cannot deter-
mine.
The tunrjne or proboscis of insects is a taper
and compact instrument, by which they oblain
the juices of plants or other nutriment requisite
for them. Some creatures can contract or
expand it. others roll it up with dexterity ; in
some it is inclosed within a sheath. It is
taper and spiral in the butterfly, tubular and
fleshy in the fly ; in all affording agreeable
amusement for the microscope.
The following represents the tongue of the
pajstoliurticaB taken out and unrolled, displaying
two segments, as united with the rugee of which
they are composed, and the papilta or absor-
bents towards the end.
The following figure on the left hand gives
a front view of the mouth without the palpi,
the clipeus being raised to show the opening
of the mouth and insertion of the tongue.
The right hand figure shows the manner in
which the tongue, after the extremity has been
applied to the nectary of a flower and has
absorbed the juices, is conveyed to the mouth,
and the papillas cleansed by scraping on the
under part of it.
Above is represented the under part of the
mouth and tongue, with the articulations of the
palpi.
"The bee's tongue, for its complex yet fin,
ished structure, and the trunk of the common
house-fly, with the spiral fibres of the muscles
which surround its termination, will amply re-
pay the pains of an attentive and minute ex-
amination." These two objects form the prin-
cipal subjects of our illustrations on this head ;
and the brief descriptions we are enabled to
give of them, will convey a general idea of the
wonderful structure and admirable adaptation
of parts by which these insect organs are dis-
tinguished.
Plate 34, fig. 32, exhibits the tongue or
trunk of the common house-fly, as it appears
under a considerable magnifying power. This
is one of the most interesting and beautiful
objects that can be submitted to the microscope,
especially when it is mounted in Canada bal-
sam and viewed by transmitted light. Baker
thus describes it : — " It consists of IAVO parts
folding over one another and sheathed in the
mouth. The extremity thereof is sharp like a
knife, for the separation of any thing. The
two parts can also be formed, occasionally, into
a pair of lips for taking up proper quantities
of food, and by the fly's sucking in the air,
they become a kind of pump to draw up the
juices of fruits or other liquors." We call
particular attention to the serrations of the
tongue ; these are separate and perfect teeth,
616
SUPPLEMENT
as may readily be ascertained on examination
with a moderate magnifier of good defining
power.
Plate 35, fig. 43, represents the trunk of
the honey-bee, magnified in the same degree
as the preceding object. Swarnmerdam and
Reaumur have described this subject at great
length ; but as the instruments they used were
very deficient in defining power, they were
led into hypothetic statements not altogether
agreeing with facts more recently ascertained.
Their drawings of this insect member are very
wide of the truth. Our illustration was copied
from a specimen finely prepared in balsam ;
and it offers the best resemblance to the object
of any that has hitherto appeared, taking into
consideration the limited scale on which it is
drawn, which does not admit of extensive de-
tail. The reader will at once notice the
similarity between the trunk of the bee and
that of the elephant ; their mechanism appear,
indeed, to be identical so far as it is intended
to facilitate the curvature, contraction, and
extension of the member. The trunk of the
bee is, however, peculiar in its termination,
and seems to be so constructed that the insect
may fix it, in the manner of a leech, within
the nectarium of the flower, and, by alternately
contracting and extending the organ, pump
or suck up the juices of the blossom. The
surface of the member is .marked with a num-
ber of parallel rings, and covered with a fine
hair. The two bodies, one on each side, are
a pair of the palpi.
The legs and feet of insects exhibit most
curious and elegant structures, worthy of
minute examination by all who take interest
in the adaptation of animal members and the
mechanical powers which they respectively
possess. From a microscopic consideration of
the limbs of insects, we ascertain that muscular
energy increases as the size of the animal
decreases. " The motions of animals are
proportioned to their weight and structure; a
flea can leap to the distance of at least two
hundred times its own length ; were an ele-
phant, a camel, or a horse to leap in the same
proportion, their weight would crush them to
atoms. The softness of their texture, and the
comparative smallnessof their specific gravity
enable insects to fall without injury from
heights that would prove fatal to large ani-
mals." The legs of insects are named anc
classed according to the motions for which
they appear to be principally adapted. "Thu
some are named cursorii, from their adaptation
for running ; these are the most numerous
The saltatorii are those that are used for leap-
ing ; the thighs of these are remarkably
large, by which means they possess consider-
able strength and power to leap to great dis-
tances. The natatorii are those that serve as
)ars for swimming ; the feet of these are flat
ind edged with hairs, possessing a proper
urface to strike against the water, as in the
dytiscus, notonecta, &c. Such feet as have
10 claws are termed nutici. The chelce, or
;laws, are an enlargement of the extremity of
he fore-feet, each of which is furnished with
wo smaller claws, which act like a thumb
and finger, as in the crab. The under part
of the feet in some insects is covered with a
und of brush or sponge, by which they are
enabled to walk with ease, on the most polished
substances, and in situations from which it
would seem they must necessarily fall." We
ive an illustration of this class of objects in
ilate 34, fig. 24, which exhibits, under a low
nagnified power, the leg and foot of that
voracious aquatic fly, the dytiscus. We have
•eferred principally to the strong claws, or
talons, with which it is armed : a more inter-
esting feature in this, object is the web that
surrounds the foot, this however, from its ex-
ceedingly complicate structure, could not have
been effectively shown on a small scale.
This cut represents the legs of a bee as
developed by a moderate magnifying power.
The wings and wing cases (elytra} of insects
form an exceedingly numerous and a highly
interesting class of microscopic objects. " The
variety in the form and structure of these
insect appendages is almost infinite ; the
beauty of their colouring, the art with which
they are connected to the body, the curious
manner in which some are folded up, the finer
articulations provided lor this purpose, by
which they are laid up in their cases when
out of use, and yet are ready to be extended
in a moment for flight ; together with the
various ramifications, by which the nourish-
ing juices are circulated, and the wings
strengthened, afford a fund of rational inves-
tigation highly entertaining ; exhibiting, par-
ticularly when examined by the microscope,
a most wonderful display of divine wisdom
and power. The more delicate and trans,
parent wings are covered and protected by
elytra, or cases, which are generally hard and
opaque. The wings of moths and butterflies
are mostly farinaceous, covered with a fine dust ;
by the assistance of the microscope, we dis-
cover that this dust is a regular assemblage of
organized scales. Under the wings of most
insects which have only two, there is a small
head placed on a stalk, frequently under a
little arched scale ; these are called halter -es,
or poisers ; they appear to be rudiments of
their hinder wings," or substitutes for them :
" it has been supposed that they serve to keep
the body in equilibrio when the insect is fly-
ing. The elytra, or exterior wing cases, are
harder and more opaque than the wings under
them ; they are generally highly polished, and
often enriched with various colours, adorned
with ornamental flutings, and studded with
brilliants, whose beauties are beyond descrip-
tion All these ornaments are united in the
wing case of the curculio imperialis^ or diamond
beetle, one of the richest and most magnificent
creatures in nature. It is said, that in the
Brazils, whence they come, it is almost im-
possible to look at them on a sunny day, when
they are flying in little swarms, so great is
the glowing splendour of their heightened
colours."
Our illustrations of wings will be found
in plate 34, figs. 22, 23, and 25. To have
given with full effect the remarkable details
in these members, they must necessarily have
been drawn upon a large scale, and by con-
sequence have limited the variety of our
objects. The reader must, therefore, consider
these figures as little more than an indication
of the wondrous beauty and delicacy observ-
able in these objects when subjected *o deep
magnifying powers.
Fig. 22. The wing of a gnat. This object
is remarkable for the delicate punctce, or dots,
that cover the entire membrane, and from each
of which an exceedingly fine spine, or point,
juts out. The fibres of the wing are serrated,
or, more properly, armed with thorny projec-
tions, similar in character to fig. 9. The
outer margin is thickly set with a vast num-
ber of small scales, or feathers, much resem-
bling those on the wings of butterflies. The
low power under which we have exhibited
this object is not sufficient to develope the
true character of the minute details.
Fig. 23. The iving of an ichneumon fly. This
object is shown under the same power as the
preceding ; and it will be seen that the dots on
the membrane, and the spine of each dot, are
much less delicate in this wing than in that
of the gnat. The upper margin is serrated.
Fig. 25. The wing of an earwig. " Though
the earwig is so common an insect, yet few
people know that it has wings, and fewer yet
have seen them ; they are of a curious and
elegant texture, and wonderful structure. The
VOL. II.
ON MICROSCOPIC DISCOVERY. '617
•
upper part is crusfaceous andopaque, while
the other part is beautifully transparent. They
fold up into a very small compass, and lie
neatly concealed under the elytra, which are
not more than a sixth part of the wing in size.
The insect shuts up the ribs like a fan ; the
strong muscles used for this purpose are seen
at the upper part of the figure. The ribs are
extended from the centre to the outer edge,
others are extended only from the edge about
half way ; but they are all united by a band
at a small but equal distance from the edge ;
the whole evidently contrived to strengthen
the wing, and facilitate the various motions
thereof ; so that in these wings you find all
the motions that are in the most elaborate and
portable umbrellas, executed with a neatness
and elegance surpassing description."
" The wings of butterflies are covered with
a fine dust which renders them opaque, and
produces those beautiful and variegated colours
by which they are so richly adorned, and so
profusely decked. If this be wiped off', you
find the remaining part, or naked wing, to
consist of a number of ribs, like those in the
leaves of plants, but of a crustaceous or talcy
nature ; the largest rib runs along and fortifies
the exterior edge of the wing ; the interior
edge is strengthened by a smaller vessel or
rib. The ribs are all hollow, by which means
the wing, though comparatively large, is very
light. The substance between the ribs, which
constitutes the body of the wing, resembles
talc, and is surprisingly thin and transparent;
as this is extremely tender, one use of the
scales may be to protect it from injuries.
When the fly emerges from the chrysalis, the
wings are soft and thick, and if they be ex-
amined in that state, will be found to consist
of two membranes that may be raised up and
separated, by blowing between them with a
small tube : the ribs lie between these mem-
branes. Ever since the microscope was in-
vented, the dust that covers these wings has
engaged the attention of microscopic observers ;
as by this instrument it is found to be a regular
collection of organized scales of various shapes,
in whose construction there is as much
symmetry, as there is beauty in their colours.
Their shapes are not only very different in
butterflies and moths of various species, but
those on the same moth or fly are also found
to differ. Of the scales, some are so long and
slender that they resemble hairs, except that
they are a little flattened and divided at the
ends, some are short and broad ; some are
notched at the edges, others smooth ; some are
nearly oval, while others are triangular: they
are mostly furnished with a short stalk or sten,
to fix them to the wing." The prodigious
number of small scales which cover the wing-
of papillae, and their regular arrangement,
4i
618
SUPPLEMENT
covering one another like the tiling of a house,
are interesting facts ascertained by microscopic
observation.
Many of the improvements Recently intro-
duced into the elements of the microscope, are
the results of elaborate inquiries respecting
the scales on the wings of butterflies, whence
the latter have come to be denominated test
objects, as being peculiarly fitted to test or
prove the defining and penetrating power of
the best instruments. The information in
consequence derived concerning these delicate
formations, may be regarded by some as more
curious than useful; it is at least curious, and
we believe few persons will deem it beneath
the dignity of science to investigate the min-
utest atom, since it could be produced only by
the same plastic energy that evoked the universe
into being. Dr Goring has the merit of being
the first to examine into all the details of these
objects, which he has developed with much
success, though principally with a view to
suggest those important improvements in the
microscope, which have since been reduced to
practice by his talented coadjutor, Mr Pritchard,
who by his various writings and optical con-
structions, has at once stamped himself a
philosopher, and if not the first, one of the first
practical opticians of the day.
Leeuwenhoeck remarks, when speaking of
the scales on the wings of butterflies, — " that
if an hundred, or more, of them were to be
seen lying together, each would appear of a
different shape." Now, though this observa-
tion is strictly true, inasmuch as there is the
same variety exhibited in the formation of
these atoms as in that of the human counte-
nance, still this is not the grand point of admi-
ration : the most wonderful fact connected with
them is, that amidst all the variety of indi-
viduals, we no more mistake the different spe-
cies of these scales, than we do the various
species of the human race, in consequence of
the great variety of features observable in
them. Since these objects have been subjec-
ted to severe examination, questions have arisen
regarding the real nature of their structure,
which have perhaps been disputed beyond the
point of usefulness. In describing the varie-
ties which are offered in our illustrations, we
shall take occasion to remark upon the various
opinions that are entertained respecting the
striated markings on these scales. It may be
necessary to inform the general reader that
these minute atoms form that impalpable pow-
der on the wing of a butterfly, which clings
to the finger whenever we touch the insect.
We proceed to describe in order figs. 10 to
21 inclusive, in plate 34. The objects are all
shown under a superficial magnifying power
of 90.000. Fig 10. Scale of the red under-icing
lutterfly — This is an exceedingly beautiful
formation, under a deep power of the micro-
scope. The longitudinal and cross striae (or
markings) are easily developed by a good de-
fining power. The cross lines give to the
others the appearance of strings of beads. It
is asserted that this apparent structure in the
object under review, and in others of this class,
is really the interlocking of the serrated
edges of the fibres composing the scale. The
opinion is founded on a presumed analogy be-
tween these formations and the laminae in the
crystalline lenses of fishes, &c. We are, how-
ever, inclined to dispute this opinion, since
there is no general resemblance between
the structures to justify the argument from
analogy in this case ; and moreover, a less
overstrained analogy may be inferred between
different objects of this class, some of which
present their details to view, under a powerful
magnifier in a manner that dispels all doubt
as to their real nature. Of these we shall
speak in order ; simply observing in this place,
that from an attentive examination of various
scales, and their probable similarity of struc-
ture, we are led to think that, in the formation
before us, the longitudinal stria? are fibres, pro-
duced on the same principle as the hairs of
animals, and consist of a number of minute
cups growing out of each other ; and that the
cross strise are merely indications of the seve-
ral insertions. The fibres are connected by a
delicate tissue.
Figs. 11, 12, and 13. Scales of the brassica
butterfly. These are three varieties of scales
from the wings of the brassica, or cabbage
butterfly. Fig. 11. resembles the object pre-
viously described, excepting that there is a
marked and decisive difference between the
contour of the two scales. Fig. 13. is termed
the Brassica cnriosa; and is no less remarkable
for its exterior form, than for the singular dis-
position of the striae on its surface. Fig. 13. is
a scale from the pieris brassica, and we shall
connect our remarks upon this object with fig.
17, the scale of the podura phtmbea, as these
two delicate formations are the severest tests ol
microscopic definition and penetration, and the
examination of them has led to a lengthened con-
troversy regarding the true character of the
lines that cover them. In our illustrations,
the delicate longitudinal stria? only are shown ;
but under a suitable power, and with a due
management of the light, these objects exhibit
diagonal lines whose real nature, owing to
their extreme fineness, can merely be inferred
from assumed analogies. The scales of the
lepisma saccharina offer their details to the
eye in a very satisfactory manner, under a linear
power of 200 or 300; and we are convinced
that they afford the best explanation that can
be obtained regarding the podura and brassi-
ca. The lepisma distinctly shows a series of
ON MICROSCOPIC DISCOVERY.
619
strong longitudinal fibres, from whose sides
proceed a number of spines much resembling
those in fig. 4. These spines form, we be-
lieve, the diagonal lines in other and more de-
licate scales, such as the podura ; for by vary-
ing the illumination and moving the object,
we can discover in the lepisma all the ap-
pearances which perplex the observer when
examining the podura and brassica. And,
indeed, it is a fair inference that these minute
scales have great similarity of structure, and
that those most easily developed may justly be
taken as an index to others more difficult of
examination, when, as in the present case,
there is nothing to contradict the analogy. Mr
Pritchard seems to hold opinion with us ; for
he remarks, in his List of Microscopic Objects,
" In my best engiscopes, under certain il-
luminations, the markings (of the podura) ap-
pear dttached, like short hairs or spines cover- !
ing the delicate tissue of the scales." The
high authority of Sir David Brewster is, how.
ever, opposed to our explanation of the pheno-
mena of the tests ; and we deem it proper to
give his theory as a necessary check upon our
own.
" After a laborious examination of the lined
tests, and the use of every optical resource
which he could command, Sir David Brews-
ter has found that the mysterious lines on these
test objects are only apparent lines, being com-
posed of a succession of interlocking teeth, by
which the fibres to which they are attached
form that delicate film that composes the scale
of a moth." This is Sir David Brewster's
opinion regarding the longitudinal striae ; and is
the result of his examinations into the struc-
ture of the crystalline lenses of fishes. " With
regard to the diagonal or oblique lines," it is
added, " which have been such a source of
perplexity to microscopical observers, we have
little hesitation in pronouncing those which we
have seen to be optical illusions, from the acci-
dental aliijnement of the sides of the teeth in dif-
ferent grooves, when similarly illumined by
oblique rays. When the scales are immersed in
diluted sulphuric acid, we have never seen the
diagonal lines. When the sulphuric acid is too
strong, the scales curl up, and often in this
state exhibit the lines very beautifully. We
have observed diagonal lines singularly deve-
loped in the laminae of the crystalline, and
clearly arising from the interference of the
rays acted upon by the lines on one side of the
laminae, with the rays acted upon by the
lines on the other side, and therefore we have
been the more confirmed in our opinion."
Fig. 1 4. Scale of the menelans butterfly. This
object consists of a fine tissue overlaid with
strong and well defined lines. The latter are
frequently detached from the membrane, as
shown in our specimen ; and consequently,
there can be no illusive misconception regard,
ing- these lines, which are evidently fine fibrous
cords in relief, upon the surface of the scale.
Fig. 15. This is a very singular scale,
observed amongst a miscellaneous group. The
longitudinal striae are strongly defined, and
the cross markings arise from a contraction,
or shrivelling up, of the membraneous part
between each two of the striae.
Fig. 16. Scale of the azure blue butterfly.
The light coloured and most diaphanous scales
of this species form beautiful test objects for
the microscope. The striae are delicate, but
are easily developed by a good doublet.
Fig. 18. Scale of the lepisma. The striae on
this object are easily defined, and they have
the same character with those on the scale of
the menelaus, as is evidenced by the partial
detachment of the lines from the membrane-
ous tissue. There is a variety in these scales :
the one we have selected, and on which the
markings are more delicate, is nearly oval-
shaped ; but there are others much resembling
a shell, and having the upper edge scalloped
very regularly. Diagonal markings are per-
ceptible on the latter species, produced by
undoubted spiny projections from the longi-
tudinal fibres.
Fig. 19. Scale of the diamond beetle. The
elytra, or wing case, of the diamond beetle is a
splendid opaque object, familiar to every pos-
sessor of a microscope. We may compare
the appearance it presents to that of the ancient
Jewish breastplate ; a number of small cavities
regularly disposed over the surface, are filled
with a vast number of small scales, which re-
flect every variety of hue, and exhibit a lustre
and magnificence that dims the splendour of
the most richly arranged jewellery. Our
figure shows one of these minute scales, with
its semi-opaque spots and striae ; the latter, it
will be noticed, have precisely the same char-
acter with figs. 10. and 1 1.
Fig. 20. The scale of a moth. This object
is very opaque compared with preceding ones,
and it is consequently difficult to trace its
structure with much precision. The contour,
it will be seen at once, is that of a leaf; and
the vegetable analogy would seem to extend
much further. This scale appears to consist
of a fibrous frame-work, resembling very much
the skeleton of a leaf; and the interstices are
filled up with a mossy substance, whilst the
prismatic reflections and other characteristics
of the surface would indicate that smaller scales
are scattered over it.
Fig. 21. Disposition of the scales. This is
a small diagram, intended to convey an idea
of the disposition of the scales on the mem-
brane of a butterfly's wing. The double
lines of points mark the places where the
scales are inserted; and it will be noticed.
620
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that there are two sets of them, one consider-
ably shorter than the other. The longer scales
are inserted in the upper line, overlapping
each other, and the shorter, in the line beneath ;
by which means these extend to the middle
of the long scales, and have their extremities
covered by the next line.
We shall notice only one other remarkable
appendage to some of the insect tribes, namely,
the sting ; the properties and mechanism of
which are worthy of consideration. The
sting of an insect, is a weapon with which
nature has armed it for purposes of self-defence ;
in no instance, we believe, is the sting resorted
to unless the insect has an instinctive sense of
danger, or has suffered provocation ; and, in.
deed, this may be inferred from the fact, that
the creature frequently inflicts fatal injury on
itself, when it strikes this weapon into its op-
ponent ; for from the barbs on the sides, it is
not able readily to disengage the sting, and
not unfrequently, by using desperate efforts to
obtain release, the insect tears out a portion of
its entrails. There are three distinct parts
connected with an insect's sting, each worthy
of attentive examination ; these are, the sheath,
the darts with their barbs, and the poison bag.
The following description of the sting of a bee,
extracted from Adam's Essays on the micro-
scope, will serve as a general exemplification.
" The apparatus consists of two piercers
conducted in a sheath, groove, or director.
This groove is rather large at the base, but
terminates in a point ; it is affixed to the last
scale of the upper side of the abdomen by
thirteen thin scales, six on each side, and one
behind the rectum. These scales inclose the
rectum all round, and are attached to each
other by thin membranes, which allow of a
variety of motions ; three of them are, how-
ever, attached more closely to a round and
curved process, which comes from the basis
of the groove in which the sting lies, as also
to the curved arms of the sting, which spread
out externally. The two stings may be said
to begin with these two curved processes at
their union with the scales, and converging
towards the groove at its base, which they
enter, and then pass along to its point. The
two stings are notched or serrated towards
the point ; they can be thrust out a little way,
and drawn within it. These parts are all
moved by very strong muscles, which give
motions in almost all directions, but most par-
ticularly outwards. It is wonderful how deep
they will pierce solid bodies with this sting.
To pcrfoim this by mere force, two things are
necessary — power of muscles and strength of
sting ; neither of which they seem to possess
in a sufficient degree. Mr J. Hunter thinks
that it cannot be by simple force, because the
least pressure bends the sting in any direction.
It is probable that the serrated edges may as-
sist, by cutting their way like a saw. The ap-
paral us for the poison consists of two small ducts,
which are the glands that secrete the poison;
these lie in the abdomen among the air cells,
they soon, however, unite into one oblong bag ;
at the opposite end of which a duct passes out,
which runs towards the angle where the two
stings meet, and, entering between them,
forms a canal by the union of the two stings at
this point. From the serrated construction of
the stings, the bee can seldom disengage them,
and hence, when they pass into materials of
too strong a nature, the bee generally leaves
them behind, and often a part of the bowels
therewith."
The poison bag is shown in the annexed
cut.
We pass on to notice a few insects which
are purely microscopical, and require optical
aid to render their entire figure sufficiently
distinct for observation. And here, it must
be obvious, our remarks will necessarily be
of a very cursory description, and our illustra-
tive instances few ; for this one department
of our chapter would furnish, if carried out to
its full extent, a large and closely printed
volume.
Amongst microscopical insects, the mono-
culus, or water flea, holds a distinguished
place. This insect belongs to the crab genus.
So numerous is it, in the summer months, that
the ponds appear tinged with red or green,
owing to the myriads of these minute crea-
tures upon their surface. When full grown,
some species of the water flea are about the
size of a common flea l This insect appears
to have but one eye, which, however, is com-
pound, and at the same time movable by
muscles in the manner of the human eye. The
young, perfectly formed, may sometimes be
seen within the parent. Mr Pritchard calls
1 The Monoculus Polyphemus is the largest of all in-
sects, measuring four feet in length ; this, however, lies
beyond our province, which confines us to the rnint:te.
ON MICROSCOPIC DISCOVERY.
621
the attention of the microscopic observer to
" the numerous muscles for moving the body,
and its elegant branched arms, — the disposi-
tion of those for producing a revolution of its
compound eye, — the position of those for rais-
ing and depressing the respiratory organs, and
others for contracting and dilating the pulsa-
tory organ. The curious form of its shell,
and the various shapes of the reticulations on
different parts of its surface, — the articulations
of its arms — the singular construction of its
digestive organs — the circulation of its blood,
and the delicate fringes appended to its
branchiae, afford ample materials for observa-
tion." A very faithful illustration of the
Monoculus quadricornis will be found in a
future page, in connection with the Vurlicdlc.
digitalis, which frequently attaches itself to the
body of this insect.
The Lepisma forms a genus in that order of
the insect class named aptera ; and includes
several varieties or species. The small book-
icorm, as it is popularly called, ranks under
this genus : it is one of the most pleasing and
interesting microscopic objects known, whether
it be viewed in detail or observed entire. No
one seems to have examined this little crea-
ture with more attention than Hooke, whose
description is so popular and curious that we
offer it as the best account which can be given
of the insect. " It is," says he, " a small,
white, silver-shining worm, which I found
much conversant among books and papers, and
is supposed to be that which corrodes and eats
holes through the leaves and covers ; it ap-
pears to the naked eye a small, glittering,
pearl-coloured moth, which upon the removing
of books and papers in the summer, is often
observed very nimbly to scud, and pack away
to some lurking cranny, where it may the
better protect itself from any appearing dan-
gers. Its head appears big and blunt, and
its body tapers from it towards the tail, smaller
and smaller, being shaped almost like a car-
rot. This the microscopical appearance will
more plainly manifest, which exhibits a coni-
cal body, divided into fourteen several par-
titions, being the appearance of so many
several shells or shields that cover the whole
body ; every one of these shells is again covered
or tiled over with a multitude of thin trans-
parent scales, Avhich, from the multiplicity
of their reflecting surface, make the whole
animal appear of a perfect pearl colour. This,
by the way, offers a reason for the appearances
presented by these scales, as also by mother-
of-pearl, and a multitude of other shelly sea-
substances ; for they each of them consisting
of an infinite number of very thin shells or
laminated orbiculations, cause such multitudes
of reflections, that the composition of them,
together with the reflection of others that are
so thin as to afford colours, gives a very pleas-
ant reflection of the light. The small blunt
head of the book-worm was furnished on
either side of it with a cluster of eyes, each of
which seemed to contain but a very few, in
comparison of what I had observed the clusters
of other insects to abound with ; each of these
clusters was beset with a row of small bristles,
much like the cilia, or hairs, on the eyelids,
and perhaps they served for the same purpose.
It had two long horns before, which were
straight, and tapering towards the top, curiously
ringed or knobbed, and bristled much like the
marsh weed, called horse-tail, or cat's-tail,
having at each knot a fringed girdle of
smaller hairs, and several larger bristles, here
and there dispersed among them ; besides
these, it had two shorter horns or feelers,
which were knotted and fringed just as the
former, but wanted bristles, and were blunt
at the ends ; the hinder part of the creature
was terminated with three tails, in every par-
ticular resembling the two longer horns that
grew out of the head : the legs of it were
scaled and haired much like the rest." The
singular scales of this small insect have already
been illustrated and described.
The lobster insect, represented in the annexed
cut, is figured and described by Adams in
his Essays on the microscope. This insect
approximates in form and character to the
phalangium cancroides of Linnaeus; it presents,
however, many remarkable points of difference,
and forms a microscopic object of great variety
and interest. We take Adams' description
as the best we can offer, — " This extraordin-
ary little creature was found b/ my ingenious
G22
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friend Mr John Adams, of Edmonton. He
was at the new Inn, Waltham Abbey,
where it was spied by some labouring men
who were drinking their porter. The man
who first perceived it, thought it was of an
uncommon form ; on a more minute inspection
it was supposed to be a pediculus with un-
usually long horns ; others thought it was a
mite. This produced a debate, which attracted
the attention of my friend, who obtained the
insect from them for further observation.
Mr Martin has given some account of it, in
the third volume of the " Young Gentlemen
and Lady's Philosophy." Mr Adams favoured
me with the insect, that an accurate drawing
might be taken from it, which I thought
would be highly pleasing not only to the
lovers of microscopic observations, but also to
the entomologist. It appears to be quite a
distinct species from the phalanginm cancroides,
of which a good drawing has been given by
Hooke, Rosel, Schaeffer, &c. It has also
been described by Scopoli, Geoffroy, and
other naturalists ; not one, however, of these
descriptions agrees with the animal under
consideration. The abdomen of this is more
extended, the claws are larger and much more
obtuse ; the body of the other being nearly
orbicular, the claws slender, and finishing
almost in a point, more transparent and of a
paler colour. It is very probable that there
are several species nearly similar. Mr
Marsham has two in his possession, one like
the drawings of Reaumur, the other not to be
distinguished from that which is represented
in the annexed figure, except that it wants
the break or dent in the claws, so conspicuous
in this. The latter he caught on a flower in
Essex, the first week in August, firmly
affixed by its claws to the thigh of a large fly,
and could not disengage it from thence with-
out considerable difficulty ; to accomplish
which he was obliged to tear off the fly's leg,
and was much surprised to see the bold little
creature spring forward full a quarter of an
inch, and once more seize its prey, from which
it was again with much difficulty disengaged."
The insect is shown in the cut considerably
magnified ; an indication is also given of the
natural size.
" According to Aldrovandus, this insect
was not unknown to Aristotle, who mentions
it as being found in books and papers.
Wolphius, on the authority of Gesner, says
that a few are to be met with in some parts
of Switzerland. Scaliger also notices it,
having found two of them in his books. It
has been by various systematic writers referred
to different genera : De Geer has instituted
a new genus for it under the name of chelifer ;
Frabricius has remanded it to that of scorpio,
to which perhaps it is more nearly allied than
any other. Amongst the number of naturalists
who have observed and described the insect,
it appears rather extraordinary that none have
met with one similar to that in the cut, in
respect to the break in the claws. In a
cabinet of curious microscopic objects which
I purchased several years since, and which
originally came from Holland, there were four
of them in the most perfect condition. A botan-
ical friend, Mr Young, also favoured me with
a living one which he found among some
plants collected by him in one of his excur-
sions ; but as his box contained a variety of
plants, and he did not discover the insect till
his return, it was imposible to ascertain the
particular one on which it was taken. All
these resembled the one exhibited, excepting
the claws being longer and more slender, and
being deficient in the distinguishing charac-
teristic. I have lately seen another, in which
the two fangs that are shown highly magni-
fied in plate 85 of the Naturalist's Miscellany,
are very apparent, being so large, as to exceed
in diameter the thickest parts of the claws.
Rosel says, this insect dwells among paper,
in old books and their bindings, in chests of
drawers, and in the crevices of old buildings.
In order to discover xvhether the insect pos.
sessed a sting, he often, by various means, en-
deavoured to irritate it ; but it never showed
the smallest inclination to defend itself; on
the contrary, it always endeavoured to avoid
a contest ; if so, it evidently appears that
those few met with in this country are of a
more bold and warlike disposition. Seba
asserts that these insects resemble the large
scorpions, the tail excepted, which is small,
and usually concealed by being drawn close
to the under part of the abdomen ; but in this
respect he must probably have been mistaken,
as it does not appear that this circumstance
has been noticed by any other person."
We have now extended this chapter much
beyond what was originally intended, yet
have found our space insufficient for so par-
ticular a detail of the microscopic formations
and phenomena of the natural world as we
could have wished to give. It will be obvious,
that a separate volume alone rould embrace a
complete survey of the minute in nature :
what we have done, however, will present
under a systematic form a general outline of
the discoveries that have been made by means
of the microscope, and may lead the student
in natural history to give deep regard to the
atomic elements of material bodies ; it may
also increase his admiration and reverencu for
the Great Creative Power from whom all
things proceed, when he perceives that Deity,
unconfined by the relative terms of large and
small, can display an equal share of plastic
energy in the atom, whose existence the un-
ON MICROSCOPIC DISCOVERY.
623
aided eye of man cannot detect, and the most
colossal animated structure that walks the
globe. An examination into the minute has
a manifest tendency to strengthen belief in
an universal and particular Providence, and
affords a striking comment on the declaration
of Holy Writ, that "not a sparrow falleth to
the ground without the knowledge of our
heavenly Father."
CHAP. II.
INFUSORIAL, ANIMALCULES.
THE elaborate examinations that have re-
cently been made regarding infusorial ani-
malcules have brought vast accessions to our
knowledge of animated nature. Of these
atomic germs of vitality, little had been pre-
viously discovered beyond the fact of their
existence ; and indeed, many species, on ac-
count of their extreme minuteness, and the
vast amplifying power necessary for their
developement, hdd not till very recently been
observed at all. It is not however to their
mere existence that the microscopist now calls
attention, but to all the details of their exter-
nal form and internal structure ; to their habits,
modes of action, natural instincts, and to all
the economy of their being. The mind is
overwhelmed and confounded whilst we read
(as Mr Pritchard, in his Natural History of
Animalcules, has enabled us to do) of the
organization and vital properties of a living
atom, so inconceivably minute, that five hun-
dred millions of them in a mass, would present
little more than a sensible point to the un-
assisted eye. Such an announcement will be
met by much scepticism ; and scepticism, in this
instance, is indeed pardonable ; for with the
object before him, the observer can scarcely
yield his belief, whilst mathematical truth
and actual observation are attesting the fact.
The term infusorial is applied to the various
species of animalcules discovered in vegetable
and animal infusions. They exist naturally
in all stagnant waters, wherein vegetable or
animal matter is decomposing ; and (hey can
be produced artificially by making an infusion
of vegetable substances, and suffering it to
stand till it has fermented, and become in
some degree putrid. The most rational and
philosophical way of accounting for the pre-
sence of animalcules in infusions, is to adopt
the hypothesis that the atmosphere is teeming
with minute germs of animal and vegetable
life, — that they form part of every thing we
taste or touch, but that, for their perfect
development, a suitable nidus is necessary,
which nidus is presented in an infusion of
some kind or other. These animalcular ova,
it would appear, depend much for the form
they are to assume when evolved, upon the
peculiar nidus in which they are deposited ;
for the same infusion, in different stages of
fermentation and putrescence, developes dif-
ferent species of animalcules. Or, perhaps,
the ova themselves have distinct characters,
and the infusion may become successively
adapted for the developement of the various
species. Leaving this point as one of mere
conjecture, we pass on to observe that optical
science has rendered these animalcules legiti-
mate subjects of natural history : and we are
consequently to acquaint ourselves, as before
observed, not only with their extreme little-
ness, but with all the peculiarities that consti-
tute their generic and special differences.
Before entering upon a particular descrip-
tion of the various kinds of animalcules found
in infusions, we shall lay before the reader
Mr Pritchard 's lucid and perspicuous sum-
mary of their peculiarities.
" The term animalcule, which implies
nothing more than the diminutive of animal,
has been commonly used to denote those living
creatures inhabiting fluids, which are too
minute to be scanned, or even seen by the
naked eye : such, for instance, as those pro-
duced in inconceivable numbers from infusions
of animal and vegetable matter : it compre-
hends as well such as are found in, and are
peculiar to, the bodies of larger animals : this
latter class, however, does not fall within our
province.
" In the variety of systems that have been
put forth respecting these creatures, the
main characteristics of each have referred
either to a difference in their size, or to the
general appearance of their external forms :
the present design, however, is not to inves-
tigate the value of these. Until the introduc-
tion of vegetable colouring matter into the
fluid which supplies them with food — an ex-
periment that has been attended with very
successful results — these creatures were com-
monly supposed to be entirely devoid of in-
ternal organization, and to be nourished by the
simple process of cuticular absorption. By
the application of coloured substances, which,
moreover, have been found to invigorate rather
than to depress the animalcule, and to main-
tain it in the full exercise of all its functions,
this erroneous notion is set at rest, and an
internal structure is discerned in some, equal
to, if not surpassing that of the larger inver-
tebrated animals, and comprising a muscular,
nervous, and, in all probability, vascular
system ; all wonderfully contrived for the per-
formance of their respective offices.
" The most obvious portion of their in-
ternal structure is undoubtedly that connected
624
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with the digestive functions; and hence it
is that Ehrenberg has selected this as the
leading feature of his arrangement, denomi-
nating his two grand divisions of the Phyto-
zoa, — Polygastrica and Rotatoria ; the for-
mer of which implies such as are possessed of
several distinct stomachs or digestive sacs ;
and the latter such as have true alimentary
canals and rotatory organs provided with a
number of cilia aptly disposed for promoting
the objects of life : these two grand divisions
of the Phytozoa are afterwards subdivided
into families and other minor branches. The
cilia, in their different combinations, supply
the means of locomotion, propelling the crea-
ture, in many cases, with great rapidity
through the water : they are apparently stiff
like eye-lashes ; and from Dr Ehrenberg's
description of some of the larger ones, they
issue from bulbous substances at. their bases,
and being acted upon by muscular fibres, are
capable of being- moved to and fro in particu-
lar directions, so as to occasion a. current of
the fluid to flow towards the mouth of the
animalcule, by which it is furnished with
fresh water or food. They are sometimes
disposed, as before stated, round certain organs
of a circular form, which, on account of their
peculiar vibrations, giving the appearance of a
rotatory action, are termed rotatory organs.
A second curious feature in the construction
of some of these minute creatures are the
setce, or bristles, attached to the surface of their
bodies : these short movable hairs in all pro-
bability act as fins, and contribute greatly to
their means of motion. The third feature,
are the uncini, or hooks, setaceous appendages
curved at their extremities, and serving the
creature to attach itself to any object it chooses.
A fourth are the styli, jointed at their bases,
and differing from the cilia in respect of their
being unable to effect a rotatory motion :
these, however, are more flexible, and have
more play, than the setae. Independently of
these peculiarities, some animalcules possess
the extraordinary faculty of thrusting out, or
elongating, portions of their bodies at various
points, which, assuming the appearance either
of legs or fins, are termed variable processes,
and enable the creature to walk or swim.
" It was a favourite hypothesis, with na-
turalists, some years ago, that the class of
animalcules under consideration was entirely
nourished by cutaneous absorption, and that
no suitable organs for transmitting and digest-
ing food were discoverable. Baron Gleichen
was the lirst who brought the truth of this
theory to the test ; for having tinged some
water containing animalcules with carmine,
he found on the second day that only some
distinct cavities, in the interior of their bodies,
were filled with the colouring matter, evidently
demonstrating the existence of an alimentary
structure : here, however, he left the subject,
and it is to I)r Ehrenberg's further investiga-
tion of it that we are indebted for an accurate
description of their different forms. In more
recent experiments, it has been found advisa-
ble to employ vegetable colouring substances
in their pure state ; such, for instance, as sap-
green and indigo, which, together with the
valuable accession of an excellent instrument,
enabled the doctor to contribute much to our
previously imperfect knowledge of this branch
of natural history.
" In the selection of vegetable substances
for infusions (for procuring animalcules) such
as stalks, leaves, flowers, seeds of plants, &c.,
care must be taken that there be no admixture
of quinine (hark) in them, or the intention
will be frustrated. Immerse these, whatever
they may be, for a few days, in some clean
water, when, if the vessels which contain
them be not ;;gitated, a thin pellicle, or film,
will be discerned on the surface, which, under
the microscope, will be seen to be inhabited
by several descriptions of animalcules : the
first produced are commonly those of the
simplest kind, called monads. In a few days
more, their numbers will increase to such an
amazing extent, that it would be utterly im-
possible to compute those in a single drop of
the fluid. After this again, they will begin
to diminish in numbers, and I have gener-
ally observed them supplanted by others of a
larger species and more perfect organization ;
such as the cyclidia, paramesia, kufpod(e, &c.
It is worthy of remark here, however, that in
their production they do not pursue any regu-
lar order, even in similar infusions. If the
vessel be large, and the circumstances under
which it is placed sufficiently favourable, a
still higher description of animalcules will
succeed, viz. the vurtictlla, and lastly the
brachioni ; and thus a single infusion will
repay for the little trouble of making it with
a great variety of species. Water in which
flour has been steeped will be found to abound
also with animalcules : and it is remarked by
G. Leach, Esq., that the leaden troughs, con-
stantly appropriated for birds to drink out of,
contain several descriptions of them, and more
especially those of the wheel genus. In
ponds, too, especially in the shallow parts,
near the edges, and in the immediate vicinity
of water plants, prodigious quantities of all
kinds may be easily procured ; so that pos-
sessing as we do such myriads of them all
around us, that they impregnate almost every-
thing that we eat, drink, touch, and breathe,
an anxiety to know more about them, and the
effects they produce, cannot but be regarded
as rational and laudable."
" By a careful inspection of the drawings,"
ON MICROSCOPIC DISCOVERY.
625
(Mr Pritchard here refers to the elaborate
engravings illustrating his Natural History
of Animalcules), " it will be noticed that some
animalcules resemble spheres; others are egg-
shaped ; others again represent fruits of various
kinds — eels, serpents, and many of the in-
vertebrated animals ; funnels, tops, cylinders,
pitchers, wheels, flasks, &c. &c ; all of which
are found to possess their own particular
habits, and to pursue a course of life best
adapted to their peculiar constructions : thus,
for instance, whilst some move through the
water with the greatest imaginable rapidity,
leaping or swimming, others merely creep
or glide along ; and many are altogether so
passive, that it requires long and patient
observation to discover any of their movements
at all. One description are perceptibly soft,
arid yield easily to the touch ; another are
covered with a delicate shell or horn-like coat.
Of the latter order there are different degrees
of density, as in the volvox, gonium, &c.,
where the envelope is comparatively thick ;
and where, strange to say, the internal sub-
stance separates by the mode of propagation
into several portions, forming so many distinct
young ones, which at their birth burst the
envelope, and the parent becomes entirely
dissipated. In others of this order the shell
is merely a plate covering the body, resemb-
ling that of the tortoise : sometimes it includes
the body, so as to leave only two small aper-
tures at the extremities, and at others it is
bivalved, and incloses the creature, like that
of the oyster or muscle.
" All vertebrated animals are either ovipar-
ous or viviparous, which terms sufficiently
designate their modes of production : but it is
not so with animalcules ; for, in addition to
these two methods, I. Animalcules propagate
by a spontaneous scissure, or division of their
bodies into two or more portions, each one
forming a new creature, which, on its arrival
at maturity, pursues the same course. These
divisions take place in some genera symme-
trically, as in the gonia, &c. ; in others by
transverse, longitudinal, or diagonal sections.
In these latter cases the produce have forms
differently proportioned from those of the
creatures from which they spring. 2. They
propagate, in the manner before mentioned
of the volvox, and some other genera, by a
distribulion of the internal substance of the
parent into a proportionate number of young
ones, all of which at their birth issue forth,
and leave behind them nothing- but the enve-
lope, soon to be dissolved. 3. They are pro-
duced by germs, shooting forth from the
parent's sides. 4. From spawn, which in the
act of being shed, carries along with it a por-
tion of the parent animalcule."1
1 Natural History of Animalcules, Book f. p. 12 — 20.
VOL. II.
We have not space to admit the detail of
a variety of additional and highly interesting
particulars relative to the infusoria that are
recorded by Ehrenberg. We may, however,
briefly state that the learned professor has
succeeded in developing the mouths and teeth
of these minute creatures, and has even ascer-
tained the number of the latter, their consis-
tency, and characteristic differences. He has
found them to be provided with assistant
organs of digestion, respiratory organs, and a
perfect vascular and nervous system. Even
the eyes of these tiny objects have been made
the subject of his examination, and many
remarkable particulars concerning them have
been ascertained. Regarding their fecundily,
it is sufficient to state, on the professor's author-
ity, that a single animalcule will in the course
of three or four days become a multitude of
separate existences, of whose number the
human mind can form no idea.
" Motion,' says Adams, " seems to be the
great delight of the infusoria ; they pervade
with equal ease and rapidity, and in all forms
and directions, the whole dimensions of the
drop, in which they find ample space for their
various progressions, sometimes darting straight
forward, at other times moving obliquely, then
again circularly : they know how to avoid with
dexterity any obstacles that might obstruct
their progress. Hundreds may be seen in a
drop of water in constant action, yet never
striking against each other. If at any time
the clusters prove so thick as to impede any
of their motions, they roll and tumble them-
selves overhead, creeping under the whole
range, force their way through the midst,
or wheel round the cluster with surprising
swiftness ; sometimes they will suddenly
change the direction in which they are moving,
and t;ike one diametrically opposite thereto.
By inclining the glass in which the drop of
water is laid, it may be made to move in any
direction ; the animalcules in the drop will
swim as easily against the stream as with it.
If the water begin to evaporate, and the drop
to grow smaller, they flock impetuously to-
wards the remaining part of the fluid ; an
anxious desire of attaining this momentary
respite of life is very visible, as well as an
uncommon agitation of the organs by which
they imbibe the water. These motions grow
more languid as the water fails, till at last
they entirely cease.
" Animalcules and insects will support a
great degree of cold, but both one and the
other perish when it is carried beyond a cer-
tain point. The same degree of heat that
destroys the existence of insects, is fatal to
animalcules ; as there are animalcules pro-
duced in water at the freezing point, so there
are insects which live in snow."
4t
626
SUPPLEMENT
We proceed to give Mullet's scientific ar-
rangement of the infusoria, connecting with
each genus the individual selected for illustra-
tion of special character.
I. THOSE WANTING EXTERNAL ORGANS.
.
PI. 35, fig.
: punctif
. 65. — 2.
Proteus : mutabile. Mutable, or
changeable. Melting Proteus, f. 66. — 3. Volvox : sphoeri-
cum. Spherical. Vegetable Volvox, f. 67. — 4. Enchelis :
cylindraceum. Cylindrical. Egg-shaped Enchelis, f. 61.
— 5. Vibrio: elongatum. Long. Stick Vibrio, f. 68.
Metnbranaceous.
G.Cydiilium: ovale. Oval. Azure Cyclidium, f. 62
— 7. Paramceeium : oblongum. Oblong. Paramsecium
chrysalis, f. 63. — 8. Kolpoda: sinuatum. Crooked or
bent. Cuckoo Kolpoda, f. 64. — 9. Gonium : angulatum.
With angles. Breast-plate Gonium, f. 69. — 10. Bur-
saria : hollow like a purse. Little Swallow- like Bur-
saria, f. 60.
II. THOSE THAT HAVE EXTERNAL ORGANS.
Naked, or not inclosed in a sJtell.
\ 1 . Cercaria : caudatum. With a tail. Green Cer-
caria, f. 59. — 12. Leucophra : ciliatum undique. Every
part ciliated. Bracelet Leucophrys, f. 54 — 13. Trichoda :
crinitum. Hairy. Trichoda vulgaris, f. 55. — 14.
Kerona : corniculatum. With horns. Kerona pul-
laster, f. 56. — 1 5. Himantopus : cirratum. Cirrated, or
curled. Himantopus larva, f. 58. — 16. Vorticella : cilia-
tum apice. The apex ciliated. Vorticella cyathini, f.
57.
Covered u-ith a sliett.
1 7. Bracfiionus : ciliatum apice. The apex ciliated.
Brachionus passus, f. 53.
I. MONADS. An invisible,1 simple, pellucid,
punctiform worm.
Among the various animalcules which are
discovered by the microscope, these are the
most minute, and the most simple. The
monad is a small jelly-like point, eluding the
powers of the compound microscope, and even
of the single one until the recent improvements
in lenses had added large additional power.
" This genus includes the smallest forms in
which a voluntary motion has been observed,
even under the most powerful microscopes :
this motion, till lately, appeared to be the only
property of life with which they were endowed ;
but the observations of Dr Ehrenberg demon-
strate an organization equally perfect with
animated beings of much larger dimensions.
Their forms in general are simple, spherical,
or cylindrical masses, devoid of exlernal
members, or processes ; the mouth, which is
with difficulty discerned, is a simple orifice,
not furnished with ciliog, or hairs, (except in
one or two species) : they are colourless, and
transparent as the clearest crystal, yet can
no internal organization be seen, excepting
that connected with their digestive function,
which consists of two or more globular cavities,
or sacs, probably communicating with each
other by a tubular membrane, as in the
larger polygastric animalcules, but which in
1 By invisible, is here meant indiscernible bythe naked
eye.
this genus is too minute to be discerned ;
indeed, the stomachs or sacs themselves are
only to be observed when the animalcule is
fed with particles of colouring matter : the
food on which they usually exist being as
pellucid as themselves, the cavities are invisi-
ble. They increase by a spontaneous division
of the parent into two or more parts, and those
parts, or young, again divide when they have
attained their full age. As subjects of obser-
vation, the monads are principally interesting
from their minuteness, being as they are the
very limit of man's acquaintance with ani-
mated nature. Their diameters vary from
l-24000th of an inch to l-1200th, and con-
sequently require a very high magnifying
power to discern. They are numerous, and
generally found congregating at the surface
and around the decomposed matter of infus-
ions, either of vegetable or animal sub-
stances."
To enter info particular description of the
various species included under the monad
genus, would require more space than we can
devote to the subject : and, indeed, of all the
genera, we shall content ourselves with giving
one, or at most two or three, special illustra-
tions, adding a list only of the remaining spe-
cies, with their distinguishing characteristics
appended to each.
Plate 3 5, fig. 65. The Drop Monad.—" This
animalcule is larger than the atom monad, and
somewhat globular. On account of its size
and transparency, its digestive cavities can
be much more distinctly observed. It revolves
about its longer axis, and in swimming, that
part which contains the coloured particles
follows the colourless part. Occasionally,
with attentive observation, currents in the
water may be seen about the fore part or
mouth ; it is therefore highly probable that it
is furnished with ciliae or hairs. Those found
at Petersburg!! measured from 1 -3000th to
l-2300th of an inch in diameter : they are
represented in the group magnified 380
times."8
MONAD SPECIES.
1 . Monas termo. A mere point. — 2. Monns atnmus, ct
lens. Two species, the first appearing a simple white
point, and the second presenting a shining talc-like
appearance. — 3. Monas punctum. Mere dark points, as-
suming under a deep power the form of short cylinders,
and sometimes exhibiting a slender filament 01- tail.
— 4. Monas yuttula. The Drop Monad. Described. — 5.
Monas mica. A lucid point, assuming sometimes a
spherical, at others an oval form. — 6. Monas tranquilla.
Egg-shaped. — 7. Monas lamellida. Of a white colour,
mostly found in salt water. — 8. Mo?tas pulvisculus.
Transparent, with a green margin. — 9. Monas uva. In
clusters like grapes. — 1 0. Monas crepuscuium. — 1 1 . Monas
2 Mr Pritchard, to whom we are indebted for much
of our information in this department, expresses the
magnifying power in linear measure, j. e. by the mag-
nified diameter.
ON MICROSCOPIC DISCOVERY.
627
triehelis. Flask-shaped.— 12. Monas erultesce ns. — L>.
Monus Iiya>ina.—U. Monas kolpoda.—\5. Monas Ovalis.
— Ib. Monas polytoma. — 17. Monas umbra. — 18. Monas
•volvox. Revolving monad.
II. PROTEUS. An invisible, very simple
pellucid worm, of a variable form.
" We now arrive at a larger class of ani-
malcules, whose habits are highly interesting
and curious : indeed there are few in the ex-
amination of which I have been more de-
lighted. This gratification arises not so much
from any complexity in their organization,
which in comparison with the Brachionus,
and some of the Vorticella, is more simple,
but from the great power they possess of di-
lating their bodies ; and their motions being
slow, the observer is enabled to examine their
changes of form distinctly."
Fig. 66. The melting Proteus. — " The
drawing of this animalcule was taken from
a specimen found in some water containing
duck-weed (lemna major), in the month of
March. Miiller states he only saw them
twice. Their diameters vary from l-600th to
l-300th of an inch."
PROTEUS SPECIES.
1. Proteus diffluens. Branching itself out in a variety
of directions. — 2. Proteus Tenax. A globular mass, ex-
(ending a process terminating in a fine point.
III. VOLVOX. An invisible, very simple,
pellucid, spherical worm.
" The animalcules belonging to this genus
are of a globular form, and revolve in the
water. Some of the species are so large as
to be discerned by unassisted vision, while
others are very diminutive. Ehrenberg lias
not demonstrated their digestive organization ;
but in a note to his table, conceives they ought
to follow the monads. In this genus is in-
cluded that beautiful animalcule, called the
volvox glubator, which forms so interesting a
spectacle in the solar and gas microscopes."
Fig. 67. The vegetable Volvox. — " Thi
animalcule is rather scarce. Its most inter-
esting character is the short time which it
requires in arriving at maturity, and under-
going all its changes. In the space of hall
an hour, when fed with an infusion of indigo
a single globule may be observed to emerge
from a naked branch, increase in size, anc
divide into a cluster of smaller ones ; these
increase also, and after revolving, and bring-
ing a current of food towards them, finally
separate, and swim away, each of the young
ones commencing a similar course. It con>
sists of several opaque branches : at the ter
initiation of eacli is a small congeries of egg
shaped transparent bodies. Miiller, whc
seems only to have seen them once, mistool
them for a vegetable production, until h
bserved the -clusters to separate from the
ranch, and swim about at pleasure."
" These animalcules produce a rapid cur-
ent of water towards them, as indicated by
he arrow in the figure ; and if supplied with
lenty of coloured food, as indigo, they will
lot only assume the colour of the particles,
jut may be seen to increase in size, under
he eye of the observer. When the cluster
s fully developed, it breaks, off, and swims
away, revolving as it proceeds. After roving
about for a few minutes in search of a proper
lidus to attach itself to, it spins a very delicate
hread, like a spider's web, one end of which
t fixes to the substance it has selected ; this
ilamentjwhen drawn out to the proper length,
ncreases in size, and assumes the deep blue
colour of the indigo, while the end of the
stalk which it left shoots forth a new cluster.
The current above mentioned is sometimes
Droduced without any revolution of the cluster
of globules ; at other times I have observed
he whole cluster to revolve. The magnify-
ing power which I employed, while making
the drawing of this figure, was nearly 500
times. The medium diameter of the clusters,
while attached to their branches, I find to be
about the 800th part of an inch ; and when
fully developed and separate, about 1- 400th
of an inch. Miiller discovered these animal-
cules in river water in the month of Nov-
ember. Those on which the above observa-
tions were made I found in the month of
June, in some pond-water."
Plate 27, fig. 35. Volvox globator — Spheri-
cal membranaceous volvox.
This is a transparent globule, of a greenish
colour ; the foetus is composed of smaller
greenish globules. It becomes whiter and
brighter with age, moves slowly round its
axis, and may be perceived by the naked eye.
But to the microscope the superficies of this
pellucid membrane appears covered with
molecules, as if it were granulated, which has
occasioned some observers to imagine it to be
hairy ; the round pellucid molecules that are
fixed in the centre are generally larger in
those that are young. The exterior molecules
may be wiped oft', leaving the membrane
naked ; when the young ones are of a proper
size, the membrane opens, and they pass
through the fissure ; after this the parent is
dissipated. They sometimes change their
spherical figure, the superficies being flattened
in different places. Most authors speak of
finding eight lesser globules within the larger ;
but Miiller says, that he has counted thirty
or forty of different sizes. This wonderful
capsulate situation of its progeny is well
known ; indeed, it often exhibits a second and
third generation within it. Leeuwenhoeck
was the first who noticed this curious animal-
SUPPLEMENT
cule, and depicted it ; a circumstance which
lias not been mentioned by Baker, and other
microscopic writers, who have described it.
It may be ibund in great plenty in stagnant
waters in spring and summer, and in infusions
of hemp seed and trcmella. Baker describes
it as follows : — This singular minute water
animal, seen before the microscope, appears
to be exactly globular, without either head,
tail, or tins. It moves in all directions, for-
ward or backward, up or down, rolling over
and over, like a bowl, spinning horizontally
like a top, or gliding along smoothly without
turning itself at all. Sometimes its motions
are very slow, and at other times very swift ;
and when it pleases, it can turn round as
upon an axis very nimbly, without moving
out of its place. The body is transparent
except where the circular spots are placed,
which are its young. The surface of the
body in some is, as it were, dotted all over
with little points, and in others, as if granu-
lated like shagreen. Baker thought also that
in general it appeared as if it were set round
with short movable hairs. By other writers,
they are thus described : These animalcules
are at first very small, but grow so large as to
be discerned with the naked eye ; they are
of a yellowish green colour, globular figure,
and in substance membranaceous and trans-
parent. In the midst of this substance several
small globes may be perceived ; each of these
is a smaller animalcule, which has also its
diaphanous membrane, and contains within
itself still smaller generations, which maybe
distinguished by the assistance of very powerful
glasses. The larger globules may be seen
to escape from the parent, and then increase
in size, as has been already observed.
VOLVOX SPECIES.
1. Volvox punctum. Spherical, of a black colour, with
a lucid point. — 2. Volvox granulum. Spherical and
green, the circumference of a bright colour. — 3. Volvox
ylobulus. Globular volvox, the hind part somewhat
obscure. — 4. Volvox pilula. Small round volvox, with
immovable green intestines. — 5. Volvox grandinella.
Spherical and opaque, with immovable intestines. — 6.
Volvox socialis. Spherical volvox, with crystalline
molecules, placed at equal distances from each other.
— 7. Volvox sphcericula. Spherical volvox, with round
molecules. — 8. Volvox lunu/a. An hemispherical volvox,
with lunular molecules. — 9. Volvo* ylolxitor. Described.
— 10. Volvox morum. Membranaceous, orbicular, with
Spherical green molecules in the centre. — 11. Volvox
uva. Globular volvox, composed of preen spherical
globules, which are not inclosed in a common mem-
brane.— 12. Volvox vegetans. Vegetable volvox. Des-
cribed.
IV. ENCHEUS. An invisible, simple, cy-
lindric worm.
" This genus of animalcules, according to
Miiller, contains twenty-seven species. The
size of the different species varies considerably,
and therefore requires different magnifying
powers to develope them (from 200 to 500 li-
near.) If the reader have an opportunity of
examining any of them, in instruments of dif-
ferent constructions, but of the same magnify-
ing power, he will readily perceive there is
something beyond mere amplification that is
essentially requisite in a microscope, in order
to show the details of objects."
Plate 35,fig.61. The Egg -shaped Enchelis. —
" This animalcule is distinguished by its pellu-
cid appearance and the longitudinal folds of
the external membrane. A few bright spots
are also sometimes observed ; these have been
supposed to be the ova, but it is more probable
they are the sacs of the polygastric structure.
The figure is a magnified representation, show-
ing the sacs and folds, neither of which are
constant. Found in stagnant water."
Plate 27, fig. 30. Enchelin punctifera. —
Green enchelis, surjcylindric, the fore-part ob-
tuse, the hinder part pointed. This is an
opaque animalcule, of. a green colour. The
hinder part is pellucid and pointed ; an inci-
sion is discovered at the apex of the fore-part,
which seems to be the mouth. It is found in
marshes.
Plate 27, fig. 45. Enchelis retrograda. —
Transparent enchelis, the fore-part rather
smaller, and terminating in a small globule.
It has a gelatinous, diaphanous body; no vi-
sible intestines, though a pellucid globule is
discoverable near the hinder part ; the body is
thickest in the middle, and grows smaller to-
wards each end. It generally moves side-
ways, sometimes in a retrograde manner ; and
if it be obstructed in its motion, draws itself
up, as represented in the figure.
ENCHELIS SPECIFS.
1. Enchelis viridis. Green enchelis, of a subcylindric
figure, the fore part truncated. — 2. Encltelis punctifera.
Described. — 3. Enchelis deses. Green, cylindrical, gela-
tinous, the end somewhat pointed. — 4. EncJie.lis simi/is.
Egg-shaped, with opaquemovable intestines. — 5. Enchelis
serotina. Partly oval, partly cylindrical, the interior parts
immovable. — b'. Enchelis nebulosa. Oval and cylindri-
cal, with visible movable intestines. — 7. Enchelis senii-
nulum. Equally cylindric. — 8. Enchelis intermedia. Cy-
lindrical, transparent, with a blackish margin. — 9. En-
chelis ovulum. Egg-shaped. Described. — 10. Enchelis
pintm. Pear-shaped, the hinder part transparent. — 1 1 .
Enchelis tremula. Oval, cylindrical, gelatinous. — 1 2. En-
chelis constricta. Sub-oval, crystalline, with a stricture
in the middle. — 13. Enclielisjmlvisculus. Elliptic, with a
congeries of green intestines. — 14. Enchelisfusm. Cylin-
drical, both ends truncated. — 15. Enchelis fritillus. Cy-
lindric, the fore-part truncated. — 16. Enchelis caudata.
Body long, fore-part obtuse, hinder part diminishing into
a kind of tail. — 1 7. Enchelis epistomium. Long and cylin-
dric, the fore-part slender and roundish. — 1 8. Enc/u-lis
gemniuta. Body cylindrical, upper part prolonged into a
transpnrent neck, a double series of globules running down
the body. — 19. Enchelis retro</rada. Described. — 20. En-
chelis festinans. Oblong, cylindrical, the ends obtuse,
the fore-part transparent. — 21. Enchelis farcimen. Cy-
lindric, crooked and truncated at both ends. — 22. En-
chelis index. Like an inverted none, one edge of the apex
produced and forming an angle with the other part.--
23. Enc/ielis truncus. Cylindrical, with a kind of head.
— 24. EncMis Larva. Long, with two small nipples
projecting from the middle of the body, one on each
side. — 25. Enchelis spatula. Striated, the fore-part trans-
parent and of the snape of a spatula. — 2G. EncMis pu-
ON MICROSCOPIC DISCOVERT
C29
pultt. Cylimlric, the fore-part papillary. — 27. Enchelis ]
pupa. Kind of ventricose cylinder, with a small nipple
proceeding from the apex.
V. VIBRIO. An invisible worm, very sim-
ple, round, and rather long.
" The extensive range of this genus, in re-
gard to the structure, form, and size of the dif-
ferent species, oilers great variety to the ob-
server. It includes animalcules both mem-
braneous and crustaceous : some as slight as a
thread, others whose breadth nearly equals
their length ; some whose organization is so
complete that modern naturalists have entirely
excluded them from the phytozoa ; and others,
which are with difficulty distinguished from
vegetables. To diminish somewhat the incon-
gruities, without rendering the arrangement
complex, I have separated them into three di-
visions. The first is the simplest, and re-
quires a magnifying power of from 200 to 500
'.irnes to examine them ; the second and third
vary so much in size that some do not require
naif that power, and a few even less, being
just discernible by the naked eye."
First Division, — Bacillaria. " These mi-
nute and inactive animalcules are covered with
a hard, shell-like coat, and appear closely al-
lied to some of the fresh-water algae, and are
not very appropriately classed with the vibrio.
Second Division, — Phytozoa. " This term
was first made use of by Goldfuss, and is con-
fined by Ehrenberg to those microscopic crea-
(ures whose digestive organs are poly gastric,
or if they possess a simple alimentary canal,
it is always accompanied by rotatory organs." j
Third Division, — Entozoa. Includes those
animalcules of the vibrio genus which " pos-
sess an alimentary canal, but no cilia, nor oc-
casion currents when immersed in a mechani-
cal solution of coloured particles."
Plate 35, fig. 68, and Plate 27, fig. 30.
Paxillifer Vibrio. — " This animalcule, or
rather congeries of animalcules, for they are
mostly attached together in different forms,
when magnified appear like pieces of straw,
of a pale yellow colour, with the inside of an
orange brown. They are nearly round, and
if attentively watched, may be seen occasion-
ally to turn upon their longest axis, when a
longitudinal line may be observed ; this is
probably the hinge or opening of their shell.
They v;ary in length from l-100th to l-500th
of an inch, their diameter is from l-20th to
l-100th of their length : they require consi-
derable magnifying power, and large angular
aperture, to distinguish thei-r structure. I find
on reference to my notes, made at different
times, thai it was not until after I had exa-
mined them repeatedly I became satisfied of
their animal vitality. They generally reside
at the bottom of ponds, but after rain are met
with near the surface, giving the water a green
tint ; in such cases they arc fouiiu separate,
the agitation of the water having broken the
clusters." These animalcules are generally
found collected together in different parcels,
from seven to forty in number, and ranged in
a variety of forms, sometimes in a straight
line, then in the concave, as in fig. 30. This
creature, usually known as the stick vibrio,
seems to have affinity to the hair-like animal
described by Baker.
Plate 27, fig. 44. Vibrio Lunula — The
bow, or moon-shaped, vibrio, having both ends
similar. The body resembles much the shape
of the moon at the first quarter ; it is of a green
colour, and has generally from seven to ten
globules disposed lengthwise ; the smaller ones
are of a very pale colour, a pale green vacuity
may sometimes be seen in the middle : some
few varieties may be observed amongst them,
which are not easily described ; it will be
enough to have given the reader their general
and distinguishing characteristics.
The annexed cut represents a kind of vibrio
found in wheat. These animalcules were dis-
covered by Needham, and described by him
in a work entitled New Microscopical Disco-
veries, and afterwards more fully treated upon
by Baker. They are not lodged in those
blighted grains which are covered externally
with a soot -like dust, whose inside is often
little more than a black powder ; but abun-
dance of ears may be observed in fields of corn,
which have grains that appear blackish, as if
scorched : these, when opened, are found to
contain a soft white substance, that, when at-
tentively examined, looks like a congeries of
threads, or fibres, lying as close as possible to
630
SUPPLEMENT
each other in a parallel direction, and much
resembling the unripe down of some thistles.
This fibrous matter does not discover any signs
ol life, or motion, unless water be applied to
it ; the fibres then separate, and prove them-
selves to be living creatures. These vibrios
are in general of a large size, and may be
seen with a low magnifying power, being
about l-13th of an inch in length, and l-140th
broad. They are in general of a bright chest-
nut colour ; the lower extremity is whiter and
more transparent than the rest of the body.
The upper end is rather round, the lower one
is pointed. A distinguishing mark of these
little creatures is a row of transparent glo-
bules, which are placed at intervals through
the whole length of the body. These crea-
tures increase in size, till at last they may be
observed with great ease by the naked eye,
being two-tenths of an inch long, and about
one hundredth in diameter. The figure re-
presents one of these magnified about seventy
times linear. The ovary may be clearly
traced almost from the lower extremity to the
middle of the body, where the latter becomes
so opaque as to prevent its being seen any
farther. The eggs, when arrived at their
lull growth, are nearly of a cylindric shape,
both ends rounded ; towards the lower extre-
mity there is an opening through which the
eggs are extruded. The eggs are formed of
a fine transparent membrane; it covers the
young vibrio, which is folded curiously there-
in ; these eggs may be frequently found in the
grains of wheat containing the animalcules.
One of the most remarkable circumstances
in these animalcules is the faculty they have
of receiving again the powers of life, after
having lost them for a considerable time ; for
instance, when some of the blighted grains of
wheat, that have been preserved for many
years, have been soaked in wafer for ten or
twelve hours, living vibrios have been found in
it; if the water evaporate, or begin to fail,
they cease to move, but on a fresh application,
will be again revived. It may be proper to
notice here, that according to the observations
of Roffredi, those eels which have done laying
eggs are incapable of being resuscitated upon
being moistened ; the same seems to be the
case with (hose that are very young ; it is pro-
bable the animalcule must attain a certain age
and degree of strength before it is endowed
with this wonderful faculty.
VIBRIO SPECIES.
1. Vibrio lineofa. Very small, linear vibrio.— 1. Vi-
brio ruifida. Like a bent line. — 3. Vibrio bacillus. Li-
near, equally truncated at both ends.— 4. Vibrio undula.
Filiform, flexuous vibrio. — 5. Vibrio serpens. Filiform,
' the windings obtuse.— 6. Vibrio spirillum. Filiform,
spiral.— 7. Vibrio vermiculus. Twisted and gelatinous.
- '<•. Vibrio intestinum. Gelatinous, round, the fore-part
small. — i). Vibrio bipimctatus. Linear, both ends trun-
cated, two small globules in the middle of the body.—
10. Vilirio tripunctatus. Linear, smaller at the ends,
with three globular points, the two which are at the
extremities being smaller than the one at the middle.
— 11. Vibrio paxillifrr. Described. — 12. Vibrio lunula.
Described. — 18. Vibrio verminus. Linear, compressed,
the fore-part narrower than the hinder part. — 14. Vili-
rio mallceus. Linear, with a globule at the base, and
transverse line at the apex. — 15. Vibrio acus. Linear,
with a neck, the upper extremity obtuse, the lower one
terminating in a setaceous tail. — 16. Vibrio sagitta. Li-
near, well-marked neck, apex truncated and open, tail
setaceous. — 17. Vibrio ff or dius. Of equal size, tail ter-
minating in a little tubercle. — 18. Vibrio serpentulus.
Pointed at both ends. — 19. Vibrio coluber. Filiform,
tail setaceous, and bending up nearly to a right angle
with the body. — 20. Vibrio anguilhila. Equal size
throughout, and somewhat hard, variouskinds, of which
the wheat vibrio, described, is one, and the eels of vi-
negar another. — '21. Vibrio linter. Ventricose oval vi-
brio, with a short neck. — 22. Vibrio utriadus. Round,
fore-part narrow and truncated, lower part ventricose.
— 23. Vibrio fasciola. Fore part small, middle larger,
hind-part acute. — 24. Vibrio culymbus. Thick, sharp-
ened at the end, the neck a little bent. — 25. Vibrio
strictus. Lengthened out almost to a line, small to-
wards the fore-part, apex obtuse. — 26. Vibiio an/is.
Oblong, ends attenuated, neck longer than the tail. —
27. Vibrio cyynus. Corpulent, with a crooked neck. —
28. Vibrio unser. Elliptical, with a long neck, and a
small lump on its back. — '29. Vibrio Olor. Elliptical,
with a very long neck, and a knob on the apex. — 30.
Vibrio falx. Gibbous, hind-part obtuse, neck crooked.
— 31. Vibrio intermedius. Membranaceous, fore-part
small, hinder part somewhat acute.
VI. CYCI.IDIUM. A simple, invisible, flat,
pellucid, orbicular or oval worm.
" This genus is composed of animalcules of
a flat, round or oval form, without any appa-
rent cilia. Like some others, they are so very
diaphanous that the most delicately finished
engravings of them afford but a faint idea of
their exquisitely brilliant, crystal-like appear-
ance, when viewed under a good achromatic
microscope of large angular aperture."
Plate 35, fig. 62. The azure Cydidium. —
" Is of a flat, oval form. In its usual condi-
tion it is pellucid, but when fed with colouring
matter, dark spots may be seen as in the en-
graving, in swimming it sometimes rotates,
and exhibits its narrow side to view; if the
water be filled with opaque particles, a cur-
rent may be perceived towards the front part
of it, indicating the presence of cilia, which
however can only be seen when the animal is
expiring. These creatures propagate by di-
vision, during the progress of which they alter
their form. They require a magnifying power
from 600 to 800 times in order to view them
distinctly. Length 1-1 400th to 1-1 800th of
an inch."
CYCLIDIUM SPECIES.
1. Cydidium butta. Orbicular, bright. — 2. Cydidium
milium. Elliptical, and crystalline. — 3. Cydidium flui-
tans. Oval, crystalline. — 4. Cydidium f/laucoma. Oval,
intestines faintly seen. Described. — 5. Cfididium mgri-
cans. Oblong, with black margin. — 6. Cydidium 'ros-
tratium. Oval, fore-part pointed. — 7. Cydidium widens.
Oval, hind-part pointed. — 8. Cydidium llyalinum. Oval,
hind-part acute. — 9. Cydidium pediculus. Oval, convex,
the bottom even. — 10. Cydidium dubium. Oval, upper
part convex, under part concave.
ON MICROSCOPIC DISCOVERY.
631
VII. PAKAMJKICM. An invisible, simple,
membranaceous, flat, and pellucid worm.
The animalcules includedinthisgenus, toge-
ther with the kolpoda, are supposed by Ehren-
berg to be the same as the monads and cycli-
dia, at a more advanced stage of their growth.
Plate 35, fig. 63. Paramacium chrysalis. —
" These ..interesting creatures appear like
milk-white specks to the naked eye. They
are soft, and yield to the presence of any hard
substance they may come in contact with.
The body is long, and in some positions the
cuticle appears to have a diagonal fold, as
shown in the figure. The mouth aperture is
situated on the inferior side, near the middle,
and in some views it appears like a papillary
projection. In good microscopes, the body is
seen covered with longitudinal rows of hair ;
hy means of these, the creature is enabled to
produce a current in the water towards its
mouth. They propagate by transverse divi-
sion. These animalcules are well adapted for
showing the structure of the alimentary or-
gans, as they are of sufficient magnitude to
render the sacs clearly distinguishable, when
filled with coloured particles. On the intro-
duction of indigo into the water they are
greatly agitated ; in a few minutes, however,
they are quiet ; and the digestive sacs become
coloured, as in the figure, when from 100 to
200 may be enumerated. Length, l-85th to
t -200th of an inch."
1. ParamcEcium aurelia. Compressed, oblong:, folded
towards the fore-part, hinder part acute. — '2. Paramae-
ciiuit chrysalis. Cylindrical, folded towards the fore-
part, hinder part obtuse. Described. — 3. Puramcecium
wrsutum. Cylindrical, lower part thick, both ends very
obtuse. — 4. Parameeclum oinfei-um. Depressed, with
large oval molecules withinside. — 5. Paraiiuecium maryi-
na/um. Depressed, gray, with a double margin.
VIII. KOLPODA. An invisible, very sim-
ple, pellucid, fiat and crooked worm. " They
vary much in external form."
Plate 35. fig. 64. The cuckoo Kolpoda, or
Common Bosom animalcule, — " Its general
contour has some resemblance to a bean ; and
if we suppose the two convex lobes on the
front side equal, and do not perceive the pro-
boscis, which indeed is seen with difficulty, we
shall distinguish some likeness to the bosom ;
from which similitude it lias received its name.
The mouth, which is more lightly tinted than
the surrounding parts, is situated in the hollow
between the upper lobe and the proboscis, and
marked by a cross, while the termination of
the alimentary canal is in the cavity immedi-
ately below the proboscis. The margin of the
two lobes isfurnished with arowofdelicatecilia,
only observable under favourable illumination.
These cilia, by producing a current in the
water towards the mouth, perform the same
important offices as members in some of the
mammalia; as the current brings all the par-
ticles of matter in the water to the mouth in
regular succession. By feeding these animal-
cules on vegetable colouring, the poly gastric
form of their digestive organs is readily dis-
tinguished. Length of full grown specimens,
1.280th of an inch. They are found in vari-
ous vegetable infusions, and especially in
those of hay which have been kept a consider-
able time."
KOLPODA SPECIES.
1. Kolpoda lamella. — Elongated, membranaceous,
hinder part curved. — 2. Kolpoda gallinula. Oblong,
back towards the fore-part bright and membranaceous.
—3. Kolpoda rostrum. Oblong, the fore part hooked.
— 4. Kolpoda ochrea. Long, membranaceous, apex at-
tenuated, base bent in a right angle to the body. — 5.
Kolpoda mucronata. Membranaceous, dilated, fore-part
smaller than hind-part, with a small incision at one-
side. — 6. Kolpoda triquetra. Egg-shaped, one edge
turned back. — 7. Kolpoda striata. Oblong, pear-shaped,
white, fore-part pointed, hind-part round. — 8. Kolpoda
nucleus. Egg-shaped, with an acute vertex. — 9. Kolpo-
da mdeagris. Changeable, the fore-part like a hook,
the hind -part folded up. — 10. Kolpoda assimilis. De-
pressed, apex in the form of a small hook. — 1 1. Kolpoda
cucullus. Described. — 12. Kolpoda cucullidus. Oblong,
with an oblique incision a little below the apex. — 13.
Kolpoda cucullio. Flat, oval, bending slightly beneath
the apex. — 1 4 . Kolpoda reu. Thick and curved in the
middle. — 15. Kolpoda pimm. Convex, oval, apex formed
into a kind of beak. — lt>. Kolpoda cuneus. Clavated,
round, the apex dentated.
IX. GONIUM. An invisible, simple, smooth,
angular worm.
" The animalcules of this genus are in
clusters ; they are propagated by several inci-
sions across the body of the parent, dividing it
into a number of symmetrical forms. When
observed singly, most of the species resemble
the volvox. The structure of their digestive
organs is not known."
Plate 35, fig. 69. 'The Brtast-phite Go-
nium. — " It consists of sixteen spherical bodies,
disposed regularly in a quadrangular form, like
the jewels in the breast-plate of the Jewish
high-priest. They are all arranged in the
same plane ; the four centre ones are general-
ly longer than those which surround them ;
and the diameters of the three smaller balls
are only equal to the two larger centre ones to
which they are attached ; the external corners
are therefore vacant. The diameters of the
clusters vary from 1 -3500th to 1 -200th of an
inch. They are found near the surface of
clear water, and often along with the cercaria
viridis. A magnifying power of 200 is suf-
ficient for their examination."
GONIUM SPECIES.
1. Goniwn pedorale. Quadrangular, pellucid, with six-
teen spherical molecules. Described. — 2. (Ionium pvl-
viaatum. Quadrangurlar, opaque, with four little pil-
lows.— 3. Gonium Corrugatum. Quadrangular, white,
sunk a little in the middle. — 4. Gonium rectanyulum,
Rectangular, hind part arched. — 5. Gonium truncation.
(ionium with obtuse corners, hind-part arched.
632
SUPPLEMENT
X. BURSARIA. A very simple, hollow, mem.
branaceous worm.
This animalcule fakes it name from the
resemblance its bears to a parse, or bag.
Ehrenberg has noticed only one species, and
has not decided as to the situation of the ge-
nus.
Plate 35, fig. 60. The little swallow-lihe
Bursaria. — " The form of this animalcule, by
a little effort of imagination, may be compared
to a bird, and its movements appear like the
flight of the swallow: hence its name. It is
found in stagnant water."
BURSARIA SPECIES.
1 . Bursaria truncatella. Ventricose, the top trunca-
ted.— 2. Bursaria bullina. Boat-shaped, the fore-part
formed into a lip. — 3. Bursaria, hirundinella. Described.
4. — Bursaria duplella. Elliptic, with the edge bent in
and out. — 5. Bursaria ylobina. Spherical, very pellu-
cid in the middle.
XL CKRCARIA. An invisible, pellucid worm,
with a tail.
" If we consider the internal organization
of this genus, it comprehends a very wide
range; indeed, the different species vary so
much that it is difficult to give a general de-
finition of their characters with any degree of
accuracy."
Plate 35. fig. 59. The Green Cercaria. —
" This is a highly interesting creature: the
briglit green colour of its body ; its diaphanous
extremities; its well defined orange brown
eye ; and the numerous transformations of its
form, render it a very interesting object for
the microscope ; in addition to which it is
easily procured, and managed with great fa-
cility. The length of' the specimen was about
l-350th of an inch: Ehrenberg gives l-280th
of an inch as their length. The magnifying
power best adapted for viewing them, is from
300 to 500 times, in an achromatic."
Plate 27, fig. 29. Cercaria inquieta. —
This animalcule so frequently changes its
form, that it is not easy to describe it; it is
sometimes spherical, sometimes like a long
cylinder, at other times of an oval figure, white
and gelatinous; the tail is filiform and flexible,
the upper part vibrating vehemently; it has
no visible viscera. Two small dots, probably
the eyes, are sometimes distinguishable; and
occasionally there is seen a large circular
marking near the tail.
CERCARIA SPECIES.
I. Cercaria gyrinus. Round, with a sharp tail. — 2.
Cercaria gibl>a. Oval-shaped, convex, the fore-part ra-
ther acute, the tail round. 3. Cercaria inrjuieta. Des-
cribed.— 4. Cercaria lemna. Mutable, somewhat flat-
tened, with an annulaU-d tail.— 5. Cercaria turbo. Glo-
bular, the in ill. Hi- contracted, with a tail like a bristle.
— 6. Cercaria poduria. Cylindric, the hind-part sharp
and somewhat cloven. — 7. Cercaria i-iridis. Described.
— 8. Cercaria setifera. Cylindric, fore-part smallest
hind-part pointed.— 9. Cercaria Mrta. Cylindric, fi>re-
part somewhat truncated, lower part obtuse, finishing
with two small points. — 10. Cercaria crumena. Cylin-
dric, ventricose, fore-part obliquely truncated, tail lin-
ear, terminating: with two diverging points. — 1 1. Cerca-
ria catellus. Three-parted, tail divided into two parts.
— 12. Cercaria catelina. In three parts, with a short
forked tail. — 13. Cercaria lupus. Cylindric, long, the
tail fun i ished with t wo spines. — 14. Cercaria vermicularis.
Cylindrical, annulated, with a projecting proboscis, two
small spines for the tail. — 1.5. Cercai^iaforciputa. Cy-
lindric, wrinkled, with a forked proboscis, which it can
extend or contract. — 16 Cercaria pluuronectes. Orbicu-
lar, the tail consisting of one bristle. — 17. Cercaria trijm.
Triangular, two bent arms, and a straight tail. — 18. Cer-
caria cyclitiium. Oval, hind-part somewhat notched,
with a t;iil that it thrusts out at pleasure. — 19. Cercaria
tenax. Membranaceous, fore-part rather thick, trunca-
ted, the tail three times shorter. — 2(1. Cercaria discus.
Orbicular, with a bent tail. — 21. Ctrcaria orbis. Orbi-
cular, with a tail consisting of two very long bristles. —
22. Cercaria luna. Orbicular, the tail of two short
spines, fore-part hollowed like a crescent.
XII. LEUCOPHRA. An invisible worm, pel-
lucid, and every where ciliated.
Plate 35, fig. 54. The Bracelet Leucophra.
— This animalcule is shown with the inner
edge ciliated, sometimes the cilias are disposed
on the circumference. It is scarce.
Plate 27, fig. 54. Leucophra cornuta. —
This creature requires to be observed some
time before its peculiar character can be as-
certained ; the body is composed of molecular
vessels, of a dark green colour ; for the most
part it is like an inverted cone, the fore-part
being wide arid truncated, with a little promi-
nent horn or hook on both sides ; the hind-part
conical, every where ciliated, the hairs ex
ceedingly minute ; those in the fore-part are
three times longer than the latter, and move
in a circular direction. The hinder part is
pellucid, and sometimes terminates in two or
three obtuse pellucid projections. This ani-
malcule will at one moment appear oval, at
another reniform, and ciliated at the fore part;
but at another time the hairs are concealed.
When the water evaporates, it dissolves or
breaks into a number of molecular vesicles.
LEUCOPHRA SPECIES.
1. Leucophra, eonflictor. Spherical, opaque, with
movable intestines. — 2. Leucoplira mamilla. Spherical,
opaque, with a small papillary projection. — ;5. Leuco-
phra virescens. Cylindrical, opaque, the lower part much
thicker than the upper part.— 4. Leucophra viridis.
Oval, opaque. — .5. Leucoplira bursaia. Green, oval, the
fore-part truncated. — 6. Leucophra posthuma. Globular,
opaque, and covered with a kind of pellucid net. — 7.
Leucoplira aurea. Oval, yellow, both ends equally ob-
tuse.— 8. Leucoplira pertusa. Oval, gelatinous, apex
obtusely truncated, one side sunk down. — 9. Leu-
coplira fracta. Long, with ciliated angles, rather
flat. — 10. Leucophra dilatata. Smooth, changeable,
with a ciliated edge. — 11. Leucophra scentUlaus. Oval,
round, opaque, green. — 12. Leucophra vesiculifera. Oval,
with vesicular intestines. — 13. Lfucophra globulifera.
Crystalline, of an oblong, oval shape. — 14. Leucoplira
pnltulata. Oblong, oval, the lower end obliquely trun-
cated.— 1.5. Leucoplira furJrinata. Like an inverted cone,
and rather opaque. — Ib". Leucuphra acuta. Oval, round,
with the apex acute, mutable, yellow. — 17. Leucoplira
notata. Oval, round, with a black point at the edge.
— 18. Leucoplira Candida. Oblong, one end smaller than the
OX MICROSCOPIC DISCOVERY.
CS3
other and bent back. — 19. Leucophra noduiata. Oblong,
oval, with a double row of little nodules. — 20. Leucophra
signata. Oblong, subdepressed, with a black margin,
filled with little molecular globules. — 21. Leucophra
triflona. Thick, obtuse, angular, yellow. — 22. Leucophra
fluida. Kidney-shaped, ventricose. — 23. Leucophra
fltuca. Reniform, sinuated. — 24. Leucophra armilla.
Described. — 25. Leucophra cornuta. Described. — 26.
Leucophra Jteteroclita. Cylindrical, fore part obtuse,
hind part furnished with a double tufted organ, which
it can thurst in and out at pleasure.
XIII. TRICHODA. An invisible, pellucid,
hairy worm.
Plate 35, fig. 55. Trichoda vtilgaris — This
animalcule has a crustaceous covering in the
shape of a cup, at the circumference of which
radiate several strong spines. Its polygastric
structure may be seen in the figure.
Plate 27, fig. 37. Trichoda sol — This
splendid creature constitutes a new genus, but
as we know of no more of the same kind, it
is introduced here. It is a little crystalline,
round corpuscule, the upper part convex ; it is
beset with innumerable diverging rays, which
are no longer than the diameter of the body,
proceeding from every part of its surface : the
inside contains as many as twenty polygastric
sacs. The body contracts and dilates, but
the animalcule remains confined to the same
spot.
Plate 27, fig. 38. Trichoda cnmeta. — A
pellucid globule, replete with bright intesiines,
the fore-part furnished with hairs, the hind-
part with a pellucid appendant globule.
Plate 27, fig. 53. Trichoda bomba. — A
(hick animalcule, and of a yellow colour ;
pellucid, and replete with clay-like mole-
cules ; it is very lively, moving about with
so much velocity, as to elude the sharpest
sight, and most determined observer, and as-
suming various shapes, sometimes appearing
spherical, sometimes reniform, or kidney-
shaped, and sometimes as in the figure.
TRICHODA SPECIES.
1. Trichoda gramliiiella. Spherical, pellucid, upper
part hairy. — 2. Trichoda cometa. Described. — 3. Trichoda
granata. Spherical, centre opaque, the circumference
hairy. — 4. Trichoda trochus. Pear-shaped, pellucid, each
side of the^fore part distinguished by a little bunch of
hairs. — 5. Trichoda (/yrinus. Oval, round, crystalline,
the front hairy. — 6. Trichoda sol. Described. — 7.
Trichoda Solaris. Spheroidal, with a few hairs round
the circumference. — 8. Trichoda bond/a. Described. —
9. Trichoda orbis. Orbicular, the fore part notched and
hairy. — 10. Trichoda urnula. In the form of a water
pitcher, the fore part hairy. — 1 1 . Trichoda diota. Pitcher-
shaped, fore part smallest, upper part of the mouth
ciliated. — 12. Trichoda horrida. Somewhat conical,
fore-part rather broad and truncated, lower part
obtuse, the whole covered with radiating bristles. — 13.
Trichoda urinarium. Egg-shaped, with a short hairy
beak. — 14. Trichoda semiluna. Semiorbicular, fore part
hairy underneath. — 15. Tricfioda trigona. Convex, fore
part ciliated, hind part apparently torn away. — 16
Trichoda tinea. Clubbed, fore part hairy, hind part
large — 17. Trichoda nirjru. Oval, compressed, fore part
broader and hairy. — '18. Triclioda pubes. Egg-shaped,
oblong, forepart depressed. — 19. Trichoda fioccus.
Alembranaeeous, fore-part rather conical ; three small
papilla? project from the base, which are set with hairs.
VOL. II.
— 20. Trichoda sinuata. Oblong, depressed, one margin
hollow and hairy, the lower end obtuse. — 21. Trichoda
prcBCcps. Membranaceous, somewhat lunated, protu-
berant in the middle, a row of hairs on the outside. — 22.
Trichoda proteas. Oval, the lower part obtuse, with a
long neck, whicli it has the power of contracting or ex-
tending.— 23. Trichoda versatilis. Oblong, hind part acute,
with a neck that it can extend or contract at pleasure,
under part of the extremity of the neck hairy. — 24. Trich-
oda ffibba. Oblong, with a hunch on the back, the belly
hollowed out, the fore part ciliated, both ends obtuse.
— 25. Trichoda fata. Oblong, with the back protuber-
ant, the fore part ciliated, both ends obtuse. — 26.
Tric/ioda patens. Long, round, a long hole in the fore
part, with the edges ciliated. — 27. Trichoda patida. In-
clining to oval, with a small tube at the fore part, the
upper end covered with hairs. — 28. Trichoda foveata.
Oblong, rather broad, three little horns on the fore
part, hinder part beardless. — 29. Trichoda striata. — Ol>-
long, one edge rather curved, and furnished with a row
of hairs, both extremities obtuse. — 30. Trichoda uvula.
Rather flat and long, of equal size throughout, fore
part hairy. — 31. Trichoda aurantia. Sinuated, oval,
fore part broad, apex hairy to the middle. — 32. Trichoda
ignita. Oval, apex rather acute, the under part fur-
rowed, the furrows hairy. — 33. Trichoda prisma. Oval,
under part convex, upper part compressed into a kind
of keel, the fore part small. — 34. Triclvoda forceps. Oval,
with a pair of forceps at the fore part, with unequal
hairy legs. — 3.5. Trichoda forf ex. Round and prominent,
the fore part formed into a kind of forceps, and two
small protuberances. — 36. Trichoda index. Obovated,
under part of the front of the margin hairy, apex formed
by the fore part, projecting like the finger on a direc-
tion post. — 37. Trichoda S. Striated, fore part ciliated,
the extremities bent in opposite directions. — 38. Trich-
oda navicula. Three cornered, fore part truncated and
ciliated, hind part acute, and bent a little upwards. —
39. Trichoda succisa. Flattened, oval, edge hairy, hinder
part hollowed out so as to form two unequal legs. — 40.
Tridioda, sulcata. Ovated, ventricose, apex acute, with
a furrow at the abdomen, and both sides of it ciliated.
— 41. Trichoda anas. Long, the apex of the neck un-
derneath hairy. — 42. Trichoda barbata. Long, round,
the under part from the apex to the middle hairy. —
43. Trichoda farcimen. Long and thick, surrounded
with small bristles — 44. Trichoda crinita. Long, round,
everywhere ciliated on the upper part, and also on the
under part as far as the middle. — 45. Trichoda angulus.
Angular, the apex hairy. — 46. Trichoda linita. Oblong,
witli prominences at both extremities. — 47. Trichoda
paocillus. Linear, flat, fore part truncated find hairy,
the hinder part obtuse. — 48. Trichoda vermicnlaris.
Long, cylindrical, with a short neck, the apex hairy. —
49. Trichoda melit<ea. Oblong, ciliated, with a dilatable
neck, the apex globular, and ciliated, and a kind of
peristaltic motion observable in it. — 50. Trichoda Jimbri-
ata. Obovated, the apex hairy, the hinder part ob-
liquely truncated and serrated. — 51. Trichoda camelus.
Thick, fore part hairy, with notches on the middle and
each side. — 52. Tnclioda augur. Oblong, depressed,
pellucid, and filled with molecules, vertex truncated,
fore part forming a small beak, underneath are three
feet, the hinder part is furnished with bristles. — 53.
TricJioda pupa. Hooded, front hairy, the tail inflected,
at the lower part of the head is a large pellucid cor-
puscule. — 54.' TricJioda lunaris. Arched, round, the
apex hairy, the tail bent. — 55. Trichoda bilunis. Arched,
flattened, the apex hairy, and two little bristles pro-
ceeding from the tail.— 56. Trichoda ratlus. Oblong,
with a kind of keel, the fore part hairy, and a very long
bristle proceeding from the hinder part. — 57. Trichoda
tigi-is. Long, and somewhat cylindrical, apex hairy,
the tail divided into two long bristles. — 58. Trichoda
pocUlum. Oblong, fore part truncated and hairy, the
tail articulated, and divided into two bristles. — 59.
Trichoda claims. Fore part round and hairy, hind pai t
furnished with a sharp tail. — 60. Trichoda cornuta.
Upper part convex, under side plane, apex hairy, tail
linear, and simple. — 61. Tricltoda (jallina. Long, fore
part sinuated, the front hairy, the tail formed of small
hairs. — 62. Trichoda muscidus. Egg-shaped, fore part
hairy, the tail projecting from the under part. — 6.'i.
Trichoda delphis. Clubbed, front hairy, the tail small
631
SUPPLEMENT
and rather bent upwards. — 64. TricJioda delpJiiniis. Ob-
long, fore part hairy, the tail turned back and trunca-
ted.— 65. TricJioda ctava. Similar to the preceding in
most respects. — 66. Trichoda cuniculus. Oblong, fore-
part hairy, hind part rather acute, filled with molecules
and black vesicles. — 67. TricJioda felis. Curved, large,
the fore part small, hinder part gradually diminishing
into a tail, under part set longitudinally with hairs. —
<J8. TricJioda piscis. Oblong, fore-part hairy, hinder part
terminating in a very slender tail. — 69. Trichoda larus.
Long, round, surrounded with hairs, the tail divided
into two points. — 70. TricJioda longicauda. Cylindrical,
fore part truncated and surrounded with hairs, the tail
long, furnished with two bristles, and having two joints.
— /I. Trichoda ftxa. Spherical, the circumference set
with hairs, and a small pedicle projecting from the body.
— 72. Trichoda inquilinus. Sheathed in a cylindrical
transparent bag, having a little pedicle bent back within
the bag. — 73. Triclioda ingcnita. Sheathed, the bag de-
pressed, the base broadest. — 74. TricJioda innata. Shea-
thed, in a cylindrical bag, with a pedicle passing
through, and projecting beyond it. — 75. Trichoda trans-
fuya. Broad, fore part hairy, hinder part full of bris-
tles, one side sinuated, the other pointed. — 76. TricJioda
riliata. Ventrieose, the hinder part covered with hair.
— 77. Trichoda bulla. Membranaceous, sides bent in-
wards, fore and hind parts furnished with hairs. — 78.
TiicJuxia pellionella. Cylindrical, fore-part hairy, hinder
part furnished with bristles. — 79. TricJioda cyllidium.
Egg-shaped, the apex gaping, the base hairy. — 80.
Trichoda cursor. Oval, fore part hairy, hinder part fur-
nished with straight and curved hairs in two fascicles.
— 81. TricJioda pule JP. Egg-shaped, with an incision in
the fore-part ; the front and base hairy. — 82. Trichoda
lynceiis. Nearly square, with a crooked beak, the
mouth hairy. — 83. Trichoda erosa. Orbicular, fore-part
notched, one side furnished with hairs, the hinder pan
with bristles. — 84. Triclioda rostrata. Depressed, muta-
ble, yellow, with long cilia, and feet tapering to a point.
— 8.5. TricJioda layena. Round, ventricose, with a long
neck, and the lower end set with bristles. — 86. Triclioda
diaron. Boat-shaped, with furrows, the fore and hind
parts hairy. — 87. TricJioda cimtx. Oval, with a lucid
margin, front and hind part hairy. — 88. TricJioda cicada.
Oval, with an obscure margin, fore part covered with
hairs on the under side, and the hinder part beardless.
XIV. KERONA. An invisible worm with
horns. " Animalcules furnished with hooks
(uncini), bristles (seta), or horn-like proces-
ses."
Plate 35, fig. 56. Kerona pullaster. — " The
fore part, in addition to the cilia, is stated to
have three setae. The cilia at the opposite
extremity are often separated ; at other times
they are collected in a cluster."
KERONA SPECIES.
1 . Kerona rostellum. Membranaceous, orbicular, with
one projecting point, the upper surface covered with
small horns. — 2. Kerona lyncaster. Rather square, and
its disc furnished with shining horns. — 3. Kerona histrio.
Oblong, membranaceous, with four or five black points
in the fore part, which are continually changing their
'situation, thick set, with small globules in the middle,
among which four larger ones are perceived, probably
the eggs. — 4. Kerona vypris. Egg-shaped, sinuated to-
wards the hind part, the fore part hairy. — 5. Kerona
liuiixtrum. Orbicular, with the horns in the middle, the
fore part membranaceous and hairy, and several bristles
in the hinder part. — 6. Kerona haustellum. Differs
from the preceding only in wanting the bristles in
the hinder part. — 7. Kerona patella. With a unival-
led shell, orbicular, crystalline ; fore part somewhat
notched. — 8. Kerona rannus. Oval and rather flat, with
one edge bent, the opposite one ciliated ; the front fur-
nished with horns, and the hind part with bristles. — 9.
Kerona pullaster. Described. — 10. Kerona mytillus.
Rather clubbed, broad at both extremities, clear and
ciliated. — 11 Kerona If pits. Egg-shaped, fore part hairy,
the base furnished with bristles. — 12. Kerona silurus.
Oblong, the fore and hind parts hairy, the back ciliated.
— 13. Kerona caluitium. Rather broad, oblong, with
glittering horns on the fore part. — 14. Kerona pustulata.
Oval, convex, one edge of the hinder part sinuated,
both ends set witli hairs, and several horns placed on
the fore part.
XV. HIMANTOPUS. A pellucid, invisible,
cirrated* worm.
Plate 35, fig. 58. Hi mantopus larva. " This
is a very lively creature, swimming and turn-
ing in the water in a graceful and diverting
manner, inflecting itself, as shown in the
figure ; the body gradually decreases towards
the posterior, and at intervals several hairs
appear disposed along it. The margin is
fringed."
HiMANTOi'us SPECIES.
1. Himantopiis acarus. Round and prominent, the
hinder part cirrated, the fore part sharp. — 2. Hirnat/to-
pus ludio. Curled, the upper part hairy, the tail ex-
tended upwards. — 3. Himantopiis sannin. Crooked, the
upper part ciliated, the under part hairy. — 4. Himanto-
pus volutator. Lunated, the fore-part hairy. — 5. Himan-
topus larva. Described. — 6. Hiinantopus c/iaron. Boat-
shaped, fuiTowed, the hollow part of the belly cirrated.
— 7. Hiinantopus corona. Semi-orbicular, flattened,
both sides cirrated.
XVI. VORTICELLA. A small animal with a
vascular cup; the mouth is ciliated, and ca-
pable of being contracted, the stem fixed.
The variety that may be observed in these
minute animals confirms a principle, which,
the more it is inquired into, the more it will
be found to accord with the general operations
in nature, namely, that there is always a pre-
existent principle of life necessary to the orga-
nization both of animals and vegetables ; that
the alimentary and other particles which are
added to, or apparently belong to them, pro-
duce nothing of themselves; they are incapa^
ble of forming the least fibre, but they are able
to become constituent parts of one organical
whole, together with the instruments whereby
the former principle is manifested, and ren-
dered capable of acting upon certain orders of
creatures. The genus vorticella is very ex-
tensive. Miiller enumerates no less than se-
venty-five species, and other observers have
added to the number; in this, however, and
in other similar instances, it would be better
if examination were conducted with a view to
lessen rather than increase the number of spe-
cies, that is to say, if the several stages of de-
velopment were carefully noted, when we be-
lieve many apparently distinct species would
be found to be one and the same, in its various
progressions towards maturity. The vorticella
differ considerably in their organization, and
Mr Pritchard has, in consequence, separated
(hem into two divisions, — V. polygastrica, and
V. rotaturia; the former of these includes the
* Tlidt is, furnished with a tuft, or lock, of hair.
ON MICROSCOPIC DISCOVERT.
635
animalcules whose alimentary structure con-
sists of a number of sacs only, and the latter,
those which have true alimentary canals and
rotatory organs. Of the entire genus, Mr
Pritchard remarks, " They are naked, con-'
tractile, and possess cilia circularly disposed
near the mouth, producing a vortex in the
water : in many of them they appear to rotate
like a wheel ; to account for which, various
hypotheses have been invented. According
to Dr Ehrenberg, this is occasioned by their
peculiar disposition, and not from any differ-
ence of structure ; for as with the vibrating
cilia, the base of each is a bulb (similar to the
species of the Echines), which by means of
muscular fibres it can move in any direction,
like a ball and socket joint. Thus each cilium
in its revolution describes a cone, the apex
of which is the bulb. Now if the cilia are ar
ranged in a circle, and viewed laterally while
in motion, the whole wheel will appear to re-
volve as each ciliurn passes ; first, a little nearer
the eye on this side of the cone, and then
further off on the other side."
Plate 35, fig. 57. Vorticella cyathini —
" This animalcule is shown swimming freely :
(he edge of the bell is ciliated, though not ex-
hibited in the sketch : it can attach itself by
the stem, which it contracts spirally." Its po-
lygastric structure is shown in the figure.
Plate 27, fig. 28. Vorticella anastatica.
—These polypi form a group resembling a
cluster, or more properly an open flower ; this
flower or cluster is supported by a stem , which
is fixed by its lower extremity to some of the
aquatic plants or extraneous bodies that are
found in the water ; the upper extremity forms
itself into eight or nine lateral branches, per-
fectly similar to each other ; these have also
subordinate branches, whose collective form
much resembles that of a leaf. Every one of
these assemblages is composed of one principal
branch or nerve, which makes with the main
stem of the cluster an angle somewhat greater
than a right one ; from both sides of this nerve
the smaller lateral branches proceed ; these
are shorter the nearer their origin is to the
principal branch. At the extremity of the
principal branch, and also of the lateral ones,
there is a polype or vorticella. There are
others on both sides of the lateral twigs, but
at different distances from their extremity.
These animalcules are all exceedingly small,
and of a bell-like figure: near their mouth a
quick motion may be discerned, though not
with sufficient distinctness to convey an ade-
quate idea of its cause ; upon the branches of
these clusters are round bodies, which will be
more particularly described presently. Every
cluster has eight or nine of these branches or
leaves; they do not all proceed from the same
point, but the points from whence they set out
are not far asunder ; each of these branches is
bent a little inwards, so that all of them taken
together form a kind of shallow eup. If the
eye be placed right over the base of this cup,
the appearance of the whole eight or nine
branches is like unto that of a star, with so
many rays proceeding from the centre. If
the cluster be slightly touched, all the branches
instantly fold up, and form a small round
mass. The stem which supports the cluster
contracts also, at the same time folding up
like a workman's measuring rule, that con-
sists of three or four joints. This extraordin-
ary assemblage constitutes one organized
whole, formed of a multitude of similar and
also particular ones ; a new species of society,
in which all the individuals are members
of each other in the strictest sense, and all
participate in the same life.
A few days after one of the clusters is
formed, small round bodies or bulbs may be
perceived to protrude in several places from
the body of the branch ; these grow very last,
and arrive at their greatest growth in two or
three days. The bulbs detach themselves
from the branches out of which they spring,
and go away, swimming till they can settle
upon some substance which they meet with in
the water, and to which they fix themselves
by a short pedicle ; the bulbs are then round,
only a little flatted on the under side, the pe-
dicle continues to lengthen gradually for about
twenty-four hours, during the same time the
bulbs also change their figure, and become
nearly oval. There are in a cluster but few
of these bulbs, compared with the number of
the vorticellse, neither do all the bulbs come
out at the same time. The bulb then divides
lengthways into two smaller ones, (see figure)
but which are still much larger than the vor-
ticellee themselves. It is nor long before these
are separated like the first, and thus form four
bulbs on the same stalk ; these again diviclo
themselves, and form eight; which again sub-
divide, and consequently make sixteen. They
are all connected with the stalk by a proper
pedicle, but they are not all of an equal size ;
the largest continue to divide and the smallest
begin to open, and take the bell-formed shape.
Trembley observed from one round bulb, in
about twenty-four hours, by repeated divisions,
one hundred and ten vorticellas to be formed.
Vorticella digitalis. This species of the vor-
ticella is very scarce, it seems only to have
been seen by Rosel, who found it on the mo-
noculus quadricornis, (see figure) till it was
discovered in 1 784, by Mu'ller, who had sought
for it several years before, but in vain. The
body is cylindrical, crystalline, and appears
almost empty; it has three pellucid points dis-
posed lengthways, the apex is truncated in an
oblique direction, the margin bent back. The
636
SUPPLEMENT
upper part contracts itself, and the margin
then assumes a conical shape, with a convex
surface ; there are in general but few branches
from the principal stem, and these are short
and thick. Tt excites an undulatory motion,
but neither hairs, nor rotatory motion, have
been discovered. The figure represents the
vorticella adhering to the monoculus quadri-
cornis.
Vorticdla convallaria. These vorticellae, or
bell-animals, as they are termed by Baker,
are generally found adhering to some sub-
stance in the water ; they are represented here
as found by Rosel, fixed to a curious cornu
ammonis, with points projecting from the back.
To the naked eye they appear only as so many
little white points, but under the microscope,
as little bells, agitating the water to a consi-
derable distance. The stems of these have a
particular motion, they draw themselves up
and shorten all at once, taking the form of a
spiral wire or screw ; in a moment after they
again extend themselves. Many of them may
be seen at times adhering to each other by their
tails; the cilia are disposed round the mouth , and
require a good defining power to exhibit them
satisfactorily. On reference to the figure, it
will be perceived that some of the animalcules
differ in appearance from others : those which
are nearly circular are in a state of inactivity;
others, assuming an oval form, and beginning
to open, are in the act of stretching themselves
out to take their prey ; and such as have taken
the perfect cup-like shape, are fully extended,
with their cilia in action, collecting food. One
is drawn on a considerably enlarged scale, to
exhibit more clearly the styli and cilia.
VORTICELLA SPECIES.
1. Vorticella tineta. In the form of a trapezium, of
a blackish green colour, and opaque. — 2. Vorticella splue-
roida. Globose, uniform, and opaque. — 3. Vorticella
viridis. Cylindrical, uniform, green, and opaque. — 4.
Vorticella lunifera. Green, the hinder part luminuted,
with a point in the middle projecting from the edge. —
5. Vorlicella lursata. Green, the aperture truncated,
with a central papillary projection. — 6. Vorlicella varia.
Cylindrical, truncated, opaque, of a blackish colour,
the fore part ciliated. — 7. Vorticdla sputarium. Round
and prominent, with an orbicular aperture, and long
hairs radiating as from a centre.— 8. Vorticella niyra.
Black, and top-shaped.— 9. Vorticella multif or mis. Green,
opaque, variable, with vesicles scattered about the body.
— 10. Vorticella polymorplia. Many-shaped, green,
opaque. — 1 1 . Vorticella cucullus. Long, round, the aper-
ture or mouth obliquely truncated.— 12. Vorlicella
utriculata. Green, the belly round and prominent, ca-
pable of being lengthened or shortened ; the fore-part
truncated, much in the shape of a common water-bottle;
the neck is sometimes very long, at others, very short,
and filled with green molecules. — 13. Vorticella ocreata,
Nearly of a cubical figure, the under part bent in an
obtuse angle. — 14. Vorticella ralfja. Cubical, the lower
part divaricated. — 15. Vorticel/a papittaris. Big-bellied,
the fore-part truncated, with a papillary tail, and a
splendid papillary excrescence on the side. — 16. Vorti-
cella sacculus. Cylindrical, the aperture broad and flat,
the edge turned down.— 17. Vorticella cirrata. Big-bel-
lied, the aperture sinuated, two tufts of hair on each
side of the belly. — 18. Vorticella nasuta. Cylindrical,
with a prominent point in the middle of the cup. — If).
Vorlicella stellina. Orbicular, with a molecular disc, and
ciliated margin. — 20. Vorlicella discina. Orbicular, the
edge ciliated, with a kind of convex handle on the un-
der side. — 21. Vorticella scyphina. Bowl-shaped, crys-
talline, with an opaque sp'herule in the middle. — '22.
Vorticella albina. The fore-part cylindrical, the hinder
part tapering and ending nearly in a point.— 23. Vorti-
cella fritillina. Empty, cylindrical, the apex truncated.
— 24. Vorticella truncatella. Cylindrical, stuffed or
filled, the apex truncated, with very short cilia. — 2.5.
VortaceUa limacina. Cylindrical, truncated with two
pair of cilia. — '26. Vorlicella fnuiinina. Gregarious, cy-
lindrical, obliquely truncated, with two pair of cilia,
and a fissure or notch at the upper edge. — 27. Vorlicella
crateyaria. Compound, with globous naked florets,
two tentacula, and a branched stem. — 28. Vorticella
Jtamata. Purse-formed, the edge of its aperture or
mouth set with rigid points. — 29. Vorticella craterifurm-
is. Approaching to a square figure, with fascicles of
cilia even at the hinder part.— 30. Vorticella canalicula-
ta. Dilated, pellucid, with an incision in the side. — 31.
Vorticella versatilis. Long, spear-formed, but often
changing into a pitcher-like form. — 32. Vorticella am-
pulla. Contained in a pellucid bottle-shaped bag, the
head divided into two lobes. — 33. Vorlicella foliiculala.
Oblong, in a bright cylindrical bag. — 34. Vorticella lar-
va. Cylindrical, the aperture crescent-shaped, two
small thorny points projecting from the hinder part. —
35. Vortict'lla sacculata. Like an inverted cone, the
aperture crescent-shaped, lower part of the trunk
notched, the tail biphyllous. — 3(J. Vorticella aurita.
Cylindrical and big-bellied, the aperture destitute of
hairs, both sides of it are furnished with rotatory cili.-i,
tail biphyllous. — 37. Vorticella trentula. Conical shape,
ON MICROSCOPIC DISCOVERY.
637
mouth divided into two parts and set with small
spines, a point projecting from the tail.— 38. Yorboiua
serita. Somewhat cone-ehaped, the aperture set with
spines, the tail short and divided into two points.— 69.
VoriicMa lacinulata. Like an inverted cone, the aper-
ture lobated, the tail small and furnished with two
bristles.— 40. Vorticella constrida. Elliptical, ventricose,
the mouth undivided, the tail annulated and forked.—
41. Vorticella togata. Square, the aperture not divided,
the tail consisting of two long spines, which occasion-
ally unite and appear as one. — 1'2. Vorticella Umqueta.
Long, flat, the tail formed of two ver^ long bristles.—
43. Vorticella rotatoria. Cylindrical, with a little organ
projecting from the neck, and a long tail furnished with
four points.— 44. Vorticella furcuta. Cylindrical, the
aperture undivided, the tail rather long, and divided
into two parts.— 45. Vorticella catulus. Cylindrical, the
aperture plain, the tail short, bent back, and divided
into two points.— 46. Vorticella canicida. Cylindrical,
the aperture plain, with a short articulated tail divided
into two pointed parts. — 47. Vorticella felis. Cylindri-
cal, beardless, with the tail terminating in two long
spines. — 18. Vorticella, stentorea. Long-tailed, trumpet-
shaped, the arms furnished with rows of short hairs.—
49. Vorticella socialis. Bearded, thick, and wrinkled.—
50. Vorticella ftosculosa. An aggregated tail, oval-shaped,
with a dilated pellucid disc.— 51. Vorticella citrina.
Simple, many-shaped, with an orifice admitting of
contraction, and an equally sized foot-stalk. — 52. Vorti-
cella piriformis. Simple, oval, with a very short retrac-
tile foot, which it can draw within itself.— 53. Vorticella
tuberosa. Simple, the upper part broad, the under part
small, with two projections at the anterior end, fur-
nished with a number of fibrilla.— 54. Vorticella rinqens.
Simple, somewhat oval-shaped, with a small^ pedicle,
and an orifice which it contracts or dilates. — 55. Vorti-
cella inclinans. Simple, bent, with a short pedicle, and
small retractile head.— 56. Vorticella vaijinata. Simple,
erect, shaped like a truncated egg, the pedicle con-
tained in a sheath.— 57. Vorticella ylobularia. Simple,
spherical, with a twisted pedicle.— 58. Vorticella lunaris.
Simple, hemispherical, with a twisted pedicle.— 59.
Vorticella convallaria. Described.— 60. Vorticella nutans.
Simple, with a twisted turbinated pedicle.— 61. Vorticella
nebulifera. Simple, egg-shaped, the pedicle bent back.
— 0'2. Vorticella annularis. Simple, truncated, with a
pedicle twisted at the end. —63. Vorticella acinosa.
Compound, with ciliated globous naked florets, and an
umbellated stem.— (>'4. Vorticella fasciculata. Simple,
green, bell-shaped, the margin or edge turned back, the
pedicle twisted. — 65. Vorticella hians. The head re-
sembling a citron, the apex truncated, the base narrow ;
a gaping cleft is observable descending from the apex
to one-third of the body.— 66. Vorticella bMis. Simple,
hemispherical, witli a margin, which it can contract at
pleasure.— 67. Vorticella yemella. Simple, spherical,
with a double head.— 68. Vorticella pip-aria. Com-
pound, with beardless oval florets, two double arms
the stem branched.— 6.9. VorticeHa anastatica. Described
—70. Vorticella digitalis. Described .—7 1 . Vorticella poly-
pina. Compound, oval truncated, with a bending
branching stalk. — 72. Vorticella racemosa. Compound
rigid pedicle, with small branched long feet.— 73. For
ticella cyathini. Described.
XVII. BRACHIONUS. A worm capable o!
contracting, covered with a shell, and furnishec
with rotatory cilia.
Plate 35, fig. 53. Brachionus passus. — " A
curious little creature, with two long bristle.
in front, like the antennae of an insect."
Plate 27, fig. 23. Brachionus Baker i. — Thi
general characteristics of this creature are a
follows: — the shell ventricose, four teeth a
the apex, 'two horns at the base, and a long
tail terminating in two short points. Frorr
each side of the shell there is a curved pro
jection, inclining towards the tail. Thi
upper part of the shell has in general fou
onger spiculae, and two shorter ones. From
he head, two arms or branches are frequently
xtended ; the circular end of each is furnished
ivith a tuft of little hairs, which sometimes
move in a vibratory manner, at other times
Have a rotatory motion. The eggs are either
iffixed to the tail, or the curved part of tlie
hell ; they have from one to five hanging
Vom them.
BRACHIONUS SPECIES.
1. Brachionus striatus. Univalve, the shell oval and
triated, six notches or teeth round the upper edge,
he base whole or even, without a tail.— 2. Brachtonus
mia.rn.ula. Univalve, shell orbicular, the apex, trun-
cated, and having four teeth, the base smooth, no tail.
—3. Brachionus pala. Univalve, with an oblong exca-
vated shell, four long teeth at the apex, the base
smooth, no tail, the colour yellow.— 4. Brachionus bipa-
ium. Univalve, the shell oblong and inflected, ten
teeth at the apex, the base smooth, and a spurious tail.
—5. Brachionus patina. Univalve, shell orbicular, the
edges regular, and having a long beardless tail. — ti.
Brachionus clypcatus. Univalve, the shell oblong, the
apex notched, the base smooth, and the tail naked.—
7. Brachionus lamellaris. Univalve, the shell extending
considerably beyond the body ; the base divided into
three small horns, with two hairs at the end of the
tail.— 8. Brachionus patella. Univalve oval shell, two
teeth at the apex, the base notched, two bristles at
the tail.— 9. Brachionus bractea. Univalve, shell rather
orbicular, lunated apex, smooth base, and the tail fur-
nished with two spines.— 1 0. Brachionus plicatilis. Uni-
valve, with an oblong shell, the apex hairy, and the
base notched.— 1 1 . Brachionus ovalis. Bivalve, with a
flattened shell, the apex notched, a hollow part at the
base, the tail formed of two tufts of hairs.— 12. Brach-
ionus tripos. Bivalve, the apex of the shell beardless,
three horns at the base, and double tail.— 13. Brachwnui
dentatus. Bivalve, with an arched shell, the apex and
the base are both toothed, and the tail formed of two
spines.— 1 4. Brachionus mucronatus. Bivalve, something
of a square form ; the apex and base pointed ; the tan
consisting of two spines.— 15. Brachionus unanatu*.
Bivalve, with an oval shell, the apex even, the base
pointed, two thick bristles for the tail.— 16. Brachionus
cirratus. Ventricose, somewhat pellucid, the head
conical, with a bundle of hairs on both sides ; it has
also a rotatory organ.— 17. Brachionus passus. De-
scribed.—18. Brachionus quadratic. Capsular,in a quad-
rangular shell, with two small teeth at the apex, two
horns proceeding from the base, and no tail.— 19. Brack
ionus impressus. Capsnlar, the shell quadrangular, a
smooth undivided apex, obtuse base, notched margin,
and a flexuous tail.— 20. Brachionus urceolaris. Single,
with a short tail, and toothed mouth.— 21. Brachwnvs
Bateri. Described.— 22. Brachionus patulus. Capsular,
shell ventricose, eight teeth at the apex, the base hin-
ated or hollowed into the form of a crescent, and fur-
nished with four horns ; the tail short, with two small
points at the end.
In closing this brief account of the Infus-
oria, we would again call the attention of
microscopists to the propriety of merging ap-
parently special differences into one individual,
by attentively noting the successive changes
which each creature undergoes. From our
own observation we are convinced that noth-
ing more is required than a good instrument,
extensive leisure, and considerable patience,
to enable the philosophical inquirer to simplify
the Infusorial arrangement : that this is a
desirable object for attainment none will deny,
except those who are so enamoured of system-
atic complexity, that they delight in nothing
638
SUPPLEMENT
so much as in stringing together hard names,
and in weaving learned labyrinths which shall
be " caviare to the general."
In our first chapter we remarked that
molecular activity closely resembles the vital-
ity of the infusorial monads, and stated our
intention of returning to the subject. We
shall in this place offer only a few incidental
observations. So far as the mere activity is
concerned, the movements of the monads and
molecules are apparently identical ; there
may, notwithstanding, on acareful examination,
be discovered an evident voluntary action on
the part of the monads, which cannot be de-
tected in the molecules ; these latter obviously
act' upon each other, the former act independ-
ently of each other. All supposed identity
between molecular and monadic motion, is,
however, we conceive, entirely overthrown by
the recent discovery of the polygastric struc-
ture of infusoria. The monads, it is ascertained,
have polygastric sacs similar in principle to
those of the larger animalcules, regarding
whose animal vitality there can be no ques-
tion ; consequently we have a right to infer,
from analogy, that the monads, though placed
at the extreme limit on the descending scale
of animality, are not mere active atoms, but
really organized animal bodies ; and indeed
it is tolerably well ascertained that these
monads pass into other forms and are ulti-
mately developed in the larger and less
equivocal animalcular existences.
CHAP. III.
SPERMATIC ANIMALCULES.
TOWARDS the close of the seventeenth cen-
tury the existence of seminal animalcules was
discovered and made known to the world by
Leeuwenhoeck and Hartsoeker, each of whom
claimed the honour of being the first observer.
The former micrographer, if he did not orig-
inate the discovery, at least explained and
illustrated it to a much greater extent than
his contemporary ; and he has consequently
been considered as the leading authority on
the subject. The hypotheses and contro-
versies which arose out of the inquiries regard-
ing spermatic animals, are interesting to the
natural historian ; and though, in a popular
work, the subject must be approached with
caution, it is still desirable that some general
information should be given concerning these
vital germs, whose existence is undeniable,
though their relation to the mature animal
has not even yet been ascertained.
Before the discovery of animalcules in the
semen mascnlinum, the egg system, as it was
termed, obtained universal consent. It was
asserted that the femaleovaria contained eggs,
waiting only till a principle of life was com-
municated to them by the other sex, when
the previously formed foetus would burst
through these receptacles and claim their
birth. When the existence of spermatic ani-
mals was announced, a system entirely oppo-
site in principle was earnestly contended for
by many of 4he leading philosophers of the
day. The new hypothesis considered the
seminal animal to be identical with the
mature foetus, and that it needed only for its
perfect developement, a suitable nidus, which
was provided in the uterus of the female.
The advocates of each system contended
strenuously for its support ; but the data in
either case were insufficient to decide the pro-
blem of generation, and both parties continued
to argue hypothetically, advancing with every
fresh argument still nearer to the climax of
absurdity. At the present day we have no
certain knowledge concerning the mysterious
process by which the succession of animated
creatures is secured, and the intent of the
spermatic animals is still matter of perplexity.
These vital germs do, however, exist in the
seminal fluids of all animals, from the largest
to the least ; and it is to their mere existence
that our further remarks will principally be
directed.
Mr Leeuwenhoeck observed in the semen
of the human species, not less than ten thou-
sand living creatures, contained in a portion
of the fluid equal in surface to a grain of sand.
" Their size was smaller than the red globules
of the blood, and even less than the millionth
part of a grain of sand. Their bodies were
roundish, somewhat flat before, but ending
sharp behind, with tails exceedingly trans-
parent, five or six times longer, and about
live times more slender than their bodies.
They moved themselves along by the violent
agitation of their tails, in various bendings,
after the manner that eels and serpents swim :
and sometimes their tails were moved thus
eight or ten times in getting forwards the
diameter of a hair." Their shape may be
more popularly described as being very nearly
that of the tadpota. The seminal animalcules
of all living creatures, that have been ex-
amined, bear strong resemblance to each
other ; the size likewise does not vary accord-
ing to the disproportion of bulk in different
animals, and hence they are readily discovered
in the semen of birds, fishes, and insects.
" Upon viewing the milt, or semen mascul-
inwn, of a living cod-fish, such numbers of
animalcules were found therein, that at least
ten thousand of them were supposed to exist
in the quantity of a grain of sand. Whence
Mr Leeuwenhoeck argues that the milt of
that single cod-fish contained more living
ON MICROSCOPIC DISCOVERY.
639
animalcules than there are people alive upon
the face of the whole earth at one and the
same time. To find the comparative size of
these creatures, he placed a hair of his head
near them, which hair through his micro-
scope appeared an inch in breadth ; and he
was satisfied that at least sixty such animal-
cules could lie within that diameter, whence,
their bodies being spherical, it must follow,
that two hundred and sixteen thousand of
them are but equal to a globe whose diameter
is no more than the breadth of such hair."
Mr Leeuwenhoeck assures us that he found
a fluid in male spiders, which was undoubt-
edly their semen, and he therein discovered
prodigious multitudes of animalcules so ex-
tremely minute, that many millions of them
would not equal the size of a grain of millet.
" He found them likewise in the semen of the
dormouse, in oysters, in silk-worms, in the
Inbella minima, or small dragon fly, in the
common fly, in the flea, in gnats, and in
several other insects." It has been objected
to these discoveries, that no organs have been
detected in insects for the secretion of a
seminal fluid, and that Leeuwenhoeck must
consequently have suffered his enthusiasm to
deceive him into a belief that he saw what
nad no existence. Whether, however, secre-
tory organs may be detected or not, no curious
inquirer need remain in douht as to the fact
of animalcules existing in insect bodies ; and
from the circumstances under which they are
obtained, and their striking similarity, both
in figure and activity, to the seminal animals
of larger creatures, the inference is fairly
drawn from analogy that their character and
uses are the same.
Buffon asserts that'what have been called
spermatic animals are not creatures really
possessing life, but something proper to com-
pose a living creature, distinguishing them
by the name of organic particles, and that the
moving bodies which are to be found in the
infusions either of animal or vegetable sub-
stance, are of the same nature. But to this
we may add, that all those who have examined
the subject with accuracy and attention, con-
cur in the belief that Buffon, and others who
adopted his views, had deceived themselves
by inaccurate experiments, and that Buffon
himself had not even seen the spermatic ani-
mals he supposed himself to be describing.
We do not altogether adopt this opinion : we
are inclined to think that Buffon had occa-
sionally seen the seminal animalcules, but it
was through the medium of glasses ill-adapted
for their development, that is to say, he observed
them under the confused powers of a com-
pound microscope of the old construction, the
most unsuitable instrument that could possibly
be employed in such researches. It is very
evident that he saw nothing distinctly and
satisfactorily, or he would not have confounded
the spermatic animals with the gelatine
masses that are occasionally found in the
semen. He says, — " We do not always see,
in the human semen, the filaments (tails) I
have mentioned : for this purpose, the liquor
must be examined the moment it is extracted
from the body ; and even then they do not
uniformly appear. When the liquor is too
thick, it presents nothing but large globules,
which may be distinguished with a common
lens. When examined with the microscope
they have the appearance of small oranges ;
they are very opaque and one of them oc-
cupies the whole field of the microscope."
He proceeds to say that after examining these
globules, he diluted the semen and found no-
thing like life or motion therein. The sum
of all this is, that the semen here alluded to
was either unhealthy and contained no ani-
malcules, or had been so long removed from
the body, that the vital germs had ceased to
exist, in which case they would blend with
the liquor and be indistinguishable ; for it is
a fact familiar to every observer of these
creatures, that when their existence is draw-
ing to a close they collect together in large
groups, and when dead form nearly a homo-
geneous mass.
There is a strange degree of confusion
throughout Buffon's experiments and observa-
tions on the spermatic animals, which can
only be accounted for by assuming that his
optical resources were inadequate, and that
whilst he saw nothing with sufficient distinct-
ness to furnish data for an accurate judgment,
he was willing to bend all the phenomena he
saw to the purpose of a preconceived and
favourite theory. For instance, he speaks of
the animalcules as being attached by their
tails to some foreign substance, as evidently
striving to rid themselves of the tails, and as
actually accomplishing this and becoming in
consequence more active and lively. The
absurdity of these assertions is strikingly
shown by observation with the improved mi-
croscopic powers of the present day. These
animals are now'readily seen in all their ex-
tent, and in all their movements ; the tail is
not, as Buffon says, a mere filament, but an
absolute elongation of the body, gradually
tapering and terminating in the finest point
imaginable ; and the animals evidently could
not, if so disposed, free themselves from this
appendage. Their motions are, as already
noticed, precisely that of an eel or a serpent
in water ; and if at any time they appear to
lose their tails, it is when their motions arc
about to cease, when they are dying, at which
time they not unfrequently coil themselves
into a circular mass.
640
SUPPLEMENT, &c.
Mr Needham, who was contemporary with
Buffon, endeavoured to prove that all seminal
animalcules, so called, in place of being really
animated beings, are only prodigiously small
machines. He will be best understood in his
own words, when describing the milt of the
Calmar, a species of cuttle-fish, whose seminal
animals resemble spiral springs inclosed in
a transparent case. " When the small ma-
chines," he says," have come to maturity, se-
veral of them act as soon as they are exposed
to the air. Most of them, however, may be
commodiously viewed by the microscope be-
fore their action commences ; and even before
they act, it is necessary to moisten with a drop
of water the superior extremity of the exter-
nal case, which then begins to expand, while
the two slender ligaments that issue out of the
case are twisted and contorted in different
ways. At the same lime, the screw rises
slowly, and the spirals at its superior end ap-
proach each other, and act against the top of
the case, those which are lower seeming to be
continually followed by others that issue from
the piston ; I say, that they seem to follow ; be-
cause I believe it to be only a deception produced
by the motion of the screw." We need not
pursue his remarks further, as they would be
unintelligible without a diagram. We may,
however, add Buffon's remark upon his theory.
Mr Needham concludes that it is natural to
imagine that the total action of this machine
is occasioned by the spring of the screw. But
unfortunately, he proves by several experi-
ments, that the screw is acted upon by a power
residing in the spongy part ; as soon as the screw
is separated from the rest of the machine, it
ceases to act, and loses all motion." What
then is the sum of Mr Needham's hypothesis?
Simply this: that spermatic animals, like all
other living creatures, considered apart from
the vital principle, are machines ; but that
these machines have within them a molive and
active force; or in other words, they are endued
with vitality, by which they move and act in-
dependently of any external agent. The ques-
tion of vitality, is not perilled by the statement
that " even before they act, it is necessary to
moisten the upper extremity.-" Sustenance is
necessary to all animals; the organs cannot
act without a material on which to act, and
the inactivity of the organs is death or a sus-
pension of vitality. The fact of apparent death,
and repeated revivescence, at the pleasure of
the experimentalist, is strikingly witnessed in
the case of some Infusoria, that die when
the moisture in which they exist evaporates,
and revive again so soon as new fluid is ap-
plied to them. This phenomenon, it will also
be remembered, is observable in a class of ani.
malcules exhibiting a peristaltic action, and con-
sequently identified with animal existences.
Buffon, as an additional argument against
the actual vitality of seminal and other ani-
malcules, instances the fact of minute active
particles being found in various substances
and under circumstances that totally preclude
a living principle. These are nothing more
than what in the present day are designated
the active molecules of matter, those simple
inorganized particles of every description of
bodies which exhibit a singular and uniform
activity, arising, as we have previously sup-
posed, from their mutual action upon each
other. And though when the seminal animals
are crowded together, their motions appear to
be almost the same with those of the molecules,
we no sooner thin the multitudes of the former,
and spread them over a larger space, than we
distinctly perceive that their motions are inde-
pendent of external causes, and are directed
by a principle of volition resident in the indi-
viduals.
Having stated and replied to the principal
objections that have been urged against the
vitality of seminal animals, we shall briefly
advert to the wild speculations which arose out
of their discovery. Leeuwenhoeck and many
others strenuously contended that these ani-
malcules were really miniatures of human
kind ; " but what is still more amazing, Da-
lenpatius saw one of these animals break
through its coat or covering : it was then no
more an animalcule, but a real human body,
in which he easily distinguished the two arms
and legs, the breast and the head." ! The
doctrine of evolution, as it is termed, seemed to
be established by the discovery of the sperma-
tic animalcules : " according to it, all animals
have existed from the first creation as perfect,
preformed germs, within their anctstors, the
succeeding generations being lodged in the
preceding ones like nests of boxes, and pro-
gressively developed." There is a point where
human reasoning must pause : in the present
case, we must be content to know that the proli-
fic animal fluid contains myriads of living crea-
tures whose purpose in the generative economy
still remains unknown. What new discoveries
may be made concerning them with the vastly
improved instruments now in use, it is impos-
sible to say ; we may however, venture an
opinion that philosophic inquiry cannot be
better employed than in eliciting by all the
legitimate means which art and science
progressively supply, more and more of the
mysteries and wonders connected with the
continual succession of animated beings.
^
I N D E X.
The Italic letter >i dirirta to the note in the page to which it is affixed. — The Roman numerals, of course,
ruler to the volumes of the work.
Abdominal-fab, characterised by the position of the ven-
tral fins, ii. 294; the prickly finned, '289; the soft
finned, 301—307.
Abstinence, benefits of occasional, i. 186; Queen Eliza-
beth's commands concerning, ib.; how defeated, ib. ;
of the primitive Christians, ib.; instances of absti-
nence, ib. n,
Aeanthopterigii, or prickly finned fish, ii. '294; the varie-
ties specified and described, ii. 299.
Adiilles Oie second, a Roman tribune, his strength, i. 1150.
Acorn, shell- fish, account of the, ii. 374.
Adder, account of the common viper or adder, ii. 418,
419, «.; treatment for its bite, 4-0, n.
Adjutant, or gigantic crane, account of the, ii. 172, n.
jftf/agus, a species of ibex, i. 303, n.
JElian, his relations of the docility of the ekphant, i.
519.
sEolu/tie, an instrument for producing wind, described,
i. 116.
Mtna, in Sicily, a volcano, i. 41 ; eruption of, in 1537,
41 ; latest eruption of, ib. n.; description of, ib.
Africans. See Neyroes.
Age, the effects of, on the human body, i. 204 ; on the
bones, ib.; on the cartilages, ib. ; instances of great
age in man, 206 ; of fishes, how determined, ii. 247.
Agouti, distinguished from the rabbit in form, i. 444;
its voracity, ib.; burrows in trees, ib.; habitudes, ib.;
flesh, 445; how hunted, ib.; its cry, ib. ; parturi-
tion, ib.
A i, a species of sloth, i. 557.
Air,\. 104, its elasticity and weight, 104, 105, and n. ; ex-
pansion, 107; instruments to measure its wight, 106
— 108, n.\ analysis of atmospheric air, 109, n.; how
changed from the elementary body, 108, 109, and 112;
its corroding qualities, 109; necessary for vegetation
and life, 110; that extracted from plants, &c., fatal
to life, 1 1 0, 1 1 1 ; effects of, on man, ib. ; the unwhole-
someness of hot, 112; of cold, ib. ; blessings of, 115;
supports fire, ib. ; conveys sounds, 116; odours, ib. ;
taste, ib. ; instruments to ascertain the quantity of
moisture in air, 113,rc.; necessary to the lite of fishes,
ii 246; how breathed by them, ib.
A ir bladder offislies, account of the, ii. 246, 247.
Air pump, account of the, i. 108.
Albatross, described by Edwards, ii. 204; by Wicque-
fort, 205; characteristics of the albatross tribe, 204,
«.; its climate, ib.; said to sleep in the air, ib. ; vora-
city and activity, 206; affection for the penguin, ib.;
nests of the, on the Falkland Isles, ib. ; removed, why,
ib. ; account of, in the West Indies, ib. «.; the choco-
late, ib., n. \ the yellow-nosed, ib.
Albouras, volcano of, i. 44.
Alcatrass, name given by Wicquefort to the albatross,
ii. 205.
Aldrovandus, the natural historian, his credulity, libe-
rality, and misfortunes, ii. 227.
Alqae, microscopic examination of, ii. 600.
Algazel, a kind of gazelle, i. 309.
Alligator, the, distinguished from the crocodile, ii. 392,
n., and 395; pike-headed alligator, 393, n.; alligators
of the Ganges, ib. ; sports with the, 394, n.
Aloe, transverse section of, ii. 602.
Alps, description of a person ascending the, i. 60; rocks
fall from them, 63; clefts in them, ib.
Amtergris, a perfume obtained from the cachalot, ii. 264.
VOL. II.
Ambrose, St , his credulity with respect to the halcyon,
ii. 237.
America, South, Waterton's description of the birds of,
ii. 165 — 167, n.
Americans, their pains in dressing their hair, i. 173; na-
tive, described, 213; its animals compared with thosj
of the other hemisphere. 242.
Amia, a fish, noticed, ii. 306.
Ammodytes, a soft-finned fish, ii. 299.
a reptile resembling the common viper, ii.
421, n.
Amour, a river of Tartary, i. 77.
Amphibious quadrupeds, their characteristics, i. 474.
Amphisbcena, or double-headed serpent, ii. 428, and «.:
its remarkable motions, ib.
Anaconda, a large snake so called, ii. 429, n,
Atiarc/ticas, the wolf-fish, ii. 299.
Anatomy of the human body, i. 181, n.
Andes, volcanoes in the, i. 45; Ulloa's description of the,
i 60—62.
Anemometers, instruments to measure the velocity of
the wind, i. 124; their imperfections, 125.
Angler, or fishing-frog, described, ii. 288, n.
Angora, goat of, described, i. 299, n., and 302.
Anldma, a kind of crane found in Brazil, described, ii,
180.
Animalcules, infusorial, ii. 623, et seq.; have now become
legitimate subjects of natural history, 623; their in-
conceivable minuteness, ib. ; the term infusorial ex-
plained, ib. ; hypothesis accounting for the presence
of animalcules in infusions, ib. ; Pritchard's summary
of their characteristics and economy, 623 — 625; term
animalcule defined, 623: discovery of internal struc-
ture of infusoria, 628; Ehrenberg's arrangement of
them, 624 ; the cilia, their motions and uses, ib. ; the
setae, ib.; the styli,ib.; variable processes, ib. ; Baron
Gleichen's experiments with animalcules, ib.; pre-
paring infusions for production of animalcules, ib. ;
variety of shape and figure observable in infusoria,
625; modes of generation or production, ib.; remark-
able discoveries by Ehrenberg, ib. ; rapid motions of
infusoria, ib. ; ability to support extremes of heat and
cold, ib. ; Mailer's scientific arrangement, 626 ; mon-
ads, ib. ; the drop monad, ib. ; monad species, ib., 627 ;
proteus genus, 627: the melting proteus, ib. ; pro-
teus species, ib. ; volvox genus, ib. ; vegetable volvox,
ib. ; volvox globator, ib.; volvox species, 628; cn-
chelis genus, ib.; egg-shaped enchelis, ib. ; enchelis
punctifera, ib. ; enchelis retrograda, ib. ; enchelis
species, ib. ; vibrio genus, 629 ; its division'*, ib. ; pax-
illifer vibrio, ib.; vibrio lunula, ib. ; wheat vibrio, ib.,
630; remarkable tenacity of life in vibrio, 630; vibrio
•species,ib.; cyclidium genus, ib.; azure cyclidium, ib.;
cyclidium species, ib. ; paramceciurn genus, 631 ; pa-
ramcecium chrysalis, ib. ; paramcacium species, ib.;
kolpoda genus, ib. ; cuckoo kolpoda, ib. ; kolpoda
species, ib.; gonium genus, ib.; breast-plate gonium,
ib.; gonium species, ib.; bursaria genus, 632; little
swallow-like bursaria, ib. ; bursaria species, ib. ; cer-
earia genus, ib. ; green cercaria, ib. ; cercaria inquieta.
ib.; cercaria species, ib.; leucophra genus, ib.; brace-
let leucophra, ib.; leucophra cornuta, ib. ; leucophra
species, ib. ; trichoda genus, 633; trichoda vulgaris,
ib.; trichoda sol, ib.; trichoda cometa, ib.; trichoda
bomba, ib. ; trichoda species, ib. ; kcrona genus,
4 M
642
INDEX.
634 ; kerona pullasta, ib. ; kerona species, ib. ; lii-
mantopus genus, ib.; himantopus larva, ib.; himan-
topus species, ib. ; vortice Ha genus, ib. ; vorticella cy-
atliiiii, 635 ; vorticella anastatica, ib. ; vorticclla di-
gitalis, ib.; vorticella convallaria, 636;- vorticella spe-
cies, ib. ; brachionus genus, 637 ; brachionus passus,
ib.; brachionus Bakeri, ib. ; brachionus species, ib. ;
concluding remarks, ib., 638. See, also, Spermatic
Animalcules.
Animal Kingdom, discoveries therein by the microscope,
ii. 602 — 623; bony structures, 0'02 ; muscles, ib.;
horns, hoofs, nails, ib. ; hedge-hog's quill, ib.; hairs,
general description of, ib., 603 ; hair of dermestes,
(J03; of a mouse, ib.; of a bat, ib. ; of a bee, ib.; of a
dormouse, ib.; of a mole, ib.; of a caterpillar, ib. ;
feathers, general description of, ib.; filament of fea-
ther down, 60-1; bird-catching spider, hair of, it).;
humming bird, feathers of, ib.; singular formations
connected with them, ib.; scales and perspiratory
pores of the human skin, ib.; remarks thereon with
reference to the preservation of health, 605; method
of viewing the pores by the microscope, ib.; scales of
fishes, ib. ; of an eel, ib.; of a carp, ib. ; hypothesis
concerning these scales, and objections thereto, ib.;
crystalline lenses of animals, ib. ; Pritchard's remarks
thereon, and Bre water's observations of the same, ib.,
606; objections to Brewster's statements, 606; the
blood and its circulation, ib ; Pritchard's observations
thereon, ib. ; objects suited to exhibit the circulation
of the blood, 607; peculiar motion of the globules of
the blood, id.; globules and discs in the serum of the
blood, ib.; insects, their structure and transforma-
tion, ib.: eggs of insects, ib.; how and where depo-
sited, ib. ; eggs of the rhein-deer gad-fly, ib. ; of the
gnat, ib.; M. Lyonet's observations on the fecundity
of a moth, ib. ; larva, or caterpillar state of insects,
608; of the musca chamelion, ib. ; extended descrip-
tion of, ib. ; larva of a British hydrophilus, 60!);
Pritchard's description of same, 609 — 6 1 1 ; ichneu-
mon fly deposits its eggs in the body of caterpillars,
611 ; capada worm, its sufferings from the attacks of
the ichneumon fly, ib.; larva of ichneumon fly, 612;
pupa state of insects, ib. ; exuviae, or cast skins of in-
sects, 613; singular instance of insect moult ings, ib.;
imago, or fly state of insects, ib.; the butterfly dis-
covered by the microscope to be a beautiful emblem
of immortality, ib.; members of insects, ib. ; antennae
and palpi, ib. ; their number and use, ib. ; antennas of
bombyx antiqua, 614; of bombyx caj;i, ib.; feelers,
ib.; eyes of insects, ib. ; their varieties and numbers,
ib.; stemmata, or single eyes, ib.; reticulated eyes,
ib. ; particular description of, ib. ; eyes of the dragon-
fly, ib., 61,5; other varieties, 6 1 5 ; tongue or proboscis
of insects, ib. ; of the papilio urticae, ib.; tongue, or
trunk of the common house-fly, ib.; Baker's descrip-
tion, ib.; trunk of the honey-bee, 616; legs and feet
of insects, ib. ; various kinds, ib.; leg and foot of
dytiscus, ib. ; legs of a bee, ib.; wings and wing
cases of insects, ib. ; elytra, ib. ; the poisors, 617; wing
case of diamond beetle, ib. ; wing of a gnat, ib. ; of an
ichneumon fly, ib. ; of an earwig, ib. ; membrane of a
butterfly's wing, ib.; dust which covers it, ib. ; scales
or feathers on the wings of butterflies, ib., 618; Gor-
ing's observations thereon, 618 ; characteristics of
these objects, ib.; scale of red under- wing butterfly,
ib. ; of the brassica butterfly, ib. ; of the podura, ib. ;
microscopic tests, ib.; scales of the lepisma, ib., 619;
observations regarding the singular markings on these
objects, 619; Brewster's theory, ib.; scale of mene-
laus butterfly, ib.; of the azure-blue butterfly, ib. ;
of the diamond beetle, ib. ; of a moth, ib. ; disposition
of the scales on the wing, ib.; stings of insects, 620;
poison bag, ib. ; microscopical insects, ib. ; monoeulus,
or water-flea, ib. ; its eye, ib.; Pritchard's remarks
on this object, 621; four-horned monoeulus, ib. ; le-
pisma, ib. ; the lobster insects, and Adam's descrip-
tion thereof, ib., 622; singular peculiarity in the one
described, 622 ; Seba's assertion regarding insects of
this class, ib. Sec, also, Animalcules.
A nimtil remains, i. 19. See Fossils.
A nitnals distinguished from vegetables, i. 146; how they
blend together, ib. ; resemblance of animals and ve-
getables in affection, ib.; in the climates in which
they luxuriate, 147; comparative number of animals
and plants, ib.. n.; in the ocean, 148; how tew useful
to man, 142; consume one another, ib. ; the small
numerous, the large ferocious, ib. ; different genera-
tive powers of animals and plants, 150, n. ; their gene-
ration, 151; distinguished thereby, 152; some multi-
plied by cutting, ib. (see Generation); their compara-
tive perfection, 160; great variety of, 229; use of sys-
tematic divisions of, 230; defects of, ib., 231 ; systems
of different authors, 231, 232; the classification used
in this work, 233 — 236; the wild and domestic, 240;
affected by food, climate, &c., 241 ; size of, in different
continents, 242.
Ant, ancient fame of the, ii. 535; modern doubts, ib. ;
varieties of appearance, ib. ; the body of the, de-
scribed, 536; display of forces, 539; divisions in re-
spect of sex, ib. ; male and female, ib. ; the working
class, ib. ; their hills, ib. ; objects of labour, ib. ; con-
tests with one another, ib. ; female and eggs, ib. ;
maggot state, 5iO ; care of the female, ib. ; loss of
wings, ib. ; preparations of the workers for winter,
ib.; size of the hills in tropical countries, ib.; the
African species, 541; migrations, ib. ; the wood-ant
or pismire described, 53,5, n. ; carpenter ants, 536, «. ;
sugar ants, 537, n.; white ants, or termites, ib.; sin-
gular structure of their nests, ib., 538, «.
Ant-bear, one of the animals that live on ants, i. 555, and
».; varieties, ib. ; described, ib. ; its snout, 556; mouth,
ib. ; tongue, ib. ; helplessness, ib. ; residence, ib. ;
food, ib.; method of taking ants, ib.; manner of de-
fence, ib.
intelope, animals of that kind, i. 304; the class scienti-
fically described, ib., and n.; the antelope described,
309; the Indian, ib. n. ; striped antelope, 310, n ;
pigmy, 31 1, and «.; African antelopes, ib., n.
Antennas and palpi of insects, ii. 613.
Antioch, earthquakes there, i. 49.
Antiparos, grotto of Magnis, account of a visit to, i. 33
— 35.
Antlers of the elk, described, i. 335; of the rein-deer,
ib.; of the stag, 319, 320; technical names of the,
324.
Ant-Lion. See Lion- Ant.
Ape, the, i. 497; the long- armed, or gibbon, ib.; de-
scribed, ib., 498, and n. ; Barbary ape, 498, n.
Aperea, or Brazilian rabbit, i. 426.
Aphides, or plant lice, ii. 460, n.
Apicius, his method of dressing a hare, i, 433.
Apodal fish, what, ii. 294; prickly-finned, ib.; soft-fin-
ned, 299.
Arabia, the wild horse of, i. 246; estimation and treat-
ment of the horse there, 247, 248; its breed of horses
introduced into England, 258.
Aratoo, the goliath aratoo parrot, ii. 119, n.
Archimedes, his method of determining the purity of
gold, i. 72.
Arequip<.(, a burning mountain in Peru, i. 45.
Argali, a wild mountain sheep, described, i. 297, n.:
Asiatic argali, ib. ; American argali, ib. ; bearded ar-
gali, ib.
Argentine, the fish described, ii. 302.
Argonaut, a small shell-fish, ii. 364, and n.
Aristophanes, his advice about lions, i. 3ti9.
A rlotta, a sleep walker, story of, i. 1 90.
Armadillo, or Tatou, an inhabitant of the new continent,
i. 468,469; its shell described, 469,470; method of
rolling itself up for defence, 470; bears our climate,
ib.; burrows, ib.; their strong resistance when bur-
rowing, ib. ; how taken then, ib. ; rolls down precipi-
ces, ib.; roots like the hog, ib.; lives with the rattle-
snake, how, ib. ; varieties of the, ib.; the pig-headed,
47 1 ; the weasel-headed, ib.
Arms, human, their shape, i. 175.
A rnee, a species of buffalo, described, i. 283, n.
Artedi, his classification of fishes, ii. 293.
Asiatics, the southern, described, i. 21 U 212.
A.tp, a venomous snake, ii. 423.
Asperea, by some called the Brazilian rabbit, described,
i. 446.
Aspic Viper, so called, ii. 424, n.
Ass, its similitude to the horse, i. 258; distinctness of
the species, 259; the wild ass, ib.; hunting the wild
ass, ib., n.; habits of the, 260, n.; effect of internal
emotion on the, ib.; flesh of the wild ass eaten by the
Persians, ib, ; wild in America, how hunted, 2t> 1 ;
anecdote of the sagacity of the ass, ib., n.; Sterne's
illustration of the patience of the, ib.; patience of the
INDEX.
tame, 262; habits of tlie, ib. ; bad treatment of the
ass general, ib. ; highly esteemed in early times, ib.,
263, n.\ its strength and other qualifications, 263 ;
c.stcemed by the Spaniards, ib.; once lost in England,
now common, ib.; of different countries, ib. ; its
diseases, age, &c., ib.
Asterius, or star-fish tribe, described, ii. 561.
Agronomy, definition of, i. 1; comparative sizes of the
planets, ib., 2, and n. ; account of the different plane-
tary systems, the Ptolemaic, the Egyptian, the T y-
chonic, the Coperuican, and the Newtonian, ib., 3, «. ;
description of the sun and planetary bodies, 5, fa', n. ;
of comets, 7, n. ; of fixed stars, ib., 8, n.
Atulantis, island of, disappeared, i. 56.
Athanatus, his strength, i. 180.
Athelstun, his attention to the improvement of the horse,
i. 255.
Athenians, cock-fighting among the, ii. 62; quail-fight-
ing. 85.
Atherine, description of the fish, ii. 301.
AtmospJtere. See Air.
Attitudes of the body express passion, i. 171, 172.
Attraction and Impulsion, influence of, i. 3 — 5; nature
and effects of the attraction of gravitation, ib. n,
how it produces the tides, i. 90.
Auk, characters of the class, i. 219; the great auk, ib.,«.
A urelia or Chrysalis, state of ephemera, ii. 486 ; of the
caterpillar, 491; operations in that state described,
494, 495.
Aurora BoreaUs, phenomena of the, i. 136, n.
Aurora Monkey, i. 307, 308.
Avosetta, description of the, ii. 189, and n.; its extraor-
dinary bill, 190.
Axis Deer of eastern Asia, i. 327 n.
Bal>oon, relative position among animals, i. 499 ; the, de-
scribed, ib.; its facial angle, ib. and n. ; disposition in
the savage state, ib. ; account of the, at the Cape of
Good Hope, 500; tamed there, ib. ; ferocity of one
described by Buff on, ib.; food, ib.; internal struc-
ture, ib. ; varieties, mandril, ib. ; wanderow, 501 ;
maimon, ib. ; dog-faced baboon, ib. n.
Baby, a dwarf, account of, i. 221, 222
Baliyrouessa, or Indian hog, why classed among the hog
kind, i. 351; the, described, ib.; its tusks, ib.; herd
together, ib.; dispositions, ib.; food,ib.; country, 352.
/lack, shape of, in man, i. 1 76.
Bacon, his remarks on the age of fishes, ii. 247.
Badger, its appearance, i. 551, and n. ; habits, ib.; habi-
tation, ib.; carnivorous, ib. ; gestation, ib.; the young
tameable, ib.; instances of attachment of the, ib. n. ;
the spotted badger, 552, n. ; the American badger,
ib.
Hag of some animals. See Pouch.
Bahama Islands, poisonous quality of the fish caught
near one of the, ii. 324; by what caused, ib.
Bait for fish, what the best, ii. 275 ; what shell fish used
for, 352; white, account of it, 318.
Balance, hydrostatical, i. 72.
Baldness, where it first takes place, i. 168.
Balearic Crane, ii. 1 78. See Crane.
Baltic Sea, its inundations, i. 99.
Bantam Cock and Hen, ii. 64, n.
Barbary Hen. See Hen.
Barbel, fish, account of the, ii. 320, n.
Barbs, or Barbary horses, i. 248; Italian sport with the,
ib., 249.
of certain flat fish, ii. 277.
B'tris, a small tribe of the oran-outang, account of the,
i. 495.
Barnacle, distinguished from the wild goose, ii. 229.
Barometer, instrument to measure the weight of the
air, i. 107: ascertains the height of mountains, 108.
Barretiere, Philip, his long sleep, i. 189.
Basilisk, a species of lizard, account of the, ii. 403, n.
Bass, the resort of the solan goose, described, ii. 209.
Bastard wing of birds, what, ii. 2.
Bat kind, animals of the, where placed by different natu-
ralists, i. 471; most resemble quadrupeds, ib.; the,
of England described, ib. : its appearance and habits,
ib.; a tame one seen by Mr White, could rise from
the ground, ib.; is torpid in winter, 472; its retreats,
ib.; makes no nest for the young, ib.; similitude to
birds, ib. ; that of our country harmless, varieties of
the, 473; the long eared, horse-shoe, and rhinoceros
bats, ib.; that of the East and West Indies, ib.; for-
midable, ib. ; numerous, ib. ; the great, of Madagas-
car, ib.; described, ib.; voracity, ib.; American vam-
pyre, ib.
Bear, varieties, i. 544, and «.; the brown, where found,
ib. and n. ; solitary animal, ib. ; its den, 545 : sleeps
during the winter, ib. ; gestation, ib.; voice, ib.; ca-
pable of instruction, 546 ; not tameable when aged,
ib.; hunted, ib.; bear baiting, 545, n. ; black bear of
America, habits and manners of the, ib. n. ; bear
hunting in America, 546, n. ; description of the grizzly
bear, 547, n. ; Bengal bear, 548, n. ; the white Green-
land, distinguished, ib. «., and 549; sagacity of the,
548, n : its size in cold climates, ib. ; how shot, ib. ;
abundance, ib. ; haunts, 550.
Beard, customs of nations in the manner of wearing the,
i. 172, 173, and n.
Beauty, female, when it is perfected, i. 1 66 ; tastes of
different nations in reg;ird to, ib.; of the human
figure, 176.
Beaver, the remains of brutal society, i. 477, and n. ; its
disposition, 478, and n.; singularities in its form, ib.,
480; their assembling, ib.; formation of a dike, ib.;
then- apartments described, ib., 481 ; provisions, ib.;
how caught, ib.
Bee, Reaumur's diligent researches into the history of
the, ii. 513; the three kinds in every hive, ib. ; the
labouring, ib. ; the drone, ib. ; the queen bee, ib. ;
structure of the bee, 514; teeth, ib.; how it collects
wax, 516; Hunter and Huber's experiments, ib., , «. ;
the belly described, ib.; honey-bag, 517; sting, ib.;
community of the, ib.; four companies in construct-
ing cells, ib.; form of the cells, ib. ; passages, ib.;
uses of the cells, ib. ; manner of constructing the
combs, ib.; honey cells, 518; food, ib.; stomachs, ib. ;
bee bread, ib. ; honey, whence extracted, ib.; eggs,
519; the bee's care of the worm, .V20; labours of the
worm, ib.; transformations, ib. ; the young bees, 521 ;
swarming, 522; settling, ib.; labours, ib.; slaughter
of the drones, 523; number of swarms, ib. ; rearing of
bees, ib. ; floating bee-houses in France, ib. ; their
wax, 524, and n. ; arts in using the propolis, ib. ;
honey, 525 ; the bee of Gaudaloupe, ib. ; the humble,
ib., and n. ; the wood, 526; the ground, ib.; the leaf-
cutting, 527; the wall, ib. ; inmates of a hive, 513, n.;
functions of the queen, ib.; functions of the worker
bee, ib.; functions of the drone, 514, n. ; on the con-
version of the larva of a worker into a queen, 519, n ;
description of different hives, 521, 522, «.; the car-
penter-bee, 526, n. ; the poppy-bee, 528, n. ; the card-
ing-bee, ib.
Beetle, characteristics of the class, ii. 541 ; transmuta-
tions, ib., 542; cases of their wings, ib.; differences
in size, ib. ; dorr-beetle, (see May-bug) ; general cha-
racteristics, 542 — 547; the elephant, where found, 547;
general description of the class of beetles, ib.. 548. n.
Bell. See Diving-bell.
Belly of the Oppossum. See Pouch.
Beluga, or White Whale, ii. 260, n.
Beroe, a molluscous animal, described, ii. 376, n.
Bewailer. See Sat.
Bezoar, German, a concretion found in the t-tomach^of
the chamois, its supposed properties, i. 307 ; describ-
ed, 308, 309; oriental and occidental, 44; hog, ib.
Birds, their adaptations, ii. 1; conformation, 2, and «.;
feathers, ib. ; wings, ib. : head, 3 ; then1 internal struc-
ture, 4, 5; incubation, 7; nest, 8; professor Vlumen-
bach's summary of the characteristic qualities of
birds, 7 — 10, n.\ construction of nests, 10, n.; differ-
ent styles of nests, 1 1 , «. ; immense number of insects
destroyed bv birds, 12, 13, B.; migration of birds, 15,
16, n.; classification of. 17; according to Linnaeus, 1 8 ;
their use, 28; adaptation, 29; habits, 30; their fecun-
dity small, ib.; superiority of the female, ib.: classi-
fication of, ib., 31 ; of the poultry kind, their utility,
59; characteristics, ib.; sociability, ib.; love of eat-
ing, ib., 60; sensuality and infidelity, ib. ; habit of
dusting themselves, 61 ; of the pie kind, 86; of the
sparrow kind, 1 30 ; time of song of British birds, 1 32,
n. : voices of birds, I33,«.r and 137; of the crane kind,
170; influence of birds ou the imagination, 239.
044
INDEX.
Bird- catching, how performed, ii. 131 .
Biscayneers, 'their method of whale fishing, ii. 256.
Bison, described, i. 276, ». and 277; where found, 278
and n. ; usefulness among the Hottentots, 280; diver-
sities of, ib.
Bitch. SeeDaff.
Bittern, dismal note of the, ii. 1F4— 185 ; the bird describ-
ed, ib.; its windpipe, ib. ; habitudes, ib.; flesh, ib.
Bivalve shell fish, ii. 352, and 365; compared with uni-
valve.
Blackbird, the, described, ii. 141 and n.
Blackcap, its loud note, ii. 152 ; migration of the, ib. ;
incubation, ib. ; note of the, ib. ; description of,
153, ».
Black vomit, fatal symptom of the Chapotonadas, i.
112.
Bleak or Blay, river fish, notice of the, ii. 320, n.
Blenny, account of the fish, ii. 295.
Blindness, progress of the perceptions of a person hav-
ing it removed, i. 1 93.
Blindu-orm, a harmless reptile, described, ii. 427, 428 ;
motion, 428 ; eyes, ib. ; viviparous, ib.
Blood, how affected by the air, i. 115; its colour, ib.; its
circulation, ii. 606 ; subjects in which it is most
readily seen, 607.
Blood hounds, English, i. 393.
Bluebird, its colour and change of, i. 142 ; note and ar-
ticulations, 143 ; how caught, ib. ; haunts, ib.
Blushing, how produced, i. 171.
Boa constrictor, account of the, ii. 429, n.
Boar, wild, described, i. 341 ; their strength and method
of defence, ib. ; how hunted, 342 and n. ; a native of
Britain, 344.
Bobak, the marmout in Poland, i 444.
Body, human, its figure,!. 176; size, ib. ; weight, 177;
strength ; 177—180.
Boiguaca, a great serpent, described, ii. 430 ; habits, ib.
Bonasus, a name of the bison, i. 277.
Bows, the, visited by the blood, i. 504 ; experiment
proving this, ib. ; how affected by age, ib.
microscopic examination of, ii. 602.
Bonet clunois, a kind <'f monkey, i. 506.
Bonito, the fish, described, ii. 306.
Bottle-tit, or long-tailed titmouse, ii. 1 54, n.
Bottom of the sea, changes produced there, i. 1 02 ; na-
ture of, in the Red sea, ib. ; near America, ib. ; na-
ture of, in general, ib.
Boyuna, serpent of Ceylon, how regarded there, ii. 428.
Brachionus yenus of infusoria, ii. 637.
Brain, first seen in the embryo, i. 192.
BramlMng, a kind of finch, ii. 159, n. and 161.
Bramins, sensibility of their sense of smell, i. 201.
Bream, river fish, notice of the, ii. 297 and 320, n.
Breast, human, its form, i. 175, 176 ; female, ib. ; its
beauty, ib.; Darwin's theory that it is the origin of
our ideas of beauty, 1 75, n.
Breezes. See Land and Sea Breezes.
Brisson, his classification of animals, i. 233.
Bubalus, of the ancients, of the cow kind, i. 277; a kind
of gazelle, described, 310.
Buffalo, distinguished from the cow, i. 281 ; described,
ib. n. and 283; Cape buffalo described, 282, n;
Indian and Chinese buffalo, 283, ».; domestic buffalo,
ib.; native country of the buffalo, 284; dangers from
the, in a wild state, ib. ; method of escaping, ib.
Buffbn, his theory of the earth, i. 16; character of, 18;
his opinion concerning the formation of fossils, 27;
his specubitions concerning generation, 152; his des-
cription of the perceptions of a man imagined newly
created, 202; his errors regarding the sperm animals,
ii. 638.
But], account of the, ii. 461; the bedbug, ib. n.; the
leek green bug, 462, n. ; the harvest bug, ib.
Bull, musk, the wild or urus, described, 5. 276.
linn-dog, the, described, i. 391, n. and 394, 395.
Bullfinch, one of our finest cage birds, ii. 156, n.; its
vocal powers, habits, &c. ib.
B'dlliead or Cottas, a fish, ii. 298, 320, «.
Bnngai or rock serpents, ii.430, n.
Bursaria genus of infusoria, ii. 632.
Bustard, its size and properties, ii. 76 ; where found,
ib. ; food, ib. ; difficult y to be shot, and why, ib. ;
chased by greyhounds, ib. ; the pouch of, a reservoir
for w:iter, ib. ; incubation, 77 ; different species, ib.
n. ; food in winter, 77 ; age, ib. ; the little, described,
ib. and n. ; how taken, ib. ; habitudes, ib.
Butcher bird, the species classed, ii. 50 ; otherwise
called shrikes, ib. n.\ the lesser or red-backed, 50,
51,«.; the greater, 50, 52, n. ; marks of the, ib.; its
intrepidity, 5 1 ; prey, ib. ; method of catching its prey,
ib. ; nest of the, ib. ; varieties.
Butterfly, transformations of the, ii. 495, n. : account of
the butterflies and moths, 499 — 505 and n.; butterfly
a beautiful emblem of immortality, 613.
Buzzard, a kind of falcon, the common, described, ii. 49
and?z. ; varieties, ib. ; rough legged, ib. n. ; honey-buzz-
ard, ib. n.
Cabiui, i. 350. See Capibara.
Cachalot, distinctions among the varieties of the tribe,
ii. 263 and n.; size, ib. ; properties, ib. ; pursued for
its spermaceti and ambergris, ib. ; how these sub-
stances obtained from it, ib. 264.
Cofftii. See Saki.
Calabria, earthquake at, 1638, i. 49, n. and 51, 52.
Calandre, a bird resembling the lark, ii. 151, n.
Calao or horned Indian ravcn} ii. 96.
Calf, the young of the stag, i. 319.
Call birds, how used by the bird-catcher, ii. 131.
CallitriXy kind of monkey, noticed, i. 507.
Callyonomus or Drogonet, account of the fish, ii. 295.
Calmucks, a Tartar rnce, described, i. 201.
Camel, two species of, i. 535, 536; and n.; fitness for
travelling in desert countries, 537, 538, and n. ; does
not multiply in cold countries, 538; uses to the Ara-
bian, ib. 539; docility, ib.; structure of its stomach,
ib. ; use in commerce, ib. ; patience, ib. ; Buffon's
opinion concerning the, ib. ; the hump, 540; produce
of the animal to the Arabian, ib.
Cameleon, the, described, ii. 403; swelling and contrac-
tion of itself, ib.; the skin, ib. ; protuberances, ih. ;
account of some by Le Bruyn, 404; seldom opens its
mouth, ib. ; turns one eye towards a different direc-
tion from the other, ib.; general description of, ib. ».
Camelopard, or giraffe, its extraordinary size and ap-
pearance, i. 534; description of, ib. n.; habits of the,
535, n. ; account of four brought to England, ib.
Campagnol, economic, a species of mouse, i. 452, n.
Canary bird, whence brought, ii. 155; original colour
and varieties, ib. ; food and habits of the domesticated
cannry, ib. n.; its song, 156; rules for choosing the
bird, 159; breeding of the bird, ib. ; method in Ger-
many, 160; common apparatus, ib.; mixed breed
with the linnet, ib.
Cane Del Grotto, noxious effects of the atmosphere in,
i. 39.
Cantharis, the, or Spanish fly, a kind of beetle, des-
cribed, ii. 549; where found, ib.; food. Cantharides,
how prepared, 551 ; their effects, ib.
Capada worm, its sufferings from the ichneumon fly, ii.
611.
Capercailzie or cock of tie wood, ii. 78, and n.
Capibara, account of, the hog kind, i. 350; its resembl-
ance to the hog, ib. ; description of the, ib.; fre-
quents rivers and lakes, ib. ; taste of its flesh, 351 .
Capons, used for clutching chickens, ii. 63.
Caracal, where found, ii 381, 383; how connected with
the lion, 383 ; prey of the, ib. ; account of one which
died in the Tower, ib.
Carbonic acid gas, a compound of air, i. 109, n.
Carcajou, mime of the glutton in North America, i. 425.
See Glutton.
Carli, Father, how tended by monkeys, i. 504, 505.
Carp, the, described, ii. 305, and n.\ habitudes of,
ib.; fed out of water, 308; growth of the, 318; how
fished for, 320 n.: gold and silver carp, 306? n.
Carpenter or wood bee, described, ii. 338; choice or for-
mation of her hole and nest, ib., 339; eggs and yourisj,
3-10,341.
Carrier pi'jmn, described, ii. 12"; whence so named, iK
INDEX.
645
Cartharjena, unwholesomeness of the air there, from
heat, i. 11-2.
Cartilayinous Fishes, why the tribe so named, ii. 2(i8 ;
distinctions of the, ib. ; double capacity of breathing, I
and organs for, ib.; generation, ib.; various methods
of bringing forth, 269; anomalous, 286; characteris-
tics and classification of, 268; flat fish, 273.
Cashmere S/taid Gout, account of the, i. 299, 300.
Cassique, a bird of South America, ii. 166, n.
Cassowary, its country and climate, ii. 25, and n. ; de-
scription of the, ib. ; its remarkable head, 26; its in-
ternal parts, ib.; quiet disposition, ib.; voracity, 27;
scarcity, ib.
Cat, dispositions of the, i. 356; form and habits, ib. ;
generation, ib.; prey, ib.; patience, 357; form of their
eye, ib. ; how far tamed, ib. ; other habits, ib. ; use
of cats' whiskers, 3.55, n. ; reason of cats alighting on
their feet when falling, ib.; British wild cat distinct
from the domestic cat, 357, n ; varieties of the do-
mestic cat, 359, n ; moral qualities of the cat, ib.,
360, «.; cat of the iSew Continent, 359.
wild, how distinguished, i. 357, n., and 358; its
abodes, ib.; internal characteristics, ib.
fat Fish, notice of the, ii. 185, 298, n.
Cut kind, animals of the, their properties and distinctive
peculiarities, i. 353, and n ; their resemblance to one
another, 355; their claws, ib.; teeth, ib.; manner of
seizing their prey, ib., 35fi; dispositions, ib.; animals
of the, difficulty of distinguishing the, 376.
Cut Lion, or of Angora, described, i. 359.
Cataccnnlis, Egyptian sepulchres, account of the, i. 226.
Cutamountain, or tiger cat, described, i. 379, 382, n.
Cataracts of rivers, i. 81.
Caterpillars, account of, ii. 490; their transformations,
49 1 —499, and n. ; leaf- rolling caterpillars, 496, 497, n. ;
of the enemies of the caterpillar, 505.
Caverns in the eartft, i. 32; description of several, ib., 35;
origin of, ib.
Caviar Sturgeon, discriminated, ii. 283 ; the caviar,
whence furnished, ib., 285; how prepared, ib.
Cayman, the, a species of crocodile, ii. 395, and 393, n.
Cellular tissue of Plants, ii. 601.
Centipede, a name of the scolopendra, ii. 466; the great
centipede, 467, n.
Cepola, the fish described, ii. 290.
Cerastes, a reptile of Africa, ii. 421, n.
Cercaria, genus of infusoria, ii. 632.
Cetaceous Fishes, called the great beasts of the ocean, ii.
249; why ranked as fishes, ib.; analogy to quadru-
peds, ib ; manner of breathing, ib. ; senses, 250;
young, ib. ; maternal tenderness of, ib.; distinctive
marks of the tribe, ib.; and of its subdivisions, ib.
See Whale.
Ctuetodon, or Cat Fish, discriminated, ii. 297.
CJiajfinch, their migration described, ii. 137; its habits,
vocal powers, &c., 156, 157, n.
CJtamois, its properties, i. 304, andw. ; where found. 304;
acutencss of its senses, 305; its voice, ib. ; its actions
when alarmed, ib. ; beauty of its eyes, ib. ; the animal
described, ib.; its motions, ib.; how hunted, 306,307;
its skin, 307; what parts of the, said to be medicinal,
ib. ; account of the chamois hunters of the Alps, 306,
n.
Channel of Riivrs, the form of the, i. 75; effect of incnm-
brances on the, 76; rendered navigable, 81.
Chapotonadus, a malignant distemper, i. 112.
Charles f. of Em/land, his body found embalmed, i. 229.
XII., his action on being shot, i. 208.
Chase of the Stag, in Scotland, i. 322; in England, 323,
326; technical language employed in the, 324; the
^ chase anciently, ib. ; in Sicily, 326; in China, ib.
Chasms in the Earth, i. 31, 32; in mountains, 63.
Chat genus of birds, ii. 153, n.
Chatterer, account of the, ii. 99.
CheselJen, his account of the perceptions of a boy who
was restored to sight, i. 1 93.
Clietah. See Leopard.
Chevrotm, or Uttfe Guinea Deer, i. 31 1 .
('hickens, method of hatching in stoves, ii. 63; clutched
by capons, ib.
Chigoe, a troublesome insect, account of the, ii. 456, n.
Child in the icomb, history of the, i. 158; state of when
born, 161.
Cliiltlers, the horse, speed of, i. 253, and n.
Cldmpanse, a species of oran outang, i . 49 1 , n.
Chinese, the, described, i. 21 1 .
Clujchi, or Thrush of Paraguay, ii. 1 39, n.
Cliouyh, Cornish, account of the, ii. 94.
Chrysalis, change of the caterpillar into that state, ii.
494, -195; meaning of the term, 494.
Chub, fish, description of, ii. 307, n ; how fished for,
320, n.
Cicada, the ancient, how distinguished from the grass-
hopper, ii. 476, n.
Citrel Finch, account of the, ii. 159, n
Civet, varieties of the, i. 423; its form and colours, ib. ;
its pouch described, ib. ; how the perfume obtained,
ib. ; where reared, ib. ; the perfume at Amsterdam
reckoned the best, ib. ; quantity of perfume obtained,
424 ; commerce in its perfume, ib. ; its food, ib. ; its
dispositions, ib.
Classification nf animals, by different authors, i. 231, ft,
232; that used in this work, 233 — 235; remarks on
its utility, ii. 1 66 ; of Ssh. remarks on the, 347.
Clavvles, or Collar Bones, to what animals peculiar, i.
175.
ClemitK, transverse section of, ii. 602.
Clouds, how produced, i. 128; how converted into rain,
129.
Coal, mode of working coal mines, i. 37, n.
Coan, a dwarf, account of, i. 221.
Coati, a kind of monkey, i. 308.
Coatimondi, a kind of weasel, i. 553; its description, ib.,
and n. : is tamed, ib. ; mode of sleeping, ib.
Cobra di Capello, or Hooded Serpent, ii. 424, n. ; the pe-
tro de cobra, or serpent stone, 426.
Cochineal, the insect described, ii. 551.
Cochlearia, the snail sties of the Romans, ii. 362.
Cock, early domestication and varieties of the, ii. 61 ; ori-
ginal country, ib., and n. ; where found wild, ib. ; ancient
estimations of its colour, ib., 62; boldness of several
breeds, ib.; salacity of the, ib.; varieties of the do-
mestic cock and hen, 64, n.; the dunghill cock and
hen, ib.; the Dorking cock and hen, ib. ; the Poland
cock and hen, ib. ; the every-day cock and hen, ib.;
the bantam cock and hen, ib. ; the Chittagong, or
Malay hen, ib.; the shack-bag, or duke of Leed's
breed, ib.; the improved Spanish cock and hen, ib. ;
instructions regarding breeding, 65, n.
Cock of the ttood, ii. 78, and «.; cock of the plain, 80, n.
Cock fighting, early practised, ii. 62; an ungenerous amuse-
ment, ib.
Cockatoo, the tri-coloured crested, ii. 118, n.
Cockle, shell-fish, notice of the, ii. 365, «.
Cod-fish, the, discriminated, ii. 299, and «. ; its peregri-
nations, 309, 310; easily taken, 320.
Cold, effects of, on water, i. 69 ; on the atmosphere, 112;
how it acts in increasing and refining fur, 414.
Colouring of Site/Is, how accounted for, ii. 349.
Colours, aid our ideas of distance, i. 194; the variable,
of the cameleon, described, ii. 403.
Comets, account of, i. 6 ; theories regarding, 7, n.
Completion, different, of the human race, i. 214; which
colour preferable, ib. ; how produced, 215; four va-
rieties of the complexion of the skin, ib. ; darkened
by cold, &c., 216.
Compression of water, i. 70.
Cunchology, sketch of the different systems of, ii. 350 — •
353, ». See SheUs.
Condoma, or Striped Antelope, described, i. 310.
Condor of America, whether of the eagle or vulture kind,
ii. 37; size and strength, 38; description of, as seen
by Condamine, ib. ; Labat's account, 39; account of
one by Mr Strong, ib.; by P. Feuille, ib.; whether
the same as the Arabian Roc, and others, ib.; its
true character first made known by Baron Von Hum-
boldt, ib., 40, n. ; its habits described, 40.
Con<pate, a variety of the stinkard, i. 421.
Confervas, ii. 601.
Congelation, ii. 583.
Coot, the, discriminated from the water-hen and other
birds, ii. 197, 1S8; habitudes of the, 198.
Coral, what kinds found in a fossil state, i. 22; descrip-
tion of islands of, 55. n. ; plants, where found, ii. 571 ;
their appearance, 572 ; to what kingdom they belong,
ib. ; different opinions, ib.; the plant examined, ib. ;
its inhabitants, ib.; account of the formation of coral,
57 1 , 572, n.
Corbet, Peter, superintended the destruction of wolves
in England, i. 402.
646
INDEX.
Cordier, M. his Investigation concerning subterraneous
heat, i. 48.
C'orin, a kind of gazelle, i. 308.
Cormorant, size and description of the, ii. 206 and «.
appetite, ib. ; fetid odour, ib. ; how used in fishing, ib. ;
bird's activity in pursuing its prey, 208.
Cornaro, his life prolonged by temperance, i. 205.
Corn-crake or land-rail, described, ii. 197, n.
Corrira, a bird of the crane kind, its long legs, ii. 1 90.
Corruption of dead bodies, how caused, i. 226; how pre-
vented, ib.
Corrypheena, or Razor fish, noticed, ii. 296.
Cotingas, birds of South America, ii. 165, n.
Cotopaxi, volcano of, i. 45.
Coitus or BulUiead,.& prickly finned fish, ii. 298.
Couando, distinguished from the porcupine, i. 467.
Cougar or Red Tiger of America, described, i. 374; for-
midable nature, ib.; its habits, 375; how encountered,
ib.; combats with the crocodile, 376: where found.
375, 376; flesh of the, 376.
Coughiny, how caused, i. 171, n.
Coulterneb, the pufiin, why so called, ii. 219.
Cow kind, animals of the, i. 269; usefulness, 270; food,
ib.; teeth, ib.; age, how known, ib.; horns, 271;
native wild breed, description of, ib. «; English breed
of the cow, how improved, ib. ; how affected by its
pasture, ib.; differences in its size, ib.; form, 272;
originally of a common stock, ib.; different breeds of
the, ib. n.; in T;irtary, F'gypt, Abyssinia, Denmark,
the Crimea, Germany, France, &c. ib. ; different breeds
in Britain, ib.; the long-horned or Lancashire breed,
ib.; the short-horned, ib. ; tlte middle-horned, 273, n ;
the Devonshire cattle, ib.; the Sussex and Hereford-
shire cattle, ib.; the polled or hornless breed, 274, ». ;
the Galloway breed, ib.; the Suffolk duns, ib.; the
Ayrshire breed, ib.; cattle of the highlands of Scot-
land, 275; the Argyleshire breed, ib.; the cattle of
Orkney and Zetland, ib.; the Fifeshire cattle, ib.;
cattle of Aberdcenshire, 276; Welsh cattle, ib.;
Alderney cattle, ib.; Irish cattle, ib.; in Iceland, 277;
other countries, ib.; that with the hump,ib. (See
Bison); how to distinguish the classes of this kind,
285; an animal uniting the characters of the hog and,
285.
Crab, the resemblance of its habits to those of the
lobster, ii. 327; where found, 332; the, described, ib.;
of, ib. ; general characteristics of the crab, 332, n., and
334, ».; the fleet running crab, 332, n ; the land crab,
333, n. the soldier crab, ib., and 337, 338; modes of
taking crabs, 335, 336, n.
» > <f-> L\J\J\A, iv., Mu/ooj iu., Biiiuiiui imus ui me,
distinguished, 190; enumerated, ib.; their properties,
91, 193; food, 193; adaptations, 194; climate, ib.; mi-
grations, 195; residents, ib.; nestling, 196; method
of taking, 1 97.
seen with us, and the reason why, ib.; favourite cli-
inate of the, ib.; depredations, ib. ; aerial journeys,
1 74 ; loud cry and its use, ib. ; the wind-pipe, tamed,
175; affection for man, ib.; popular respect for the,
ib. ; Balearic, doubts concerning the, 178; its remark-
able appearance, 179; its country, ib.; habitudes, ib.;
cranes distinguished from storks and herons, 180, 181,
«.; Numidian, the Demoiselle, 180.
Cray or crawfish, a species of lobster, described, ii. 331
and n.
its stores, 456; propagation, ib.; fur, ib.
.Cricket, account of the, ii. 481, 482 and n.; the mole-
cricket, 4H-2, 483.
Crocodile, distinguished from the alligator, ii. 392, 393,
n.; double-crested crocodile, ib.; its resorts, 395;
where largest and fiercest, ib., two varieties, ib.; size
of the, ib. ; description taken from one, ib.; the in-
ternal parts, 39o; its habitudes, ib.; strength, ib.; on
what occasions it seeks the land, ib.; manner of
seizing its prey, ib.; contest with the tiger, 397; how
killed by the negro, ib.; how taken by the Siamese,
ib-; managed like a horse, ib.; Waterton's ride on a
crocodile 's back, noticed,ib. n.; how taken in Africa,
ib.; state of the, in Egypt, 398; accounted for, ib.;
where inoffensive, ib.; musky smell of the, ib. ; flesh,
ib.; eggs, and manner of breeding, ib.; whether it de-
vours its young, 399; age of the, ib. ; produced in the
Roman amphitheatres, ib. and 395.
Crow, the, its characteristics, ii. 87 — 96; different species
of crows, !>7, n ; carrion crow, 89, n. and 93; hooded
crow, ib.; rook. 90, «. and 93 and 94, n.
Crustaceans shell-fish characterised, ii. 326; classified, ib.
and 575 — 578.
Crystalline lenses of animals, ii. 605.
Crystallization, ii. 589.
Cuckoo, the, described, ii. 110,111 and «. ; habits of
the, ib. «.; its call, ib.; female makes no nest, 112; its
food, ib. ; its migration, ib. ; varieties, 113; the honey
guide, ib. and n.
Cuckoo spit or l<roth worm, account of the, ii. 275, 276.
Cud, class of animals that chew the, i. 268. See Rumin-
ating animals.
Curassows, American birds of the poultry kind, ii. 71,
«.; the crested curassow, ib.; the galeated curassow,
72, «.; the razor-billed curassow, ib.
Curleiv, description of the common curlew and little
curlew, ii. 1 90, n.
Currents of the ocean, their causes,?. 92; where most vio-
lent, 93; that in the Mediterranean, ib.; various, 96.
Currents of air, some double, i. 124. See Wind.
Cuticle of plants, ii. 597.
Cuttle fish, the, described, ii. 561, 562; spurts forth a
dark liquor when pursued, ib.
Cuvier, his classification of dogs, i. 38; the same explain-
ed, 388.
Cfldidiuin genus of infusoria, ii. fi30.
Cyclosis or circulation in plants, ii. 596, 597.
I)
Dab fish, described, ii. 301, «.; lemon dab, ib.
Dace, dart, or dare, how fished for, ii. 321, n.
Dayenhamiu Essex, trees discovered by an inundation
of the sea there, i. 1 00.
Damp or deleterious air, fatal effects of, in mines, i. 37.
See Gas. See Lamp Safety.
Danube, its course and depth, i. 77; rivers received bv,
80.
Darkneu. how far the eye accommodates to, i. 195;
story illustrating the subject, ib.
Deafness, causes of, i. 199; perceptions of one recover-
ed from, ib.; state of one born deaf, ib.; case of James
Mitchell, born blind and deaf, 200, n.
Dead Sea, its saltness, i. 85.
Death, many causes of, i. 20"; generally calmly endured,
ib.; not really terrible, 208; reflection in the article
of, ib.; gradual approach of, ib.; uncertainty of the
signs of, ib.
Death-watch, beetle, described, ii. 552, n.
Decoys for ducks, how managed, ii. 235; value of some,
236; those in China, ib.
fiedxctar or ca'ini/ whale, ii. 261, w.
Deer kind, properties of the, i. 319; the stag, ib. &c.;
red, or wild stag, 3-2; red deer in Scotland, 323, «.;
fallow deer in ditto, 324, «.; axis deer of the East In-
dies, 327, 11. See Stag, Fallow deer and Rein deer.
Defence, methods taken by animals for their, i. 240.
Demoiselle, why a kind of crane so called, ii. 1!)0; account
of the, ib.
Dcpntia, a great serpent of Mexico, the mouth des-
cribed, ii. 427; the body, 430; harmless, ib.
Dtxrtptiun of animals, its utility and method, i. 235.
Desman, the, a kind of musk rat, i. 454.
Dint', how produced, i. 1 30 and n. ; how its remaining on
bodies is affected by their conducting powers, ib.
DhUeret, fall of a part of the mountain of, i. 63.
Diamond, microscopic examination of, ii. 592.
Diamond beetle, wing cast; of, ii. 617
])i<iestcr, ascertaining the elasticity of air, i. 108.
D incases from heat, i. 1 1 ) ; from cold, 112; from moisture,
INDEX.
647
ib. ; from effluvia, 113; Boyle's reasons for revolutions
in, 1 1 5.
Disfiositum of animals affected by climate, i. 241.
Disruptions of mountains, i. 63.
Distance, whence our notions of, i. 193.
Direr, the great Northern, its size and colours, ii. 219,
and 71. ; speckled diver, ib., n.
Diving-tell, Dr Halley's, i. 103.
Dodo, its body, bill, legs, &c., described, ii. 27 ; country,
ib. ; flesh, ib.; whether the bird of Nazareth, ib. ; a
now extinct animal, 28, »,
' Dog, the, why not generally used in the chase in East-
eni countries, i. 382; intelligence, courage, and affec-
tion of, 385; anecdotes of dogs, ib.,».; important uses
of the, 385; to the shepherd, 386; in the chase, ib.;
the wild, described, ib.; fidelity of the dog, ib.; di-
versities of the breed, ib. ; original sameness, ib., 387;
internal structure the same, ib. ; which the original
kind, 388; proofs, ib., 391; a new classification of
dogs from Cuvier, 387, n. ; these divisions and their
varieties described, ib.,n.; the New Holland dog, the
Dhole, the South American dog, the North American
doer, ib., n. ; the French matin, the Irish greyhound,
the great Danish dog, the common greyhound, the
Scotch greyhound, the Russian greyhound, the Italian
greyhound, 388, n. : the shepherd's dog, the terrier,
the wolf-dog, the Siberian dog, the Esquimaux dog,
389, n. ; the spaniel, the setter, the Alpine spaniel,
the Newfoundland dog (with anecdote), 390, n. ; the
smaller spaniel, the Maltese dog, the great water
spaniel, the hound, the pointer, the turnspit, the bull-
dog, 391, n.\ the pug-dog, the mastiff, 392, n.; old
classification, the hound, harrier, and beagle, 391 ;
gray matin, 393; mastiff, ib.; English, classified by
Cains, 393, 394; the Turkish dog described, 394; the
Irish wolf-dog described, ib., 39.5; Indian dogs, forti-
tude of the, shown to Alexander the Great, 395; flesh
of the, where eaten, 396; instances of the enmity be-
tween the dog and wolf, ib.; and the fox, ib., 397;
description of the dog when whelped, 397 ; its genera-
tion, ib.; madness of the, 398.
Duff kind, characteristics of the, i. 384; habitudes, ib.;
qualifications of the, ib.; sense of smelling, ib.
Dog-butcher, in China, attacked by dogs, i. 266.
Dog-fish, the spotted, ii. 270, n.; the small spot ted, 273,
n.; the large spotted, ib.
Dogger Sands, a bank formed by two tides meeting, i.
y / .
Dolphin, the, described, ii. 264, and n. ; the common dol-
phin, ib., n.; Pernelty's dolphin, 265, n. ; agility of
the, 265; partiality of the ancients to the, ib. ; how
regarded at present, 266; how wrong drawn by the
ancients, ib.; whether they live out of water, ib. See
Porpoise.
Don, its course, i. 77.
Dorado, the, beautiful colours of the fish, ii. 319; pur-
sues the flying fish, ib.
Doree, a prickly-finned fish, noticed, ii. 298.
Dormouse, its varieties, i. 453; habits, 454; sleeps in
winter, ib.
Dorr-beetle, or j\fay-bug. See May-bug.
Douc, monkey of Cochin China, i.'307.
Dragon-fly, account of the, ii. 470; the depressed dra-
gon-fly, 472, n.; the black winged dragon-fly, ib.
Drairinqs of animals, Locke's opinion of the advantage
of, i. 235.
Dreams, how fashioned,!. 187; effects of, 189; sleep-
walking, 190; how accounted for, ib.
Dress, savages careful with respect to, i. 173; observa-
tions concerning, 174; objects pursued in, ib.
Drill of Pur chas, the oran-otitang, i. 491.
Dromedary, its distinction from the camel, i. 535, and
n. See Camel.
Duck, the domestic, easily reared, ii. 231 ; hatched by
the hen, ib.; rearing of ducks in China, ib., n.: dis-
tinguished from the wild, '232; wild duck, or mallard,
characteristics and habits of, 231, 232, n.; sea ducks,
ib.; pond, 232; eider, ib., and n., 235; tufted, 233;
nest of the wild duck in the Arctic regions, 234; the
down, how obtained, ib.; appearance of the, when it
comes among us, 235; choice of residence, ib.; the
call of the, ib. ; nocturnal adventures, ib. ; how taken
by a decoy, ib. ; manner of taking them in China, '2'.'G ;
summer, the, of America, builds its nest on a tree,
235; and perches, ib.
Duiilin,t\\e, described, ii. 194, n.
Dwarfs, i. 220; account of several, ib.; of the marriage
of two celebrated by Peter of Russia, ib.; of Jeffrey,
ib.; of Baby, ib.— 222.
Duiina river, its course, i. 77. •
Dzigytai, a species of the horse, described, i. 261, n.
E
Eagle, description of the, and its affinities, ii. 31 ; the
abode of the, ib. ; habits, ib.; not entirely tameable,
ib.; flight of the, 32 ; eye,ib.; strength, ib. ; prey,ib ;
instances of the, taking away children, ib.; localities
in England and Scotland where the golden eagle is
to be found, ib., n.; manner in which the eagle hunts
for its prey, ib. ; formidable when rearing the young,
ib. ; instances of retaliation in the, ib. ; the nest of the,
described, 33; plumage and change of colour, ib.;
food, ib.; varieties, 31—33; the golden, ib ; the com-
mon, 34; bald, ib.; Wilson's description of the bald-
headed eagle, ib., n. ; white, ib. ; rough-footed, ib. ;
white-tailed, ib.; favourite haunts on the northern
coasts of Scotland, ib., w.; erne, 35; black, ib.; sea,
ib., and n. ; bird of Washington, a species of sea eagle,
described, 36, 37, ».; osprey, 36, and ».; Jean de
blanc,ib.; that of Brazil, 36; Oroonoko, ib. ; crowned
African, ib.; that of Pondicherry, ib. ; martial eagle,
or griffard, 38, n.; balbuzzard, ib.; great harpy, ib.;
wedge-tailed eagle, ib.
Ear, human, remarks on the, i. 172; construction of
the, 198.
Earth, its magnitude, i. 1 ; its comparative insignificance
in the great scale of creation, ib., n.; its situation in
the solar system, 9 and 7, n. ; its motions, ib. ; proofs
of its rotundity, 9; exact shape, ib.; its regions, 10,
1 1 ; appearance of its surface, 11,12; internal struc-
ture, 12; theories of the, 13— 17, and 16, n.; strata of
the, 28 and n. ; their order, 30 ; fertility of the, 29—31 ;
chasms in the, 31, 32; changed by the ocean, 96; its
defences against the sea, ib. ; considered in relation
to the Deity, 144, 145; varieties of its provisions, 145;
the earth gloomy without man, ib. ; fitted fur his
abode, ib.; how subdued to his use, 149.
Earthquakes, i. 46; different kinds of, ib.; causes of, 46,
47, and n. ; several mentioned, 47 — 52 ; concomitant
circumstances, 52 ; swallow mountains, 64.
Earwig, the, described, ii. 483 and n.\ wing of, 617.
Ecacoalt, the Indian name of the rattle-snake, on what
supposition given, ii. 623.
Echineis, or sucking fish, the, ii. 300.
Echini, ii. 373. See Urchins.
Echo, cause of the, i. 198; cannot be made by art, ib.
Education, different methods of, i. 163; what the best,
164; how to be pursued, ib. ; when most rapid, ib.
Eel, electric, account of the, ii. 279, n. ; anecdotes of
the, 280, n.
Eels, Mr Yarrell's account of, ii. 286—288, n.] how
fished for, 320, 321, n.; descends towards the sea to
spawn, 309; viviparous, 318.
El/a, what animals produced from the, i. J54; disposi-
tion of substances in the, 155; progress of the animal
in the, traced by Malpighi and Haller, 154, 156, 157;
analogies between it and the embryo, 156 — 158.
Eggs, sea, ii. 373. See Urchins.
Egyptians, their embalmings described, i. 224 ; their sc-
'pulchrts, 226 ; present superiority of their horses,
249.
Eider-duck, account of the, ii. 232 and n.
Elirenbcr(fs discoveries relating to infusoria, ii. 625.
Elasticity of the air, i. 107.
Elephant, its appearance, i. 515; size, ib. ; description,
516; distinction between the African and Asiatic ele-
phant, ib., n.; strength of the, 516; peaceableness,
ib.; gregarious habits, ib., 517; haunts, 517; move-
ments of the, ib., n. ; food, 517; excellence of its
senses, ib,518; the trunk and its uses described,
518— 520, and n.\ strong sense of smell, 518, n ; habits
of the, ib. ; its difficulty of motion and encumbrances,
519; tusks, ib.; its method of eating and drinking,
520; its hide, ib.; the elephantiasis, ib.; where found
and how used in different countries, 521 ; first ele-
phant seen in England, ib., n.; the white esteemed,
521: propagation, ib.; reproduction of the elephant
C48
INDEX.
when domesticated, 522, n. ; violently affected during
rutting time,ib. «.; different methods of capturing the
elephant, 523 — 52.5, n.; how hunted by Indian princes,
522, 523; hunted in Africa, 523; at the Cape of Good
Hope, 527, 5.8; method of taking the goondah or
male elephant by means of the koom-kees or females,
524; docility when tame, 523,526; instances, 526;
used in war, ib. ; and in sports, 527, n. ; in carrying
burdens, ib.; in executions, ib.; instance of the fatal
exertions of one, ib. ; of retaliation, ib. ; of gratitude,
ib. ; ancient and modern commerce in its ivory, ib.
and n.; its teeth or tusks, 528; the fossil species, ib.,
and ».
Elephantiasis, or Arabian leprosy, i. .520.
Elizabeth, Queen, her regulations concerning fasting, i.
186; encouraged the woollen manufacture, i.288.
Elk, its country, i. 332 and n. ; description of the, ib. ;
its haunts, ib.; how pursued by the Indians, ib.;
easily tamed, ib.; size of the, 332, 333; description of
one shown at Paris, 333 ; the American, ib. ; their
climate, 334; a hunt of the, described, ib.; its flesh,
horns, ib. &c.; diseases, 335; mistakes concerning the,
ib.
Elops, or Sea serpent, ii. 299.
Ely, country round , deteriorated by the sea, i. 99 ; said
to be so named from rents being formerly paid there
in eels, ii. 288, it.
Ejnbalming, early practised, i. 224 ; how performed by
the Egyptians, ib. ; by the Guanches, 225; by the
Peruvians, ib. ; in France, 228 .
Embryo, progress of the embryo in lower animals, i.
157'; in man, 157— 160.
Emigration of birds. See Birds.
Emu or American Ostrich, ii. 23; the term now applied
to the New Holland ostrich.ib. n.; description of the.
23, 24, «.
Ettc/ielis genus of infusoria, ii. C28.
Encoubert, a kind of armadillo, i. 471.
England, dogs of, Dr Caius' classification of the, i. 394.
Ephemera, account of the, ii. 48.5, and n.
Equator, earth at the, i. 1 0.
Ermine, its size and description, i. 413; its fur and its
change of colour, 413, 414; when called the stoat, ib.;
why its fur refined by cold, 413: its scent and food,
414; where found and how caught, ib.
Erne, a species of eagle, ii. 35.
Eruptions. See Volcanoes.
Esculapian, serpents of Italy, how regarded there, ii.
4'28.
Esox. See Pifce.
LJunuchs, barbarous policy in making,!. 165; in Italy,
ib.; described, 166.
European race of men, described, i. 21 3.
EustaJiian tube, hearing by the, i. 1 99.
Evaporation, investigations regarding, i. 94, n. ; of water,
how it produces clouds, 129; Hamilton's theory con-
cerning, ib.; how affected by heat, ib.; frost, &'c. ib. ;
how affected by night, 1 30.
Expression of tJi£ different parts of tJie human body,i. 167;
the face, ib.; the eyes, &c. 167—172.
Exuviation, process of, in shrimps, lobsters, and crabs,
ii. 328, 330, n.; in insects, 613; singular instance of,
ib.
Eyes, state of them, in man at birth, i. 161 ; their ex-
pression, 167; their motions, ib. ; colours, ib. ; alone
varied, ib.; early formed, 191 ; not exercised immedi-
ately after birth, 192; invert objects, ib.; another
error in sight, ib.; benefit of having two eyes, 193;
state of the, at different ages, 1 9.5 ; accommodate to
light and darkness, ib.; physiology of the, ib. «.; of a
cat, i. 356; of birds, their conformation, ii. 3; of in-
sects, their varieties and numbers, 614.
Eyabrows. and eyelashes, their expression, i. 168.
Eyelids, their use, i. 168.
F
Face, human, its energy, i. 167; on what its expression
depends, ib. ; form of the human, how affected, 2 1 7.
Falcon kind, used in hawking, ii. 44 and n.; what varie-
ties used in the sport, 44 ; the generous, how distin-
BTuUhed, 4.5; the gyr falcon, 45, n. and 46; peregrine
f'aloon. 45. n. ; the falcon, 46; falcon gentil, ib.; the
lanner, 47; kcstiil and merlin, 45, n. and 47; their
spirit, ib. : method of training the, 47; method of
pursuing and taking different animals, 45; the igno-
bier varieties, 48; the secretary falcon, 50, «. See
Kite Buzzard.
Falcons, the gentle, used in hunting gazelles, i. 314;
their manner of pursuing, 3 1 5.
Falconry, an ancient sport, ii. 44; the hawk on hand in
paintings a mark of rank, ib.; expences of the sport,
)b.; how the bird trained for the sport, 47; how dis-
tinguished, 44.
Fallow-deer, in Scotland, 324, n..; distinguished from the
stag, i. 328, and n.; their properties, ib.: contest of
the, 328; tamed, ib.; their gestation, ib. ; the chase
of the, 329; their varieties, ib.; those of Guiana, ib.
Fanas, venomous, of the serpent, account of the, ii.
4l"6.
Farina of flowers, as seen by the microscope, ii. 598.
Fascination, the, of the rattle-snake, account of, ii. 423.
Fashion, influence of, i. 174, n.
Fauvette, winter, ii. 153, n.
Fawn, the young of the fallow-deer, i. 329 ; of the roe-
buck, 331.
Feathers of birds, their position and beauty, ii. 1, 2; for
beds, whence obtained, 230 ; how cured, ib. ; examined
under the microscope, ii 603, 604; feathers of hum-
ming birds, 604.
Female sex, how treated by savages, i. 165, 166; their
privileges in polished countries, 166; shape of the,
167; their comparative weakness, 181 ; in general live
longer than men, why, 205.
Ferns, their seed vessels, &c., as seen by the microscope
ii. 600.
Ferret, its country, i. 414; the, described, ib.; its
climate, 415; prey, ib. ; how used in hunting rabbits,
ib. ; parturition of the, ib.; sleep of the, ib.; its smell
and bite, ib.
Field-fares, a species of thrush, ii. 1 38, ti. ; field-fare of
Canada, 140, «.
Figure, human, its proportions, i. 1 76.
File-fish, ii. 374, 375. See Photos.
Finches, account of the, ii. 1 36 and 1 56 — 159, n.
Fins of fishes, described, with their uses, ii. 24'2.
Fire, supported by ah*, i. 1 15.
Fires ofSt Helmo, meteors in Jamaica, description of, i,
134.
Fire-flare ray, ii. 273; its spine, ib.; terrible to fisher-
men, 275 — 277; ancient fables concerning it, 278; used
to head arrows, ib. ; whether venomous, ib.
Fishes, their abodes, ii. 240, 241 ; numbers, ib. : form, 242;
fins, ib.; glutinous covering and scales, '243; smelling,
ib.; tasting, ib. ; hearing, ib. and n. ; seeing, 243; eye
described, ib.; appetite, 244; maws and digestion,
ib.; can endure want of food, 245: yet voracious, ib ;
their hostility to one another, ib. : migrations, ib.;
require air, ib.; proofs, 246; use of the gills, ib.; the
air bladder and its use, ib.; their age, 247; methods
of determining, ib.; extreme fecundity of, 248; gen-
eration, ib.; spawn, ib.; classification, ib. ; whether
nourishing, ib. ; why not salt to the taste, 249 and
n. ; professor Blumenbach's summary of the charac-
teristic qualities of fishes, 240, 241, n.; comparison
by baron Cuvier between fishes and birds, 244, «.;
account of the fish usually taken by anglers in Great
Britain, 320—323, n.
Fishing-frog or Angler, described, ii. 288, n.
Fistularia, the fish described, ii. 301.
Flamingo, its class, ii. 187; properties, ib. ; haunts, ib.;
in what state found by the Europeans in America,
il). ; disposition now, 188; venerated by the negroes,
ib. ; untameable, ib. ; flesh, ib. ; flocks of the, ib. ; man-
ner of feeding, 1 89 ; nests and young, ib.
Flatfish, cartilaginous, ii. 273.
Flea, account of the, ii. 455 and n.
Floss, the external coating of the silk cone, ii. 511.
Flounder or Fluke, described, ii. 301, «.; bearded floun-
der, ib.
Flower, microscopic examination of a, ii. 597.
Fluidity, by what bodies possessed, i. 70.
Flur-lirds, how used by the bird catcher, ii. ] 31 .
Fly, account of the house-fly, ii. 487, 489, n. See
Dragonfly.
Flying-fish, a soft-tinned abdominal fish,ii. 303: Captain
Basil Hall's account of the, ib. n.; pursued by the
dorado, 319; in the air by the albatross, ib.
INDEX.
649
Fcetor, the horrible, of some serpents, ii. 408, 1 1 3.
Fongwang, the Chinese, description of that bird, ii. 75.
Fontvndle, his long life, i. 206.
Food, necessity of, to man, i. 183; its influence on ani-
mals, 242.
Foot, human, shape of the, i. 1 76.
Forehead, human, its proportions, i. 1 68.
Forests, found beneath the earth, i. 99.
Fossils, opinions concerning their formation, i. 19 — 21
and «.;22; in what countries found, 21, 22; their
varieties, 22 ; found in the stones of one of the pyra-
mids of Egypt, 25; elephants, an account of, i. 528;
(see Mammoth) ; shells, in what condition found, ii.
358.
Fouinc, name given by M. Buffon to the yellow-breasted
martin, i. 417. See Martin.
Foumart or polecat, described, i. 415 and n.
Fox, its resemblance to the dog, i. 403 and n. ; distin-
guished from it, and the wolf, 404 ; its cunning, ib. ;
in choosing a residence, ib. ; in taking and conveying
its prey, ib.; its food ib.; chase of the, 403, n. and
405; generation, 405; antipathy of animals to the, ib.,
406; different kinds of the, 40t>.
Frog, the, adapted to live on land or in water, ii. 377;
distinguished from the toad, ib.; its appearance, ib. ;
its internal parts described, ib. ; Raesal's plates of
the, 378 ; copulation of the, ib. ; impregnation, ib. ;
eggs from a female, 380; their appearance, ib. ; pro-
gress of the, to perfect frog, 379, n. and 380; manner
of life, 381; season of enjoyment, ib. ; age, ib.; food,
382; manner of catching it, 383; vivacity, ib.; one
kept eight years in a glass, ib. ; tenacious of life after
the head off and other injuries, ib.; croaking des-
cribed, ib. ; season of, ib. ; adheres to the backs of
fishes, 384 ; story of one clinging to a pike and eating
out its eyes, ib. ; different developements of embryo
of frogs, 378 — 380, n.; various species of frogs, des-
cribed, the common frog, the green frog, the bull
frog, the tree frog, and the fire frog, 381 — 383, n.
Frog, the fishing, described, ii. 28U and n.; how it
takes its prey, '289 ; doubts, ib.
FrotJi-worm, the, account of, ii. 484.
Fungi, as seen by the microscope, ii. 601.
Furs, of northern quadrupeds, why so abundant and
fine, i. 414.
G
Gad-fly, injurious to the rein-deer in Lapland, i. 337.
Gagal, a species of bison, described, i. 279, n.
Gall insect, its residence, ii. 553; how introduced into
the gall nut, ib.; how nourished, ib.; its escape from
the nut, ib.
Galley- fish, appears like a bubble, ii. 291 ; described, ib.;
whether it moves, ib. ; size in America, ib. ; colours
and transparency, ib.; causticity of the, ib.; poisonous
nature of the, 325.
Golly icorm, the, how distinguished from the Scolopen-
dra, ii. 467 ; appearance, ib. ; how produced, ib.
Game laws, arbitrary nature of the, ii. 82.
Ganges, its origin and course, i. 77 and n.; venerated by
the Indians, 78.
Gannet or solan goose, described, ii. 208, and n. ; haunts
of the, 209; migrations, 210; quickness of sight, ib.;
its eyelids, ib. ; eggs and young, ib.; profit from the
sale of the, ib.
Gar-fish, described, ii. 290, n.
Gartar-fisJi, the, distinguished, ii. 300.
Gaur, a species of bison, described, i. 279, n.
Gaze hounds, the English, described, i. 393; how em-
ployed, ib.
Gazelles, a species of antelope, i. 304, n. ; their distin-
guishing marks, 307 and n.; beauty, ib.; Buffon 's
varieties of the, 308, 309; additional varieties, 310;
their general properties, 311, 312; method of hunting
them, 314, 315.
Gekko, a kind of salamander, ii. 400; reported to be
poisonous, ib. ; probably not so, ib.
Generation of animals, i. 150; different generative powers
of animals and plants, ib., n.; whence the fecundity,
ib. ; Harvey's theory of, 151; Leuwenhoeck's, ib. ;
Buffon 's speculations concerning, 1 52 ; objections to,
ib. ; distinction of animals in respect of their, ib.; by
VOL. TT.
cutting, 153; from the egg, 154; traced, 156; from
embryo, 1 57 ; in man, ib. ; comparative perfection of,
in different animals in respect of, 160; of animals,
243.
Genet, its beauty and perfume, i. 422; described and
distinguished, ib.; its glands, ib. ; tamed at Constan-
tinople, ib. ; scarcity of the? 423 ; its character, ib.
Genettes, Spanish, described, i. 250.
Geology. See Earth.
Geranda, a serpent of the East Indies, how regarded by
the natives, ii. 428; thatof Africa also worshipped, ib.
Gerloa. See Jerboa.
Giants, existence of a race of, ascertained, i. 222, 223.
Gibbon, or long-armed ape, described, i. 497, 499 ; several
species noticed, 497, 498, n.
Gilthead, or oplddium, the fish described, ii. 295.
Giraffe. See Camelopard.
Glow-worm, difference of the male and female, ii. 548;
the female described, ib. ; its light whence, and how
emitted, ib., n.
Glutton, differences of opinion concerning the, i. 424;
Klein's account of one from Siberia, ib. ; considered,
ib. ; where found, ib. ; discription of the, ib.; its man-
ner of taking its prey, ib., 425 and n. ; prefers putrid
flesh, 425; pursues the beaver, ib.; its stratagems,
ib,; its impudence, 426; parturition, ib.; value of its
skin, ib.
Gluttony, its injuries, i. 186.
Gnat, injurious to the rein-deer, i. 337; manner of lay-
ing her eggs in the water, ii. 554 and n. ; change of
form, ib. ; into a nymph, ib. ; the fly, ib. ; its trunk,
ib.; stings, ib.; method of using them, ib.; state dur-
ing winter, ib. ; their formidable nature in America,
556 ; wing of a gnat, 617.
Gnu, a singular species of African antelope, described,
i. 312, n.
Goat, neaily allied to the sheep, i. 286, ».; characteris-
tics and properties of the, i. '299 ; their qualities, ib. ;
acuteness of their senses, 300; fitted for a life of
liberty, ib. ; natural attachment to man, proof of its,
301 ; propagation of the, ib. ; qualities of its milk, ib. ;
flesh ib. ; pasture, ib. ; varieties of the, 302; Angora
goat, described, ib. and 299, ».; the Assyrian, ib.;
African, ib. ; the blue, 302; the Juda, ib.; diversities
and analogies of the different kinds, ib. ; the ibex
and chamois, 302, 304, n.\ goats of Wales, 299, «.;
Cashmere shawl goat, ib. ; singular dexterity of a goat,
300, n.; goats used in suckling children, 301, n.
Goatsuckers or nocturnal swallows, ii. 162, «.; European
goatsucker, ib.
Gobius. See Gudgeon.
Godwin Sands, i. 99.
Godu-its, distinguished from snipes and woodcocks, ii.
192,n.
Gold, not corroded by the atmosphere, i. 109.
Goldfinch, habits, vocal powers, &c. of the, ii. 157, n.
Gomum genus of infusoria, ii. 631.
Goose, characteristics of the wild, ii. 227,228, and ».;
where it breeds, 229; flight described, ib.; fecundity
of the tame, 230; its valiant defence of its young, ib.;
flesh of the young, ib. ; goose feathers, ib. ; commerce
in, ib. ; varieties of the bird, the barnacle, 229; ac-
count of the Canadian goose, ib. n. ; the spur winged
goose, 230, n.
Goose, solan. See Gannet.
Goose kind, characteristics of the, ii. 222; bill, ib.; food,
ib.; fecundity, ib.; flesh, ib.; domestication, 223.
Gooseander, account of the, ii. 222 and n.
Goosehawk, a species of falcon, ii. 46, n.
Gottenburge, in Sweden, cataract near, i. 81.
Govan, Mr, his classification of spinous fishes, ii. 294 —
307.
Graaf, his investigation of the growth of animals in the
womb, i. 157.
Grampus, how distinguished, ii. 264; its agility, 265.
Grass/toper, account of the, ii. 475 — 478.
Gragliny, fish, ii. 303, «. and 321, n.
Gravitation, account of the nature and effects of the
attraction of, i. 3, 5, n.; Sir Isaac Newton's great dis-
covery on this subject, ib.
Grebe, analogies of the bird, to the web-footed and
crane class, ii. 198; account of the bird, 198, 219, ». ;
use of its skin, 1 99.
Greenlanders, &c. described, i. 209; their pride, 21 )j
hardihoc d, ib.
4 N
650
INDEX.
Greyhound. See Dog.
Groundling, or Loach, ii. 321.
Grouse, and its affinities, ii. 77; numerous species in
Nortli America, ib., ».; European grouse, ib. ; the
cock of the wood, or capercailzie, formerly plentiful
in Scotland, now extinct, 78 and n. ; description of its
habits, ib. ; endeavours to restore it to Scotland, 70,
n. ; the black grouse, or black cock, ib. ; the red
grouse, or muirfowl, ib. ; the white grouse, or ptar-
migan, 80, n.; the rock grouse, ib.; the sand grouse,
ib. ; the heteroclitus grouse, ib.; the cock of the plain,
ib.
Growth of the human tjtxly traced, i. 162; of the mind, 1G3,
164.
Grubs, account of various kinds of, ii. 543 — 546, n.
(Juan, a bird of the poultry kind, described, ii. 72, ».
Guandies, their method of embalming, i. 225.
Gudgeon, the, noticed, ii. 29,5; how fished for, 321, «.
Guilxi, a kind of gazelle, i. 310.
Guillemot, a. sea bird, described, ii. 219, n.; the black
guillemot, ib.
Guinea Pig, its country, i. 446; the animal described,
ib. ; its helplessness, ib.; domesticated, ib.; habits
and food in that state, ib.; cleanliness, 447; manner of
sleeping, ib.; salacity and generation of the, ib.; con
tentions of the, ib. ; timidity, ib. ; is tamed, ib. ; grunt
of the, ib. ; flesh of the, ib.
Gulls, characteristics of the class, ii. 201 and 212, n.; of
the smaller kind, 210, 21 1 ; haunts, 212; sublimity of
the scenes in which they often appear, ib., 213; con-
tests while breeding, 213; nests and eggs, ib.; the
birds how taken, 214; varieties, 210.
Gurnard, properties of the fish, ii. 2.08.
Gymnotus, or Electric Ed, account of the, ii. 279, n., and
299.
11
Haddock, a species of cod, described, ii. 300, ft.
tlauutrruoii, a viper, why so called, ii. 423.
Hay-fish, or Borer, a species of lamprey, ii. 282, n.
I fail, how produced, i. 130, and 131, n.; storm in Hert-
fordshire, 1697, description of the, 132; of the one in
France, 1510, ib.
I fair of toe human head contributes to beauty, i. 169;
different modes of wearing the, ib., «.; what fails
soonest, ib.; its diversities, 169; structure, ib., and
».; colour, ib.; in different nations, ib.; its relation to
temperament, ib., 170; effect of the atmosphere on,
ib., ».; practices of different nations with respect to,
172, 173.
Hairs of different animals microscopically examined, ii
603.
Halcyon, the king-fisher, ii. 237; fables and poems con-
cerning the, 238.
Ha/ley's theory to explain the constant cast winds near
the tropics, i. 121.
Halo round the moon, i. 136.
Hamster, name given by Buffon to the German rat, i.
4.54; the anomalous hamster, 4.55, n.
Hand, the connection between the hand and intellect,
i. 202.
fertility, 430; extraordinary arrangement for this, ib.;
treatment of young, ib. ; food, ib. ; sleep, ib.; pairing,
ib.; motion in flight, ib.; age, 431 ; voice, ib.; instincts
for self-preservation, ib. ; shifts to escape, 432; their
furs, 433; effect of heat on the, ib.; flesh of the, by
what nations not eaten, ib.; by what esteemed, ib. ;
decrease of numbers, 434; Cowper's description of
three hares which he domesticated, 430—432, «.;
difficulty of finding a hare by the eye, 432, n, ; terms
used in hare hunting, 433, «.; Brazilian hare, ib.
— — kind, swiftness of the, i. 426; characteristics of the,
ib. ; method of determining, ib.; their food, ib. ; mo-
tion of their lips, ib. ; prolific propagation, ib.
7/ar/un//, great Hudson's Bay owl, ii. 55.
Harrier, the, described, i. 391, 393.
a species of falcon, ii. 49, n.; marsh-harriers,
ib. n.\ hen harri<;r, 50, «.; ash-coloured harrier, ib., n.
See Stag.
Harvey's theory of generation, i. 1.51.
Hoicking Eggs, artificial method of, i. 154, n.
HatfieldChuce,m Yorkshire, reduced to cultivation, i.101 .
Hawk, the, and hawking, ii. 44. See Falcon, Falconry,
Goshairk, and Sparrownatek.
Hau-k-motlts, account of, ii. 499 — .501, n.
Head, state of, in man at birth, i. 162.
Hearing, \. 195; errors to which liable, ib.; its object
sound, ib. : defects of, 199; inequality of, with differ-
ent ears, ib. ; necessity of, to man, ib.; how the sense
of, supplied in birds, ii. 5.
Heat of atmosphere, variation of, in descending mines, i.
36; causes of this, ib.; its effects on water, 0'9; pro-
duces a noxious quality in the air, 1 1 1.
Hecla, volcano of, i. 42.
Hedgeliog, characteristics of the species, i. 461 ; prickles
of the, 462; harmlessness, ib.; varieties, ib.; method
of defence, ib., 463; habits and food, 463; habits in a
tame state, described by Buffon, ib.; propagation,
ib.; blood, ib.; said to be proof against poison, ib. n.;
prey or live on animals, ib. ; anecdotes of, 4G4, n. ; sea,
discriminated, ii. 291 ; hedgehog's quills, as seen under
the microscope, 602.
Helmo. See Fires of Si Helmo.
Hen, hatching of the, and number of its eggs, ii. 62; af-
fection for her chickens, 63.
Guinea or Barlxiry, ii. 79. See Pintado.
water, account of the, ii. 197, 198.
Hermaphrodites, all snails such, ii. 360; sea snails pecu-
liar, 36'2; bivalve shell-fish, 365.
Hermits, abstinence and long life of several, i. 186.
Herodotus, his description of the Egyptian method of
embalming, i. 224.
Heron, the, distinguished from the crane and stork, ii.
180 — 182, and n.; the common heron described, 181,
». ; its habits, ib.; how taken, 182, n.; the night he-
ron, ib.; the crested purple heron, ib. ; crab eaters
and egrets, ib. ; varieties, 182; the common purple,
ib. ; heron hawking, 183; prey of the, ib. ; flesh of the,
esteemed in France, 184; heronries, ib.; longevity of
the, ib.
Herring, the, characterised, ii. 303; where chiefly found,
310; why it migrates, ib.; destructive enemies of the,
ib. ; progress of the phalanx of the, ib. ; arrival on our
coasts, 311; its columns, ib.; detachments, ib.; whe-
ther any return, ib. ; frequents a favourite bank for
many years, and then seeks another, ib. ; general ac-
count of its habitudes, 311 — 313, n.; mode of taking
and curing herring, 313, n.; the Dutch herring fishery,
314, ».
Hiera, a new island, i. 53; has increased, 54.
Himantopus genus of infusoria, ii. 634.
Hind, female of the stag, i. 219; her cry, 321 ; courage
and sagacity, 322.
Hippocampus, a fish, account of the, ii. 290.
Hippopotamus, description of the, i. 532; head of the,
ib., n. ; haunts, ib.; manner of life and prey, 533;
strength, ib. ; manner of escape, ib.; flesh of the, ib. ;
propagation, ib. ; where found, 534.
Hounho. river in China, i. 77; receives thirty-five rivers,
80.
Hoar-frost, what, i. 130.
Hobby, a species of hawk, ii. 4.5, n,
Hog kind, animals of the, their distinguishing properties,
i. 342; hunting the wild hog in India, 343, ».; hog
trained as a pointer, 345, n. ; domestic breeds of swine,
346, «.; flesh of swine unwholesome in hot climates,
ib.
Halibut, flat fish, described, ii. 301, n.
Holland, gained from the sea, i. 98; inroads of the sea
on, ib., n.
Honey. See Dec.
Honey dew, notice of, i. 131, n.
Hooded Serpent, account of the, ii. 423-»-426. See (\>-
bra.
Hooper, the wild swan, why so called, ii. 226.
Hoopoes, birds resembling woodpeckers, ii. 108, n.
Horns, Hoofs, and Nails, microscopic examination of,
ii. 602.
Horse, its relative station, i. 245; its beauty, ib.; where
found in native state, ib. ; habits when in droves, ib.:
its original country, 246; American, ib. ; Tartar wild
horses, ib.; African, ib.; Arabian, ib.; Arabian tamed
horse. 247; diffusion of the Arabian breed of the,
248; Barbary horse, ib. : horse-racing at Home, ib.,«. •
INDEX.
651
Persian, 249 and n. ; Italian, D.inish, &c. 2,-,0; French,
described, ib. and n. ; German, ib. «.; tame of Amer-
ica, 2.51 ; wild horses of South America, ib. n. ; of the
Archipelago, ib.; of Media, 252; India, ib. and ra. ; one
presented to our Queen, described, ib. ; of Guinea,
ib. ; of China, ib. ; Tartars live with their, ib. ; Gre-
cian, 253; English, ib.; swiftness of the, ib. ; Flying
Childers, ib. n. ; English hunting, 2.54 ; number of, in
England at different times, ib.; different breeds of
horses in Britain, ib. n.; coach-horse, ib. ; draught
horses, 2.55, n.: cavalry horses, ib.; race horse, ib.; the
hunter, 256, n. ; the Galloway, ib. ; the Welsh pony,
ib.; the Exmoor pony, 257, n.\ the Highland pony,
ib.; the Shetland pony, ib.; the Irish horse, ib.; in-
structions for purchasing horses, ib. and 258, n. ; des-
cription of a perfect, ib.
Hottentots, their encounters with the lion, i. 361.
Ifoutou, a bird of South America, ii. 166, n.
Hoiclet, a kind of owl, ii. .55.
Huber, his experiments on bees, ii. 516.
Hudson, name given by Buffon to the Urson, i. 467.
Human Semen, animalcules in, ii. 638.
Humber, an island formed at the mouth of the, i. 56.
Humble bee, an account of the, ii. 525; its cells, 526; fe-
males, ib. ; method of putting the colony into motion,
ib.
Humming bird, beauty of the colours of the, ii. 165 and
n. ; varieties, 1 67 ; the, described, ib. and n. ; visits
Hewers, whether it extracts honey from them, ib. ;
bar-tailed humming bird, 168, «.; topaz- throated
humming bird, 169, n.; account of its nest, ib. ; of the
nest in America, 170; disappears in the winter, in
cold climates, ib. ; note of the, ib. ; plumage, ib.
Hunger, causes and consequences of, i. 1 84, «.
Hunting, American horses, how employed in, i. 251.
Hurricane, description of the, i. 1 2.5.
Huso sturgeon, account of the, ii. 285; its isinglass, ib.
Hyaena, distinguished from the wolf, 408 and n.; its
fierceness, 409; cry or moan, ib.; a solitary animal,
410; dispositions of the, ib.; fables concerning the, ib.
the stripped hy£ena described, 408, n.; spotted hyaena
described, 409, /;. ; found in a fossil state in Britain, ib.
Hydras, reptiles so called, ii. 431, n.
Hydrostatics — See Water — paradoxes in, i. 71 ; metals,
how weighed hydrostatically, 72; laws of hydrostatics,
71,72.
[tex, the, supposed by Buffon to be the source of the
goat, i. 303; their resemblance, ib. ; described, ib. ». ;
Abyssinian ibex, ib. ; Caucasian ibex, ib.; -^gagrus,
ib.
Ibis, venerated by the Egyptians, ii. 178 and n.; char-
acteristics of the genus, ib. n. ; the scarlet ibis, ib.
and 179, n.
Ice, i. 69; its elasticity, 70; mountains and sheets of, at
the polar regions, 88; how formed, ib.; of what com-
posed, ib. ; mountain ice, description of, 89 ; Crantz's
account of the formation of, ib.
Ichneumon, the, where found, i. 419: its size, shape, and
colour, ib. ; ability and courage, ib. andra.; its prey,
420 and ». ; destroys tjie crocodile's eggs, ib. ; fables
concerning, ib. ; its habitudes, ib. ; physiognomy, ib. ;
glands, ib. ; account of one sent from Ceylon, 420;
veneration of the Egyptians for the, ib.
Ichneumon fly, the, inserts its eggs into the grasshopper,
ii. 534, 611 ; into the caterpillar, ib. ; its formidable
nature, ib.; whence the name, ib.; the, described,
ib.; its weapon of offence, &c. ib.; manner of depos-
iting its eggs, ib. ; progress to the fly state, ib. ; its
uses, .53.5; wing of, 617.
Ignis Fatuus, notice of the, i. 1 34, n.
Iguana, size and description of the, ii. 402: common
American iguana, ib. n. ; the slate coloured iguana,
403, n.; the horned iguana, ib. ; the iguana fasciata,
ib.; how taken and killed by the Americans, ib.
Illusions, meteoric, i. 1 39, 1 40.
fmaiio or_/?;/ state of insects, ii. 613.
Incubation of birds, account of the, ii. 7.
Indians, American, how they palliate hunger, i. 186;
their method of charming serpents, described by
Philostratus, ii. 415.
Indicator or honey-guide cuckoo, ii. 1 1 3, n.
Indus, tides at the mouth of the, i. 92.
Infancy of man, history of the, i. 160; sensations during,
161; vivacity of negroes during, ib.; infants when
newly born, their appearance, ib.; their voracity, 162;
endurance of hunger, ib.; their life precarious, ib.;
their growth, 163; progress of their understanding,
163, 164.
Infusions for production of animalcules, ii. 624.
Infusoria, fossil, ii. 593.
Insects, Blumenbach's description of, ii. 436 — 438, n.;
Swarnmerdam's notions of their dignity, 437; their
real imperfection in formation, 438; instincts, ib. ;
utility, ib.; their numbers uninstructible, ib.; defini-
tion of insects, 439 ; numerous distinctions among, ib. ;
similitudes among, ib.; classification of, 440; sketch
of the history of, 440 — 442, n ; Lamarck's classifica-
tion of, 442 — 447, n. ; fossil remains of, ii. 593; struc-
ture and transformation of insects, 607 ; their eggs, ib. ;
microscopical insects, 620.
Instinct, discovered in the incubation of birds, ii. 1 2.
Inundation of rivers, different effects of, i. 81 ; diurnal,
ib. ; of the sea, S9.
Isatis, the, compared with the dog and fox, i. 408; cli-
mates in which found, ib.; change of colour with the
year, ib.
Isinglass, from what kind of sturgeon furnished, ii. 274,
285; its uses, 285; how prepared, ib. ; commerce in,
ib.
Islands, new, i. 53; islands formed by rivers, 56; disap-
peared, ib.
Ivory, the commerce in, an account of the, i. 527.
Jabiru, a large bird of the crane kind, ii. 179; the Jabirn
guacu. discriminated, i 80 and n.
Jackal, a species widely diffused, i. 406; its habits, 407 ;
packs of the, ib. ; manner of hunting, ib. ; followed by
beasts of prey, ib. ; its antipathy to the dog. ib. ; cry
of the jackal, described, 408, n.
Jackdaw, account of the, ii. 93.
Jaculus of America, a swift serpent, ii. 423.
Jaguar of America, distinguished from the panther, i.
374, n.; description of the, ib.
Jamaica, earthquake in, 1692, i. 50; meteoric phenom-
ena there, 1 35.
Japan, volcanoes in, 44; Japanese tribe, described, 21 1.
Jaw, human, motion of the upper, and under, i. 170;
position of the under in different ages and nations,
ib.
Jay, description of the, ii. 98; common jay, ib. n.; red-
billed jay, ib. ; blue jay, ib.
Je/ery, little, a dwarf, i. 220.
Jenisca, river in Tartary, i. 77.
Jenkins, his longevity, i. 206.
Jerboa, an animal between the kangaroo arid rat, ac-
count of the, i. 455, n. and 559, 560.
Jevraska, the marmout in'Siberia, i. 444.
Jucatan, a peninsula, left by the sea, i. 98.
Juffular fislit what, ii. 294; prickly-filmed, 295; soft-fin-
ned, 300.
K
Kabassou, kind of armadillo, i. 471.
Kangaroo, discovered by Sir Joseph Banks, in New
South Wales, i. 560; description of the, ib. n.
Kermes, the insect, where produced, ii. 551 ; female des-
cribed, ib. ; the male, ib. ; how prepared, ib.
Kerona genus of infusoria, ii. 634
Kettering stone, examination of, ii. 592.
KestrU, a species of falcon, ii. 4.5, n.
Kevel, a kind of gazelle, i. 308.
King-fisher, its appetites and beauty, ii. 237 and n. ; the
bird described, ib. ; its rapacity and activity in
seizing its prey, ib ; fables and poems with respect
to its power of allaying a storm, ib. ; nest of the bird,
described, 238 ; female and young, 238, 239.
Kite, the, a kind of hawk, ii. 48; localities and habita,
ib., n., and 49.
652
INDEX.
Kitten, its playfulness, i. 3.17; laws of Howel about the
price of a, 358.
Klein, his method of classifying animals, i. 233.
Kob, and Koba, two kinds of gazelles, i. 308.
Kolpoda genus of infusoria, ii. 631.
Koomkee, or female elephant, how employed in hunting
the male, i. 524.
Labrus, a prickly-finned fish, notice of the, ii. 296.
Lakes, i. 75.
Lamprey, characteristics of the, ii. 280, n. ; the marine
lamprey, 281, n.; the river lamprey, ib. ; that at pre-
sent served up among the Italians, '280; account of
those known among us, 281 ; the fish described, ib. ;
its manner of swimming, ib.; its adhesive quality,
282; mucus, ib.; spawn, ib.; short life, ib.; how taken,
283; esteemed among the ancients, ib.
Lamprey-pie, one presented at Christmas by the city of
Gloucester to the king, ii. 283.
Land-breezes, i. 128.
Lands, new, formed by the sea, i. 97, 98.
Lapland, the country of the rein-deer, described, i. 336;
rein-deer, chief riches of the natives of, ib. ; their me-
thod of defending the rein-deer from its enemies, ib.,
337; their method of spending the winter with the
rein-deer, 337; their comfortable life, 338; their pro-
fit from the misfortunes of the squirrel, 439 ; draw
omens from the contests of the leming, 457 ; the people
described, 209, 210.
Lapwing, or Peewit, described, ii. 194, n.; green lap-
wing, ib.
Lark, song of the, what it depends on for its agreeable
nature, ii. 150—152, and «. ; itsnest, 152; female, ib.;
habits in winter, ib.; the crested lark, 150, ».; the
wood lark, ib.; the short-toed lark, ib.; the clapper
lark, ib.; the red-backed lark, ib.; the Alpine lark,
151, n.; the double-crested lark, ib.
Larva, or Caterpillar state of Insects, ii. 608; larva of
musca chamelion, ib.; of British hydrophilus, 609.
Laughter, how produced, i. 171 and «.
Launce, a soft-tinned fish, ii. 299.
Lawrence, St, course of the, i. 80; cataract of the, 82.
Leaf-cutting Bees. See Bee.
Leaves of plants as seen by the microscope, ii. 599; of
stinging nettles, 600.
Leech, the, its class, ii. 467; the medicinal leech, ib. n.;
the useless varieties, 468; that used in medicine, ib.;
its description, ib. ; its internal construction, 469;
breathes through the mouth, ib. ; viviparous, ib. ; size
in America, ib.; how leeches should be applied, ib.;
the horse leech, 468, n.
Legs of quadrupeds, i. 238; of insects, 616.
nous by the Laplanders, ib. ; propagation , ib. ; flesh, ib.
Lemurs, a group of quadrumanous animals, described,
i. 511, n.
Leopard, distinguished from the panther, i. 376 and «.;
that of Senegal described, ib.; Chetah, or hunting
leopard, 378. n.
Lepadogaster, the fish, described, ii. 299.
Lcpisma, the, ii. 621.
Lerot, a kind of dormouse, i. 453.
Letters, what most easily pronounced by infants, i. 163.
Leucophra genus of infusoria, ii. 632.
Leuwenhoeck's theory of generation,!. 151; his discovery
of the seminal animals, ii. 638.
Let/mmcr, a mongrel dog, described, i. 393.
Libella, or Dragon-fly, ii. 470. See Dragon-fly.
Liboya, a great serpent of Brazil, ii. 428, 429 ; size of the,
429; habits of the, 430.
Lichens, seen under the microscope, ii. 601.
Lidme, a kind of gazelle, i. 309.
Life, destroyed by withdrawing the air, i. 110; dura-
tion of, in an animal, how it may be determined, 205;
prolonged by management, ib.; by what affected,
206, 207; love of, in man, 207, 208; its cessation, 208.
Liphtninff, how produced, i. 130; phenomena of, 133. n.
Limpet, asm;ill shell fish, ii. 369.
Ling, a species of cod, described, ii. 300, n.
Linneeus. las classification of animab, i. 223; of fishes !i
293.
Linnet, description of the, ii. 158, n. ; identity of the red
and gray linnet, ib.
Lion, the, affected by climate, i. 360 ; description of the,
361 , n. ; courage of the, 362, ». ; anecdotes of the, ib. ;
lion of Africa and mount Atlas, 361; their number
diminished, ib. ; how attacked by the Hottentots, ib. ;
boldness of the African, 362; feebleness of the Indian,
ib.; disposition of the, ib., 363; outward form, hair,
muscles. &c., 364; mane, ib.; imperfection of sight
and smell, ib. ; method of seizing his prey, 365; lion
hunting in Africa, ib., n. ; roar and action, when furi-
ous, 365; combat with the wild boar, 366; rencoun-
ters with lions in South Africa, 366, n.; action when
pursued, 367 ; its desperate sallies, ib. ; their combats
for the female, ib.; the lioness, 368; their age, ib.;
attachment of the female to the young, ib.; the, of
Bildulgerid, ib. ; none in America, ib.; Aristophanes'
advice with respect to trusting the lion, ib.
Lion-ant, account of the, ii. 472 — 475, and n.
Lion, sea, described by Anson, a kind of seal, i. 486.
Lips, human, their expression, i. 1 70.
Lisbon, earthquake at, i. 49, n., and 50.
Lithophytes, account of, ii. 570.
Li/lorales, shell fish cast on shore, ii. 355, 356.
Lizard kind, opinions of naturalists concerning their
rank in nature, ii. 391 ; differences among the tribe
of the, ib.; colours, ib.; figure various, ib.; distinc-
tion from the manner of bringing forth the young,
392; three classes thus formed, ib ; distinguishing
properties of the, ib. ; beauty of some, 402 ; the flying,
of Java, 405; the Chalcidian, the step between the
general, 433, n.
Llama, the camel of the new world, i. 540 and n.; co-
lours of the, 541 and n.; habitation, 542 and n. ; size
and description, ib. ; usefulness of the, to the Ameri-
can Indians, ib. and n. ; description of the, in the
wild state, ib.
Loach, the, described, ii. 304.
Lobster insect, ii. 621, 622.
resemblance of the, to the crab,ii. 327 ; manner in
which it oasts its shell, ib., n., and 328, 329, n.; descrip-
tion of the, ib.; the ovary and young, ib.; its food,
328; changes the shell once a year, ib.; how per-
formed, 329; state after change, 330; eats its own
stomach and shell, ib.; concretion, within its body,
ib.; sudden increase of size, 331; contests, ib.; the
loss of a claw repaired, ib. ; the extraordinary proper-
ties of the animal enumerated, ib. ; varieties, ib. ; how
taken, ib.
Lochau-e, great gray trout of, ii. 302, n. ; how angled for,
323, n.
Locust, account of the, ii. 479—481 ; number of locusts,
480, n. ; their ravages, ib. ; mode of dispersing them, ib.
Loggerhead Turtles, described, ii. 342.
Loir, a kind of dormouse, i. 453.
London, number who die in, of destitution, i. 185.
Longevity, causes of, i. 205, 206; instances of, 206 and n. ;
of the patriarchs, 207; why diminished, ib.
Lori, its singular figure, i. 510.
Loricaria, account of the fish, ii. 301.
Lories, a species of parrots, ii. 114; purple- capped lory,
119, n.
Lorikeet, blue-bellied, ii. Jl9, n.
Louse, account of the, ii. 456 — 461, and n.: wood-louse.
463.
Luminous appearance of the wares by night, i. 89, 90.
Luminous Insects, account of, ii. 548 — 550, n.
Lump-fish, the, account of, ii. 289; where found, ib.
Lynx, Ray's mistake concerning the, i. 379 ; distinguished
from the panther kind, ib.; described, ib., n. ; where
found, 383; method of t;iking its prey, ib.; its eyes,
bad memory, &c., ib.
Lyre bird, or Menura, ii. 110, «.
M
Macaguo, a kind of monkey, i. 505, 511, n.
Macaw, the great green, ii. 117, n.
INDEX.
653
Mackarel, the fish noticed, ii. 296; account of its habits
and the mode of taking it, ib., n.
M'Laurin, Professor, his jaw said to be dislocated by
yawning, i. 1 70.
Madness, case of, caused by music, i. 197; one cured by
music, 19?!.
Maelstroom, a dreadful whirlpool, description of the, i.
96.
Maastricht, stone-quarry of, its size and beauty, i. 32.
Magellan, his voyage, and discovery of giants, i. 222,
£2v*
Magot or Barbary ape, i. 498, n.
Magpie, general characters of the tribe, ii. 96; descrip-
tion of the, 97 ; insolence of the, ib. ; food, ib. ; archi-
tecture, of its nest, ib.; its character in the tame
state, ib.
Mahometans, their treatment of women, i. 165; of their
wives, 166.
Maid and Magpie, a drama, its origin, ii. 97.
Maimon, a kind of baboon, noticed,!. 501.
i\fuki_ a kind of monkey, described, i. 509.
M -lacopterigii, soft-finned fish, ii. 294; varieties speci-
fied, 199—304.
Malbrouk, a kind of monkey, i. 505, 506 and n.
Matpighi and Holler, their examination of the progress
of vivification in the egg, i. 156.
Mammoth, tusks of the, where found, i. 528; skeletons
of the, ib. ; diversities of the, ib.
Man, nature of his powers,!. 144; history of, in the
womb, 157; in infancy, 160; in puberty, 165; in man-
hood, 167; his shape, ib. ; features, 167 — 176; figure,
176; size, ib.; weight, 177; strength, 177 — 183; ana
tomy of the human body, 181, n.; his necessities, 183;
of food, ib. ; of sleep, 187; senses of, 191 ; old age and
death, 204; various races of, 209; varieties of the
human race, 213, n.; different colours of the, 215, n.;
his conquest of the lower animals, 236; his influence
over, 240, 241.
Manati,t\\e link between quadrupeds and fishes,!. 487;
described, ib.; tail like a fish, ib.; organs, ib. ; where
found, ib.; propagation, ib.; fat and flesh, 486.
Manchincel apple, a deadly poison, ii. 324V whether it
infects the fishes of the seas about it, ib.
Mangaltey, a kind of monkey, i. 506, and n.
Manril, a kind of baboon, described, i. 500.
Mareena, of the ancients, whether the lamprey, ii. 281 ;
celebrated at Rome, 283; dreadful manner in which
a senator fed the, ib.
Marmose, a kind of opossum, i. 514; peculiarity in its
pouch, 515.
Marmout, a species of the, i. 441 and n. ; analogies to
the hare, ib.; its headx hair, and claws, 442; where
found, ib.; its antipathy to the dog, ib.; its habits
when domesticated, ib. ; its food, ib.; and flesh, ib.;
extraordinary suspension of animation in the, for
more than half the year, ib.; its retreat for this pur-
pose described, 443; the watchfulness of the, when
abroad, ib. ;the lodging of the, how rendered conven-
ient, ib.; their abode secured, ib.; in what condition
it reposes, ib.; account of the torpor in which it con-
tinues, ib. ; breeding of the, 444; countries, and
names in different, ib. ;
Marikina, monkey, i. 509.
Marsupiata, or pouched animals, account of the class of,
i. 51 land 51 1—51 3, w.
Martin, its size, characteristics and beauty, i. 417;
described, ib. ; the yellow-breasted, described, ib.; its
graceful motions, &c. ib. ; formidable to animals
larger than itself, ib. ; account of one kept by Bnffon,
418; where the varieties of, found, ib.; method ol
taking its prey,'ib. ; its nest, litter, &c. ib. ; care of the
young, ib. ; country, ib. ; skin, furs, and the commerce
in them, ib.; the guinea martin and woolly martin
described, ib. n.
MastijF, the, described, i. 392 and n.
Mavis or 50*2,9 thrush, ii. 1 3.9, 7? .
May-bug, the. described, ii. 542, 543 and n.
Maximin the emperor, his size, strength, feats, and for-
tune, i. 1 80.
Mediterranean sea, its remarkable currents, i. 93; opinion
concerning, ib. ; how replenished, ib. ; its terrors di-
minished, 94.
M&lusa or sea-nettle, ii. 375, n.
Melton Mowbray, a town in Leicestershire, noted as a
fox-hunting station, i 404, n
Membranes, effect of age on the membranes of the body,
i. 205.
Mendip mines, putrefying atmosphere in, i. 36.
Menura or Lyre bird, ii. 1 1 0, «.
Merlin, a species of falcon, ii. 46, n.
Meteors or atmospheric phenomena, i. 128; remarkable at
the pools, 1 32 ; at the tropics, 1 33 ; at Jamaica, 1 34 ;
at Quito, 135; seen at Bononia, ib.; beautiful, seen at
Quito, ib.; meteors of the polar regions, 136 — 139;
meteoric illusions, 1 39.
Meteorolites or Jailing stones, account of, i. 141, n.
Mico, a kind of monkey, i. 509; one described, ib.
Microscope, its value to the natural historian, ii. 587;
Baker's remarks therein, 587, 588; recent improve-
ment of the instrument and the results, 588.
Microscopic Discovery, ii. 587 et seq.; in the mineral
kingdom, 588—595; in the vegetable kingdom, 595 —
602; in the animal kingdom, 602 et seq.
Microscopical Inquiry concerning the minute formations
and phenomena of the natural world, ii. 587 — 622.
Migration of birds, an account of the, ii. 14 ; observations
on the supposed analogy between migratory and
hybernating animals', 16.
Miller's Thunib or bull head fish, ii. 293 and 320, n.
Milo, his strength, i. 180.
Milton, his description of the first sensations of Adam
alluded to, i. 202; a parallel to, by Buffon, 202—204;
his notion of the cormorant vindicated, ii. 207.
Mind, growth of the human, i. 1 63.
Mineral Kingdom, discoveries therein by the microscope,
ii. 588 — 595; congelation, 588; of water, ib.; star-like
figures produced by congelation of saline fluid, ib. ;
crystalline figures observed on windows, 589; fl;ikes
of snow, their various forms, ib. ; crystallization, ib.;
distinction between congelation and crystallization,
ib.; figures of crystals and their primitive forms, ib.;
Hooke's suggestion regarding the formations of crys-
tals, ib. ; a more recent theory, ib.; actual crystalliza-
tion under the microscope, ib. ; crystals of common
salt, ib.; their formation, ib.; other crystalline struc-
tures of salt, 590; method of bringing the crystalliz-
ing process under microscopic review, ib. ; various
chemical experiments exhibiting the crystallizing
process under the microscope, ib. ; active molecules
of matter. 591 ; how to be observed, ib. ; nature of
their motion, ib.; singular appearances presented by
solution of camphor in turpentine, ib.; theory of
molecular activity thence derived, ib.; Ores and
minerals, examination of, 592; sands, different kinds
of, ib.; particles of-the precious stones, ib.; Leuwen-
hoeck's examination of a diamond, ib.; diamonds dis-
covered in flint, ib.; cavities in gems and mineral
bodies, ib. ; the two new and singular fluids discover-
ed therein, ib.; inferior minerals, ib.; kettering stone,
ib. ; minute globules of steel produced by friction of
flint and steel, 593 ; minute petrifactions and fossil
remains,ib. ; Pritchard's remarks thereon, ib. ; insects,
fossil remains of, ib. ; a singulnr instance, ib.; Ehren-
berg's discoveries of fossil infusoria, ib.; objections
thereto anticipated and answered, 5.93, 594; how
layers of rock may be found by accumulation of in-
fusorial remains, 594 ; Ehrcnberg's demonstrative ex-
periments, ib. ; vegetable fossil remains of, ib.; Prit-
chard's remarks thereon, ib. ; microscopic examina-
tion of fossil woods, 595; the results, ib.
Mines, i. 35 ; depth of, ib. ; noxious atmosphere in, 36.
See Damp and Gas.
Minnows, notice of the, ii. 321.
Mire-drum or bittern, account of the, ii. 184.
Missel thrush, ii. 1 39, n.
Mississippi, course of the, i. 80.
Mitchell, J ames, born blind and deaf, case of, i. 200,
n.
Mocking bird, American, ii. 143, n., and 146; Barrington
and Wilson's description of, 146, n.
Mococo, a beautiful monkey, its appearance and habi-
tudes, i. 509,510.
Modena, country round, remarkable composition of the
layers of earth there, i. 100.
Mole, the, described, i. 457 — 460; its country, ib. ; un-
known in Ireland, ib. ; its legs, teeth and tongue, 4CO;
adaptation of its form for digging, ib. ; its eyes, ib. ;
its prey, 461; sufferings from inundations, ib.; propa-
gation, ib.; abode, ib.; where found, ib.; white ones,
ib.; ferocity of the mole, 457, n. ; moles addicted to
654
INDEX.
swimming, 458, it. : use of the mole, ib. ; habits of the,
459, n. ; shrew-mole, 461, «,
Molecules of matter, their activity, ii. 591.
Mollusca, account of the, ii. 375, 376, «., 578 — 585.
Mono,, a monkey, described, i. 506 and-??.
Monad genus of infusoria, ii. 626.
Monax, the marmout, in Canada, i. 444.
Mongoz, a kind of monkey, i. 51 0, 51 1 , n.
Monitor, a species of crocodile, ii. 393, n.
Monkey kind, animals of the, their characteristics, i. 489
— 491, and n ; varieties in the class, 491; ape, ib.;
baboon, ib.; monkey, ib.; opossum, ib.; monkey, va-
rieties of the, numerous, 501 ; their numbers in tro-
pical climates, 502; dispositions, ib.; pests of other
animals, ib. ; contests with the serpent tribe, ib. ; en-
mity to mankind, 503; with difficulty caught, ib.;
pleasure of the Negroes on seeing them killed, ib. ;
how they injure corn. &c. , ib. ; and escape pursuit,
ib.; discipline of the, ib. ; cry, ib. ; food, 504; propa-
gation and care of the young, ib.; amusing when
tame, ib. ; Sir Thomas More's, defended rabbits from
a weasel, ib. ; their care of Father Carli, ib., 505 :
those of Africa the most entertaining, ib. ; the red of
Pennant, its peculiar colour and description, ib. n.;
collared white eyelid monkey, 506, n. ; the striated
monkey, 508, n. ; the Entellus monkey, ib. ; monkey
tribes of India held in veneration, 509, n.
Monoculus, or Water-flea, described, ii. 4h'3; the cancroid
monoculus, ib., n. ; the four-horned monoculus, ib.,
620; its eye, ib.
Monsters, what, described, i. 218; causes of malforma-
tion, ib., n.; account of one by Malebranch, 219;
dwarfs, 220; giants, 222.
Moon, her effect in producing tides, i. 90.
Moose-deer, American name for the elk, its size, i. 3,33;
the gray, ib.; the black, ib.; largest of the family of
deer, ib., n. ; manner of shooting the, 334, ». See Elk.
Mormyrus, account of the fish, ii. 306.
Morse, the, its description, i. 487; habits, ib.; numbers
decreased, ib.; value of their teeth, ib. ; great num-
bers killed by the Greenlanders, ib.
Mosses, microscopic examination of,ii. 600; leaf of bog-
moss, 600.
Mother-of-pearl SJiells, composition of, ii. 96; whence
obtained, 98.
Mot/is, account of butterflies and moths, ii. 499 — 50.5,
and n.
Moufflon, the sheep in a wild state, its character, i. 287,
297. See Musmon and A rgali.
Mouldiness, plants of, as seen by the microscope, ii. 601.
Moulting season of birds, account of the, ii. 5.
Mountains, inequality of their size, i. 57; theories con-
cerning, ib., 58; uses of, 58; appearance of, 59 and n. ;
some remarkable, 61 ; the highest, 62; disruptions of,
63; snowslips on, 64 ; swallowed by earthquakes, ib. ;
height of, how determined by the barometer, 107.
Mouse, its dispositions, i. 451 ; timidity and enemies,
ib. ; extraordinary increase of mice in the royal forests,
ib., ».; propagation, ib.; fecundity, 452; varieties, ib. ;
the long-tailed field, described, ib. ; short-tailed field,
ib.; white mice, ib., n.; harvest mouse, ib., w.; the
shrew, described, 453.
Moustoc, or White-nosed Monkey, i. 507.
Mouth, its expression, i. 170.
Mulberry leaves, the best food for the silkworm, ii.
510.
Mules, account of, i. 263 and «., 264.
Mullet, its method of escaping from the seal, i. 486: no-
tice of the, 299, 321, «
Mullus, the fish discriminated, ii. 298.
Multivalve, shell-fish, ii. 373
conjectures concerning, 229.
Muscardin, a kind of dormouse, i. 453.
Muscles, human, their strength, i. 177; microscopic ex-
iiniinntion of, 602.
Music, how produced, i. 196; pleasures of, 197; strange
instances of the effects of, ib. : case of madness pro-
duced by, ib., 198, n.; cured by, ib. ; bite of the
tarantula said to be cured by, 198.
Musk animal, description of, i. 316, n., 318; musk, how
obtained, ib., n. ; quantity exported from Asia, ib.,
and 317, n.\ its virtues, ib.; Thebetian musk, 318, «.;
Indian musk, ib.; Guinea musk, ib.; Ceylon musk,
ib.; Brazilian musk, ib.
Musk Bull, account of the, i. 281, n.
Musk, pigmy, i. 31 1 .
Musmon, a kind of wild sheep, described, i. 297, 298, n.
Musqtiito Fly, where common, ii. 555 and n.
Mussel, the fish and shell, described, ii. 365, n., 366;
generation, 367; eggs, ib. ; fecundity, ib. ; multitudes,
ib. ; enemies, ib. ; afraid of storms, ib. ; attaches it-
self to rocks by filaments, ib. ; its instrument of mo-
tion, ib.; its furrow in the sand, ib. ; mussels some-
times poisonous, 368, «.
N
Nails, human, their properties, i. 176.
Nanvlicd, or Sea-Unicorn, its size, ii. 3b'0; its remarkable
projecting tooth, ib.; a skull in the Stadhouse having
two, ib. ; how it uses the tooth, ib. ; whether a horn
or tusk, ib.; its peaceable disposition, 261 ; associates
with the whale, ib.; distinguished from it, ib.; value
of the ivory of its tooth, ib. ; the fossil, has given ori-
gin to the stories of the unicorn, 262.
Natural world, minute formations and phenomena of, ii.
587-622.
Nautilus, a kind of sea-snail, ii. 364 and n.\ two kinds,
from the colour of the shell, ib.; the shell described,
ib.; disengages itself from the shell, ib.; the appear-
ance of the, sailing in the Mediterranean, 364, 365;
object of its flight, 365.
Nazareth, bird of, whether the dodo be the, ii. 27.
Neck, the, its use, i. 1 74.
Needle-fish, described, ii. 290, n.
Negroes, vivacity of their infants, 5. 1 61 ; their treatment
of women, 165; of Africa, described, 212; darkness of
complexion, 215; some, with white skins, 217.
Ness, river, near Bruges, phenomena of its mouth, i. 99.
Nests of birds, their structure, ii. 10 — 12, and n. ; of the
sparrow, jay, wren, &c., 10; hanging,, of the wood-
pecker, described, 104 — 117.
Nettles, sea, star-fish, or anemones, why so called, ii. 561.
Newt, black water, its class, ii. 152; not inconsumable,
ib. ; absurd remark on the, in the Philosophical Trans-
actions, ib.
Niagara, falls of, on the St Lawrence, i. 81, n., 82.
Nictitating membrane on the eyes of birds, what it is, ii. 3.
Nieper, its course, i. 77.
Niger, account of the, i. 78, n.
Night, an African, described, i. 239.
Nightingale, song of the, ii. 146, 147, w.; described by
Pliny, 146, 147; migrations and habits, 147; its note
in England, 148; nest and eggs, ib.; song in confine-
ment, ib. ; Gesner's anecdotes of its power of talking,
ib.; how taken, 154; and reared, 155.
Nile, source of the, 78, 79, and n. ; benefits of its inun-
dations, 79, 80; rivers received by, 80.
Nitrogen, a component of atmospheric air, i. 109, n.
Nose, its position and form, i. 170; peculiar to man, ib.
Notes, i. 1 96. See Tones.
Notonecta, or Water-fy, described, ii. 201.
Numidia, bird of, ii. 76. See Pintado.
Nut-hatch, a bird resembling the woodpecker, ii. 107, n.;
the European nut-hatch, ib., 1 08, n.
Nyl-yhau, a species of antelope, described, i. 31 4, «., and
544; habits in captivity, 544; manner of fighting, ib.;
where indigenous, ib.
0
Oakey-hote, a cavern, description of, i 33.
Ocean, its extent, i. 83; divisions of, ib.; estimate of its
bulk, 84; its uses, ib., 85; parts of, claimed by na-
tions, 85; its bays, &c., minutely known, ib.: saltness
of the, ib.; why not putrefied, 86; attempts to de-
prive sea water of its saltness, ib. ; effects of the pu-
trefaction of the, ib., 89; advantages of its saltness,
88; freezes, ib. ; luminous appearance of its waves by
night, 89; tides of the, ib. ; (see Tides)', circulates
round the globe, 92; currents of the, ib.; (see Cur-
rents); its various motions, 96; its effects on the earth,
ib.; lands gained from the, ib., &7 : inundations of the.
INDEX.
C55
99; temporary depredations of the, ib. ; wonders in
the bottom of the, 102, 103; its waters at different
depths, 10-2.
Oodot, an animal of the cat tribe, described, i. 382 and
n.
Ocotzimtzcan, or M&rican Pigeon, ii. 1 29.
Odour, not a true test of wholesomeness, i. 201 ; taste of
different nations with respect to, ib. ; how varied by
distance, ib. ; by mixture of ingredients, ib. ; by dis-
ease, ib.
Oliver, W. a viper catcher at Bath, discovered salad oil
to be a cure for the viper's bite, ii. 420.
Ondatra, a kind of musk rat, described, i. 454. See
Hat, musk.
Ophidium, a beautiful fish, described, ii. 295.
Opossum, animals of the, kind, their relative position, i.
511; the head, &c , described, 512; their bag or pouch
described, and how the young accommodated in it,
513 and n.; habits, 514; varieties, ib.
Oran-outunfi, its sizes, i. 491; description of that seen
by Dr Tyson, ib. ; its resemblance to the human
figure, and essential difference, 492, its hair, hands,
&c., ib., 493; dispositions, 493; that seen by Edwards,
described by Buffon, ib. ; Dr Clarke Abel's descrip-
tion of the great oran-outang, 491, n.; his account of
an oran-outang brought from Java, 493, n.; intelli-
gence of two belonging to L. Brosse, 495; smaller
tribe, ib.; Le Compte's account of it, ib., 496; the gi-
gantic species, 496; where found, ib.; the African, or
pongo, described, ib. ; go in companies, ib. ; size,
strength, &c., ib.; place of the, in the gradation of
nature, 497; helplessness of the, ib.; goes on all -fours,
ib.
Orb, sea, the, described, ii. 290; lesser, 291.
Ores and Minerals, examination of, ii. 592.
Organic productions, classes of, i. 22, n., 25. See Fossils.
Oriole, a species of thrush, ii. 143, 144, n.
Ornaments of' the person, savages admire, i. 173, 174; ob-
servations concerning, 174.
Omithorhynchus, or duck-billed Platypus, i. 488, it.', the
most singular animal of Australia, being a compound
of the quadruped and the bird, 56 1 , n. ; description
of, ib. 562, «.; habits of the, ib., n.
Osprey, or Ossifrage, a kind of eagle, ii. 36.
Ostrucion, the, a kind of fish, described, ii. 291 and n.
incubation and polygamy, 21; habits of the, ib., n.;
manner of running, 22 ; how hunted, ib.; domesticated
and tamed, ib.; its flesh, ib., 23.
Otter, the, described, i. 475; where found, ib. ; prey and
manner of fishing, ib.; propagation, 476; its retreats
and habitation described, ib. ; how caught by dogs,
ib.; trained to hunt fish, ib.; countries of the, ib.;
sea-otter described, 477, n.
Otiarine, a species of monkey, its significant voice, i. 504.
Ounce, confusion concerning the name, i. 380 ; that of
Linmeus, described, 379; disposition of the, ib.; me-
thod of takina; their prey, ib.; how used in hunting,
ib., 380.
Old, nocturnal, bird of prey, ii. 52; description of the
eye and ear of the, ib. n.; owls divided into horned
and smooth-headed, ib., n. ; great horned or eagle
owl, ib.,«.,54; long-eared owl, ib., n. ,54; short-eared
owl, 53, n., 54; scops-eared owl, 53, «. ; snowy owl,
53, n., 55; barn or white owl, 53, n.; tawny owl, 54,
n.; little owl, ib.; barn owls at Walton Hall, 55 — 57,
n.; the common properties of the owl, 52 — 54; the
appetites, habits, retreats of the class, 55 ; cry, ib., 56 ;
antipathy of other birds to the, ib., 57; how used to
lure the kite, 57; nest of the, ib.; indocility of the,
58.
Ox. See Cow, Bison, and Biiffldo; Indian ox, i. 27 , n.
Oxney Island, produced by the sea, i. 97.
Oxyyen, a component of atmospheric air, i. 109, //.
Oyster, the, ii. 365, w.; its resemblance to the mussel,
3(58; its shells described, ib.; cannot move its situa-
tion, ib. ; to what it attaches itself, ib. ; by what
means, ib. ; spawn, ib. ; growth, ib. ; deposited in beds
at Colchester, 369 ; season for oysters, ib., ».; account
of those held in most esteem, ib.; method of feeding
ousters, ib.; oysters easy of digestion, &c., ib.
Paca, its characteristics, i. 445; roots like a hog, ib. ;
where found, ib.; its numerous enemies, ib.; courage,
ib.
Pacific Ocean, constancy of its winds in certain latitudes,
i. 117.
Paco, a kind of llama, i. 553.
Paddock Moon, the month in which frogs do not croak,
ii. 383; accounted for, ib.
Painters, their observation of the expression of passions
by the human body, i. 171.
Paleness, the effect of what passions, i. 171.
Palm, fibres of the, ii. 602.
Pangolin, or Scaly Lizard, distinguished from the liz-
ard tribe, i. 40'8 ; size and appearance, ib. ; its scaly
covering, ib.; a sufficient defence against all animals,
ib. ; but man, ib ; harmlessness of the, ib. ; its food, i b. ;
tongue, ib.; preys on ants, ib., 469; its habits, 469.
Pantlitr,t\\e great,!. 376; distinguished from tlie leo-
pard, 377; its spots, ib.; dispositions, 381.
Paradise, bird of, mistakes concerning the, ii. 108;
its characters, 109 and ».; the two varieties of the,
ib.; the animal described, ib.; where found, ib.; mi-
grations of the, ib.; how shot and preserved, 110;
grahle-bird of paradise, ib., n. ; magnificent bird of
paradise, ib., n.
Paramcecium genus of infusoria, ii. 631 .
Parr, or Samlet. See Salmon.
Parr, Samuel, his longevity, i. 206.
Parrakeets, what, ii. 114; beauty and talkativeness of
the Brazilian, 116; Alexandrine ring parrakeet, 1 ] 7. n.
.Pamtf, its docility, ii. 113; taught to speak, ib.; \Vil-
loughby'a story of one belonging to Henry VII., ib.;
numerous varieties of the, 114 and n. ; peculiarities in
the toes of the, ib.; in the bill, 1 15; the tongue and
throat, ib.; its climate, ib.; expertness of the, taught
in France, ib. ; cause, ib. ; of the Brazilian, ib. ; ac-
count of one, ib. ; sagacity in a state of nature, ib. ;
eggs and young, 116; how taken,ib.; flesh of the, ib.;
beauty of the Brazilian, ib. ; how found and shot, ib. ;
diseases, 119; varieties, 117 — 119; family of parrots
divided into six different groups, ib., n. ; ash-coloured
or gray parrot, 118, i>.\ ground parrot, 119, w.
Partridye, delicacy of the flesh of the, ii. 82; universal
diffusion of the, 83 ; venery , ib. ; care of its young, ib. ;
partridge shooting, ib. ; the, never thoroughly domes-
ticated, ib.; bet in partridge shooting, ib., n.; varie-
ties of the partridge, 84, n.; the mountain partridge,
ib.
Passions expressed by the features of the face and atti-
tudes of the body,'i. 171.
Patas, or African Monkey, i. 505.
Paul, St, de Leon, in Lower Brittany, country round,
desolated by a sand storm, i. 127, 128.
Peacock, its beauty, ii. 64; scream, ib.; seen in flocks,
ib. ; early domesticated, 65 ; considered a delicacy by
the Romans, ib ; in the times of Francis I., ib.; its
food, 66 ; salacity, ib. ; flocks of them in Cambaya, ib. ;
varieties, the Thibet, ib. and n.; the Japan peacock,
ib., n.; the Chinese peacock, ib.; the white peacock,
ib.
Peahen, number of her eggs, ii. 66 ; her age, ib.
Peak, a mountain in the Molucca Islands, swallowed by
an earthquake, i. 64.
Pearls, whether a disease or an accident of the oyster,
ii. 370; from what fishes obtained, 370; fisheries of,
370 — 372, «.; whence the best, 372; account of the
divers for, ib., 373 and n.
Peccary, animal of the hog kind, i. 347 ; description of,
ib., w.; collared peccary, 348, n. ; white lipped pec-
cary, ib. ; hoofs, &c., described, 349 ; herds of the, ib. ;
food of the, ib.; flesh, ib.; the young of the, ib.; dis-
tinct from the hog, 350.
Peewit, or Lapwing, described, ii. 194, n.
Pegasse, a species of buffalo, described, i. 282, K.
Pegu, the Indian Nile, i. 80.
Pelagii, shell fish of the deep, ii. 355.
Pelican, size of tlie, ii. 201 and n. ; account of the pouch
of the, audits use, 202; ancient notions of the, ib. ;
Labat's account of the, ib.; indolence, ib. ; except to
satisfy gluttony, ib. ; female and young, 203 ; for what
purpose killed \>y the Americans, ib.; Kaymond'b
656
INDEX.
account of a tame one, ib.; Fabcr's, of one that had
a taste for music, ib. ; age of the, ib.
Penguin, characteristics of the species, ii. 215; wings,
216 ; legs, ib. ; power of diving, 217; Mr Bennet's des-
cription of penguins, 216, «.; the crested penguin,
217, n.; description of a penguin rookery, ib. ; colour,
ib.; Magellanic, ib.; described ib.; food, 218; flesh,
ib. ; social disposition, ib.; its remarkable nest, ib.;
female and egg's, 219.
Penparkliole, a cavern. Captain Sturmy's descent into, i.
00
oo.
Perch, notice of the fish, ii. 298; varieties of the, ib., n. ;
how fished for, 321,n.
Perfunues, i. 201. See Odours.
Periwinkle, the shell fish so called, ii. 369, n.
Persia, dreadful wind in, i. 125; its breed of horses des-'
cribed, 249.
Pesoe, Nicola, the diver, account of from Kircher, i. 103,
104.
Petrels, account of the, ii. 210 and «. ; the stormy petrel,
211. n.', the little stormy petrel, ib.
Petrifactions and fossil remains, ii. 593. See Fossils.
Phalanc/er, a pouched animal, notice of, i. 512, «. and
615, n.
Phatagin, variety of the pangolin, described, i. 469.
Pheasant at first artificially propagated among us, ii. 72;
brought from Phasis, ib.; beauty of the, ib.; the ani-
mal described ib.; its flesh, 73; manner of hatching.
ib. ; easily taken, ib.; or shot, 74; how domesticated
and reared, 75 ; a breed between the, and the com-
mon hen, ib.; varieties, ib. ; pheasants all natives of
Asia, 73, «. ; golden pheasant of China, ib.; other
species noticed, iL. and 74, n.
Philanger, a species of opossum, how distinguished, i.
515; habits of the, ib.
Pholas orfilefoh, ii. 373; where found and in what
situation, 3/4; shell of the, ib.; the animal described,
ib.; power of penetrating hard substances, proved,
ib. ; perseverance and slowness, 375 ; numbers meet
in the same rock, ib. ; where found, ib.
Physiognomy, how marked, i. 167.
Pie land, birds of the, what class included under, ii. 86;
teasing and noxious, ib. ; places of building, ib.; re-
publican government, ib. ; archness, and capability of
instruction, 86, 87 ; other characteristics, 87.
Pigeon, the, and its varieties, ii. 120 and n.; wild-rock
pigeon supposed to be the original of all the domestic
species, ib., n. : the passenger pigeon, ib. ; Audubon's
description of its habits and mighty flocks, 12], n. ;
ring pigeon or cushet, 122, «. and 129; wood pigeon,
123, ».; bisset or wild rock pigeon, ib.; management
of the dove cot, 124, n.; jacobine pigeon, 125, n.; col-
lared turtle, ib. ; ferruginous ground dove, 126, n. ; the
carrier pigeon, 127, ».; different breeds of the com-
mon domesticated pigeon, 128 and 129, «.; turtle
dove, 129.
Pigmy of Tyson, the oran-outang, i. 491.
Pigtail, a kind of baboon, noticed, i. 501 .
Pihe, the, characterised, ii. 303 and n. ; its voracity des-
cribed, 322; mode of catching the, 321, 322, n.; saury
pike, 304, n.
Pilchard, its place of resort, ii. 312; arrival, how known,
ib.; great quantities of the, how taken, 313; uses,
315; profits of the fishery of, ib.; general account of
the habitudes of the pilchard, 314, 315, n.; the pil-
chard fishery 315, 316, n.
Pilori, a kind of musk rat, i. 454.
Pindi, kind of monkey, i. 509.
Pinnock or Hirling, a species of sea trout, ii. 321 , «.
Pintado or Guinea lien, its resemblance to the pheasant
and turkey, ii. 75; different names of the, 76; feeds in
flocks, ib.; the crested, and mitred, ib.
Pipal or Surinam toad, its lothesome appearance, ii. 389;
eggs sent by internal canals to the back, ib; the male
described, 390.
Pipe-JisJi, account of the, ii, 290; varieties of the, ib., n.
Pipits, account of the, ii. 153, 154, n.
Pismire. See Ant.
.Pistil of a flower, as seen by the microscope, ii. 598.
Pilhvkos oftlte ajtcients, the ape, i. 497.
Pv-ot or Jiazor-shell, ii. 369.
Plague,- how caused, i. 113; some places free from, 114;
that of 1316, ib. ; its progress in Kngland in 1348, ib.,
n. ; that in London, ltiO'5, ib., 1 15.
Plaice, flat-fish, described, ii. 301, n.
Planets, comparative sizes of the, i. 1 , 2 and ». ; account
of the different planetary systems, 2, 3, n. ; description
of the planetary bodies, 5, 6, n.
1'lants. See Vegetables.
J'/euronectes, the, or flat fish, ii. 299.
Plovers, account of the, ii. 192, n.; the golden plover, ib ;
the dotterel plover, 1 93, n.
Plummet, used to sound the sea, i. 1 02.
Pluto, gulf of, a chasm, described by Aelian, i. 31.
Poison bag of insects, ii. 620.
Potsers rf insects, ii. 617.
Poisonous qualities of somefislies, whence derived, ii. 324.
Poiwns sucked out, ii. 388; by the toad, ib. See Venom,
41(s'.
Polar regions, descriptions of the earth there, i. 10;
voyages for exploring the polar seas, ib., n.; descrip-
tion of the ice there, 89 ; atmospheric phenomena of
the, 132, 136 — 139; the men found round the, des-
cribed, 209, 210.
Pole-cat, its size, &c. i. 415 and n.; distinguished from
the ferret, ib.; its fine colours, &c. described, 416; des-
tructive to game, ib.; residence, ib. ; infests dove-
houses and hives, ib.; its fur, 417; climate, ib.
Pollen, microscopic examination of, ii. 597, 598.
Polynemus, the fish described, ii. 299,
Polypus, description of the, i. 1 53 ; pullulation from the,
ib. ; multiplied by cutting, ib. ; general account of
polypi, ii. 562 — 570 and n.
Pompey, a lion, age of, i. 366.
Pongo. See Oran-Outang.
Pope or Rujf, a small fisli described, ii. 322, n.
Porcupine, its quills described, i. 464; its figure and
body, ib. ; whether it darts its quills, 465, 466 and n. ;
its method of defence, 466; prey or food, ib. ; age, ib. ;
its escape from dogs, &c.,ib.; how hunted by the
Indians, ib.; fables concerning the, ib. ; when tamed,
its fretfulness, 467 ; varieties of the, ib.
Porpoise, the, distinguished, ii. 264; its agih'ty, 265;
method of seeking its prey, 266; destructive to the
nets of fishermen in Cornwall, ib.; follows fish up
fresh water, ib.; seen in the Thames at London, ib.;
how killed there, ib.; oil from the, ib.; fishery on the
west shores of Scotland, ib. ; young, ib. ; age, ib.
Portuguese-man-of-war, a small molluscous animal so
called, account of the, ii. 375, n.
Pouch of the opossum land, described, i. 5)4.
Pouched animals, or Marsitpiata, i. 511 — 513, n.
Poultry kinds, their utility, ii. 59; characteristics, ib.;
habitudes, 59 — 61.
Prawn, description of the, ii. 331, «.
Pregnancy, progress of the embryo during, i. 157 — 160;
a child wonderfully affected by an execution seen by
the mother, while in that state, 219.
Prey, beasts of, their habits, i. 239, 240.
Prince of serpents, a beautiful species In Japan, ii. 428;
a favourite there, ib.
Propolis, the substance with which bees stop crannies
in their abodes, ii. 524; whence collected, 525; man-
ner of using it, ib.
Proportions of the human body, i. 176.
Proteus genus of infusoria, ii. 627.
Ptarmigan or White Grouse, ii. 80, n.
Puberty, season of.i. 165; its time in different countries,
ib. ; symptoms of, ib.
Puffin, bill of the, described, ii. 220; legs,ib.; migration
for the purpose of hatching, 221 ; dangers undergone
then, ib.; enemies, ib.: dispossesses the rabbit of its
burrow at Priesholm, ib.; how taken there, ib.; flesh,
ib. ; migration, 222.
Puma, the, called the American lion, i. 368; description
of the, 375, n.
Pupa state of insects, ii. 612.
Python, a genus of reptiles, ii. 429. n.
Quadrupeds, classification of, i. 234,235; their rank.
235; utility, 236; analogies to man, 237; then: adapta-
tion to their stations, 238; different structures of
their heads, ib.; teeth, ib.; legs, ib.; stomach, ib.;
their hostilities, 231*; seasons of seeking prey, ib.; de-
INDEX.-
657
fences, 240; causes of variety among, 240 — 242; their
comparative size in the different continents, 242 ;
their generation, 243, courage and art in defending
their young, ib. ; seasons of breeding, ib. ; those from
the egg, ib.; those covered with scales instead of
hair, their distinguishing qualities, i. 467 ; amphibious
their characteristics, 475; observations on the subser-
vience of quadrupeds to man, 56 1 .
Qtuu/rumana, four-handed animals, the monkey kind, i.
489; their comparative advantages, 515. See Monkey.
Qiiagya, a species of the horse, described, i. '264, «.
Quail, the, described, ii. 84 and n.; account of the mi-
gration of the, 85; quail-fighting among the Athe-
nians, ib.; how caught by a call, ib.
Queen bee in a hive, ii. 513; never more than one, ib. ; her
eggs, ib.
Quito, a city on the Andes, i. 61 ; its height, 62; appear-
ance of meteors there, 135; the wild-ass how hunted
there, 261.
II
Rabbit, stages of generation in the, i. 157; distinct from
the hare, i, 434; makes holes for security, ib.; said to
be originally from Spain, ib. n. ; rabbits live in a social
state, ib.; care for their young, ib.; love the fields,
ib.; sometimes bring forth at a distance from the
warren, ib.; description of the apartment in which
the female brings forth, 435; the tame, does not
burrow, ib. ; various colours of the domestic breed,
ib. ; account of the production and subordination of
some domestic ones, ib.; age of the, ib.; flesh, ib.;
multiplication of the, in Spain, ;b.; prefers a warm
climate, ib.; tame, the larger, 436; the Syrian, ib.;
none in America, ib.
Race, human, varieties in the, i. 209; difference, small,
ib. ; classifi cation of the, ib.; several described, ib.; in
the polar regions, ib.; the Tartars, 211 ; Negroes, 212;
Americans, 213; Europeans, ib. ; diversified by colour,
214, 215; stature, 216; face, ib.; all from one common
stock, 217, 218.
Racoon, called the Jamaica Rat, its description, i. 544 ;
abode, ib. ; injurious to plantations, ib.; capable of
being tamed, ib.; sagacity of the, ib., n.
Raesal, his accurate history of the frog, ii. 378.
Rails, account of the birds so called, ii. 1 97, n. ; water
rail, ib.; land rail, or corn-crake, ib.
Rain, how produced, i. 129, 130.
Rainbow, lunar, seen in the north, i. 136; phenomena of
the, 139, n.; solar, its appearance in the polar regions,
ib.
Rain-fowl, ii. 101. See Woodpecker.
Rain-water, its impurity, i. 68.
Ranking, his account of the Indian elephant, i. 522.
Rapacious birds, then: adaptation, ii. 28, 29 ; habits, 29 ;
classification, 30, 31.
Rat, the great, or Norway, or Surmolot, its native coun-
try, i. 448; characteristics, ib.; hostility to the black
rat, 449 ; extirpated frogs in Ireland, ib. ; its habits of
rapacity, ib. ; propagation, ib. ; its enemies, the dog, cat,
and weasel, ib.; black, the common, 448; description
of the, 450, n. ; extraordinary numbers of rats at the
horse slaughter-houses of Paris, ib.; where found,
451; black-water, its distinctions and food, ib.; Ca-
nada rat, 454, n.
German, i. 454. See Cricetus.
kind, animals of the, their characteristics, i. 428;
multiplication, ib.
musk, varieties of the, i. 454; the desman and pi-
lori, ib. ; the ondatra, described, ib. ; disposition and
manner of living, ib. ; scent of the, ib.; variously es-
teemed, ib.
Rattlesnake, the, described, ii. 421; its rattle, ib.; it
mortal bite, 422; symptoms, ib.; fatal cases of its
bite, ib., and n. ; remedies, 423; account of its power
of fascination, ib.; proof, ib.
Raven, its characteristics, ii. 87, 88, and n. ; influence o:
climate on the, 88 — 92; the white, 92; reclaimed anc
trained, ib. ; habits in the tame state, ib. ; in the wild
ib.; reverenced by some, 93; ominous character o:
the, ib., n.
Ray, his classification of animals, i. 231, 232.
Ha.'/ kind, fish of the, their properties, ii. 273; charac
VOL. II.
teristics, ib.; the sharp-nosed, ib.; thomback, ih.;
fire-flare, ib. ; their size, ib. ; "safety from it, ib. ; sto
ries of some of prodigious size, 274; retreats of the,
ib.; female and eggs, ib.; fishing of the, how prac-
tised at Scarborough, ib.; the Italian method, 275;
injurious species, ib. ; characteristics of the rays or
skate, ii. 276, n. See Skate.
Razor-shell, its remarkable hole, ii. 369; how taken, ib.
Redbreast, its note and habitudes, ii. 149 and n.
'led Sea, nature of its channel, i. 1 02.
Redshank, the, described, ii. 193, ».; spotted redshank,
ib.
Red-wing, description and habitudes of the, ii. 144, 138,
n., 141, ».
Rein-deer, its country, i. 335 ; usefulness, ib. ; change of
hair, colour, horns, &c., 336 ; endeavour to introduce
into Britain unsuccessful, ib., w.; Lapland, described,
ib. ; enemies to the, there, 337 ; how the natives pro-
tect It, ib. ; the female, its young and milk, ib. ; how
it spends the winter in Lapland, ib. ; said to eat
mountain rats, ib., n. ; dependence of the Laplander
on the, 338 ; the kinds of the, ib. ; migrations of the,
ib., n.; patience of the tame, 339; the milking of the,
described, ib. ; their age, 340; uses of the flesh, ib.;
milk, ib.; skin, ib.; diseases of the, 341.
Relish, on what it depends, i. 201 ; how affected by cir-
cumstances, 202.
Remora, or Sucking-fish of the Shark, ii. 272, 292, n.
Reptiles, their characteristics and classification, ii. 431 —
—435, n.
Respiration on mountains, i. 62 ; of plants, ii. 597.
Rhine, cataracts of the, 81 ; a part of, lost in the sand,
83.
Rhinoceros, size of the, i. 529; shape, ib. ; horn, ib.,530,
n.; contends with the elephant, 530; fables concern-
ing the, ib.; account of that described by Parsons,
ib.; age, 531 ; country and haunts, ib.; food, ib. and
530; how taken, 531; varieties, ib.; the double-horned,
ib. and n.
bird, account of the, ii. 101, n.
Ring-dove, described, ii. 129.
Rivers, comparative purity of the water of, i. 68; opi-
nions concerning their origin, 73, 74 ; whence supplied,
74; in what manner, ib.; their channels, ib., 75; their
current, 75; sinuosities increase as they approach the
sea, ib.; some with many mouths, ib.; their rapidity
how affected, 76 ; the largest in Europe, 77 and n. ;
in Asia, 77; in Africa, 78; in America, 80, 81 ; cata-
racts of, 81; rivers lost in the sand, 83; quantity of
water in, 84.
Roach, how fished for, ii. 322, n.
Roc of Arabian writers supposed to be the condor, ii.
39.
Rocks formed of infusorial remains, ii. 594.
Roc-buck, described, i. 330; the haunts of the, ib.; me-
thod of running, ib. ; constancy of their attachment,
ib.; their generation, growth, cry, &c., ib., 331 ; va-
rieties, 331.
Roller, a kind of jay, ii. 99.
Romans, destroyed the British forests, i. 101.
Rook, the, description of, ii. 90, n.; habits of, 91, w.;
formation of rook's nests, and general character of
the community of a rookery, 93—96, and n.
Rope-walking, elephants taught, i. 526.
Rud, a small fish, notice of the, ii. 322, n.
Rujf, the, described, ii. 190—196; how taken, 197; and
served up, ib.
Ruminating animals, the class of, i. 268; their habits, ib.;
construction of their stomach and intestines, ib., 269;
birds, 269; fishes, ib.; insects, ib.; instance of a man
ruminating, ib. ; cow kind, ib. ; sheep and goat kind,
286; deer kind, 318.
Runner, a name of the corrira, ii. 190.
Rusfiuerg, immense projection of the mountain of, i.
63. *
Rutting season of the stag, i. 321.
Sable, value of its skin, i. 418; its fur described, ib.;
its habitudes, 419; country, ib.; scarcity, ib.; hunted,
ib.; encouragements to the hunting of, by the Rus-
sians, ib.
4 0
658
INDEX.
Sabra, the, or Trachipterus, notice of the fish, ii. 298.
Safety-lamp, account of Davy's, i. 28, ».
Sayoins, a genus of monkeys, i. 508.
Sai, or <Ae Bewailer, a kind of monkey, i. 508".
Sajou, kind of monkey, i. 508.
Saki, or Fox-tailed Monkey, i. 508.
Salad-oil, a cure for the viper's bite, ii. 420.
Salamander, ancient notion of the, ii. 399; description
of the, ib., «.; its appearance, 400; habits, ib.; whe-
ther venomous, ib. ; gekko and black-water newt spe-
cies, ib. ; internal formation, ib. ; viviparous, ib. ; pro-
duces fifty at a time, 401; amphibious, ib.; changes
its skin often, ib. ; tenacity of life, ib. ; the gigantic
salamander, 400, n.
Salmon, the, characterised, ii. 301 ; its habits described,
ib., n.; how angled for, 322, «.; parr, or samlet, 301,
302, n., 321, n. [The parr is now proved to be, con-
trary to what is stated in the note, the young of sal-
mon in its second season.] Salmon trout described,
302, 303, ».
Salt, scarcity of, in some countries, i. 86,72.; bay and
common, i. 87; rock-salt, description of, ib., n. ; uses
of salt, ib.
Saltness of the ocean, opinions concerning the, i. 85; of
lakes, ib. ; attempts to deprive sea-water of its salt-
ness, 86; advantages of the, 88; another effect of the,
Salt Water, why fishes that live in it will expire in fresh,
ii. 309.
Samari Monkey, i. 508.
Sanderlinys, account of the, ii. 1 92, n.
Sand-piper, the green, described, ii. 1 93, n.
Sand-storm of Africa, description of the, i. 126.
Sanlorin, a new island appeared at, 1707, i. 53.
Sarcophatji, or Stone coffins, described, i. 227, n.
Savages, their barbarous treatment of women, i. 166;
their confined aims, ib. ; their attention to finery and
dress, 173, 174.
Scales and pores of the human skin, ii. 604; method of view-
ing them under the microscope, 605.
Scales of fishes, ii. 605 ; of an eel, ib. ; of a carp, ib. ; hy-
pothesis relating thereto, ib.
Scales on t/te ivinys of butteiflies, ii. 617, 618; varieties,
618, 619; disposition on the wing, 619.
Scallop, the, remarkable for its manner of motion, ii.
369.
Scaimts Marcus, his exhibition of crocodiles to the Ro-
mans, ii. 399.
Scicena, the, fish noticed, ii. 298.
Scolopendra of t/te East Indies, described, ii. 466, 467,
i and «.
Scooper, a name of the avosetta, ii. 1 89.
Scorpion, account of the, ii. 462 — 466, and n. ; the black
scorpion, 466, ». ; the African scorpion, ib.
Scotchman, one in the Tower, his endurance of hunger,
Scotland, great floods in, in 1829, i. 127, «.; red and fal-
low deer in, 323, 324, n. ; capercailzie, or cock of the
wood, once plentiful in Scotland, now extinct, ii. 78
and n. ; endeavours to restore it, 79, n.
Sea. See Ocean.
Sea-bream, a prickly finned fish, ii. 297.
Sea-breezes, i. 1 23.
Seal, the parts of its body described, i. 481 ; its size and
colour, ib. ; characters of the varieties, 482 and n. ;
size of its brain, 482 ; its tongue, ib.; foramen ovale,
ib.; habitation and food, 483; legs, ib. ; a social ani-
mal, ib.; easily tamed, ib. n.; actions in fine weather
and a storm, 484; migrates, ib. ; propagation of the,
ib. ; manner of taking seals in Scotland, 485, n. ; cry,
485; combats, ib. ; method of pursuing fish, ib., 486;
how caught by Europeans, ib. ; by Greenlanders, ib.,
and 484, n.; its skin and oil, 486; flesh, ib.; varieties
of the, ib. : the ursine described, ib. ; habits and affec-
tion, ib. ; fights for its station, ib. ; and for the female,
ib. ; the hooded, described, ib. ; the bottle-nosed, ib. ;
food, ib.; gregarious habits, ib.; sluggishness, ib.;
those seen by Lord Anson's people, ib. ; their flesh,
ib. ; where found, ib.
Sea-larks, account of the, ii. 192, n.
Sea-purses, molluscous animals so called, ii. 376, n.
Sea-weeds, microscopic examination of, ii. 601; singular
species, ib.
Seeds of plants, and their appendages, ii. 598; how to be
microscopically examined, ib. ; varieties, ib., 599.
Semen of animals, animalcules in, ii. 638, a seq.
Semnopithecus genus of Monkeys, its remarkable charac-
ters, i. 508. '
Seneyal River, in Africa, i. 78; how far navigable, ib. ;
inundations of, prejudicial, 80.
Sensations of a man newly brought into existence, de-
scribed by Buffon, i. 202—204.
Senses of man, their comparative extent, i. 200 (see
Hearing, &c.); mutual aids, ib.; combination of ob-
jects of, ib.
Seps, a venomous viper, ii. 423 and n.
Sepulchres, Egyptian, described, i. 226, 227 ; one in
France described, 228.
Serpents, general characteristics of, ii. 407, «.; why held
in detestation, 407; operation of the poison of, 408;
uses of the, ib. ; where most abundant, ib.; ancient
devastations wrought by some not improbable, ib.,
409; harmlessness with us, 409; distinguishing marks,
ib. ; swallow, ib. ; organs, ib. ; internal parts, 410;
number of joints in the back bone, ib.; the ribs, ib. ;
skin, ib.; scales, ib.; distinctions in size, 411 ; size of
some, ib. ; torpidity after feeding, ib. ; track of the,
ib. ; indiscriminate prey, ib. ; contests for water, 412;
capability of abstinence, ib.; voices, ib.; motions, ib.,
413; amphibious in fresh water only, 413; foster, by
what possessed, 408, 413; distinguished as viviparous
or oviparous, 414; as venomous or not, ib. ; their de-
fence from their poisonous qualities, ib. ; enemies, ib. ;
means to destroy and charm them, ib., 415; by what
nations adored, and how, 415; classification, ib. ; in-
cantation of serpents, ib., n. ; venom, 416; (see Venom-
ous Serpents); those without venom, characteristics
of, 426 ; their bite, ib. ; manner of attack, ib., 427 ;
varieties, 427, 433, n. ; serpents in South Africa, 42-J,
425, n. ; serpents in Demerara, 426, n.
Serpent, Sea, the, or Slops, noticed, ii. 299.
Serpent-stone, account of the, ii. 426; how it produces its
effects, if any, ib.
Sernal, described, i. 381 ; its resemblance to the caracal,
383.
Sexes, state of the, in different countries,!. 165, 181.
Shagreen, leather from the skin of the wild ass, i. 260.
Shape of man, i. 167; of woman, ib.
Shark, the, its varieties, ii. 269 and n.; the blue shark,
269, «.; the basking shark, 270, n. ; the angel shark,
ib.; the great white, its voracity, 270 ; the, described.
271; fins, ib.; eyes, ib. ; swiftness, ib. ; how it seizes
its prey, ib. ; depredations, ib. ; instance of one biting
off a man's leg, ib. ; devouring persons let down into
the sea, ib.; enmity to man, ib. ; how taken by bait,
272; harpooned, ib.; killed by the negroes, ib.; the
sucking fish, or shark's pilot, ib.; young of the, ib.;
flesh, 273; oil, ib.
Shaving, practice of, in different ages, i. 1 72, n.
Sheath-fish, or Silurus, notice of the, ii. 299.
Sheep kind, animals of the, i. 286; nearly allied to the
goat, ib., n. ; distinguished from the goat, 286, 287 ;
qualities and disposition of sheep, 287, 288, and n. ;
habits when tamed, 288; on the continent, follow
the shepherd, ib.; their fleece, 289 ; teeth, 290; their
young, ib. ; where found in their noblest state, 291 ;
effects of climate on, 293 ; different kinds of, out of
Europe, Iceland, ib. ; Merino sheep, account of, 289,
«.; varieties of British sheep, 291, n.; long-woolled
British sheep, the old and new Leicester, the Tees-
water, the Devonshire nots, the Exmoor and the Heath
sheep, ib.; short-woolled sheep, the Dorsetshire, the
Wiltshire, the Herefordshire, the South Down, the
Norfolk, the Cheviot, &c., ib., and 292, «.; Herdwick
sheep, dun-faced breed, Hebridean and Zetland sheep,
the primitive race of, ib.; the umsmon, 298 and n.
Shell, the, of testaceous fishes, its substance, ii. 347 ; ac-
count of the formation of that of the garden snail,
348; whether formed of the slime of the animal's
body, 349; colouring of the, how accounted for j^..
convolutions of the, depend entirely on t]ie animal"
ib.; collections of shells, how polished, 350; pleasures
of the occupation, ib. ; birds that eat them, 351 ; shells
serve as abodes to other animals, 352 ; classification
of, ib. ; Lamarck's synoptical table of, 354 — 358, n. ;
various places where found, 352, 353 ; pelagii, or those
confined to the ocean, 355; littorales, or those cast
INDEX.
659
on shore, ib ., 356 ; fresh water, 358 ; living land shells,
ib. ; fossil shells, their variety and condition, ib. ; see
also, i. 22, n. ; all the spoil of some animal, ib. ; his-
torians of this class of nature, ib., 359 ; uses and value
of shells, 358, ». See Conchology.
Shell-fish, claims to be considered as fish, ii. 3'26; the
two tribes of, ib.; cmstaceous, characterised, ib.;
testaceous, 347.
Shepherd's dog, described, i. 388 ; patience and faithful-
ness of the, ib.; hardiness, ib.
Sltores, often a defence against the sea, i. 96 ; different
appearances of, ib., 97.
Short- siyhtednets, i. 194. See Vision.
Shoveller, ii. 1 85— 1 87. See SpoanlnU.
Shrew-inole, account of the, i. 461, n.
Shrikes. See Buicher-bird.
Shrimp tri/je, the food of the whale, ii. 253; process of
casting its shell, 328, ».; shrimps described, 331, ».
Siamang, a long-armed ape, i. 498, n.
Silk, historical account of, ii. 507, «.
Silk-worm, ignorance of the ancients with respect to the,
ii. 507; when first brought into Europe, 5U8; the des-
cribed, ib. and n.; the two methods of breeding the,
509; in the warm climates of the East, 510; in Europe,
ib. ; form, &c. of the apartment in which it is bred,
ib. ; provision of leaves, ib. ; air, ib. ; progress of the
worm; ib. ; its formation of the silk-cone, 511; the
thread described, ib.; its change into the winged
state, ib.; male and female, ib.; eggs, ib.; method of
unwinding the thread, ib.
Simoom, described, i. 10, n., 126.
Singing-birds, their notes described, ii. 137; American,
146.
Sirli, a species of lark, ii. 151, n.
Sirocco wind, notice of, i. 128, n.
Siskins, birds resembling the linnets, ii. 1 58, n.
Size o/' the human body, its varieties, i. 176; variations,
ib., 177.
Skate, the, discriminated, ii. 273; characteristics of the
rays or skates, ii. 276, n. ; the long-nosed skate, ib. ;
the blue skate, ib. ; the sharp-nosed ray, 277, n. ; the
thornback, ib.
Skin, effects of age on the human, i. 205.
Skink, a kind of stinkard, described, i. 421.
Skuas, sea-birds, account of the, i. 215.
Slatberg in Iceland, disruption of the mountain of, i.
64.
Sleep increases the weight of the body, i. 177; necessary
to all animals, 183; most of all to man, 187; some ani-
mals spend much time in, ib.; effects of the want of,
on man, ib.; cause of unknown, 188; effects of. ib. ;
> physiology of, ib.,«. ; instances of somnambulism, 189;
' much required by the studious, ib.; a German stu-
dent performed his tasks during, 1 90; story of a sleep-
walker, ib.
Slips of mountains, land-slips, i. 63; snow-slips, 64.
Sloth, varieties of the, i. 557 ; description of the, ib. and
n. ; spends its whole life on trees, ib..«. ; Waterton's
account of the, 558, n. ; its method of scrambling on
the ground, ib. ; its structure and habits, 559 ; whether
an unfinished quadruped, ib.; abstinence, ib.
Sinellinff, an inferior sense in man, i. 200; power of, pos-
sessed by some nations, ib.; uses of ib. : the taste of
different nations in respect to the objects of, 201
and n.; sense of, possessed by birds, ii. 3.
Sna.il, the garden, its process in forming its shell des-
cribed, ii. 348; organs of the, 359, 360; horns and eyes
on the two uppermost, 360; organs of generation, ib. :
coupling, ib.; eggs, ib. : growth of the shell, 361;
can mend its shell wlien broken, ib; not make a
new one, ib.; method of motion, ib.; slime, ib. ; ap-
petite, 362; killed by salt, &c. ib. : torpidity, and
manner of burying itself, ib. : awakening, and voracity,
ib.; varieties of the snail, ib. ; the fresh-water, ib.; its
peculiarities, ib.; manner of rising to the surface, ib.;
viviparous, ib. ; brought forth with the stony coat,
363 ; sea- snails, ib. ; manner of impregnation, ib. ; want
horns, ib.: convolutions of the shell, ib. ; the trochus
kind, ib. ; the nautilus, 364.
the sea, whence the name. ii. '289; the, described,
290; account of the garden snail, 359, 3b'0, n.
Snake, the black, the largest of English serpents des-
cribed, ii. 4'27 ; not venomous, ib. and n. ; manner of
attack, and how repelled, ib.; prey of the, 428; ovi-
parons, ib. ; torpid in winter, ib. See Ser/jentn.
Snake-root, Virginian, the best cure for the bite of the
rattle-snake, ii. 423.
Sneezing, description of, i. 171, n.
Snipes, described, ii. 191,».; the double snipe, ib.; the
little snipe, ib. ; the common snipe, 1 92, «.
Sobbing, whence it proceeds, i. 171 and n.
Solan 'goose, ii. 203. See Gannet.
Sole-fish, described, ii. 300, n.
Solfatara, valley of, exhibits the effects of earthquakes,
i. 52.
Solon, his opinion of the beauty of the pheasant, ii. 72.
Sound, reflection of, i. 116; transmitted by the undula-
tion of the air, ib., n. ; how produced, 196; how ren-
dered a tone, ib. ; reflected, 1 98.
Sow. See Hog.
e, or blind rat, i. 461, ».
rds, their value for asses, i. 264.
',, the large and small water, described, i. 390,
391 , n. and 394. See Dog.
Sparrow, the, its habits described, ii. 135 and 136, n.
kind, birds of the, their abode near man, ii. 130;
why they avoid forests, ib. ; attachment to places, ib. ;
accounts of their flights and passages, 131; arts of the
bird-catcher to take them, ib. ; contentions of the,
132; singing, proper to the male, ib.; the female, nest,
and young, ib. — 135; paring of the, 1 35; chastity, des-
cribed by Addison, ib.; exceptions, ib.; resemblances
among the, ib.; classification, 136; slender-billed, ib.;
their food, ib. ; and song, ib.; thick-billed, ib. ; their
food, 1 37 : note, ib. ; those of passage, ib. ; their sea-
sons of migration, ib.
Sparrow-hawk, ii. 46, n.
Sparus, a prickly-finned fish, ii. 297.
Spawn of fishes, account of the, ii. 247, 248; estimate of
its immense amount, 249, 250.
Speech, acquisition of, by infants, i. 1 63.
Spermaceti, found in the head of the cachalot, ii. 263;
how distributed there, 264; uses of, ib. ; how the
whole oil of the fish convertible into, ib. ; -where the
whales that yield it, abound, ib. n.
Spermatic Animalcules, 638 et seq. ; discovered by Leeu-
wenhoeck and Hartsoeker, ib.; hypothesis concern-
ing, ib.; Leeuwenhoeck's observations, ib. ; animal-
cules in the human semen, ib.; in that of a cod-fish,
639; general discoveries by Leeuwenhoeck in this de-
partment, ib. ; objections to his discoveries, answered,
ib. ; Buffon's notions concerning the sperm animals,
ib.; Buffon's errors, ib.; Needham's hypothesis, 640;
his reasonings regarding the seminal animal of the
calmar, ib.; Buffon's remarks thereon, ib.; the funda-
mental error exposed, ib. ; wild speculations concern-
ing the seminal animals, ib. ; desirable to elicit more
information concerning them, ib.
Spider, the, described, ii. 448 — 453 and n.; construction
of its web, 449, n.; different kinds of spiders, 455, n. :
remarkable nest of one, 448 and n.
Spinous fisltes, how distinguished by their gills, ii. 2,03;
numerous species, ib.; systems ib.; Artedi's, ib. ;
Linnaeus', ib.; Gouan's, 294; particulars of, with des-
criptions, 294 — 307; uniformity of then- description
307, 308; their bones, ib.; proportion of, to the fins,
ib.; live but a short time out of water, 309; excep-
tions, ib. ; passage of some from salt to fresh water,
ib. ; some from fresh towards salt to spawn, ib.; fishes
of passage, ib.; the cod, 310; haddock and mackarel,
310; herring, ib., 311 ; pilchard, 312— 314; their im-
mense numbers, 314; their numbers in the Indian
ocean, 318; whether they come from the egg perfectly
formed, ib. ; white bait, ib, impregnation, ib.; growth,
ib.; live on one another, ib. ; the dorado, 319; warfare
in fresh water, ib. ; diffidence of fresh water fish, ib.,
320; voracity of the pike, 322; torpidity in winter, ib.,
323; diseases, 324; poisonous qualities of some, ib.;
how caused, ib.
Sponqes l>elonq to the. polypi, ii. 564, n.; different species
of,' 570, n. '
Spoonbill, the, described, ii. 185, 186 and n. ; the Euro-
pean, U!fi; the American, ib.;fine colour and uncouth
shape, ib.; habits, ib. and n. ; food, ib.; nest arid
voung, 1!!7; white spoonbill, 186, n.; roseate spoonbill,
ib.
Spouts, water, one in the Mediterranean described by
Tournefort, i. 143; their origin, 144; dreaded by mar-
iners, ib.
Sprat, or Gurvie Herring, description of the, it. 31" n.
(160
INDEX.
Sprinqlmk, a species of African antelope, described, i.
*31 .3, 314, n
Spring-water, i. 67; spouting and intermitting springs,
67, n.\ hot, account of, 68; at Bath, ib.; at St Mi-
guel, ib.
Squash, a kind of stinkard, described, i. 279.
Squilla, or White Shrimp, ii. 331, n.
Squirrel, an idea of its form, i. 436 ; the tail and its uses,
ib. : varieties of the, ib.; the common described, ib.;
the ground squirrel, 437, n.; the gray Virginian, 437;
the Barbary, ib. ; the Siberian white, ib. ; Carolina
black, ib. ; Brazilian, ib. ; that of New Spain, ib. ; its
extensive diffusion, ib.; the varieties differ in disposi-
tion and food, ib. ; the common, characteristics of the,
438; agility, ib. ; food, ib. ; its nest described, ib.;
provisions of nuts, ib. ; propagation of the, ib. ; watch-
fulness, ib.; its nimbleness, ib. ; oaks planted by the
squirrel, ib., n.; abode on trees, 439; migrations of
the, in Lapland, ib. ; method of crossing lakes there,
ib.; domesticated, ib., 440; preference of fixed to re-
volving cages for squirrels, 439, n. ; the flying, its class,
440 and n. ; European flying, where found, ib. ; its ha-
bits, ib. ; female's care of the young, ib. ; description of
the, and its nature, ib. ; its amazing spring, ib. ; how
adapted for it, ib. ; where found, ib. ; tamed, ib.
Sta/a, description of, i. 33, n.
Staff, described, i. 319; its horns, ib., 320; the rutting
season of the, 320, 321; size, colour, and habits, 321,
322; hunting of the, 322; laws concerning the, ib.,
323; description of stag-hunting in England, 323, 326 ;
hunted in Sicily, 326; in China, ib.; the Chinese stag
described, ib. ; Corsican, 327 ; that of Germany, ib. ;
that of Sardinia, ib.; the American, ib., 328.
Stagnant water, i. 67.
Stamina of flowers, microscopic examination of, ii. 597.
Stare, or Starling, its description, ii. 144, andw.; voice,
ib. ; migration and peculiar flight, ib. ; the red-winged
of America, 145, n.
Star-fish, the, described, ii. 561 ; hard substances found
in its stomach, ib. ; increases in size, ib. ; properties,
ib.
Stars, fixed, i. 7, 8, n.; falling, what, 139; phenomena
of, 140, n.
Statues, ancient models of beauty, i. 1 76.
Stature of the body, how affected, i. 216; of men not di-
minished, 223.
Stewart, Duqald. his account of a boy born blind and
deaf.i. 199.
Sticldeback, the, or Gasterosteus, described, ii. 298 and n.
Stings of insects, ii. 620; poison bag, ib.
Stinkard, foetid smell of the, i. 420; varieties of the, ib.;
anecdote of a, ib., n. ; the squash, skink, &c., ib. ; their
fffitid glands described, ib. , 421 ; uses of this odour to
the animal, ib.; strength and offensive nature of it
when the animal is enraged, ib. ; an instance of this
by Kalm, 422; kept tame by the Americans, ib.
Stoat, when the ermine properly so called, i. 413 and n.
Stock-dove, the original of the pigeon, ii. 125; described,
ib.; young, 127.
Stomach of quadrupeds, i. 238.
Stomata of plants, ii. 597.
Stones, precious, whence their value, i. 173; meteoric
stones, account of, 141, n.
Stork, its resemblance to the crane, ii. 175; distinguish-
ing characters of the genus from herons and cranes,
ib., n.; the white stork, ib., n., 176; the black stork,
176, n.; regular migrations and manner of, 177; food
of the, ib.; affection for young, ib.; friendly feeling
towards men, ib.; storks held in reverence by the
Turks, ib., n.
Storm, account of the great storm in Britain, in 1703, i.
126, ».; storm of 1783, ib., 127, n.; other storms, ib.
Strabvnn of the eyes, what, i. 194.
Strength of man, i. 177 — 180; instances of muscular
strength, 177, ».; some remarkable instances of the,
180.
StrepsicJieros, breed of sheep, described, i. 296.
Stromatcus, a soft-finned fish, ii. 299.
Sturgeon, its disposition, ii. 283; description, ib.; differ-
ent kiirds and different uses of each, ib.; visits all the
neas of Europe, ib. : size of one taken in the Eske, ib. ;
where most abundant, 284; how caught, ib., '285;
temperate and timid, 284; preserved, 285 ; trade with
the roe, ib.; isinglass, ib.; sturgeon fishery, 284, n.
Sucking-fish, the, or Echiucis, ii. 'MO.
Sun-fish, its size and appearance, described, ii. 287.
Suns, mock, or reflected, seen in the polar regions, i. 1 30.
Surf of the sea, its dangerous nature, i. 97.
Surinam Toad, account of the, ii. 389 ; (see Pipal) ; ser-
pent, its beauty, 428; considered fortunate by the
savages there, ib.
Surmolot, or great brown rat, described, i. 448. See Rat.
Surmulet, notice of the fish, ii. 298.
Swallow, its migration, ii. 160 -.peculiarities and varieties
of the, 160; characteristics of the, 161; food, ib.; agi-
lity, ib. ; tail, ib. ; its appearance in spring, ib. ; dif-
ference between the chimney swallow and window
swallow, ib. , n. ; nests of the various kinds of the, 1 62 ;
in China, ib. ; how to discard them, ib. ; eggs and
young, 163; assembling of the, ib. ; migration, ib. ;
seen at sea, ib.; whether all migrate, ib., 164, n. ; the
swift and other varieties, ib., 160; the nocturnal, or
goat sucker, ib. ; nests of the Chinese, in what esti-
mation held as a delicacy, 162; commercial statistics
regarding, ib., 163, n.
Swallow, sea, a kind of gull, ii. 210.
Swallows of Ternate, a name of the bird of paradise, ii.
109.
Swammerdam, his persevering inquiries into the nature
of shell-fish and insects, ii. 359.
Swan, characteristics of the, ii. 224 and n.; the wild
swan, 225, n. ; the black swan, ib.; whether the
swan sings, 226; relations on the subject, ib., 227;
food of the, ib. ; incubation and young, ib.; formerly
esteemed for the flesh, ib. ; where now preserved for
their beauty, ib.
Swift, a kind of swallow, its distinctions and habits, ii.
160.
Swimmers, an order of birds, characteristics of, ii. 201.
Swine. See Hog.
Sword-fish, its attacks on the whale described, ii. 255:
the, described, 294 and n.
Syagush, name of the caracal, i. 381, 383. See Caracal.
Syria, animals of, the softness of their hair, i. 359.
Systems of natural history, method of using, i. 230; ad-
vantages of, ib.; defects of, 231; Ray's, ib.; Klein's,
232; Linnaeus', 233; that followed in this work, 233
—235.
Tadpole, the spawn of the frog. See Frog.
Tajacu, i. 349. See Peccary.
Talapoin, a monkey, fine colours of the, i. 507 and n.
Tamain, kind of monkey, i. 508.
Tamandua, larger and smaller species of the ant-eater,
i. 556.
Tanrec, distinguished from the hedgehog, i. 464; de-
scribed, ib.; habitudes, ib.
Tapeti, or Brazilian Rabbit, an account of the, i. 4-1 6.
Tapir, the hippopotamus of the new continent, i, 352,
n., 552, n. ; described, 552 ; its food, ib. ; flesh, ib. ; the
tapir of Malacca and Sumatra, 553, n.
Tarantula, a dance practi,-ed in Italy, i. 1 98, n. ; a kind
of spider, described, ii. 454; its fabled dangerous bite
and cure by music, 455.
Tarnassar, the great bird of, supposed to be the condor,
ii. 39.
Tartar race of men, described, i. 210, 211.
Tasting, opinions concerning the sense of, i. 201 ; sen-
sible in children, 202; affected by habit, ib.
Tatou, (see Armadillo), i. 469; apara, 471 ; of Ray, ib. ;
tatuette, ib.
Teeth, variety of, in animals, i. 174; of quadrupeds, 238;
of the cow, 270.
Telescope fish, described, ii. 291, n.
Temperate regions, earth in the, i. 11.
Tench, fish, described, ii. 306, 307, n. ; how angled for,
323, n.
Tendrac, the, distinguished from the hedgehog, i. 464;
size, movements, and habits, ib.
Tenerijfe, peak of, a volcano, i. 44 ; its height, 62.
Termites, or White Ants, description of the, ii. 537, n. :
singular construction of then- nests, ib.. 538.
Ternate, how rendered unwholesome, i. 1 12.
Terns, or Sea Sivallows, characteristics of the, ii, 212, n.
Teuthys. the fish described, ii. 299.
T/Mraaia, a new island, i. 53.
INDEX.
661
Thermometer, i. 69 ; principle of the, ib.
Thirst, causes and consequences of, i. 105, n.
Thoracic fish, what, ii. '294; prickly-finned, 295; soft-
finnecl, 299.
Thorn/tack, a species of skate, ii. 277, i>.
Thrush kind, birds of the, ii. 137; different species of
thrush, their habits, &c. 13!!, n.; their properties, ib.;
the song thrush or mavis, 1 39, n. ; the missel thrush,
its size and distinctions, ib. and n.; the punctated
thrush, 1 4 1 , M. ; the rock thrushes, 1 42, n. ; the mock-
ing thrush, 143, n.; other varieties, 145; the fieldfare,
blackbird, &c. See Fieldfare, Blackbird.
Thumb-footed shell-fish, account of the, ii. 374.
Thunder, phenomena of, i. 1 33, n.
Thyroid oartilaye, seen in men, i. 1 75.
Tides of the ocean, i. SO; description of the, ib. ; precise
account of the manner in which they are caused, 90,
91 ; affected by the channel of the sea, 91,92; the
greatest where, 92; an effect of the, ib.;
Tw/er, the, it* beauty, i. 3K9; fierceness, ib. : distinctions
of the, ib ; relative position, ib ; where found, ib. and
n.; tiger limiting in India, 370, 371, n ; habits, 371;
strength, ib. and 372; combat of one with three ele-
phants, ib. ;the three kinds of the, in SundahRajah's
dominions, 373; scarceness of the real species, ib.;
how far tameable, 369; tigress and her young, 373;
their skins, 374; clouded tiger, ib., n.
Tinea. See Motlis.
Tipula, the, gnat, described, ii. 553.
Titmice, account of the various species of, ii. 151, ». ;
bottle tit or long- tailed titmouse, 154, n.
Toad, the, distinguished from the frog, ii. 384 ; hideous
to the imagination, ib. ; resemblance to the frog, ib.;
propagation and assistance of the male, 385; food,
ib. ; account of the habits of one tamed by Arscott,
ib. ; instance of Germans eating the, without injury,
386; another instance of its wholesomeness, ib. ; fables
concerning the, ib.; its real character, ib. ; torpidity,
in winter, ib. ; account of several instances of its being
found in the heart of trees and stones, ib.; experi-
ments regarding this singular phenomenon, ib., n. ;
account of their sucking cancerous sores, 388; varie-
ties, the water, ib. ; the pipal or Surinam, 3<J9; the
horned toad, ib.
Tococo, the flamingo, why so called by the natives of
Canada, ii. 1 8!i.
Tones, how produced, i. 196; their succession in propor-
tion make music, ib.
Tongue or proboscis of insects, ii. 615; of the house-fly,
ib.; of the honey bee, 616.
Tonquin, extraordinary" tides there, i. 92; how accounted
for, ib.
Tornado, description of the, i. 125, 126.
Torpedo, a kind of ray, described, ii. 278; its electrical
shock described, by Kempfer, ib.; causes ascribed
for the effect, 279; its power declines with its vigour,
ib. ; where the power resides, ib. ; other fishes pos-
sessed of the same power, 280.
Tursk, a species of cod, described, ii. 300, n.
Tortoise, its superiority to the fish tribe, ii. 337 ; why
ranked among them, ib.; land and water, ib.; differ-
ence between the, and the turtle, ib., 338 ; habits of the
ib. ; shell, ib. ; the body described, ib. ; various species
of, ib., n.; internal structure, ib.; its organs described,
339; difficult to be killed, lives with the brains out
and the head off, ib.; longevity of the, ib.; account
of one at Peterborough which lived above 200 years,
ib., n. ; food of the, 340; motion of its blood, ib. ; dor-
mant state, ib.; slowness of all the actions, and
changes of the, ib.; eggs, ib. ;nest, ib., 341 ; shell com-
posed of several pieces, ib.; habitudes, ib., 432, n.
Sea Tortoise, see Turtle.
Toucan, account of its extraordinary conformation, ii.
99 and n. ; of the red-beaked, 1 00 ; food or prey, ib.
and n.; tongue of the, and its use, 101; how it pro-
tects its young, ib.; where found, ib.
Tiiach, sense of, corrects sight, i. 193; its utility, 202;
widely diffused, ib.; affected by habit, ib.; where
chiefly seated, ib.; importance of, ib.
Truchinus, or weaver, a kind of fish, described, ii. 295;
pain of the sting of its back fin, 324.
Trachipterus, or sawe, the fish, noticed, ii. 298.
Trade-winds, i. 117; history and theory of, 1 1 8, n. ; in the
Atlantic, 122; off Nova Zeinbla, &c. ib.
s, the stag of Germany, i. 327.
Transformation of insects, ii. 437-r- .
Tree wasp. See Wasp.
Tree-hoppers, Rennie's name for the ancient cicada, how
applicable, ii. 476 ; then: instrument of sound, ib.
Trees, formation of, ii. 602.
Trembley, the discoverer of the reproduction of zoophy-
tes from cutting, ii. 567 ; his classification of the poly-
pus, 570.
Trichoda yenus of infusoria, ii. 633.
Trichurus, a prickly-finned fish, ii. 294.
Triyla, properties of the fish, ii. 298.
Trochus, a peculiar kind of snail without mouth, ii. 363;
preys on other snails, ib. ; all sea-snails liable to its
attacks, 364.
Troglodyte, described, i. 491.
Troffons, a family of birds peculiar to warm climates,
described, ii. 101,1 02, n.
Tropics, constancy of winds there, in certain seas, i. 117;
hurricanes at the, 125; atmospheric phenomena of
the 133—135.
Trout, description of the, ii. 302, n. ; how angled for,
323, n. ; the great gray trout of Loch Awe, 302, «. ;
salmon trout, 303, «.
Trunk of the elephant, account of the, i. 518.
Tumble-dung, a kind of beetle, described, ii. 546; its
sense of smelling, ib. ; kings of the class, 547.
Tumbler, a kind ot dog, described, i. 394.
Tunny fish, described and tunny fisheries, ii. 297, 298
and n.
Turbinated shell-fish, ii. 352—359.
Turbotfeh, described, ii. 300, n.
Turkey, its original country, ii. 66 and n. ; the American
wild, 67; Prince Charles Lucian Bonaparte's account
of the, ib. , n. ; habits in the wild state, ib. ; how hunt-
ed, ib.; habits, animosities, and antipathies of the
tame, 70; cowardice, ib.; female and young, 71;
screams and agitation of the female when the young
attacked, ib.
Turnstone, described, ii. 194. n.
Turtle, the, whence its difference from the tortoise
arises, ii. 337; the, described, 341 ; the great Mediter-
ranean, or coriaceous, its great size and uselessnees,
ib.; poisonous, ib.; account of one of this species,
ib. ; of one caught near Scarborough, 342; those of
the Indian ocean, the trunk, ib. ; the loggerhead des-
cribed, ib. and n. ; hawksbill or imbricated, 343 and
342, n. ; the green, its estimation, 343 and n.; quali-
ties of the, as food, 344; why called the green turtle,
ib.; its size, ib.; where most numerous, ib.; comes
from the sea to fresh water, and to deposit its eggs,
ib.; breeding, ib.; eggs, ib. ; hatched by the sun,
345; how taken, ib., 347; harpooned, ib ; how taken
by divers, ib.; Audubon's account of the habits of
turtles and the methods of taking them, ii. 345 — 347,
n.
Ttirtle-dore, its fidelity, ii. 126; collared turtle, 125, n.;
the bird described, 129; a bird of passage, ib.; nests
and food, ib.
Turtle eaters, a people of Ethiopia, described, by Diodo-
rus Siculus, ii. 344.
Tusks of the hog kind, their connection with then: venery,
i. 352; of the elephant, 519, 520; trade in the, 527, S'.'B.
Typhons, or u-ater-spouts, seen at land, i. 144; descrip-
tion of one at Hatfield, 1687, ib.; conjectures concern-
ing, ib.
u
Unan, a kind of sloth, i. 557.
Unicorn, animals found in Africa and Asia resembling
the fabulous unicorn, i. 532, n.; whence the origin
of the stories concerning it, ii. 262; the sea or nar-
whal, described, 260.
Univalve, or turbinated shell-fish, ii. 3.59
Uranoscopus, the fish, described, ii. 295.
Urchin, Sea, the proper class of the, described, ii. 373
and n. its horns and spines, ib.; its swiftness not-
withstanding its many spines, ib.; what sort of food
it is, ib.
Urson, distinguished from the porcupine, and describ-
ed, i. 467.
Urns, white, the, or wild bull, where found, i. 276; des-
cribed, ib.
662
INDEX.
Vampyre, the American, described,!. 473; blood-sucker,
474 ; Ulloa's report on this subject confirmed, ib.
Vansire, a kind of ferret from Madagascar, described, i.
415.
Vapours, noxious, in mines, i. 36; (see Gas); inflam-
mable, in Persia, 40.
Vari, a kind of monkey, i. 510.
Vascular tissue of plants, ii. 601.
Vegetable Kingdom, discoveries therein by the micro-
scope, ii. 595; Pritchard's remarks thereon, ib., 596';
microscope reveals a beauty in vegetable structures
not discoverable by unaided sight, 596; Brown's ex-
periments on the pollen of plants, ib. ; remarks con-
cerning molecular activity as exhibited both in the
mineral and vegetable kingdoms, ib. ; circulation of
fluids in plants, ib. ; Pritchard's account of the cy-
closis, 597; aquatic plants in which the circulation is
readily observed, ib. ; respiration of plants, ib. ; the
cuticle and stomata, ib. ; singular alternate action of
plants, ib. ; a flower, microscopic examination of, ib. ;
petals, ib. ; absorbents, ib.; stamens, filament, and
anther, ib.; the pollen, ib.,598; true farina, .598; pis-
til, germen, style, and stigma, ib. ; pistil, how impreg-
nated, ib. ; seeds, their forms and appendages, ib. ;
seed-lobes, heart, ib. ; radicle and plurnula, ib. ; seeds,
how to be microscopically observed, ib. ; pappus, or
down, ib.; its uses, ib.; ala, or wing, and its uses,
599; poppy seeds, their conformation, ib. ; calampe-
Jo.8 scaber, seed of, ib. ; French marigold, seed of, ib.;
theca, or seed-vessel, of moss, ib. ; puff-ball, seed of,
ib. ; seeds of fern, ib. ; polypodium of the oak, seeds
of, ib. ; plant, or tree, leaves, ib. ; their composition,
ib.; skeleton leaf, ib.; Baker's observations on the
leaves of plants, ib.; leaves of stinging nettles, fiOO;
the ferns, their seed-vessels, capsules, sporules, and
frond, ib.; the mosses, and septa of, ib.; sphagnum,
or bog-moss, leaf of, ib ; algse, ib.; lichens, 601 ; fuci,
or sea-weeds, ib. ; singular species, ib. ; confervse, in-
cluding charu and nitella, in which circulation is very
apparent, ib.; mouldiness, plants of, ib.; fungi, their
formation, &c., ib. ; old opinions concerning, and re-
marks thereon, ib. ; fungi producing dry rot, smut,
&c., ib.; woody formations, ib. ; stem, cuticle, bark,
liber, sap, pith, ib.; cellular tissue, ib.; woody fibre,
vascular tissue, ib.; microscopic examination of these,
ib., 60:2; spiral, annular, and ducted vessels, 602; for-
formation of trees, ib. ; aloe, microscopic view of
transverse section, ib. ; of fibres of the palm, ib.;
transverse section of clematis, ib.
Vefjeialilefi, their analogies to animals,!. 146; compara-
tive number of vegetables and animals, 147, «.; dif-
ferent generative powers of vegetables and animals,
150, n. ; most useful, 149; few noxious, ib.; organs of
generation in, 153, n.; fossil remains of, ii. 594.
Venom of the serpent, the bag of, described, ii. 416; ap-
pearance of, through a microscope, 417; taste of, ib. ;
lias been drunk without producing a bad effect, ib. ;
Lucan's observation of this, ib. ; how fatal introduced
into the circulation, ib., 41 8; experiment showing the
potency of, 418; doubts, ib.
Venomous Serpents, seat of the venom in the animals, ii.
4l6; fangs, ib.; teeth, ib. ; venomous bag, ib.; the
fangs and the operation of wounding, ib., 417; ap-
pearances and effects caused by the wound, 417; the
venom, ib.; habitudes, 418; food, ib ; manner of the
attack, ib.
Vessels of vegetables, spiral, annular, and ducted, ii. 602.
Vesuvius, volcano of mount, i. 42; eruption of, in 1707,
ib.; one in 1717, described by Berkley, 42 — 44.
Vibrio flenus nf infusoria, ii. 629.
Viper, manner of its motion, 412,413; the, of Great
Britain, 4 18, 419, ». ; resorts, ib. ; properties, ib. ; eggs,
420; abstinence, ib.; torpidity during the winter, ib.;
how taken, ib. ; salad-oil a cure for its bite, experi-
ment showing this, ib., and n.; the method of cure
prescribed by Celsus, ib. ; flesh said to be medicinal,
421 ; Swedish viper, il>., n.
Visvm, errors in, i. 192, 193; does not give us an idea of
distance without the aid of touch, 19:5; experiment
on this siihjec', ib , 1<J4; near-sightedness of, 194; at
different ages, ib.; rendered indistinct by excessive
brightness of the object, ib.; why, ib., 195.
Voices of birds, observations on the, ii. 4; of the various
singing birds, described, 1 37 ; of American singirip;
birds, 146.
Volcanoes, i. 40 and n.; their causes, 40; enumeration
of, 41—45; whether they proceed from deep regions,
41.
Volvox flenus of infusoria, ii. 627.
Vorticella genus of infusoria, ii. 634.
Vulture, its relative position among birds, ii. 40 ; dis-
tinctive qualities, ib. ; varieties, the golden particu-
larized, 40 — 43; localities of different species of vul-
ture, 41, 42, «.; black vulture described, ib.; question
whether the vulture is led to its prey by sight or
smell, 42, «. ; parts of the animal, 42 ; service of, in
Egypt, ib.; habits there, ib. ; in America, ib.; skill in
tearing a body to pieces, and manner of feeding, 43;
sloth and voracity, ib.; hostility to the crocodile, ib.;
nests, ib. ; the king of the vultures described, ib., 44.
W
Wagtails, account of the, ii. 153, 154, n.
Walfifchoas, the Icelandic name for the food of the
whale, ii. 253.
Wall-bees. See Bee.
Wanderow, a kind of baboon, an account of the, i. 501,
and n.
Wapiti, a North American deer, i. 328, n.
Warblers, ii. 153, n.; pensile warbler, ib.; superb war-
bler, ib.
Warinc, a Brazilian monkey, i. 508.
Washington, bird of, described, ii. 37, 38, n.
Wasp, very different from the bee, ii. 528; the, de-
scribed, ib., 529, «.; voracity and fierceness, 529; dis-
tinctions of the communities of the, 530; account of
the formation of its nest, ib.; materials, ib. ; dome,
531 ; comb, ib. ; pillars and stories, ib. ; cell, ib. ;
worms and their processes, ib. ; formidable to other
insects, and voracious, 532; effects of winter on the,
ib.; the solitary wasp, 533; its apartment, ib.; egg,
ib. ; provisions, ib. ; death, ib. ; emerging of the young,
ib.; account of the wasp of the West Indies, 534; the
tree wasp, 533, n.
Water, i. 65; its penetrating nature, ib.; absorption of
by various bodies, ib., n.; its subservience to vegeta-
tion, 66; rain-water, ib. ; spring-water, (>7; river-wa-
ter, ib.; stagnant, ib. ; sea-water, ib.; mineral and
medicinal, 68; impurities in, ib. ; operation of cold
and heat on water, 68 — 70; compression of, 70; fluid-
ity, ib. ; science of, or hydrostatics, 71 ; paradoxes in,
71 — 73; its ascent in fine glass tubes, 73.
Water-fowl, characteristics of, ii. 200; toes, ib. ; legs and
feathers, ib.; oil and skin, ib.; classification of, 201.
Water-hen, the, distinguished from the coot, ii. 197; the
bird described, ib., 198; its habitudes, ib.
Waves, velocity of, i. 90, n.
Way, how collected by the bee, ii. 516.
Weastl, its size and proportions, i. 411 ; description o;'
the, ib. ; its noxious nature and habits, ib. ; methodt
of stealing and eating its prey, ib., 412; parturition of
the, 412; effluvia, ib. ; affection for putrefaction, and
instance of, ib., 413.
Weasel kind, animals of the, their characteristics, i. 410;
fur, ib., 418; method of taming the, 41 1, n. ; anec-
dotes of the, 412, «.; their odorous glands, 410; habi-
tudes and shape, ib.; size, 41 1.
Weaver-fish, ii. 324. See Tracldnus.
Web of the spider, how formed, ii. 440, 441 ; of the gar
den- spider, 441 ; spun into thread, 442.
Werner, his theory of the earth, i. 17; classification of
rocks, 18.
Whale, its greatest size, ii. 2.50 ; its amazing appearance,
ib., 251 ; seven varieties of the, 251 ; the great Green-
land, described, ib., 2.53, n.; its skin, 2.51; tail, ib.;
searfskin, real skin, blubber, 252; cleft of its mouth,
ib.; whalebone, ib.; eyes, ib.; ears, ib.; spouts or nos-
trils, ib.; its internal structure, ib. ; fidelity, ib.; fe-
male and young, ib.,253; gregarious, ib ; food of the,
ib.; inofftusivcncss, 254: its enemies, ib.; historical
notice of the whale fishery, ib., 255, n. ; nations th'vt
INDEX.
fish the whale, 255; account of the Irish whale fish-
ery, ib., '256; whales diminishing in numbers, and the
effect, '256 ; the, how killed by the Biscayneers, ib.,
258; Scoresby's account of the whale, 25(> — 259, n.;
maternal affection of the, 259, n. ; uses of the oil and
greaves, 258; barb and flesh, ib. ; flesh, by what na-
tions prized, 260; the beluga, or white whale, ib.,«.;
the deductor, or ca'ing whale, 261, n.; the sperma-
ceti whale, 262, n.
Whale-louse, its injury to the whale, ii. 255.
Whelk, a small shell-fish, ii. 369, n.
Whimbrel, described, ii. i 94, n.
W/iip-snake, its appearance, ii. 423; venomous bite, ib.
Whirlpooli, i. 96. See Currents, the Maelstroom, &c.
Whiskers, veneration of the Spaniards and other nations
for, i. 173.
Whiston, his theory of the earth, i. 14 — 16.
White bait, fishery of the, on the Thames, ii. 316, n.;
found in the Frith of Forth, ib. ; general description
of, ib.; account of the appearance of, near London,
318; what they are, ib.
Whiting, a species of cod, described, ii. 300, n.
Widah, kingdom of, the serpent, how adored there, ii.
415.
Winds, i. 116; how produced, ib.; chiefly by the sun,
ib.; difficulty of a history of, 117; steadiness of, in
certain places, ib.; causes of, 117 — 119; history and
theory of trade- winds, 118, n. ; trade-winds, 121;
monsoons, 122 ; some winds peculiar to certain
coasts, 123 ; some change daily, ib.; east, why the
most powerful and constant, ib. ; on mountains, ib. ;
varied by the seasons, 124 ; its currents, how in-
creased, ib.; hot, 125; destructive, ib. ; in Persia, ib. ;
hurricane, ib.; tornado, 126; sand-storm, ib. ; storms
in Britain, ib.; in France, 127; sirocco, 128.
Wind-gun, account of the, i. 1 07.
Wings of birds, their conformation, ii. 2, 3; wings and
•wing cases of insects, 616.
Wistiti, kind of monkey, i. 508.
Wolf, the, distinguished from the dog, i. 398 and n. ;
period of gestation, ib. ; size, colour, and disposition,
ib.; antipathy to the dog, 390 ; their untameableness,
ib., 400; their generation, 400, 401 ; strength, 401;
suspiciousness, ib. ; how hunted, ib., 402; how extir-
pated from England, 402 ; where found, ib. ; the Nor i h
American, its tractability, ib., 403.
Wolf-fish, notice of the, ii. 299.
Wolf/a, the largest river in Europe, what remarkable in
the, i. 75.
Wolverine. See Glutton.-
Wwd, fossil, ii. 595.
Wood cock. See Cock of the wood.
a migratory bird, described, ii. 191, n.
Woodpecker, characteristics of the, ii. 101 ; colonies of
the, ib. ; green woodspite described, ib. ; tongue and
its use, 102; how it attacks ant-hills, 103; its nest,
ib.; young, ib.; hanging nests of the, in Guinea and
Brazil, 104; the g«>ld- winged, account of the confine-
ment of one, 105; ivory-billed \roocrpfeker, 103, «.;
gold-winced woodpecker, ll)4, n.\ red-headed wood-
pecker, ib., 1 05, n. ; downy woodpecker, 1 06, n.
Woodspite, green, ii. 102. See Woodpecker.
} Voodward, his theory of the earth, i. 1 4 ; of earthqua kc.°,
46.
Woody fibres of plants, ii. 601.
Wool, manufacture of, when commenced in Britain, i.
288; that of Merino sheep described, 295.
Worms, their motion, how effected by the spiral muscle,
ii. 5.59; what organs they want, ib.; eggs, ib. ; young,
ib.; avoid the animals that prey on them, 560; what
peculiar in them, ib.; reproduction by cutting, when
first observed, ib.
Wrasse, a prickly-finned fish, ii. 296.
Wren, ii. 1 53, n. ; golden-crested wren, ib. ; willow- wren,
ib. ; wood-wren, ib.
Wryneck, a bird resembling the woodpecker, ii. 1 03, n.
Wynkyn de Worde, his qualifications of a good grey-
hound, i. 391.
Xiphias, ii. 294. See Sword-fish.
Yawning, how produced, i. 1 70 ; its sympathetic nature,
^ib., 171, n.
Yellow-hammer, or Yettoii'-yeldring, a species of bunting,
ii. 151, n.
Young, courage and art of animals in defending their, i,
243.
Youth. See Puberty.
Zebra, its beauty and untameableness, i. 265 ; distinc-
tion between the zebra of the plains and the moun-
tain zebra, ib., n. ; original country of the, 265 ; its
shape and colours, ib. ; male described, ib. ; instances
of its fierceness, 266 ; reason why untamed, ib. ; swift-
ness of the, 267 ; instances of female zebras producing
mules, ib., n. ; its food, ib. ; voice, ib. ; value, ib.
Zeiran, a kind of gazelle, i. 308.
Zeus, or Doree, a prickly-finned fish, ii. 298.
Zibet, a variety of the civet, its distinguishing marks, i.
423.
Zoophytes, meaning of the term, ii. 557; what kind of
life they have, ib., 558 : how distinguished from
plants, ib., and ».; distinctions of the class, 558; classi-
fication, 562 — 567, «.; Blumenbach's description of
558, 559, n.
Zorille, a variety of the weasel kind, i. 421.
DIRECTIONS TO THE BINDER.
The plain Plates to be placed at the commencement of each volume agreeably to the subjoined list. — The
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VOLUME FIRST.
PORTRAIT OF G OLDSMITH Frontispiece.
ENGRAVED TITLE.
NATURAL SCENERY AND PHENOMENA N. H. 1
GEOLOGY .., . do. 2
Do.
do. 3
ORGANIC REMAINS ...- do. 4
Do. do. 5
MOUNTAINS... do. 6
MAN N.U. 7
Do do. 8
Do do. 9
Do do. 10
MAMMALIA do. 11
Do do. 12
Do do. 13
Do. . do. 14
COLOUEED PLATES.
ANTELOPES PI. 36, page 304
DEER PI. 37, " 318
WILD BOAR, &c .'.. PI. 38, " 344
LIONS, TIGERS, &c PI. 39, " 360
DOGS AND WOLVES PI. 40, " 384
SQUIRRELS PI. 41, " 436
SEALS PI. 42, " 481
MONKEYS PI. 43, page 489
KANGAROOS, &c PI. 44, " 560
ELEPHANTS PI. 45, " 515
RHINOCEROS, HIPPOPOTAMUS,
TAPIR, &c PI. 46, " 529
CAMELS PI. 47, " 535
BEARS Pi. 48, " 544
VOLUME SECOND,
PORTRAIT OF CUVIER
ENGRAVED TITLE.
ORNITHOLOGY .. . N. H. 15
Do
do.
16
Do
do.
17
Do
do.
IS
Do
do.
19
Do
do.
20
ICHTHYOLOGY
do.
21
Do
do.
22
CRUSTACEA
do.
23
MOLLUSCA
do.
24
REPTILES... . N. II. 25
ARACHNIDES, &c do.
ECHINODERMATA, &C do.
ENTOMOLOGY do.
Do do.
POLYPI do.
CONCHOLOGY do.
Do do.
Do do.
MICROSCOPIC OBJECTS do.
Do. do.
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
COLOUEED PLATES.
EAGLES PI.
EAGLES PI.
VULTURES PI.
FALCONS PI.
DOMESTIC FOWLS PI.
PEACOCK AND PHEASANTS PI.
TURKEYS PI.
GAME BIRDS PI.
WOODPECKERS PI.
BRITISH SONG BIRDS PI.
Do. Do PI.
HUMMINGBIRDS PI.
49, page 32
50, " 34
51, " 37
52, " 44
53,
54,
55,
56,
57,
58,
59,
60,
61
64
66
77
101
137
155
165
STORK, CRANE, &c PL 61, page. 171
WADING BIRDS PI. 62, " 204
GULLS PI. 63, " 210
DUCKS PI. 64, " 231
COD, HADDOCK, &c PI. 67, " 300
SALMON, &c PI. 65, " 303
HERRING, &c PI. 66, " 304
SERPENTS PI. 68, " 416
BRITISH BUTTERFLIES PL 69, " 499
BRITISHBEES PL 70, •' 512
BEETLES PL 71. " 541
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