A history of the first half-century of the National academy of sciences, 1863-1913

IONAL ACADEMY

A HISTORY

OF THE

FIRST HALF-CENTURY

OF THE

NATIONAL ACADEMY
OF SCIENCES

1863-1913

A HISTORY

OF THE

FIRST HALF-CENTURY

OF THE

NATIONAL ACADEMY
OF SCIENCES

1863-1913

WASHINGTON

1913

JSorb (gftfcttnore (p«ee

BALTIMORE, MD., IT. S. A.

COMMITTEE ON THE PREPARATION OF THE
SEMI-CENTENNIAL VOLUME

ARNOLD HAGUE, CHAIRMAN

RUSSELL H. CHITTENDEN WILLIAM TRELEASE

WILLIAM T. COUNCILMAN CHARLES D. WALCOTT

PREPARED AND EDITED BY
FREDERICK W. TRUE

Assistant Secretary, Smithsonian Institution

264133

PREFACE

MANY of the members of the National Academy of
Sciences, especially those elected in recent years, have
frequently expressed the wish to become acquainted
with its early history, particularly that of the formative period of
the organization, and also with the work it has done in behalf of
the Government. As the information on these subjects which can
be gathered from the early publications of the Academy is neither
in connected form nor very extensive, it was decided in 1909 to
have prepared for publication, in connection with the semi-cen-
tennial celebration of the Academy, a volume containing as com-
plete an historical summary as could be brought together in the
time available. A committee was appointed to take charge of the
matter, and in the summer of 1910 the services of Dr. Frederick
W. True were secured as editor.

Besides consulting the early records of the Academy, it was
necessary to seek information from outside sources. The work of
preparing this history, which has been arduous, is highly appreci-
ated by the members of the committee in charge, who have
realized the varied and baffling nature of the undertaking and
desire to express their approval of its accomplishment. It is be-
lieved that the information assembled in this volume will afford
a good insight into the nature of the activities of the Academy.
The bibliographical references which it contains will enable
those who desire more detailed knowledge to find it in the original
documents.

As the Academy has established a series of publications known
as the Biographical Memoirs, containing records of the lives and
works of its members, it has not been thought necessary to attempt
the preparation of new biographical sketches, but the volume con-
tains brief notices of the lives of the incorporators, or original

viii PREFACE

members, drawn chiefly from those included in the series men-
tioned.

It was hoped that a list of the scientific communications pre-
sented to the Academy during the half century, some two thou-
sand in number, with references to the places of publications,
might be added to the volume, but it was found impossible in
the time available to compile the necessary data. The comple-
tion of this undertaking is therefore necessarily deferred until a
later date.

ARNOLD HAGUE,

Chairman of Committee.

JANUARY 10, 1913.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xi

CHAPTER I

ERRATUM

Page 86, after "Report on the Awarding of the Henry Draper Medal to
George Ellery Hale " insert

" The Henry Draper Gold Medal, awarded to W. W. Campbell, of Lick
Observatory, Mount Hamilton, California, during the meeting of the National
Academy of Sciences, held in Washington, April 16-18, 1906."

ERRATUM

Page 341 under " Deceased Members", after Brown-Sequard insert BRUSH,
GEORGE JARVIS, elected 1868, died February 6, 1912.

IX

viii PREFACE

members, drawn chiefly from those included in the series men-
tioned.

It was hoped that a list of the scientific communications pre-
sented to the Academy during the half century, some two thou-
sand in number, with references to the places of publications,
might be added to the volume, but it was found impossible in
the time available to compile the necessary data. The comple-
tion of this undertaking is therefore necessarily deferred until a
later date.

ARNOLD HAOTTF..

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. . xi

CHAPTER I
THE FOUNDING OF THE ACADEMY i

CHAPTER II
THE ANNALS OF THE ACADEMY 25

CHAPTER III
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS 103

CHAPTER IV

THE ACADEMY AS THE SCIENTIFIC ADVISER OF THE GOVERNMENT. . . 201

APPENDICES

I. LIST OF OFFICERS 335

II. LIST OF MEMBERS AND FOREIGN ASSOCIATES 337

III. LIST OF MEDALISTS 346

IV. LIST OF REPORTS OF COMMITTEES APPOINTED ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 348

V. ACT OF INCORPORATION, CONSTITUTION, AMENDMENTS AND RULES 351

VI. TEXT OF BEQUESTS AND TRUSTS 361

VII. LIST OF PUBLICATIONS 374

VIII. LIST OF MEETINGS 385

IX

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

FACING
PAGE

HENRY WILSON, Senator from Massachusetts, and afterwards, Vice-President of the

United States, who introduced the bill incorporating the Academy 16

PRESIDENTS OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

ALEXANDER DALLAS BACHE (1863-1867) 32

JOSEPH HENRY (1868-1878) 48

WILLIAM BARTON ROGERS (1879-1882) 80

OTHNIEL CHARLES MARSH (1883-1895) 208

WOLCOTT GIBBS (1895-1900) 224

ALEXANDER AGASSIZ (1901-1907) 240

IRA REMSEN (1907-1913) 256

HENRY DRAPER MEDAL 272

LAWRENCE SMITH MEDAL 288

WATSON MEDAL 302

DIPLOMA OF THE ACADEMY , 320

HISTORY OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY
OF SCIENCES

1863-1913

CHAPTER I
THE FOUNDING OF THE ACADEMY

THE National Academy of Sciences owes its origin as
an organization, in an indirect manner, to the need
of the Government for technical scientific advice in con-
nection with the conduct of the Civil War. In February, 1863,
the Secretary of the Navy, Gideon Welles, appointed a " Per-
manent Commission," consisting of Joseph Henry, Secretary of
the Smithsonian Institution, Alexander Dallas Bache, Superin-
tendent of the Coast Survey, and Charles H. Davis, Chief of the
Bureau of Navigation, Navy Department, to report on various
" matters of science and art," but chiefly of a practical import and
relating to the physical sciences. These experts considered
numerous subjects, and gave their opinion regarding them.

The letter of appointment, which is preserved in the archives
of the Navy Department, is as follows:

" NAVY DEPARTMENT,

" February n, 1863.

" SIR: The Department proposes to organize upon the following programme
a permanent commission to which all subjects of a scientific character on which
the Government may require information may be referred.

" Propositions relative to a permanent scientific commission :

" 1st. There shall be constituted a permanent commission consisting of, for the
present, Commodore Davis, Professor Henry, and Professor Bache, to which shall
be referred questions of science and art upon which the Department may require
information.

" 2d. This commission shall have authority to call in associates to aid in their
investigations and inquiries.

" 3d. The members and associates of the Commission shall receive no compen-
sation for their services.

" You are directed to act as a member of the Commission in conjunction with
Professor Henry and Professor Bache.

2 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

" Such matters as are presented to the Department will be referred to you for
examination and report by the Commission.

" I am respectfully, etc.,

" GIDEON WELLES,

" Sec'y of Navy.
" COMMODORE CHARLES H. DAVIS,

" Chief of Bureau of Navigation." 1

Captain C. H. Davis, who published a life of his father, Rear-
Admiral Charles H. Davis, in 1899, wrote as follows regarding
the labors of this Commission :

" This commission was no sinecure, and was constantly in session, for it was at
this time that mechanical and scientific ingenuity was beginning to be felt in
application to naval construction and equipment, and to this commission were
referred the innumerable plans and proposals for new inventions and devices with
which the government at Washington was flooded. This commission is inter-
esting because it led to the establishment of the National Academy of Sciences." 2

From the designation " Permanent Commission," it might nat-
urally be inferred that this body was preceded by an organiza-
tion or board of a temporary character, but such appears not to
have been the fact. There was, apparently, but one Commission,
which owed its rather peculiar name to an endeavor on the part
of Admiral Davis to find a designation corresponding to the
term " Select Commission " sometimes employed by the British
Government.8

Admiral Davis was appointed Chief of the Bureau of Naviga-
tion in the Navy Department in July, 1862, and resided in Wash-
ington from November of that year until April, 1865. During
that time, according to Captain Davis, " he wrote home almost
every day." Among the published letters of this period are four
which throw a strong light on the steps which led to the organiza-
tion of the Permanent Commission and the Academy. They

1 Letters to Heads of Bureaus (manuscript), vol. 4, July 10, 1861, to December 17, 1868,

P- 153-

2 Davis, C. H. Life of Charles Henry Davis, Rear-Admiral, 1807-1877, by his son,
Captain Charles H. Davis. New York, 1899, p. 286. Captain Davis later reached the rank
of Rear-Admiral, but to distinguish him from his father, he is referred to below as Captain
Davis. See also G. Brown Goode, "The Smithsonian Institution, 1846-1896," p. 152.

8 See Admiral Davis' letter of February 24, 1863, quoted on p. 3.

FOUNDING OF THE ACADEMY 3

reveal the fact that the two organizations were closely associated
in the minds of their originators, and also that they came into
existence almost at the same time. It seems best, on this account,
to consider them in connection with each other rather than to
attempt to trace the beginnings of each organization separately.
The four letters referred to, as they appear in Captain Davis'
book, are as follows :

"February 2, 1863. How much have I told you, if anything, about a Per-
manent Commission or Academy? Bache, Henry, and myself are very busy on
this topic, and have made a move which will no doubt result in the Permanent
Commission. The Academy is more doubtful " (p. 289).

" February 20. Inclosed is a copy of the order creating the Permanent Com-
mission. But the Academy is to be introduced into Congress by Mr. Wilson
[Senator from Massachusetts]. The whole plan of it was arranged last night
between Mr. Wilson, Agassiz, Bache and Ben [Professor Peirce]. It was my
plan amplified and improved " (p. 289).

" February 24. I told you a word about the Academy in one of my notes, but
only a word, being in a hurry. The appointment of a Permanent Commission was
suggested to me by one of my letters, which quoted a passage from the British War
Office which spoke of a Select Commission; and when I mentioned it to Bache and
Henry they acquiesced, and the latter presented the plan to the department.
You saw, by the copy of the Secretary's letter to me, that our plan was accepted
without any change whatever. We had hardly got through this thing before the
idea flashed upon my mind that the whole plan, so long entertained, of the
Academy could be successfully carried out if an act of incorporation were boldly
asked for in the name of some of the leading men of science from different parts of
the country. This I submitted to Bache and Henry with details, but the view was
not immediately adopted. The next step was Agassiz coming to Washington as
one of the regents of the Smithsonian Institution. Then followed a visit to
Agassiz by Senator Wilson, who had nominated him to the regency. At this
meeting, which took place at Bache's, Ben, Bache, and Dr. Gould were present;
and it was there that the mode of proceeding was devised. Mr. Wilson intro-
duced the bill last Saturday " . . . . (p. 289).

" February 27 I am looking for Agassiz to come here and be intro-
duced to Admiral Foote, and then to go with me to the Capitol to see Mr. Grimes
about the Academy bill. I go to the President's once more, and I hope for the
last time, this morning.

" The dinner at Bache's was particularly pleasant, even for the chief's enter-
tainments, which never fail to be agreeable. Judge Loring, Mr. Hosford, and
Mr. Hilgard were there . ..." (p. 291).

4 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

" March 7 If the plan we first pitched upon had been followed, that

of creating the Academy with a dozen or twenty members, and allowing them to
organize and fill up the whole number by usual system of ballot, then the odium

of exclusion would have been divided and distributed You will perceive

at once that, on the plan I proposed, not only would the odium (if any) of
exclusion be numerously shared, but a wider and broader opinion and control
would have been brought to bear on selection, which would then have become
election. And this was due to the interests of the government and to the claims
of men of science " (p. 292).

In these letters the chronological order of the events narrated
is largely inverted, and, on the first perusal of them, the actual
sequence is not readily comprehended. They inform us that
Admiral Davis, having come to Washington in November, 1862,
heard and participated in various discussions among his scientific
associates of the need of a national scientific organization. Hav-
ing served as a member of various advisory boards, the idea
occurred to him not long before February 2, 1863, that the
organization might take the form of a Permanent Commission.
He at once broached the subject to Bache and Henry who agreed
that the plan was meritorious, while at the same time clinging
to the idea of founding an academy. Henry was so favorably
impressed with the commission plan that he immediately pre-
sented it to the Navy Department. This plan received the
prompt attention of the Secretary of the Navy, who issued an
order on February n, creating the Permanent Commission.

While awaiting the result of the Navy Department's con-
sideration of the plan to establish a scientific commission, the
idea occurred to Admiral Davis that an academy might be
organized by the simple process of asking Congress for its incor-
poration " in the name of some of the leading men of science
from different parts of the country." This idea was also pre-
sented to Bache and Henry, who, however, were not immediately
convinced of its merits. About this time Louis Agassiz, having
been nominated by Senator Henry Wilson, of Massachusetts,
a regent of the Smithsonian Institution, came to Washington
and met him on February 19, at the house of Professor Bache,
where were also assembled Professor Peirce, Dr. B. A. Gould

FOUNDING OF THE ACADEMY 5

and we may presume, Admiral Davis. The plan of incorporat-
ing an academy was discussed, and it was decided that Senator
Wilson should introduce a bill of incorporation, which he did on
Saturday, February 21. Admiral Davis asserts that the plan of
action adopted on this occasion was his own, " amplified and
improved."

While there is no reason to doubt the accuracy of the state-
ments regarding the organization of the Academy contained in
these letters, which were written while the events were taking
place, it is interesting to find that many of them are corroborated
by other documents.

That Louis Agassiz was nominated by Senator Wilson as a
regent of the Smithsonian Institution at the time mentioned by
Davis is verified by the record of the proceedings of the 37th
Congress contained in the Congressional Globe. From this
journal we learn that his name was proposed in the Senate by
Senator Wilson, of Massachusetts, on February 6, 1863, and that
the joint resolution providing for his appointment (Senate no.
126) was passed on that date; that this resolution passed the
House on February 19, 1863 ; and that it was signed by President
Lincoln on February 21.*

The date of the introduction by Senator Wilson of the bill
incorporating the Academy is also found to be correctly given in
Davis' letter. The Globe contains the following regarding it:

IN THE SENATE.

Friday, February 20, 1863. — " Mr. Wilson, of Massachusetts, gave notice of
his intention to ask leave to introduce a bill to incorporate a national academy of
sciences." 5

Saturday, February 21, 1863. — " Mr. Wilson, of Massachusetts, in pursuance
of previous notice, asked and obtained leave to introduce a bill (S. No. 555) to
incorporate the National Academy of Sciences ; which was read twice by its title,
and ordered to lie on the table, and be printed." e

The bill was passed by the Senate on March 3, 1863, without
discussion.7

4 Congressional Globe, tfth Congress, 30! Session, pp. 762, 1121, 1181.

5 Loc. cit., p. 1131.

8 Loc. cit., p. 1155.

T Loc. cit., pp. 1500, 1501. There was no report on this bill.

6 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

IN THE HOUSE.

March 3, 1863. — " Mr. Thomas, of Massachusetts. I ask the unanimous
consent of the House for leave to take up Senate bill No. 555, to incorporate a
National Academy of Science.

" There was no objection, and the bill was taken up, read three times, and
passed.

" Mr. Thomas, of Massachusetts, moved to reconsider the vote by which the
bill was passed ; and also moved that the motion to reconsider be laid on the table.

" The latter motion was agreed to." 8

The bill, having been passed by both Houses, was signed by
the President on the same day, Tuesday, March 3, 1863.

Upon examining the list of names of persons at the meeting
held at the house of Professor Bache on February 19, to arrange
the plan of incorporation, it will be noted that Joseph Henry is
not mentioned. One might suppose that his name was acciden-
tally omitted by Admiral Davis, but from remarks made later by
Henry it appears certain that he did not attend the meeting. In
his report as President of the Academy, for the year 1867, he
speaks as follows:

" I feel myself more at liberty to urge the claims of the Academy, inasmuch as
its members generally, including myself, took no step toward its establishment.
Indeed, I must confess that I had no idea that the national legislature, amid
the absorbing and responsible duties connected with an intestine war, which
threatened the very existence of the Union, would pause in its deliberations to
consider such a proposition." 9

Whether other motives than the mere doubt of the feasibility
of the plan for incorporating the Academy influenced Henry in
refraining from attending the meeting of February 19, can,
perhaps, not be discovered after the lapse of so many years. As
soon as the Academy had been established, he took an active
part in its proceedings, becoming chairman of the first com-
mittee appointed in 1863, and a member of two others appointed
in 1863 and 1864. He also read a paper at the first scientific
session of the Academy, in January, 1864, " On Materials of
Combustion for Lamps in Light-houses." His name does not,

8 Loc. «/., p. 1540.

9 Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1867. Sen. Misc. Doc. no. 106, 4oth Congress, 2d Session, 1868.
p. 5.

however, appear in the first list of officers of the Academy, nor
of the members of the Council.

While, as has been seen, many of the statements in Admiral
Davis' letters regarding the initial steps in the formation of the
Academy are substantiated by other records, the most important
one has yet to be considered. This is his claim that the practical
plan for bringing the organization into existence was his own,
though " amplified and improved," as he remarks, by the sug-
gestions of others.

It is not to be supposed that Davis intended to claim having
originated the idea of a national scientific association or academy.
This thought, as Goode has shown,10 was in the minds of Wash-
ington, Jefferson, Barlow, and other early American statesmen
and publicists, and led to practical results of large importance
through the activities of Franklin, John Adams and Poinsett.

Bache dwelt on the need of a national scientific organization
in his address as retiring President of the American Association
for the Advancement of Science, at Albany, in 1851, on which
occasion he said:

" But first a few observations on the ordinary modes of promoting science ; in
connexion with which, I would throw out for your consideration some reasons
which induce me to believe that an institution of science, supplementary to
existing ones, is much needed in our country, to guide public action in reference
to scientific matters

" It is, I believe, a common mistake to associate the idea of academical insti-
tutions with monarchial institutions. We show in this, as in many other things,
the prejudice of our descent. We have among us the two extremes of exaggerated
nationality and of excessive imitation; let us modify each by the other, and be
wise. A national institute is not necessary to Great Britain, with her rich and
powerful universities. Republican France has cherished her Institute, seeking

rather to extend than to curtail its proportions Nor does the idea of a

necessary connexion between centralization and an institution strike me as a valid
one. Suppose an institute of which the members belong in turn to each of our
widely scattered states, working at their places of residence and reporting their
results; meeting only at particular times, and for special purposes; engaged in
researches self-directed, or desired by the body, called for by Congress or by the

10 Goode, G. Brown, The Origin of the National Scientific and Educational Institutions of
the United States. Ann. Rep. Amer. Hist. Assoc. for 1889, pp. 53-161. 1890.

8 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Executive, who furnish the means for the inquiries. The detail of such an
organization could be marked out so as to secure efficiency without centralization,
and constant labor with its appropriate results. The public treasury would be
saved many times the support of such a council, by the sound advice which it
would give in regard to the various projects which are constantly forced upon
their notice, and in regard to which they are now compelled to decide without
the knowledge which alone can ensure a wise conclusion. The men of science who
are at the seat of government either constantly or temporarily, are too much
occupied in the special work which belongs to their official occupations to answer
such a purpose; besides, the additional responsibility which, if they were called
together, they must necessarily bear, would prove too great a burthen, considering
the fervid zeal, and I might almost say fierceness, with which questions of interest
are pursued and the very extraordinary means resorted to to bring about a
successful conclusion

" Our country is making such rapid progress in material improvements, that it
is impossible for either the legislative or executive departments of our Government
to avoid incidentally, if not directly, being involved in the decision of such
questions. Without specification, it is easy to see that there are few applications
of science which do not bear on the interests of commerce and navigation, naval
or military concerns, the customs, the light-houses, the public lands, post-offices
and post-roads, either directly or remotely. If all examination is refused, the
good is confounded with the bad, and the Government may lose a most important
advantage. If a decision is left to influence, or to imperfect knowledge, the worst
consequences follow.

" Such a body would supply a place not occupied by existing institutions, and
which our own is, from its temporary and voluntary character, not able to
supply." "

This declaration, which foreshadows so much of the program
of the National Academy organized twelve years later, must
have been well known to Admiral (then Lieutenant) Davis.
Indeed, it is probable that he listened to Professor Bache's ad-
dress when delivered in Albany, as he was present at the meeting
and read a paper himself on the solar eclipse of July 28, 1851.
The claim of Davis, therefore, was not that he was the first to
detect the need of a national academy of science, or to outline its
proper character and scope, but that he first hit on a practical
plan for bringing it into existence and for securing the initial
membership.

uProc. Amer. Assoc. Advanc. Sci., 6th Meeting, 1851 (1852), pp. xlvii-Ii.

FOUNDING OF THE ACADEMY 9

The more interesting question as to what scientific men were
the chief promoters of the Academy movement is not easy of
solution. Not only has the little coterie which is mentioned by
Davis as having arranged the plan of incorporation passed away,
but all the group of fifty incorporators. Of some of these men
no published biographies exist, and for others we have only brief
sketches and fragments of correspondence. Piecing together the
scraps and shreds of information scattered through many volumes
leads to no very satisfactory result. We may confidently believe
that, as Davis informs us, Bache, Peirce, Henry, Davis and B. A.
Gould were strongly imbued with the idea that some form of
national scientific organization, created by and bearing at least
a quasi-official relation to the Federal Government would be of
importance both to American science and to the Government.
It is more difficult to be assured as to others. The name of
Louis Agassiz should probably be added to the list, although the
idea seems tenable that his activities in behalf of the Academy
were prompted chiefly by a desire to aid his scientific associates
and friends. Marcou states that Agassiz " may be called one of
the founders, but not the ' prime mover ' " and intimates that he
took part in the plans for incorporation mainly to satisfy Bache.12

However this may be, he was sufficiently interested in the
Academy to accept the position of foreign secretary, to which
he was elected at the first meeting in 1863, and also to take an
active part in shaping the constitution and by-laws.13

Among those who have been mentioned as early promoters
of the Academy is J. Peter Lesley. In a biographical sketch of
his life read before the American Institute of Mining Engineers
in 1903, Benjamin S. Lyman remarks:

"About 1862 he [Lesley] and several of his scientific friends earnestly dis-
cussed the desirableness of forming a National Academy of Science, that should

^Marcou, Jules. Life, letters and works of Louis Agassiz, vol. 2, 1895, p. 157. Many
of Marcou's statements are erroneous, as, for example, that Henry Wilson was Vice-
President of the United States at the time of the incorporation of the Academy. They
can hardly be accepted unless corroborated by other testimony.

13 See Ames, Mary Lesley, Life and letters of Peter and Susan Lesley, vol. i, 1909, p.
419, where there is an amusing account of the meeting for organization.

10 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

be limited in number and more select than the American Association for the
Advancement of Science, and should have its meetings less encumbered with
unsatisfactory communications. He was decidedly in favor of the enterprise,
thinking that the exclusive character, and what might possibly be considered the
aristocratic appearance or desires of such an organization, would not be distasteful
to Americans, nor really inconsistent with their democratic principles. The
Academy was incorporated by the United States Congress in 1863, and he was
one of the original members, and continued to be a member throughout his life." "

The foregoing assertion of Lesley's early interest in the forma-
tion of an academy bears the impress of accuracy, but is some-
what at variance with a published letter of Mrs. Lesley, dated
March 8, 1863, as follows:

" Yesterday came an official letter from the Honorable Henry Wilson, naming
him [Lesley] as one of the corporators of the new National Academy of
Sciences, and asking his attendance at the first meeting in New York. This was
a very great surprise to Peter [Lesley], a thing entirely unsought and unsolicited,
and gives him pleasure." 15

It is quite in harmony with Lesley's unselfish and unassuming
character that his interest in the Academy should be entirely
impersonal.

There are some indications besides that contained in Lyman's
address, just quoted, that the question of forming an academy
was more or less widely discussed in 1862. In a biographical
sketch of Professor Benjamin A. Gould, written by A. McF.
Davis and published in 1897, the following remark is made:

" In 1862, he was appointed to reduce and compute the astronomical observa-
tions made at the Washington Observatory, and he was active both that year and
the next in promoting the establishment of the National Academy of Sciences, of
which he was an original member." 16

Doctor George W. Hill, in a letter addressed to Doctor Arnold
Hague, remarks of Admiral Davis and Professor Peirce :

"Ames, Mary Lesley. Life and letters of Peter and Susan Lesley, vol. 2, 1909, p. 469.
(Appendix D. Biographical sketch of J. Peter Lesley, by Benjamin Smith Lyman, Phila-
delphia, Pa. (New York Meeting, American Institute of Mining Engineers, October,
1903.).) (Published originally in Trans. Amer. Inst. Mining Engineers.)

15 Op. cit., vol. i, p. 419.

"Davis, A. McF. Benjamin Apthorp Gould. Proc. Amer. Antiq. Soc., April, 1897, p. 7.
(Also separate.)

FOUNDING OF THE ACADEMY II

" My impression is that these two men originated the idea of having a general
scientific society for the whole country which, as far as our democratic institutions
would allow, in imitation of those of Europe, should be under the patronage of
the government. This idea was probably broached as early as 1862. Of course
two men by themselves could not originate an academy and soon others were
drawn into the project. Bache, Henry, B. A. Gould and Agassiz were invited
to take part. It was decided that 50 should be the number of the members of
the new scientific body."

Others besides those already mentioned should be perhaps
included among the founders of the Academy, but it is certain
that not all who were named as incorporators participated in the
movement. We know that in several instances persons so named
were unaware that they had been designated until they had re-
ceived a letter from Senator Wilson advising them that they
were included in the list. One of the incorporators declined
membership in the Academy. It appears from the letters of
Davis that the list was made up at the preliminary meeting held
at the house of Professor Bache on February 19, 1863, or soon
afterwards, and caused some dissatisfaction when published in
the bill of incorporation.

It is perhaps an unnecessary task to endeavor to determine
who should be considered the head and front of the Academy
movement, but judging from contemporary evidence, this dis-
tinction probably belongs to Professor Bache. Arnold Guyot
speaks of him as " the enlightened and far-seeing head of the
Coast Survey " and " the founder of this Academy." "

E. S. Morse remarks: "Agassiz, Bache and Henry were the
leading spirits in originating the National Academy of
Sciences." The address delivered by Professor Bache at
Albany in 1851, a portion of which is quoted above (p. 7), con-
tains the first definite plan for the particular kind of academy
which was organized twelve years later. Doubtless many of its
features had been suggested by Bache's associates and friends,
and we know, indeed, that it was a frequent subject of discussion
among the scientific men of America for many years. Bache
himself remarked in 1863 that the need of such a body as the

"Biogr. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. 2, 1886, p. 70.
"Pop. Sci. Monthly, vol. 71, 1907, p. 548.

12 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

National Academy of Sciences had " long been felt by the
patriotic scientific men of the United States." Yet it was Bache
who first gave the project a definite form and published it to
the world. His plan cannot be said to have been copied from
those which were formulated by Franklin before the Revolu-
tion, or by Barlow, Adams or others in the early years of the
Republic, although, as a matter of course, they have some things
in common. The earlier projects related especially to the
founding of a national university, to initiating research in
branches of sciences which had not been cultivated in America,
or to aiding the Government in the exploitation and develop-
ment of the national domain, and were also concerned with
the study of political science, morals, literature and art.19 At

"The nearest approach to the Academy plan to be found in connection with the earlier
organizations is, perhaps, the proposition put forward by a committee of the National
Institute for the Promotion of Science in 1842. At a meeting of the National Institute, held
on August 8, 1842, the following report was made by a special committee, proposing to
establish an annual scientific convention at Washington:

" They proposed that a meeting of the learned men of our country, distinguished for their
attainments in the different sciences, particularly in those termed physical, should be held
annually at the seat of the General Government, at some early period of the session of
Congress, under the auspices of the [National] Institute, to communicate the results of
their inquiries, to compare their observations, and to promote the general interests of
science. It has seemed to the committee that this Institute affords an opportunity, which
ought not to be neglected, of concentrating the genius and learning of our country at a
common center, from which the beams of intelligence will radiate to gladden and bless the
land." (Proc. Nat. Institute, sd Bull., j). 335.)

"At the meeting of September 12, 1842, Mr. Poinsett, the president, proposed a series of
resolutions intended to put the recommendation of the report into effect. All of these
resolutions and reports .... were without avail." (Goode G. B. The Genesis of the
U. S. National Museum, in Rep. U. S. Nat. Mus. for 1891, p. 294. 1893. See also Proc.
Nat. Institute, 3d Bull., p. 336.)

The purposes of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences are set forth in its
charter, from which the following is an extract:

"That the end and design of the institution of the said Academy is, to promote and
encourage the knowledge of the antiquities of America, and of the national history of the
country, and to determine the uses to which the various national productions of the
country may be applied to promote and encourage medical discoveries, mathematical dis-
quisitions, philosophical enquiries and experiments; astronomical, meteorological and geo-
graphical observations; and improvements in agriculture, arts, manufactures and commerce;
and, in fine, to cultivate every art and science, which may tend to advance the interest,
honor, dignity and happiness of a free, independent and victorious people." Charter
granted May 4, 1780. (Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, vol. i,
1785, p. vii.)

FOUNDING OF THE ACADEMY 13

the time when the idea of a national academy first began to
take root, these needs had been more or less adequately met.
Colleges had been established in most of the States of the Union
and were in a prosperous condition, research had been prose-
cuted in nearly every branch of science, and commerce and
the development of the country had been encouraged by exten-
sive surveys and other activities of the Government. The objects
which the founders of the National Academy of Sciences had
in view were of a somewhat different character. What they
were can best be learned from those who were leaders in the
movement. In the third section of the act of incorporation it is
provided, that " The Academy shall, whenever called upon by
any department of the Government, investigate, examine, ex-
periment, and report upon any subject of science or art." In
the first report of the Academy to Congress, dated March 28,
1864, Professor Bache, the first President, remarked:

" The want of an institution by which the scientific strength of the country may
be brought, from time to time, to the aid of the government in guiding action
by the knowledge of scientific principles and experiments, has long been felt by the
patriotic scientific men of the United States. No government of Europe has been
willing to dispense with a body, under some name, capable of rendering such aid
to the government, and in turn of illustrating the country by scientific discovery
and by literary culture." 20

In the report for 1867, Joseph Henry, then President of the
Academy, refers to the objects of the Academy in the following
terms:

" The objects of this association are principally to advance abstract science, and ^
to examine, investigate, and experiment upon subjects on which information is
desired by the government.

" It was implied in the organization of such a body that it should be exclusively
composed of men distinguished for original research, and that to be chosen one of
its members would be considered a high honor, and consequently a stimulus to
scientific labor, and that no one would be elected into it who had not earned the
distinction by actual discoveries enlarging the field of human knowledge.

" The names of the fifty original members were included in the act of organi-
zation and were chosen from among those of the principal cultivators of science
in this country. For the appointment of these members the academy itself is not

20 Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1863 (1864), p. i.
3

14 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

responsible. It is, however, responsible for those who have since been and are still
to be elected ; and I am happy to say that in filling the large number of vacancies
which have been occasioned by death and resignation since the original organi-
zation, the principle before mentioned has been strictly observed, and no one has
been admitted except after a full discussion of his claims and a satisfactory
answer to the question, ' What has he done to advance science in the line of
research which he has especially prosecuted ? '

" The organization of this academy may be hailed as marking an epoch in the
history of philosophical opinions in our country. It is the first recognition by our
government of the importance of abstract science as an essential element of mental
and material progress." 21

It is obvious from the foregoing statements of Bache and
Henry, that two principal objects were uppermost in the minds
of the founders — to afford recognition to those men of science
who had done original work of real importance and thereby to
stimulate them and others to further endeavors; and to aid
the Government in the solution of technical scientific problems
having a practical bearing on the conduct of public business.

The idea that election to membership in a scientific associa-
tion incorporated by the Congress of the United States might be
regarded as a badge of distinction conferred by our Government,
similar to the honors bestowed by the monarchical govern-
ments of Europe, seems to have provoked more or less discus-
sion. By some, the bestowal of any such recognition was thought
to be inconsistent with democratic principles. Professor Henry,
however, was of the contrary opinion. In his report for 1867,
already quoted, he remarks:

" It is not enough for our government to offer encouragement to the direct
promotion of the useful arts through the more or less fortunate efforts of
inventors; it is absolutely necessary, if we would advance or even preserve our
reputation for true intelligence, that encouragement and facilities should be
afforded for devotion to original research in the various branches of human knowl-
edge. In the other countries scientific discovery is stimulated by pensions, by
titles of honor, and by various social and official distinctions. The French
academicians receive an annual salary and are decorated with the insignia of the
legion of honor. Similar marks of distinction are conferred on the members of the

21 Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1867 (1868), pp. i, 2. Sen. Misc. Doc. no. 106, 4oth Congress,
ad Session.

FOUNDING OF THE ACADEMY 15

academy of Berlin and that of St. Petersburg. These modes of stimulation or
encouragement may be considered inconsistent with our social ideas and perhaps
with our forms of government. There are honors, nevertheless, which in an
intelligent democracy have been and may be justly awarded to those who enlarge
the field of human thought and human power. Heretofore, but two principal
means of distinction have been recognized in this country, viz: the acquisition
of wealth and the possession of political power. The war seems to have offered a
third, in bestowing position and renown for successful military achievement. The
establishment of this Academy may be perhaps regarded as having opened a fourth
avenue for the aspirations of a laudable ambition, which interferes neither with
our national prejudices nor our political principles, and which only requires the
fostering care of government to become of essential benefit and importance
not only to this, but all the civilized countries of the world." 22

Whatever the merit of the views enunciated by Professor
Henry, no tangible evidence of distinction has been attached
to membership in the Academy, such as is connected with
high military, political or judicial station. The members of
the early American Geological Society were accustomed to
append the letters " M. A. G. S." to their names, corresponding
to the familiar " F. R. S." " F. L. S.," etc., of the Royal
Society and the Linnean Society of London, and other English
associations, but the practice has not obtained in connection with
the National Academy of Sciences.23

To be the scientific adviser of the Government was second
among the principal objects of the Academy, as laid down in
the act of incorporation in 1863. The country was then in the
throes of the Civil War, and the Government needed, as never
before, sound advice on technical scientific subjects, especially
such as had a bearing on naval and military affairs. Numerous
commissions were appointed, including the Permanent Com-
mission, already mentioned, and it was quite in harmony with
the purpose of these organizations that one of the chief duties
of the new academy should be to aid the Government wherever
scientific truths could be serviceable. It has been intimated

22 Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1867 (1868), pp. 3, 4. Sen. Misc. Doc. no. 106, 4oth Congress,
2d Session.

23 Goode, G. B. The origin of the National Scientific and Educational Institutions of the
United States. Ann. Rep. Amer. Hist. Assoc. for 1889 (1890), p. 68.

1 6 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

by one writer that this provision was included in the bill of
incorporation mainly to secure the passage of the bill, by convinc-
ing Congress of the practical utility of the Academy. This may
be in part true, but it does not explain the fact that the executive
branch of the Government immediately took counsel of the
Academy on a variety of subjects and has continued to do so
up to the present time.

In this connection, it is interesting to note the attitude of
President Lincoln and his Secretary of State, Seward, toward
the Academy, as shown by the following letter which was ad-
dressed to Professor Bache a few months after its organization :

" DEPARTMENT OF STATE,

"WASHINGTON, January 8, 1864.

" SIR : I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your note of the
7th instant, tendering to this department the aid of the Academy of Sciences in
any investigations that it may be thought proper to institute with a view to the
great reform of producing an uniformity of weights and measures among com-
mercial nations. Be pleased to express to the academy my sincere thanks for this
enlightened and patriotic proceeding, and assure them that, with the authority of
the President, I shall be happy to avail myself of the assistance thus tendered to
me, and to that end I shall at all times be happy to receive the suggestions of the
academy, or of any committee that may be named by it, in conformity with the
spirit of the note you have addressed to me.

" I am, Sir, your obedient servant,

" WILLIAM H. SEWARD.
" PROFESSOR A. D. BACHE,

"President of the National Academy of Sciences." 2*

That the founders of the Academy felt that it owed a duty to
the Government is shown by the rather singular provision which
was incorporated in the constitution, that each member should
upon his admission " take the oath of allegiance prescribed by
the Senate of the United States for its own members." This
matter of an oath of allegiance was by no means regarded as one
of slight importance, as is indicated by the animated discussion to
which it gave rise when the report of the committee on the consti-
tution was brought before the Academy at the first meeting.25

24 Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1863, p. xi.

25 See Ames, Mary L. Life of Peter and Susan Lesley, vol. i, p. 419.

FOUNDING OF THE ACADEMY IJ

In a letter dated April 23, 1863, Lesley writes :

" Some one argued that we would lose government patronage, unless we bid
for it with the oath ; I suspect it was only an unfortunate way of stating a higher
truth, that we are the children of the government, and the Academy is the creation
of the government, and owes it the oath of allegiance as its first duty." 20

In view of this evidence and the fact that several of the
original members of the Academy were conspicuous for their
services to the Government in connection with the War, it can
hardly be maintained that the offer of aid was merely a form
of words inserted in the bill of incorporation for the purpose
of inducing Congress to pass the measure.

This governmental relationship is one of the chief peculiar-
ities of the National Academy. Other scientific organizations
were founded whose membership was drawn from all parts of
the country, whose scope covered all branches of scientific re-
search, and whose transactions reflected credit on their member-
ship and on American science, but none could claim recognition
as the scientific adviser to the Government.

While to-day many scientific bureaus under the national
Government are in existence, the conditions were quite different
in 1863, when the Academy was organized. At that time the
only governmental organizations of this class were the Coast
Survey, the agricultural divisions of the Patent Office, and the
Naval Observatory. To-day technical information on a wide
range of subjects is available within the limits of the civil service.
Nevertheless, the legislative and executive branches of the
Government still continue to refer scientific matters of impor-
tance to the Academy year by year for information and advice.

On March 5, 1863, two days after the passage of the bill
incorporating the Academy, Senator Wilson addressed letters
to the fifty men of science whose names were mentioned therein,
advising them of their designation as incorporators, and re-
questing them to fix on a day when it would be most convenient
to meet in New York City for the purpose of organization.
This letter is printed in the first Annual of the Academy.27

28 Lor. cit., p. 420.

"Ann. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1863-4 (1865), p. 10.

1 8 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

More than three-fifths of the incorporators replied to this re-
quest, and on March 18, 1863, Senator Wilson, having given
consideration to the various dates suggested, selected April 22
as the day, and the chapel of the University of the City of New
York (now New York University) as the place for the meet-
ing.28 This meeting was called to order at 1 1 o'clock by Senator
Wilson who delivered the following address : 29

ADDRESS OF THE HON. HENRY WILSON
Delivered at the opening of the first session of the Academy, April 22, 1863.

" GENTLEMEN : I hold in my hand the Act, passed in the closing hours of the
Thirty-seventh Congress, ' To incorporate the National Academy of Sciences,' In
compliance with many kind requests I am here to call the corporators to order.
In rising to perform this agreeable task, I crave for a moment your indulgence.

" This Act, under which you have met to organize, incorporates in America,
and for America, a National Institution, whose objects, ranging over the illimitable
fields of science, are limited only by the wondrous capacities of the human intellect.
Such an institution has been for years in the thought and on the tongue of the
devotees of science, but its attainment seemed far in the future. Now it is an
achieved fact. Our country has spoken it into being, in this ' dark and troubled
night ' of its history, and commissioned you, gentlemen, to mould and fashion its
organization, to infuse into it that vital and animating spirit that shall win in
the boundless domains of science the glittering prizes of achievement that will
gleam forever on the brow of the nation.

" When, a few months ago, a gentleman whose name is known and honored
in both hemispheres, expressed to me the desire that an Academy of Physical
Sciences should be founded in America, and that I would at least make the
effort to obtain such an act of incorporation for the scientific men of the United
States, I replied, that it seemed more fitting that some statesman of ripe scholarship
should take the lead in securing such a measure, but that I felt confident I could
prepare, introduce, and carry through Congress a measure so eminently calculated
to advance the cause of science, and to reflect honor upon our country. I promptly
assumed the responsibility, and with such aid and suggestions as I could obtain,
I prepared, introduced, and by personal effort with members of both Houses of
Congress, carried through this act of incorporation without even a division in
either House.

28 Op. clt., p. IT. New York University at that time occupied a large building of light-
colored stone on the east side of Washington Square. The chapel was in this building.

29 Op. cit., pp. 12-15.

FOUNDING OF THE ACADEMY 19

" The suggestion was sometimes made that the nation is engaged in a fearful
struggle for existence, and the moment was not well chosen to press such a
measure. But I thought otherwise. I thought it just the fitting time to act. I
wanted the savans of the old world, as they turn their eyes hitherward, to see
that amid the fire and blood of the most gigantic civil war in the annals of nations,
the statesmen and people of the United States, in the calm confidence of assured
power, are fostering the elevating, purifying, and consolidating institutions of
religion and benevolence, literature, art and sciencfe. I wanted the men of
Europe, who profess to see in America the failure of republican institutions, to
realize that the people of the United States, while eliminating from their system
that ever-disturbing element of discord, bequeathed to them by the colonial and
commercial policy of England, are cherishing the institutions that elevate man
and ennoble nations. The land resounds with the tread of armies, its bright
waters are crimsoned, and its fields reddened with fraternal blood. Patriotism
surely demands that we strive to make this now discordant, torn, and bleeding
nation one and indivisible. The National Academy of Sciences will, I feel sure,
be now and hereafter another element of power to keep in their orbits, around
the great central sun of the Union, this constellation of sovereign commonwealths.

" This act of incorporation may not be, is not, perfect. The task has been one
of difficulty and delicacy. The number of members must be limited, while the
most eminent men of science must be recognized, and sectional claims harmonized.
If unintentional injustice has been done to any one, if msitakes have been made,
time will, I trust, correct the injustice and the mistakes. Changes will surely
come. ' Death is in the world,' and this original list of honored names will not
remain long unbroken. If men of merit have been forgotten in this act of incor-
poration, the Academy should seize the first and every occasion to right the
seeming wrong.

" This Academy is destined, I trust, to live as long as the republic shall endure,
and to bear upon its rolls the names of the savans of coming generations. Let it
then advance high its standard. Let it be as inflexible as justice, and as uncom-
promising as truth. Let it speak with the authority of knowledge, that pretension
may shrink abashed before it, and merit everywhere turn to it confident of
recognition.

" In the Providence of God, the Thirty-seventh Congress was summoned to the
consideration of measures of transcendent magnitude. It enacted measures, empow-
ering the government to raise hundreds of millions of dollars and millions of men,
to protect the menaced life of the nation and preserve the vital spirit of freedom.
It dealt with great questions of revenue and of finance. It obliterated an abhor-
rent system from the national capital, and engraved freedom upon every rood of
the national territory. It consecrated the public domain to homesteads for the
homeless and landless, and authorized the construction of a railway to unite the
Atlantic and the Pacific seas. The enactment of this act to incorporate the

20 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Academy of Sciences, was not the least in the long list of acts the Thirty-seventh
Congress gave to the country, which will leave their impress upon the nation for
ages yet to come. It was my fortune to take a humble part in these great measures
of legislation. It is a source of profound gratification to me, that, amid the pres-
sure of public affairs, I have been enabled to contribute something to found this
Academy for the advancement of the physical sciences in America. It will ever
be among my most cherished recollections, that I have been permitted through
your courtesy to unite with you in organizing this National Academy, which, we
fondly hope, will gather around it, in the centuries yet to come, the illustrious sons
of genius and of learning, whose researches will enrich the sciences, and reflect
unfading lustre upon the republic."

The official records of the Academy do not contain an account
of this first meeting or a list of the members who attended it.
The New York Commercial Advertiser of April 23, 1863, how-
ever, contains a list of the names and states that Professor Henry
was elected President pro tern., and Professor Caswell, temporary
secretary. The notice is as follows:

" THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

" The last Congress incorporated a National Academy of Science, in pursuance
of which the following thirty-one corporators of the institution assembled in the
chapel of the New York University for the purpose of organizing: — Prof. Agassiz,
Stephen Alexander, A. D. Bache, F. [A.] P. Barnard, J. T. [G.] Barnard,
U. S. A.; W. H. C. Bartlett, U. S. M. C.; Profs. Caswell, Coffin, Dana, C. H.
Davis, U. S. N.; Profs. Wazer [Frazer~\, Wolcott Gibbs, J. W. [Tkf.] Gilless
[GiV/fw], U. S. A. [17. 5. N.] ; B. A. Gould, Prof. Guyot, James Hall, Joseph
Henry, Hilyard [J. E. Hilgard], Hubbard, U. S. N. O.; Profs. Leidy, Lesley,
Newberry, Newton, Peirce, Vauman Rogers \Fairman Rogers], R. E. Rogers, W.
B. Rogers, L. M. Rutherford \_Rutherf urd~\, Joseph Saxton, B. Silliman, Jr.,
Joseph Winlock, U. S. Nautical Almanac Office. The number of corporators is
restricted to fifty. The meeting was called to order by Senator Wilson. Pro-
fessor Henry of the Smithsonian Institute \_sic~\ was chosen president pro tern.,
and Professor Caswell, temporary secretary. The proceedings were conducted
with closed doors."

This account is probably correct, except for slight errors
in the spelling of names, etc. We know that the number of
incorporators was 50. Senator Wilson stated that more than
three-fifths responded to his letter regarding the meeting, and
the number 31 in the newspaper article is therefore, quite prob-

FOUNDING OF THE ACADEMY 21

ably correct. Lesley informs us that Professor Henry was in
the chair, and mentions as being present also, Agassiz, Alex-
ander, Bache, Barnard, Caswell " the secretary," Frazer, Gould,
Leidy, Lesley, R. E. Rogers and W. B. Rogers, all of whom are
included in the Advertiser list.

The New York Daily Tribune of April 23, 1863, informs us
that Senator Wilson's address was followed by a brief statement
by Professor Agassiz of " the fundamental principles upon
which a permanent edifice of science should be based," also, that
a committee of nine was appointed to draft a form of organiza-
tion. The members of this committee, according to the New
York World of the same date were as follows: Caswell, Bache,
Rodgers, Gibbs, Frazer, Silliman, Jr., Gould, Peirce and
Agassiz. The Herald of that date states that the committee met at
the Brevoort House in secret session, and substitutes the names of
Henry and Winlock for Caswell and Gibbs. It also includes
Rogers, instead of Rodgers, which, as will be shown presently,
was correct.

Corroborating these newspaper items regarding the committee
on the constitution is a remark in Lesley's letter of April 23,
1863. "Yesterday I went down to the eight o'clock evening
session [of the Academy], at which we heard and began to vote
upon the constitution and by-laws, as reported by the committee
of nine appointed in the morning." 30 Further corroboration,
together with other interesting details, is found in a letter of
William B. Rogers, dated April 28, 1863, from which the follow-
ing is an extract:

" Of the fifty corporators named in the bill, thirty-two were present the first
day, and twenty-seven during the rest of the session. A committee of organization
was first appointed, consisting of nine, Bache being chairman, supported by Ben-
jamin Gould, Agassiz, Peirce, Benjamin Silliman, Frazer, etc., and to which I
also was admitted. The Constitution and Rules, most elaborately prepared, were
read from the MS. by Bache. There was no dissent on any important point,
unless when I made objection. One of the provisions made the tenure of the offices
of president, vice-president and secretary, for life. To this no one objected, and
I let it pass without voting until, the morning's task being closed, Bache was

80 Life of Lesley, vol. x, p. 419.

22 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

about shutting up his book. Then I rose, and calmly called their attention to
this clause, told them that to exact that would be to blast every hope of success,
and so impressed them with the responsibility of such a course that they voted
the term of six years instead of for life." 31

The article of the constitution which seems to have provoked
the most animated discussion was, as already mentioned, that
which provided that the members of the Academy should take
an oath of allegiance to the Government. This is not surprising,
when one recalls the condition of the country at the time. The
article was adopted, however, and the whole business of the
meeting was completed, including the adoption of the constitu-
tion and by-laws, and the election of officers in a session of
three days, ending on the afternoon of April 24.32 Lesley, in
his cautious spirit, remarks on " the splendid success of the
organization as it appears," and continues " Time will show how
much reality underlies this show. We have laid down the base
of a pyramid for the ages." Hubbard was more enthusiastic.
" A better three days for science were never spent," he writes
to his brother, " The inauguration of this Academy marks the
most important epoch ever witnessed by science in America."

The account of this first meeting, as given by Professor Bache
in his report as President of the Academy, is as follows :

" In pursuance of the provisions of that Act [of incorporation], the members
of the National Academy met in New York on the 22d of April, 1863, and com-
pleted their organization, renewing by their loyal oath their obligations to serve
their country and its constituted authorities to the best of their abilities and
knowledge, on such subjects as were embraced in their charter, and upon which
they might be consulted, and adopting a Constitution and Laws which they sup-
posed would enable them to carry on successfully the plans of Congress as
sketched in the charter.

" Providing for the full and deliberate consideration and arrangement of their
laws by a Committee selected for their capability in such a task, the Academy

31 Life and Letters of William Barton Rogers, edited by his wife, vol. 2, p. 161, 1896.

32 Although President Bache in his first report states that the constitution and by-laws
were adopted at this meeting, it seems probable that the action was informal, as they are
mentioned later in the same report, as having been "finally passed" on January 6, 1864.
(See p. 8.)

88 B. A. Gould, Eulogy on Joseph S. Hubbard. Ann. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1863-4 (1865),
p. 72.

FOUNDING OF THE ACADEMY 23

adopted the laws presented to their discussion, divided into Classes and Sections
for the consideration of matters of science, elected officers, and adjourned to a
stated day, the 4th of January, and to Washington, the National Capital, with
which they were henceforth to be connected in their membership of the National
Academy of Sciences." 3i

The organization for the year 1863 was as follows:

President, ALEXANDER DALLAS BACHE.
Vice-President, JAMES DWIGHT DANA.
Foreign Secretary, Louis AGASSIZ.
Home Secretary, WOLCOTT GIBBS.
Treasurer, FAIRMAN ROGERS.

CLASS OF MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS
Chairman, BENJAMIN PEIRCE.
Secretary, BENJAMIN A. GOULD.

CLASS OF NATURAL HISTORY
Chairman, BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, SR.
Secretary, J. S. NEWBERRY.

Council: CHARLES HENRY DAVIS, JOHN TORREY, LEWIS M. RUTHER-
FURD, J. PETER LESLEY, and the officers and chairmen of classes
ex officio.

In addition to considering the constitution and by-laws and
electing officers, the Academy at this first meeting appointed a
committee on the form of a diploma, on a corporate seal, and
on a stamp for books and other property, and also a committee
on the mode of electing foreign associates. The latter committee
did not report until January, 1864, and the former appears not
to have presented any formal report.

"Ann. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1863-4 (1865), pp. 48, 49.

CHAPTER II
THE ANNALS OF THE ACADEMY

IN chronicling the history of the Academy it has seemed de-
sirable to divide the half century into periods of ten years
each, although in some instances, for the sake of clearness,
the whole story of a transaction is given in one place without
regard to years.

1863-1867

The first meeting of the Academy held in New York on
April 22, 1863, was a meeting for organization. It was devoted,
as already shown, to the consideration of a constitution and
by-laws, the election of officers and a council, and the appoint-
ment of certain committees. In accordance with the provisions
of the constitution, the members arranged themselves in two
classes, (a) mathematics and physics, and (b) natural history;
and a chairman and secretary were elected for each class. Five
sections were included under each class. The assignment of
members to these sections seems not to have been thoroughly
carried out until the meeting of August, 1864, and even at that
date the names of several members do not appear under any
section. The names of the sections and the number of members
enrolled under each, which are matters of considerable interest,
are shown in the following table :

CLASS OF MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS Number of

Members

Sect. i. Mathematics 6

Sect. 2. Physics 6

Sect. 3. Astronomy, Geography and Geodesy 9

Sect. 4. Mechanics 6

Sect. 5. Chemistry 3

— 30
25

26 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

CLASS OF NATURAL HISTORY Number of

Members

Sect. I. Mineralogy and Geology 6

Sect. 2. Zoology 5

Sect. 3. Botany I

Sect. 4. Anatomy and Physiology 2

Sect. 5. Ethnology o

— 14

Total 44

It will be seen from the foregoing figures that the number of
members who joined the sections concerned with the physical
sciences was twice as large as the number which joined those
concerned with the natural sciences. This was due to the fact
that the Academy movement was promoted by the physicists
rather than the naturalists. As indicated by certain remarks
of Professor Bache and Senator Wilson, the original plan seems
to have contemplated the formation of an academy of physical
sciences.

It is interesting to notice that the paleontologists aligned them-
selves with geology rather than zoology. The section of botany
had but one member, and that of ethnology, none. Half the
membership, in so far as it was assigned to sections, assembled
in the first three physical sections, — mathematics, physics, and
astronomy (with geography and geology) .

The first scientific session of the Academy, following the
meeting for organization, was held in Washington on January
4 to 9, 1864, in the Capitol, in the rooms of the Pacific Rail-
road Committee of the Senate which were placed at the disposal
of the Academy. In the interval between these two meetings,
however, six committees on technical subjects had been ap-
pointed. These reported at the January meeting, and in three
cases the reports were adopted and the committees discharged,
while in the other three the committees were continued. Four
additional committees were appointed before the close of 1864.
The work of these committees and of others appointed sub-
sequently forms the subject of a later chapter. The importance
of the scientific committees was felt by President Bache, who

ANNALS OF THE ACADEMY 27

considered that it was largely through their activities that the
Academy was to fulfil its functions. In his report for 1863 he
remarks:

" The first trial of the working of the Academy was to be made, and the first
effort was to be through the action of a Committee on Weights and Measures,
for the appointment of which, to consider the subject of the ' Uniformity of
Weights, Measures and Coins, considered in relation to domestic and inter-
national commerce,' the Academy had been addressed before its adjournment by
the Hon. Secretary of the Treasury, S. P. Chase.

" It was obvious that the only effective and prompt mode of action by members
scattered over the United States, as were the fifty named in the charter, must be
through committees. Action must originate with committees, and be perfected by
discussion in the general meetings of the Academy, or in the classes or sections.
Decisions to be finally pronounced by the entire body." 1

For the first time, the Academy listened to the reading of
scientific papers by its members. In the program were in-
cluded the names of Agassiz, Alexander, Bache, F. A. P.
Barnard, J. G. Barnard, B. A. Gould, Henry, Peirce, Ruther-
furd and Strong. The subjects of the 16 papers that were pre-
sented were all connected with the physical sciences, except
three by Professor Agassiz (two of which related to fishes and
one to individuality among animals), and one by Stephen
Alexander on the forms of icebergs. The preponderance of
physical subjects is not surprising, when it is recalled that two-
thirds of the membership at this time were enrolled in the class
of mathematics and physics.

The papers were referred to the Committee on Publication,
which was instructed to " take order " for their publication,
while the Council was directed to provide the means. The
Academy was at this time without funds, except the amounts
received from members as dues, and the orders could not, there-
fore, be carried out immediately. It was not until 1866 that
the first volume of the Memoirs of the Academy was issued, and
this contained but two of the 16 papers read at the first scientific
meeting in 1864. It was proposed in 1866 to collect and pub-

1 Annual Report of the President for 1863. Ann. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1863-4 (J865), p. 4.9.

cue

28 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

lish the minor papers in the Proceedings of the Academy, but
this action was never taken, the first issue of the Proceedings
having been devoted to the reports and minutes.

Besides formally adopting a constitution and by-laws, acting
on reports of scientific committees, and listening to scientific
communication, the Academy transacted other important busi-
ness at the meeting of January, 1864. It elected the first foreign
members, or " Foreign Associates," as they were styled in the
constitution. The by-laws provided that not more than ten
Foreign Associates might be elected at any one meeting, and the
Academy proceeded at once to elect this number. This first list
comprised Sir Wm. Rowan Hamilton, Karl Ernst Von Baer,
Michael Faraday, J. B. Elie de Beaumont, Sir David Brewster,
G. A. A. Plana, Robert Bunsen, F. W. A. Argelander, Michel
Chasles and Henri Milne-Edwards.

The Academy had not been in existence six months when
it lost one of its original members, Professor Hubbard, one of
the youngest of the incorporators, who died on August 16, 1863,
at the age of 46 years. The event was reported at the meeting
of January, 1864, and in accordance with the by-laws, Dr. B. A.
Gould was appointed to prepare a biographical notice. This
notice, the first of the series of biographical sketches published
by the Academy, was read at the New Haven meeting, August
5, 1864, and printed in the first Annual.2

In accordance with the by-laws, the death of three eminent
scientific men of the country not members of the Academy was
announced at the meeting of January, 1864, and three members
were appointed to prepare biographical sketches. Only two of
the sketches appear to have been presented, however, and the
practice was not continued in subsequent years, doubtless on
account of the burden which it imposed on the membership, and
the lack of funds for printing.

Of the second session of the Academy for the year 1864,
which was held in New Haven on the 5th and 6th of August,
little has been recorded, beyond the fact that ten papers were

2 PP. 71-112.

29

read, including the two biographical sketches of non-members
already mentioned. Of the remaining eight papers, all but
one related to the physical sciences.

The Academy lost three more of its original members dur-
ing the year 1864, Edward Hitchcock, who died on February
27, Joseph Gilbert Totten, who died on April 22, and Benjamin
Silliman, Sr., who died on November 24. Biographical notices
of them were published in the Annual.

The year 1865 was signalized by the publication of the first
Annual, a pamphlet of 112 pages in duodecimo form, which
appeared between January i, and February 13. It contained
the Act of Incorporation, the constitution and by-laws, a list
of officers, members, foreign associates and committees, the
first report of the President, and a eulogy of J. S. Hubbard,
one of the incorporators. As the Academy was without funds,
the expense of printing was met by contributions of individual
members, and in accordance with a vote of the Academy it was
distributed to members of both houses of Congress, and to the
heads of departments of the Government.3

Although the eighteenth by-law of the Academy provided
that the Annual should be published on the first day of each
year, this first number did not appear until the Academy had
been in existence nearly two years, and only two additional
numbers were issued, dated, respectively, 1866 and 1867. The
by-law, or rule, as it was afterwards called, remained in force,
however, until 1896, when it was finally stricken out.4

The year 1865 was further characterized by the fact that
no requests for the investigation of scientific matters were re-
ceived from the Government and no new scientific committees
appointed.

Thirty-four papers were read at the scientific sessions of this
year, or somewhat more than were presented in 1864. The pro-
gram covered a much wider scope than that of the preceding year.
While astronomy, physics and mathematics were well repre-

sProc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. i, 1877, p. 43.
* Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1896, p. 10.

30 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

sented, ten papers on geological subjects were presented, four
papers on zoology, two papers relating to anthropology, etc.

The Academy lost one of its original members this year,
James Melville Gilliss, who died on February 9, 1865. It was
also unfortunate as regards the presiding officers, President
Bache having been in ill health, and the Vice-President, James
Dwight Dana, having been forced to resign on August 23, from
the same cause.5 The report to Congress on the operations of the
Academy during 1865 was submitted by Professor Henry.

As in the preceding year, the Washington meeting of the
Academy was held in the Capitol. The August meeting was
held at Northampton, Massachusetts. Few details have been
recorded regarding either of these meetings. From Lesley's
letters we learn that the Northampton session opened with 13
members present, which number increased to 20 on the follow-
ing day. This session opened on August 23, and closed on the
afternoon of the 26th.

The division of the membership between the two classes
" Mathematics and Physics " and " Natural History " under-
went few changes in 1865, but the section of " Ethnology " came
into actual existence through the assignment of one member
thereto. Advantage was also taken in several sections of a
provision of the constitution whereby members assigned to the

8 Professor Dana's reasons for resigning are mentioned in letters written by him to Pro-
fessor Baird and Professor Guyot. On December 10, 1864, he wrote to Professor Baird:
"As the time for our January (1865) meeting of the National Academy approaches, I
become more and more convinced that I ought not to encounter the labor and fatigue of the
occasion. Had I no duties but those of a private in the Academy I should have less fear.
But with the cares of President, which involve meetings of council, as well as all
business meetings, at least, of the Academy, and much more of an outside nature, I am sure

I should be unwise to risk attendance I should much prefer now to throw up the

position ; for besides my incapabilities from imperfect health, I should enjoy myself far more
if I could have my time and strength to mingle socially with the members present." (The
Life of James Dwight Dana, by D. C. Oilman, 1899, pp. 362, 363.)

To Professor Guyot he wrote on February 14, 1865: "I wish most heartily I were out
of the office of Vice-President, and I think I shall take an early opportunity to abdicate.
It makes the meetings, now that Bache is unwell, times of great fatigue for me, and of no
satisfactory intercourse with friends on the ground. I dislike the duty, and care nothing
for the honor of it. You will not be surprised, therefore, if my resignation is handed in not
long hence." (Op. cit., p. 329.)

. 31

various sections could be elected honorary members of others.
Thus, a member of the section of chemistry was elected to the
section of botany, a member of the section of mathematics to
the section of astronomy, etc.

The year 1866 found the Academy without presiding officers.
The first President, Professor Bache, continued in ill-health
and was unable to attend the meetings, and the Vice-President,
J. D. Dana, as already mentioned, resigned in August, 1865,
from the same cause. The Academy being thus without presid-
ing officers, proceeded on January 25, 1866, to elect Joseph
Henry as Vice-President. " On taking the chair, Mr. Henry
stated that while he was highly honored by the election, he felt
much hesitation in accepting the office, since his duties in con-
nection with the Smithsonian Institution were more than
sufficient to occupy his attention, and that he could only accept
the responsible position with the understanding that he would
be permitted to retire as soon as the president should be able
to resume his duties, or his place could be filled by another."
As the event proved, however, Henry did not retire, but re-
mained at the head of the Academy for twelve years.

The Academy lost another of its original members, Augustus
A. Gould, who died on September 15, 1866.

This year again the Government sought the advice of the
Academy on technical scientific matters and two committees
were appointed, one on the improvement of the harbor of San
Juan del Norte, or Greytown, in Nicaragua, and the other on
proving and gauging spirits subjected to duty. Both committees
presented reports, which were published in the annual report
of the Academy, that relating to the gauging of spirits being
voluminous and detailed.

Thirty-eight papers were presented for discussion at the two
scientific sessions held in 1866, or a few more than were included
in the programs of the preceding year.7 The subjects covered
a wider range than those of the preceding year. The greatest

"Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1866, p. i. Sen. Misc. Doc. no. 44, 4oth Congress, ist Session.
T Including three biographical sketches.

32 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

number of papers were on astronomy, followed by zoology,
physics and geography.

The Academy this year for the first time voiced its interest
in scientific activities outside its own sphere by passing resolu-
tions expressing satisfaction at the action of the Government
in authorizing the employment of metric weights and measures,
and recommending that the metric system be taught in the
public schools, and be made a subject of examination for admis-
sion to colleges and universities ; and also " that the Academy
considered it highly desirable that the discretionary power
granted by Congress to the Postmaster-General to use the
metrical weights in the post-offices be exercised at the earliest
convenient day." Another resolution was adopted, commending
the generosity of Nathaniel Thayer, of Boston, in fitting out an
expedition to South America under the conduct of Professor
Agassiz.

The summer meeting was again held at Northampton, Massa-
chusetts. Few details regarding it have been recorded, but it
was referred to by one who was present as " a brilliant meeting."

An important event of the year 1866 was the publication of
the first volume of the Memoirs of the Academy. It was in
quarto form and comprised 342 pages. The volume contained
five articles, three on astronomical subjects, one on the distri-
bution of certain diseases in the United States and another on
rifled guns. It was distributed through the Smithsonian Insti-
tution to 34 libraries in the United States and 24 in other
countries. A second number of the Annual was also published.

The events of 1867 were numerous and important. At the
opening of the year, in February, the Academy lost its first
President, Professor Bache. In his report as Vice-President,
Professor Henry remarked: " During the past year the Acad-
emy has been called upon to mourn the loss of its distinguished
president, Alexander Dallas Bache. This eminent savant de-
voted his life industriously to the advance of science, and may
be said to have fallen a martyr to the cause of his country in the
hour of its peril." Bache was one of the principal leaders, if

ANNALS OF THE ACADEMY 33

not the prime mover, in the formation of the Academy, and
his deep interest in its work is indicated by the fact that he
bequeathed his estate to the Academy as a fund for the promotion
of researches in the natural and physical sciences. His original
intention was to place the fund under the control of a board, or,
in case the board failed to act, that the trustees of the estate
should apply the funds to the purposes specified, under the
direction of the American Philosophical Society. Soon after
the organization of the National Academy, however, on July
15, 1863, he added a codicil to his will which reads as follows:

" ITEM: My will is that, upon the death of my wife, all the rest and residue
of my estate 8 shall be paid over to and vest in the corporation of the National
Academy of Sciences, incorporated by act of Congress, passed the 3d day of
March, A. D. 1863, whom I hereby appoint trustees in the place of my said
executors under the fourth clause of my said will, to apply the income, according
to the directions in the said clause contained, to the prosecution of researches in
physical and natural science by assisting experimentalists and observers in such
manner and in such sums as shall be agreed upon by the board of direction in the
said clause named." 9

Mrs. Bache died in February, 1870, and in 1871 the treasurer,
Fairman Rogers, reported that the amount handed over to him
by the executors of the estate of Professor Bache was $40,515.07,
" together with an annual ground rent of $102, and some lands
in Missouri not now [then] available." 10 In 1879, this amount
was increased by $4650, on the death of Henry Wood Bache, a
nephew of Professor Bache, who was a beneficiary under the
will of Mrs. Bache.11 The income of the original fund
amounted in 1872 to about $2500. The first allotment for
scientific research was made in 1871 by the board having the
fund in charge, the chairman of which was Joseph Henry.
The amount of the grant was $500, and was the first of a series
made to Professor J. E. Hilgard in connection with the mag-
netic survey of the United States.

8 The property excepted was a house in Washington, which he gave to his sister, but
with the provision that after her death and that of his wife it should also pass to the
Academy.

9 Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1867, p. n. Sen. Misc. Doc. no. 106, 4oth Congress, zd Session.
10Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. i, p. 81.

11 Loc. cit., p. 156.

34 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Through this bequest, the Academy was put in possession of
an important instrumentality for the promotion of scientific
research, and nearly every year, for forty years, the Academy
has granted one or more allotments for investigations in various
branches of science, but chiefly in physics and astronomy. By
1889 the number of allotments had risen to 79, amounting in all
to more than $38,000." Professor Bache's generous action has
not only been of direct benefit to American science, but has sug-
gested other bequests and donations to the Academy, through
which research has been stimulated and aided.

Besides the death of Professor Bache, other important changes
had taken place in the membership of the Academy between
1863 and 1867. Of the fifty incorporate rs eight had died, namely,
Hubbard, Totten, Hitchcock, Benj. Silliman (senior), Gilliss,
A. A. Gould, Bache and Alexander. Eleven members had
resigned, and in accordance with the provisions of the consti-
tution, two were constituted honorary members on account of
age or remoteness from the places of meeting.

The January meeting for 1867 was held as usual in Washing-
ton and 17 members were present. Only seven papers were read
at this meeting, the smallest number presented at any meeting
since the organization of the Academy. Resolutions were
again passed recommending that the metric system of weights
and measures be taught in the public schools and higher institu-
tions of learning; and, in addition, registering the opinion that
it was highly desirable to employ metric weights in the post-
offices " at the earliest convenient day."

At the August meeting of 1867 a resolution signed by eight
members was offered, requesting that Congress should be asked
to amend the act incorporating the Academy so that the member-
ship could be increased beyond fifty. The resolution was dis-
cussed at this meeting and referred to the Council. At the next
session, on recommendation of the Council, it was rejected. The
matter did not rest here, however, for at the meeting of April,
1870, it was brought forward again, and this time unanimously
adopted by the Academy.

"Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. i, p. 317.

ANNALS OF THE ACADEMY 35

At the summer session the Committee on Weights and
Measures was authorized and directed " to communicate with
individuals and corporations representing the various trades
throughout the country tendering advice and assistance in any
efforts they may be disposed to make in regard to the introduc-
tion of the metric weights and measures."

The summer session this year was held in New Haven, 17
members being in attendance. A singular feature of the scien-
tific program was that of the 29 papers read, 10 were by Professor
Agassiz and related chiefly to fishes. The remaining papers,
with two exceptions related to the physical sciences.

A third number of the Annual of the Academy was published
in 1867, after which it was discontinued.

1868-1872

Professor Henry continued during 1867 to preside over the
meetings of the Academy in the capacity of Vice-President, but
in January, 1868, he was elected President, and held that posi-
tion for 1 1 years. At the same time, Wm. Chauvenet was elected
Vice-President. The resolution to increase the membership
was brought up again at this time, but was rejected. The feel-
ing appears to have prevailed, however, that a larger attendance
was desirable, and action was taken authorizing the President
to invite as many persons not belonging to the Academy as he
might think proper, while each member was privileged to invite
a number not to exceed five. The time of the first session was
by resolution changed from January to the second week in April,
while that of the second session was changed from summer to
fall, usually October or November. This new arrangement of
meetings was put into effect in 1869 and has continued in force
to the present.

Not content with passing resolutions regarding the use of
the metric system of weights and measures, the Academy in
1868 appointed a committee to wait upon the Postmaster-Gen-
eral and urge their adoption in the post-offices. It appears from
the records that the communication of the committee was

36 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

listened to with attention, but no action was taken by the Govern-
ment at that time.

The Committee on Weights and Measures was also requested
to consider certain changes in the coinage that had been pro-
posed, and was authorized to communicate its views to Con-
gress.

A committee was appointed by the Academy in 1868 in con-
nection with the total eclipse of the sun which was to occur the
following year and would be visible in the United States. The
observations on this important eclipse, during which the presence
of the new element, coronium, was discovered in the sun's corona,
led to the presentation of four papers relating thereto at the
following session of the Academy, held at Northampton from
August 31 to September 3, 1869.

In the year 1868 the number of asteroids discovered by astron-
omers had reached 101, and the Academy appointed a committee
to give names to those bearing the numbers 100 and 101. The
name Hecate was chosen for the former, and Helena for the
latter.

The Academy lost another of its original members in 1869,
Theodore Strong, and two others, Frazer and Caswell, resigned
and were placed on the list of honorary members. As showing
its continued interest in astronomical investigation, the Acactemy
this year appointed a committee to consider the completion and
publication of Gilliss' observations of zones of stars around the
South Pole. A committee was also appointed to determine
whether the magnetic observations made by Harkness while on
board the monitor Monadnock were suitable for publication.

The latter observations were made by Professor William
Harkness under an order of Rear-Admiral John Rodgers,
U. S. N., during a cruise of the Monadnock from Philadelphia
to San Francisco, by way of the Straits of Magellan, beginning
in October, 1865. This detail was made by the Navy Depart-
ment upon the recommendation of so-called " Compass Com-
mittee " of the Academy, which was concerned with questions
of magnetic deviations in iron vessels. " The investigation was

ANNALS OF THE ACADEMY 37

undertaken because the vessel was heavily armored and the
voyage extended far into both hemispheres, thus affording a
favorable opportunity of submitting Poisson's theory of the
deviations of compasses on iron ships to the test of rigorous
observations, which had never been done before." The obser-
vations were published in the Smithsonian Contributions to
Knowledge,™ with the following prefatory note by Joseph
Henry:

" This paper was originally an official report presented to the Navy Department
by Professor Harkness; but, as that department made no use of it, the National
Academy of Sciences, in August, 1867, passed a resolution asking for the manu-
script. This request was complied with; and, an abstract of the paper having
been read to the Academy in April, 1869, it was referred to a commission
consisting of the President of the Academy, Professors J. H. C. Coffin, and
F. Rogers, in accordance with whose recommendation it is now published by the
Smithsonian Institution." 14

About 40 papers were read at the two sessions of 1869 and
an equal number the preceding year. They covered a very wide
range of topics, but the majority related to the physical sciences.

Although in 1868 the Academy rejected the proposition to
have the restriction on the number of members removed, the
subject was revived in 1870 and met with favorable considera-
tion. A resolution was unanimously passed providing that
" a memorial be addressed by the President of the Academy to
the Congress of the United States, asking for the amendment of
its charter in such manner as to remove the restrictions to the
number of its members." The matter was presented to Congress
on May 4, 1870, by Senator Henry Wilson, and the amend-
ment asked for was granted in an act approved on July 15,

13 Vol. 18, 1873. The paper was accepted for publication on September 18, 1871. The
signatures are dated from December, 1871, to January, 1873.

14 The resolution asking for the manuscript will be found in the Report of the National
Academy of Sciences for 1867, page 9 (4oth Congress, 2d Session. Sen. Misc. Doc. no. 106).
The preface above quoted is not in accord with the Proceedings, which, on page 73, state
that the committee was appointed in April, 1869, also (page 75) that Professor Harkness
read a paper on magnetic deviations in iron ships, in April, 1870, and not in April, 1869.
In both the Proceedings and the Report, the vessel is incorrectly referred to as the
Miantonomah.

38 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

iSyo.15 The amendment was accepted by the Academy on the
following year and in 1872, upon the adoption of an amended
constitution, 25 new members were elected, having been selected
from a list of 29 names submitted by the Class of Mathematics
and Physics, and 18 names submitted by the Class of Natural
History. A resolution was adopted, however, that after 1872
only five members should be elected at any one session of the
Academy.

The year 1870 was further marked by the important cir-
cumstance, already mentioned above, that the Bache Fund be-
came available. The first allotment from the income which
it afforded was made in the following year, in connection with
the magnetic survey of the United States.

A committee was appointed this year to consider measures
to secure the successful observation of the short transit of Venus
of 1874. The Academy also expressed, in a resolution, its
gratification at the appointment by the Government of the
Argentine Republic of Dr. B. A. Gould, one of the original
members of the Academy, as the director of the new national
astronomical observatory at Cordoba.

The second Vice-President of the Academy, William Chau-
venet, died in December, 1870, and the office remained vacant
until 1872, when Wolcott Gibbs was elected to succeed him.

A committee to revise the constitution and the by-laws of the
Academy in accordance with the act of Congress, approved
July 14, 1870, amending the original act of incorporation, re-
ported in 1871. This report was referred to the Council which
in 1872 brought it again before the Academy. The constitution
and rules, as amended, were unanimously adopted on April

"July u, 1870. "On motion of Mr. Wilson, the Senate, as in Committee of the
Whole, proceeded to consider the bill (S. No. 881) to amend the act to incorporate the
National Academy of Sciences. It directs that the act to incorporate the National Academy
of Sciences, approved March 3, 1863, be, and the same is hereby, so amended as to remove
the limitation of the number of ordinary members of the Academy as provided in the act.

" The bill was reported to the Senate without amendment, ordered to be engrossed for a
third reading, read the third time, and passed." (Congressional Globe, 4ist Congress,
2d Session, part 6, p. 5437.)

The bill passed the House without objection on July 14, 1870, and was approved
July 15, 1870.

ANNALS OF THE ACADEMY 39

17 of that year. While many of the changes introduced modified
the organization of the Academy, they did not affect its char-
acter or scope. The whole system of classes and sections was
abolished, members were no longer required to take an oath of
allegiance to the Government, and the provisions for impeach-
ing and expelling members were omitted. The limitation in
the number of members was removed, in accordance with the
amended act of incorporation, and various changes were made
in the manner of electing members. The time of meeting in
Washington was changed from the third day of January to the
third Tuesday in April. Persons not members were permitted to
read papers upon invitation of the Academy. A clause was
added to the constitution providing that " bequests and trusts
having for their object the advancement of science may be
accepted and administered by the Academy."

As already mentioned, immediately upon the adoption of the
revised constitution in April, 1872, twenty- five new members
were elected. In a letter to the President of the Senate, dated
February 23, 1873, Joseph Henry, President of the Academy,
remarked on this action as follows:

" The enlargement of the Academy has already had a most beneficial effect in
stimulating the zeal of the younger men in the country who are devoted to scien-
tific pursuits. A large number of the most valuable papers were contributed by
the younger members at the recent session in Cambridge [November, 1872], and
it is evident that the usefulness of the Academy is largely increased by being
brought into closer sympathy with all the cultivators of science in the country." 18

For lack of communications, or for some other reason, no
scientific session was held in the fall of 1870 or 1871, and at that
of April, 1872, only six papers were presented, one of them
being a biographical memoir. It appears probable that the
enlargement of the membership of the Academy was intended,
in part, at least, to offset the waning interest in the meetings, and
Professor Henry's gratification at the strengthened programs
which followed this action can be well understood.

Through the solicitation of Captain Chas. F. Hall, who had
undertaken two voyages into the Arctic regions, and a number of

18 Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. i, pp. 100, 101.

40 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

his friends, Congress in the winter of 1869-70 passed an act
authorizing the organization of an expedition toward the North
Pole, which was later known as Hall's Third Arctic Expedition,
or the voyage of the Polaris, from the name of the vessel com-
missioned for the undertaking. The Act of Congress was as
follows :

" SEC. 9. And be it further enacted, That the President of the United States
be authorized to organize and send out one or more expeditions toward the North
Pole, and to appoint such person or persons as he may deem most fitted to the
command thereof; to detail any officer of the public service to take part in the
same, and to use any public vessel that may be suitable for the purpose; the
scientific operations of the expedition to be prescribed in accordance with the
advice of the National Academy of Sciences; and that the sum of fifty thousand
dollars, or such part thereof as may be necessary, be hereby appropriated, out of
any moneys in the treasury not otherwise appropriated, to be expended under the
direction of the President."

Approved, July 12, 1870."

Captain Hall was appointed leader of the expedition, and
in accordance with the Act of Congress the Secretary issued
instructions to him, in which were included those of a committee
of the National Academy of Sciences. The instructions were
embodied in a pamphlet, which was published under the title:
" Instructions for the Expedition toward the North Pole from
Hon. Geo. M. Robeson, Secretary of the Navy. With an
appendix from the National Academy of Sciences. 1871."

On page 4 the following reference is made to the Academy:

" You [Chas. F. Hall] will render Dr. Bessels and his assistants all such
facilities and aids as may be in your power to carry into effect the said further
advice, as given in the instructions herewith furnished in a communication from
the president of the National Academy of Sciences. It is, however, important
that objects of natural history, ethnology, etc., etc., which may be collected by
any person attached to the expedition, shall be delivered to the chief of the
scientific department, to be cared for by him, under your direction, and considered
the property of the government; and every person be strictly prohibited from
keeping any such object."

The instructions and appendix are also contained in the Re-
port of the Secretary of the Navy for 1871, pp. 238-260.

17 Stat. at Large, vol. 16, 1871, p. 251, 4ist Congress, 2d Session, chap. 251, sec. 9.

ANNALS OF THE ACADEMY 41

The scientific instructions on astronomy were prepared by Simon
Newcomb, and J. E. Hilgard; on magnetism, force of gravity,
ocean physics and meteorology, by J. E. Hilgard; on natural
history, by S. F. Baird; on geology by F. B. Meek; on glaciers,
by Louis Agassiz. In a letter addressed to the Secretary of the
Navy, June 9, 1871, and printed in the pamphlet mentioned
above, Professor Henry remarked:

" . . . . The expedition, except in its relation to geographical discovery, is not
of a scientific character, and to connect with it a full corps of scientific observers,
whose duty it should be to make minute investigations relative to the physics of the
globe, and to afford them such facilities with regard to time and position as would
be necessary to the full success of the object of their organization, would mate-
rially interfere with the views entertained by Captain Hall, and the purpose for
which the appropriation was evidently intended by Congress.

" Although the special objects and peculiar organization of this expedition are
not primarily of a scientific character, yet many phenomena may be observed and
specimens of natural history be incidentally collected, particularly during the long
winter periods in which the vessel must necessarily remain stationary; and
therefore, in order that the opportunity of obtaining such results might not be lost,
a committee of the National Academy of Sciences was appointed to prepare a
series of instructions on the different branches of physics and natural history, and
to render assistance in procuring the scientific outfit." 18

This expedition, as is well known, ended in disaster. Having
reached the latitude 82° 11' N. on August 29, 1871, the highest
attained by any explorer up to that time, Hall was soon after-
ward taken suddenly ill at Thank God Harbor, Greenland, and
died there on November 8, i87i.19

18 Instructions for Expedition toward North Pole from Hon. Geo. M. Robeson. Appendix,
pp. 7, 8.

"In 1871 six members of the Academy, Messrs. Meigs, Peirce, Hilgard, Baird, Henry and
Barnard (F. A. P.), addressed a letter to the Hon. William M. Stewart, chairman of the
Senate Committee on Mines and Mining, recommending that means be provided for testing
the economic value of Western coals. The letter was printed as Senate Miscellaneous Docu-
ment no. 74, 4ist Congress, 3d Session. In 1875 the Academy adopted the following
resolution on the subject: "Resolved, That the National Academy recommends that an appro-
priation be made by Congress for completing and extending to all known American coals
the series of experiments now to be made by the Navy Department under an appropriation
of Congress, and published in the report of W. R. Johnson on American Coals." (See
Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. i, p. in.) The following year the Academy again adopted the

42 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

1873-1877

In 1872 the Academy lost another of its original members,
John F. Frazer, and in 1873 three more, — Louis Agassiz (who
was one of the most prominent leaders in the establishment of the
Academy, and who held the office of Foreign Secretary for
eleven years), Joseph Saxton and John Torrey. The latter year
seems to have been otherwise uneventful.

Following its policy of promoting astronomical science, a com-
mittee was appointed in 1873 " to take into consideration the
need of more Accurate Investigation, and Tables of the Celestial
Movements, and to devise such measures as may seem best
adapted to improve the Accuracy of Astronomical Tables."

Joseph Henry this year expressed his intention of resigning
the presidency, which he had held for six years, the term fixed
by the constitution. A letter " numerously signed by members
of the Academy " was, however, presented at the first session of
1874, and Henry thereupon decided to withhold his resignation,
and continue to serve as President, which he did until his death
in 1878.

The interest felt by the members of the Academy in the
metric system of weights and measures was newly manifested
in 1875. As is well-known, an international conference on new
metric standards was held in Paris in 1870, but its deliberations
were interrupted by the opening of the Franco-Prussian War.
It convened again in 1872 and soon afterward the proposition
was advanced that an international bureau of weights and
measures be established. At the April meeting of 1875 the
Academy passed resolutions soliciting the President of the

same resolution, on motion of General Meigs, in slightly different form, thus: "Resolved,
That the President and Council of the National Academy be requested to prepare and
present to Congress in the name of the Academy a memorial advising that the course of
Experiments upon American Coals, made under direction of Congress by the Navy Depart-
ment and reported in Johnson's Report on American Coals, be resumed and continued so as
to include all the coals now used in the United States in sufficient quantities to be of value
in the arts, and in manufactures, and in commerce." (Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. i, pp. 115,
116.)

The records of the Academy do not contain any information as to the reasons which
prompted this action, or the results which followed from it.

ANNALS OF THE ACADEMY 43

United States " to ratify the assent which is understood to have
been provisionally given by his diplomatic representative in
Paris, to the creation of such a bureau, and to recommend to
Congress to make the necessary provision to defray such portion
of the expense attending its maintenance as may probably fall
to our share." *° The International Bureau was established on
May 20, 1875, the United States being the first country to sign
the convention.

At this time plans were well advanced for holding a great
international exposition in Philadelphia, the Centennial Ex-
hibition of 1876, to mark the one hundredth anniversary of the
signing of the Declaration of Independence. It had been pro-
posed in the Academy that invitations should be issued to promi-
nent men of science abroad to attend the exposition and a
committee was appointed to report upon the plan. After con-
sideration, however, the committee reported unfavorably and
the scheme was abandoned.

The Government exhibits at this exposition were extensive
and diversified, and were, for the time, extremely well installed.
The autumn meeting of the Academy was held in Philadelphia
in the year of the exposition and the members were so favor-
ably impressed by the display made by the several departments
and bureaus of the Government, the Smithsonian Institution
and other organizations, that they were induced to pass resolu-
tions urging the transfer of these exhibits in their entirety for
permanent exhibition in Washington. The resolutions were
as follows:

October, 1876.

" Whereas, The members of the National Academy of Sciences have been
greatly impressed by the extent, variety, and richness of the truly national collec-
tion contained in the Government Building at the Centennial Exhibition, and
considering the great importance and the lasting interest with which the people
of the United States regard this collection, therefore : —

"Resolved, That in the opinion of the Academy, the Government Collection
as a whole should be transferred to Washington and there preserved in an appro-
priate building for perpetual exhibition.

*Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. x, p. no.

44 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

" Resolved, That the Academy entertain the hope that the President of the
United States will favor the foregoing proposition, that he will delay the dis-
persion of the exhibit from the several Executive Departments until Congress
has assembled, and that he will recommend to that body to provide for the transfer
of the Government Exhibit to the City of Washington, and for its subsequent
permanent support." 21

The autumn meeting of 1872 was held in Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts, that of 1873 in New York City, and those of 1874,
1875 and 1876 in Philadelphia. In the latter year the Academy
having been asked by the British Minister to suggest names of
persons considered eligible to receive the Albert Medal of the
Society of Arts for " distinguished merit in promoting arts,
manufacture, or commerce," suggested the name of Joseph Henry
" as most worthy of all living Americans to receive that recogni-
tion." 22

The original constitution of the Academy provided for four
series of publications, reports, memoirs, annals and proceedings.
While the reports and annals began to be issued soon after the
organization of the Academy, the memoirs were delayed three
years from lack of funds, and the first part of the first volume
of Proceedings did not appear until 1877. This part comprised
1 20 pages and contained the constitution and by-laws, a sum-
mary of the important business operations of the Academy,
resolutions relating to scientific matters, the programs of the
scientific sessions, reports of committees and other miscellaneous
information. Though more or less fragmentary and incomplete,
it is valuable as a continuous record of the proceedings of the
Academy during the first 14 years of its existence. A second part
carried the record to 1884, and a third to 1895. No further parts
have been issued.

Another publication which first appeared in 1877 was the
Biographical Memoirs. The first volume, in octavo form, con-
tained memoirs of fifteen deceased members. Some of these
sketches had already appeared in the Annual, and the series, for

aProc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. i, p. 118.
22 Loc. cit., p. 114.

ANNALS OF THE ACADEMY 45

which there was no definite provision in the constitution, may
perhaps be considered as a continuation of that publication.

Although in 1875 the diplomatic representative of the Govern-
ment had signed the convention for the establishment of an inter-
national bureau of weights and measures, that action required
ratification by the Senate to be binding on the United States.
On recommendation of the Committee on Weights, Measures
and Coinage, the Academy in 1877 addressed a memorial to
Congress in which the members " respectfully urge that the
Senate ratify said convention, and that Congress make the
requisite appropriation to carry the same into effect."

The treasurer reported in October, 1876, that the principal of
the Bache Fund amounted to $43,300, of which $42,300 was
invested in United States certificates, and $1000 in certificates
of the city of Davenport, Iowa. In addition, the Academy had
received from the Bache estate 160 acres of land situated in the
State of Missouri, and a house and lot in the city of Washington,
No. 723 Twentieth Street, S. W. In connection with the various
allotments made from the fund for scientific researches, some
pieces of apparatus had been purchased, and in 1877 the Academy
directed that all such apparatus when no longer needed for the
purposes of the investigations undertaken should be turned over
to the Home Secretary, and be at all times subject to the disposal
of the Academy.

Jeffries Wyman, one of the original members of the Academy,
died in 1874, and another, Joseph Winlock, in 1875. In 1877
two others died, Alexis Caswell and Rear-Admiral Charles H.
Davis, the latter, as shown by this history, probably the first to
conceive a practical plan for the formation of the Academy.

In 1877 the practice was established of having important in-
ventions based on scientific principles exhibited before the
Academy. In that year an exhibition was made in the chemical
laboratory of Columbia College, of the Jablokoff electric candle,
a form of arc light which caused a revival of interest in the
problems of electric lighting.

46 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

1878-1882

At the April session of the following year, Mr. Thomas A.
Edison exhibited to the Academy the phonograph, which was
invented by him in 1877, and also his " carbon telephone." The
record contains the following statement regarding this exhi-
bition:

April, 1878.

" During the session Mr. Thomas A. Edison exhibited to the Academy his
Phonograph and Carbon Telephone, communicating with the latter through
one of the Western Union Telegraph wires with the Central Office of that Com-
pany in Philadelphia, and members of the Academy holding conversation with
Mr. Henry Bentley of that city." 23

Toward the close of the year 1877 the health of the second
President of the Academy, Joseph Henry, suffered a severe
decline, and at the April session of 1878 an address was read in
his behalf, in which he called attention to his long term of ser-
vice, and renewed the request which he had made some six
years previously, that he be allowed to resign his office. In
closing his address he remarked, " I retain the office six months
longer in the hope that I may be restored to such a condition of
health as to be able to prepare some suggestions, which may be of
importance for the future of the Academy." 2*

The appreciation of Henry's services was such that the follow-
ing resolution was adopted unanimously:

" Resolved, That with every sentiment of sympathy and regard for Professor
Henry, the Academy most respectfully declines to entertain any proposition
looking to his retirement from the office of President." 25

His infirmities, however, increased with such rapidity that he
was obliged to hasten his valedictory address, and at the end of
the same session his farewell was delivered in the following
words :

" GENTLEMEN : I have been much interested in the proceedings of the present
meeting of the National Academy. Although I have been unable to be present,

^Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. i, p. 130.

24 Loc. clt., p. 132.

25 Loc. cit., p. 132.

9

ANNALS OF THE ACADEMY 47

except during a small part of the session, yet I have been made acquainted with
everything that has occurred.

" Whatever might have been thought as to the success of the Academy, when
first proposed by the late Prof. Louis Agassiz, the present meeting conclusively
proves that it has become a power of great efficiency in the promotion of science
in this country. To sustain this effect, however, much caution is required to
maintain the purity of its character and the propriety of its decisions.

" For this purpose great care must be exercised in the selection of its members.
It must not be forgotten for a moment that the basis of selection is actual
scientific labor in the way of original research ; that is, in making positive additions
to the sum of human knowledge, connected with unimpeachable moral character.

" It is not social position, popularity, extended authorship, or success as an
instructor in science, which entitles to membership, but actual new discoveries;
nor are these sufficient if the reputation of the candidate is in the slightest degree
tainted with injustice or want of truth. Indeed, I think that immorality and great
mental power actually exercised in the discovery of scientific truths are incom-
patible with each other, and that more error is introduced from defect in moral
sense than from want of intellectual capacity.

" Please accept my warmest thanks for the kind expressions of sympathy you
have extended to me during this period of my illness, and in refusing to accept
my resignation as President of the Academy. I shall be thankful if a beneficent
Providence extends my life during another year, and grants me the privilege
of greeting you again in a twelve-month from this time as successful laborers in
the fields of science.

" I can truly say that I entertain for each member of the Academy a fraternal
sympathy, and rejoice at every step he makes in the development of new truths.

" With my best wishes for your safe return to your homes, and for a rich
harvest of scientific results in the ensuing year, I now bid you an affectionate
farewell." 26

He died on May 13, 1878. In the address of the Acting Presi-
dent, Professor O. C. Marsh, at the April session of 1879 we
find the following words relative to Henry's services to the
Academy:

" It is fitting to this occasion, that I should allude, at least, to Professor Henry's
great services to the Academy as its presiding officer during the last ten years.

" After the death of the first President of the Academy, Professor Alexander
Dallas Bache, in 1867, Professor Henry was elected his successor at the next
meeting, in January, 1868. From that time until he left the chair at the last
Annual Meeting, in April, 1878, it had been his constant thought to advance the

^Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. i, pp. 132-133.

40 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

best interests of the Academy. How zealously he guarded its good name; how
impartially and wisely he guided its deliberations; and how earnestly he strove
to maintain for it a high standard in Science, we can all bear ample testimony." 27

Shortly before his death, in 1878, a number of personal friends
established a fund " as an expression of the donors' respect and
esteem for Professor Joseph Henry's personal virtues, their
sense of his life's great devotion to science with its results of im-
portant discoveries, and of his constant labors to increase and
diffuse knowledge and promote the welfare of mankind." This
fund, which amounted to $40,000, was deposited with a trust
company, with the provision that the income derived from it
should be paid over to Professor Henry during his lifetime, and
afterward to his wife and daughters; and that after the death
of the last survivor it should be delivered to the Academy " to
be thenceforward forever held in trust under the name and title of
the ' Joseph Henry Fund,' the principal to be forever held intact,
and the income to be from time to time applied by the said
National Academy of Sciences in its sole discretion to assist
meritorious investigators, especially in the direction of original
research."

On June 30, 1878, Congress passed an act requiring the
Academy to consider the methods and expenditures of the
several surveys carried on under Government auspices, and to
report a plan for conducting them to the best advantage as re-
gards cost and results, and for the publication and distribution
of reports, maps, etc. The views of the Academy on this sub-
ject, which was one of much importance, will be considered in
the chapter devoted to the work of the Academy as the scientific
adviser of the Government.

After the death of Professor Henry, the Vice-President,
Professor Marsh, was Acting President until April, 1879, when
Professor Wm. B. Rogers was elected President. The term of
office under the constitution was six years, but Professor Rogers
died in May, 1882, and Professor Marsh again became Acting
President until April, 1883, when Professor Wolcott Gibbs

27 Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. x, p. 149.

ANNALS OF THE ACADEMY 49

was elected to the presidency. Professor Gibbs was, however,
unable to serve and Professor Marsh was thereupon elected
President.

In a work entitled " Investigation of the Distance of the
Sun,"28 published in 1867, Professor Simon Newcomb called
attention to the desirability of further experiments in relation
to the velocity of light.

At the spring session of 1878, he presented a communication
explaining the methods employed by the French physicists,
Foucault and Fizeau, for measuring the velocity of light, and
pointing out the discrepancies in the results obtained by them.
He outlined a modification of Foucault's method which he had
worked out and another which had been devised by Ensign
Albert A. Michelson, U. S. N., and asked the Academy's con-
sideration of the question whether the Government should not
be asked to provide the means for carrying on experiments in
accordance with the improved methods. A resolution was
passed at the same session, providing for the appointment of a
committee to consider the matter and report to the President and
Council who should have power to act. The committee reported
favorably on the project, and its report was sent to the Secretary
of the Navy, Hon. R. W. Thompson, through whose interest an
appropriation of $5000 was made by Congress, to be expended
under the direction of the Secretary. Professor Newcomb was
appointed by the Secretary of the Navy to conduct the experi-
ments, and immediately took steps to procure the necessary appa-
ratus. The experiments proved more laborious than had been
expected and it was not until November 15, 1881, that Professor
Newcomb was able to report definite results. These were not as
satisfactory as had been hoped, on account of certain defects in
the apparatus used, which were not detected until a late date.
At the time of reporting in 1881, the sum of $2,000 was still
needed to complete the experiments.

The defects in the instruments having been remedied the
experiments were taken up again July 24, 1882, and continued
until September 5, 1882.

28 Washington Observations, 1865. Appendix 2.

50 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

On account of the discrepancy between the results obtained by
Professor Michelson in 1879 and those by Professor Newcomb
in his first series of observations, the former undertook the
repetition of his experiments in 1882 by means of a grant from
the Bache Fund of the National Academy, and in 1883 some
cognate experiments on the velocity of differently colored rays
of light through various refracting media. The results of Pro-
fessor Newcomb's experiments and the subsequent ones of
Professor Michelson were published under the Navy Depart-
ment in i885.29

By an act, approved March 3, 1879, Congress established a
National Board of Health to consist of one surgeon of the Army,
one surgeon of the Navy, a medical officer of the Marine Hos-
pital Service, an officer of the Department of Justice, and seven
physicians from civil life. By the provisions of this act, the
Academy was requested and directed to cooperate with the
board and to report to Congress. A committee of nine members
was appointed the same year and assisted the board in the
preparation of its first annual report.

Regarding the work of this committee, the President of the
Academy reported in 1880, as follows:

" A communication was received from the president of the National Board of
Health, dated April 14, 1880, expressing the high appreciation of the Board, of
the aid and co-operation rendered by the Committee of the Academy in the prepa-
ration of its annual report in accordance with the constituting act approved
March 3, 1879, and requesting, in view of the importance of the subjects under its
charge, that the Committee be continued or a new one appointed.

" The committee of the Academy to co-operate with the National Board of
Health was accordingly continued." 30

In view of this appreciation and request the committee was re-
appointed annually until 1883. ^n *886 tne chairman reported
that four years had elapsed since the Board of Health had re-
quested assistance and the committee was, therefore, discharged.

^Astronomical Papers prepared for the use of the American Ephemeris and Nautical
Almanac, vol. 2, parts 3-4. Velocity of Light in Air and Refracting Media. 4°. Washing-
ton: Bureau of Navigation, Navy Department, 1885.

""Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. i, p. 174.

ANNALS OF THE ACADEMY 5 1

In 1 88 1, when the Academy had been in existence for eighteen
years, the number of papers which had been read at the scien-
tific sessions was no less than 649. Of these papers only five had
been published by the Academy, and the President, Professor
Rogers, felt that it had not received the recognition by the
scientific world which it would have received if the papers of
each year had been issued promptly in a journal or some other
publication of the Academy. He, therefore, proposed that they
should be brought together annually and transmitted with the
report to Congress. Though the appeal for the support of the
membership in this plan was urgent and was repeated several
times, it seems not to have been generally responded to, and the
reports continued as before to be made up of only an outline of
the proceedings. It can be readily understood that in an organi-
zation like the Academy, whose members are for the most part
connected with educational or governmental institutions, and are
engaged in extended investigations along more or less definite
lines, it would be difficult to obtain a series of papers each year
for publication. Many communications are necessarily of a
preliminary or extemporaneous character, while, on the other
hand, such completed papers as are available for publication by
the Academy are often so comprehensive, and require so large an
amount of illustration that they are unsuitable for an annual
report.

At the spring session of 1880 the Academy took notice in its
Proceedings of two astronomical happenings of importance.
Dr. B. A. Gould, a member of the Academy, who since 1870
had been director of the Argentine National Observatory at
Cordoba, completed his " Uranometria Argentina " and atlas
of the southern heavens, and upon receipt of a copy of that work
the Academy passed this resolution:

" Resolved, That the Academy .... desires to express its high appreciation
of the great and permanent value of that magnificent work, the fruit of the labors
of our colleague during many years of absence from his country and home, and
which reflects the highest credit on the wise liberality of the statesmen who have

52 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

promoted the establishment of their national observatory and have sustained its

progress." 31

The second resolution related to the determination of longi-
tudes telegraphically, in accordance with a method perfected
by Dr. Gould while connected with the United States Coast Sur-
vey. Having listened to a paper by Lieutenant-Commander
F. M. Green on the results obtained in the Hydrographic Office
of the Navy Department on foreign coasts of the Atlantic Ocean,
the Academy, in a resolution, expressed its hope that the work
might be extended to the Pacific and Indian Oceans, which
resolution was communicated to the Secretary of the Navy.

Fairman Rogers, who had served as treasurer of the Academy
for a period of 18 years, beginning with its organization, re-
signed in April, 1881, and Mr. J. H. C. Coffin was elected to
succeed him.82 In this year and the two years following, the
Academy was much occupied with matters relating to trust
funds. The director of the Washburn Observatory at the
University of Wisconsin, James C. Watson, who was a member
of the Academy, died on November 23, 1880, and bequeathed
the residue of his estate, after certain bequests to relatives and
friends had been satisfied, to the Academy for establishing a
medal, " to be awarded, with a further gratuity of one hundred
dollars, from time to time to the person in any country who shall
make any astronomical discovery or produce any astronomical
work worthy of special reward and contributing to our science " ;
and also " for preparing and publishing tables of the motion of
all the planets which have been discovered by me [J. C. Watson]
as soon as it may be practicable to do so." The estate was found
to be in an involved condition, and it was not until July 5, 1882,
that the claims against it were settled. On that date the following
decree of court was handed down :

81 Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. i, pp. 175, 176.

82 This year a committee, of which Professor J. E. Hilgard was the chairman, was
appointed to consider and report on means for obtaining a legal value for the degrees of
the Baume hydrometer. The committee reported progress in 1882, but appears to have
reached no practical conclusion. (See Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. i, pp. 199, 208.)

ANNALS OF THE ACADEMY 53

" That all the rest, residue and remainder of said personal estate, consisting of
the sum of five thousand and fifty-seven dollars and twenty-five cents in cash, one
hundred and seventy-four shares of said stock of the Michigan Mutual Life
Insurance Company, and the undivided two-thirds of said miscellaneous books,
and all and singular the said books and scientific papers as delivered by said
executor to it, be, and the same are hereby, assigned and set over to the said
National Academy of Sciences, its successors and assignees." 33

Nine years later, in 1891, the stock of the insurance company
was sold for the sum of $10,720 and the whole amount of the
fund was then $18,666.88. The first grant from the income of
the fund was made in 1883 for search for an intra-mercurial
planet. In 1886 the Watson Gold Medal was awarded for the
first time to Dr. Benjamin Apthorp Gould " for his valuable
labors for nearly forty years in promoting the progress in astro-
nomical science, and especially for his successful establishment of
the National Observatory of the Argentine Republic, as mani-
fested in the six volumes of observations recently prepared and
published by him."

This medal was presented at the spring session of 1887, a
special evening meeting being held on April 20 in the lecture-
room of the National Museum for that purpose. The President
of the Academy, Professor Marsh, in a presentation address
remarked as follows:

" Dr. Gould's great works are:

" i. The Uranometria Argentina, one volume, with large atlas. This work
comprises a catalogue and map of all the stars down to the seventh magnitude,
from the south pole to 10 degrees north declination, the position and magnitude
of each being given. It is not a mere catalogue, but embodies an exhaustive study
of the distribution of stars of different magnitudes and their relations to the
Milky Way.

" 2. The Argentine General Catalogue, one volume, 410, contains the places
of nearly 33,000 (32,448) stars, determined with the highest accuracy with the
meridian circle. Three determinations of each star were generally made. The
catalogue is followed by a list of the stars contained in some of the most noted
clusters.

" 3- The Cordoba Zone Catalogues, seven volumes, give the places of 73,160
stars down to the tenth magnitude.

Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. i, p. 227.

54 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

" Many variable stars were discovered during these investigations, and two
whose proper motion is about 6" annually are equaled by only one other, so far
as is known.

" Eleven hundred photographs of southern star clusters, taken during the years
1872-1883, have been preserved and are now undergoing measurement.

" Five volumes of meteorological observations have been published from
stations established in all parts of the Argentine territory, giving the climate rela-
tions of the southern half of the continent and establishing the isothermal lines.

" The observatory and a national meteorological office were left in full organi-
zation and activity.

" This vast and comprehensive work is embraced in thirteen quarto volumes
already published, and six are now prepared for publication, making nineteen
in all." 34

At the Congress of Electricians held in Paris in 1881 a resolu-
tion was adopted requesting the French Government to invite
other governments to an international congress for the deter-
mination of electrical units. Various governments, including
that of the United States, accepted the invitation and appointed
delegates. The American delegates were Professor John Trow-
bridge and Professor H. A. Rowland, both of whom were mem-
bers of the National Academy of Sciences. At the meeting of
November, 1881, the following resolution was adopted by the
Academy:

" Resolved, That the National Academy of Sciences cordially approves of the
formation of an international commission on electrical units, as suggested by the
Paris Electrical Congress, and earnestly hopes that the necessary appropriation
may be made by the Congress of the United States to enable the members of
this Academy already appointed on this commission, through the Department of
State, to carry out the needed experimental determinations with credit to the

" 35

country.

This resolution was favorably considered by Congress and we
find in the Sundry Civil Act for the fiscal year ending June 30,
1883, an item under the State Department providing the sum of
$3,000 for " the payment of the actual and necessary expenses of
the two civilian experts as delegates of the United States to an

84 Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. i, p. 290.
** Loc. cit., p. 199.

ANNALS OF THE ACADEMY 55

International Commission for the Establishment of Electrical
Units." 36

The international conference opened in Paris on October 16,
1882, but the delegates of the United States were not able to
attend until the second meeting which was held on October 26,
1 882."

The work of this session was chiefly preliminary. The dele-
gates were not present at the second session, which was held in
1884, the United States being represented by Mr. Vignaud, sec-
retary of the American Legation, who presented several com-
munications on their behalf.38 At this conference the " legal,"
or " congress " ohm, ampere, and volt were established.

1883-1887

Dr. Henry Draper, an astronomer of note, and a member of
the National Academy, died on November 20, 1882. At the
spring session of the following year the President announced
that Mrs. Mary Anna Palmer Draper, his widow, had presented
to the Academy the sum of $6000 for the purpose of establishing
a gold medal to be called the " Henry Draper Medal," and to
be awarded to " any person in the United States of America or
elsewhere who shall make an original investigation in Astro-
nomical Physics, the results of which shall be made known to the
public, such results being, in the opinion of the said National
Academy of Sciences, of sufficient importance and benefit to
science to merit such recognition."

The first Henry Draper Medal was awarded in 1885 to Pro-
fessor S. P. Langley. In making this award the committee
remarked, " The committee bases this recommendation upon the
numerous investigations of a high order of merit which have
been made by Professor Langley within the past few years in
solar physics, and especially in the domain of radiant energy."

** Stat. at Large, vol. 22, 1883, p. 302, 47th Congress, ist Session, chap. 433.

" Ministere des Affaires Etrangeres. Conference Internationale pour la Determination des
Unite Electriques. 16 Octobre, 26 Octobre, 1882. Proces-verbaux. Paris, 1882, pp.
8, 154.

88 Idem, 2d Session, 1884, pp. 6, 13, 37, 67, 80.

56 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The committee cited 21 papers published between 1874 and
1884, and gave a brief summary of each, remarking in con-
clusion: "Professor Langley has published numerous other
papers upon subjects connected with solar or astral physics, but
it is believed that those which have now been mentioned will
fully justify the recommendation of the committee."

About 1883 the Academy began the practice of sending
delegates to other learned societies and to universities, both in
America and in Europe, and in the minutes of the meeting of
April of that year we read that on recommendation of the
Council it was voted " that the Secretary be directed to acknowl-
edge, with thanks, the invitation extended to the Academy by
the Royal Society of Canada to send delegates to the meeting to
be held at Ottawa, May 22, 1883, and the President be author-
ized to appoint delegates to attend the said meeting." Dr. T.
Sterry Hunt was appointed delegate on this occasion.

In 1887, Professor C. H. F. Peters, of Hamilton College, was
appointed, at the request of the Academic des Sciences, Paris,
to represent the Academy at an international conference held in
Paris on April 16 of that year to consider a plan for making a
chart of the heavens by photography. At this important con-
gress, which extended from April 16 to 25, 1887, fifty-six
astronomers, representing sixteen different nationalities, were
present. The objects to be attained and the methods to be em-
ployed were set forth in the following resolutions, passed at the
first session of the congress:

" i. The progress made in astronomical photography demands that the astron-
omers of our time undertake in common the description of the heavens by astro-
photographical means.

" 2. This work is to be done at stations to be selected, with instruments that,
in their essential points, ought to be identical.

" 3. The aim is (a) to make a general photographical chart of the heavens
for the present epoch, and to obtain the data which shall permit fixing the posi-
tions and the magnitudes of all the stars down to a certain class with the greatest
possible precision; (b) to provide the best means for utilizing, for the present
epoch as well as for the future, the data furnished by the photographical

process." 89

'Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1887, p. 49.

ANNALS OF THE ACADEMY 57

Upon the recommendation of a " technical committee," the
congress agreed that refracting telescopes should be used in
photographing the stars, that stars from the first to the fourteenth
magnitude, inclusive, (probably some 2,000,000 in all), should
be photographed, and that the telescopes used should have objec-
tives with an aperture of 0.33 meters and a focal distance of
3.43 meters. The congress then divided into two sections each
of which submitted a series of resolutions relative to the conduct
of the proposed undertaking. It was found that the directors
of six observatories were prepared to agree at once to participate
in the work, and in the end 18 observatories assumed a share in
it. None of the observatories of the United States, however,
joined in the enterprise, which was completed in 1912. It was
originally estimated that it would be necessary to make 60,000
negatives, but the number was afterwards reduced to about
20,000. The expense involved was estimated to exceed
$2, 000,000. 40

The next invitation accepted was from the University of
Bologna, which celebrated its Sooth anniversary in June, 1888.
Dr. S. Weir Mitchell was appointed to represent the Academy on
this occasion. In May, 1891, the Academy again sent a delegate
to the Royal Society of Canada, which held its tenth meeting in
Montreal on the twenty-seventh of that month. The delegate
appointed was the Vice-President, Mr. Francis A. Walker. The
President, Professor Marsh, was selected by the Academy as
its representative at the tercentenary of the University of
Dublin, held in July, 1892. Two years later, in 1894, Dr. I- S.
Billings was appointed the delegate of the Academy to the eighth
International Congress of Hygiene and Demography, held at
Budapest in September of that year.

The subject of trust funds again became prominent in 1884.
Professor J. Lawrence Smith, a member of the Academy, and
well known as a chemist, and student and collector of meteorites,
died in October of the preceding year. His very large collec-
tion of meteoric stones was acquired by Harvard University for

40 See Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1887, pp. 48-53.

58 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

the sum of $8000, and this amount his widow placed at the
disposal of the National Academy as a fund " to promote the
study of meteoric bodies." As indicated by the discussion of
the subject in an earlier year, the-Academy was in doubt as to its
power under the Act of Incorporation to accept and administer
trust funds. Although a clause had been added to the constitu-
tion in 1872 to the effect that "bequests and trusts having
for their object the advancement of science may be accepted and
administered by the Academy," the organic act still contained
no distinct provision of this character. A committee of six was
appointed in 1878 " to procure from Congress an addition to the
Act of Incorporation of the Academy, which will enable it to
accept and administer trust funds."

No progress appears to have been made in this matter, how-
ever, until 1884, when, as the result of a special effort, the neces-
sary amendment was secured in the following form :

" An act to authorize the National Academy of Sciences to receive and hold
trust funds for the promotion of science, and for other purposes.

" Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United
States of America in Congress assembled, That the National Academy of Sciences,
incorporated by the act of Congress approved March third, eighteen hundred
and sixty-three, and its several supplements, be, and the same is hereby, authorized
and empowered to receive bequests and donations, and hold the same in trust, to
be applied by the said Academy in aid of scientific investigations and according
to the will of the donors.

" Approved, June 20, 1884." 42

The deed of trust transferring Mrs. Smith's donation to the
Academy for the establishment of the J. Lawrence Smith Fund
was signed on May 6, 1884. In his report for that year the
President remarked: " The object of this memorial gift was to

^Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. i, p. 136.

a Stat. at Large, vol. 23, 1885, chap. 107, p. 50, 48th Congress, ist Session.

The bill was introduced in the House by Mr. Cox of New York, on May 9, 1884, referred
to the Committee on the Library, and ordered printed. The committee reported favorably
on May 20, and the report was ordered printed. The bill was brought up in the House
by Mr. Singleton on June 7, and passed without discussion. In the Senate the same bill
was referred to the Committee on the Library on June 9. It was brought up by Senator
Sherman on June n and passed without discussion.

ANNALS OF THE ACADEMY 59

promote the study of meteoric bodies, a branch of science which
Dr. Smith had pursued with much success, and, in accordance
with the wishes of the donor, it was decided that a gold medal, to
be given as a reward for original investigations, would be most
appropriate." The expense for preparing the die for this medal
which was to be called the " Lawrence Smith Medal," was
met by Mrs. Smith. It was designed by Chaplain of Paris, and
the first award was made to Professor Hubert A. Newton in
1888, as will be noted on a later page.

In the summer of 1881 Prof. S. P. Langley spent some weeks
on the summit of Mt. Whitney in the Sierra Nevada of Cali-
fornia, under the official direction of the Chief Signal Officer of
the Army, in making astrophysical observations.43 He was so
much impressed with the suitability of that place as a permanent
station for scientific observations, that on his return, with the
assent of the Chief Signal Officer of the Army, he laid before the
National Academy of Sciences a proposition to have the moun-
tain peak set apart as a reservation for scientific uses. The moun-
tain was described by Prof. Langley in a letter addressed to the
Acting Chief Signal Officer of the Army, and dated June 14,
1 882, in the following manner :

" Mt. Whitney is a barren peak in the Sierras of southern California, reputed
to be the highest in the State. It is a mass of granite, extremely abrupt on the
Eastern slope, which overlooks the Inyo desert, and is, except for scientific pur-
poses, believed to be valueless, as with the exception of the unmarketable pine
trees on the lower slopes, there is .no vegetation, and no gold has ever been found
in its vicinity.

" This very barrenness, as the indication of exceptional dryness, fits it as a
station for special meteorological investigations, as do also its extremely pre-
cipitous character, and consequent abrupt rise from the plain." ....

In a previous letter to the Chief Signal Officer, dated February
13, 1882, Prof. Langley remarked: " In case a Signal Service
Station be erected on Mt. Whitney, I would respectfully suggest
to the Chief Signal Officer that it should contain not only pro-
vision for the regular meteorological observations, but also for
the temporary accommodation of other scientific observers who

** See Prof. Papers of Signal Service, No. 15, 1884, p. 9.

60 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

may be desirous of obtaining his permission to enjoy the advan-
tages of a site unsurpassed, in my opinion, in the world, among
those equally accessible. There is the greatest abundance of stone
on the peak, but construction will be slow, owing to the difficulty
of labor at that altitude, and the difficulty of supplies until the
mule trail is completed.

" With the contemplated trail, mules could go in one day from
the projected railroad in Owen's River Valley to the very summit
of what is believed to be the highest mountain in the United
States. Though the mere fact that it is probably the highest point,
may attach one kind of interest to this site, it is not merely on that
account that I have already spoken so strongly in its favor. The
dryness of the air, the altogether exceptional purity of the sky,
the altitude, the remarkable differences of level of adjacent points
(Mt. Whitney is 11,000 feet above a station in sight, and but 15
miles away) together with its accessibility, make this in my
opinion a site especially deserving of occupation."

The matter was laid before the Academy in April, 1882, when
the following resolution was adopted:

" Resolved, That the Academy suggest to the Honorable the Secretary of the
Interior that a reservation be set apart for scientific purposes in the Sierra Nevada,
California, of not less than ten miles square, and to include the summit called,
by the State Geological Survey, Mount Whitney, and another peak lying south-
ward, which has sometimes been confounded with Mount Whitney, and which
is locally known as " Sheep Mountain." *4

The President of the Academy appointed S. P. Langley, W. H.
Brewer and J. W. Powell as a committee to have charge of the
matter.

As the reservation was to be a military one, a letter was ad-
dressed to the Secretary of the Interior, on July 28, 1883, by
Secretary of War, Robert T. Lincoln, in which he remarked : " I
beg that you will please advise this Department whether there
exists any objection to the setting apart for military purposes of
the land in question, and that if no objection thereto exists the
land be temporarily withheld from sale or entry until the orders
of the President declaring and setting it apart as a military reser-

44 Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. i, p. 207.

ANNALS OF THE ACADEMY 6 1

vation can be obtained." No objection appears to have been
made, and on October 4, 1883, the Acting Chief Signal Officer
of the Army announced to the committee of the Academy that
President Garfield had, on September 20, 1883, proclaimed Mt.
Whitney to be a military reservation. The fact was announced
to the Academy in April, 1884, as appears from the report for that
year, in which the following statement is made :

" It was reported that the reservation of public lands on and
near Mount Whitney, California, for scientific purposes, had
been established, and the committee was continued, with the view
to securing and utilizing the reservation for the said scientific
purposes." 45

It was not until fourteen years later that definite steps were
taken for the utilization of the mountain summit. In the Smith-
sonian Report for 1909 we find the following account of the
circumstances under which it was brought about:

" Mount Whitney Expeditions.

" In August, 1908, with Director Campbell, of the Lick Observatory, Mr.
Abbot spent about twenty-four hours on the summit of Mount Whitney
(14,502 feet). This mountain, which was the objective point of the famous
expedition of Mr. Langley in 1881, was recommended by him to be reserved by
the Government and used as the site for an observatory. The reservation was
in fact, made, but no observatory has been established there. Mr. Abbot carried
with him to Mount Whitney a pyrheliometer and wet and dry thermometers,
and made observations on the summit both in the afternoon and morning hours.
Both he and Mr. Campbell were favorably impressed with the advantages of the
place for observing, and with the relative convenience of ascending the mountain,
considering its great altitude. Fine building stone, sand, and water were found
at the summit. Messrs. Campbell and Abbot, therefore, recommended to the
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution that a grant from the Hodgkins fund
should be made for the purpose of erecting on the summit of Mount Whitney a
stone and steel house to shelter observers who might apply to the Institution for
the use of the house to promote investigations in any branch of science. This
recommendation was approved, and the house is now in course of construction
(July, 1909)." «

In the years 1882 and 1883 tne Academy lost four of its
original members, besides the President, Professor Wm. B.

"Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1884, p. u.
" Smithsonian Report for 1909, pp. 65, 66.

62 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Rogers. These were Professor Stephen Alexander (died June
25, 1883), Major-General J. G. Barnard, U. S. A. (died May 14,
1882), Dr. John L. LeConte, entomologist (died November 15,
1883), and Admiral John Rodgers, Superintendent of the U. S.
Naval Observatory (died May 5, 1882). Of the incorporators
twenty others had died prior to 1883, and thus twenty years after
its organization the Academy had lost one-half of its original
membership.47

The second volume of the Memoirs of the Academy, contain-
ing four papers, was transmitted to Congress with the report for
1883, and was published in 1884. With the report for 1884 was
transmitted the first part of the third volume of the Memoirs,
containing eight papers. The second part of this volume was
printed in 1886, but many of the plates belonging to it were
burned, and the distribution was delayed. It was not issued until
July, 1887. The completed volume contains seventeen papers.
Commenting on the fact that the first part of the third volume
of Memoirs had been ordered printed by Congress, the President
of the Academy remarked in his report for i

" I congratulate the Academy that the precedent for the publication by the
Government of both the annual report and an accompanying volume of memoirs
is now fairly established, and it alone remains for the members of the Academy to
do their part in presenting their memoirs ready for publication each year in time
to accompany the report to Congress." 48

A total eclipse of the sun occurred on May 6, 1883, and was
visible in the South Pacific Ocean. It was of special interest to

47 Two of the fifty incorporators withdrew from membership soon after the Academy was
organized. One of these was Rear-Admiral John A. Dahlgren. The following extracts
from his published diaries relate to the incident:

"March 10 [1863]. — I omitted to mention that Congress had incorporated 'a National
Academy of Science,' with fifty Corporators, of which I was one. This measure, from which
should proceed a great institution, is due solely to Mr. Wilson, Senator from Massa-
chusetts

"May 14 [1863]. — I sent my resignation as a member of the National Academy of
Sciences to Professor Bache, who had been elected President of the Academy. Next day
he replied, requesting me not to insist, that I would be excused from the service, &c.

" But on the i8th May I wrote to him adhering to my determination." (Memoir of
John A. Dahlgren, by Madeleine V. Dahlgren, 1882, pp. 389, 394.)

"Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. i, p. 255.

ANNALS OF THE ACADEMY 63

astronomers on account of the relatively long period of totality,
which afforded an unusual opportunity for a search for intra-
mercurial planets. A paper on this eclipse was read by Pro-
fessor C. A. Young at the meeting of November, 1882, at the
suggestion of Mr. Charles H. Rockwell, of Tarrytown, New
York,49 and the matter having thus been brought to the attention
of the Academy, was referred to the Council which reported the
following resolution:

" The Council of the National Academy of Sciences, appreciating the impor-
tance of astronomical and physical observations of the total eclipse of the sun,
May 6, 1883, the long duration of which is especially favorable for observations
for the search of intra-mercurial planets and the study of solar physics, approves
the project of an expedition to some suitably situated island in the Pacific Ocean,
and recommends the appointment of a committee to commend it to persons
interested in the advancement of science, and to the Navy Department of the
United States, for such aid and facilities for the purpose as can be best
afforded." B0

This resolution was adopted by the Academy, and a com-
mittee consisting of Professor C. A. Young (chairman). Pro-
fessor J. H. C. Coffin, Dr. Henry Draper, Professor Asaph
Hall, Professor J. E. Hilgard, Professor Simon Newcomb, and
Professor H. A. Newton, was appointed to take charge of the
matter. Subsequently, on the death of Dr. Draper, Professor
S. P. Langley was appointed in his place, and Professor C. S.
Peirce was added to the committee. Mr. C. H. Rockwell was
also invited to join the committee " as having been the real
originator of the project." An endeavor to obtain funds for the
expedition by private subscription having proved unsuccessful,
the committee determined to appeal to the Government.

Its representations to the Secretary of the Navy were very
favorably received, the naval vessel Hartford, Captain Car-
penter commanding, was placed at the disposal of the observing
party, and all necessary arrangements made to secure the success
of the expedition.

'"Mr. Rockwell had presented a communication on the subject before the American
Association for the Advancement of Science in August of the same year.
50 Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. i, p. 211.

64 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

A memorial asking for an appropriation of $5,000 to defray
the expenses of the observing party was presented to Congress
and having the support of the Secretary of the Navy was favor-
ably considered. The Sundry Civil Act for the fiscal year end-
ing June 30, 1884, contained the following item:

1 .... To enable the National Academy of Sciences to make observations of
the eclipse of the sun on the sixth of May next, at an island in the Pacific Ocean,
five thousand dollars, the expenditures to be accounted for by the Superintendent
of the Coast and Geodetic Survey under the rules that govern that work; to be
immediately available." 51

As the act was not approved until March 3, 1883, however,
the money was not available in time to serve the purposes of the
expedition and the sum of $3,500 was, therefore, advanced by
the trustees of the Bache Fund. At the same time a grant of
$500 was made by the Academy from the Watson Fund in aid
of the search for intra-mercurial planets. The observing party
consisted of Professor E. S. Holden (chief), Professor Charles
S. Hastings, Mr. C. H. Rockwell, Mr. E. D. Preston, Mr.
Winslow Upton and Ensign S. J. Brown, U. S. N. Four officers
of the Hartford also joined the party as voluntary observers,
and two English observers, sent out by the Royal Society, were
likewise included.

The objective point of the expedition was Caroline Island, a
small island in the South Pacific, which had been suggested by
Mr. Rockwell as most suitable for an observing station. The
party remained on the island from April 21 to May 9, and
returning reached San Francisco on June n. The expedition
was successful as a whole, though the search for an intra-mer-
curial planet, which was undertaken personally by Professor
E. S. Holden, the leader of the American party, gave a negative
result.

The committee and observers made a report to the Academy
at the meeting of November, 1883, which report was by resolu-

11 Stat. at Large, vol. 22, 1883, p. 611, 47th Congress, 2d Session, chap. 143. Act approved
March 3, 1883.

ANNALS OF THE ACADEMY 65

tion ordered to be included with the report of the President
for that year. It was not published there, however, but in the
Memoirs of the Academy.52 A resolution was also adopted by
the Academy thanking the Secretary of the Navy for the aid
rendered by the Navy Department, and also Captain Carpenter
and the other officers of the Hartford for " the energy and
personal interest with which they co-operated in the work."

We read in the annual report of the Secretary of the Navy
for 1883 that "the Hartford, before she became the flagship
[of the Pacific Station], made a cruise to Caroline Island, carry-
ing a party of observers of the solar eclipse, sent by the National
Academy of Sciences "; 53 also the following:

"Hartford: Arrived at Callao from the United States January n, 1883.
Proceeded to Caroline Island with a party of observers of solar eclipse in May
last. Returned to Callao via Honolulu; arrived at Callao August i8."54

Through the death of Joseph Henry in 1878, the National
Academy of Sciences became concerned with the Tyndall trust
fund. This fund, which amounted to about $13,0x30, was estab-
lished by John Tyndall from the proceeds of his lectures in
America in 1872 and 1873. Having been invited by friends to
lecture in this country, he decided to do so, with the idea of
bringing pecuniary aid to the city of Chicago which, as is well
known, was devastated by fire in the fall of 1871. On arriving in
America, however, he found that the city had already received
such great contributions of money that the amount he could com-
mand would be insignificant in that connection. He turned his
donation, therefore, in the direction of establishing a trust fund
to enable American students of physics to study at the German
universities. He designated Professor Joseph Henry, Dr. E. L.
Youmans, and General Hector Tyndale, a kinsman, as trustees
of the fund, with the proviso that vacancies on the board oc-
curring through death or otherwise should be filled by the

"Vol. 2, 1883, pp. 1-146.

MRep. Seer. Navy for 1883, vol. i (1883), p. 20.
54 Op. at., p. 170.

66 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

President of the National Academy of Sciences. After the death
of Joseph Henry, the President in 1880 appointed President
Barnard of Columbia College as his successor. In spite of the
conscientious efforts of the trustees to apply the income of the
fund to the purposes intended by Professor Tyndall, certain
practical difficulties defeated their efforts,55 and in the course of
a number of years the principal and accumulated interest
together amounted to about $32,000. The circumstances were
communicated to Professor Tyndall who thereupon modified
his donation and established three graduate fellowships, each
with a fund of about $11,000, in the department of physics in
Harvard College, Columbia College and the University of
Pennsylvania for the stimulation of original research, and the
advancement of physical science in the United States.

1888-1892

The first Lawrence Smith Medal was awarded in 1888 to
Professor Hubert A. Newton, Professor of Mathematics at
Yale University, " in recognition of his eminent services in the
investigations of the orbits of meteors." The presentation was
made on the evening of April 18, 1888, in the lecture- room of
the National Museum, the President of the Academy, Pro-
fessor O. C. Marsh, presiding. The first and last paragraphs
of the report of the committee on the award, which is printed in
full in volume one of the Proceedings of the Academy.58 are
as follows:

" Professor Newton's study of the subject extends over a long series of years,
and has led to results of very great popular interest as well as scientific impor-
tance. Meteors in the sense in which the word is now used have from the
remotest ages attracted the attention of mankind. Observations of greater or
less value have long been accumulating. Chemistry had shown that meteoric
bodies which fall upon the earth contain no element not already known as a con-
stituent of the crust of the earth, but astronomy had not yet brought the wanderers
of the heavens into a system and shown that they are moving in definite orbits and

MSee Smithsonian Report for 1885, part i, pp. 25, 26.
MProc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. i, p. 308.

ANNALS OF THE ACADEMY 67

are not distributed by chance in the celestial spaces. Professor Newton's first
paper was published in 1860, and was succeeded by a number of others, the last
having been read to the National Academy in April of the present year [1888].
" In the judgment of the committee these researches are of a very high order
of merit and of interest."

The meeting of the evening of April 18, 1888, was made
further memorable by the presentation of the second Henry
Draper Medal to Professor Edward C. Pickering, Director of
the Harvard Observatory " for his work in astronomical pho-
tometry and photography." The report of the committee on this
award is also printed in full in the Proceedings?1 but it will be
of interest to quote a few paragraphs from it, as follows:

" The Committee on the Henry Draper Medal begs leave herewith to report
that it has carefully considered the investigations which have been made in astro-
nomical physics since the award of this medal in 1885, and that, as a result of
such consideration, the said committee desires to recommend that the Academy
award this medal for the year 1887 to our fellow-member, Prof. Edward C.
Pickering, the Director of the Harvard College Observatory, for his recent work
in astronomical photometry and photography.

" Professor Pickering was appointed to the position which he now holds in
February, 1877. An examination of the annual reports which he has presented
to the visiting committee of the observatory will show the great amount and the

great variety of the work which has been done there under his direction

Most of it is in the department of astronomical physics, and this it is to which
the committee desires to direct attention.

" The work in astronomical physics, which has been done in the observatory of
Harvard College under Professor Pickering's immediate supervision, seems
readily divisible into three classes: First, stellar photometry; second, stellar pho-
tography; and third, stellar spectrum photography

" In the opinion of the committee, Professor Pickering has displayed in these
researches a skill, ingenuity, and vigor which entitle him to an honorable place
among the scientific men of our own or of any previous age."

The committees charged with the consideration of awards of
the Lawrence Smith and Henry Draper medals found their
action hampered by a clause in the deeds of gift of the funds on
which the medals were based, requiring that awards in each case
should be for investigations made, or publications completed
" since the time of the last preceding award and presentation of

37 Op. «/., p. 300.

68 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

the said medal." A recommendation was therefore adopted
that the donors of these medals should be asked to cancel the
clause.

The second award of the Watson Medal was also made in
1888 to Professor Edward Schonfeld, director of the observ-
atory at the University of Bonn, Germany, " for his services in
cataloguing and mapping the stars visible in our latitudes, and
especially for his recently published Southern Durchmusterung."
" As Professor Schonfeld was not present at this meeting, the
Foreign Secretary was instructed to forward the medal and one
hundred dollars in gold to him through the German Embassy at
Washington." B8

A committee appointed by the Academy reported in 1890"
in favor of the re-adoption of the plan of classifying the mem-
bership. The constitution of the Academy, in the form in which
it was originally adopted in January, 1864, provided that the
membership should be divided into two classes, namely, (a)
Mathematics and Physics, and (b) Natural History, and that
the members should arrange themselves in sections, according
to the subjects which they represented. The organization was
then, as follows :

CLASS A CLASS B

MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS NATURAL HISTORY

Sections Sections

1. Mathematics. I. Mineralogy and Geology.

2. Physics. 2. Zoology.

3. Astronomy, Geography, and Geodesy. 3. Botany.

4. Mechanics. 4. Anatomy and Physiology.

5. Chemistry. 5. Ethnology.

This arrangement continued in force until 1872, when the
whole system of classes was abolished. The matter came up

MProc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. i, p. 323.

""This year a committee, consisting of Professor S. P. Langley (chairman), Professor
T. C. Mendenhall, and Professor E. C. Pickering, was appointed, at the suggestion of the
chairman, " to secure such uniformity of measures in physical apparatus as will promote
interchangeability of their parts." The committee appears not to have reported. (See
Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1890, p. 13.)

ANNALS OF THE ACADEMY 69

again for consideration in 1885, when it was proposed to divide
the membership into four sections, but this proposition was re-
jected.60 Notwithstanding this decision, the subject was brought
forward anew and, as already mentioned, was referred to a
committee which, in 1890, reported in favor of the re-adoption
of a classification of the membership, on the ground that it
would bring into closer relationships members pursuing the
same branches of science, would afford better facilities for
the discussion of special technical subjects, and would provide
a number of groups of experts to whom subjects of inquiry could
be referred by the Academy. As to the method of classification,
the committee remarked as follows:

" As regards the method of classification, the task of fixing upon this is far more
difficult now than it was when the National Academy was founded, nearly thirty
years ago. In fact, it appears well nigh impossible to establish one so that it
shall be both strictly scientific, according to present ideas, and at the same time
practical. Your committee therefore propose a classification closely similar to
that originally established, and believe that, however liable to technical criticism,
it is essentially such as is least likely to meet with difficulties in its practical
working." 61

This report was referred to the Council, and the subject
continued under discussion for nine years longer before a new
decision was reached.

In April, 1892, the Academy adopted a resolution declaring
that a reorganization into sections was desirable,62 and in
November of the same year a committee on amendments to
the constitution reported in favor of the following classification
of the membership :

1. Mathematics, including Astronomy and Geodesy.

2. Physics.

3. Engineering, including Civil, Mechanical, Electrical, Hydraulic, etc.

4. Chemistry, including Applied Chemistry.

5. Geology, including Mineralogy, Paleontology, etc. ^

6. Biology.

7. Anthropology, including Sociology, Economic Science, etc.

* Proc Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. i, p. 264.
41 Loc. cit., p. 338.
K Loc. cit., p. 368.

70 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The committee remarks: " The plan of dividing the member-
ship into classes according to the various branches of science
represented, essentially that of the French Academy, is appar-
ently looked upon with favor by many members as offering a
means of securing a more judicious selection and a fairer distri-
bution of the honors of membership among the different classes
of scientific workers." 63

This report was referred to the Council and was printed and
distributed to the members of the Academy.

In 1894 tne Council reported in favor of still another classifi-
cation, as follows:

CLASS A. Mathematics and Astronomy.
CLASS B. Physics and Engineering.
CLASS C. Chemistry and Mineralogy.
CLASS D. Geology and Paleontology.
CLASS E. Biology.
CLASS F. Miscellaneous.

This report was considered in a committee of the whole and
held under advisement until 1899, when an amendment to the
constitution was adopted providing for the division of the
Academy into six standing committees, instead of classes. The
committees, which are quite similar to the classes proposed in
1894, are as follows:

1. Mathematics and Astronomy.

2. Physics and Engineering.

3. Chemistry.

4. Geology and Paleontology.

5. Biology.

6. Anthropology.

This classification was amended in 1911, the committees on
Biology and Anthropology being replaced by four separate com-
mittees, as follows: (a) Botany, (b) Zoology and Animal
Morphology, (c) Physiology and Pathology, and (d) Anthro-
pology and Psychology.64

The third Henry Draper Medal was awarded in 1890 to
Professor H. A. Rowland for his researches on the solar spec-

^Loc. cit., pp. 373, 374.

84 Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1911, p. 14.

ANNALS OF THE ACADEMY 71

trum, and was presented at a public session held in the National
Museum on the evening of April 16. The President, in a
presentation address, mentioned the following memoirs as being
those for which, in particular, the award was made: A mathe-
matical paper on the Theory of Concave Diffraction Gratings;
a memoir upon the Practical Construction of a Screw of a Linear
Dividing- Engine; a Research upon the Solar Spectrum, "in-
cluding the magnificent charts which accompanied it, produced
by photography " ; investigation upon the Absolute Wave-
Lengths of the Lines in the Solar Spectrum; investigations upon
the Spectra of the Elements, and particularly of the Spectra of
Iron and Carbon.

In November of the same year the third Watson Medal was
awarded to Dr. Arthur Auwers, of Berlin, " for his contribu-
tions to stellar astronomy, including his superintendency of the
zone observations of the Astronomische Gesellschaft, his re-
searches on variable proper motions, and his re-discussion of
Bradley's observations." The award was made effective in April,
1891, when the medal and one hundred dollars in gold were
transmitted to Dr. Auwers through the German Embassy in
Washington. In reporting on the award, the committee made
special reference to Dr. Auwer's investigations of the proper
motion of Sirius and Procyon, his determination of a fundamental
system of declinations to which all catalogues of stars should be
reduced, his work on the parallaxes of the fixed stars, and also to
his new reduction of Bradley's epoch — making observations,
which was characterized as his greatest work.

President F. A. P. Barnard, of Columbia College, one of
the incorporate rs of the Academy, who died on April 27, 1889,
provided in his will for a gold medal which should be awarded
every five years to the person making " such discovery in physi-
cal or astronomical science, or such novel application of science
to purposes beneficial to the human race, as, in the judgment of
the National Academy of Sciences of the United States shall be
esteemed most worthy of such honor." This medal, which was to
be styled "The Barnard Medal for Meritorious Services to

72 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Science," was to be awarded by the trustees of Columbia College
upon the nomination of the Academy. At the meeting of
November, 1891, the Academy voted to accept the obligation to
make nominations and appointed a committee to take charge of
the matter. The first nomination was made at the annual meeting
of the Academy in April, 1895, at which time the committee
reported, in part, as follows:

" Acting upon all the suggestions received from members of the Academy and
such other information as the members of the committee could secure, and acting
in strict conformity to the specific conditions of the bequest, the committee here-
with unanimously presents the name of Lord Rayleigh for the first award of the
Barnard medal for his brilliant discovery of argon, which illustrates so com-
pletely the value of exact scientific methods in the investigation of the physical
properties of matter." 65

The Academy was again, in 1892, made the trustee of a fund
for the encouragement of chemical research. This fund was one
presented to Wolcott Gibbs, an incorporator of the Academy,
by his friends, upon the occasion of his attaining the age of
seventy years. Professor Gibbs expressed his appreciation of
this token of regard and his desire to place it in the hands of
the Academy for the promotion of science, in an affecting letter
from which the following sentences are extracted : 6C

" MY DEAR PROFESSORS JACKSON AND LOEB : May I beg you to present to
those from whom I received, a few days since, so signal a mark of friendship and
good-will my heartiest, most earnest, and most grateful acknowledgment? The
address which I received on my seventieth birthday, signed by more than one hun-
dred friends, pupils, and assistants, brings back my youth in recalling the names of
those who now join to offer me more than mere good wishes to cheer my advanc-
ing age. Their active friendship has taken the form which was most acceptable
to me — that of an endowment to assist research in my own branch of science ; so
that I can feel that in a certain sense my power to work will not terminate with
my life. As the generosity of my friends permits me also to dispose of the manner
in which the endowment shall be administered, I submit to them, through
you, the plan which seems to me best adapted to carry out their wishes — a plan
which has been fully tested in somewhat similar cases and found to work well
in practice.

"Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1895, pp. 29, 30.

"The letter is given in full in Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. i, pp. 365, 366. The amount
of the fund was $2,600. Professor Gibbs was subsequently President of the Academy.

ANNALS OF THE ACADEMY 73

" I therefore propose that the fund raised for endowment shall be given to
the National Academy of Sciences, to hold the same in trust and to invest and
reinvest as may be necessary or advisable. The income or interest of the fund
shall be administered by a board of directors consisting of three persons, of whom

at least two shall be members of the Academy

" Sincerely yours,

" WOLCOTT GIBBS.
"NEWPORT, March i, 1892."

It will be recalled that the number of members of the
Academy was originally restricted to 50, and that in 1870, by
an unanimous vote, Congress was petitioned to amend the charter
and remove this restriction. Favorable action was taken by Con-
gress, and the limitation was removed by an Act approved July
14, 1870.

In 1892 Professor B. A. Gould wrote a letter to the Presi-
dent of the Academy informing him that a fund which would
yield an annual income of $1,500 could be procured for the
Academy, provided the membership should be reduced to 50, or
at most to 70, the idea of the person offering to present the fund
being that the income should be used to defray a part of the
expenses of members attending the meetings of the Academy.
The matter was referred to the Council, apparently without
discussion, and seems never to have been further acted upon,
but at the November meeting of the same year the committee on
amendments to the constitution reported : " There is divided
opinion upon the desirability of decrease in membership, with a
preponderance of belief on the whole that the present limit,
which is practically one hundred, is about right." 6T While no
reduction was regularly recommended, the committee proposed
a plan of election which in its opinion, would " satisfy the de-
mands of those who are desirous of placing greater restrictions
around admission to membership in the Academy, as well as those
who believe that the limiting number of members cannot be
placed below one hundred without doing injustice to many scien-
tific men who by reason of their accomplishments are fairly

67 Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. i, p. 373.

74 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

entitled to the honor of an election." 68 This plan was not
adopted, but though various changes in the method of electing
members were introduced subsequently, the number of members
has remained about one hundred.

The Home Secretary reported in 1890 that the fourth volume
of the Memoirs of the Academy had been completed " after
long delays." The first part of this volume was printed in 1889,
but only 177 copies were distributed that year owing to a
difficulty in obtaining the plates for the whole edition. The 5th
and 6th volumes were printed and distributed in 1892 and i893-69

The delays in publication during these years caused much
dissatisfaction. The committee on amendments to the consti-
tution which reported in November, 1892, took occasion to com-
ment in quite emphatic language on the subject. They remarked
with much truth:

" A scientific society usually is esteemed, both at home and abroad, in propor-
tion to the number and value of its publications.

" Under existing conditions few members of the Academy use it as a medium
for reaching the public. Life is too short. Yet it is evident that it cannot rank
with similar societies in other countries until its publications represent the best
work of its members." 70

The suggestion was made that a semi-annual publication
issued soon after each meeting of the Academy, and containing
at least abstracts of the various papers presented, might serve
to make the work of the Academy known to the scientific world,
but this idea has never been followed out.

1893-1897

Awards of the Draper and Watson medals were again made
in 1893 and 1894, d16 fourth Draper Medal being awarded to

68 Loc. cit., p. 375.

69 In his report for 1894, the Home Secretary remarked, "The bill providing for the
printing of all reports and memoirs of the Academy passed the House last year, and is now
(April 17, 1894) in the hands of the Senate." (Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1894, p. 7.)

The Act of Congress, approved January 12, 1895, providing for the public printing and
binding and the distribution of public documents contains the following item: "Of the
Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, two thousand five hundred copies: five hun-
dred for the Senate, one thousand for the House, and one thousand for distribution by the
Academy of Sciences." (Stat. at Large, vol. 28, p. 616, 53d Congress, 3d Session, chap. 23.)

70 See Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. i, pp. 375, 377, where the report is given in full.

ANNALS OF THE ACADEMY 75

Professor H. K. Vogel of Potsdam, Germany, and the fourth
Watson Medal to Dr. Seth C. Chandler for his researches on the
variation of latitude. The report of the trustees of the Watson
Fund, which is printed in full in the Annual Report for 1895,
contains the following paragraphs relative to the award to Dr.
Chandler:

" On the recommendation of the board of trustees of the Watson fund the
Academy last year unanimously awarded the Watson medal to Seth C. Chandler,
of Cambridge, Mass., for his investigations relative to variable stars, for his dis-
covery of the period of variation of terrestrial latitudes, and for his researches on
the laws of that variation

" Although not mentioned as forming any part of the grounds for the award of
this medal, Dr. Chandler's important labors for many years upon cometary orbits
are well known to astronomers

" The trustees of the Watson fund feel that this brilliant series of investiga-
tions is preeminently deserving of the highest recognition which can be given by
the National Academy, and have therefore not hesitated in recommending the
award of the medal to Dr. Chandler." 71

It will be recalled that " the Barnard Medal for Meritorious
Services to Science " was established by President F. A. P.
Barnard of Columbia College (now Columbia University)
July 17, 1889, with the provision that it should be awarded every
five years after that date, by the trustees of Columbia College,
upon the recommendation of the National Academy of Sciences.
The first award was made in 1895 to Lord Rayleigh " for his
brilliant discovery of argon, which illustrates so completely the
value of exact scientific methods in the investigation of the
physical properties of matter." 72

In the decade between 1884 and 1894 tne Academy lost
twelve of the incorporators, or original members, President
F. A. P. Barnard of Columbia College (died in 1889), the as-
tronomer and educator who was the second Foreign Secretary of
the Academy and served in that capacity from 1874 to 1880;
Bartlett, the physicist (1893) 5 the botanists, Engelmann (1884)

71 Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1895, pp. 24-29.

72 Loc. cit., pp. 29, 30.

76 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

and Gray (1888) ; Guyot, the geographer (1884) ; Hilgard, the
mathematician and physicist (1891) ; Leidy, the anatomist and
paleontologist (1891); Longstreth, the astronomer (1891);
Robert E. Rogers, the chemist (1884) ; the paleontologist, New-
berry (1892); Rutherfurd, the astronomer (1892); and Ben-
jamin Silliman, junior, the chemist (1885), who was also a
member of the committee which drafted the first constitution.

On the first of January, 1894, onty eight of the 48 original
members remained,73 J. D. Dana, Wolcott Gibbs, B. A. Gould,
James Hall, J. P. Lesley, H. A. Newton, Fairman Rogers, J. D.
Whitney.

The year 1895 was notable in the history of the Academy from
the fact that four sessions were held, — a special session at New
York, on February 9, to carry out the Act of Congress relative
to the application of the definitions of the units of electrical
measure; the regular annual meeting, held at Washington from
April 16 to 19; a second special session, held in Philadelphia,
October 30; and a scientific session held in Philadelphia,
October 31. The proceedings of the important meeting for the
application of electrical units are given in full in the report for
the year, and will be mentioned again in the chapter on the
work of the Academy as the adviser of the Government.

The annual report for the year 1895 contains an interesting
detailed statement by the Treasurer regarding the trust funds of
the Academy, all of which showed substantial increases. The
Bache Fund, which was originally $40,515, had increased to
$50,998; the Watson Fund, originally about $13,757, had in-
creased to $18,667, together with invested income amounting to
$4,427; the Draper Fund, originally $6,000, was raised to $6,604,
together with invested income amounting to $1,300; the Law-
rence Smith Fund of $8,000, increased to $8,235 with invested
income of $597. The Wolcott Gibbs Fund remained at $2,673.
In all, the trust funds at the disposal of the Academy amounted
at this time to $94,000.

Ti It will be recalled that two of the incorporators, Dahlgren and Boyden, declined
membership in the Academy, or resigned within a few months.

ANNALS OF THE ACADEMY 77

The fourth President of the Academy, Professor O. C. Marsh,
who had held that office since 1883, declined re-election in 1895,
and the Academy passed the following resolution unanimously:
" That the thanks of the Academy be tendered to the retiring
president for the zeal and ability with which he has admin-
istered in succession the offices of vice-president and president
of the Academy during a period of seventeen years." 74 Pro-
fessor Marsh was succeeded by Professor Wolcott Gibbs who
held the office of President until April, 1900, when he resigned.
He was succeeded in 1901 by Dr. Alexander Agassiz.

In this same year, 1895, which we have been considering, the
Academy expressed its gratification at the completion, under
the direction of two of its members, of extensive publications
calculated to be of great benefit to science and to the people.
These were the reports on the geology of Pennsylvania and the
catalogue of the library of the Surgeon-General's Office. The
resolution was as follows :

"Whereas, since 1874, Prof. J. P. Lesley, as the director of the second
geological survey of Pennsylvania, has, with the cooperation of a band of assist-
ants, published 127 octavo volumes of reports, which will remain a monument of
his scientific and literary activity:

" Resolved, That the National Academy of Sciences, at a session held in Phila-
delphia on the 3Oth of October, 1895, while expressing their regret at the absence
of their fellow-member, J. P. Lesley, wish at the same time to congratulate him on
the successful completion of his reports on the geological survey of Pennsylvania,
and further to express their appreciation of the services he has rendered to science
in devoting his life to the interest of the survey, a task to which he has brought
an unsurpassed knowledge of the geology of the State.

" 2. The Academy congratulate their fellow-member, Dr. John S. Billings, on
the completion of his Catalogue of the Army Medical Library, and on the issue of
the final^sixteenth volume of this unequaled gift to the medical scholars of the
world." 75

In 1896, when a bill was pending in the Senate calling for the
restriction of experiments on the lower animals in the District
of Columbia (Senate no. 1552), a letter was addressed to Sen-
ator Jacob H. Gallinger by the Chief of the Bureau of Animal

"Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1895, P- 23.
™ Loc. dt., p. 31.

78 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, the Surgeon-Gen-
eral of the Navy, the Surgeon-General of the Army and the
Surgeon-General of the Marine-Hospital Service, in which it
was requested that the Academy be asked to express an opinion
on the probable effect of such restriction on the progress of
biological science.

The letter was forwarded by Senator Gallinger to the
Academy, with a request for suggestions or a report on the sub-
ject. The Academy took the rather unusual course of reporting
directly and not by means of a committee. The report consisted
of a letter signed by Wolcott Gibbs, the President of the Acad-
emy, in which it was asserted that experiments in animals
have resulted in " incalculable benefits to the human race." It
was admitted that abuses might occasionally arise, but the fact
was pointed out that no claims were made by those interested in
obtaining restrictive legislation that abuses existed in the District
of Columbia to which the pending bill had reference.76 Senator
Gallinger remarked on the floor of the Senate on May 26, 1896,
regarding this bill:

" I desire to state that this is the bill known as the vivisection bill, concerning
which there is a great deal of controversy and a very marked difference of opinion,

both on the part of physicians and the general public It is proper I should

state in this connection so as to correct a misapprehension that is being very
industriously circulated, that it does not propose to prohibit vivisection, but that it
proposes to restrict and regulate it according to law, and that is all." 77

The third International Zoological Congress was held in
Leiden in 1895 an^ on mat occasion a commission was appointed
to examine the codes of nomenclature adopted in various con-
nections, with a view to determining whether the international
code should be amended to agree with the provisions of any of
them. The commission was to report at the next succeeding
congress to be held in London in 1898." The American member

79 This letter, which was dated April 24, 1896, is published in full in the Report of the
Academy for that year, pages 18 to 20.

"Congressional Record, vol. 28, part 6, p. 5709, 54th Congress, ist Session, 1896. The
caption of the bill was: "For the further prevention of cruelty to animals in the District
of Columbia." (See Senate Report 1049, 54th Congress, ist Session, on Senate Bill 1552.)

78 Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1896, p. 12.

ANNALS OF THE ACADEMY 79

of the Commission, Dr. Charles Wardell Stiles, upon his re-
turn to this country, addressed a letter, dated April 21, 1896,
to the President of the Academy, requesting that one of its
members be appointed to serve on an advisory board to which he
could submit propositions which he intended to present to the
Congress of 1898. The President appointed Dr. Theodore N.
Gill as the representative of the Academy.

To the five trust funds for the promotion of science, already
administered by the Academy, a sixth was added in 1897, when
Alice Bache Gould presented the sum of $20,000, to create a
fund in honor of her father, Benjamin Apthorp Gould, " for the
prosecution of researches in astronomy." In a letter addressed
to the Academy and dated November 17, 1897, Miss Gould
explained the objects which she had chiefly in mind in estab-
lishing this fund. In this letter she writes :

" My object in creating the fund is two fold — on the one hand to advance the
science of astronomy, and on the other to honor my father's memory and to
insure that his power to accomplish scientific work shall not end with his life.

" Throughout my father's lifetime his patriotic feeling and scientific ambition
were closely associated, and I wish, therefore, that a fund bearing his name should
be used, primarily, for the benefit of investigators in his own country or of his own
nationality. I recognize, however, that sometimes the best possible service to
American science is the maintenance of close communion between the scientific
men of Europe and of America, and that, therefore, even while acting in the spirit
of the above restriction, it may occasionally be best to apply the money to the aid of
a foreign investigator working abroad.

" In this connection I must also refer to the strong interest felt by my father in
the National Academy of Sciences,79 and to his belief in the importance of creating
and maintaining a single national scientific body, whose preeminence should be
unquestionable and of concentrating power in its hands

" I wish that in all cases work in the astronomy of precision should be distinctly
preferred to any work in astrophysics, both because of my father's personal pref-
erence and because of the present existence of generous endowments for astro-
physics." so

This fund was accepted by the Academy by a unanimous
vote, and three trustees were appointed to take charge of it.

79 Dr. Gould was one of the incorporators of the Academy.

80 The letter is given in full, together with the deed of trust, in the Annual Report for
1897, pp. 14-16.

8o NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

1898-1902

The Academy became connected in 1899 w*m a movement
having for its purpose the association of the scientific academies
of Europe and America for the furtherance of enterprises of
international scope and importance. It first came to the notice
of the National Academy through a letter addressed to its Presi-
dent by Lord Lister, President of the Royal Society of London.
This letter, which was dated April 14, 1899, is as follows : 81

" THE ROYAL SOCIETY, BURLINGTON HOUSE,

" London, W ., April 14, 1899.

" SIR: The Royal Society has frequently had occasion to take action in respect
to scientific undertakings calling for the cooperation of several countries, and
undertakings of this nature show a tendency to increase. The experience of the
society has led to the belief that it would be very advantageous to the interests
of science generally if some machinery could be devised by means of which sug-
gestions made for international cooperation in scientific inquiries could be thor-
oughly discussed by the leading men of science, from a purely scientific point of
view, before definite proposals are made with a view to official action by the
Governments of the countries concerned.

" With this view the Royal Society has communicated with the leading
scientific academies of Europe, whose replies give much encouragement to the idea
that it may be possible to establish an organization under which formal and regular
meetings of representatives of all leading scientific academies may be held for the
purpose of discussing scientific matters calling for international cooperation, and by
this means preparing the way for international action. The Council of the Royal
Society regards this question as one of great importance, and I am to request you
to bring it before your Academy, and to ask whether that body would be prepared
to join such an organization if established, and to cooperate in arranging the
details for inaugurating it upon a practical working basis.

" I have the honor to be, very faithfully, yours,

" LISTER,
" President Royal Society."

The letter was followed in June of the same year by an invita-
tion from the German academies, transmitted by the Royal
Prussian Academy of Sciences in Berlin, to send delegates to a
conference at Wiesbaden on the 9th and loth of October for
the purpose of organizing an international association of learned

81 Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1899, pp. 14-15.

ANNALS OF THE ACADEMY 8 1

societies. The object of the organization, as expressed in this
letter, was to be " to support scientific undertakings which have
been begun or recommended either by the assemblage of the
united scientific bodies, or by a group of them, or by a single one
of them, and to render mutually intelligible arrangements to
facilitate scientific intercourse."

Such an invitation could scarcely be declined, and the Presi-
dent of the Academy, after consultation with the members of
the Council, appointed as delegates to the Wiesbaden conference
Messrs. Billings, Bowditch, Newcomb, Remsen and Bell. Only
Messrs. Bowditch, Newcomb and Remsen were, however, able
to attend the meeting.

At the November meeting of the Academy (1899) resolutions
were adopted ratifying the action of the President in appointing
delegates to the Wiesbaden conference, and authorizing him
to appoint delegates to the International Association from time
to time as might be desirable; also, approving the plan of organi-
zation adopted at Wiesbaden,* accepting membership in the
International Association, and recommending the appointment
by the Association of special international committees.82 The
general committee of the Association met in Paris on July 31,
1900, the delegates from the National Academy on that occasion
being Messrs. H. L. Abbot, J. M. Crafts and A. Graham Bell.83
The first meeting of the Association was held in Paris in 1901,
the Academy being represented by Professor George L.
Goodale.84

Two medals within the gift of the Academy were awarded
again in 1899, the Henry Draper Medal to Professor James E.
Keeler, Director of the Lick Observatory, for his researches in

82 The letters from the Royal Society of London and the Royal Prussian Academy of
Sciences, together with plans of organization and a list of academies and delegates are
given in the Annual Report of the National Academy of Sciences for 1899, pp. 14-18.

88 A report of this meeting and a brief notice of the earlier proceedings, by J. M. Crafts,
are printed in the Annual Report of the Academy for 1900, pp. 14-16.

84 On account of illness, Professor Goodale was unable to attend this meeting. All the
other academics forming the Association, seventeen in number, were represented. Some of
the more important matters discussed are mentioned in the Annual Report of the Academy
for 1901, p. 17.

8 2 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

spectroscopic astronomy, and the Watson Medal to Sir David
Gill, Her Majesty's Astronomer at the Cape of Good Hope,
" for his work in perfecting the application of the heliometer to
astronomical measurements, which has resulted in an important
advance in astronomy of precision, especially in the determina-
tion of parallaxes of the sun and stars and of the position of the
planets." 8B

The fourth President of the Academy, Professor O. C. Marsh
died on March 18, 1899. He had been Acting President in 1878
and 1882, and President from 1883 to 1895. He bequeathed
to the Academy the sum of $10,000 " for promoting original
research in the natural sciences." 86

The time having arrived once more in 1900 for an award of
the Barnard Medal, the committee appointed by the Academy
unanimously recommended Professor Rontgen for that honor,
in the following letter:

" The committee appointed to select one or more names of persons who are
best entitled to receive the Barnard medal from Columbia University respect-
fully report that, after careful consideration of the subject, the name of Prof.
Wilhelm Conrad Rontgen is presented as being that of the person who has within
the five years beginning July 17, 1894, rnade the discovery which is most worthy
of this honor, under the terms of the will of President Barnard.

" Professor Rontgen announced his discovery of what he called the X-rays, now
commonly known as Rontgen rays, in December, 1895. These rays exhibit many
peculiar properties, and have been applied to various practical uses, the most
important of which thus far have been in surgery. They are at the present time one
of the most interesting and important subjects of research in physical science, and
the discovery may be properly termed an epoch-making one." 87

In the ensuing year the Henry Draper Medal was awarded
to Sir William Huggins for his investigations in astronomical
physics. The report of the committee, though somewhat long
for quotation in this connection, is so very interesting that it
seems desirable that it should be given in full. It is as follows:

" It is not an easy matter to concentrate into a few pages the results attained by
an active worker during a period of nearly half a century. Fortunately, in the

85 Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1899, p. 10.
99 See Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1910, p. 15.
wRep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1900, p. n.

ANNALS OF THE ACADEMY 83

present case, this labor has been greatly simplified by the recent publication by Sir
William and Lady Huggins, of an Atlas of Representative Spectra from wave
length 4,870 to 3,300, together with a discussion of the evolutional order of the
stars, and the interpretation of their spectra, preceded by a short history of the
Observatory and its work. This monumental volume not only furnishes a state-
ment of the various publications of the authors, but exhibits the relation of the
various investigations undertaken much better than could readily be done by
another. From this it appears that the work began in 1856 with a 5-inch Dolland
equatorial, which was replaced two years later by an excellent 8-inch Clark tele-
scope. In 1870 this was again replaced by a 1 5-inch achromatic and an 1 8-inch
reflector. In 1858 Sir William, then Mr. Huggins, undertook with Dr. Miller
the visual study of stellar spectra. This work was continued until 1864, and the
results were communicated to the Royal Society. Soon after this, on August 29,
1864, Sir William made one of the great discoveries in astrophysics. He found
that the spectrum of the planetary nebula in Draco, N. G. C. 6543, had a mono-
chromatic spectrum.

" It has heretofore been supposed that all nebulae might consist of distant stars
and could be resolved into their components by a telescope of sufficient power.
This theory was at once disposed of, and it appeared that of 60 of the brighter
nebulas and clusters about one-third were of this gaseous character. In 1866
the observations of the new star in Corona gave the first clew to the cause of
these remarkable objects. In 1868 Sir William was able to announce the first
step in an investigation which in recent years has become one of the most impor-
tant in astrophysics. The hydrogen lines in the brightest stars showed a slight
displacement, from which the motion of these bodies in the line of sight may be
determined. The accurate measurement of this quantity is now occupying a
large part of the time of the greatest telescopes in the world. It is leading to
unexpected results, which throw important light on the formation of the universe.
The fact that these displacements are wholly independent of the distance of the
source of light gives an opportunity to study problems for which ordinary visual
methods fail entirely. About this time, also, a study of comets showed that their
spectra closely resembled that of olefiant gas. A proposal of great scientific
importance was a method of observing the solar protuberances in the uneclipsed
sun. This method was devised independently by Mr. Lockyer. It is now
claimed that these remarkable phenomena can be better seen any clear day at a
fixed observatory than with portable instruments during a total solar eclipse. In
1876 the study of the spectra of the stars by means of photography, which had
been attempted without attaining satisfactory results in 1863, was undertaken.
Among the results published four years later, one of the most important was the
discovery of the wonderful series of lines due to hydrogen. Similar series of lines
are now found to exist in the spectra of many other terrestrial elements, and form
the basis of the spectroscopic relation of these substances with one another.

84 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

" During the last quarter of a century Sir William and Lady Huggins have
worked together in developing this most powerful method of research. Applying
it to one object after another, a theory of the universe has been evolved, which is
described in full in the work mentioned above. It is probable that this method
must, in general, be followed in all attempts to study the chemical relation of stars
to one another.

" We thus see that Sir William Muggins's activity has extended over nearly half
a century. During this time discoveries of the greatest importance have been made,
on which advances in astrophysics largely depend. Besides this, laborious investi-
gations have been undertaken, extending over many years, by which the methods
discovered have been developed and applied. For this remarkable record of
scientific activity and perseverance the undersigned recommend the award by the
Academy of the Henry Draper medal to Sir William Huggins." 88

The President of the Academy, Wolcott Gibbs, resigned in
the spring of 1900 and the office remained vacant until April,
1901, when Alexander Agassiz was elected to succeed him. Dr.
Agassiz remained at the head of the Academy throughout the
term of six years prescribed by the constitution. He was suc-
ceeded in 1907 by Dr. Ira Remsen.

The years 1901 to 1903 were notable in the history of the
Academy on account of the number of celebrations of important
events in the learned world in which it participated through
delegates appointed by the President. At the celebration of the
45oth anniversary of the founding of the University of Glasgow,
June 12 to 14, 1901, the Academy was represented by Professor
William G. Farlow and Dr. Theodore N. Gill. Professor
Farlow also represented the Academy at the meeting of the
International Association of Botanists held at Geneva, in August,
1901, and of the International Association of Academies at Paris,
April 1 6, 1901. At the bicentennial celebration of Yale Univer-
sity in October, 1901, the Academy was represented by Dr. Ira
Remsen. Professor Edward S. Morse was appointed a member
of the general committee of the International Congress of
Americanists held in New York in 1902. At the installation of
Dr. Edmund J. James as president of the Northwestern Univer-
sity, on October 19 to 21, 1902, the Academy had as its delegates

88 Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci., for 1901, pp. 10, n.

ANNALS OF THE ACADEMY 8$

Professors C. R. Van Hise and E. H. Moore; and at the instal-
lation of Dr. Joseph Swain as president of Swarthmore College,
on November 15, 1902, the Academy's delegate was Professor
Edgar F. Smith. The centenary celebration of the birth of the
Norwegian mathematician Abel was held at Christiania on
September 5, 1902, on which occasion Professor Simon New-
comb was the delegate of the Academy. He was also delegated
to attend the meeting of the Council of the International Associa-
tion of Academies in London, June 4, 1903.

The eighth volume of the Memoirs, containing seven articles,
was completed and published in 1902.

1903-1907

At the end of the third decade in its history, the number of
original members of the Academy who still remained was, as
already noted, but eight. At the end of the fourth decade, Janu-
ary i, 1904, all of these had died, save one. They comprised the
naturalist, James D. Dana, who was the first Vice-President of
the Academy (died in 1895) > Benjamin A. Gould, the astron-
omer (1896) ; James Hall, the paleontologist (1898) ; J. Peter
Lesley, the geologist (1903); H. A. Newton, the astronomer
(1896); J. D. Whitney, the geologist (1896); and Fairman
Rogers, who was the first Treasurer of the Academy, and served
in that capacity for sixteen years ( 1900) .

The Henry Draper Medal was presented on April 20, 1904, to
Professor George E. Hale, Director of the Yerkes Observatory,
for his important services to astronomy. The report of the
committee, which made the award contains the following state-
ments regarding his labors:

" The work of Professor Hale may be divided into four classes: Investigations
of solar phenomena, studies of stellar spectra, editing the Astrophysical Journal,
and the executive work involved in the direction of the Yerkes Observatory.
In 1868, it was shown by Janssen and Lockyer, independently, that solar
protuberances might be observed when the sun was not eclipsed. The method
employed was to allow an image of the edge of the sun's disk to fall upon the slit
of a spectroscope, and thus obtain the spectrum of this region only. If the image

86 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

of a protuberance fell upon the slit, so large a portion of its light was monochro-
matic that the hydrogen line C appeared as a bright line in the corresponding
portion of the spectrum. If now the slit was widened, the form of the protuber-
ance became visible. By placing a second slit so as to cut off all portions of the
spectrum except that of the line to be studied, replacing the eyepiece by a photo-
graphic plate, and giving similar motions to the latter and to the image of the sun
on the slit we have the spectroheliograph. The principal credit must be given
to Professor Hale for the independent invention of this instrument, for excellence
in the plans of its mechanical construction, for skill in its use, and for the final
results obtained with it, although as almost always happens, a portion of the
credit must be given to other astronomers who were pursuing the same line
of work

" Professor Hale has shown the same skill in invention, construction, and
application in the other portions of his work. The problem of photographing the
spectra of the stars of the third and fourth types is one of unusual difficulty.
.... By the great light-collecting power of the 4O-inch refractor, and the use
of isochromatic plates, Professor Hale succeeded in photographing the spectra of
these stars with a large dispersion

"During the years 1893, 1894, and 1895, Professor Hale edited the astro-
physical portion of Astronomy and Metaphysics. In January, 1896, he estab-
lished the Astrophysical Journal, associating with him the leading astrophysicists
of the world as assistant editors

" The manifold duties of the director of a great observatory may not be appre-
ciated by one who sees only the results. To attain success good judgment,
patience, skill, and knowledge of a great variety of subjects are required. For
the establishment, erection of buildings, construction of instruments, selection of
officers, general plan of work, and assignment of duties, a vast amount of time
and energy is required before the actual scientific work begins

" The reasons enumerated above show why the Henry Draper medal has been
awarded to Prof. George Ellery Hale." 89

As would naturally be anticipated, the adhesion of the
National Academy to the project for an International Associa-
tion of Academies in 1899 soon involved it in the consideration
of scientific enterprises of world-wide scope. The first of these
was a movement for the organization of an international seismo-
logical association, which was brought to its attention by Sir
Michael Foster in 1902, in his capacity as chairman of the inter-
national council of the Association of Academies and as repre-

88 For the full report, see Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1904, pp. 14-15.

ANNALS OF THE ACADEMY 87

sentative of the Royal Society of London. To aid the Royal
Society in advising the British Government, he desired to be
informed of the views of the National Academy, and the other
constituent academies of the Association, as to whether it was
deemed desirable to promote the project of the international
seismological conference held in Strassburg in April, 1901, for
the formation of an international seismological association. The
object of this association was to be the solution of the various
problems of seismology through the establishment of seismo-
logical stations in various parts of the world.90

The matter was referred to the Council of the National
Academy, which appointed a committee to consider it. The
committee reported in November, 1905. In the meantime, meet-
ings of the International Association of Academies were held in
1903 and 1904, and at the latter seismology was a prominent
subject of discussion. The report which the committee of the
National Academy brought in in 1905 was, however, unfavorable
as regards the establishment of seismological stations, on the
ground that the theoretical basis of the science was very imper-
fect. " Seismometry " the committee remarked, " is open to im-
provement in two directions. On the one hand, some able mathe-
matical physicist should be commissioned to elaborate the theory
of vibrations in a sphere in which elastic properties and density
vary with the radius; and on the other hand, experimental
physicists should make strenuous efforts to devise a seismometer
capable of recording the vertical components of small shocks." 91
The report ended with a recommendation that the matter be
brought to the attention of the Carnegie Institution of Wash-
ington, and the Home Secretary was instructed by the Academy
to send a copy of the report to that institution.

At the April meeting, 1904, a committee was appointed to
consider the preparation of general plans for international work
in solar research and to enter into communication with other

90 See Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1902, pp. 17-19, where the letter and the plan of the
seismological conference are given in full.

91 Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci., for 1905, p. 16.

88 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

organizations for the purpose of securing their cooperation in
the undertaking. The Louisiana Purchase Exposition, an expo-
sition of universal scope, was held in St. Louis that year, and
in connection therewith was assembled an International Con-
gress of Arts and Sciences. As a large number of prominent
men of science from all parts of the world were likely to attend
the Congress, it was deemed an auspicious occasion on which to
hold a conference on solar research. Accordingly, invitations to
such a conference were sent to scientific organizations in Europe
and America that were likely to be interested in the proposed
undertaking. The conference was attended by delegates from
12 academies and astronomical, astrophysical, and physical
societies. The International Meteorological Committee was
also represented. The conference was opened by Professor
George E. Hale, chairman of the committee of the National
Academy of Sciences, who explained the purpose of the pro-
posed organization, " emphasized the importance of encour-
aging individual initiative, and urged that no less attention be
paid to such encouragement than to the accomplishment of
large pieces of routine work through cooperative effort."

In the form of resolutions, the conference expressed its views
regarding the form of cooperative research which was desirable,
the desirability of obtaining the approval and patronage of the
International Association of Academies, and the cooperation of
the International Meteorological Committee and the Hungarian
Academy of Sciences, and the formation of an international
committee and a committee on program. After discussing
various aspects of the work of the solar research, the conference
adjourned to meet at Oxford in 1905. The Oxford meeting, at
which the organization was denominated the International
Union for Cooperation in Solar Research, was largely attended
and was followed by a meeting at Meudon, near Paris in May,
1907. The Union commenced the publication of a series of
Transactions, a copy of the first volume of which was pre-
sented to the Academy at the April meeting, 1907, by the chair-
man of the committee of the Academy. The fourth meeting

ANNALS OF THE ACADEMY 89

of the Solar Union, as it is informally designated, was held on
Mount Wilson, California, in 1910. At this time it comprised
committees representing eight academies, three astrophysical
societies, five physical societies, and four other organizations,
including the International Meteorological Committee. The
chairman of the committee of the National Academy remarked
as follows, regarding the work:

" The chief work of the union is undoubtedly the stimulation of interest in solar
research and the encouragement of workers in the field. It has brought together
astronomers and physicists on common ground, thus contributing toward the solu-
tion of problems lying on the borderland between these subjects. The influence of
the union seems to be apparent in the marked activity which has resulted in many
recent additions to our knowledge of the sun. But it has also accomplished much
in other ways. The establishment of a new system of wave lengths, based on
Michelson's determinations of the absolute wave length of the green cadmium
line, and the measurements of standard lines already made by Fabry and Buisson,
Eversheim, and Pfund, will be of lasting benefit to exact science. The daily pho-
tography of the sun, with spectroheliographs in Sicily, France, Spain, Germany,
England, Mexico, the United States, and India, will soon be supplemented, it is
hoped, by stations in Australia and China, and possibly in Japan. In this way the
changing phenomena of the solar atmosphere are recorded from hour to hour. A
program for the co-operative study of sun-spot spectra, adopted at Paris, will now
be revised to adapt it to the new conditions presented by recent discoveries. The
chief progress in the study of the intensity of the solar radiation has come
through the work of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, but the use in
Italy, France, and India of standard pyrheliometers sent out by Abbot should soon
result in the initiation of a general scheme of cooperation. Adams's discovery that
the law of the solar rotation varies at different altitudes in the sun's atmosphere
has been confirmed by Perot, and others are entering this important field.
Cooperation in eclipse observations and in other departments of solar research has
also been initiated by the union." 92

The ninth volume of the Memoirs was published in 1905.

The time for the award of the Barnard Medal having arrived
once more in 1905, the committee of the Academy recommended
that Professor Henri Becquerel be the recipient of this honor.
The report made at the April meeting of that year was as
follows :

"Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1910, p. 18.

90 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

" The committee on the Barnard medal respectfully recommend that Prof.
Henri Becquerel, of Paris, member of the Institute, be recommended by the
National Academy of Sciences to the trustees of Columbia University as the
proper recipient of the Barnard medal to be awarded next June. In making this
recommendation the committee has borne in mind not only the important dis-
coveries in the field of radio-activity made by Professor Becquerel during the last
five years, but also the fact that he was the original discoverer of the so-called
dark rays from uranium, which discovery has been the basis of subsequent
research into and of our present knowledge of the laws of radio-activity." 93

Since the formation of the International Association of
Academies, of which the National Academy became a member,
the interest in the national and international cooperation in
research work has greatly increased, and the Academy has
participated in many undertakings of broad scope which have
been beneficial in the promotion of science. Mention has al-
ready been made of the work of the International Seismological
Association and the International Union for Cooperation in
Solar Research. In 1906, a proposal was made to the Academy
that it should lend its aid and patronage to a scheme for national
cooperation in chemical research. The primary object of the
plan was to arouse interest in and to provide means for a syste-
matic attack on the problem of the free-energy changes which
accompany chemical reactions. " The principle of the second
law of energetics," remarked the promoter of this enterprise in
1906, " that any change in the state of a system, whether physical
or chemical, is capable of producing under the most favorable
conditions a definite quantity of work is one whose importance
has been extensively recognized within the last few years. This
importance arises not only from the direct significance from a
scientific and technical standpoint of this maximum quantity of
work obtainable from any physical change or chemical reaction,
but also from the fact that from its value alone can be directly
computed the equilibrium conditions of the chemical reaction in
question, the direction in which under specified conditions it
will take place, and the electromotive force of any voltaic cell
in which the reaction goes on reversibly." 94

"Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1905, p. 13.
MRep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1906, p. 19.

ANNALS OF THE ACADEMY 91

Not only was the importance of the investigation per se in-
sisted upon, but it was considered that it would stimulate an
interest in chemical research among the rising generation of
students of that branch of science, particularly, because it offered
a wide field for individual ingenuity and initiative, while at
the same time it did not demand the most costly and extensive
facilities, or the most finished training. The scheme was re-
ferred by the Academy to a committee which reported favorably
upon it, and the report was adopted by the Academy.

The committee was continued, and in accordance with the
approval of the Academy, associated with itself Dr. G. N. Lewis
of Boston, who had given much attention personally to the
problems of chemical reactions. At the November meeting,
1907, this committee reported that it had prepared a circular
letter to heads of departments and to research workers in educa-
tional establishments, outlining the plan of research, and asked
the Academy to approve its distribution. This was granted and
the letter was accordingly circulated. Besides stating the
problem and asking cooperation in its solution, the letter men-
tioned three pamphlets bearing on the subject which had been
prepared, by the committee containing a summary of the
problem, the best means of attacking it and a resume of the
condition of knowledge regarding it. These were entitled
respectively, " The Maximum Work Producible by Chemical
Reactions," " The Principles of Energetics and their Application
to Chemical and Physico-chemical Changes," and " The Free
Energy of Chemical Compounds."

The list of trust funds of the Academy, already a long one,
received an important addition in November, 1907, when Gen-
eral Cyrus B. Comstock, Director of the Geodetic Survey of the
Northern and Northwestern Lakes and President of the
Mississippi River Commission, presented the sum of $10,000
" to advance knowledge in electricity, magnetism, and radiant
energy, by the giving of money prizes for important investi-
gations or discoveries in those subjects." It was General Com-
stock's wish that the principal of the fund should be maintained

92 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

at the market value of $10,000. After providing a plan for in-
creasing the capital fund to $15,000, the deed of trust requires
that once in every five years, about two-thirds of the accumulated
interest shall be awarded as a prize, to be known as the " Corn-
stock Prize," " to the bona fide resident of North America, who,
not less than one year nor more than six years before the award-
ing of the prize, shall have made in the judgment of the trustee
the most important discovery or investigation in electricity or
magnetism or radiant energy." In case no such discovery or in-
vestigation is deemed worthy of the prize the trustee is permitted,
under certain conditions, to allot the prize-money in aiding
research. The " Comstock Prize " has not as yet been awarded.95
During the period under consideration, 1903 to 1907, the
following delegates were appointed to represent the Academy
at meetings of various international associations, or celebrations
at universities: Professor Simon Newcomb was delegated to
attend a meeting of the Council of the International Association
of Academies in London, June 4, 1903. The same year Dr.
S. F. Emmons, President Van Hise and Dr. Geo. F. Becker,
represented the Academy at the International Geological Con-
gress held at Vienna on August 27. On the occasion of the
5Oth anniversary of the founding of the University of Wisconsin,
in 1904, Professor Grove K. Gilbert and Dr. Geo. E. Hale were
the representatives of the Academy, and at the meeting of the
International Association of Academies held in London on May
25, 1904, the Academy was represented by its Foreign Associates,
Sir Archibald Geikie and Sir E. Ray Lankester. The following
year Dr. William Trelease was designated to attend the Inter-
national Botanical Congress held in Vienna, June n to 18, 1905,
while Dr. George E. Hale and Professor W. W. Campbell were
the representatives on the Committee on Solar Research which
met at Oxford in September, 1905. In 1906 Dr. Arnold Hague
represented the Academy at the quaternary celebration of the
University of Aberdeen. The following year Professor T. C.
Chamberlin was the delegate of the Academy at the celebration

"For the deed of trust and other documents, see Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1907, pp. 13-15.

ANNALS OF THE ACADEMY 93

of the 5oth anniversary of the founding of the Michigan Agricul-
tural College, May 28 to 31 ; Dr. Alexander Agassiz represented
the Academy at the Seventh International Zoological Congress
held in Boston, August 19 to 23; Dr. Arnold Hague, at the
centenary celebration of the Geological Society of London, Sep-
tember 26 to 28 ; Dr. George E. Hale, at the meeting of the Inter-
national Association of Academies, and at the third meeting of the
Union for Cooperation in Solar Research, in Paris, in May;
Professor W. C. Brogger, at the bicentenary celebration of the
birth of Linnaeus at Upsala, May 23 and 24; and Professor Henry
F. Osborn at a similar celebration in New York.

1908-1912

The proceedings of the Academy in 1908 and the events of that
year were important from many points of view. The last of the
incorporators of the Academy, Professor Wolcott Gibbs, died on
December 9. He was Vice-President of the Academy from 1 872
to 1878 and President from 1895 to 1901. He had also been the
first Home Secretary, serving in that capacity from 1863 to 1872.
In a brief sketch of his life published in 1908, it is remarked:
" His long life was devoted to the cause of research in the field of
pure science, and his influence was always on the side of the
highest ideals." He was succeeded in the presidency by Alex-
ander Agassiz.

The subject of the preservation of the forests of the United
States had become one of strong public interest in the country
in 1908, and the Academy again voiced its opinion regarding
this matter in so far as it related to the forests of the White
Mountains and the Appalachians in the following resolutions
of the Council which were transmitted to the Senate and House
of Representatives:

" Whereas under the present drain upon the forest timber supply of the
entire United States will be exhausted within twenty years, while in the Eastern
States, where no adequate means have been employed to protect the forest, the
end of the supply is even nearer ;
8

94 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

" Whereas the headwaters of all important navigable streams to the west
of the Mississippi River are now protected by national forests, while the Appa-
lachian Mountains, which form the waterheads of many navigable streams of
great importance, are entirely unprotected and are being damaged to a menacing
extent by the wasteful cutting of the forest, unrestricted fires, and injudicious
clearing ;

"Resolved, That the council of the National Academy of Sciences heartily
favors the extension of the national forest system to the Appalachian Mountains
for their protection and permanent utilization.

" Resolved, That we urge upon Congress the passage at the present session of a
bill to acquire in the southern Appalachian Mountains and the White Mountains
such forest lands as are necessary to protect the navigable streams which have
their sources therein and to make permanent the timber supply of the eastern
part of the Unietd States." 96

The important results obtained through cooperative methods
of research led the Academy in 1908 to appoint additional com-
mittees for the promotion of such activities. One of these, the
Committee on International Cooperation in Research, was to
serve as the adviser of the Academy in its relations with the
International Association of Academies. Its duties were " to
keep in close touch with the work of the International Associa-
tion of Academies, and to assist in securing suitable representa-
tion of the Academy at the council and general meetings of the
Association"; and also "to consider plans for cooperation in
research, and to recommend from time to time the initiation
of such cooperative investigations as may warrant the support
of the Academy." In 1909, this committee submitted a very
interesting report, which, as it briefly summarizes the activities
of the Academy in this connection, seems to demand quotation
in full. It is as follows : 9T

" The committee on cooperation in research met in Boston on April 5.
Reports of progress were received from the committees on solar research, on
chemical research, on paleontologic correlation, and on brain research.

" The International Union for Cooperation in Solar Research has held three
meetings, a preliminary one at St. Louis, and largely attended meetings at Oxford
and Paris. The second volume of Transactions has recently been published.
Arrangements are now being made for the next meeting, which is to be held at

"Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1908, p. 20.
97 Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1909, p. 13.

ANNALS OF THE ACADEMY 95

Pasadena and Mount Wilson in 1910. A large amount of cooperative work is
in progress under the auspices of the union.

" The committee on chemical research has prepared a circular letter to
investigators, inviting their cooperation, and the work will be developed rapidly
as soon as Doctor Noyes is relieved from his present duties as acting president of
the Institute of Technology (in a few weeks).

" The committee recognized the importance of cooperative investigations in this
country, as well as those of international scope, and decided to encourage promis-
ing opportunities in either field.

" The chairman was authorized to invite several other members of the academy
(selected by the committee) to join the committee, namely, Messrs. Mall, Moore,
Chittenden, Chamberlin, Davis, and Wilson.

" The importance of providing for adequate means of publication of short
papers, as well as complete volumes of transactions, was recognized by the com-
mittee, and it was decided to request you to bring this matter to the attention of
the council.

" It was announced that the academy would be represented by one of the mem-
bers of the committee (George E. Hale) at the council meeting of the Inter-
national Association of Academies, to be held in Rome June 1-3 next. The
appointment of Professor Hale was made by President Remsen.

" SIMON NEWCOMB,
" A. A. NOYES,
" C. S. MINOT,
" H. F. OSBORN,
" GEORGE E. HALE, Chairman.
11 Communicated by

" HENRY F. OSBORN."

The second cooperative committee appointed in 1908 was one
on International Paleontological Correlation. The committee
on this important subject divided itself into a Vertebrate Section
and an Invertebrate Section. The Vertebrate Section submitted
a report in 1909, which was published in the Annals of the
New York Academy of Sciences, under the title of " Geologic
Correlation Through Vertebrate Paleontology by International
Cooperation." 98

The Academy published this year a comprehensive report on
the trust funds of the Academy, comprising transcripts of wills

"Annals N. Y. Acad. Sci., vol. xix, no. 2, part i, pp. 41-44, April 20, 1909, "Correlation
Bulletin, no. i, Plan and Scope."

96 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

and deeds of trusts, lists of donors, subscribers, trustees, com-
mittees, etc., data regarding the amount of the principal of the
several funds, the amount of the income, the amount and object
of expenditures, and a summary of the action of the Academy
relative to the funds from year to year. As already mentioned,
the trust funds of the Academy in 1895 were six in number, the
combined principal of which amounted to $94,000. In 1908 two
funds had been added, and the total amount of the capital aggre-
gated $170,359.17."

From these funds, between the years 1871 and 1908, 175 grants
were made, ranging in amount from $25 to $2500 each. The
majority were from the Bache Fund and from the Gould Fund.
In addition, the income of the Wolcott Gibbs Fund was
regularly alloted, and gold medals were presented from the
funds which provided for them.

The grants from the Bache Fund between 1871 and 1908
amounted to about $76,000, distributed in the following
manner:100

Astronomy and Astrophysics $25,650

Physics 14,634

Magnetic Surveys 8,260

Physiology and Pathology 6,600

Miscellaneous 101 5,35O

Chemistry 5, 150

Zoology 5,050

Botany 3, 100

Paleontology 1 ,200

Psychology 600

Meteorology 550

Seismology 100

Total $76,244

The grants from the Gould Fund between 1899 and 1908 were
all for astronomical investigations and amounted to $9,430.

w Of this sum, $40,000 is not yet available.

100 The classification is not entirely exact, as the object of the grants is not always definitely
stated.

101 Some of the items under this heading are probably chargeable to astronomy.

ANNALS OF THE ACADEMY 97

Grants from other funds for astronomical purposes amounted to
$7,645. The total for astronomical and astrophysical investiga-
tions was about $42,725 or nearly one-half the amount of all
grants made between 1871 and 1908, the sum total of which was
about $94,ooo.102

In 1909, a first installment of the bequest of Professor O. C.
Marsh, was sent to the Academy by the executor of his estate,
with the following letter:

"NEW HAVEN, CONN., November 17, 1909.
" PROFESSOR S. F. EMMONS,

Treasurer of the National Academy of Sciences,

" Washington, D. C.

"DEAR SIR: I think you are perhaps already aware that the late Prof.
O. C. Marsh left a bequest to the National Academy of Sciences. The seventh
clause of his will is as follows:

' I give, devise, and bequeath to the corporation known as the National
Academy of Sciences, in Washington, D. C., the sum of $10,000 as a trust fund,
the income to be used and expended by it for promoting original research in the
natural sciences.'

" When Prof. Marsh died he was somewhat in debt, and we have just
succeeded in paying the last of his notes, and have a small balance over, so are
sending you with this a check for $1,250 as a first payment of the above legacy.
We hope later to be able to pay the whole amount, as we receive from time to time
certain moneys from the George Peabody estate, as certain trusts fall back into
that estate, and it is probable that the amount still to be received from that
source will be enough to do this. Will you kindly acknowledge the receipt of
this payment, and at a later date send us the acceptance of the academy of the
above trust?

" With great respect, I am, sir,

" Very truly yours,

" WM. W. FARNAM,

" Executor Estate of O. C. Marsh"

The Academy, upon recommendation of the Council, ac-
cepted this bequest and directed that it be accumulated until it
should amount to the sum of $10,000 before any grants were
made from it.

The income of the Watson Fund since 1901, which was also devoted to astronomical
researches, and some minor items of a miscellaneous character, are not included in the
foregoing figures.

9« NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

In 1910 the Henry Draper Medal was awarded to Mr.
Charles Greeley Abbot, Director of the Smithsonian Astrophys-
ical Observatory " for his researches on the infra-red region
of the solar spectrum and his accurate measurements, by im-
proved devices, of the solar ( constant ' of radiation." 103 The
medal was presented to Mr. Abbot at the annual dinner, April
19, 1911. Five years having elapsed since the last award of the
Barnard Medal, a committee of the Academy recommended
that it be given in 1910 to Dr. Ernest Rutherford, Langworthy
Professor of Physics and Director of the Physical Laboratory
in the University of Manchester, for his investigations on the
phenomena of radio-activity. The committee remarked, in part,
as follows:

" Prof. Rutherford has been identified with this branch of physical science
since its inception by the discovery of the so-called X-rays in 1895. His
researches, published in numerous communications to current journals, appear
to have contributed more than those of any contemporary to the establishment
of the salient properties of radio-active substances. Not content with the experi-
mental determination and verification of these properties, he has recently gone
further and pointed out the convincing evidence they afford of the correctness of
the ancient doctrine of the atomic structure of matter. In addition to his con-
tributions in this field of investigation of many original, ingenious, and pene-
trating methods of observation and measurement, he has also furnished the best
general account of its origin, development, and present status in his book on
Radio-active Transformations (published in 1906) and in his presidential address
read before the section of mathematics and physics of the British Association for
the Advancement of Science, in August, 1909." 104

The medal was awarded to Professor Rutherford, in accord-
ance with the recommendation of the committee.

The Academy was represented at the meeting of the council of
the International Association of Academies held in Rome in June,
1909, by the chairman of the Committee on International Cooper-
ation in Research, Professor George E. Hale, who was also the
delegate to the Darwin Celebration at the University of Cam-
bridge, June 22 to 24, 1909. The committee recommended that
the Academy should vote in favor of admitting the Swiss Society

10*Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1910, p. 12.
*"* Loc. cit., p. 14.

ANNALS OF THE ACADEMY 99

of Natural Sciences to membership in the Association and also
in favor of publishing annually a volume of physical and
chemical tables in accordance with a plan presented to the
Association. These tables were to be compiled from current
periodicals, and to be classified under five general heads : general
physics, heat, electricity and magnetism, light and sound, physi-
cal chemistry. It was expected that they would be useful to
students, investigators and those concerned with the practical
applications of physics and chemistry, as they would bring
together in convenient form a variety of tables that might other-
wise be overlooked or difficult of access. The first volume of
tables was published in 191 a.105

The Academy was invited in 1910 by the American Philo-
sophical Society to consider the question of the establishment of
a seismological laboratory. The project was favorably recom-
mended by the Council and at the meeting of April, 1910, the
Academy adopted the following resolution :

"Resolved, That the academy strongly approves the establishment of the pro-
posed Seismological Laboratory, and its organization under the direction of the
Smithsonian Institution." 106

Two delegates were appointed in 1910 to represent the
Academy at international conventions held during that year.
At the International Association of Academies held at Rome
in May, and at the International Zoological Congress, held at
Gratz, in August, the Academy was represented by Mr. E. G.
Conklin; at the International Geological Congress, held in
Stockholm in the latter month, by Mr. S. F. Emmons.

Dr. Arnold Hague represented the Academy on the occasion
of the celebration of the room anniversary of the University of
Berlin, October 10 to 12, 1910.

The sixth President of the Academy, Alexander Agassiz died
on March 27, 1910. He held the presidency from 1901 to 1907,
and was also Foreign Secretary from 1891 to 1901. Professor
Mayer remarked of him : " His remarkable energy and exec-

105 For the full plan see Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1910, pp. 16, 17.
""Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1910, p. 20.

100 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

utive ability fitted him in an eminent degree to be the leader of
scientific expeditions. Each exploring trip was planned to a
day even to its minute details, every course charted, distances
measured and every station decided upon, before he left his desk
in the Harvard Museum, so that all of its achievements were
actually prearranged. ... It is due chiefly to his forethought
that in more than 100,000 miles of wandering over tropical seas
he never met with a serious accident. . . . Among scientific
men be became the greatest patron of zoology our country has
known. In 1910, at the time of his death, the fifty-fourth volume
of the Bulletins, and the fortieth volume of the Memoirs of the
Museum of Comparative Zoology were appearing. These pub-
lications had been started in 1863 and 1864, and in the number of
important and beautifully illustrated papers they contain they
have been excelled by only a few of the most active scientific
societies of the world; yet the expense of producing them has
largely been borne by one man — Alexander Agassiz." 107 He
bequeathed the sum of $50,000 " for the general use of the
Academy." 108

The International Union for Cooperation in Solar Research
in which the Academy is represented held its fourth conference
at the Mount Wilson Solar Observatory from August 31 to
September 2, 1910. At this meeting, which was attended by 37
delegates from foreign countries and 47 from the United States,
the scope of the Union was extended to include all branches of
astrophysics. " The resolutions adopted called for the continua-
tion of the series of daily photographs of the calcium flocculi
with spectroheliographs used by cooperating observatories in
various parts of the world; the addition of a series of daily pho-
tographs of the hydrogen flocculi; the inclusion in the list of
cooperating institutions of the observatories at Tacubaya,
Mexico, and Madrid, Spain; the adoption of definite inter-
national standards of wave-lengths of the second order, based
on interferometer determinations made at three laboratories;

107 Pop. Sci. Monthly, November, 1910, pp. 425, 430.

108 This sum was paid into the treasury on February i, 1911.

ANNALS OF THE ACADEMY IOI

the use of barium lines in the neighborhood of a 5800, where
sharp iron lines are not sufficiently numerous for standards;
the extension of the system of standards of the second order to
shorter and longer wave-lengths; the measurement of standards
of the third order by concave gratings at various cooperating
institutions; the use of the name International Angstrom (I. A.)
for the unit on which the system of standards of the international
system is based; the publications of the report of the sun-spot
spectrum committee and of the cooperating observers in the
next volume of the Transactions of the Solar Union; the con-
tinuation of visual observations of spot spectra in accordance
with a revised and extended scheme; the preparation of a gen-
eral catalogue of the lines in the photographic spectra of sun-
spots; the preparation of a new photographic map of the sun-
spot spectrum on a scale of 5 mm. to the Angstrom; and the
general adoption of the plan of measuring position angles around
the sun's limb from the north to the east." 109 The last article of
the tenth volume of the Memoirs was published in 191 1.

A new trust fund was placed under the control of the Acad-
emy in 1911 when Sir John Murray presented the sum of $6,000
to establish a gold medal to be known as the " Alexander Agassiz
Medal," and to be awarded " to scientific men in any part of the
world for original contributions to the science of oceanography."
The following year the Academy, upon recommendation of a
special committee, accepted a design for the medal prepared by
Mr. Theodore Spicer-Simpson.110

The vertebrate section of the committee on paleontologic
correlation submitted a second and final report in 1912 from
which it is learned that with the aid of grants from the Bache
Fund, amounting to $1,000, it had prepared and published three
" correlation bulletins," entitled respectively " Plan and Scope,"
" Fossil Vertebrates of Belgium," and " Patagonia and the
Pampas Cenozoic." Lists of North American fossil vertebrates
were also prepared, and matter relating to correlation was also

109 Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1912, p. 14.

110 Loc. cit., p. 14.

102 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

published in Professor H. F. Osborn's book entitled " Age of
Mammals " and an article by him entitled " Correlation and
Palaeogeography." Upon recommendation the section of the
committee was discharged.111

The Academy sent Dr. George F. Becker as its delegate to the
meeting of the American Philosophical Society held on April
1 8, 19 and 20, 1912. At the 2$oth anniversary of the Royal
Society of London, which was celebrated on July 16-18, 1912, the
Academy had as its delegate Dr. Arnold Hague, Home Sec-
retary. The President of the Academy was its representative at
the inauguration of President Hibben at Princeton University
on May 12, 1912.

The will of Morris Loeb, who died on October 8, 1912, con-
tained the following item, adding to the trust funds of the
Academy: " I give and bequeath to the National Academy of
Sciences in Washington, in the District of Columbia, the sum
of two thousand five hundred dollars as a contribution toward
the Wolcott Gibbs Fund, founded in 1892."

111 Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1912, p. 13.

CHAPTER III
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS

THE tumultuous days of a great war would hardly seem
a propitious time for the formation of an association to
promote the arts of peace. Men of science, like men
from every other department of life, were engaged directly or
indirectly in the struggle, and it seems unlikely that any of them,
and especially those in prominent positions, would find the
leisure, or be in a mood, to consider the qualifications of their
confreres for membership in an academy. The peculiar circum-
stances of the time must have greatly increased the difficulties
of this delicate task. It has been suggested that the exigencies
of the day account for the large number of men connected with
the military and naval branches of the Government that were
included among the incorporators. This may be true, as the
founders of the Academy undoubtedly had the idea that it would
be a help to the Government, but a more just view is, perhaps,
that so many men of high scientific attainments were connected
with the Army and Navy that the choice naturally lay in that
direction.

It would be interesting to know how the selection of incor-
porators was guided, but no records at present available reveal
the facts. A clew is, perhaps, to be found by a study of the mem-
bership of scientific organizations already in existence when the
Academy was founded. There were three general societies, the
American Philosophical Society, the American Academy of
Arts and Sciences, and the American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science. From a comparison of the lists of those
who were members between 1860 and 1863*, it appears that from
two-thirds to nearly three-fourths of the incorporators of the

1The meetings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science were sus-
pended during the Civil War.

103

104 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

National Academy were connected with one or the other of
these societies, and that of the whole number of incorporators
only four were not members of any of them. It would seem
almost certain that the little group of men that guided the
Academy movement had these lists before them when engaged
in the selection of incorporators. Doubtless there were good
reasons why the fifty original members, or some of them, were not
notified of their inclusion in the list in advance of the passage of
the Act of Incorporation, but it is significant that only two
declined membership, or resigned in the months immediately
following that event.

The Academy has published sketches of the lives of nearly
all the incorporators in the series known as the Biographical
Memoirs, of which seven volumes have been issued. It has not
seemed necessary or desirable to gather the same information
again from original sources, but an attempt has been made to
summarize, in the pages which follow, the principal events in
the lives of the original members. The matter has been derived
in the majority of cases from the Biographical Memoirs, and in
each instance the authority is cited.

The original list of incorporators as it appears in the Act of
1863 is as follows:

Louis AGASSIZ, Massachusetts. J. D. DANA, Connecticut.

J. H. ALEXANDER, Maryland. CHARLES H. DAVIS, United States

S. ALEXANDER, New Jersey. Navy, Massachusetts.

A. D. BACHE, at large. GEORGE ENGELMANN, St. Louis, Mis-

F. A. P. BARNARD, at large. souri.

J. G. BARNARD, United States Army, J. F. FRAZER, Pennsylvania.

Massachusetts. WOLCOTT GIBBS, New York.

W. H. C. BARTLETT, United States J. M. GILLISS, United States Navy,

Military Academy, Missouri. Kentucky.

U. A. BOYDEN, Massachusetts. A. A. GOULD, Massachusetts.

ALEXIS CASWELL, Rhode Island. B. A. GOULD, Massachusetts.

WILLIAM CHAUVENET, Missouri. ASA GRAY, Massachusetts.

J. H. C. COFFIN, United States Naval ARNOLD GUYOT, New Jersey.

Academy, Maine. JAMES HALL, New York.

J. A. DAHLGREN, United States Navy, JOSEPH HENRY, at large.

Pennsylvania. J. E. HILGARD, at large, Illinois.

THE INCORPORATORS 105

EDWARD HITCHCOCK, Massachusetts. FAIRMAN ROGERS, Pennsylvania.

J. S. HUBBARD, United States Naval R. E. ROGERS, Pennsylvania.

Observatory, Connecticut. W. B. ROGERS, Massachusetts.

A. A. HUMPHREYS, United States L. M. RUTHERFURD, New York.

Army, Pennsylvania. JOSEPH SAXTON, at large.

J. L. LE CONTE, United States Army, BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, Connecticut.

Pennsylvania. BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, JR., Connec-
J. LEIDY, Pennsylvania. ticut.

J. P. LESLEY, Pennsylvania. THEODORE STRONG, New Jersey.

M. F. LONGSTRETH, Pennsylvania. JOHN TORREY, New York.

D. H. MAHAN, United States Mili- J. G. TOTTEN, United States Army,

tary Academy, Virginia. Connecticut.

J. S. NEWBERRY, Ohio. JOSEPH WINLOCK, United States Nau-
H. A. NEWTON, Connecticut. tical Almanac, Kentucky.

BENJAMIN PEIRCE, Massachusetts. JEFFRIES WYMAN, Massachusetts.

JOHN RODGERS, United States Navy, J. D. WHITNEY, California.

Indiana.

LOUIS AGASSIZ
Born, May 28, 1807; died, December 14, 1873

Arnold Guyot remarked of Agassiz in 1878 :

" Agassiz, in more senses than one, is a unique figure in the history of the
scientific progress of our day. In Europe he already occupied among men of
science a position in some manner exceptional, I may say privileged, which no
other scientific man of equal or even superior merit has enjoyed. In this country,
during the last quarter of a century, he has been in the popular mind, more
than any other man, the representative of the faithful, unflinching devotee of
natural science.

" In both hemispheres he found crowds of enthusiastic admirers; in both he
became the center of a marvelous scientific activity, the guide of numerous fol-
lowers in the investigation of the mysteries of nature. Such facts reveal an
individuality of uncommon power which deserves our special attention."

Louis Agassiz was born at Metier, in the Swiss Canton ot
Vaud, on May 28, 1807. He was the son of the pastor of the
village church, and was descended from French Huguenots.
His father accepted a call to the town of Orbe, at the foot of the
Jura, and young Agassiz's boyhood was spent among those
impressive surroundings, which doubtless first served to arouse
in him an interest in the study of nature. He returned hither in

106 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

later years to verify his geological deductions and to find mate-
rials for his work on echinoderms.

At the age of n, Agassiz engaged in classical studies at the
College of Bienne, and afterwards was a student for two years
at the Academy of Lausanne. In 1824 he entered the Medical
School of Zurich where two additional years were spent. Hav-
ing been encouraged in his natural history studies by the
zoologist Schinz, according to the custom of the time he left
Zurich and entered the University of Heidelberg, where he
studied physiology and anatomy under Tiedeman, zoology under
Leuckart, and botany under Bischoff. At this time Alexander
Braun was studying at Heidelberg, and an intimate friendship
was formed between the two young men, Braun inviting Agassiz
to his home during the summer vacations. To this charming
home, most delightfully situated at Carlsruhe, many naturalists
and other men of learning were attracted, and by the intimate
intercourse with those who like himself were engaged in the
study of nature, and by comparison of investigations made,
Agassiz broadened his own views, and laid the foundations for
his future work. With Braun and Schimper, Agassiz spent the
years from 1827 to 1830 at the University of Munich, continuing
his medical studies and mainly occupied with zoological investi-
gations. These three men formed the nucleus of a company of
young scientists who organized a society called the " Little
Academy of Sciences," where each gave lectures on his favorite
topic. In these years were finished those preliminary studies
which formed the basis of his life work. With Oken he dis-
cussed classification; with Dollinger, embryology; Von Martius
instructed him in the geographical distribution of plants; and
Schelling in philosophy. He published his first work at this
time and prepared two others. Owing to the death of Spix,
Agassiz was chosen by Von Martius, the Brazilian explorer,
to describe the fishes collected during his expedition. So well
was this done by Agassiz, then but twenty-one years of age, that it
gave him rank among the best naturalists of the time.

THE INCORPORATORS 107

Previous to the accomplishment of this work, Agassiz had
taken the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of
Erlangen in 1829, and Doctor of Medicine at Munich in 1830.
While continuing his preparations for the publication of a
natural history of the fresh-water fishes of Europe and a treatise
on fossil fishes, Agassiz visited Vienna and Paris, where he
examined the collections in the museums, and received help from
various sources, as well as offers of attractive positions. He
became acquainted with Fitzinger in Vienna and in Paris
Humboldt introduced him to Cuvier, who generously placed in
his hands the whole of the material which he himself had in-
tended to use as the basis of a work on fossil fishes. By the advice
of Humboldt, Agassiz refused the various offers of positions
that were made to him, but at last in the autumn of 1832 was
appointed to the recently-established chair of natural history
in the College of Neuchatel, where for 14 years he labored
assiduously and published extensively. His " Recherches sur
les Poissons Fossiles," and his " Systeme Glaciaire," " those of
his works which have made the deepest impress on progressing
science," were written during this period. Always enthusiastic,
he carried out his ideals in the publication of his books, and
though often in pecuniary difficulties, aid came to him from
many sources on account of his reputation for accurate scholar-
ship and faithful devotion to research.

Other important works published by Agassiz while at Neu-
chatel were a prodromus of the echinoderms and a treatise on the
fossil echinoderms of Switzerland, Critical studies of fossil
Mollusks, " Iconography of the tertiary shells believed to be
identical with living ones," the " Nomenclator Zoologicus," and
the " Bibliotheca Zoologica et Geologica."

In 1836 Agassiz's attention was directed to the subject of
glaciers by his friend Jean de Charpentier, and he spent some
months with him at Bex, near the mouth of the Rhone. As a
result of his studies and reflections, he conceived the idea of an
universal glacial epoch at the end of the Tertiary Age. He pre-
sented this before the Helvetic Society of Natural Science at

I08 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Neuchatel in 1837 and produced a sensation throughout the scien-
tific world. It was combated and ridiculed, but in course of time
it has found universal acceptance, though in a modified form.
Agassiz never lost interest in the subject, and made extensive
and important contributions to it in later years. He intended
to publish a comprehensive work on the results obtained through
the researches of himself and his associates, but the enterprise
was frustrated by the revolution of 1848, after the publication
of the first volume. " If to Venetz and Charpentier belongs
the honor of having first proved the transportation of the Swiss
erratic boulders by the agency of ice, and the existence o<f
great glaciers formerly extending to the Jura, to Agassiz we
must award the merit of having given to these facts their full
geological significance, of having brought them before the
world at large and having made the glacial question, as it were,
the order of the day." (Guyot.)

Important as were these glacial researches of Agassiz, his
friend Humboldt thought it unfortunate that he should be
diverted from natural history investigations, and on that account
induced the King of Prussia to send him on a scientific mission
for the comparison of the faunas of temperate Europe and
America. At the same time Agassiz received an invitation to
lecture before the Lowell Institute in Boston. He came to
America in 1846, and, as is well known, made an extraordinary
impression in scientific circles and on the public at large. " Be-
fore him America had had many able representatives of the
science of nature, fully appreciated abroad, but too much
ignored by the mass of the people at home, who had not yet
espoused the cause. Sympathy and efficient aid had been want-
ing. The stirring appeals of Agassiz were heard and the nation
nobly responded." (Guyot.)

Professor Bache, Superintendent of the Coast Survey, gave
him opportunities for investigations of marine life on the
Atlantic Coast and among the Florida Reefs. Means were
found for an expedition to Brazil and the Amazon, and for the
publication of his " Contributions to the Natural History of the

THE INCORPORATORS 109

United States," for the establishment of a biological laboratory
and school on Penikese Island, and many other enterprises.
Greatest of all was the organization of the Scientific School
and the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard. In the
latter, Agassiz's ideas on zoology were embodied in concrete form
in the zoological, geographical, and embryological series which
were there displayed. " By his large contributions to Science in
America, by his power of developing a true scientific spirit, to
excite and popularize the taste for scientific researches, by his vast
influence on the American mind, and his universal popularity,
which he kept to the very last, Agassiz had become emphatically
a national man." (Guyot.) He died on December 14, 1873.

It was probably Agassiz who induced Senator Wilson to
introduce and urge the bill incorporating the National Academy
of Sciences, and when established he became its first Foreign
Secretary.

(From ARNOLD GUYOT, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of
Sciences, vol. 2, 1 886, pp. 39-73. See also ELIZABETH C. AGASSIZ, "Louis
Agassiz; His Life and Correspondence," Boston, 1893; JULES MARCOU, "Life
and Letters of Louis Agassiz," Boston, 1895.)

JOHN H. ALEXANDER
Born, June 26, 1812; died, March 2, 1867

Dr. Alexander was a man of remarkable versatility. A
mathematician and a physicist, he was also a linguist and a
poet. He was a successful man of affairs and a deeply-read
student of theology and church history. His father, who be-
longed to a Scotch-Irish family, came to America before the
Revolution and settled at Annapolis, Maryland. Here John H.
Alexander was born in 1812. He was graduated from St. John's
College in his native town when fourteen years old and entered
upon the study of law. His attention being attracted, however,
to the great possibilities of steam transportation and the utiliza-
tion of the natural resources in iron and coal, he turned his
energies in the direction of practical pursuits. He was at first
connected with surveys for the Susquehanna Railroad (now

110 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

part of the Northern Central Railroad) and soon afterward
became interested in a topographical and geological survey of
Maryland. In association with Professor Julius T. Ducatel,
he prepared a plan for these surveys and in 1834 was appointed
Topographical Engineer by the Maryland Legislature, Pro-
fessor Ducatel at the same time becoming State Geologist. As
the result of a trigonometrical reconnoissance, Alexander was en-
abled within four years to construct a map of the State on which
geological data could be plotted, and was contemplating the
preparation of a more accurate map, through the cooperation of
the United States Coast Survey, when the Legislature withdrew
its support from reasons of economy and the work was left in-
complete.

Alexander in the meantime formed the George's Creek Coal
and Iron Company and served as president of that organization
from 1836 to 1845. In 1839 he visited Europe for the purpose
of obtaining funds for the support of the enterprise. In 1840
he published a work entitled " Contributions to a History of
the Metallurgy of Iron" which was followed in 1842 by a
supplement, and constituted a " complete treatise on the subject
up to his day." (Hilgard.)

To meet the needs of surveyors and engineers he then pre-
pared a copiously annotated edition of " Simms' Treatise on
Mathematical Instruments used in Surveying, Leveling, and
Astronomy."

After the copies of the United States standards of weight
and measure, which had been authorized by Congress for the use
of the several States, had been completed, Dr. Alexander induced
the Maryland Legislature to provide similar copies for the
counties of that State, and was in turn charged with their con-
struction and verification. In that connection, he prepared a com-
prehensive report " On the Standards of Weight and Measure
for the State of Maryland," which included an account of the
origin of Anglo-Saxon measures, and a resume of legislation in
England and the United States.

THE INCORPORATORS III

In 1850 Dr. Alexander published a " Universal Dictionary of
Weights and Measures, Ancient and Modern " which was " one
of the most complete and exact works of the kind ever pub-
lished." (Hilgard.)

In 1855 he issued a pamphlet entitled " International Coinage
for Great Britain and the United States," in which he explained
his plan for equalizing the pound sterling and the half-eagle.
He went to Europe in 1857 as the representative of the United
States for the purpose of effecting arrangements for the unifica-
tion of coinage, but his labors were unsuccessful, owing, as he
believed, to the opposition of the bankers.

At the request of the Lighthouse Board, Dr. Alexander re-
ported on Babbage's numerical system of lighthouses, on steam
whistles as fog signals, and on illuminating oils.

At the outbreak of the Civil War he tendered his services to
the Government and was appointed an engineer officer, in which
capacity he aided in planning and constructing the defences of
Baltimore. He also contributed largely from his own means
for organizing and equipping a field battery of which his eldest
son became the commander. He was about to be appointed
Director of the Mint in Philadelphia in 1867, when he was
attacked by pneumonia and died in his 55th year.

Dr. Alexander's published works include, besides books and
pamphlets on scientific subjects (the more important of which
have been mentioned above), two volumes of religious poems;
and he also left behind a considerable number of manuscripts,
among which was " a Dictionary of English Surnames " in 12
volumes, and " a Dictionary of the Language of the Lenni-
Lenape, or Delaware Indians."

(From J. E. HILGARD, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of
Sciences, vol. I, 1877, pp. 213-226. See also WM. PINKNEY, " Memoir of John
H. Alexander," Maryland Historical Society, 1867. 8°. Pp. 31.)

112 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

STEPHEN ALEXANDER

Born, September i, 1806; died, June 25, 1883

Stephen Alexander was born in Schenectady, New York,
and resided there until after his graduation from college. His
father, Alexander Alexander, was a successful business man in
Schenectady. He died when in middle life, but left his widow
and two young children with sufficient means to live in comfort.
Stephen was graduated from Union College in 1824, with high
honors, and immediately after began teaching. He first taught
in the Academy at Chittenango, New York, and later was
probably connected for some time with the Academy in Albany.
In 1832 he went to Princeton with Joseph Henry, who became
Professor of Natural Philosophy there in that year. Henry was
Stephen Alexander's first cousin and, some years later, he
married Harriet Alexander, Stephen's younger sister, thus mak-
ing a double relationship, which doubtless influenced Alex-
ander's life and fortunes to a considerable extent. Alexander's
first idea in going to Princeton to study was to prepare himself
for the ministry of the Presbyterian Church, but in 1833 he was
appointed to a tutorship in the college, and thus began his forty-
three years' service as a member of the faculty. In 1834, he was
made Adjunct Professor of Mathematics, and in 1840 Professor
of Astronomy, which position he held until 1876, when he retired
as professor emeritus.

In 1831 Alexander went to Maryland to observe the annular
eclipse of February 12, and ever after that time he was intensely
interested in such phenomena, never missing an opportunity to
make similar observations. Between 1831 and 1875, he observed
many annular eclipses, and several total eclipses. He journeyed
from Georgia to Labrador to view eclipses which occurred at
different dates, making many observations which he published
later in a paper entitled " Physical Phenomena Attendant upon
Solar Eclipses." He was not, however, a prolific writer. In
fact, so much of his time was taken up with the duties of his
professorship, that not a great deal was left for writing and

THE INCORPORATORS 113

research. He lectured almost entirely from notes, which, as
a rule, were not afterwards elaborated for the press. His best
and most important works, in addition to the paper mentioned
above are, " The Fundamental Principles of Mathematics " ;
" The Origin of the Forms and the Present Condition of the
Clusters of Stars and Several of the Nebulae," and " Certain
Harmonies of the Solar System." American astronomy owes
much to the diligence with which he pursued his study of that
branch of science and to his long-continued efforts in the train-
ing of youth.

Stephen Alexander had a scholarly interest in a great variety
of subjects. He was a linguist of more than common attainments
and was well versed and deeply interested in literature, history,
philosophy, theology, mathematics, and several other branches
of learning. He also wrote very good poetry. He died in 1883.

(From C. A. YOUNG, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of
Sciences, vol. 2, 1886, pp. 249-259.)

ALEXANDER DALLAS BACHE
Born, July 19, 1806; died, February 17, 1867

Professor Bache was in every way a remarkable man. His
scholarship was without a flaw, he had a deep sense of responsi-
bility, and he possessed to an extraordinary degree that rare
power of influencing his fellowmen, beating down their opposi-
tion and molding them to his wishes, whereby he was enabled
to carry out the plans which he conceived for the promotion of
the welfare of mankind. He was a great-grandson of Benjamin
Franklin, and was born in Philadelphia on July 19, 1806. His
mental abilities were conspicuous even when he was in the lower
schools. At the early age of 15 years he entered the U. S.
Military Academy at West Point as a cadet, and was graduated
in 1825 at the head of his class of which he was the youngest
member. He was immediately appointed an assistant professor
and afforded opportunities to extend his studies. At the end of
a year he was at his own request detailed to assist Colonel Totten
who was then engaged in the construction of Fort Adams at

114 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Newport. In 1828 he was appointed Professor of Natural
Philosophy and Chemistry at the University of Pennsylvania
and soon afterwards joined the then newly-founded Franklin
Institute where he enjoyed association with the principal
engineers and artisans of Philadelphia. He engaged in original
researches and took a prominent part in the activities of the
Institute, and after a few years became the director of its scien-
tific investigations. One of his most important labors at that
time was an inquiry into the causes of the bursting of steam
boilers. It soon came to the attention of the Government which
made an appropriation for the expenses involved. " The con-
clusions arrived at were embodied in a series of propositions,
which, after a lapse of more than thirty years, have not been
superseded by any others of more practical value." (Henry.) At
this time Bache was also a member of the American Philosoph-
ical Society and in association with Espy, Hare, Frazer and
others spent much time and thought in investigations relating
to meteorology and terrestrial magnetism. To the latter subject
he continued to make contributions throughout his life.

In 1836 Professor Bache was prevailed upon to undertake
the organization of Girard College for Orphans, then recently
established in Philadelphia. He spent two years in Europe in
its behalf, upon the study of the educational systems of France,
Prussia, Austria and other countries, and his report, which was
published in 1839, did "more, perhaps, to improve the theory
and art of education in this country than any other work ever
published."

A delay having occurred in the opening of Girard College,
Bache undertook the reorganization of the public schools of
Philadelphia and caused them to be looked upon as a model
for the entire system of the United States.

In 1842, finding that the affairs of Girard College remained
stationary, he returned to his professorship in the University of
Pennsylvania, but the following year, on the death of Hassler,
he was appointed Superintendent of the Coast Survey, for which
station his qualities and his training seemed especially to fit

THE INCORPORATORS 1 15

him. He found it when its operations had extended only from
Point Judith to Cape Henlopen, and when he died twenty-five
years later its work had extended from Maine to Texas and
throughout the Pacific Coast. When asked by members of Con-
gress " When will this survey be completed? " he replied " When
will you cease annexing territory? " At the beginning of his
administration the work of the Coast Survey was not very
thoroughly appreciated, but by his talents, and his industry he
made it one of the strongest of the scientific bureaus of the
Government During the Civil War when the regular opera-
tions of the Survey were necessarily suspended, it gave important
aid to the Government from the knowledge which as an organi-
zation it possessed regarding the coasts and harbors of the
country.

In 1846 Professor Bache was named as a member of the Board
of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution in the act of incor-
poration, and it was entirely owing to his influence that Joseph
Henry was persuaded to become the Secretary of the Institution.
He supported Henry in his program of organization, through
the operations of which the Institution has attained its unique
place among the scientific establishments of America.

Bache was also Superintendent of Weights and Measures of
the United States, and a member of the Lighthouse Board, as
well as of the commission of inquiry which preceded it.

During the Civil War Bache served as Vice-President of the
U. S. Sanitary Commission, and also planned the defences of
his native city, Philadelphia. He died at Newport on February
17, 1867, and was buried in the Congressional Cemetery in
Washington where an imposing tomb was erected by the
officers of the Coast Survey as a tribute to his memory.

Professor Bache was a leading mind in the formation of the
National Academy of Sciences, if not its original projector.
It was at his house that the plans for the Academy were formu-
lated, and doubtless his sagacity and his knowledge of the con-
duct of affairs at Washington, which was probably greater than
that of any other man of his time, formed a very important
factor in their success.

Il6 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

He was elected first President of the Academy and served in
that capacity from the date of its organization until his death
in 1867. He was also a member of many important committees
appointed on behalf of the Government, notably those on
weights, measures and coinage, and on the collection of excise
duties on distilled spirits.

(From JOSEPH HENRY, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of
Sciences, vol. I, 1877, pp. 181-212^. See also B. A GOULD, "Address in com-
memoration of Alexander Dallas Bache," Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., vol. 17,
1869, pp. 1-56.)

FREDERICK AUGUSTUS PORTER BARNARD
Born, May 5, 1809; died, April 27, 1889

President Barnard, brother of General John G. Barnard, was
born at Sheffield, Massachusetts, May 5, 1809. He began the
study of Latin at an early age, but later turned his attention from
the classics to mathematics and allied branches of science. After
his graduation at Yale in 1828, he became a teacher in the
Hartford Grammar School and afterwards a tutor at Yale.
In 1831 he was engaged as a teacher in the Deaf and Dumb
Asylum at Hartford, Connecticut, and subsequently taught at
the New York Institution for the Instruction of the Deaf and
Dumb.

In 1837 he was connected with the University of Alabama in
the capacity of Professor of Natural Philosophy and Mathe-
matics for eleven years, and afterwards as Professor of Chemistry
until 1854. During his connection with the University, Pro-
fessor Barnard built an astronomical observatory for the insti-
tution. During this time he served as a member of a com-
mission to settle a dispute concerning the boundary between
Alabama and Florida. From 1854 to 1861 he was Professor
of Mathematics and Astronomy in the University of Mississippi,
was its president from 1856 to 1858, and chancellor from the
latter year until 1861. The outbreak of the Civil War caused
him to leave the South, and he then became director of printing
and lithography in connection with the map and chart depart-
ment of the United States Coast Survey.

THE INCORPORATORS llj

In 1864 he was elected President of Columbia College
and remained in that office until 1888 when ill health neces-
sitated his retirement. During his administration he made many
changes and improvements in the methods of instruction and the
management of the University, and was also instrumental in
adding the Law School, the School of Mines, the School of
Political Science, and the Library of Economics. Barnard
College for women, which was named for him, was established
through his influence. In 1865 Dr. Barnard was president of
the board of experts in the American Bureau of Mines and in
1867 served as a commissioner to the Paris Exposition. He pub-
lished a report on machinery and industrial arts in 1868.

He was a man of wide learning but among the sciences his
principal interest was in mathematics. Among his published
works are a " Treatise on Arithmetic," " Analytic Grammar with
Symbolic Illustrations," " Recent Progress of Science," the
" Metric System of Weights and Measures," " Letters on College
Government," and " History of the American Coast Survey."

In 1860 Professor Barnard was one of the party of astron-
omers who observed the eclipse of the sun in Labrador, and in
1862 he worked on Gilliss' observations of the stars of the
Southern Hemisphere. He was President of the American
Association for the Advancement of Science in 1860, of the Amer-
ican Institute in 1872, and of the American Metrological Society.

His death occurred in New York, April 27, 1889. He
bequeathed his estate to Columbia University with which he
had been so long connected.

JOHN GROSS BARNARD
Born, May 19, 1815; died, May 14, 1882

John Gross Barnard, born in Sheffield, Massachusetts, May
19, 1815, was descended on both sides from New England
ancestors. He obtained his early education in the village school
and from his uncle, who was a teacher at Hartford, Connecticut.
When 14 years old, an opportunity was offered him by General
Porter to enter the U. S. Military Academy at West Point.

Il8 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Entering the Academy in 1829, probably the youngest pupil
ever admitted there, Barnard was graduated second in a class
of 43. Passing from brevet second lieutenant through all the
grades, he became colonel on December 28, 1865, and later
major-general in both the regular army and the volunteers.

As a civil engineer General Barnard's activities extended
over all the United States, and also included surveys around
the city of Mexico and on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Twice
he was sent to Europe to collect information desired by the
Government. During the Civil War, General Barnard took
an active part in many battles, but his most important work was
as chief engineer of the defences of Washington, where he
built field-works which, while having some elements of perma-
nency, did not require so long a time for construction as to
defeat the purposes for which they were erected, and were of
great value to the Government in more than one emergency.
At the close of the war, General Barnard became president of
the permanent Board of Engineers for Fortifications and River
and Harbor Improvements. This position he held until his
retirement in January, 1 88 1. The increased size of heavy guns
and the advances in naval construction having rendered the coast
defences inadequate, a series of new experiments in fortification
was commenced at Fortress Monroe and Fort Delaware by the
engineer department. General Barnard, with a corps of
assistants, visited Europe and by the study of the latest develop-
ments in the art was enabled to make most satisfactory recom-
mendations to the board of which he was so long the president.

His writings on technical engineering were numerous. He
wrote also on mathematical and other subjects, and was one of the
associate editors of Johnson's Universal Cyclopedia, to which
he contributed more than 90 articles. General Barnard had many
intellectual interests besides his profession, among them a fond-
ness for music. He was the author of a number of compositions,
including a Te Deum. His death occurred on May 14, 1882, at
Detroit, Michigan.

(From HENRY L. ABBOT, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy
of Sciences, vol. 5, 1905, pp. 219-229.)

THE INCORPORATORS 119

WILLIAM HOLMES CHAMBERS BARTLETT
Born, 1809; died, February u, 1893

Professor Bartlett was distinguished both as a soldier and as
a man of science. He was born in Lancaster County, Pennsyl-
vania, in 1809, and early in life moved to Missouri. He was
appointed to West Point from that State, graduated in 1826
at the head of his class and became second lieutenant of
engineers. From 1827 to 1829 he was assistant professor in
the Military Academy, and Acting Professor of Natural and
Experimental Philosophy from 1834 to 1836. In the inter-
vening years, from 1829 to 1832, he was engaged in construction
work at Fortress Monroe and at Fort Adams, and from 1832 to
1834 was assistant engineer at Washington, D. C. Resigning
his lieutenancy, he returned to West Point in 1836 and was
appointed to the professorship of natural and experimental
philosophy which he had held as an acting officer in previous
years. In this position he remained until 1871. In that year,
at his own request, he was retired, with the rank of colonel, and
became actuary for the New York Mutual Life Insurance Com-
pany.

During the year 1840, Professor Bartlett went abroad to
purchase instruments for observations at West Point and
travelled extensively, visiting the principal observatories of the
world. He made numerous contributions to the American
Journal of Science, and also wrote a treatise on rifled guns
which was published in Memoirs of the National Academy of
Sciences. Among his other writings are a " Treatise on Optics " ;
" Synthetical Mechanics," in which are some original problems;
" Acoustics and Optics " ; "Analytical Mechanics" ; and " Spher-
ical Astronomy." He also wrote a textbook for military cadets,
which is still used in colleges.

He died at Yonkers, New York, February 1 1, 1893.

(See EDWARD S. HOLDEN, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy
of Sciences, vol. 7, 1912, pp. 171-193.)

120 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

ALEXIS CASWELL
Born, January 29, 1799; died, January 8, 1877

Alexis Caswell, who was descended from early settlers of
New England and traced his pedigree back to Peregrine White,
was born at Taunton, Massachusetts, January 29, 1799. His
childhood was spent on a farm, and when he arrived at the proper
age was prepared for college at Bristol Academy in Taunton.
He entered Brown University at the age of 19 and was graduated
in 1822, with first honors. For five years he was a tutor or pro-
fessor in Columbian College, Washington, at the same time
pursuing studies in theology under the guidance of the Presi-
dent, Dr. Staughton. After preaching a year in Halifax, he
became assistant to the Rev. S. Gano, at the First Baptist Church
in Providence, Rhode Island, but in the course of a few weeks
he was appointed Professor of Mathematics and Natural
Philosophy in Brown University. Except for a year spent in
Europe, Professor Caswell performed the duties of this position
for 35 years, adding to them those of the President, when Dr.
Wayland's absence or indisposition necessitated a substitute.
Resigning his professorship in 1863, he spent five years in
pursuing his favorite studies, and was then called to the pres-
idency of Brown University, and retained that office until 1872.
A little later, Dr. Caswell was elected a member of the board of
trustees of the University and in 1875 became a fellow in the
corporation. The University had previously conferred on him
the degrees of Doctor of Divinity and Doctor of Laws. For
nearly 50 years he was closely associated with his Alma Mater,
and his life work was that of an educator.

His greatest interest as a scientific investigator was in
meteorology and astronomy. For 28J years, with few interrup-
tions, he made a regular series of meteorological observations at
College Hill in Providence, the results of which were pub-
lished in the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge. Adding
later observations, a period of 45 years was covered. In 1858
Dr. Caswell delivered four lectures on astronomy at the Smith-
sonian Institution in Washington. He joined the American

THE INCORPORATORS 121

Association for the Advancement of Science in 1850, and was
twice elected President.

Dr. Caswell was an eminent speaker, a convincing writer,
and a good citizen, taking an active part in all the interests of
his city, his state and his country. He published a number of
scientific papers, besides essays, biographical sketches, and
sermons. His death occurred on January 8, 1877, at Providence,
Rhode Island.

(From JOSEPH LOVERING, In Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy
of Sciences, vol. 6, 1909, pp. 363-372.)

WILLIAM CHAUVENET

Born, May 24, 1820; died, December 13, 1870

William Chauvenet's father, William Marc Chauvenet was
born in Narbonne, France, in 1790. Upon the downfall of
Napoleon, he came to America and engaged in several unsuc-
cessful business ventures, including a brief experiment in farm-
ing at Milford, Pennsylvania. Here his son, William, was born
in May, 1820. William Chauvenet received his elementary
education in the schools of Philadelphia, and at the age of 16
entered Yale College, from which he was graduated in 1840.

From an early age, he had shown a special aptitude for
mathematical and mechanical studies, and soon after graduation
was engaged to assist Professor Bache in magnetic observations
at Girard College. Not long afterwards he was appointed a
professor of mathematics in the Navy, and upon the death of
Professor David McClure in 1842, was placed in charge of
the naval schools, which were then located in the Naval Asylum
in Philadelphia, but in 1845 were removed to Annapolis. The
old plan of instructing midshipmen when at sea had proved
unsatisfactory, and an eight months' course at the naval schools
was substituted. This in turn seemed far from adequate, and
Professor Chauvenet elaborated a plan for a regularly organized
institution for the training of naval officers, and urged it upon
the consideration of several successive secretaries of the Navy.
It was not until 1851, however, that a regular four years' course

122 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

was finally adopted. " The Naval Academy is more indebted
to him than to any other for its development and organiza-
tion At first as professor of mathematics and astronomy,

later of astronomy, navigation, and surveying, he was always
the most prominent of the academic staff. The Academy derived
reputation from his recognized ability." (Coffin.)

In 1855 Professor Chauvenet was offered the position of Pro-
fessor of Mathematics in Yale College and in 1859 that of
astronomy and natural philosophy. At the same time he
received an offer from Washington University, then newly-
founded, of the professorship of mathematics. After considera-
tion, he accepted the position in Washington University, and in
1862, he became Chancellor of that institution. He labored
assiduously and successfully in developing the University, but
his health soon became impaired, and in 1869 he felt himself
obliged to resign his position. He died the next year at St. Paul,
Minnesota, at the age of 51 years.

Besides numerous papers on astronomical and mathematical
subjects, Professor Chauvenet published several text-books of
a high order of excellence. These included a work on trigo-
nometry (1850), a manual of spherical and practical astronomy
(1863), and a text-book of geometry (1870).

In addition to his abilities as a man of science and an educator,
Professor Chauvenet possessed marked talent as a musical per-
former, and his enthusiastic interest in that art continued to the
end of his life.

(From J. H. C. COFFIN, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of
Sciences, vol. I, 1877, pp. 227-244.)

JOHN HUNTINGTON CRANE COFFIN
Born, September 14, 1815; died, January 8, 1890

Professor Coffin was born at Wiscasset, Maine, in 1815. He
was graduated from Bowdoin College in 1834. In 1836 he was
appointed Professor of Mathematics in the United States Navy
and served on various vessels. He was detailed to the Naval
Observatory at Washington and placed in charge of the Mural

THE INCORPORATORS 123

Circle in 1843. In 1853 ^e was appointed Professor of Mathe-
matics in the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis, Mary-
land, and continued his work there until 1865. During the latter
portion of this period, he was Professor of Astronomy and Navi-
gation.

The same year, 1865, he had charge of the American Ephem-
eris and Nautical Almanac. This work was then published at
Cambridge, Massachusetts, but the office was afterwards re-
moved to Washington. Professor Coffin continued his labors in
this connection until September, 1877, when he was retired from
the Navy. He died at Washington, January 8, 1890.

He published a number of articles on the phases of astronomy
and mathematics to which he had given special study.

JOHN ADOLPHUS BERNHARD DAHLGREN
Born, November 13, 1809; died, July 12, 1870

Admiral Dahlgren was born in Philadelphia on November
13, 1809. His father, Bernhard Ullrik Dahlgren, a Swede, was
obliged to leave his native country in 1804, owing to his advocacy
of republican principles. He came to America in 1806, and his
government having withdrawn its opposition he obtained the
post of Swedish Consul at Philadelphia. John Dahlgren attrib-
uted his inventive genius to his mother, while his desire for a
seaman's life was stirred by the sight of the ships that lay at
the wharves, or at the Navy Yard, at Philadelphia. Com-
mencing his education at the Quaker School, he made such prog-
ress under the watchful care of his father that when application
was made for a midshipman's place in the Navy, the heartiest
recommendations were received from his instructors.

On the 1 2th of April orders came to proceed to Norfolk and
report to Captain Barron for duty on the frigate Macedonia,
sailing for Brazil. A cruise in the Mediterranean followed,
with promotion to a lieutenancy. A little later he took part in
the work of the Coast Survey. About this time a threatened
loss of eyesight caused the young man to retire to a farm near
Hartsville, Pennsylvania, and later he made a home for his

124 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

family at Wilmington, Delaware. With restored sight,
Lieutenant Dahlgren, in 1843, returned to active duty in the
Navy and made a cruise of two years' duration in the Mediter-
ranean in the ship Cumberland.

In 1847, being ordered to Washington on ordnance duty,
Lieutenant Dahlgren began the studies and labors which in
1 6 years placed him at the head of the Ordnance Department
of the Navy. In 1850 he announced the principles which he had
evolved and after many discouragements and difficulties in
protecting his inventions, and securing recognition for his
ordnance system, on August 13, 1856, he was given command
of the sloop-of-war Plymouth, with which to introduce his
new weapons of naval warfare and especially his n-inch
gun. After a year's cruise, the ship returned, all objections to
the heavy guns having been overcome, and their inventor after
his 1 1 years of labor, having obtained a complete victory for
his ordnance principles. At the outbreak of the Civil War,
Commander Dahlgren was placed in charge of the Washington
Navy Yard and made Chief of the Ordnance Bureau.

In July, 1862, he took command of the South Atlantic
Squadron and the following year he was placed in charge of the
fleet stationed before Charleston, S. C., succeeding Admiral
Foote. For gallant conduct he received the thanks of Congress
and was made a rear-admiral. At the close of the war,
Admiral Dahlgren returned to Washington and subsequently
was placed in charge of the South Pacific Squadron. Returning
from the cruise, he took up his duties as Chief of the Bureau of
Ordnance at Washington, continuing in this position until his
death, July 12, 1870. He was the author of some important
works on gunnery, including " Thirty-two pound Practice for
Ranges," " Naval Percussion Locks and Primers," and " Shells
and Shell Guns." During a period of 44 years he kept a journal
which gives vivid pictures of his life and times.

(See MADELEINE V. DAHLGREN, " Memoir of John A. Dahlgren," Boston,
1882.)

THE INCORPORATORS 125

JAMES DWIGHT DANA

Born, February 12, 1813; died, April 14, 1895

The Dana family is supposed to be either French or Italian
in origin. Its earliest American representative was Richard
Dana who came from England in 1690, and settled at Cam-
bridge, Massachusetts. From him many men illustrious in
science and literature trace their pedigree. James Dwight Dana,
the oldest in a family of ten children, was born in Utica, New
York, February 12, 1813. " Honesty, virtue, and industry seem
almost to be our natural inheritance," was his own estimate of
his home. His first instruction in science was obtained in a
school conducted by Charles Bartlett at Utica, and known as
the " Utica High School." In 1830 young Dana entered Yale
College, attracted there, as he said, by the reputation of Pro-
fessor Benjamin Silliman. Entering as a sophomore, he was
graduated in 1833. By the recommendation of his professors,
he received the position of instructor in the Navy, leaving New
York, on August 14, of the same year, in the ship of the line
Delaware, for a cruise to the Mediterranean. In July, 1834,
he visited Mt. Vesuvius, and a letter written to Professor Silli-
man describing its state at that time was published in the
American Journal of Science the following year. On his return
to New York after a voyage of 16 months, Dana was invited to
become assistant to Professor Silliman, which offer he gladly
accepted and was thus brought into touch with the circle of
scientific men at Yale. At this time he began work on his System
of Mineralogy the first edition of which was published in 1837.
When the United States Exploring Expedition, under Captain
Wilkes, was preparing for its cruise in the Pacific Ocean, Pro-
fessor Dana was selected as the mineralogist and geologist. This
appointment was made in January, 1837, but the expedition did
not sail until August 18, 1838. It returned to New York on June
10, 1842. Dana's letters written during the cruise are most enter-
taining, besides furnishing valuable geological and mineral-
ogical information regarding the countries visited. While
preparing his reports, which occupied him for a period of 13

126 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

years, Professor Dana resided for a part of the time in Washing-
ton, but after his marriage to the daughter of Professor Silliman,
he made his home in New Haven, that city then offering better
facilities for his work. Besides the report on geology, which
formed a large quarto volume with 21 plates, he also wrote the
reports on zoophytes and crustaceans consisting of three quarto
volumes, with atlases of more than 150 plates. Most of the
drawings were made with his own hand.

On February 18, 1856, Dana delivered his inaugural address
as " Silliman Professor of Natural History " at Yale, to which
position he had been appointed in i85o.2 During the 40 years
that followed, he spent the greater part of the time not occupied
by his duties as professor, in writing new general works on
mineralogy and geology or preparing new editions of earlier
ones, and in zoological and geological investigations. The titles
of his communications to scientific societies and journals during
this period number more than 100. The first edition of his
" Manual of Geology" appeared in 1862, and in 1864 the first
edition of his " Textbook of Geology." In 1868, the fifth edition
of his " System of Mineralogy " was published; " a monumental
work, the most complete treatise, indeed, that had ever been
attempted."

In 1870, Dana began the study of the glaciers of New
England and published a monograph on the geology of the
New Haven region. Two years later his book on " Corals and
Coral Islands " was published, and he began the study of the so-
called " Taconic " rocks of New England. In 1875 he published
a book called " The Geological Story Briefly Told." After some
years in which ill health interfered seriously with his activities,
in 1887 he visited the Hawaiian Islands, where he studied the
volcanoes. He prepared at this time a work on volcanoes which
was published in 1890, and another called "The Four Rocks
of the New Haven Region " which appeared the following year.
In 1892 he retired from his active duties as a professor in the

2 The title was changed in 1864 to Professor of Geology and Mineralogy.

THE INCORPORATORS 127

university and in 1894 became professor emeritus. He died at
New Haven on April 14, 1895.

Dana took great interest in the development of the Sheffield
Scientific School and the Peabody Museum at Yale. He was
President of the American Association for the Advancement
of Science in 1854, and of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and
Sciences in 1857. For about 50 years he served as one of the
editors of the American Journal of Science. He received the
Wollaston Medal of the Geological Society of London in 1872,
the Copley Medal of the Royal Society in 1877, and the Grand
Walker Prize of the Boston Society of Natural History " for
distinguished services in natural history" in 1892. He was the
first Vice-President of the National Academy of Sciences.

(See OILMAN, D. C., The Life of James Dwight Dana, 1899; also the bio-
graphical sketch by E. S. Dana, in Amer. Journ. Sci., ser. 3, vol. 49, pp. 329-356.)

CHARLES HENRY DAVIS
Born, January 16, 1807; died, February 18, 1877

Seventeen years of Admiral Davis' early life were spent
almost constantly at sea, in the service of the Navy. He was
born in Boston, January 16, 1807, and educated at the Boston
Latin School and at Harvard College. He entered the Navy in
1823, having left college for that purpose before his course was
completed, but taking his degree with the class of 1825. His
first cruise was to the Pacific on board the frigate United States,
with Commander Isaac Hull. In this cruise Davis was also
with the Dolphin, visiting the then unknown islands of the
Pacific, when a new island of the Society group was discovered.
The Dolphin was the first American man-of-war to visit the
Hawaiian Islands. Davis received his midshipman's warrant
in 1829, was appointed acting sailing-master of the Ontario, and
made a three years' cruise in the Mediterranean. Later he
served as flag-lieutenant on the Vincennes, was connected with
the naval rendezvous in Boston, and made a cruise in the
Independence. During this voyage, the ship stopped at South-

128 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

ampton and Davis was in London at the time of the death of
William IV, and saw the young queen Victoria. He also visited
St. Petersburg and was presented at court.

During all these years he devoted himself to the study of
astronomy and hydrography, and having had experience in
navigation, he found the position offered him in the rapidly-
developing Coast Survey most congenial to his tastes. The
years 1842 to 1849 were spent in that service, during which he
discovered " Davis' New South Shoal," 20 miles south of
Nantucket shoals, and published several papers on the laws
governing the geological action of the tidal and other currents
of the ocean. His " Law of Deposit of the Flood Tide " is
still an accepted authority. When the Navy Department
resolved to publish an American Ephemeris and Nautical Al-
manac, Davis was placed in charge of the work, and by suc-
cessfully establishing it, made an enduring monument to his
abilities.

Enjoying the facilities of Harvard University and the Cam-
bridge Observatory, and having built a house in Cambridge,
Davis passed many happy years in the congenial society of the
men of science and letters then residing there.

In 1853, he served as commissioner to the " Crystal Palace "
Industrial Exhibition in New York.

After 31 years' service in the Navy, in June, 1854, he received
his commission as commander, and in 1856 returned to active
naval service, making several voyages, and taking part in the
" Walker episode " in Nicaragua. He also published several
works of value to navigators.

During the Civil War, Davis rendered efficient service on the
Construction Board of the Navy, and as fleet captain in the
expedition against Port Royal, and flag officer in command of
the Mississippi flotilla. For his gallant conduct he was made
Rear- Admiral, February 7, 1863, and received the thanks of Con-
gress. During this year, Admiral Davis became the first Chief of
the Bureau of Navigation and in 1865 assumed the superin-
tendency of the Naval Observatory, raising it to a high degree
of efficiency.

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Called once more to service at sea, Admiral Davis in 1867
assumed charge of the Brazilian Squadron, when he encountered
the unfortunate trouble with Lopez, which caused so much
discussion in military circles. During his absence in Brazil,
Harvard University conferred on him the degree of Doctor
of Laws, the only instance up to that time in which it had been
given to a naval commander.

Admiral Davis commanded the naval station at Norfolk for
three years, returning to the superintendency of the Observatory
in 1874, when he became chairman of the Transit of Venus
Commission. In editing Captain Hall's journal of Arctic
expeditions and in work on the naval exhibit at the Centennial
Exhibition, he overtaxed his health and died at Washington,
February 18, 1877. He was buried on the banks of the Charles
River, overlooking the University and his old home, and a
stained-glass window, bearing his record, has been placed in
the Memorial Hall at Harvard.

Admiral Davis was one of the members of the " Permanent
Commission " of the Navy Department, out of which the
Academy appears in a measure to have developed. He was one
of those most deeply interested in the Academy movement, and
seems to have been the first to conceive the idea of having it
incorporated under the Federal Government. He was a mem-
ber of the first Council of 1863, and served on many important
committees.

(From C. H. DAVIS, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of
Sciences, vol. 4, 1902, pp. 23-55; see also " Life of Charles Henry Davis, Rear-
Admiral, 1807-1877," by the same author, 1899.)

GEORGE ENGELMANN
Born, February 2, 1809; died, February 4, 1884

Engelmann was descended on his father's side from a long
line of ministers for the Reformed Dutch Church at Bacharach-
on-the-Rhine, and on his mother's side from a family of Hugue-
not emigres from the vicinity of Amiens. He was born at
Frankfort-on-the-Main, February 2, 1809. His parents estab-

130 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

lished a school for young ladies, to which both contributed their
superior talents, and his earlier education was guided by them.
At the age of 15 years he showed a great interest in botany,
and began a collection of plants. Studying at home until his
1 8th year, he entered the University of Heidelberg, in 1827.
Here he formed a friendship with Alexander Braun, which
lasted until the death of that distinguished scientist.

Having joined in a political demonstration in Heidelberg,
young Engelmann was obliged to leave the University, and
went to Berlin. After two years spent there he entered the
University of Wiirzburg, receiving the degree of Doctor of
Medicine in 1831. His inaugural dissertation, relating chiefly
to the monstrosities and aberrant forms of plants, and illustrated
by plates made by himself, is still considered one of the most
philosophical of its kind, and was highly commended at the time
by the poet-philosopher Goethe. Spending the summer of 1832
in Paris with Braun and Agassiz as companions, where he says
they " led a glorious life in scientific union in spite of the
cholera " then raging in the city, Engelmann accepted a posi-
tion as an agent of his uncles for the purchase of lands in the
United States, and settled near St. Louis. He made many
fatiguing horse-back journeys through the neighboring States,
during which he kept a record of his botanical observations,
which he afterwards used in his scientific work.

Deciding to remain in St. Louis, then only a trading post,
Dr. Engelmann commenced the practice of medicine with so
little means, that he was forced to part with his gun and his
faithful horse to furnish his offices. Four years later, however,
his practice had become very successful. Familiarity with
French and German added much to this success among the early
settlers who spoke those languages. This and his great profes-
sional ability brought him financial independence, but even to
the last year of his life he did not hesitate to respond to the call
of those desiring his aid. His vacations, spent at the Harvard
gardens and herbarium in the company of his friend Dr. Asa
Gray, or in Europe with his wife and son, were devoted to gather-
ing data for his scientific work.

THE INCORPORATORS 131

In later life Dr. Engelmann visited the mountain region of
North Carolina and Tennessee, the Lake Superior region, the
Rocky Mountains and the Pacific Coast, seeing for the first time
in the native haunts many species of plants he had studied before
from dried specimens, and adding to the great collections already
made.

He was deeply interested in the land of his adoption and
showed his devotion to its scientific welfare by his efforts in the
founding of the St. Louis Academy of Science, of which he was
1 6 times elected President. He also delivered courses of lectures
at Washington University, an institution in which he took great
interest. In return, many marks of appreciation were given him,
preeminently in the generosity of Mr. Shaw and others in collect-
ing and republishing all his botanical works. His entire herba-
rium, comprising 100,000 specimens, and his library, including
his notes and botanical sketches, have since been given by his son
to the Missouri Botanical Garden, sometimes known as the
Shaw Garden.

Crushed in spirit by the death of his wife and the illness of
his son, in 1879 Dr. Engelmann's health was seriously impaired,
but accepting Professor Sargent's invitation to accompany him
to the forests of the Pacific Coast he gradually regained his
spirit of cheerfulness, and though the journey was an arduous
one for a man of his age he once more took up his work. In 1883
he revisited Europe, but soon after his return succumbed to the
disease that had fastened itself upon him, and died February 4,
1884.

Dr. Engelmann's last publication was his meteorological work
— the result of his observations for 47 years.

His botanical work was very extensive, the notes made in the
examination of specimens amounting to 20,000 slips, constituting
60 quarto volumes. His studies of the cactus family, of the
yucca and the agave, of the American oaks and conifers, and of
North American vines, show marks of his indomitable energy
and patience. His endurance as a traveller was remarkable.

132 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

His companions spoke of him as having " good spirits, good
nature, and good fellowship."

(From CHARLES A. WHITE, in Biographical Memoirs of the National
Academy of Sciences, vol. 4, 1902, pp. I-2I.)

JOHN FRIES FRAZER
Born, July 8, 1812; died, October 12, 1872

The career of John Fries Frazer was largely connected with
the city of Philadelphia. He was the son of Robert Frazer, an
eminent lawyer, and was born on Chestnut Street, opposite Inde-
pendence Hall, July 8, 1812. His grandfather was Lieutenant-
Colonel Persifor Frazer, an officer in the Revolutionary War.

He first attended a school in Philadelphia, where he took
high rank in study and likewise in sports, and after spending a
year at the military school of Captain Partridge, at Middle-
town, Connecticut, became a pupil of Rev. S. B. Wylie. By him
he was thoroughly drilled in the classics and in mathematics, as
well as in ecclesiastical history. After graduation from the
University of Pennsylvania, young Frazer served as laboratory
assistant to Professor Bache. Later he held the position of
assistant in the Geological Survey of Pennsylvania, and also took
up the study of law in the office of John M. Scott. In due
course he was admitted to practice. The physical and chemical
sciences, however, proved more attractive to Frazer, and after
being professor in the High School of Philadelphia for some
time, he accepted the professorship of chemistry and physics
in the University of Pennsylvania. This position he held till
his death, when, from being the youngest member of the faculty,
he had become senior professor and Vice-Provost.

As a teacher, Professor Frazer was most successful. His
lectures were delivered with enthusiasm and enlivened by many
anecdotes, and roused the deepest interest in the students. At
the Franklin Institute, also, he carried on, with great satis-
faction, the task of popularizing physical science.

After his marriage in 1838, his house became a center of
social and intellectual intercourse. He had assembled a large

THE INCORPORATORS 133

library, with the contents of which he was so well acquainted
that, on a great variety of subjects, he could turn to the exact
pages of works rarely referred to, and give the desired infor-
mation.

Ill health obliged him in 1867 to seek rest and recreation by
journeying to Europe. He was so much benefited thereby that
he was able to carry on his work again, which he did until his
sudden death on October 12, 1872. This occurred on the day
following the inauguration of the new University building,
while superintending the transfer of his apparatus and scientific
library to the shelves in his department.

(From JOHN L. LECoNTE, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy
of Sciences, vol. I, 1877, pp. 245-256.)

WOLCOTT GIBBS

Born, February 21, 1822; died, December 9, 1908

Wolcott Gibbs belonged to a family in which scientific tastes
were strongly manifested. His father, Colonel George Gibbs,
wrote several memoirs upon mineralogical subjects, and his
name was given to the mineral Gibbsite. His brother also
attained some reputation as a geologist. On his mother's side,
several of the Wolcott family held important positions under
the Government, her father having been Secretary of the
Treasury, a Justice of the U. S. Circuit Court, and finally
Governor of Connecticut. An earlier representative of the
family, another Oliver Wolcott, was one of the signers of the
Declaration of Independence. The early childhood of Wolcott
Gibbs was spent on the estate at Sunswick, Long Island. His
father's death, when he was only n years old, left him to the
care of his mother, who impressed on him the influence of her
superior character. At a very early age, he showed a fondness
for minerals and flowers. He was sent to a private school in
Boston when seven years old, and his summers were spent near
Newport at the home of Dr. Channing, who was a connection
by marriage. Returning to New York, young Gibbs prepared
for college, and entered Columbia, from which he was graduated

134 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

in 1841. In his junior year he published a paper on a new kind
of galvanic battery in which carbon was used, probably for the
first time, as the inactive plate.

Though never practicing medicine, Gibbs obtained a diploma
from the College of Physicians and Surgeons in New York, in
1845, having previously been associated with Professor Robert
Hare in his laboratory at the University of Pennsylvania. To
perfect his training in chemistry, Dr. Gibbs spent some time in
Berlin, at Giessen, and in Paris, and among his teachers Hein-
rich Rose probably stands foremost in the influence which he
had in turning Gibbs' attention toward analytical and inorganic
chemistry.

After his return to America, Dr. Gibbs served as Professor
of Chemistry in the Free Academy, now the College of the
City of New York, for 14 years. Much of his time was given to
research work, and in 1857, in connection with Genth, Dr. Gibbs
published an important memoir on the ammonia-cobalt bases,
which brought him prominently to the notice of the scientific
world.

He became associate editor of the American Journal of
Science in 1851, and furnished abstracts amounting to 500 pages
to that periodical. In 1861 he published his researches on the
platinum metals, which established his reputation as a chemist.

In 1863 he was called to the Rumford professorship at
Harvard University. Besides lecturing on heat and light, Pro-
fessor Gibbs had charge of the chemical laboratory in the
Lawrence Scientific School. Associated in this school with
Agassiz, Gray, Wyman, Peirce and Cooke, he carried on
research work for eight years, at the same time supervising the
work of the post-graduate students whose investigations were
undertaken on their own initiative, with only a final examination
for the bachelor's degree, after the pattern of the German schools,
whose methods, through the influence of Gibbs, were thus intro-
duced into the United States.

After the consolidation of the Scientific School with the
College at Harvard, Professor Gibbs retained only the Rum-

THE INCORPORATORS 135

ford professorship. He equipped a small laboratory for himself
and carried out those brilliant researches on complex inorganic
acids, which brought him the highest praise. The chief piece
of apparatus used in these important investigations was a cast-
iron cooking stove, and the rest of the equipment was equally
modest.

After the closing of the Scientific School laboratory, Dr.
Gibbs lectured to small classes upon the spectroscope, and on
thermodynamics. Upon his retirement as professor emeritus,
he removed his private laboratory to Newport, where he had a
summer home. Here he took pleasure in his garden and especi-
ally in the cultivation of roses. His death occurred on Decem-
ber 9, 1908, when he was nearly 87 years of age.

Gibbs wrote no books and delivered no popular lectures, but
his researches and his voluminous scientific writings brought
him honors from many scientific societies in Europe and America.
He was the first Home Secretary of the National Academy of
Sciences and its President for five years, and also presided over
the American Association for the Advancement of Science in
1897.

As a citizen he was not devoid of public spirit. The Union
League Club was founded at his house, and he took an active
interest in the Sanitary Commission, the forerunner of the Red
Cross Society.

(From F. W. CLARKE, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of
Sciences, vol. 7, 1910, pp. I-I2.)

JAMES MELVILLE GILLISS

Born, September 6, 1811 ; died, February 9, 1865

Captain Gilliss was the eldest son of George Gilliss and Mary
Melville Gilliss of Georgetown, D. C. His father, who was in
the service of the Government, was a descendant of Thomas
Gilliss, a native of Scotland, who settled at an early date on the
Eastern Shore of Maryland. James Melville Gilliss entered
the Navy, as midshipman, in 1826. He obtained leave of
absence in 1833, and entered the University of Virginia, but was

136 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

able to remain there only a year on account of a serious affection
of the eyes, brought on by overstudy. In 1836 he was assigned
to the Depot of Charts and Instruments, an office whose function
was in part the rating of chronometers. Gilliss was soon placed
in charge of this office and began to make observations for the
determinations of time. In the winter of 1837-8 he observed
a large series of transits of the moon and moon-culminating
stars. When the United States Exploring Expedition sailed in
1838, Gilliss remained in Washington under orders to observe
moon-culminations, occultations and transits, and continued in
that work during the four years in which the expedition was
absent. He published the first American volume of astronomical
observations, prepared the first catalogue of stars and con-
structed a working astronomical observatory. At the same time
he carried on magnetic and meteorological observations.

Gilliss pursued his investigations with remarkable energy and
studious application and was possessed of extraordinary powers
of sight which enabled him to make extremely accurate obser-
vations.

The establishment of the U. S. Naval Observatory in 1842
was brought about largely through the efforts of Gilliss, and he
was charged with the preparation of the plans for the construc-
tion of the building and the arrangement of the instruments.
In 1846 he was assigned to duty in the Coast Survey under
Professor Bache.

At the suggestion of Dr. Gerling of Marburg, he initiated a
movement for an expedition to Chile, for the purpose of ob-
serving the planet Venus and in 1849 established a station at
Santiago where for nearly three years he carried on observations
of Venus and Mars, together with meridian observations of
2,000 stars and also zones of about 23,000 stars, as well as obser-
vations on earthquakes, and barometer and thermometer readings.

From 1852 to 1856 he was occupied in preparing the report
of this expedition which comprises six quarto volumes. In 1858
he made a brief expedition to Peru and in 1860 to Washington
Territory for the purpose of observing the total eclipse of the

THE INCORPORATORS 137

sun. In 1861 he was placed in charge of the U. S. Naval Observ-
atory, in which office he remained until his death in 1865.

(From B. A. GOULD, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of
Sciences, vol. I, 1877, PP- 1 35-1 79-)

AUGUSTUS ADDISON GOULD

Born, April 23, 1805; died, September 15, 1866

Dr. Gould was born in New Ipswich, New Hampshire, April
23, 1805. His father was a teacher of music and a skilful
engraver, but turned his hand to many things, among which was
the management of a small farm on which he lived. From 1817
to 1820 he was a member of the State Legislature. The care of
the little farm among the hills demanded the help of his son
Augustus, who at 15 years of age took entire charge of it.
Having a desire to obtain more education than he had received
at the common school, young Gould by great industry suc-
ceeded in gaining the preparation for entering Harvard College,
which he did in 1821. During his whole course he maintained
himself by hard work and in strict economy. He studied
medicine in Boston, and after spending one year as resident
student in the Massachusetts General Hospital, received his
doctor's degree in 1830. He was still obliged to perform many
hard tasks to gain the means of support, and among these we find
mention of cataloguing and classifying 50,000 pamphlets in the
Boston Athenaeum Library. Natural history was always his
favorite study, and he became a member of the Boston Society
of Natural History soon after its formation, and labored after-
wards for it until his death, rising at four o'clock in the morning
and working on the collections before his professionial duties
began. His first collections were of insects, but afterwards he
turned his attention to mollusks. He prepared a volume of
nearly 400 pages, on invertebrate animals of Massachusetts,
illustrated by more than 200 drawings which he made with his
own hand from nature. This attracted much attention from
naturalists both at home and in Europe, and received special
commendation from the elder Agassiz. In 1848, Dr. Gould, in

138 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

collaboration with Agassiz, published a text-book for schools
on the principles of zoology. He also edited the unfinished
work of his friend, Dr. Amos Binney, on the terrestrial air-
breathing mollusks of the United States.

Dr. Gould made his greatest contribution to natural history
by the work done on the collection made by Captain James P.
Couthouy, U. S. N., when attached to the United States Explor-
ing Expedition. As all the notes were lost, and various restric-
tions were made as to the manner of doing the wrork, the task was
a perplexing one.

Besides his papers on natural history, which number more
than 100, he also published medical addresses and reports,
which were of great value to his profession. He was President
of the Massachusetts Medical Society, and for several years
consulting physician of the Massachusetts General Hospital.
The church to which he belonged, and the public schools were
benefited by his labors. Untiring in his work he was still hoping
to attain better results as a physician and naturalist, when he was
suddenly attacked by cholera, and died on September 15, 1866.

(From WYMAN and DALL, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy
of Sciences, vol. 5, 1905, pp. 91-113.)

BENJAMIN APTHORP GOULD

Born, September 27, 1824; died, November 26, 1896

The life of Benjamin Apthorp Gould was intimately con-
nected with the city of Boston. Born there on September 27,
1824, he received his early education from his father, a teacher
of acknowledged merit, and entered Harvard College in 1844.
For a short time after graduation, he was head-master of the
Roxbury Latin School. Though early in his college course he
showed a fondness for the classics, the later years were devoted
largely to mathematics, and he thus laid the foundation for his
future work.

In 1845 Gould went to Europe, and spent three years in
astronomical study at Berlin, Paris, Gottingen and other cities.
He received the degree of Doctor of Philosophy from the

THE INCORPORATORS 139

University of Gottingen, and contracted friendships with many
distinguished scholars. It is said that through the influence of
Alexander von Humboldt, Gould obtained a home in the family
of the astronomer Gauss. The favorable impression he made at
that time was no doubt the cause of his being offered the chair
of Professor of Astronomy in the University of Gottingen, and
Director of the Observatory. Though this was considered a
high honor, the first of the kind, probably, paid to an American,
Dr. Gould declined the position, in spite of the fact that it was
urged upon him a second time. His desire was to mark out for
himself an astronomical career in America.

From 1852 to 1867 Dr. Gould was connected with the Govern-
ment service, carrying forward, under the Coast Survey, the
work begun by Bache and Walker in fixing the longitude of
places in the United States.

During this period he served as Director of the Dudley Observ-
atory at Albany, assisted in reducing and computing astronom-
ical observations made at the Naval Observatory in Washington,
and made some valuable contributions to astronomical literature,
which added greatly to his European reputation. During the
Civil War, Dr. Gould served for a time as Actuary of the United
States Sanitary Commission.

In 1 86 1, he married Mary Apthorp Quincy, daughter of Rev.
Josiah Quincy, and by her aid he was able to build an observ-
atory at Cambridge, and engage in astronomical observations,
which he did for several years.

In 1870 Dr. Gould went to the Argentine Republic for the
purpose of organizing a government observatory at Cordoba.
He remained in Argentina for 15 years and devoted himself to
the study of the southern celestial hemisphere, the crowning
work of his life. The loss of his two elder children by drowning
and afterwards the death of his wife, who had ever aided him
in his labors, bore heavily upon his spirits, but after the last of
three trips to his home in Boston, he resolutely returned alone
to Cordoba to complete his task. When in 1885 he finally came
back to this country he brought with him 1400 photographic

140 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

plates of southern stellar clusters. To the measurement and
reduction of these he devoted the rest of his life, and had the
satisfaction of seeing the last of these results printed in the
Astronomical Journal, which was brought to him a few hours
before his death. For the continued publication of the Journal
he had made adequate provision. A public dinner was given
Dr. Gould on his arrival in Boston, presided over by Hon.
Leverett Saltonstall, Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes welcoming
him by a poem from " his celestial wanderings back to earth."
In his later years Dr. Gould did valuable work for the American
Metrological Society of which he was at one time president.

He was one of the founders, and first president, of the Colo-
nial Society of Massachusetts, and received the honorary degree
of Doctor of Laws from Harvard and Columbia. Many dis-
tinguished societies enrolled him among their members, and he
was made a Knight of the Order of Merit in Prussia, a distinc-
tion given to only two other Americans. His life ended by an
accident on the evening of Thanksgiving Day, November 26,
1896.

(From the biographical sketch by ANDREW McF. DAVIS, in the Proceedings
of the American Antiquarian Society, April, 1897.)

ASA GRAY
Born, November 18, 1810; died, January 30, 1888

Asa Gray was of Scotch-Irish ancestry, and was born at
Paris, New York, November 18, 1810. His father was a
farmer and tanner. Asa, the oldest of eight children, assisted
his father, and attended the country school. Later, he attended
the grammar school at Clinton, New York, and was also a
student at Fairfield Academy for four years. His first interest
in natural science was aroused by the lectures of Dr. James
Hadley at the Fairfield Medical School.

His taste for botany was aroused by reading in Brewster's
Edinburgh Encyclopaedia and Gray soon became interested in
collecting plants about Fairfield, besides making excursions
to other parts of the State of New York. In 1829 he became a

THE INCORPORATORS 141

student at Fairfield Medical School and received a doctor's
degree in 1831, but never practiced. While a student, Dr. Gray
assembled quite an extensive herbarium, and many mineralogical
specimens, and began a correspondence with Dr. Lewis C. Beck
of Albany and Dr. John Torrey of New York. After teaching
at Bartlett's High School, giving a course of lectures on botany
at the Fairfield Medical School and on botany and miner-
alogy at Hamilton College, Dr. Gray was called to New York
as assistant to Professor Torrey. From this time, his attention
was chiefly given to botany, and some original papers were soon
published. In 1835 Gray became Curator and Librarian of the
Lyceum of Natural History in New York, and issued in 1836
his first text-book, the " Elements of Botany." The Wilkes
Exploring Expedition, to which he had been appointed botanist,
failing to sail until two years later than the time originally set,
he accepted the chair of botany at the newly-founded University
of Michigan, with the condition that he be permitted to spend
a year in Europe. The University proved unable, however, to
meet its engagements and Dr. Gray returned to New York and
continued work on the " Flora of North America," which he had
begun in 1836, in collaboration with Professor Torrey. The
first volume of this important treatise appeared in 1838, and
the second in 1843.

Attracting the favorable notice of President Quincy of Har-
vard, the newly-endowed Fisher Professorship of Natural His-
tory was soon offered him. Dr. Gray entered on his duties there
in 1842.

Having married, he established himself in Cambridge and
surrounded himself with books and plants. His home soon
became a center for the study of botany by students both old and
young. Out of his small salary, Gray contrived to find means
to carry on his investigations in botany and to accumulate speci-
mens, so that in 1865, when he presented his collections to the
Harvard College, the herbarium contained more than 200,000
specimens and the library about 2,200 books.

142 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

From the beginning of his botanical work, Dr. Gray believed
that the description and classification of the flowering plants was
of the utmost importance and after thirty-five years spent in the
development of this branch of botany he could safely be said to
stand at the head of American systematists, and ranked with the
great botanists of the world. His " Botanical Text-book,"
" Manual of the Botany of the Northern United States," and
" How Plants Grow," and " How plants Behave " have been of
inestimable value to American students of botany. He died on
January 30, 1888.

(From W. G. FARLOW, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of
Sciences, vol. 3, 1895, pp. 161-175. See also the biographical sketches in the
" Memorial of Asa Gray," published by the American Academy of Arts and
Sciences, 1888, and by JAMES D. DANA, in Amer. Journ. Set,, ser. 3, vol. 35,
1888, pp. 181-203.)

ARNOLD GUYOT

Born, September 28, 1807; died, February 8, 1884

Guyot was descended from one of the Protestant families
which settled in Neuchatel after the revocation of the edict of
Nantes, and was born at Boudevilliers on September 28, 1807.
He was named after the Swiss patriot Arnold von Winkelried.
His boyhood was passed at Hauterive, and from his home there
he had glorious views of the Bernese Oberland, the Jungfrau,
the Schreckhorn, and other mountain peaks, which must have
helped to inspire in him the love of nature which he manifested
early in life.

Young Guyot's first school days were spent at La Chaux-de-
Fonds, a village " at the foot of a narrow and savage gorge of the
Jura," 3,070 feet above the sea. At the age of 14 he entered the
College of Neuchatel, where he pursued classical studies and
also formed a friendship with Leo Lesquereux, the botanist,
which lasted throughout his life. In 1825 Guyot went to Ger-
many to complete his education. He spent some months at
Metzingen, and later at Carlsruhe in the family of Mr. Braun,
the father of Alexander Braun, the distinguished botanist and

THE INCORPORATORS 143

philosopher, where he met Agassiz, Schimper, Imhoff, and other
naturalists. After a short sojourn in Stuttgart, Guyot returned
to Neuchatel in 1827. Here, under the preaching of the
Reverend Samuel Petit-pierre, he turned from science to the-
ology, and began to prepare himself for the church, although his
leisure hours were still spent in collecting plants and shells, and
in other scientific activities.

In 1829 he went to Berlin, chiefly to attend the lectures of
Schleiermacher, Neander and other historians and theologians
at the University of Berlin, but he also became interested in those
of Hegel, Steffens, Hofmann, Dove, and other professors of the
scientific faculty, and made the acquaintance of Humboldt.
After a little time he found his inclinations toward the study of
nature so strong that he abandoned theology for natural science.
While in Berlin, Carl Ritter, the geographer, made an especially
strong impression on him and turned his mind in the direction of
geographical studies. At the end of five years at the University
of Berlin, he received the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, tak-
ing as the subject of his graduating thesis " The Natural Classifi-
cation of Lakes."

After leaving the university, he went to Paris and became
tutor to the children of Count de Pourtales-Gorgier, and with
them he visited the Pyrenees and travelled in Italy, Belgium, and
Holland, and along the Rhine. While in Paris in 1838, he was
urged by Agassiz to take up the study of the glaciers of the Alps,
to which he himself had attracted the attention of the scientific
world the preceding year by the announcement of his glacial
theory.

Guyot acceded to the request of his friend and spent some
weeks in an examination of the Alpine glaciers. He made
several important original discoveries regarding their structure
and action, but as it had been agreed between himself and
Agassiz that his special field should be considered to be the
phenomena of the Swiss erratic boulders, his results were with-
held from publication for forty years. He did, however, present
a communication on the " blue bands " of glaciers and the incli-

144 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

nation of their strata before the Neuchatel Society of Natural
Sciences in December, 1841, the substance of which was cited by
Agassiz in his " Systeme Glaciaire " in 1847.

In 1839 Guyot returned from Paris to Neuchatel, joined the
Society of Natural Sciences, and accepted the chair of history and
physical geography at the post-graduate school known as the
" Academy." Here he remained for ten years, during which
time he engaged in extensive investigations; " meteorologic,
barometric, hydrographic, orographic and glacialistic." For
seven years his principal work related to the Swiss erratic
boulders. His results were to have appeared in the second
volume of Agassiz's work on glaciers, but unfortunately the
enterprise was terminated abruptly by the outbreak of the
revolution of 1848. The Academy was suppressed, and the pro-
fessors, including Guyot, were left without occupation. Guyot
was urged by Agassiz to come to the United States, which he
finally decided to do. He arrived in August, 1848, and the
following winter delivered a course of lectures before the Lowell
Institute in Boston on " Comparative Physical Geography,"
which he spoke of as " a brief epitome of his teaching in
Neuchatel." They were delivered in French and afterward
translated into English by Professor Felton, and published under
the title of " Earth and Man."

After this time Guyot was occupied for six years, under the
auspices of the Massachusetts Board of Education, in lecturing
to teachers on geography and methods of teaching, and also
prepared a series of geographies and maps for schools which had
a very extensive use throughout the country.

In 1854 Guyot was appointed Professor of Physical Geog-
raphy and Geology at Princeton. Besides carrying on his pro-
fessional duties, he lectured in the State Normal School of New
Jersey, and the Princeton and Union Theological Seminaries.
He delivered two courses of lectures at the Smithsonian Insti-
tution, one in 1853 on the " Harmonies of Nature and History,"
and the second in 1862 on " Unity of Plan in the System of Life."
He also interested himself at Princeton in organizing a museum,

THE INCORPORATORS 145

which Libbey has called " The most substantial monument that
Professor Guyot has left behind him in Princeton."

Soon after coming to the United States, Guyot made the
acquaintance of Joseph Henry, who consulted him regarding
the development of the system of meteorological observations,
and also entrusted him with obtaining improved instruments.
He prepared directions for meteorological observations for the
Smithsonian Institution in 1850, and a volume of meteorological
and physical tables, which was published originally in 1852, and
has passed through several editions. Under the joint auspices
of the Smithsonian Institution and the State governments of
New York and Massachusetts, Guyot located meteorological
stations throughout the States mentioned. In 1861, on the occa-
sion of a visit to Europe, he instituted a comparison of American
and European barometers. " It is believed that these compari-
sons establish a correspondence of the European and American
standards within the narrow limit of one or two thousandths of
an inch." (Henry.)

For thirty years Guyot carried on, largely with the encourage-
ment of the Smithsonian Institution, extensive barometric
investigations throughout the mountain ranges of the Atlantic
slope, from the White Mountains of New Hampshire to the
Smoky Mountains of North Carolina. He made thousands of
barometric measurements of altitudes, including those of Mount
Washington and other high peaks, which were remarkable for
their exactness.

He died at Princeton on February 8, 1884.

(From JAMES D. DANA, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of
Sciences, vol. 2, 1880, pp. 309-347.)

JAMES HALL
Born, September 12, 1811; died, August 7, 1898

James Hall was of English parentage, and was born in Hing-
ham, Massachusetts, on September 12, 1811. In 1831, he began
studies in natural history under Amos Eaton at the Rensselaer
School (now the Polytechnic Institute) in Troy, New York,

146 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

where he afterwards occupied the chair of geology until 1876,
at which time he became professor emeritus. He was appointed
assistant geologist in the geological survey of the Fourth District
of New York in 1836, and the following year, as geologist, was
placed in charge of the work of this western district. He pub-
lished reports annually from 1838 to 1841, and in 1843 a final
report in quarto form — one of the series of volumes on the
natural history of the State printed by order of the Legislature.
In this, the fossils, the lithological characters of the rocks, and
the succession of the strata are fully described. The same year
Hall was appointed paleontologist of the State and continued in
that position until 1874. The principal work of these years is
embodied in the eight volumes of the " Paleontology of New
York " which has been described as " one of the most remark-
able monuments of scientific labor, zeal, and industry, which this
country has produced." In order to trace the western extension
of the New York strata, Hall studied the formations of the
Mississippi Valley and the Rocky Mountains. In 1855, ^e was
appointed Geologist of Iowa, and in 1857 Geologist of Wis-
consin, and the results of his western investigations are largely
embodied in the reports of the surveys of those States. In 1858,
he received the Wollaston Medal of the Geological Society of
London, of which he was a foreign member. At about this time
he took up the study of the graptolites of the so-called Quebec
group, and in 1865 published an elaborate monograph in the
2oth Report of the New York Cabinet of Natural History. He
was the Director of the New York State Museum from 1866 to

1893.

In 1876, he aided in organizing the International Congress of
Geologists, and was Honorary President of the Congress held
in Washington in 1891. He was also the first President of the
Geological Society of America in 1889.

In addition to his work on the paleontology of New York,
Professor Hall wrote the paleontological portions of the reports
of various surveys of the Western Territories under the Govern-
ment, including those of the Fremont Expedition, the Stansbury

THE INCORPORATORS 147

Expedition, and the first United States and Mexican Boundary
Survey. He also contributed many papers to the American
Journal of Science and to the transactions of American and
foreign scientific societies.

Besides paleontological investigations, he engaged in the study
of the crystalline structure of the rocks, and " was the first to
point out the persistence and the significance of mineralogical
characters as a guide to their classification." He also devoted
attention to questions of dynamic geology, especially in relation
to the structure of mountain ranges. He died on August 7, 1898,
at the advanced age of eighty-seven years, at Echo Hill, New
Hampshire.

JOSEPH HENRY
Born, December 17, 1799; died May 13, 1878

The life of Henry may be properly divided into three periods ;
his early years, the period during which he was a professor in
the Albany Academy and at Princeton University, and the period
during which he was Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.
Simon Newcomb said of him in 1880:

" Few have any conception of the breadth of the field occupied by Professor
Henry's researches, or of the number of scientific enterprises of which he was
either the originator or the effective supporter. What, under the circumstances,
could be said within a brief space to show what the world owes to him has
already been so well said by others that it would be impracticable to make a really
new presentation without writing a volume."

Henry was born on December 17, 1799, at Albany, New York.
He was of Scotch descent, and both his maternal and paternal
grandparents came to New York at the same time in 1775. His
early years were spent at Albany and at Galway, a village near
Saratoga. His father was William Henry, his mother Annie
Alexander, an aunt of Stephen Alexander, also one of the incor-
porators of the Academy.

As a boy he was imaginative. His mind ran on romance and
adventure, and his reading was made up largely of novels, poetry
and plays. He even organized an amateur dramatic company,
and took part as an actor or directed the acting of others. When

148 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

about sixteen years old a copy of Gregory's " Lectures on Ex-
perimental Philosophy, Astronomy and Chemistry, intended
chiefly for the Use of Young Persons " fell into his hands and,
" although by no means a profound work," made so strong an
impression on him that he at once resolved to devote himself
to the pursuit of knowledge. He attended a night school, and
afterwards the Albany Academy, and also engaged in the study
of medicine. Having occupied himself for a little time as a
private tutor and a surveyor, at the age of twenty-six he became
Professor of Mathematics in the Albany Academy.

Here in 1827 he began that most important series of investi-
gations which in a few years placed him at the head of Ameri-
can men of science. In 1832 he was elected Professor of Natural
Philosophy at Princeton University, then the College of New
Jersey, and during the fourteen years in which he occupied this
position, all his spare time was spent in original research in
electro-magnetism, the results of which were published at
frequent intervals. Regarding these investigations the Academy
registered its opinion in 1876 in the following terms :

" Resolved, That in response to the letter of the British Minister, Sir Edward
Thornton, asking the Academy for a suggestion as to the names and services of
persons considered eligible to receive the Albert Medal of the Society of Arts, to
reward ' distinguished merit in promoting arts, manufacture, or commerce,' the
Academy suggest the name of Professor Joseph Henry as most worthy of all
living Americans to receive that recognition. They base this suggestion upon his
distinguished merit in the following respects, viz. :

" i. As being the first to develop the power of the electro-magnet as actuated
by an intensity or a quantity battery.

" 2. As the first to apply the electro-magnet in the invention of an electro-
magnetic telegraph.

"3. As the first to invent a machine to be moved by electro-magnetism.

" 4. For the application of the electro-telegraph to forecasting the weather.

" 5. For the plan of the Smithsonian Institution for the increase and diffusion
of knowledge among men, and the successful development of this plan during an
administration of more than twenty-five years as Scientific Director of this
Establishment.

" 6. For the improvement in fog-signals in connection with the United States
Light House Board, and discoveries in sound." 3

3 Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. i, p. 114, April, 1876.

THE INCORPORATORS 149

In 1846 Henry resigned from Princeton and became the first
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, then just established.
The following year he presented his plan of organization and
from that time until his death in 1878, a period of 31 years,
he devoted all his energies to its practical development, whereby
he gained an unique position among American men of science
and made the Smithsonian Institution better known throughout
the world than any other American institution. " His original
investigations during his thirty years at the Smithsonian Institu-
tion," remarks Dr. Goode, "were not of great extent; but his
influence, not only upon the development of scientific work in
the United States, but upon its character, cannot be overestimated.
His official position brought him into constant contact, either
personally or by letter, with all in the United States who were
engaged in scientific work, and the inspiration and direct control
which he exercised were constant and far-reaching." Such
researches and studies as he undertook had their origin chiefly
in problems encountered or brought to his attention in the course
of his administrative work. They related to a great variety of
subjects — acoustics, meteorology, education, the phenomena of
physical and organic forces, evolution, the qualities of building
materials and of illuminating oils, etc.

In 1852 he was appointed by President Fillmore a member of
the Lighthouse Board. Early in the Civil War he, with Pro-
fessor Bache and Admiral Davis, was appointed by the Secretary
of the Navy on the commission to investigate various practical
questions connected with the operations of the Navy. It was the
work of this commission that appears to have suggested the
organization of the National Academy of Sciences in the form
which it finally assumed. Henry, according to his own utter-
ances, did not take part in its organization but he was one of the
charter members and the chairman of the first committee of the
Academy, that on weights, measures and coinage. In 1866 he
was elected Vice-President, and in 1868 became President, his
term of office extending over eleven years.

(From SIMON NEWCOMB, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy
of Sciences, vol. 5, 1905, pp. 1-45, and G. BROWN GOODE, in " The Smithsonian

150 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Institution, 1846-1896, the History of Its First Half Century," Washington,
1896, p. 115. See also the sketch by WM. B. TAYLOR, entitled " A Memoir of
Joseph Henry," in Bulletin of the Philosophical Society of Washington, vol. 2, pp.
230, and 368, 1879; and that by JAMES C. WELLING, entitled, " Notes on the life
and character of Joseph Henry," in the same publication, pp. 203-229.)

JULIUS ERASMUS HILGARD
Born, January 7, 1825; died, May 9, 1890

Julius Erasmus Hilgard was born at Zweibriicken, Rhenish
Bavaria, January 7, 1825. His father, Theodore Erasmus Hil-
gard, was for many years Chief Justice of the Court of Appeals,
but on account of his liberal opinions was so dissatisfied with con-
ditions in his native country that in 1835 he emigrated to America.
The journey from his native place to Havre was made in wagons.
After a voyage of 62 days, the family landed at New Orleans at
Christmas, and journeyed up the Mississippi to St. Louis, and
thence to a farm at Belleville, Illinois. As the oldest son, Julius
gave valuable help by his practical talents. His education was
carried on at home. Music, chemistry, ancient and modern lan-
guages and mathematics (the higher branches of the latter being
studied without outside help), occupied his attention until 1843,
when he went to Philadelphia to study engineering and to obtain
employment. In that city he made the acquaintance of Professor
Bache, and commenced a life-long friendship with Elisha Kent
Kane, the arctic explorer.

The first work obtained was in the preliminary surveys of the
Bear Mountain Railroad. Soon, however, Professor Bache,
recognizing his abilities, procured young Hilgard a position in
the Coast Survey, in which service he continued, with short inter-
ruptions, until his death. In the field work, in computations and
investigations in the office, in the publication of the records and
results of the Survey, in his influence on political leaders, Mr.
Hilgard rendered highly intelligent and valuable aid to the ser-
vice. During the failing health of Professor Bache, Hilgard, who
was at that time in charge of the Coast Survey office, was obliged
to perform the duties of Superintendent, which he did without

THE INCORPORATORS 151

extra compensation until the appointment of Benjamin Peirce
to the position. Though it seems fitting that Hilgard should
have become Superintendent upon the death of Bache, he did
not receive the appointment until 1881. At that time his health
was so impaired that, as he said, " it came too late." He was
soon forced to resign. While Assistant Superintendent, his work
in the Office of Weights and Measures gained him most favor-
able notice in Europe and he was invited to the directorship of
an International Bureau of Weights and Measures about to be
established in Paris. Declining this, but continuing his con-
nection with the International Committee, a beautiful Sevres
vase was presented to him by President Thiers on behalf of the
French Government in recognition of his services. He also had
great satisfaction in being instrumental in bringing to a successful
ending the operations for the telegraphic determination of trans-
atlantic longitudes.

Among his other valuable services, Hilgard delivered in 1876
a course of twenty lectures at Johns Hopkins University on the
subject of " Extended Territorial Surveying."

Resigning his position in July,, 1885, he lived in retirement for
five years, and died at Washington, May 9, 1890.

(From E. W. HILGARD, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of
Sciences, vol. 3, 1895, pp. 327-338.)

EDWARD HITCHCOCK

Born, May 24, 1793 ; died, February 27, 1864

Edward Hitchcock was born in Deerfield, Massachusetts, in
1793. His parents were intellectual, high-minded, and deeply
religious people, and from them he inherited on the one hand
his interest in religion and theology, and on the other his love
of learning, and the inquiring turn of mind which early in life
led to a persevering study of science. He began teaching when
only 22 years of age, first in his native town, and later in Conway,
Massachusetts. Ten years later, at the age of 32, he became Pro-

NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

fessor of Chemistry and Natural History at Amherst College.
Although interested in many subjects, he devoted almost all of
his time to geology, and in 1830 was made chief of the Geologi-
cal Survey of Massachusetts. In 1836, he was appointed Geol-
ogist of the First District of New York, and in 1857, State
Geologist of Vermont. Dr. Hitchcock was the first to suggest
and carry on the survey of the State of Massachusetts, which
was the first, not only in the long series of surveys subsequently
carried on in the United States, but the first survey of an entire
State under government authority inaugurated anywhere in the
world. For his extensive and important work in geology he
received the honorary degree of Doctor of Laws from Harvard
at the age of 47. His name will always be closely associated with
the beginnings of geology in this country. He has, indeed, been
called one of the fathers of American geology. He was the
first to give a scientific exposition of the so-called " bird tracks "
in the Red Sandstone of the Connecticut Valley, and this new
science, which began with him, he termed ornithichnology.
The paper was published in 1836, and was followed from year
to year by descriptions of his investigations, tables of species and
other articles.

In 1840 he was elected the first President of the American
Association for the Advancement of Science, which was organ-
ized at that time, and in 1845 was made President of Amherst
College, and Professor of Natural Theology and Geology,
which positions he held until 1854. His life was closely con-
nected with Amherst, from the very beginning of the college,
and in his own presidency he established it on a firm financial
footing, besides elevating the standard of study. He also pro-
cured for it a number of buildings, increased and improved the
equipment, and enlarged the number of students. He died the
year after the National Academy of Sciences was organized.

(From J. P. LESLEY, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of
Sciences, vol. I, 1877, pp. 113-134.)

THE INCORPORATORS 153

JOSEPH STILLMAN HUBBARD

Born, September 7, 1823; died, August 16, 1863

As Hubbard died within a few months after the Academy was
formed, his influence upon that organization was, of course, but
slight. It is of interest, however, to summarize his scientific
labors if for no other reason than to show why he was chosen a
member of the Academy.

Hubbard's family settled in Ipswich, Massachusetts, in 1635,
but afterwards moved to Meridian and New Haven, Con-
necticut. His ancestors were for the most part clergymen and
physicians, and several of them held important public offices.

As a boy, Hubbard showed a decided taste for mechanics and
astronomy. He was graduated from Yale College in 1843 and
the following year went to Philadelphia as assistant to the astron-
omer Walker in the High School Observatory, working with
such zeal as to seriously impair his health. After some months
he went to Washington and computed the observations made by
Fremont on his expedition to the Rocky Mountains and the
Pacific Coast. The next year (1845), he was appointed a pro-
fessor of mathematics in the Navy and assigned to duty at the
Naval Observatory.

Here he made observations for several years with the transit
instrument and meridian circle, working particularly on a
system of zone observations devised by Professor Coffin and him-
self. These observations were interrupted soon after 1850, but
taken up again in 1862 and continued by Hubbard until his
death.

His first extended computation consisted in the determination
of the zodiacs of all the known asteroids. This was followed
by a study of the orbit of the great comet of 1843. In 1846
Hubbard began an extended investigation of the peculiar
phenomena presented by Biela's comet, and later published three
memoirs relating to them. He also undertook an investigation
of the Fourth Comet of 1825.

Hubbard was deeply interested in the establishment of the
Astronomical Journal, and his contributions to it occupy more

154 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

than 200 columns. His astronomical calculations also fill
many pages of the Washington Observations. One of his last
researches related to the magnetism of iron ships, a subject which
a committee of the Academy afterwards investigated at the re-
quest of the Navy Department.

Hubbard was present at the meeting in New York at which
the Academy was organized and welcomed its inauguration
in his enthusiastic manner as " the most important epoch ever
witnessed by science in America." He was not destined, how-
ever, to contribute to its developments as he died a few months
later, his demise having been hastened, as some have believed,
by the unhealthy surroundings of the old Naval Observatory at
Washington in which he labored.

(From B. A. GOULD, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of
Sciences, vol. I, 1877, pp. 1-34.)

ANDREW ATKINSON HUMPHREYS
Born, November 2, 1810; died, December 27, 1883

Andrew Atkinson Humphreys was of Welsh ancestry. He
came from a family of naval constructors — his grandfather hav-
ing been the architect of the Constitution, and her five sister frig-
ates. After his graduation from the U. S. Military Academy at
West Point, Lieutenant Humphreys was assigned to the Second
Artillery, and served in the South, taking an active part in the
Florida War. Resigning his commission on account of impaired
health, he served for two years as a civil engineer under Major
Hartman Bache. On July 8, 1838, he became assistant in the
Bureau of Topographical Engineers at Washington. While in
this position he prepared the first project for the extension of the
National Capitol. In 1844 he was detailed as assistant in charge
of the Coast Survey Office. After eighteen years of work in his
profession he entered upon the great labors of original research
and administrative direction, which have made his name illustri-
ous. The Government having turned its attention to the ques-
tion of reclaiming the lands along the Mississippi subject to
inundation, and subsequently making two appropriations of

THE INCORPORATORS 155

$50,000 each, the Delta Survey was formed, and Captain
Humphreys undertook with what would now be considered
inadequate means, the task of solving the problems of controlling
the mighty river, which the sufferers from flood personified
as " an evil spirit, which periodically reared his tawny front
from the chasm where he writhed in uneasy slumber at low
water." " Captain Humphreys conducted for ten years a series
of researches which accomplished their object, and which have
placed his name high on the list of the distinguished hydraulic
engineers of the world." (Abbot.) His arduous labors per-
formed under a burning sun, caused a " coup de soleil " in the
summer of 1851, which obliged him to suspend work. When
somewhat recovered, he obtained permission to visit Europe for
the purpose of studying methods of protection against inundation
and returned in 1 854 ready to renew operations on the Mississippi.
In the meantime, however, the question of a railroad to the
Pacific Coast had arisen, and the Secretary of War, appreciating
Humphreys' great ability, insisted upon having him as his con-
fidential adviser. In this work, and in preparing reports on the
Mississippi enterprise, he was occupied until the Civil War.
He served throughout that war with the Army of the Potomac,
and rose to the command of an Army corps. The two corps
of engineers having been consolidated during the war, he was ap-
pointed brigadier-general and chief of engineers, discharging
the duties of this office until, at his own request, he was placed
on the retired list on June 30, 1879. After his retirement he
contributed to the Scribner's Series a history of his campaigns in
two small volumes based on an analysis of the official records of
both armies, that has been said by General Abbot " to be worthy
of a place beside Caesar's Commentaries or Xenophon's Ana-
basis."

In 1857 General Humphreys was elected a member of the
American Philosophical Society. He was also an honorary
member of the Imperial Geological Institute of Vienna, and a
fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.

156 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Subsequent to 1863 when he became one of the incorporate rs of
the National Academy of Sciences, many honors and degrees
were conferred on him at home and abroad. General Abbot
remarks that the keynote to his whole life may be found in his own
words: " I cannot understand how any man can be willing to
assume charge of a work without making it his business to know
everything about it from A to Izzard."

(From HENRY L. ABBOT, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy
of Sciences, vol. 2, 1886, pp. 201-215.)

JOHN LAWRENCE LE CONTE
Born, May 13, 1825; died, November 15, 1883

Among the many families of Huguenots who fled from
France after the revocation of the edict of Nantes, may be found
the name of LeConte. The family was of noble birth and
possessed of wealth, and no small number of its members had
that spirit of scientific investigation, which characterized so
many of the refugees. John Lawrence LeConte traced his
descent from Guillaume LeConte who was born in Rouen in
1859. John Lawrence LeConte was born in New York, May 13,
1825. After taking a collegiate course at St. Mary's College in
Emmettsburg, Maryland, he entered the College of Physicians
and Surgeons in New York, from which he was graduated in
1846.

Possessing an independent fortune, he practiced his profession
but to a limited extent, though during the Civil War he entered
the army medical corps of the volunteers, becoming medical
inspector, with the rank of lieutenant-colonel. After this, he
held no regular position until 1878, when he became connected
with the United States Mint in Philadelphia, remaining there
until his death on November 15, 1883.

As early as 1848, Dr. LeConte made several journeys to Lake
Superior and California to study the fauna, and later travelled
more extensively, visiting the Rocky Mountains, Honduras and
Panama, Europe, Egypt and Algiers. He inherited from his
father a taste for natural history and at the early age of nineteen

THE INCORPORATORS 1 57

he published a paper describing over twenty new species of
Carabid beetles from the eastern United States.

His attention was next drawn to certain anomalies of geo-
graphical distribution and his extensive studies of the problems
resulted in the publication of several important papers on that
general subject. Dr. LeConte's father had made the Coleoptera
his favorite study and had also published papers on mammals,
reptiles, batrachians, and crustaceans. He had collected a large
amount of material relating to the natural history of our insects,
and made a series of water-color illustrations of them and also
of plants. The son carried on the work thus begun, and during
his lifetime published more than 60 monographic essays — some
of them large works — on the Coleoptera and other groups of
insects, investigating as far as practicable all the various
phenomena connected with their life-histories. He devoted
himself especially to systematic work, in a manner new in
America in his time, defining more than 1,100 of the higher
groups, and forming nearly 250 synoptic or analytic tables.
Half of the Coleoptera of the United States were described by
him for the first time. So extensive and important was his work
that he may with safety be called the greatest of American ento-
mologists. That he was so regarded abroad is evidenced by the
fact that he became an honorary member in all the older and
larger entomological societies of Europe.

In 1 86 1, as the result of many years of systematic study of
American beetles, he published the first part of a classification
of the Coleoptera of North America, the second part appearing
the following year, and in 1873, a third part of the same work.
In the meantime, he had reached the conclusion that the
Rhynchophora, or weevils, represented a quite distinct group
of Coleoptera, and in 1876, in association with Dr. Horn, his
former pupil, he published a thorough monographic revision of
this group, which completely revolutionized the accepted classi-
fication of the day. Finally, in 1883, a few months before his
death, he published (also with Dr. Horn as joint author) a new

I $8 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

" Classification of the Coleoptera of the United States," in which
much of his previous work was revised and brought up to date.

Between 1848 and 1857, Dr. LeConte published minor essays
on geology, on radiates, on recent and fossil mammals, and on
ethnology, thus showing the wide range of his scientific studies
and investigations. While accepting the modern evolutionary
philosophy, he still believed, as he expressed it, in the " Prov-
idence which presides over and directs the system of evolution."

In his private life his friends speak of him as " a cultured
scholar, a refined gentleman, a genial companion, a true friend."

(From SAMUEL H. SCUDDER, in Biographical Memoirs of the National
Academy of Sciences, vol. 2, 1886, pp. 261-293.)

JOSEPH LEIDY
Born, September 9, 1823; died, April 30, 1891

At the memorial meeting held at the University of Pennsyl-
vania, Dr. Joseph Leidy's scientific career was commemorated
under five heads: " Work in Vertebrate Anatomy "; " Work in
Invertebrate Anatomy " ; " Work in Paleontology and Geol-
ogy " ; " Work in Mineralogy " ; " Work in Botany." The cata-
logue of his writings contains five hundred and fifty-three titles, a
remarkable contribution to scientific literature. This many-sided
scientist, " almost the sole survivor of that class of intellectual
giants which seemed able to assimilate as much as Science in her
many forms could produce," was born in Philadelphia on Sep-
tember 9, 1823. He was the son of Philip Leidy. At an early age
he showed a taste for the study of nature and a talent for drawing.
He began the study of medicine at the age of nineteen, and
received his degree at the University of Pennsylvania in 1844,
immediately after which he was appointed Prosector to the chair
of anatomy under Professor Horner. With the exception of one
year, when he followed his teacher, Dr. Paul M. Goddard, to
the Franklin Medical College, Dr. Leidy continued his con-
nection with the University during his life. At the death of
Dr. Horner, in 1853, he was elected Professor of Anatomy and
held that position for thirty-eight years. In 1871 he became Pro-

THE INCORPORATORS 1 59

fessor of Natural History in Swarthmore College, in Swarth-
more, Pennsylvania.

In 1 88 1 he was chosen President of the Academy of Natural
Sciences of Philadelphia; in 1884, Director of the Biological
Department of the University of Pennsylvania; and in 1886,
President of the Wagner Free Institute. Among the honors
he received at this period should be mentioned the Walker
Prize (which was doubled in special recognition of his services) ,
the prize of the Royal Microscopical Society, the Lyell Medal
of the Royal Geological Society, and the Cuvier Medal of the
Academy of Sciences of Paris.

" The bare enumeration of his published works, extensive in
length and in variety though it be, would give those who had
never seen this great naturalist no idea of the man or of the
source of this combination of versatility and accuracy which
rendered almost every observation he made directly or indi-
rectly an addition to science. In all that pertained to the acquisi-
tion of facts and to coordinating them afterwards he made of
himself a perfect machine in so far as he was insensible to and
unaffected by the ordinary passions of ambition or rivalry which
influence even the best scientists. He had a marvelous eye for
noting the minutest phenomena and appreciating the most
insensible differences ; he had an unusually retentive memory for
recording and keeping in order the vast fund of his observations
and the records of those made by others; and he was conscious
of the limitations of pure inductive philosophy to an extent
which made the conclusions reached by him safe." (Frazer.)

During the Civil War Dr. Leidy acted as surgeon of the
Satterlee Hospital in Philadelphia. Leidy's name is not only
remembered by his remarkable contributions to anatomy,
paleontology, and other sciences, but in the lofty Rockies stands
" Mt. Leidy," named by Dr. Hayden, the distinguished explorer
and geologist; and " Cape Leidy," on the coast of Grinnell Land
is a token of the devotion of Drs. Kane and Hayes to their college
friend.

160 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The love of flowers and of gems was a feature of Dr. Leidy's
character. His knowledge of them often served to correct errors
that had crept into collections as well as to entertain his friends.
No one loved social intercourse better than he, and his conver-
sation was always instructive and charming.

He died in his native city on April 30, 1891.

(From PERSIFOR FRAZER, " Joseph Leidy, M. D., LL. D.," in the American
Geologist, January, 1892. See also WILLIAM HUNT, " An Address Upon the
Late Joseph Leidy, M. D., LL. D.," Philadelphia, 1892; and " In Memoriam,
Dr. Joseph Leidy, Personal History," read before the Academy of Natural
Sciences, Philadelphia, May 12, 1891; HENRY F. OSBORN, "Joseph Leidy," in
Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 7, p. 335.)

J. PETER LESLEY
Born, September 17, 1819; died June I, 1903

Peter Lesley, the fourth of that name, was born at Phila-
delphia on September 17, 1819. The first Peter Lesley was
remembered as the " Miller of Fifeshire," and his descendants
were of mingled Scotch and German blood and were noted for
their practical traits and thorough education. It appears to
have been Lesley's father's intention to prepare him for the
church, but his health was so precarious while he was in college
that an out-of-door life was imperative. Through the inter-
position of Professor Bache, he obtained appointment in 1838 as
an assistant on the first Geological Survey of Pennsylvania. The
personal knowledge of the poor and ignorant German settlers,
which he obtained during two seasons spent in the field, turned
Lesley's thoughts toward missionary work, and in 1841 he
entered the Princeton Theological School. After studying three
years and obtaining his license, he determined on a trip to
Europe, largely to perfect his knowledge of German. He
travelled on foot through England and France and afterwards
through Switzerland, where the geological features of the
country aroused his strongest interest. He then settled at Halle
to study German, and also attended the lectures of Tholuck and
other theologians.

THE INCORPORATORS 161

On his return to America in 1845, he spent two years in mis-
sionary work in Pennsylvania, after which he was invited to assist
Professor H. D. Rogers in Boston in preparing a map of
Pennsylvania, showing the work of the first geological survey of
the State. After a winter spent in Boston, Lesley was for three
years pastor of a church in Milton, Massachusetts, at the end of
which time, his religious views having undergone a change
which made it impossible for him to remain a clergyman, he
resigned his parish in May, 1852, and went to Philadelphia.
Afterwards he was engaged for a period of about ten years in
surveys of iron, coal and oil fields for the Pennsylvania Rail-
road and other companies, as well as on his own account. During
the summer of 1855, Lesley performed a notable piece of geolog-
ical work, consisting of a survey of the Broad Top Mountain
region of central Pennsylvania, which included a contour-line
map of the semi-bituminous coal-field, " with over eleven thou-
sand stations levelled." In 1856, he became Secretary of the
American Iron Association, which necessitated his visiting all
the iron works of the United States. He published at this time
a large volume of statistics of the iron industries, also the " Iron
Manufacturers' Guide," and his " Coal Manual."

In 1858 he was elected librarian of the American Philosophi-
cal Society, which position he held for twenty-five years, giving
much time and attention to the duties of the office. In 1860 he
became interested in a process for the desulphurization of coal,
but it was not financially successful, and he confined his energies
thereafter to scientific and literary work. In 1862 and 1863 he
was engaged in surveying at Glace Bay, on the coast of Cape
Breton, and in the latter year made a trip to Europe to study the
Bessemer steel process.

During the season of 1865-66, Lesley delivered a course of
lectures before the Lowell Institute in Boston, choosing for his
subject " Man's Origin and Destiny."

Ill health again obliged him to desist from work, and he spent
a year in Europe and a winter on the Nile. After his return,
in 1869, he became editor of the United States Railroad and

1 62 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Mining Register, and from that time until 1872 was engaged
chiefly in surveys in the South. In the latter year he was
appointed Professor of Geology in the School of Mines of the
University of Pennsylvania. In the organization of the Towne
Scientific School Professor Lesley took great delight and gave
much time and thought to his teaching, which was always a
favorite work, and aroused enthusiasm in his pupils.

The crowning event of his life was, however, his appointment
to the office of State Geologist of Pennsylvania, which occurred
in 1874. The second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania was an
undertaking of great magnitude and extended over a period of
20 years. Lesley organized it with much care, and had as his
assistants Frazer, Stevenson, Prince, Chance, D'Invilliers, Genth,
and many other geologists and chemists. To the publication of
results he gave the closest personal attention. His system was
to publish numerous " reports of progress," each containing all
the data relating to a single district or county. More than a
hundred such volumes were issued, and at the end a final report
summarizing the whole. He had nearly finished this latter work
when in 1893 ms health gave way completely, and he was obliged
to desist. Sir Archibald Geikie said of the survey in a letter
written at this time " It is in my opinion a monument of patient
skill, thoughtfully organized, sympathetically carried on, and
admirably co-ordinated, through all its branches and all its prog-
ress. I think it will be of the utmost value industrially to the
State of Pennsylvania."

Lesley remained some years in Philadelphia, and afterwards
returned once more to Milton, Massachusetts, where he died in
June, 1903.

(From MARY LESLEY AMES, " Life and Letters of Peter and Susan Lesley,"
1909.)

MIERS FISHER LONGSTRETH
Born, March 15, 1819; died, December 27, 1891

Longstreth was born in Philadelphia in 1819. He was edu-
cated in the schools of the Society of Friends, and his early life
was spent as a merchant. He devoted his leisure hours, however,

THE INCORPORATORS 163

to the study of astronomy, and had charge of the Friends' Observ-
atory on Cherry Street, Philadelphia, until 1856. He entered
the University of Pennsylvania, and was graduated from the
medical department. Afterwards he removed to Sharon Hill,
Pennsylvania, and engaged in the practice of medicine. He
still devoted much of his time to astronomy, and wrote many
valuable papers relating to that branch of science. These were
published in the Transactions of the American Philosophical
Society, of which Dr. Longstreth had been a member since 1848.
He was of a retiring disposition and declined public office. For
forty years, however, he served on private and public educational
boards.

DENNIS HART MAHAN
Born, April 2, 1802; died, September 16, 1871

Dennis Hart Mahan was born in the city of New York, but
his parents soon moved to Norfolk, Virginia, where his boyhood
was spent. He was brought up with the idea that he would be a
physician, but having a talent for drawing, and learning that
this was taught at West Point, he sought and, through the good
offices of a friend of the family, obtained admission into the
Military Academy. From this institution he was graduated in
1824, at the head of his class, which numbered thirty-one students.
In his third year at the Academy he was appointed Acting Assist-
ant Professor of Mathematics. Following graduation he became
a lieutenant in the Corps of Engineers, and after holding the posi-
tion of instructor for two years in the Academy was sent to Europe
to study engineering works and military institutions. In France,
by special permission of the Government, he studied for more
than a year in the military school at Metz, and became associated
with many prominent French military engineers and artillerists,
and was often the guest of the family of Lafayette.

He returned to America in 1830 and was detailed as acting
professor at West Point. Two years later he vacated his com-
mission in the Engineer Corps, and became Professor of Civil and
Military Engineering. In this important position he remained

164 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

for a period of more than forty-one years, during which both
the Mexican War and the Civil War occurred. " His teachings
bore glorious fruit upon the fields of Mexico," and during the
Civil War, " with hardly an exception on either side, those who
had studied under Professor Mahan had won the highest
laurels." (Abbot.)

Mahan published many text-books on civil and military
engineering. These comprised a " Treatise on Field Fortifica-
tions " (1836), " Course of Civil Engineering" (1837), one on
" Permanent Fortifications," " Advanced Guard, Outpost and
Detachment Service of Troops " (1847), " Industrial Drawing "
(1855), and "Treatise on Fortification Drawing and Stere-
otomy " (1865). Some of these works passed through several
editions. His treatise on civil engineering was reprinted in
England and also translated into several foreign languages.
Professor Mahan also published an American edition of
Moseley's " Mechanical Principles of Engineering," in which
many of his own ideas were incorporated. This was originally
published in 1856 and reprinted in 1869.

In 1871, on account of his advanced age and impaired health
he was recommended by the board of visitors to the Academy
for retirement, and although the President gave him assurances
that no action would be taken on the recommendation, he was so
deeply wounded in spirit that overcome by dejection he threw
himself from the steamboat on which he was journeying to New
York to consult his physician.

(From HENRY L. ABBOT, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy
of Sciences, vol. 2, 1886, pp. 29-37.)

JOHN STRONG NEWBERRY
Born, December 22, 1822; died, December 7, 1892

General Roger Newberry, grandfather of John S. Newberry,
was one of the proprietors of the Connecticut Land Company,
which owned the northern part of Ohio, known as the Western
Reserve. His son, Henry Newberry, located his father's land
on the Cuyahoga River and founded there a town, to which he

THE INCORPORATORS 165

moved with his family in 1824. John Strong Newberry, the
youngest of nine children, was two years old at this time, having
been born at Windsor, Connecticut, December 22, 1822. The
flora and fauna about his home, and the fossils found in his
father's coal mines roused in his youthful mind an interest in
nature, and we find him making large collections before he
entered college. Preparing in a special school, he matriculated at
the Western Reserve School, and was graduated in 1846. During
the last two years of his course he studied medicine and after-
wards entered the Cleveland Medical School, from which he
received the degree of Doctor of Medicine in 1848. Sub-
sequently he spent two years in Paris in medical studies, and
engaged in the practice of his profession for four years at Cleve-
land, Ohio. During all this time, he continued his natural
history studies and published several papers. Dr. Newberry
was appointed in 1855 assistant surgeon in the U. S. Army and
botanist and geologist to the expedition, which, under the com-
mand of Lieutenant R. S. Williamson, explored the country
between San Francisco Bay and the Columbia River. Return-
ing to the capital in 1856, while preparing his report, Dr. New-
berry served for one year as Professor of Chemistry and Natural
History in Columbian College, now George Washington
University. The following year he acted as physician and
naturalist to the Ives Expedition, and in 1859 as geologist of the
San Juan Exploring Expedition. In these two positions the
work was very arduous, as journeys were made through some
of the wildest portions of the Western country, but much valuable
scientific material was gathered. The report of the San Juan
Expedition was not published for seventeen years, owing to the
unsettled state of the nation caused by the Civil War. Thus, Dr.
Newberry lost much credit due to him as an original geological
and ethnological observer.

Abandoning his scientific work at the breaking out of the
War, Dr. Newberry entered the sanitary service, where, as
secretary of the western department of the United States San-
itary Commission, he showed his great executive ability, and

1 66 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

received the highest commendation. His report made to the
Government consists of 543 octavo pages. At the close of the
War, he became scientific associate of the Smithsonian Institu-
tion for one year. In 1866 he entered on his chief life-work as
Professor of Geology and Paleontology at the School of Mines
of Columbia University, which position he held for twenty-six
years. The fine museum containing many fossils, rocks and
minerals collected by him, and the rejuvenating of the old
Lyceum, now the flourishing New York Academy of Sciences,
are notable results of the efficient labor of that period.

Dr. Newberry retained his residence in Cleveland, and from
1869 to 1874 was Director of the Geological Survey of Ohio,
but after the failure of the Legislature to provide funds, he
returned to New Haven, where he died, December 7, 1892.
He had served as President of the Torrey Botanical Club in
1880. His part in the U. S. Geological Survey was the investiga-
tion of the fossil fishes and some of the fossil plants of the United
States. He was one of the organizers of the International Con-
gress of Geologists, of which he was elected President for the
Washington meeting of 1891. In 1 888 he received the Murchison
Medal of the Geological Society of London, and the same
year was elected first Vice-President of the Geological Society
of America.

Dr. Newberry's published writings numbered over two hun-
dred, besides editorial work in geology and paleontology for
Johnson's Cyclopedia.

(From CHARLES A. WHITE, in Biographical Memoirs of the National
Academy of Sciences, vol. 6, 1909, pp. 1-24.)

HUBERT ANSON NEWTON
Born, March 19, 1830; died, August 12, 1896

Professor Newton was born on March 19, 1830, at Sherburne,
New York. His parents were descended from early settlers of
Massachusetts and Connecticut, who had moved westward into
what was then the wilds of central New York. Newton showed
at an early age a taste for exact studies which he seems to have

THE INCORPORATORS 167

inherited from his father. After attending the schools of Sher-
burne, he entered Yale College and was graduated in 1850.
He became tutor there in 1853, and on the death of Professor
Stanley, the Corporation appointed Newton, at the early age of
twenty-five to the professorship of mathematics, a position which
he held until his death. Early in his career he spent a year in
studies in Europe, and was greatly influenced by the teaching
of Chasles of Paris in higher geometry, which influence showed
itself in his contributions to the Mathematical Monthly in 1858
and the three following years. Although this branch of science
for many years was his favorite study, Professor Newton
ultimately turned his attention to astronomy, and especially to
the subject of meteors or " shooting stars." The wonderful
display of meteors in 1833 had created such an interest in the
country, and so much material had been collected concerning
previous showers, that in 1861 the Connecticut Academy of
Arts and Sciences appointed a committee of which Professor
Newton was a member, to promote systematic observations on the
August and November showers in different localities. As an
aid to this work, he prepared a valuable map of the heavens for
plotting meteor tracks, and as a result of his studies of the obser-
vations, published in 1865 a paper on the paths of more than a
hundred meteors, observed on the nights of August 10 and
November 13, 1863. Continuing his researches on the orbits
of meteoroids, and the times of their reappearance, Professor
Newton solved many important problems regarding them, and
raised this branch of research to an honorable place in astro-
nomical science. M. Faye remarked of his results in 1867, in the
Comptes Rendus, " We may find in the works of Mr. Newton, of
the United States, the most advanced expression of the state
of science on this subject."

From meteors he turned his attention to statistical studies of
the orbits of comets, and in the following years published several
important papers containing the results of his investigations of
the relationships of these two classes of celestial objects. Im-
portant as were these researches, his serious life work was that

1 68 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

of an instructor in the University with which he was connected
for so long a time. " If from all those who have come under his
instruction we should seek to learn their personal recollections
of Professor Newton, we should probably find that the most
universal impression which he made on his classes was that of his
enthusiastic love of the subject which he was teaching."
(Gibbs.)

In 1882 the observatory was established at Yale and Professor
Newton, to whom it largely owed its existence, was the first
director. He introduced there the use of the photographic
camera to record the tracks of meteors, and in one instance,
through a simultaneous observation of Mr. Lewis at Ansonia,
was able to calculate the course of a meteor in the earth's atmos-
phere.

He was naturally interested in collections of meteoric stones
and the fine series in the Peabody Museum is largely the result
of his efforts.

Professor Newton was one of the founders of the American
Metrological Society, and for several years was President of
the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences. In 1864 he
became associate editor of the American Journal of Science.
He was awarded the first Lawrence Smith Medal by the
National Academy of Sciences in 1888. He died in New Haven
on August 12, 1896.

(From J. WILLARD GIBBS, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy
of Sciences, vol. 4, 1902, pp. 99-124.)

BENJAMIN PEIRCE
Born, April 4, 1809; died, October 6, 1880

An important incident in Professor Peirce's boyhood was his
acquaintance with Dr. Nathaniel Bowditch, whose son was a
schoolmate. In the dedication of one of his books he speaks
of Dr. Bowditch as " my Master in Science, Nathaniel Bow-
ditch, the father of American Geometry."

Professor Peirce was born in Salem, Massachusetts, April 4,
1809, and entered Harvard College in 1825. Dr. Bowditch had

THE INCORPORATOKS 169

at that time removed to Boston, and young Peirce assisted him
in reading the proofs of his translation of Laplace's Mecanique
Celeste.

For two years after his graduation, Professor Peirce taught
at Northampton, Massachusetts. In 1831, he was appointed a
tutor in Harvard College, and in 1833 was elected Professor of
Mathematics and Natural Philosophy. Afterwards he was
called to the Perkins chair of mathematics and astronomy, which
he occupied until his death.

During the first years of his professorship, he published a
series of text-books for use in colleges. The first was a " Treatise
on Sound," and was followed by one on " Plane and Solid
Geometry," a " Treatise on Algebra," and a treatise on " Plane
and Spherical Trigonometry." These books produced very
beneficial effects on the methods of teaching mathematics.

In 1841, Professor Peirce began a work on " Curves, Func-
tions and Forces," two volumes of which appeared at intervals.
In place of the third volume, he published in 1855, his
" Analytic Mechanics." This was rather a treatise than a text-
book, and exhibits in a striking manner Peirce's peculiar mathe-
matical powers, and his concise and logical style. In 1842, he
began work on the mathematical part of the " American
Almanac," of which he prepared ten volumes. One of these con-
tained a list of the known orbits of comets, to which he added
several approximate orbits for historic comets that had been
imperfectly observed.

In 1849, Congress established a bureau for the publication
of the " American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac," under
the supervision of Admiral (then Lieutenant) Charles H. Davis,
and Professor Peirce was appointed consulting astronomer. To
his work while in this position may be attributed largely the
high character which this publication attained. For it he pre-
pared his " Tables of the Moon," which were used for many
years. After the discovery of the planet Neptune, Professor
Peirce took great interest in the researches of Leverrier and
Adams, and his papers written on the disputed questions regard-

1 70 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

ing this newly-found body excited much discussion among
astronomers.

In 1852, Professor Bache, then Superintendent of the United
States Coast Survey, obtained the help of Professor Peirce in
preparing the longitude determinations in the Survey, and from
the work he then did appears to have originated his article in
Gould's Astronomical Journal, entitled " Criterion for the Rejec-
tion of Doubtful Observations." " It would seem almost certain
that * Peirce's Criterion,' or possibly some modified form of it,
will in time secure general acceptance. In any case, it will ever
stand as the first, and as a satisfactory solution of this delicate
and practically important problem of probability."

For seven years Professor Peirce was Superintendent of the
United States Coast Survey, having been appointed in 1867 after
the death of Professor Bache. While in this position, he made
several tours of inspection, and raised the standard of the ser-
vice by giving greater freedom to the officers of the corps, plac-
ing responsibility on each person engaged in the work, and
giving aid to all scientific work connected with the Survey. As
Superintendent he took personal charge of the expedition to
Sicily in 1870, to observe the eclipse of the sun which occurred
in December of that year. By his efforts as a member of the
Transit of Venus Commission, a party from the Coast Survey
was sent to Nagasaki, and another to Chatham Island, to take
part in the observations on the occasion of this important astro-
nomical event.

In 1864, Professor Peirce read his first paper before the
National Academy of Sciences, and from 1866 to 1870 a series
of papers that were published later in his " Linear Associative
Algebra." This work he pronounced " the pleasantest mathe-
matical effort of my life," and a writer has said of it that it
" must ever remain a monument to the comprehensive grasp of
thought and analytical genius of its author."

Interested in all astronomical questions, and especially those
concerning the solar system, Professor Peirce studied the nebular
hypothesis, the rings of Saturn, the phenomena of comets and

THE INCORPORATORS iyi

meteors, and many other topics, and published many papers
relating to them. His last contributions to science were a series
of eight propositions in cosmical physics, and his " Lectures on
Ideality in Science."

Besides his additions to the literature of science, Professor
Peirce assisted in the organization, in 1855, of the Dudley Observ-
atory at Albany, and was instrumental in the establishment of
the observatory at Harvard University. He died at Cambridge
October 6, 1880.

(From Proc. Amer. A cad. Arts and Sci., new series, vol. 8, 1881, pp. 443-454.)

JOHN RODGERS

Born, August 8, 1812; died, May 5, 1882

Admiral John Rodgers, the third of that name, was the grand-
son of John Rodgers, who came from Glasgow, and settled in
Harford County, Maryland. The elder Rodgers was a colonel
of the Maryland line in the Revolutionary War, and among
his descendants were several sailors and soldiers who rendered
valiant service to their country.

John Rodgers, third, was born at Sion Hill, near Havre de
Grace, Maryland, on August 8, 1812. His mother was the
daughter of Gideon Denison, who was a native of Connecticut
and noted as an Indian fighter. With such an ancestry it is not
strange that we find John Rodgers a midshipman in his sixteenth
year. He served three and a half years at sea, spent one year
at the Naval School at Norfolk, and another at the University
of Virginia, then, three years on the South American Station.
Wliile he was on the Florida coast, Lopez, the Cuban insurgent,
was pursued by the Pizarro, a Spanish sloop-of-war, but Rodgers
with the Petrel, a small schooner of one gun, prevented his cap-
ture. The charts of the Florida coast prepared by Rodgers at
this period have been of great service.

In 1852 Rodgers joined the North Pacific Exploring and
Surveying Expedition in command of the steamer John Han-
cock, and on the retirement of Commander Ringgold, owing to

172 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

ill health, was placed in charge of the Squadron. He made
extensive explorations and deep-sea soundings in the northern
waters, and obtained valuable knowledge of the surrounding
territory. Nearly forty sea charts were based on these surveys.

During the Civil War, Commander Rodgers performed
arduous and gallant service in southern waters. He was made
captain in 1862 and given command of the Weehaivken, one of
the new monitors, which headed the line in the attack on Fort
Sumter, April 7, 1863. For his bravery in the engagement with
the Atlanta, Secretary Welles recommended that he be promoted
to the rank of commodore, and receive the thanks of Congress.
After the War, when in command of the Squadron which con-
voyed the monitor Monadnock to San Francisco, Commodore
Rodgers so guarded the American interests, during the hostilities
between the South American Republics and Spain, especially in
the threatened bombardment of Valparaiso, that he received
special commendation of the Navy Department.

From 1866 to 1869, Commodore Rodgers was in charge of
the Boston Navy Yard, and in the latter year promoted to the
grade of rear-admiral. Ordered to the command of the Asiatic
Squadron, Admiral Rodgers, sailed in 1871 to Corea, where in
consequence of treachery five forts were taken and destroyed.

In 1872 Rodgers became President of the Naval Examining
and Retiring Board, and after four years of service at the Navy
Yard at Mare Island, he was appointed Superintendent of the
Naval Observatory in Washington. By his advice, a site on
Georgetown Heights was bought for a new observatory, but
the building was not completed until after his death. He was
successful in obtaining from Congress an appropriation of $1000
a year for the purchase of new books, by means of which he
formed one of the best astronomical and mathematical libraries
in the country.

Added to his duties at the observatory, Admiral Rodgers was
called upon for extra service as President of the Transit of
Venus Commission, of the Naval Advisory Board, of the
Jeannette Relief Board, and as chairman of the Lighthouse

THE INCORPORATORS 173

Board. In the last position he visited many stations, and took part
in many experiments, both in acoustics and optics. This work,
while adding to his fame, was a severe strain upon his physical
forces. A serious illness overtook him, and he died at the Barber
house, the site of the New Observatory, on May 5, 1882, after
fifty-four years of public service.

(From ASAPH HALL, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of
Sciences, vol. 6, 1909, pp. 81-92. See also CHARLES O. PAULLIN, " Services of
Commodore John Rodgers in the War of 1812," and " In Our Wars with the
Barbary Corsairs "; also " A Biography of Commodore John Rodgers.")

FAIRMAN ROGERS
Born, November 15, 1833; died, August 22, 1900

The faculties that gave Fairman Rogers prominence as a man
of science seem to have been inherited in large part from his
father, Evans Rogers, and from his maternal grandfather,
Gideon Fairman, who was a noted inventor. He was born on
November 15, 1833 in Philadelphia, and while yet in the pre-
paratory school gave promise of a brilliant career. He entered
the University of Pennsylvania in 1849, and was very successful
in his studies, especially in the physical sciences, so much so
that Dr. John F. Frazer, then Professor of Chemistry and
Physics in the University, foreseeing a brilliant future for his
pupil, not only aided him in his class work, but introduced him
to his scientific acquaintances. Two years after graduation, Mr.
Rogers became connected with the United States Coast Survey,
and in 1857 assisted Professor Bache in determining the Epping
base-line in Maine. At this time he was Professor of Civil
Engineering in the University of Pennsylvania, and also lectured
at the Franklin Institute, and later at Harvard University. In
1 86 1 he delivered a course of lectures in the Smithsonian Institu-
tion, on the construction of roads and bridges, and, later, a course
on glaciers. He also made a survey of the Potomac River for the
United States Coast and Geodetic Survey.

At the beginning of the Civil War, Professor Rogers served
as first sergeant of the Philadelphia city cavalry in a three months'
13

174 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

campaign, and later, as a volunteer engineer officer, in the
Philadelphia Militia, was present at the battles of Gettysburg
and Antietam.

In his connection with the National Academy of Sciences,
Professor Rogers made a study of the compasses of the iron
vessels used in the service of the Government This investigation
led him to write a treatise on the " Magnetism of Iron Vessels "
which was published in the van Nostrand Science Series.

Severing his connection with the University of Pennsylvania
in 1 88 1, after being nine years a trustee of that institution, Pro-
fessor Rogers became chairman of the Committee on Instruction
at the Academy of Fine Arts, reorganized its system and
rendered valuable services in other directions for several years.

Professor Rogers was one of the founders of the Union League
Club of Philadelphia. He exhibited the versatility of his mind
by writing a treatise on horsemanship and a manual of coaching,
in which he endeavored to show that these arts were properly
based on scientific principles. Credit for suggesting to Professor
Muybridge the principle to be employed in photographing
animals in motion has been given to Professor Rogers and modi-
fications of this principle form the basis of the present day
biograph and cinematograph. He died at Vienna on August
22, 1900.

He was the first Treasurer of the National Academy of Sciences
and served in that capacity for eighteen years.

(From EDGAR F. SMITH, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy
of Sciences, vol. 6, 1909, pp. 93-107.)

ROBERT EMPIE ROGERS
Born, March 29, 1813; died, September 6, 1884

Robert Empie Rogers was the youngest of four brothers, all
of whom became eminent as men of science. His father, Dr.
Patrick Kerr Rogers, emigrated from Ireland in 1798, and
after living in Philadelphia and Baltimore for several years,
became Professor of Natural Philosophy and Mathematics in
William and Mary College. Robert who was born at Balti-

THE INCORPORATORS

more, March 29, 1813, was only seven years old when his mother
died. He was tenderly cared for, however, by Rev. Adam P.
Empie and his wife, and in gratitude to them he adopted Empie
as his middle name. Although his brothers, after his father's
death, favored the idea of his becoming a civil engineer, he was
more inclined toward teaching, and in preparation for this work
continued his studies in botany, geology, and mineralogy. He
added to these a medical course at the University of Pennsyl-
vania. Though receiving a doctor's degree in 1836, he did not
practice medicine but turned his attention to chemistry, in which
he had become deeply interested, and joined his brother Henry
as chemist of the first Geological Survey of Pennsylvania. In
March, 1842, he had the gratification of receiving an appoint-
ment as Professor of General and Applied Chemistry in the
University of Virginia. In conjunction with his brothers James
and William, Dr. Rogers made many experiments, wrote numer-
ous valuable scientific papers, and published text-books on chem-
istry. Indeed, so intimately were the four brothers connected
in their researches that the results were often spoken of as those
of " the brothers Rogers." No jealous rivalry existed among
them.

At the death of James, in 1852, Robert was chosen to fill his
place as Professor of Chemistry in the University of Pennsyl-
vania, and afterwards became dean of the medical faculty. To
his numerous duties he added those of assistant surgeon in the
Military Hospital, and while showing a woman the dangers
connected with the use of a steam mangle, he was so unfortunate
as to lose his right hand. He soon learned to use his left hand
and his right arm with great skill in carrying on his experiments.
In 1872 Dr. Rogers took part in an investigation concerning the
waste of silver in the United States Mint at Philadelphia, and
devised new methods of refining precious metals. He also pre-
pared the plan for the refinery at the San Francisco Mint. On
account of changes in the administration of the University of
Pennsylvania, Dr. Rogers, after twenty-five years of service in
that institution, withdrew from it, and accepted in 1877 the chair

176 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

of chemistry in the Jefferson Medical College. In 1884 he be-
came professor emeritus, and died on September 6, of the same
year.

As indicating the practical side of Dr. Rogers' mind it should
be recalled that he was the inventor of a steam boiler, knowir
as the Rogers and Black boiler, and also made improvements
in electrical apparatus.

His courage in an emergency is shown by the fact that three
times he rescued persons from certain death. His success as a
teacher was undoubted, due probably in large part to the love
and respect he inspired in his pupils, his fine literary style, and
his great cleverness in experimentation.

(From EDGAR F. SMITH, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy
of Sciences, vol. 5, 1905 , pp. 291-309.)

WILLIAM BARTON ROGERS
Born, December 7, 1804; died, May 30, 1882

The name of Rogers is a prominent one in the history of Amer-
ican science. The son of Dr. Patrick Kerr Rogers, a native
of the north of Ireland, William Barton Rogers was one of four
brothers who attained celebrity in their chosen fields of research.
He was born in Philadelphia and educated at William and
Mary College, and delivered his first lectures at the Maryland
Institute. He succeeded his father in 1828 as Professor of
Chemistry and Physics in the college from which he was
graduated.

In 1835 he was called to the University of Virginia as Pro-
fessor of Natural Philosophy and also appointed Geologist of
Virginia. Professor Rogers gained the greatest popularity by
his scholarly exposition of the subjects which he presented in
public addresses, not only at the University of Virginia, but also
before the British and the American Associations for the Ad-
vancement of Science, and the other scientific bodies with which
he was connected. His rare gifts of diction and poetic expres-
sion, united with a voice of commanding quality and a distin-
guished personal appearance, gave him preeminence among the

THE INCORPORATORS 177

scientific lecturers of his time. He and his brothers Henry and
Robert performed most important work for American geology
by presenting the results of their observations in a series of
papers of enduring importance. The wave theory of mountain
chains, which was the result of extended study of the Appa-
lachian chain in Pennsylvania and Virginia, excited great interest
at the time of its presentation and was confirmed by later obser-
vations.

Removing to Boston in 1853, Professor Rogers was associated
with the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and the
Boston Society of Natural History. At this time, his work was
largely in physics. The variations of ozone in the atmosphere,
improvements of the Ruhmkorff coil, some phenomena of sight
and the properties of sonorous flames were among the subjects
he investigated. He was appointed by Governor Andrew
inspector of gas and gas-meters for the State of Massachusetts,
and made a visit to Europe, in 1864, to study the latest methods.
At this time he delivered at Bath a paper before the British
Association for the Advancement of Science. The establishment
of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology of which Professor
Rogers was the first president, was due to his labors which
continued until his death. Physical inability obliging him to
desist for a while from active work and finally to resign the
presidency, though remaining professor emeritus of physics and
geology, his last act was performed in the interest of the students.
Rising to present the diplomas to the graduating class he had
uttered but a few words, when he fell lifeless to the platform.
Thus on the 3oth of May, 1882, was closed a life devoted to the
search of scientific truths and their presentation in a manner so
attractive and so convincing as to impress their importance on
the minds of others.

Professor Rogers was the third President of the National
Academy of Sciences and served from 1879 to 1882.

(From FRANCIS A. WALKER, in Biographical Memoirs of the National
Academy of Sciences, vol. 3, 1895, pp. 1-13.)

178 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

LEWIS MORRIS RUTHERFURD
Born, November 25, 1816; died, May 30, 1892

Lewis Morris Rutherfurd numbered among his ancestors
some who were prominent in the early history of the United
States, including Senator John Rutherfurd, Lewis Morris, Chief
Justice of New York and New Jersey, who was also the first
Governor of New Jersey, and that other Lewis Morris who
signed the Declaration of Independence.

The subject of the present brief sketch was born in Morrisania,
now a part of New York City, November 25, 1816. After his
graduation from Williams College in 1834, ne served as assistant
to the professor of physics and astronomy in preparations for
experiments, and in the construction of apparatus. Law studies
in the office of William H. Seward occupied his attention for
two years, and later he became a partner of Hamilton Fish.

Mr. Rutherfurd's greatest interest, however, had always been
in astronomy, and through his marriage with Margaret Stuy-
vesant Chandler, niece and adopted daughter of Peter Stuy-
vesant, he found the means of engaging in this study. The
Stuyvesant home became a center for astronomical observations.
Under Mr. Rutherfurd's direction, an observatory with an nj-
inch telescope and a transit instrument was established, a work-
shop also being added in which excellent instruments were con-
structed.

After some years his law practice was given up, and on his
return from Europe, which he had visited on account of his
wife's ill health, he threw all his energies into scientific investi-
gations. While in Paris, Mr. Rutherfurd became intimate with
Amici, who was carrying on experiments upon achromatism of
objectives for microscopes, and to this may possibly be attributed
Rutherfurd's application to microscopes of the devices he had
so successfully used for telescopes. The observatory in New
York was, by courtesy, used as a primary station for the deter-
mination of longitudes, by the Coast Survey, " Stuyvesant
Garden," being named as one of the points.

THE INCORPORATORS 179

In 1858 experiments were begun in astronomical photography,
which were carried on so successfully, that on the occasion of the
total solar eclipse in 1860, observed in Labrador with the first
telescope constructed especially for photographic purposes, a
distinct difference was shown in the character of the limbs of the
sun and the moon. In 1861 Rutherfurd constructed "a Cas-
segrainian reflecting telescope with silvered glass mirror, having
13 inches aperture and 8 feet focus," but the necessity for fre-
quent resilvering and the tremors caused by the location in the
city interfering with good work, the reflector was abandoned
after a short trial.

Mr. Rutherfurd's first astronomical paper was published in
1862. In this he confirmed Clark's discovery of the companion
of Sirius, having found the object with his n-inch telescope.
The next season he made seventy-nine measures of position-angle,
and thirty-eight of distance. These observations, added to those
made at Cambridge and at Pulkowa, gave the principal basis of
knowledge of this newly-found body for two years.

In 1863 Mr. Rutherfurd published in the American Journal
of Science his second scientific paper entitled " Astronomical Ob-
servations with the Spectroscope," in which he gives the result of
his observations and measurement of the spectra not only of the
sun, moon, Jupiter and Mars, but also for seventeen stars. He
continued his observations of the companion of Sirius, and also
published a paper in 1863 on " Observations on Stellar Spectra."
Not long afterward he began to employ photography in these
investigations, and obtained a fine representation of the solar
spectrum which he exhibited to the National Academy of
Sciences in 1864. He further improved his apparatus by the
use of extraordinarily delicate diffraction gratings, the secret of
making which he learned for himself, and with these obtained
results in the study of solar and stellar light that were unequalled
until Draper entered upon the same field some years later.

Even more interesting and important are the results which
Rutherfurd obtained in the construction of telescopic object-
glasses for photographing celestial bodies. After much thought

180 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

and labor, he succeeded in 1864 in making a most excellent lens
with which he obtained remarkable photographs of the Pleiades
and other star-clusters, and an exquisite one of the moon. Next
he turned to the problem of making measurements on the pho-
tographic plates and invented a micrometer. This work of
photographing and measuring, and the constant introduction of
improvements in the instruments employed, was carried on until
1877, when failing health obliged him to desist. In 1880 the
city having encroached upon the home and the observatory, Mr.
Rutherfurd removed to a rural estate named " Tranquillity " in
northwestern New Jersey. His winters were passed in Florida
and in visits to southern Europe. Finding his health steadily
failing in 1884, he presented to the Observatory of Columbia
College his i3j-inch telescope, with its corrector and the im-
proved micrometer, together with 1456 plates and records of the
measures made, providing also means for continuing the work
of measurement. His death occurred May 30, 1892, at Tran-
quillity.

(From B. A. GOULD, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of
Sciences, vol. 3, 1895, pp. 415-441.)

JOSEPH SAXTON
Born, March 22, 1799; died, October 26, 1873

Joseph Saxton was a man of remarkable inventive ability.
His imagination ran in scientific lines, and when he had grasped
the principles underlying the action of natural forces, he knew
how to make them subservient to the needs of his fellowmen.
The town of Huntington, Pennsylvania, was a small village at
the time of his birth, in 1799, and afforded few opportunities
for education. His father, James Saxton, after engaging in a num-
ber of different pursuits, became the proprieter of a small nail
factory. At the age of twelve his son Joseph entered the factory
and it was not long before he had made improvements in the
machinery which increased its efficiency. Tiring of the limita-
tions of his work, however, he was permitted to apprentice him-
self to a watchmaker, but after two years his employer died, and

THE INCORPORATORS l8l

while waiting for some new opening, he occupied himself by
constructing a printing press and publishing a small newspaper.
At the age of eighteen he resolved to leave his native village and
seek his fortune in the world. Accompanied by two friends, he
made his way down the Juniata River to Harrisburg in a boat
which he had constructed as a model of a man-of-war, and hence
proceeded to Philadelphia. Here he obtained employment for a
short period as a watchmaker and afterwards as an engraver.
Later he became associated with Isaiah Lukens, a noted
machinist, and at this time constructed an astronomical clock
with a compensating pendulum and an escapement of his own
devising, and also constructed the town clock of Philadelphia.

His inventive ingenuity led to his election to membership in
the Franklin Institute, where he came into contact with many
prominent men of science. Having resolved to visit London, he
accumulated savings sufficient for the purpose and about the
year 1831 proceeded on his journey. The banking house in
which he had deposited his money stopped payment soon after his
arrival in London, and he was compelled to seek employment.
He found an opening in the recently-established institution of
practical science known as the Adelaide Gallery, where new
scientific instruments and apparatus were exhibited by inventors
and manufacturers. Here Saxton quickly rose to notice by a
series of inventions, some of them of practical importance and
others interesting as ingeniously devised scientific toys. Among
these was a large magnet, a diving bell, an ingenious toy known
as " the paradoxical head," and a series of miniature vessels
moved by concealed clock work. Having made the acquaintance
of a number of prominent English engineers and mechanicians,
he was introduced into the Royal Institution and entered into
friendly relationships with Michael Faraday. Faraday had
already discovered induction currents, but it remained for Sax-
ton to invent an instrument to make their effects manifest. This
he did in an ingenious manner, and by means of the instrument
which he constructed he decomposed water, exhibited a power-
ful spark, and an electrical light between carbons. The instru-

1 82 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

ment was exhibited at the meeting of the British Association in
1833. "The poet Coleridge, who was present at its exhibition
in Cambridge, spoke with enthusiasm, not only of the magnitude
of the discovery of the inductive electrical effects of magnetism,
one of the claims of Faraday — to imperishable reputation — but
also of the ingenious invention of Mr. Saxton, by which the
transient electrical currents might exhibit their effects in so
brilliant and so powerful a manner." (Henry.)

Saxton produced many other inventions while in London,
among them a locomotive differential pulley, an instrument to
measure the velocity of vessels, another for measuring the height
of water in a steam boiler, a fountain pen, etc. He also devised
a method for locating the interior magnetic poles of the earth,
and constructed the apparatus used by Wheatstone to measure
the velocity of electricity in a long wire.

Leaving London in 1837, he was appointed constructor and
curator of the standard weighing apparatus in the Mint at
Philadelphia. While here his improved form of Gobrecht's
instrument for reproducing the designs of medals by engraving
was brought into use. He also constructed balances for weighing
coins, of such delicacy that they would turn with one three-
millionth part of their load.

In 1834 Saxton was awarded the Scott Medal of the Franklin
Institute for the invention of a reflecting pyrometer, an instru-
ment which was capable of indicating changes in the length of
a metal bar to the one-hundred-thousandth part of an inch.

In 1843 Saxton was appointed by Professor Bache to take
charge of the construction of the standard balances, weights and
measures which were authorized by Congress for distribution
to the several States of the Union. While in this position he also
devised many instruments for use in the Coast Survey, including
an automatic instrument for recording the height of tides, and an
improved automatic dividing machine.

At the meeting of the American Association for the Advance-
ment of Science in 1858, Saxton gave an account of the use of the
revolving mirror in minute measurements, such as the expansion

THE INCORPORATORS 183

of building stones from heat, the motion of the axis of the
aneroid barometer, changes in magnetic dip, etc. Other inven-
tions of Saxton's were an automatic damper for stoves, a fusible
metallic sealing compound for official papers sent to tropical
countries, and a hydrometer.

About fifteen years before his death, Saxton suffered a partial
stroke of paralysis, from which he never entirely recovered.
He died in Washington on October 26, 1873.

(From JOSEPH HENRY, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of
Sciences, vol. I, 1877, pp. 287-316.)

BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, SENIOR
Born, August 8, 1779; died, November 24, 1864

In common with several other founders of the Academy, the
lifetime of Benjamin Silliman extended from the period of the
Revolution to that of the Civil War. At the time of his birth,
the independence of the United States was not yet an accom-
plished fact. His father, General Gold Selleck Silliman, bore
an honorable part in the Revolutionary struggle. The Silliman
family had resided for many years in the town of Fairfield,
Connecticut, but in 1779 the British forces invaded the coast
towns of that State and the family took refuge in Stratford
(now Trumbull), and here Benjamin Silliman was born on the
8th day of August. He entered Yale College at the early age
of thirteen years, and was graduated in 1796. Upon graduation
he took up the study of law and after the lapse of three years also
assumed the duties of a tutor in Yale College. He was admitted
to the bar in 1802, but was not destined to follow the profession
for which he had fitted himself. He was persuaded by President
Dwight of Yale to abandon that calling and devote himself to
chemistry and the natural sciences, which were then beginning
to be looked upon as necessary to a college curriculum. Accord-
ingly, he was elected the same year Professor of Chemistry and
Natural History at Yale, though he did not begin to lecture on
these subjects until two years later. These two years he spent
in Philadelphia as a student of Dr. Woodhouse and in pursuing

184 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

experiments with Dr. Hare with the oxyhydrogen blowpipe,
which Hare had just then invented. In 1805 he visited Europe,
spending much time in England and Scotland where he met
or studied under Professors Hope, Murray, Playfair and other
eminent men of science, at the same time recording his impres-
sions of men and things which he published later under the
title of a " Journal of Travels in England, Holland, and Scot-
land in 1805-06."

Upon his return to America, Professor Silliman resumed
his lectures at Yale, and continued in the duties of his professor-
ship for half a century. In 181 1 he conducted an extensive series
of experiments in melting refractory minerals with Hare's blow-
pipe, of which he published an account the following year. At
the same time, while working with Hare's " galvanic defla-
grator," he observed that the charcoal of the positive pole was
transferred to the negative pole and that it was fused. " It is
claimed for Professor Silliman that he was the first to establish
this transfer of the particles of carbon, and the first also to fuse
carbon in the voltaic arch." (Caswell.)

In 1819 he established the highly important scientific period-
ical, the American Journal of Science, with which his name is
most widely associated, and of which he was the sole editor for
twenty years, and the senior editor for eight years in addition.

In 1820 he published an account of a journey from Hartford
to Quebec, in 1829 an edition of Bakewell's Geology, with an
appendix containing a summary of his own lectures on that sub-
ject, and in 1830 the whole body of his lectures on chemistry at
Yale, under the title of " Elements of Chemistry, in the order
of the lectures given in Yale College."

From 1834 to 1845 Professor Silliman delivered courses of
lectures on scientific subjects in the principal cities of the United
States from Boston to New Orleans. He visited Europe again
in 1851, and in 1853 published an account of his observations in
three duodecimo volumes.

Regarding Professor Silliman's labors, Caswell remarks " His
special field was the diffusion of science; and his special gifts

THE INCORPORATORS 185

and acquirements made him one of the most popular scientific
lecturers in the country. ... It seems to me that the utility of
science, in its broadest sense, was always uppermost in his mind.
He is always tracing abstract principles to their practical appli-

cations."

(From ALEXIS CASWELL, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy
of Sciences, vol. I, 1877, pp. 99-112.)

BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, JUNIOR
Born, December 4, 1816; died, January 14, 1885

Benjamin Silliman, Junior, was born in New Haven, Decem-
ber 4, 1816. His father was Professor of Chemistry in Yale
College, and the son spent his early life in the wholesome intel-
lectual atmosphere of that institution. He graduated from Yale
in 1837, and became assistant to his father the following year,
being instructor in chemistry, mineralogy, and geology. In
1842, at his own expense, he equipped a chemical laboratory in
a room in one of the college buildings for the instruction of
private pupils. His zeal in the work and his efforts to arouse an
interest in others were prominent factors in the founding of the
Yale Scientific School, now known as the Sheffield Scientific
School, in 1847. He was appointed Professor of Applied
Chemistry in 1846, and succeeded his father in the chair of
chemistry in 1853. This position he held until his death on
January 14, 1885. From 1849 to 1854 ne nao^ been Professor of
Medical Chemistry and Toxicology at the University of Louis-
ville, Kentucky.

During the year 1847, Professor Silliman visited California
and engaged in professional work connected with the mines and
made extensive geological explorations. He also delivered an
oration before the College of California in 1869. As an expert
in chemical arts and manufactures he was often called by the
courts to testify in law cases.

He also delivered popular lectures throughout the country.
For many years he was one of the editors of the American
Journal of Science.

1 86 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

His collection of minerals was bought by Cornell, and called
the Silliman Cabinet. Another collection was added to Yale
College Scientific School, and Professor Silliman personally
solicited the money to buy the mineralogical collection of Baron
de Lederer in 1843.

During the World's Fair in New York in 1853, Professor
Silliman had charge of the departments of chemistry, miner-
alogy, and geology, and in 1869 he became one of the State
Chemists of Connecticut.

He was a trustee of Peabody Museum and a member of numer-
ous European and American scientific societies.

Of his principal writings, the " First Principles in Chem-
istry " was published in 1846, and " Principles of Physics" in
1854, and "American Contributions to Chemistry" in 1875.

Investigations in mineralogy and chemistry formed the basis
of Professor Silliman's scientific work, but he engaged also in
studies relating to geology, to meteorites, and to physical optics.

(See ARTHUR W. WRIGHT, in Biographical Memoirs of the National
Academy of Sciences, vol. 7, pp. 115-141.)

THEODORE STRONG
Born, July 26, 1790; died, February I, 1869

Theodore Strong was descended from Puritan ancestors. His
father Joseph Strong and also his grandfather were clergymen of
the Congregational denomination. His mother, Sophia Wood-
bridge, was a daughter of the Rev. John Woodbridge of South
Hadley, Massachusetts. In this town Theodore Strong was born
on July 26, 1790, in the house of his uncle, Colonel Benjamin
Ruggles Woodbridge. Joseph Strong, having a large family of
children to provide for, was induced to transfer the respon-
sibility for the education and training of his son Theodore to
Colonel Woodbridge by whom he was practically adopted.
Theodore Strong's schooling began at an early age and when he
entered Yale College at eighteen he was well prepared in lan-
guages, though not in mathematics. Having, however, on one
occasion been subjected to ridicule by a classmate for his poor

THE INCORPORATORS 187

mathematical recitation, he set himself to master the science, and
in 1812, when he was graduated from college, he was awarded
the mathematical prize. Immediately after graduation, he was
recommended by Dr. Dwight (then President of Yale) for a
tutorship of mathematics, then vacant, in Hamilton College,
Clinton, New York. He accepted the position and held it for
four years, after which he became Professor of Mathematics and
Natural Philosophy. He found more time for study and re-
search at Hamilton than he would have enjoyed at a larger insti-
tion, and he was able while there to contribute largely to a
number of scientific journals and magazines. One of the most
prominent of these was the American Journal of Science, to the
first volume of which, published in 1818, he contributed a very
clever demonstration of a geometrical problem. His papers
always attracted attention because of their originality and depth
of learning.

His reputation as a man of power and originality in his sub-
ject was constantly growing, and in 1825-26 he received several
calls from different colleges and universities to accept the chair
of mathematics. Late in 1827 a second invitation, which was
finally accepted, came from Rutgers College, in New Jersey,
and here he spent the rest of his long life. In 1859, the
trustees, thinking that he needed an assistant, as he was then 69
years of age, appointed an associate professor. It was at this
time that he published his work on algebra. In 1861 he was
made professor emeritus, and two years later severed his con-
nection with the college. In spite of his rather advanced age,
he was in full possession of his mental faculties and employed
this time in writing a treatise on differential and integral cal-
culus, which, however, was not published until after his death.
Both this and his treatise on elementary and higher algebra,
display Strong's profound knowledge of these branches of
mathematics, and the remarkable logical power of his mind.
In fact, his power of reasoning was far better than his memory,
so much so that he seldom relied on the latter for a formula or
theorem, but worked them out anew.

1 88 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

In the field of pure mathematics, Dr. Strong was one of the
leading minds of his day. But two of his contemporaries among
American mathematicians may be mentioned as sharing his
preeminence — Dr. Bowditch and Dr. Adrian — to whom and to
Dr. Strong more than to any others, is due the introduction of
the study of the higher mathematics into the schools of this
country.

(From J. P. BRADLEY, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of
Sciences, vol. 2, 1 886, pp. 1-28.)

JOHN TORREY
Born, August 15, 1796; died, March 10, 1873

Although most widely known as a botanist, Torrey's life was
spent as a professor of chemistry. His father, William Torrey,
was of New England ancestry. He served throughout the
Revolution in a New York infantry regiment of which his uncle,
Joseph Torrey, was a major, and returned to that city at the close
of the war. Here his son, John Torrey, was born on August
15, 1796. His early education was obtained in the schools of
New York and Boston. While still a youth, he became
acquainted with Amos Eaton, who taught him the elements of
botany, and he soon developed a taste for other branches of
natural science. At the age of nineteen years he began the study
of medicine in the College of Physicians and Surgeons, and three
years later began medical practice in New York. His first
scientific papers were published while he was still a medical
student, the earliest being one on plants growing near New York,
which appeared in 1817. In 1824 he published the first volume
of his " Flora of the Northern and Middle Sections of the United
States," an important descriptive work, which, however, was
never completed. The same year he became Professor of
Chemistry, Mineralogy and Geology at West Point, and three
years later transferred his field of labor to the College of
Physicians and Surgeons, New York, where he became Pro-
fessor of Chemistry and Botany (" practically that of chemistry

THE INCORPORATORS 189

only, for botany had already been allowed to fall out of the
medical curriculum in this country ").*

While in this position he published many important botanical
papers, including an account of the plants collected by Edwin
James, the botanist of Long's Expedition to the Rocky Mountains,
the first part of which appeared in 1823. In 1826 he published
a fuller account of the botany of this expedition in which the
plants, for the first time in an American botanical publication,
were arranged in accordance with the natural system. At this
time he began the study of the sedges of the genus Garex, and,
jointly with Von Schweinitz, published a monograph of the
genus in 1825. Some ten years later his monograph of the other
North American Cyperaceae appeared, together with a revision
of the Carices.

In 1836 Torrey was appointed Botanist of the State of New
York and undertook the preparation of a flora of the State.
After many delays and discouragements, this extensive work was
published in 1843 in two large quarto volumes. " No other
State of the Union has produced a flora to compare with this."
(Gray.)

At an early date Dr. Torrey projected a flora of North
America, or of the United States. About 1836 he invited Asa
Gray, then his pupil in botanical studies, to join him in the enter-
prise, and in 1838 the first two parts of the first volume made
their appearance. The remainder of this volume, and also the
second were published between 1840 and 1842 and the third and
last volume in 1843. From this time nearly to the close of his
life Torrey labored constantly to improve and extend this epoch-
making work.

Torrey published a long series of papers, many of them large
and important works, on the botanical collections of the Govern-
ment expeditions and surveys of the West, beginning with Long's
Expedition and including those of Nicollet, Fremont, Emory,
Sitgreaves, Stansbury, and Marcy, and of the surveys of the
Pacific Railroad and the Mexican Boundary.

4 He also became a professor in Princeton College.
14

190 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

These botanical labors, as already mentioned, were supple-
mentary to his regular duties as a teacher of chemistry and other
branches of science, which he performed for more than thirty
years. In 1857 Torrey entered upon the office of United States
Assayer, and while thus engaged carried out many commissions
of a confidential or especially difficult nature.

In his last years, as professor emeritus in Columbia College,
he continued to lecture at intervals. He also served as a trustee
of the College and bequeathed to it his very valuable herbarium
and his botanical library.

Torrey was twice President of the New York Lyceum of
Natural History and also presided over the American Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Science. He was a member of the
Order of the Cincinnati.

(From ASA GRAY, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of
Sciences, vol. I, 1877, pp. 265-276.)

JOSEPH GILBERT TOTTEN
Born, August 23, 1788; died, April 22, 1864

The lifetime of General Totten extended nearly from the close
of the Revolution to the close of the Civil War, and his period
of public service covered more than fifty years. He was born in
New Haven, Connecticut, August 23, 1788. His father, Peter
G. Totten, was the son of Joseph Totten who came to America
from England before the Revolution. Totten's mother died
when he was three years old and his father having been
appointed consul of the United States at Santa Cruz, in the West
Indies, he was placed in charge of his uncle Jared Mansfield,
" a graduate of Yale College, 1777, and a learned mathe-
matician."

Upon the organization of the Military Academy at West
Point in 1802, Mansfield was appointed a teacher in that institu-
tion. Young Totten accompanied his uncle to West Point and
afterwards was appointed a cadet. He remained in the
Academy during the term of 1803, but in November of that year
his uncle Captain Mansfield became Surveyor-General of Ohio

THE INCORPORATORS 191

and the Western Territories, and Totten accompanied him to
his new station as an assistant. While in Ohio, his inborn
curiosity regarding novel or unusual objects and phenomena led
him to make a description and survey of the remains of the so-
called "mound builders," particularly at Circleville; probably
the earliest observations on these singular works.

In 1808 Totten re-entered the Army, was re-appointed Second
Lieutenant of Engineers, and began his career as military
engineer. He was assigned to duty in connection with the
construction of Castle Williams, and Castle Clinton, in New
York harbor.

During the War of 1812 Totten served as Chief Engineer of
the armies under command of Generals Van Rensselaer, Dear-
born, Izard and Macomb. He obtained the rank of captain in
1812, and was brevetted major in 1813 for " meritorious service,"
and in 1814 lieutenant-colonel for " gallant conduct at the battle
of Plattsburg."

At the close of this war, Totten entered upon the most im-
portant epoch of his career, in which he was engaged in the con-
struction of coast defences. Congress in 1816 constituted a board
of engineers whose duty was to formulate a system of defensive
works. After some vicissitudes, the permanent board, through
circumstances which cannot be detailed here, finally consisted of
General Simon Bernard (an eminent French engineer who was
invited to America to assist in this important undertaking) and
Colonel Totten.

The reports of this board, which were prepared by Colonel
Totten, " exhibit in a masterly manner the principles of sea-
coast and harbor defence, and their application to our own
country." " They are themselves the best expressions of the
life labors and services of the subject of our memoir." (Bar-
nard.) These plans having been decided upon, Colonel Totten
was assigned to the construction of Fort Adams in the harbor of
Newport. This work, " the second in magnitude of the fortifi-
cations of the United States, is one of the best monuments of
genius as a military engineer." (Barnard.)

192 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

In connection with the construction of this great work, Colonel
Totten instituted extensive investigations into the qualities and
strength of materials, the expansion and contraction of building-
stone through variations in temperature, the composition of
mortars, and many other matters of importance in engineering
operations.

While engaged in the construction of Fort Adams, Colonel
Totten also served as a member, and for six years as President, of
the Board of Engineers whose duty was to plan new works
authorized by Congress. His advice was also sought in con-
nection with various harbor improvements, chiefly on the Great
Lakes.

When Fort Adams approached completion in 1838, Totten
was appointed Colonel of the Corps of Engineers and Chief
Engineer, with headquarters in Washington. While occupying
this high office he directed his energies toward the development
of the system of coast defences, especially in the South, and
personally inspected every fort in the United States at intervals
not exceeding two years.

During the Mexican War, Colonel Totten directed the
engineering works at the siege of Vera Cruz, and on March 29,
1847, was brevetted a brigadier-general for gallant and merito-
rious conduct. In 1855 General Totten, Commander Charles H.
Davis and Professor Bache, by invitation of the State of New
York, served as an advisory commission on the preservation of
the harbor of New York. The members of this commission had
previously reported on Cape Fear River and harbor, and on the
harbor of Portland, Maine, and later rendered similar service
to the State of Massachusetts relative to the port and harbor of
Boston.

To General Totten is due the credit of perfecting the case-
mated battery and casemate embrasures. He was a member of
the first Lighthouse Board and while serving in this capacity
induced the board to accept his views regarding the proper site
for the Minot's Ledge lighthouse, prepared the plan for its
construction, and selected the engineer to build it. He was a

THE INCORPORATORS 193

member of the first Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution and favored the plan of Joseph Henry for the organiza-
tion of that establishment.

General Totten was deeply interested in many branches of
natural history, and particularly in mineralogy and conchology.
While Fort Adams was under construction, he spent his spare
hours in collecting shells in the vicinity of Newport and also
about Provincetown, Massachusetts. He published descriptions
of several new species, and a list of the shells of Massachusetts,
and furnished much important information for Gould's " Inver-
tebrata of Massachusetts." He presented his collection of rare
shells to the Smithsonian Institution.

(From J. G. BARNARD, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of
Sciences, vol. I, 1877, pp. 35-97-)

JOSIAH DWIGHT WHITNEY
Born, November 23, 1819; died, August 19, 1896

Josiah Dwight Whitney, the oldest of a family of thirteen chil-
dren, was of English ancestry. Both the Dwight and Whitney
families were descended from early New England settlers, who
counted in their numbers graduates of Yale and Harvard, college
presidents, able business men, missionaries, soldiers, and mem-
bers of all the professions. Whitney was born at Northampton,
Massachusetts, November 23, 1819, and at eight years of age left
the district school in his native village and went to Plainfield,
where according to the custom of the day, Rev. Moses Hallock
took boys into his family for instruction. After further school-
ing at Round Hill, Northampton, New Haven, and Andover, he
entered Yale College as a sophomore in 1836. Returning to
New Haven after graduation, young Whitney entered his
father's bank, and for a time enjoyed the delights of a cultured
home, where music played a prominent part. Art, science, music,
law, and business attracted him by turn, but finally in 1839 he
yielded to his love for chemistry and entered the University of
Pennsylvania to study under Dr. Robert Hare. The following
year he made the acquaintance of Dr. Charles T. Jackson, and

194 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

under him assisted in the Geological Survey of the State of New
Hampshire. Again uncertain as to a remunerative profession,
Whitney turned to the law and was about to enter Harvard Law
School, when, on the advice of Dr. Jackson, his father offered to
send him to Europe, where three years were spent in travel and
study. During this time he made a translation of Berzelius' work
on blowpipe analysis. While yet at Giessen, Dr. Jackson offered
Mr. Whitney the position of first assistant in the Government
Survey of the Lake Superior Mines. From chemistry his atten-
tion was now turned to geology which thenceforth became his
special study. As assistant, or as the head of a division, several
years were spent in the survey of the Lake Superior mines and by
the knowledge thus acquired, added to his thorough German
training, and his acquaintance with fossils, Whitney became
an acknowledged mining expert. At this time he published his
work on The Metallic Wealth of the United States. It was
written at Clover Den in Cambridge, " an old bachelor hall,"
where Whitney kept his own extensive library, and returned after
his excursions to enjoy the society of other scientists. This home
was given up at his marriage in 1854. In 1855 Whitney became
professor in the University of Iowa, his chief duties, however,
being in connection with the state geological survey.

A Geological Survey of California was established in 1860 and
Whitney was appointed to take charge of it. Accompanied by a
corps of able assistants he left Northampton for California on
October 18, 1860, and entered upon this new work with enthusi-
asm. Many important features of the geology and geography of
the State were determined, but the Survey soon encountered diffi-
culties, chiefly of a political and pecuniary character, and after
a precarious existence extending over fourteen years, it was finally
abandoned. Only a few volumes containing the results of the
work were published.

Whitney's contributions to geology were numerous and many
reports of official work were published at his own expense. In
1875 he was re-appointed to the Sturges-Hooper Professorship
of Geology at Harvard which had been founded ten years pre-

THE INCORPORATORS 195

viously largely in his behalf, and also became a member of the
faculty of the Museum of Comparative Zoology. These positions
he retained until his death. His works on " The Climatic
Changes of Later Geologic Times " and on the " Azoic System "
were written during this period. For eight years Professor
Whitney gave his spare time to assisting his brother William
D. Whitney in connection with the scientific part of the Century
Dictionary.

After thirty-one years of teaching at Harvard, Professor
Whitney died at Lake Sunapee, New Hampshire, August 19,
1896. He was buried at Northampton and a glacial boulder of
rose quartzite of the geological age of the lead district about
Galena and the rocks of the Upper Michigan which border the
" Azoic System," marks his grave. The highest peak of the
Sierra Nevada bears his name.

( See EDWIN T. BREWSTER, " Life and Letters of Josiah Dwight Whitney,"
Boston, 1909.)

JOSEPH WINLOCK
Born, February 6, 1826; died, June u, 1875

Though born in Kentucky, Joseph Winlock was of Virginia
stock. His grandfather, after whom he was named, was a
captain in the Revolution and in the War of 1812 held the rank
of brigadier-general. In the latter war his son, Fielding Win-
lock, served as his aid.

Professor Joseph Winlock was educated at Shelby College,
Kentucky, and was graduated from that institution in 1845.
His abilities were already so manifest that he at once received
an appointment as Professor of Mathematics and Astronomy
from his Alma Mater. In 1851 he became acquainted with " the
chief of American mathematicians," who recognized his intel-
lectual capacity, and induced him to join the corps of computers
in the Nautical Almanac Office in Cambridge the following
year. He served in this capacity until 1857, when he received
an appointment as Professor of Mathematics in the Naval Ob-
servatory at Washington. In this position he remained but a

196 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

short time, after which he was appointed Superintendent of the
Nautical Almanac. Not long afterwards, in 1859, he was given
charge of the mathematical department in the Naval Academy at
Annapolis, but at the outbreak of the Civil War, he again re-
sumed the office of Superintendent of the Nautical Almanac in
Cambridge. During the years in which he was connected with
this office he made many contributions to mathematics and
astronomy, the most important of which was his series of tables
of Mercury.

In 1866 Professor Winlock was appointed Professor of
Astronomy in Harvard College and Director of the Harvard
Observatory.6 Here he exerted himself in strengthening the
equipment of the observatory by the addition of many important
instruments and aids to astronomical work. The transit circle
of the observatory, a costly instrument, had proved unsatisfactory,
and Winlock succeeded in obtaining funds from friends of the
Observatory to replace it. To arrange for the construction of the
new instrument, he visited the principal observatories in Europe
in 1867. He also devised improvements which were afterwards
adopted by other astronomers. Between 1871 and 1875, 30,000
observations were made with this instrument, under Winlock's
direction.

In 1869, Professor Winlock was appointed head of a party to
cooperate with the Coast Survey in observing the total eclipse of
the sun in Kentucky. On this occasion he succeeded in making
the first photograph of the solar corona made during any eclipse.
At the request of the Superintendent of the Coast Survey, he
organized and led the party sent to Spain to observe the total
eclipse of the sun occurring on December 22, 1870. During this
eclipse a telescope of long focus, fixed horizontally, and without
an eyepiece, which was devised by Winlock for photographic
work, was used by all the observers.

Winlock devised many improvements in spectroscopic instru-
ments, and also in 1872 greatly improved and extended the time-

5 At a later date he also held the position of Professor of Geodesy in the Lawrence and
Mining Schools of Harvard College.

THE INCORPORATORS 197

signal service between Cambridge and Boston. In 1874 he was
appointed by the Secretary of the Navy chairman of a commis-
sion established by Congress for the purpose of investigating the
causes of the explosions of steam boilers and formulated plans
for experiments which should test the truth or falsity of the
accepted theories, but he was not destined to see them carried
into execution. He died suddenly at Cambridge, Massachusetts,
on June u, 1875.

(From JOSEPH LOVERING, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy
of Sciences, vol. I, 1877, PP- 329-343-)

JEFFRIES WYMAN
Born, August II, 1814; died, September 4, 1874

Jeffries Wyman, the third son of Dr. Rufus Wyman, was
born on August u, 1814, at Chelmsford, near Lowell, Mas-
sachusetts. In 1818, his father moved to Somerville where he
was one of the physicians at the McLean Asylum. The early
schooling of Jeffries Wyman began in Charlestown, Massachu-
setts, and later he was sent to the Academy at Chelmsford. He
became interested in natural history when very young, and often
searched for objects of interest along the Charles River, near his
home. His talent for drawing also developed early, and he
afterwards used it to great advantage in the lecture-room. He
entered Harvard in 1829, was graduated in 1833, and the next
year took up the study of medicine with Dr. John C. Dalton.
He received his degree of Doctor of Medicine in 1837, and
began his work in Boston by acting as demonstrator of anatomy
under a well-known comparative anatomist, Dr. J. C. Warren.
This occupation was not very lucrative, and was often a source
of discouragement, but Wyman pursued his scientific studies in
connection with his medical work, and never entirely gave them
up.

At about this time the Lowell Institute was founded, and John
A. Lowell, who was then in charge of its affairs, offered Wyman

198 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

the curatorship. During the season of 1840-41, he delivered
twelve lectures on comparative anatomy and physiology, and
with the means thus procured went to Europe, where he came
in contact with many prominent men of science, such as De
Blainville, St. Hilaire, and Valenciennes. His sojourn was
shortened by the illness and death of his father. In 1843, after
his return, he was made Professor of Anatomy and Physiology
at Hampton Sidney College in Richmond, Virginia. In 1847
he succeeded Dr. Warren to the Hersey chair of anatomy at
Harvard College.

While here he established and developed a museum of com-
parative anatomy to which he devoted all of his spare time.
On the many trips he made both North and South, he gathered
great numbers of valuable specimens and added them to the
collections in his museum, which was afterwards incorporated
with that of the Boston Society of Natural History.

He spent the winter of 1852 in Florida on account of bad
health, but in spite of his malady he was able at intervals to
make investigations of the Indian shell-heaps, the results of
which were afterwards published. Later, he made many trips
to the coast of Maine and Massachusetts, and examined shell-
heaps in as many as twenty-five localities, securing several thou-
sand specimens. In 1856 he made an expedition to Surinam, and
the same year was elected President of the Boston Society of
Natural History, which office he held for fourteen years. In
1858-9, he went to the La Plata, and after ascending the Uruguay
and Parana rivers crossed the continent to Santiago and Val-
paraiso, with his friend G. A. Peabody, returning home by the
Isthmus of Panama.

In 1866 the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and
Ethnology was founded by George Peabody, and Wyman was
appointed one of the seven trustees. By vote of the board, he
was named as curator of the museum. In the duties of this office
there was great scope for Wyman's ability and enthusiasm and
though he worked at all times under the disadvantage of ill

THE INCORPORATORS 199

health, he accomplished much for the museum. He was obliged,
however, to spend his winters in Florida, and once or twice he
visited Europe for the purpose of recuperating. Thus he con-
tinued until the summer of 1874 wnen he unfortunately under-
took an unusual amount of work in the museum, enough indeed
to overtax the strength of a man physically sound. In the fall
of the same year he went to the White Mountains for a short rest,
but he was unable to regain his energies and died on September
4, quite suddenly, while in Bethlehem, New Hampshire. Dr.
Wyman's lack of physical vigor was probably the prime rea-
son why he was not a voluminous writer. His papers though
numerous are generally brief. He often summarized in a few
pages the conclusions to which he had come after months, per-
haps, of painstaking experiments. He wrote on many different
zoological subjects, and his published papers relate to numerous
classes of animals both recent and fossil, and to physiology and
teratology, as well as to anatomy.

One of the most important and best known of his scientific
papers is that on the Gorilla, of which he was the joint author
with Dr. Savage, who sent him specimens for study. This great
anthropoid ape was here first described under the name of
Troglodytes gorilla, and Dr. Wyman gave a full account of the
skeleton. It was this article which helped to establish his reputa-
tion among comparative anatomists. He also published an
elaborate essay on the anatomy of the blind fish of the Mammoth
Cave, another on the homology of limbs, and a third on the rela-
tionship between vertebrates and invertebrates, based on a study
of the nervous system of the frog. His most original essay in
physiology was one relating to experiments on vibrating cilia,
published in 1871.

His anthropological writings were marked by care, ingenuity,
judiciousness and extensive knowledge, and gave him rank
among the principal anthropologists of his day. Besides the
work on shell-heaps already referred to, he made numerous
studies of human crania.

200 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Wyman was one of the original members of the Association
of American Geology and Natural History, and President of
the American Association for the Advancement of Science in
1857; also a member of the faculty of the Museum of Com-
parative Zoology.

(From A. S. PACKARD, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of
Sciences, vol. 2, 1886, pp. 75-126.)

CHAPTER IV

THE ACADEMY AS THE SCIENTIFIC ADVISER OF
THE GOVERNMENT

THE Academy started out in the stormy days of the Civil
War with the idea and the intention of helping the
Government. It has helped the Government. Its re-
ports have been accepted, its recommendations have been
adopted, and the Government has shaped its course in several
matters of importance in the light of the counsel which it
received from the Academy. If it has not sought that counsel as
frequently and as eagerly as the founders hoped and expected,
the defection has been due rather to the changes which time has
wrought in the public service, than to any lack of confidence in
the counsellors.

In an earlier chapter we have shown that the idea of helping
the Government was prominent in the minds of some of the
founders of the Academy, that it was incorporated in the charter
and constitution, and that Professor Bache and others thought
that in this direction lay a very important — if not the most im-
portant, function of the Academy. It remains now to consider
more in detail to what extent and on what subjects the advice of
the Academy has been sought by the Government, how far its
recommendations have been adopted, and what results have
followed. It will be readily understood that with the increase
of large scientific organizations in the country, the growth of
public opinion relative to scientific matters of more or less
practical importance, and the development of the scientific
bureaus of the Government, it has happened less frequently that
the Academy has stood alone in its recommendations. Even at
the outset some of the committees appointed to consider questions
of public policy were joint committees of the Academy and of
other kindred organizations, or had among their members

2OI

202 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

officers of the Government, who were detailed to assist in the
deliberations. It is well to note also that from the beginning the
membership of the Academy included many officers of the
Government and that these were frequently selected to serve on
committees of the Academy. On one occasion at least this led to
some embarrassment, for the reason that through this double
relationship it was thought that the views of subordinate officers
might control the action of those higher in authority.

As might be expected, there has been no regularity in the
number of committees appointed on behalf of the Government
from year to year. As many as seven have been appointed in a
single year, while, on the other hand, two periods of five years
each passed in which no calls were received from Congress or
the Executive Departments. The records show, however, that
of the whole number of committees more than one-third were
appointed in the first five years. After this the number fell off in
a marked manner, but increased again during the decade be-
ginning with 1878. Between that year and 1888, twenty com-
mittees were appointed. In the twenty-four years that have
elapsed since 1888, only seven committees have been appointed.

The subjects brought to the attention of the Academy by the
Government have covered a wide range, but among them,
matters in which physics, astronomy and chemistry were con-
cerned have predominated. It should be remarked, however,
that some of the most important questions which the Academy
has been asked to consider, have not related to any particular
branch of science, but rather to matters of public policy.

On the general subject of committees appointed at the request
of the Government, Professor Bache in his first report as Presi-
dent of the Academy remarked as follows :

" It was obvious that the only effective and prompt mode of action by members
scattered over the United States, as were the fifty named in the charter, must be
through committees. Action must originate with committees, and be perfected
by discussion in the general meetings of the Academy, or in the classes or sections.
Decisions to be finally pronounced by the entire body.

" To avoid delay in reports which might be desired by the government to be
promptly furnished, the President of the Academy was authorized to transmit

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 203

such reports on their reception. It has not appeared to me, except, perhaps, in
one case, and in that the conclusions of the Committee had not reached me, that
there was occasion to present the reports until they had been discussed in the
Academy itself, and the views had been adopted ; especially as this was, as I have
said before, a first trial of the working of our organization. One of the committees
thus acting has been able to meet so often, and with so many members at a
meeting, as to show that in important cases, where consultation and discussion
must be had, there will be little difficulty in effecting meetings; while in most
cases correspondence amply suffices for the settlement of the questions involved,
and to bring out the results in the form of a report with suggestions.

" It will be seen by the spirit and words of our laws, enacted by the authority
of the charter, that the members of the National Academy put their time and
talents at the disposal of the country in no small or stinted measure, freely, fully,
by the binding authority of an oath; asking no compensation therefor but the
consciousness of contributing to judicious action by the government on matters
of science. The more the wealth of such men can be drawn out from the
treasury of their knowledge, the richer will the nation be; and I for one do not
fear that even the suggestions which may be made to Congress on subjects in which
that knowledge may be most profitably employed for our country and times, will
be subject to any supposed taint of self-seeking as to power or influence. Subject
to the taint of supposed desire for remuneration it cannot be, by our charter, and
all our laws look away from such a center." x

COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE ACADEMY ON BEHALF
OF THE GOVERNMENT

1. Committees appointed in accordance with Acts of Congress.

1871. On the Transit of Venus (p. 256).

1872. On Preparing Instructions for the Polaris Expedition (p. 40).

1878. On a Plan for Surveying and Mapping the Territories of the

United States (p. 268).

1879. On a National Board of Health (p. 50).

1894. To Prescribe and Publish Specifications for the Practical Appli-
cation of the Definitions of the Ampere and Volt (p. 313).

1908. On the Methods and Expenses of Conducting Scientific Work
Under the Government (p. 330).

2. Committees appointed at the request of Joint Commissions

and Committees of Congress.

1884. On the Signal Service of the Army, the Geological Survey, the
Coast and Geodetic Survey, and the Hydrographic Office of
the Navy Department (p. 295).

1 Ann. Nat. Acad. Sci., 1863-6, pp. 49, 50. For an annotated list of committees to 1879, see
Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1879, pp. 7-13.

204 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

1902. On the Establishment of a National Forest Reserve in the South-
ern Appalachians (p. 323).

3. Committees appointed at the request of the President of the

United States.

1870. On the Protection of Coal Mines from Explosion by Means of

Electricity (p. 253).
1902. On Scientific Explorations in the Philippines (p. 325).

4. Committees appointed at the request of the Treasury Depart-

ment.

1863. On the National Currency (Confidential).
1863. On Weights, Measures, and Coinage (p. 206).

1863. On Saxton's Alcoholometer (p. 218).

1864. On Materials for the Manufacture of Cent Coins (p. 227).
1866. On the Prevention of Counterfeiting (p. 331).

1866. On Spirit Meters (p. 239).

1866. On Proving and Gauging Distilled Spirits and Preventing

Fraud (p. 239).

1866. On Metric Standards for the States (p. 211).
1870. On the Effect of Chemicals on Internal Revenue Stamps (p.

254).

1873. On an International Bureau of Weights and Measures (p. 212).
-1875. On Water-proofing the Fractional Currency (p. 261).

1875. On Means of Distinguishing Calf's Hair from Woolen Goods

(Confidential).

1876. On Artificial Coloring of Sugars to Simulate a Lower Grade

According to the Standard on which Duties are Levied
(Confidential).

1876. On the Use of Polarized Light to Determine the Values of

Sugars (p. 264).

1877. On Demerara Sugars (p. 264).

1878. On Building Stone to be used for the Custom House at

Chicago. (No report.)
-1882. On the Separation of Methyl Alcohol, or Wood Spirits, from

Ethyl Alcohol (p. 291).
-1882. On Glucose (p. 293).
1882. On Triangulation Connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Coasts.

(No report.)

1884. On Philosophical and Scientific Apparatus (p. 302).
^885. On the Tariff Classification of Wools (p. 306).

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 205

^1886 and 1887. On the Morphine Content of Opium (p. 309).

1887. On Quartz Plates used in Saccharimeters for Sugar Determi-
nations (p. 308).

1890. To Formulate a Plan for a Systematic Search for the North
Magnetic Pole (p. 311).

5. Committees appointed at the request of the Navy Depart-

ment.

1863. On Protecting the Bottoms of Iron Vessels (p. 213).

1863. On Magnetic Deviation in Iron Ships (p. 215).

1863. On Wind and Current Charts and Sailing Directions (p. 219).

1864. On the Explosion on the United States Steamer Chenango

(P- 230).

1864. On Experiments on the Expansion of Steam (p. 226).
1877. On Proposed Changes in the American Ephemeris (p. 267).
1 88 1. On the Transit of Venus (p. 256).
1885. On the Astronomical Day, the Solar Eclipse of 1886, and the

Erection of a New Naval Observatory (p. 303).

6. Committees appointed at the request of the War Department.

1 864. On the Question of Tests for the Purity of Whiskey ( p. 225 ) .

1866. On the Preservation of Paint on Army Knapsacks. (No report.)

1867. On Galvanic Action from Association of Zinc and Iron (p. 232).
1873. On the Exploration of the Yellowstone. (No report.)

1 88 1. On Questions of Meteorological Science and Its Applications
(p. 290).

7. Committees appointed at the request of the Department of

State.

1866. On the Improvement of Greytown Harbor, Nicaragua (p. 247).
1903. On the Restoration of the Declaration of Independence (p. 279).

8. Committees appointed at the request of the Department of

Agriculture.

1870. On Silk Culture in the United States (p. 331).
.-1881. On Sorghum Sugar (p. 284).

9. Committees appointed at the request of the Department of

the Interior.

—1880. On the Restoration of the Declaration of Independence (p. 279).
1896. On the Inauguration of a Rational Forest Policy for the Forested
Lands of the United States (p. 314).

'5

206 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

COMMITTEE ON WEIGHTS, MEASURES, AND COINAGE. 1863

Five committees were appointed at the request of the Govern-
ment within a month after the organization of the Academy.
The first of these, which was known as Committee No. i, was
appointed at the solicitation of the Secretary of the Treasury,
Salmon P. Chase, on May 4, 1863, not to consider any question
relating to the conduct of the Civil War, but on the subject of the
" Uniformity of weights, measures and coins, considered in rela-
tion to domestic and international commerce." Secretary Chase
had previously referred to this matter in his annual report for
1861, p. 28, as follows:

" The Secretary desires to avail himself of this opportunity to invite the atten-
tion of Congress to the importance of a uniform system and a uniform nomencla-
ture of weights and measures, and coins to the commerce of the world, in which
the United States already so largely shares. The wisest of our statesmen have
regarded the attainment of this end, so desirable in itself, as by no means impos-
sible. The combination of the decimal system with appropriate denominations in a
scheme of weights, measures, and coins for the international uses of commerce,
leaving, ff need be, the separate systems of the nations untouched, is certainly not
beyond the reach of the daring genius and patient endeavor which gave the
steam engine and the telegraph to the service of mankind." 2

The committee was originally one of eight members, namely,
Joseph Henry (chairman), J. H. Alexander, Fairman Rogers
Wolcott Gibbs, Arnold Guyot, Benjamin Silliman, Jr., Wm.
Chauvenet, John Torrey. To these members were added A. D.
Bache, by resolution of the Academy, John Rodgers, L. M.
Rutherfurd and Samuel B. Ruggles. Ruggles was not a member
of the Academy, but was designated in accordance with a pro-
vision of the constitution which permitted the President " to call
in the aid, upon committees, of experts, or men of remarkable
attainments, not members of the Academy." (Act 2, sect. 4.)
He was the delegate of the United States to the International
Statistical Congress held in Berlin in 1863.

The original committee was discharged in 1866, but the
following year another committee was appointed under the same

3 Rep. Seer. Treas. for 1861, p. 28.

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 207

name. It became a standing committee, and, although rated as
a committee on business of the Academy, it has reported a num-
ber of times on matters referred to the Academy by the Govern-
ment. During the forty-six years that have elapsed since 1867,
twenty-two members of the Academy have served on this com-
mittee, including three who belonged to the original Committee
No. i. These are J. H. Alexander, F. A. P. Barnard, C. B. Corn-
stock, Henry Draper, Wolcott Gibbs, B. A. Gould, Henry,
Hilgard, Levering, Meigs, Mendenhall, Michelson, Morley,
Newcomb, H. A. Newton, C. S. Peirce, Saxton, Sellers, W. P.
Trowbridge, Webster, R. S. Woodward, Young.

In regard to the subject-matter which the original Committee
No. i was to consider, Professor Bache remarked in his first
report as President of the Academy (1863), as follows:

" It is not a little strange in our country, where the decimal system of coinage
proved at once acceptable, notwithstanding the capital errors committed in, for
a long time, keeping in use foreign coins of no convenient relation to the decimal
system, that nothing of the kind was effected for weights and measures, and still
more strange that the antiquated and cumbrous variety of tables by which articles
of different classes were bought and sold should have been retained, that even in
our preparation of a national system intended for practical use neither the deci-
malization of the weights and measures nor the simplicity of one weight of one
name should have been adopted. The influence of great names can alone probably
explain this, without justifying it." 3

The proceedings of the committee were not reported in full,
but Professor Bache informs us that " the discussions in the body
of this committee were strongly in favor of the adoption of the
French metrical system, but more strongly, in fact unanimously,
in favor of the effort to arrive at a thorough international
system — a universal system of weights, measures, and coins,
available for the general acceptance of all nations." 4

It will readily be understood that the committee was not pre-
pared to submit at once a general report on so comprehensive
and important a matter. They adopted the plan of dividing into
subcommittees, each of which should inquire into the system of
weights and measures employed by one or more countries. Hav-

3 Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1863, p. 4.

4 Loc. cit.

208 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

ing made known this arrangement to the Academy on January 9,
1864, the committee was continued, with power to act. Two
years later, on January 27, 1866, the committee submitted its
first definite report in the following terms:

" Report of the Committee on Weights, Measures, and Coinage, to the
National Academy of Sciences, January, 1866.

"The Committee are in favor of adopting, ultimately, a decimal system; and,
in their opinion, the metrical system of weights and measures, though not without
defects, is, all things considered, the best in use. The Committee therefore suggest
that the Academy recommend to Congress to authorize and encourage by law the
introduction and use of the metrical system of weights and measures; and that
with a view to familiarize the people with the system, the academy recommend
that provision be made by law for the immediate manufacture and distribution to
the custom-houses and States of metrical standards of weights and measures; to
introduce the system into the post offices by making a single letter weigh fifteen
grammes instead of fourteen and seventeen hundredths or half an ounce; and
to cause the new cent and two-cent pieces to be so coined that they shall weigh,
respectively, five and ten grammes, and that their diameters shall be made to
bear a determinate and simple ratio to the metrical unit of length." 5

This report was considered by the Academy and was trans-
mitted to the Secretary of the Treasury, Hugh McCulloch,
with a letter, signed by Joseph Henry, Vice-President of the
Academy, giving the views of the majority and minority on the
general question under consideration. This very interesting
communication was as follows: 6

" SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, WASHINGTON, D. C.,

" February 17, 1866.

" SIR : I have the honor herewith to transmit a report of the National Academy
of Sciences on weights, measures, and coinage, adopted at its late meeting in
January, after considerable discussion, but not with entire unanimity.

" The subject is one of much perplexity. While, on the one hand, it is evident
that a reform of our present system of weights and measures is exceedingly-
desirable, on the other, the difficulty of adopting the best system and of introducing
it in opposition to the prejudice and usages of the people is also apparent.

" The entire adoption of the French metrical system involved the necessity of
discarding our present standard of weights and measures — the foot, the pound,
the bushel, the gallon — and the introduction in their place of standards of
unfamiliar magnitudes and names.

"Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1865, p. 5.
* Loc . cit., p. 4.

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 209

" Such a change, in my opinion, can only be, in a government like ours, the
work of time and through the education of the rising generation, for this purpose,
should the resolution now before Congress to establish a bureau of education be
adopted, the French metrical system might be taught under the sanction of the
government in all the common schools of the country.

" The system, however, is not considered by many as well adapted to the Anglo-
Saxon mind as one which might be devised, and it was therefore the opinion of a
minority of the academy, that, could England and the United States agree upon
a system for adoption, it would in all probability in time become universal.

" The argument in favor of the French metrical system is, however, that it
has been already adopted in whole or in part in several nations.

" I have the honor to be, your obedient servant,

" JOSEPH HENRY,

" Vice President of the National Academy of Sciences.
" HON. H. McCuLLocH,

" Secretary of the Treasury "

The recommendations of the Academy reached Congress
either through the President or the Secretary of the Treasury,
and were printed in the report of the House Committee of the
39th Congress on Coinage, Weights and Measures on the bills
relating to the metric system then pending. This report begins
as follows:

" In considering the general subject of a uniform system of coinage, weights
and measures, your committee had before them —

" First. That part of the message of the President and accompanying docu-
ments relating to these subjects.

" Second. The report of the National Academy of Sciences, embracing their
resolutions approving the metric decimal system of weights and measures.

" Third. The report of the United States commissioner to the statistical con-
gress at Berlin.7

" Fourth. Various memorials of universities and colleges of the United States,
urging a uniform system of weights and measures, also invariably commending
the metric decimal system.

" Fifth. The petition of the mayor, judges, and citizens of Baltimore praying
for the adoption of the metric system of weights and measures.

" Sixth. Several memorials of citizens in different parts of the United States
in behalf of the same object.

" Seventh. The bill H. R. no. 252, referred to them, and proposing the com-
pulsory and exclusive use after a limited period, of the metric system

7 Hon. Samuel B. Ruggles.

210 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

" . . . . They also received the assistance of those distinguished members of
the National Academy of Sciences who constitute the special committee of that
learned society having charge of these subjects, and particularly Professor
Newton, of that committee, whose efforts in aid of their purposes have been
patient and persevering." 8

After this follows a resume of the history of the coinage,
weights and measures of the United States, Great Britain and
France, and a comparison of the existing weights and measures
with the metric system. Finally, on page 20 of the report of
the House Committee it is said " Your committee unanimously
recommend the passage of the bills and the joint resolutions
appended to this report. They were not prepared to go, at this
time, beyond this stage of progress in the proposed reform."
The reasons are then given and the report concludes with a list
of the bills recommended. These are as follows :

" A bill making it lawful to use the metric system.

" A joint resolution directing the Secretary of the Treasury to furnish metric
standards to the States.

" A bill to authorize the use in the post offices of weights of the denomination
of grams.9

" A joint resolution to authorize the President to appoint a special commissioner
to facilitate the adoption of a uniform coinage between the United States and
foreign countries."

The bills legalizing the use of the metric system, directing the
Secretary of the Treasury to furnish metric standards to the
States, and authorizing the use in post-offices of weights of the
denomination of grams passed the House on May 17, 1866, with-
out discussion.

8 House of Representatives, 39th Congress, ist Session. Report no. 62. Coinage, Weights
and Measures. (To accompany bills House Res. nos. 596 and 597, and House Res. no. 141.)
May 17, 1866. Ordered to be printed, p. i.

'The text of this bill is as follows:

" Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives, etc., That the Postmaster
General be, and he is hereby, authorized and directed to furnish to the post offices exchang-
ing mails with foreign countries, and to such other offices as shall think expedient, postal
balances denominated in grams of the metric system, and until otherwise provided by law,
one-half ounce avoirdupois shall be deemed and taken for postal purposes as the equivalent
of fifteen grams of the metric weights, and so adopted in progression; and the rates of
postage shall be applied accordingly."

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 211

They were brought up in the Senate on July 27, 1866, by
Senator Sumner, who made a speech on their merits, and were
passed on that day without discussion. The last two above
mentioned were approved on the same day, July 27, 1866, and
the first on July 28, 1866.

Thus, it appears that in this instance the recommendations of
the Academy were received and accepted by Congress, and that
the action taken was in accord therewith. It is clearly a case
in which the Academy helped the Government.

At the same time at which the use of metric measures was
legalized, Congress enacted a law enabling the Secretary of the
Treasury to supply a set of the standards to each of the States
of the Union. The Secretary requested the National Academy
to advise him as to the kind and form of standards that should
be furnished, the material of which they should be made, and the
proper means of verifying them. The request was referred to
the Committee on Weights and Measures which reported to the
Academy at the meeting of August, 1867. The report was
transmitted to the Treasury Department and the recommenda-
tions which it contained were adopted.10

Congress passed a third act at the same time with the other two,
as we have seen, authorizing the use in post-offices of weights of
the denomination of grams. The Academy appears not to have
been directly concerned in the passage of this measure, but at
the annual meeting of the following year (1867) a resolution was
adopted to the effect that the Academy considered it " highly
desirable that the discretionary power granted by Congress to
the Postmaster-General to use the metrical weights in the post
offices (should) be exercised at the earliest convenient day." As
we have noted in a previous chapter, a committee was appointed
in 1868 to urge upon the Postmaster-General the importance of
adopting the action mentioned in this resolution, but no results
followed at that time.

The interest of the National Academy in metric measures
did not end with these proceedings. It will be recalled that two

10 Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1879, p. 13.

212 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

international conferences were held in Paris to consider the
question of preparing new metric standards, one in 1870 and the
second in 1872. In this connection a proposition was put for-
ward for the establishment of an international bureau of weights
and measures, and the matter was submitted to various govern-
ments including that of the United States for consideration. It
was brought by the Secretary of the Treasury on March 7, 1873,
to the attention of the Academy which in turn referred it to the
Committee on Weights and Measures. On June 13 of that year
a report was transmitted to the Treasury Department.

Two years later, in 1875, tne metric convention at Paris voted
for the establishment of an international metric bureau and in
April of that year, as was noted in an earlier chapter, the
Academy adopted resolutions proclaiming its belief in the use-
fulness of such a bureau, and its " solicitude that the Govern-
ment of the United States should ratify the convention prepared
to that effect." A copy of the resolutions was transmitted to
the President, with a request for his favorable consideration.
This letter was as follows : 12

" NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES,

"WASHINGTON, May 3, 1875.
" To the President.

" SIR : I have the honor to transmit to you herewith, in conformity with a
resolution of the National Academy of Sciences, the expression of their opinion of
the usefulness of an International Bureau of Weights and Measures, which is
now the subject of a diplomatic conference at Paris, and of their solicitude that
this Government should ratify the convention which has been prepared to that
effect, and to ask your favorable consideration of the same.

" Very respectfully, your obedient servant,

" JOSEPH HENRY,
" President National Academy of Sciences."

" Upon this recommendation the convention was ratified by the
United States Senate." 13 It was signed at Paris, May 20, 1875,
the United States being the first to sign.14

11 Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1879, P- 13-
"Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. i, p. in.

13 Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1879, p. 13.

14 Encycl. Amer., vol. 10, 1904, article Metric System.

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 213

Further action in regard to the metric system was taken by the
Academy in 1879, besides that mentioned on the preceding pages.
This was in the form of resolutions urging that instruction in
the principles of the metric system be introduced into the schools
and colleges, that laws be enacted by Congress requiring the use
of metric weights in the domestic mail service, and that the
weights of coins be expressed in grams and milligrams rather
than in grains and fractions of grains.

COMMITTEE ON PROTECTING THE BOTTOMS OF
IRON VESSELS. 1863

The second committee appointed during the Civil War had
for its task the consideration of means for protecting the bottoms
of iron ships from injury by salt water. It was appointed May
9, 1863, at the request of the Navy Department, communicated
by Admiral Davis May 8, 1863. This was a short-lived com-
mittee. It made a brief report on January 9, 1864, and was dis-
charged.

The substance of the report was that, though many plans for
protecting the hulls of iron ships had been devised, no one of
them had proved sufficiently effective to justify the committee
in recommending it for use in the Navy.

It was suggested that experiments should be tried by the com-
mittee of the Academy in case means were provided. No means
being forthcoming, however, the investigations were never
undertaken by the Academy, although the laboratory of the
Smithsonian Institution was placed at its disposal.

It may seem strange that the committee, which included
among the members the Sillimans and Wolcott Gibbs, should
have been unable to make any suggestions in the line of the
inquiry with which it was concerned, but it appears that the com-
position of paints, and the effectiveness or non-effectiveness of
different mixtures against corrosion and the fouling of ships has
only recently been the subject of scientific investigations. We
learn from the writings of Naval Constructor Henry Williams
that it has only been within the last five or ten years that the

214 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

United States Navy has conducted experiments with paints.
Prior to that time commercial brands of paints were adopted,
and when a vessel was painted with a particular kind that kind
was ever afterwards used for the same vessel. This practice
proved both inconvenient and expensive, and in 1906 the Navy
Department began a series of experiments to determine what
mixtures were most effective to prevent corrosion and fouling.
The experiments resulted in the adoption of a paint, known in
the service as the " Norfolk paint," for practically all vessels
of the navy, two formulas being used, one for an anticorrosive
paint and the other for an antifouling paint. Mr. Williams
remarks :

" Estimates made in 1910 of the cost of paint for the bottoms of all vessels on
the navy list, using the kinds of proprietary brands of paint that were purchased
usually prior to 1908 and distributed among the ships in the proportions of each
brand then customary and at the prices then current, show that the cost of paint
for a single painting of the bottoms of all vessels of the navy, not including coal
barges, etc., under the conditions noted, would have been somewhat more than
$100,000. The cost of an equal amount of the Norfolk ship's bottom paint at the
prevailing cost of manufacture would be less than $33,000. As a majority of the
vessels of the navy are painted twice a year, it will be seen that the annual saving
to the government by this means at the present time is probably not less than
$100,000 annually. It should be noted, however, that largely as a result of the
government entering the field with its own paint the prices asked for ship's
bottom paint by various firms previously supplying the navy has been so reduced
that if, for expediency or for some other reason, the Navy Department decided in
the future to purchase all or a portion of its ship's bottom paint, there still would
remain an appreciable saving to be credited to the Norfolk paint." 15

He further remarks on this subject:

" The question of protecting the underwater bodies of sea-going ships always
has been vital, and since the use of steel for hulls has become general, a suitable
paint for this purpose has been in demand. Various manufacturers offer com-
merically, generally under proprietary names, so-called ship's bottom paints or
compositions, which are designed to effect the double purpose of protecting the
bottom plating from the corrosive action of sea-water and, also, of preventing the
attaching of the various marine growths, such as grass, barnacles, hydroids, etc.
The necessity for the periodic docking of ships, often at intervals of less than

18 Engineering News, vol. 66, no. 5, August 3, 1911, p. 138.

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 215

6 months, bears witness to the fact that so far no satisfactory ship's bottom
paint has been produced ; those in general use represent the best available, but all
leave much to be desired." 16

The foregoing comments on the subject of ships' paint, which
are from an authoritative source, and of very recent date, serve
to make it clear why the committee of the Academy was unable
to recommend definite compositions, or mixtures, and to justify
it in proposing that experiments be made to determine the rel-
ative effectiveness of different substances. If the subject of
ships' paints is still open to investigation, it is obvious that its
condition a half century ago must have been much more unsatis-
factory.

COMMITTEE ON MAGNETIC DEVIATION IN IRON SHIPS. 1863

The committee known as Committee No. 3, or " the Compass
Committee," was appointed on May 20, 1863, at the request of
the Navy Department, communicated by Rear-Admiral Davis
on May 8, 1863, and had a direct bearing on the operations of the
Navy during the Civil War. It grew out of a commission
appointed by the Secretary of the Navy in accordance with an
Act of Congress " to make experiments for the correction of local
attraction in vessels built wholly or partly of iron," approved
March 3, 1863, the same day as that on which the Act of Incor-
poration of the Academy was approved. When the Academy
had been organized, the Secretary of the Navy turned the matter
over to it, requesting that it would " investigate and report upon
the subject of magnetic deviation in iron ships." The similarity
of the personnel of the two bodies — the commission and the com-
mittee— is of strong interest in connection with the present his-
tory. We learn from Professor Bache that the Commission of
the Navy Department consisted of himself as chairman, Joseph
Henry, Wolcott Gibbs, Benjamin Peirce, and W. P. Trowbridge.
The committee of the Academy was the same, with the addition
of Charles H. Davis and Fairman Rogers. This transformation

18 Engineering News, vol. 66, no. 5, August 3, 1911, p. 136.

21 6 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

goes far to convince us of the truth of Admiral Davis' assertion
that the practical plan for the organization of an Academy was
suggested by the Commission of the Navy Department. There
appear to have been several such commissions and the one under
consideration performed other duties besides the particular one
for which it was established. It met in New York on March
19, 1863, to act, by request of the Secretary of the Navy, " as a
scientific committee to superintend the placing of the standard
compass on board the United States steamer Circassian, and to
examine the correction and register of its deviations." Its
second meeting while acting in this capacity was held in New
York, April 21, 1863, the day before that on which the Academy
met for organization, and on which a committee drafted the
constitution. Not only so, but the committee met in the same
place as the Naval Commission — the Brevoort House — and
three of the members of the committee were also members of
the Commission. These coincidences and relationships reveal
to us how close was the interaction between the Naval Commis-
sion and the leading spirits in the founding of the Academy.

This committee performed an extraordinary amount of work
and prepared a detailed report which covers 73 printed pages.
It is difficult to understand how men charged with many onerous
duties could devote so much energy to a special investigation,
until one considers the condition of the times. Not only were
many of the ordinary activities of life suspended or retarded by
war, but every loyal citizen, and especially every officer of the
Government, felt that he had a patriotic duty to perform in aid-
ing, as far as in him lay, to sustain the cause of the Union.

The Civil War happened at a time when iron ships were fast
superseding wooden ones. The Navy had in commission or
under construction in May, 1863, some 88 vessels, the majority
of which had wooden hulls protected above the water-line by
plates of iron. These were known as iron-clads. The vessels
with iron hulls were mainly prizes. They were built in England
and employed as blockade-runners. The rigging of some vessels

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 2 17

was all of rope, of others part iron and part rope, and still others,
all iron. The decks of wooden vessels were also often of iron.

Vessels at this time appear to have carried several compasses
which were sometimes arranged in pairs, and were placed in
what were thought to be the most convenient locations. The
presence of large masses of iron, often within a few feet of
the compasses caused a large and variable amount of deviation
on which account navigation was at times extremely precarious.
Various plans had been proposed from time to time for overcom-
ing the local attraction, some of which seem strange indeed, such
as setting the compasses in iron pots four inches thick, placing
them in zinc cases packed with charcoal, etc. The method which
seems to have been most effective was the one invented by the
English astronomer Airy, which consists in counteracting the
local attraction by means of bar magnets placed in suitable loca-
tions. The committee of the Academy adopted this method for
the war vessels which they inspected, making use of the services
of an expert, A. D. Frye, of New York, to carry it into practical
effect. They supervised the correction of the compasses on 27
vessels of all kinds, including sloops, monitors, gunboats, pro-
pellers, side-wheel steamers, tugs and transports, and were
occupied in the task from March until late in September. Some
of the vessels were at New York, others at Boston, Philadelphia,
and Hampton Roads. At Philadelphia a compass station had
not been established, and at the request of the Bureau of Naviga-
tion, one member of the committee, Fairman Rogers, gave
personal attention to the ship Ticonderoga, which was lying
there, and made a special report to the committee.

In addition, Charles A. Schott and G. W. Dean, assistants in
the U. S. Coast Survey, made, by direction of Professor Bache,
an extended series of magnetic observations on the first-rate iron-
clad Roanoke and the monitor Passaic at the Brooklyn Navy
Yard, and also some experiments in the iron-clad Monadnock
at the Charlestown Navy Yard.

21 8 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

COMMITTEE ON SAXTON'S ALCOHOLOMETER. 1863

While the purpose of this committee was to advise the Govern-
ment, it was peculiar in that it was appointed at the request of
a member of the Academy to examine the invention of another
member. The request came from Professor Bache who was at
once President of the Academy and Superintendent of the
United States Weights and Measures, while Saxton, whose in-
vention was to be reported upon, was a member of the Academy.

The committee, which was appointed May 25, 1863, consisted
of John F. Frazer, Joseph G. Totten, F. A. P. Barnard, and
William Chauvenet. The hydrometer which the committee was
to examine was patented by Saxton, who, however, took occasion
to address a letter to the President of the Academy to the follow-
ing effect: " In taking out a patent for the hydrometer I do not
intend to interfere with its free use by the government. My
object in patenting it is to have control of its manufacture in
private establishments only." "

Saxton was a man of unusual inventive genius and had devised
many curious and useful mechanisms. Among them was this
novel form of hydrometer which he believed superior to that
used by the Treasury Department. It consisted of a glass bulb
of spheroidal form, to which was attached a chain of one hun-
dred links, which were smaller in proportion as they were
nearer the lower end of the chain.18 The instrument was so
constructed that when placed in pure water the bulb and the
whole of the chain were suspended, while if placed in absolute
alcohol the bulb alone remained suspended and the chain of one
hundred links lay in the bottom of the vessel containing the fluid.
The percentage of alcohol in any given mixture of alcohol and
water could be determined by counting the number of links that
remained suspended in the liquid. This instrument was readily
portable and was so small that it could be placed in a box three-
quarters of an inch in diameter and one inch high.18

"Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1863, p. 97.
" Loc. cit., p. 96.
19 Lor. cit., p. 6.

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 219

At the time this new instrument was under consideration, the
Bureau of Internal Revenue, which was organized the preceding
year, was employing Tralles' hydrometer, which, as is well
known, is a special form of Gay Lussac's hydrometer. It was not
entirely satisfactory, as the committee pointed out, for the
reason that the scale was not easily read, and because it was
difficult to make the proper allowance for capillary attraction.
The committee, which reported on January 7, 1864, recom-
mended in favor of the adoption of Saxton's alcoholometer by
the Government on the ground that it was more portable than
Tralles', less easily broken, and less difficult to read, although the
opinion was expressed that it would be reliable only in careful
hands.

COMMITTEE ON WIND AND CURRENT CHARTS AND SAILING

DIRECTIONS. 1863

This committee was the fifth among those appointed in 1863.
The explanatory note regarding it contained in the Annual of
the Academy for the year is as follows : " Appointed May 25th,
1863, at the request of the Navy Department, conveyed through
Rear- Admiral C. H. Davis, May 230!, 1863, asking for an investi-
gation and report on the subject of discontinuing the publication,
in the present form, of the Wind and Current Charts and Sailing
Directions."

The history of these publications, the circumstances that
brought them to the attention of the Academy, the character of
the committee that passed on them, and the verdict of science
regarding them are all matters of more than ordinary interest.

They were devised by Matthew Fontaine Maury, whose
singular career may be summarized for the benefit of those not
already acquainted with it. Maury who was a Virginian by
birth, entered the Navy in 1825 and a few years .later was
detailed to join the United States Exploring Expedition. As an
officer of the ship Vincennes, he circumnavigated the globe. In
1836 he reached the grade of lieutenant and became astronomer
to the expedition. Three years later he met with an accident

220 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

which caused him to be permanently lame. He became in-
terested during his cruise with the Vincennes and on subsequent
voyages in studying the winds and other phenomena of the ocean.
Rendered incapacitated for active service by the accident which
he encountered, he was placed in charge of the Depot of Charts
and Instruments, in the Navy Department. Out of this office
a little later grew the Hydrographic Office and the United
States Naval Observatory. Maury became the head of both
these establishments. After it had become impossible for him
to make meteorological observations himself he inaugurated a
system of distributing specially prepared log-books to captains
of vessels in which they might keep a daily record of winds and
other phenomena of different parts of the ocean.

The data thus obtained were intended to lighten the labors of
navigators, and it was expected that by the study of them sailing
captains would be enabled to determine upon the best course
in different latitudes and would be informed regarding the
character of the storms and winds which they might encounter.
The data were published by the Government in a series of charts
and books which are described as follows in the report of the
committee :

" The publications submitted to the committee consist of seventy-six charts of
large dimensions, measuring generally twenty-four inches by thirty-five or
six within the borders, and classified into six distinct series, distinguished by the
letters A to F. These classes are entitled severally, ' Track Charts,' ' Trade
Wind Charts,' ' Pilot Charts,' ' Thermal Charts,' ' Storm and Rain Charts,'
and ' Whale Charts.' Besides these there are two thick quarto volumes of
letter press, embracing pp. xxxxi, 383, and viii, 874, respectively. The first of
these volumes is illustrated by sixty-three engraved plates, some of them colored,
and the second by six. Supplementary to these are three thin tracts, also in
quarto, entitled, ' Nautical Monographs,' and embracing in all pp. 48 and five
plates." 20

In addition, Maury, as is well known, published a treatise
entitled " The Physical Geography of the Sea," and several other
works. The publication of the meteorological data led to the
organization of an international congress in 1853, and later, when

20 Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1863, p. 98.

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 221

the British Meteorological Office was established, Maury's log-
books were adopted. In recognition of his services to navigation
and meteorology, Maury received many medals and decorations
from European societies and Governments.

Regarding the value of Maury's work Sir John Murray and
Dr. Johan Hjort recently remarked as follows:

" Maury's work had important consequences, for ship-masters following his
directions shortened the voyage between North America and England by ten days,
that from New York to California by about forty-five days, and that from Eng-
land to Australia and back by more than sixty days. The profit derived from the
use of Maury's charts by British ship-owners on the East India route alone
amounted to 10 million dollars yearly.

" On Maury's suggestion it was decided, at an international congress at
Brussels in 1853, that numbers of log-books should be sent out with captains of
ships for the purpose of entering observations of wind and weather, of currents,
and of temperatures at the sea-surface. This plan has been followed ever since,
the notes being as a rule entered once every watch, so that a formidable pile of
material has now been amassed. Up to 1904 the Meteorological Office in
London had collected 7 millions of these notes, the Deutsche Seewarte in Ham-
burg more than io£ millions, the Dutch Meteorological Institute in DeBilt 3^
millions, the Hydrographical Bureau at Washington 5-J millions, and so on." 21

Upon the outbreak of the Civil War, Maury resigned his office
under the United States Government and threw in his fortunes
with his native State. Being unfit for active service, he went to
England to reside and later became commissioner of immigra-
tion for Emperor Maximilian of Mexico. On returning to
England in 1866 he was given a banquet in honor of his services
as a hydrographer, which was attended by many eminent naval
officers and scientific men of England and other parts of Europe.
On this occasion he was presented with a purse of 3000 guineas,
collected by popular subscription. His last years were spent
as Professor of Physics at the University of Virginia.

When Maury left the Naval Observatory on April 15, 1861,
his meteorological data, records and papers fell into the hands of
James Melville Gilliss, who two days later was appointed to
succeed him as the head of the Naval Observatory.

a Depths of the Ocean, by Sir John Murray and Dr. Johan Hjort, London, 1912,
pp. 214, 215.

16

222 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

In September of the following year the Navy Department was
reorganized and the Observatory was included in the new
Bureau of Navigation of which Admiral Charles H. Davis
became the head. It appears that the publication of the charts
and sailing directions was unfinished, and the question arose in
the Department whether it should be continued. This question
was, on the suggestion of Admiral Davis, referred to the recently-
organized Academy of Sciences.22

The Academy appears to have considered the question one
of special difficulty and importance, as is evidenced by the size
and character of the committee appointed to report on it. This
was a committee of twelve members, ten of whom were ap-

"The correspondence, as given in the Report of the Academy for 1863, pp. 6, 7, is as
follows :

"BUREAU OF NAVIGATION, NAVY DEPARTMENT,

" Washington, May 21, 1863.

"Sir: I have the honor to inform the department that the charts and sailing directions
published by the late superintendent of the Observatory, at the expense of the government,
are regarded by hydrographers and scientific men as being prolix and faulty, both in matter
and arrangement, to such an extent as to render the limited amount of original information
which they actually contain costly and inaccessible.

" I am prepared to recommend the discontinuance of the publication of these charts and
sailing directions. But in order that this question of discontinuance may be decided with
deliberation, I have to request permission to refer it to the National Academy of Sciences,
for investigation, and report to this department.

" I am, sir, very respectfully, your obedient servant,

" CHARLES H. DAVIS,

" Chief of the Bureau.
" HON. GIDEON WELLES,

" Secretary of the Navy."

"BUREAU OF NAVIGATION, NAVY DEPARTMENT,

" Washington, May 23, 1863.

"Sir: I transmit herewith a copy of a letter addressed by me to the Hon. Secretary of
the Navy, on the subject of discontinuing the publication, in the present form, of the ' Wind
and Current Charts,' and ' Sailing Directions,' accompanying them ; and now, with the
approval of the department, I have the honor to refer the same subject to the National
Academy of Sciences, for investigation and report, requesting that, on account of the
expense and the public interest, it may receive early attention.

" Very respectfully, your obedient servant,

" CHARLES H. DAVIS,

" Chief of the Bureau.
" PROFESSOR A. D. BACHE,

" President National Academy of Sciences."

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 223

pointed on May 25, and the remaining two a little later. The
personnel was as follows: F. A. P. Barnard (chairman), J. H.
Alexander, Wm. Chauvenet, J. F. Frazer, J. E. Hilgard, Joseph
Winlock, Alexis Caswell, J. H. C. Coffin, Arnold Guyot, Ben-
jamin Peirce, J. P. Lesley, J. D. Dana.

The report of the committee, which was handed in on January
9, 1864, more than seven months after its appointment, occupies
fifteen pages, and treats of the different aspects of the publication
of the charts and sailing directions considerably in detail. It
begins with a brief account of the size, number and character of
the publications which were examined, and then discusses the
purposes which they appeared to have been intended to serve.
It points out that up to the year 1858 more than 200,000 copies
of the " Wind and Current Charts " and 20,000 copies of the
" Sailing Directions " had been distributed, from which it
resulted that the publications and their compiler, Maury, had
become widely known.

After showing that although the publications were primarily
intended to serve practical ends they had, nevertheless, been
regarded in part as containing the results of scientific investiga-
tion, the committee discusses them from both points of view.

Its opinion regarding both the scientific and the practical
merits of the publications was unfavorable. On the scientific
side, the opinion of the committee, which was fortified by quota-
tions from the French writers Bourgois and Lartigue, was that
the generalizations contained in the Sailing Directions did not
follow from the data collected, that many of the data were left
out of consideration, and that the principles enumerated were
not correctly based.

On the practical side, the opinion of the committee was that
while the data presented were valuable, the form in which they
appeared was such as to confuse rather than aid and inform the
navigator.

The committee sums up as follows :

" The original idea of these publications was a good one; it is the manner of its
execution that is faulty. It was fitting that the laborious analysis of ships' records

224 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

which has been carried on at the Naval Observatory should be made. It is greatly
desirable that it should be continued, and extended to every point of interest in
meteorological science and research. It is desirable that the collected and classified
results should be compared and studied, and that abstracts of them should be
exchanged with institutions and individuals engaged in similar investigations else-
where, in our own or in other lands. But it is by no means desirable that the
immense mass of facts thus collected should be embodied in an indigested or half
digested state, into publications designed to be scattered broadcast over land and
sea. Out of their careful study may be deducted principles which may form
the basis of instructions to navigators worthy to be called ' Sailing Directions,' and
such instructions in any suitable form may very fitly be published by the govern-
ment and circulated among seamen.

" The committee, therefore, with entire unanimity, recommend the adoption of
the following resolutions:

Resolved by the National Academy of Sciences, That, in the opinion of this
academy, the volumes entitled ' Sailing Directions,' heretofore issued to navi-
gators from the Naval Observatory, and the ' Wind and Current Charts,' which
they are designed to illustrate and explain, embrace much which is unsound in
philosophy, and little that is practically useful; and that therefore these publica-
tions ought no longer to be issued in their present form.

Resolved, That the records of meteorological phenomena and of other impor-
tant facts connected with terrestrial physics, which, under the direction of the
Navy Department, have been accumulated at the Observatory, are capable of
being turned to valuable account, and that it is eminently desirable that such
information should continue to be collected and subjected to careful discussion.

Resolved, That the president of the academy be authorized and requested to
communicate to the Secretary of the Navy a copy of the foregoing resolutions,
and of this report, as a response to the inquiry addressed to the academy upon
this subject by that officer.' " 23

Considering the circumstances under which this report was
drawn up, it must be conceded that it is moderate in tone and not
unappreciative of the labors of Maury. The criticisms of the
committee were directed against the form in which the data
were published and the deductions drawn from them, rather
than against the data themselves. As a result of the committee's
report, the publication was suspended. After the Hydrographic
Office was regularly organized in 1866, however, the plates from
which the charts were made were turned over to it, and in 1873
efforts were renewed to obtain additional meteorological data

28 Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1863, p. 112.

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 225

from merchant vessels for a new edition. In 1884 the hydrog-
rapher reported that sufficient data from this source and from the
naval vessels had been collected to form the basis of a new set of
charts for the North Pacific.24

Commander J. R. Bartlett, the head of the Hydrographic
Office remarked:

" The province of the meteorological division is to furnish blank meteorological
journals to the masters of merchant vessels who are willing to post them, the
masters receiving in return a set of charts covering the route to be traversed. The
data obtained from these journals and from the log-books of ships of war are con-
densed for use in the construction of new editions of Maury's Wind and Current
Charts." 25

COMMITTEE ON THE QUESTION OF TESTS FOR THE
PURITY OF WHISKEY. 1864

This committee, appointed to consider a subject which within
the last few years has been repeatedly forced on the attention
of the Government, was appointed on January 14, 1864, at the
request of the Acting Surgeon General of the Army received on
the fifth of that month, and consisted of Benjamin Silliman, Jr.
(chairman) , John Torrey, R. E. Rogers, J. L. LeConte and J. H.
Alexander. On March 17, the committee asked for and obtained
the use of the sum of $3,500 to be used in experimentation, but
later decided that no expenditure of money was necessary.

A brief report was presented on January 6, 1865, as follows:

" In the absence of the chairman of the committee on the question of tests for
the purity of whiskey, the members who are present beg leave to report, that after
giving the subject their earnest consideration, they have come to the conclusion that
in the present condition of chemical science no tests can be employed for deter-
mining the age of whiskey and other spirituous liquors. The common adulter-
ations are readily detected. It is not difficult, however, to obtain alcohol that is
free from all deleterious admixture. They therefore recommend, for use in the
military hospitals in the United States, pure alcohol, medicated with such additions
as will qualify it for the particular object for which it is prescribed.

24 Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1884, p. 59.
* Loc. cit., p. 61.

226 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

" No portion of the appropriation granted by the Secretary of War has been
expended by the committee." 26

This report appears at first somewhat enigmatic, because the
inference from it would be that the purity of whiskey depended
on its age. In one sense, however, this is true because, as is well
known, some of the poisonous components of the complex dis-
tillate break up in the lapse of time into less harmful ethers,
esters and higher alcohols. It follows, therefore, that the older
the whiskey, the less harmful its ingredients, and in this sense it
is purer.

The practice of prescribing alcohol instead of whiskey as a
stimulant, as recommended by the committee, is sometimes
adopted in hospitals and has the sanction of physicians.

COMMITTEE ON EXPERIMENTS ON THE EXPANSION
OF STEAM. 1864

It is recorded in the first Annual of the Academy that on
February 29, 1864, " the Hon. Gideon Welles, Secretary of the
Navy, invited the appointment of a committee of three members
of the Academy to act jointly with three members named by the
Department and with three members of the Franklin Institute
of Pennsylvania, for the promotion of the Mechanic Arts, to
conduct, witness, and report upon experiments which may be
agreed upon by the Commission on the expansion of Steam.
The experiments are to be reported as early as practicable to
the Department, and to be submitted also to the National
Academy of Sciences for its judgment and suggestions." " The
investigation was undertaken by authority of Congress.

The Academy appointed as its committee Fairman Rogers,
F. A. P. Barnard and Joseph Saxton. The Navy Department
appointees were Horatio Allen, Chas. H. Davis (a member of
the Academy) and B. F. Isherwood, and those of the Franklin
Institute, J. H. Towne, J. V. Merrick, and R. A. Tilghman.

"Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1864, p. 5. Only Torrey and LeConte signed the report. The
other members were absent.

"Ann. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1863-64, p. 39.

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 227

Whether any results were reached by this commission is doubt-
ful. A preliminary report was made to the Academy on January
5, 1865, and another report of progress on January 26, 1866,
but in 1880 we learn that " owing to the lack of appropriations
these investigations have not yet been concluded." 28 In the
meantime two members of the commission had died, and perhaps
others. In view of this circumstance and the fact that fifteen years
after the experiments were begun they were still unfinished, it is
improbable that they were ever brought to a conclusion. The
most that can be learned is that the object in view was to deter-
mine the measure of expansion that would give the best results
in practice, that a program for the experiments was considered
at a meeting held in New York on June 29, 1864, at the Novelty
Iron Works, of which Horatio Allen was the president, that the
apparatus proposed by him was approved by the commission,
that after delay this apparatus was made ready for use, and that
experiments were conducted by five assistant engineers detailed
by the Navy Department, one of whom had general charge,
while the other four kept regular watch of operations.29

A COMMITTEE ON MATERIALS FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF

CENT COINS. 1864

This committee, which was misnamed in the reports of the
Academy, was appointed on April 11, 1864, at the request of the
Secretary of the Treasury, Salmon P. Chase, " to examine and
report upon aluminum bronze, and other materials for the manu-
facture of cent coins." 30 It consisted of John Torrey (chairman) ,
Joseph Henry, Wolcott Gibbs, F. A. P. Barnard and the Presi-
dent, A. D. Bache, who was added by request of the Treasury
Department. The phrase from the first Annual of the Academy,
quoted above, defining the duties of the committee, though
occurring in substantially the same form in the report of the

28 Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1864, pp. 2 and 5-7; also for 1866, p. 3, and for 1879, p. 9.

29 See Rep. Seer. Navy, 1864, pp. xxix, xxx, and 1095, 1096, House Exec. Doc. no. i,
38th Congress, zd Session; also Isherwood's "Experimental Researches in Steam Engineer-
ing," vol. 2, 1865, p. xxxi.

10 Ann. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1863-64, p. 40.

228 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

President of the Academy, appears not to be quite accurate. If
it be so, it may indicate that the views of the Secretary of the
Treasury and the Director of the Mint were not entirely in
accord regarding the cent coinage. The latter in his report for
1864 remarks: " During the past year some interesting experi-
ments were made with aluminum as an alloy for coins; not with
a view to displace the bronze coinage, but to propose a system
of tokens for five and ten cents." 31 It is not surprising that the
Director of the Mint should not have contemplated a change in
the bronze coinage at that date, as the Government had just
adopted bronze one cent and two cent pieces, more than
42,000,000 of the former and about 2,000,000 of the latter having
been coined in 1864. It would seem that the idea was not at all
to displace these new and popular coins, but rather to determine
the properties of aluminum bronzes, particularly with a view
of employing them for other forms of currency. The experi-
ments were suggested by certain claims put forward in France
that a small percentage of aluminum added to silver would
prevent the latter from tarnishing when exposed to fumes con-
taining sulphur, while at the same time forming an alloy of con-
siderable hardness.

While the committee had the subject under consideration an
article on aluminum bronzes was published by Moreau,32 and it
was found that he had fully covered all the points regarding the
characteristics of those alloys which the committee was to investi-
gate. The proceedings were on this account confined simply to
preparing a bar of aluminum bronze, and having coins struck
from it at the mint in order to ascertain to what extent the alloy
was suitable for coinage. The bar was prepared by Joseph
Saxton, a member of the Academy, and transmitted by Joseph
Henry to the Director of the Mint, who in turn placed it in the

11 Rep. Dir. of the Mint in Rep. Seer. Treas. for 1864, p. 214. House Exec. Doc. no. 3,
38th Congress, 2d Session.

"Moreau, G. Ueber die Eigenschaften der Aluminiumbronze. (Aus Armengaud's
Genie industriel, December, 1863, S. 291; durch das polytechnische Centralblatt, 1864, S.
312.) Polytechnisches Journal, Herausgegeben von Dr. Emil Maximilian Dingier, vol. 171,
1864, PP- 434-442-

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 229

hands of the assayer, J. R. Eckfeldt. The report of the Director
of the Mint, James Pollock, contains a statement regarding
the nature of the experiments which were made with this bar,
the results obtained, and the conclusions derived therefrom. He
first remarks that experiments had been made two years pre-
viously to determine whether aluminum bronzes could be used for
medals, that they had resulted negatively, and that then the use
of such alloys for coins had been suggested. He continues :

" A further series of experiments was therefore undertaken here, at the desire
of the Secretary of the Treasury and a committee of scientific gentlemen. The
latter forwarded to the mint a bar for this purpose, which, by assay, was found to
contain the proportion of nine parts copper to one of aluminum. Their directions
were closely followed and the principal results may be briefly stated as follows :

" The aluminum bronze, in the proportion just stated, is very rigid under the
rolls, requiring many annealings, and liable to crack and break into plates of

oblique fracture This hardness gives it a great advantage in wear. Coins

of the cent size were made of this alloy, of legal bronze, and pure copper. The
three varieties placed in boxes and rapidly shaken for a long time,33 treated equally
in all respects, lost by attrition in the following ratio: Assuming the aluminum
bronze as the standard of comparison, the legal bronze lost about three times, and
the copper about six times as much. This property, however, is of no great conse-
quence in coins of little value.

" A point of much greater consideration is the avoidance or mitigation of the
tendency to change color and become foul from the usual causes, viz., the action of
oily and saline excretions of the hand ; the chemical agencies which are met with in
market-stalls, and the slops of drinking saloons, and the mere exposure to air and
moisture. If any metal or alloy could be found that would look well, and keep
clean with the usage to which our small coins are generally subjected, it would be
deservedly popular. This can scarcely be expected. A silver coin can be deprived
of its original beauty and become of such a hue as to have its genuineness called
into question. Pure aluminum, white at first, assumes a bluish tint by atmospheric
action; and aluminum bronze, although closely resembling gold at first, was
found, after being held in the sweaty hand for a few hours, to have received an
ugly tarnish which destroyed the .last argument for employing it in currency.

" After these experiments were concluded others were started, in the hope of
finding a binary or ternary alloy which would answer the required conditions,
especially as to ductility and keeping color for coins of a grade a little above the
cent and two cent pieces. After some progress had been made, it became evident,

**This experiment was suggested by Joseph Henry.

230 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

from the fact that cents were hoarded to such an extent as to keep them out of
circulation, that in the present state of the currency it would be futile to attempt
to carry out the project. More than this: we believe the end of our nation's
troubles is nigh, and that peace will soon bless our country. With peace we may
confidently expect an influx of silver, always more acceptable than any substitute,
which will supply every want and furnish a currency of ' small coins ' equal to any
demand." 34

Pollock's prophecy as to the return of peace and the return of
fractional silver currency into circulation were both fulfilled,
and further experiments with aluminum alloys became unneces-
sary. The work of this committee of the Academy, which was
indeed limited in extent, led, therefore, to no practical results.*5

COMMITTEE ON THE EXPLOSION ON THE UNITED STATES
STEAMER CHEN AN GO. 1864

During the Civil War the Government ordered the construc-
tion of 27 light-draft side-wheel steamers, intended for use as
gun-boats. Among these was the Chenango. These vessels
were known as " double-enders," or " double-bowed," from the
circumstance that they were fitted with a bow and rudder at each
end. The Chenango was built at a private shipyard in New
York. The boilers were constructed at the Morgan Iron Works

34 Rep. Seer. Treas. for 1864, pp. 214-215. The report of the assayer to the committee of
the Academy, which contains many interesting details, is given in full in the Annual
Report of the Academy for 1864, PP- 8-10. (House Exec. Doc. no. 66, s8th Congress,
2d Session.)

M The experiments mentioned above seem not to have become generally known. We read
in Richard's "Aluminum: Its History, Occurrence," etc., the following:

" Aluminum has often been proposed as a material for coinage, but the only recommenda-
tion it ever possessed for this purpose was its high price It is said that the United

States Government made experiments, in 1865, in making aluminum coins, but that the results
were not sufficiently successful to induce its adoption. What the difficulties were I cannot find
out, but they were — aside from the uncertain value — probably the fact of the great power
required to stamp the coins, which is stated to be several times that needed for silver
unless the metal is of exceptional purity. The problem of hardening it by adding a little
silver or nickel did not probably stand in the way of its adoption. However, as an alloy
in ordinary silver coins to replace copper, aluminum can be successfully used, since 5 per
cent of aluminum added to silver makes an alloy as durable as ordinary silver coin with
10 per cent of copper, without giving it the yellow color of coin silver."

Aluminum: Its History, Occurrence, Properties, Metallurgy and Applications, including
its Alloys. By Joseph W. Richards, M. A., A. C. 2d ed. 8°. Philadelphia, 1890, p. 370.

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 231

and were of a kind known as the Martin boiler, which had verti-
cal tubes. A large number of vessels in the Navy were fitted
with boilers of this type, while others had boilers with horizontal
tubes, opinion being divided as to the relative merits of the
two forms.

The Chenango was delivered at the Brooklyn Navy Yard
early in 1864 and placed in command of Lieutenant Fillebrown.
On the afternoon of April 15 the vessel left the Navy Yard for
Sandy Hook to join the Onondaga for blockade service. She
steamed slowly past Governor's Island and entered the Narrows,
when one of her boilers exploded, scalding thirty-two of the
crew of whom twenty-eight died.86

This terrible accident " appalled the whole country," and an
inquest was immediately held in New York to ascertain if pos-
sible the circumstances under which it occurred. A very large
number of witnesses were examined, and the testimony given
occupies 141 printed pages.37 The jury was unable to agree and
two verdicts were rendered, the majority holding that the ac-
cident resulted from " the bursting of one of the boilers, which
was caused by a greater tension exerted on the boiler than it
could bear, the result of the unproper bracing," while the
minority asserted that the boiler " exploded from low water and
superheated steam."

The specifications for the boilers were prepared by the Navy
Department, while the boilers themselves, as already men-
tioned, were built at private iron works in New York. It is
probable that the majority verdict was unacceptable to the Navy
Department because it could be interpreted as implying that
the specifications were faulty. Doubtless on this account the
Department, on April 30, 1864, through its Assistant Secretary,
authorized the President of the Academy to appoint a com-
mittee to make an independent investigation of the cause of the
accident. He appointed J. F. Frazer, Fairman Rogers and

3SSee the New York Herald for April 16 and 17, 1864.

37 See " The Boiler Explosion of the Martin boiler on board the U. S. ' Double-ender '
Chenango. The Coroner's Inquest. A full report of the testimony, the charge of Dr. Morris
to the jury and the verdicts." New York, 1864. 8°.

232 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

L. M. Rutherfurd on May 2, 1864, as the committee. The com-
mittee visited the Brooklyn Navy Yard and made a painstaking
examination of the boilers, " one of the committee having entered
the boilers and made a minute and thorough examination of
their internal condition." The detailed report submitted on
August 5, 1864, contains the following conclusion; "The com-
mittee are unanimously of opinion that the rupture of the shell
of the boiler of the Chenango was caused by the insufficiency
of the vertical stays, by which the top of the boiler was fastened
to the tube-boxes to withstand the pressure for which the boiler
was intended, and that these stays were both deficient in number
and injudiciously arranged," and again " the committee are of
opinion that the boiler was not braced in accordance with the
specifications, and that this difference was the cause of the dis-
aster." This report clearly throws the main responsibility for
the accident on the private constructors rather than on the
engineers of the Navy Department, though it would seem that
the Government inspectors were not entirely absolved thereby.
As a slight concession to the makers of the boilers, the committee
in closing points out a certain fault in the specifications which
they had corrected.

COMMITTEE ON GALVANIC ACTION FROM ASSOCIATION OF
ZINC AND IRON. 1867

At the close of the Civil War and for some years afterwards
the headstones which marked the graves of soldiers in the
national military cemeteries consisted for the most part of
wooden blocks, painted white, with the names of the soldiers, the
numbers of the regiments to which they belonged, and other
data in black lettering. It was felt both by the Government and
by the general public that these perishable marks should be re-
placed by others of an enduring character before the records
which they bore should become obliterated.

It was determined by the War Department, probably on
the recommendation of General Meigs, Quartermaster-General,

**Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1864, p. 13.

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 233

that the permanent marks should take the form of cast-iron
blocks coated with zinc. It was suggested to the Secretary of
War, however, that these blocks might be injured or destroyed as
a result of galvanic action between the two metals. He, there-
fore, requested through the Acting Quartermaster-General that
a committee of the Academy be appointed to advise him as to
the probability of such action in the metal headstones.
The letter was as follows : 39

" QUARTERMASTER GENERAL'S OFFICE,

" Washington, D. C., January 8, 1867.

" SIR: It having been suggested to the War Department that the coating with
zinc of the iron head-blocks, with which it is proposed to mark soldiers' graves,
will produce galvanic action that will tend to a destruction of the iron blocks, the
Secretary of War has directed me to submit the subject to the Academy of
Sciences here, with a view to obtain an intelligent opinion on it, and to ascertain
if there be any good ground for the apprehension.

" In obedience to this direction, I respectfully submit the subject to you with a
request that you will present it to the Academy of Sciences and advise me of their
opinion thereon, that I may make report thereof to the Secretary of War.
" I am, very respectfully, your obedient servant,

" D. H. RUCKER,
" Acting Quartermaster General, Brevet Major General.

" The PRESIDENT OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, Washington, D. C"

A committee consisting of Joseph Henry, J. H. C. Coffin and
Joseph Saxton was appointed by the President on the same day.
It reported on January 17, as follows:

" NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES,

" Washington, January 17, 1867.

" SIR: In compliance with your request, the undersigned, a committee of the
National Academy, appointed to examine the proposed cast-iron head-blocks for
soldiers' graves, and state whether, in their opinion, the coating of zinc will tend
to produce a galvanic action destructive to the iron, respectfully report as follows :

" The head-block submitted to the committee is a hollow truncated pyramid
of cast iron, on one side of which, in raised figures, is the No. 12,646, and on
the top, also in raised letters, the name of a soldier, his regiment, and a date,
probably that of his death. This block is entirely covered inside and out with

119 Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1866, p. 17. Sen. Misc. Doc. no. 44, 4oth Congress, ist Session.

234 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

a coating of zinc, of greater thickness on the surface containing the letters and
figures.

" From well-established principles of galvanism, and from the direct experi-
ments of the committee, it is certain that while the zinc coating covers every part
of the surface of the iron, no other galvanic action will take place than that
exhibited in the ordinary corroding of a single metal, but that as soon as the
smallest portion of the iron is exposed to the liquid precipitation from the atmos-
phere, a galvanic current will be established passing through the liquid from the
zinc to the iron, that the former will be more rapidly corroded than it was
previous to the exposure of the iron, and that this action will go on until all the
zinc is dissolved. The iron, during the process, will be protected from the action
of the atmosphere at the expense of the zinc. After all the zinc has been dis-
solved, the iron, being unprotected, will then be corroded in the usual manner.

" From this statement it is evident that the coating of zinc will tend to prolong
the existence of the iron in its metallic state, though it will not afford a perpetual
protection such as may be given by a coating of enamel like that used in covering
the basins of iron sinks, kettles, etc.

" The experiment made by the committee consisted in attaching to one end of
the wire of a galvanometer a plate of zinc and to the other end a plate of iron.
These two plunged in a vessel of water slightly acidulated by sulphuric acid, gave
rise to a powerful current of galvanism from the zinc to the iron. While the
zinc was rapidly corroded the iron remained unaffected. By substituting for the
zinc a plate of copper, a still more powerful current was produced in the opposite
direction. The iron in this case was violently acted upon, while the copper
retained its brightness.

" The committee may state, as a general rule, that when two different metals
are placed in metallic contact, the one most readily acted on by an acid will be
dissolved, while the other will be protected, and that the action on the metal dis-
solved will be increased in intensity by the association. Thus, iron in association
with zinc is protected, while the same metal in connection with copper is more
rapidly corroded than it is without such connection.

" Respectfully submitted,

" JOSEPH HENRY,
" J. H. C. COFFIN,
" JOSEPH SAXTON.
" GENERAL D. H. RUCKER, U. S. A.,

" Acting Quartermaster General."

It will be observed that this report refers exclusively to the
metals composing the headstones and that the opinion expressed
was that iron blocks would not endure perpetually. While the
report was pending, a discussion of another character regarding

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 235

these headstones took place in the Senate. The House of Repre-
sentatives had passed a bill (House Res. no. 788) for the mark-
ing of soldiers' graves in the National Cemeteries, and this bill
was reported from the Committee on Military Affairs to the
Senate on January 18, 1867. It was in charge of Senator Wilson
of Massachusetts, who, it will be remembered, introduced the
bill for the incorporation of the Academy in 1863. The follow-
ing discussion ensued:

" NATIONAL CEMETERIES.
"(Senate, January 18, 1867.)

" MR. WILSON. I am directed by the Committee on Military Affairs and
the Militia to report back without amendment the bill (H. R. No. 788) to
establish and protect national cemeteries; and I ask for its present consideration.

" By unanimous consent, the Senate, as in Committee of the Whole, pro-
ceeded to consider the bill

" The second section provides that each grave shall be marked with a small
marble or cast-iron headstone, with the number of the grave thereon corresponding
with the number opposite to the name of the party inscribed on the monu-
ment

" MR. WADE. I have seen some of these iron monuments provided for by
this bill, and I think it is not creditable to the country to have such monuments
over the graves of our soldiers. They are small cast-iron slabs, not more, perhaps,
than eighteen inches high.

" MR. RAMSAY. Not over twelve inches.

" MR. WADE. Perhaps that is it; I did not measure them. They look more
like a tin kettle than anything else, and are liable to be kicked off and kicked
about and changed from one grave to another by any mischievous person. I think
the Committee on Military Affairs cannot have seen a specimen of them. They
seem to me to be totally inadequate for the purpose contemplated, and it is dis-
creditable to the country to erect such things as monuments for its soldiers.

" MR. CONNESS. A kind of solemn toy !

" MR. WADE. Yes, a solemn toy, or whatever you please. It is a burlesque
rather than a monument. If we cannot do any better than that, I would much
rather that nothing should be done. I think it is discreditable to us, and must
be a means of wounding the feelings of the relations of the soldiers who may
have occasion to visit the cemeteries where their remains are deposited.

" I hope the bill will not pass in this form. I think it had better lie over, and
let the Committee on Military Affairs inspect these monuments and see if some
better model cannot be adopted. I was assured by persons in charge of some of

236 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

the cemeteries that they were entirely opposed to the adoption of any such plan or
style of monument, and I agree with them most heartily. I think if the Military
Committee will look into the subject they will come to the same conclusion that I
have arrived at. There are other gentlemen here who inspected some of these
cemeteries at the same time that I did, and who as I understand came to the same
conclusion.

" MR. WILSON. By existing law the War Department was authorized to
prepare these monuments, and I am told they have agreed upon this plan. I have
no particular reason for pressing this bill now if the Senate does not wish to act
upon it at present. I am willing to take time to make further inquiries. The
main feature of the bill, however, and the great object is to get possession of the
land necessary for the sites of these cemeteries.

" MR. RAMSAY. I think if the chairman of the Committee on Military
Affairs would inquire of the Quartermaster's Department in this city he would
find a large number of protests there from all those who have charge of these
national cemeteries in the South against the adoption of this plan, which seems to
have met the approbation of the Department, of iron tombstones, so called. They
almost universally object, and there are many representations on file upon the
subject. I think the committee should take some steps immediately to check the
further execution of the contract if it has already been entered into. It is
unquestionably wrong.

" MR. WILSON. I have no objection to the bill lying over, and I shall call
it up after I have made the necessary inquiries.

" The PRESIDENT pro tempore. Does the Senator make that motion?

" MR. WILSON. I do.

" The PRESIDENT pro tempore. It is moved that the further consideration
of this bill be postponed.

" The motion was agreed to." 40

On February 9, 1867, the bill was recommitted to the same
committee and was reported back on February 13, 1867.

On February 14, 1867, it was taken up for discussion and the
ist and ad sections amended and consolidated so as to direct
the Secretary of War merely " to cause each grave to be marked
with a small headstone, or block, with the number of the grave
inscribed thereon," etc., without specifying the material. The
bill was then passed."

*° Congressional Globe, January 18, 1867, pp. 539, 540.
"Op. cit., pp. m8, 1308.

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 237

The Secretary of War had, in the meantime, received the
report of the Academy, which he acknowledged in the following
letter:42

" WAR DEPARTMENT, WASHINGTON, D. C,

"January 23, 1867.
" PROF. HENRY, ETC., ETC.

" DEAR SIR: The report made at my request by the National Academy, rela-
tive to the subject of galvanic action on the iron head-blocks proposed for marking
soldiers' graves, has been submitted to this department, and I offer my thanks to
the Committee for the valuable information it contains. I beg now to refer the
case back again for report whether there is anything known to the Academy of a
nature which would be more suitable on account of its durability, and at the same
time not so expensive as to forbid its use for the purpose, than the combination of
materials already submitted to your Committee for their opinion ; and would be
glad to have an opinion as to the fitness of these materials for the purpose
designated.

" Very respectfully, dear sir, your obedient servant,

" EDWIN M. STANTON,

" Secretary of War."

There is no evidence in the records of the Academy that
this second request was complied with, though in view of sub-
sequent proceedings it is not unlikely that it was.

As indicated by the discussion in Congress, opinion in the
War Department was divided on the subject of the headstones,
some officials favoring the iron blocks and others regarding them
as unsuitable. Quartermaster-General Meigs was absent from
duty on account of illness during the year 1867 and a part of
1868 also, and on December 19, 1867, the acting officer, General
Rucker, made a number of recommendations to the Secretary of
War relative to the National Cemeteries, among which was the
following:

" That proposals be speedily invited by the Quartermaster-General for cast-
iron (zinked) head-blocks of the pattern enclosed, in quantities sufficient to mark
all the graves not now supplied with proper wooden head-boards; and that the
contract for them be let, and the blocks erected without delay (provided it shall
be deemed too expensive to erect stone blocks, after definitely ascertaining the true
cost of the same). " 43

42Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. i, pp. 61, 62.

43 Rep. Seer. War for 1868, vol. 3, part i, p. 908. Exec. Doc. no. i, 4001 Congress, sd
Session.

17

238 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The paper was returned on January 3, 1868, with the follow-
ing endorsement: " Erect the fences and lodges, but do nothing
about the headstones. By order of the Secretary of War.
(Signed) Ed. Schriver, Inspector General." 44

Later, when General Meigs returned to duty, he submitted a
report, dated October 20, 1868, in which he remarked:

" ON HEADSTONES IN NATIONAL CEMETERIES.

" No progress has been made in erecting, as required by law, permanent blocks
at each grave.

" I am still of the opinion that the best monument for this purpose yet con-
trived is the small rectangular block of cast iron, galvanized to protect it from
rust, and rilled with earth or cement.

" This planted at the grave will last for many years. It is not costly, is easily
transported, and not an object of plunder.

" With the wages of stone-cutters at $5 a day, the cost of 320,000 headstones
properly lettered would be a very great charge upon the treasury.

" The wooden head-boards are now rapidly decaying, and to replace them is
expensive.

" For the action of the department in this matter I refer to the detailed
report of Colonel [C. W.] Folsom herewith." 45

No further action appears to have been taken in the matter
until 1872, when Congress amended the Act of 1867, so that the
Secretary of War was directed merely to " cause each grave to
be marked by a small headstone, with the name of the soldier
and the name of the State inscribed thereon." 46 The question of
material, which is here omitted, as it was from the Act of 1867,
was finally settled the following year, when Congress directed
that, " the headstones .... shall be of durable stone, and of
such design and weight as shall keep them in place when set, ....
and the Secretary of War shall first determine for the various
cemeteries the size and model for such headstones, and the
standards of quality and color of the stone to be used." 4T

44 Loc. cit.

"Rep. Gen. M. C. Meigs, Quartermaster General, in Rep. Seer. War for 1868, p. 818.
Colonel Folsom's report occurs in the same document, pp. 894-916.

*" Stat. at Large, vol. 17, 1873, p. 345, 42d Congress, zd Session, chap. 368. Act approved
June 8, 1872.

47 Stat. at Large, vol. 17, 1873, pp. 545, 546, 42d Congress, 3d Session, chap. 229. Act
approved March 3, 1873.

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 239

Thus, after the lapse of more than six years the Government
was committed to a course of action which was in harmony with
the advice of the Academy, though it is probable that esthetic
and sentimental considerations had more weight than that of
permanence.

COMMITTEE ON PROVING AND GAUGING DISTILLED
SPIRITS AND PREVENTING FRAUD. 1866

In the early history of the United States excises or internal
revenue taxes were extremely unpopular on account of their
association in the minds of the people with the despotism and
extortions of colonial times. Nevertheless, the Government
found it necessary to lay such a tax in 1791, which led to resist-
ance and the well-known Whiskey Insurrection of 1794. In
Jefferson's administration all internal revenue taxes were abol-
ished, but it was found necessary to revive them again in
connection with the War of 1812. After that war they were
once more discarded and no excises were collected subsequently
until the outbreak of the Civil War. The enormous demands
then made on the treasury necessitated the establishment of a
vast series of internal revenue taxes, which were levied on
property and activities of every description, Nothing was too
great or too small to be pressed into service and the revenue
collected in this way in the year 1866 amounted to more than
$300,000,000.

Among the articles subjected to taxation at this time were
distilled spirits manufactured in the United States. At an
earlier date only imported spirits were taxed and a simple system
of inspection sufficed, but the collection of a high internal
revenue tax on all domestic spirits necessitated much greater
vigilance, a better form of proving instruments and a more
elaborate system of inspection. By a singular coincidence the
system of inspection employed for fifteen years prior to the Civil
War was based on the recommendations of Professor Alexander
Dallas Bache, the first President of the Academy. This system
had now to be modified to adapt it to the new conditions.

240 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

On February 15, 1866, the Secretary of the Treasury Hugh
McCulloch addressed a letter to Joseph Henry, then acting
President of the Academy, requesting that a committee be
appointed to report to the department on the best method of
proving and gauging alcoholic liquors, with a view to the estab-
lishment of such rules and regulations as would insure a uniform
system of inspection of spirits subject to duties.48 Professor
Henry accordingly appointed a committee to consider the sub-
ject, assuming the chairmanship himself and designating as his
associates J. E. Hilgard and M. C. Meigs. At the same time,
F. A. P. Barnard, John Torrey and B. F. Craig were requested
to prepare tables of standard mixtures of alcohol and water. Dr.
Craig was not a member of the Academy.

The chief difficulty regarding the system recommended by
Professor Bache in 1848 was that the Tralles hydrometer, which
was the one then proposed, gave percentage in alcohol, instead
of percentages in " proof spirit," or a mixture of 50 per cent
alcohol and 50 per cent water, upon which all commercial
negotiations were based. While the former could readily be con-
verted into the latter in most cases, it would lighten the labors
of the inspectors if their hydrometers gave readings in proof
spirits. Tralles' hydrometer, furthermore, was not adapted for
quick observations within one per cent, which it was necessary
should be recorded, on account of high duty; or for gauging
large quantities of spirits out-of-doors in inclement weather, or
under other unfavorable circumstances. It was also found that
the tables used by the Treasury Department were not entirely
correct.

In view of these circumstances, the committee set itself the
laborious task of finding a more convenient hydrometer, and of
preparing new tables. Its report was submitted on July 21, 1866.
The recommendations were that following the custom of the
trade, the strength of distilled spirits should be estimated accord-
ing to their equivalent in proof spirits, and be expressed in
terms of percentage of proof spirits rather than by the use of the

48 Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1866, p. 18.

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 241

terms " above proof " and " below proof "; that a special form
of hydrometer designed by Wm. G. Tagliabue of New York,
be used instead of the ordinary Tralles instrument, and that
the Government should test these hydrometers and issue them to
the inspectors free of expense. The hydrometers, which were
figured in the report of the committee, were to be made in series
of five each, so graduated as to cover all percentages from pure
alcohol to pure water. The tables which accompanied the report
cover 25 pages. They give real and apparent specific gravities
and percentages for all mixtures of alcohol and water at different
temperatures from zero to 100° Fahrenheit, together with other
data of similar character. In addition, the report has appended
to it a " Manual for inspectors of spirits," consisting of tables
showing the true percentage of proof spirits for and indication
of the hydrometer at temperature between o° and 100° F., and
instructions for their use. This part of the report covers thirty-
four pages.

The committee was not content to restrict its tables to the
temperature limits of the earlier ones, but carried on an elaborate
series of experiments to ascertain the proper readings of hydrom-
eters at temperatures as low as zero Fahrenheit. This was neces-
sitated by the fact that spirits were sometimes received at ware-
houses in the Northern States in winter time at temperatures far
below freezing and often approaching the zero of the Fahrenheit
scale. These experiments were carried on, by request of the
Treasury Department, at the laboratory of the Surgeon-Gen-
eral's Office, and were conducted by Dr. B. F. Craig.

The committee also considered various forms of hydrometers
and decided to recommend one which, in its opinion, was best
adapted for the revenue service. Dr. John Torrey and Dr.
F. A. P. Barnard made especially accurate mixtures of water
and alcohol and prepared and marked a series of delicate floats
which were afterwards used by Tagliabue in graduating the
hydrometers which he manufactured for the Treasury Depart-
ment.

242 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The whole report, covering 39 printed pages, was, as already
mentioned, submitted to the Secretary of the Treasury on July
21, 1866. In the Annual Report of the Academy for 1866
Joseph Henry said regarding the work of the committee:

" . . . . The duty devolved upon the members of the committee was one of much
labor and responsibility. The tables accompanying the report are of much value,
and will be referred to by all persons engaged in pursuits requiring a knowledge
of specific gravity and volume, at various temperatures, of alcoholic spirits of
different strength; they are not only indispensable to the distiller, rectifier and
gauger of spirits, but will prove extremely useful in the laboratory of the chemist,
and in many processes of manufacture involving the use of alcohol." 49

At an earlier date, however, on April 19, 1866, the committee
recommended to the Treasury Department the adoption of a
definition of " proof spirit," and this definition was incorporated
in the internal revenue law,50 together with the provision that
the Secretary of the Treasury should procure suitable hydrom-
eters and other instruments. At the beginning of the fiscal year
1866-67, therefore, the Treasury Department was in possession
of the information necessary for the establishment of a new
system of proving and gauging spirits and the authority for
carrying it into effect. In his report for 1867 the Commissioner
of Internal Revenue remarks on this subject as follows :

" For several years there had been frequent complaints of a lack of uniformity in
the inspection of distilled spirits in different sections of the country. The accounts
of revenue officers were disturbed, and the interest of shippers prejudiced by diffi-
culty in procuring their proper allowance for leakage. The Treasury, too, was fre-
quently, it is presumed, unfavorably affected by an excess of such allowance. To
secure, therefore, a uniform and correct system of inspection and gauging of spirits
subject to tax throughout the United States, the Secretary of the Treasury, in Feb-
ruary last, adopted the hydrometer of Mr. Tagliabue, of New York. This hydrom-
eter was approved by a committee of the National Academy of Sciences, consisting
of Professor Henry, General Meigs, and Professor Hilgard, and has been fur-
nished, with an accompanying manual prepared and printed for that purpose, to
collectors of the Internal Revenue for the use of duly appointed inspectors in
their several districts. The caliper and head-rod system of gauging has been

49 Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1866, p. 3.

"See Stat. at Large, vol. 14, 1868, p. 157, 39th Congress, ist Session, chap. 184, sec. 33,
and Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1866, p. 21.

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 243

adopted likewise, and a manual of instructions in their use furnished revenue
officers. The hydrometers are furnished by the manufacturer in sets of five, at a
charge of eighteen dollars per set, and in sets of three at thirteen dollars. Seven
hundred and thirty-four sets have been received from the manufacturer at a cost of
$11,826.50, and about five hundred sets have been distributed to officers.
Inspectors supply themselves at their own charge with the necessary gauging
instruments." 51

Thus the work of the committee relative to the proving and
gauging of spirits was completed, but the question of the preven-
tion of fraud still remained for consideration.

There was a widespread belief at the time, based on the
strongest evidence, that the Government was being deprived of
a vast amount of its revenue through frauds practiced on an
enormous scale, either by the distillers separately or in collusion
with the inspectors, and many thought that these could be stopped
by making the capacity of the distilleries the basis of the tax.
The Commissioner of Internal Revenue, E. A. Rollins, was con-
vinced that this idea was erroneous, but he was of the opinion
that measurement of the output by means of meters attached
to the stills would aid the inspectors in detecting gross misstate-
ments of the amount of spirits manufactured, besides having
incidental advantages. He remarks in his report for 1867 re-
garding the law as follows :

" It does not undertake to levy the tax in accordance with any real or estimated
capacity, for this has always been regarded as impracticable; but it does endeavor
to give to revenue officers information from which the possible product may be
approximately estimated, so that fraud may well be presumed if the product

returned is unreasonably small Could the production of distilleries be

ascertained for the purpose of taxation by some mechanical means, and were it
impracticable for distillers to deceive officers or to collude with them, it is evident
that much of the cost of supervision would be avoided, while efforts to discover
illicit spirits after they have left their place of production would no longer tend to
embarrass and discourage honest dealers. It was for this reason that the Depart-
ment was persuaded nearly two years ago to invite the co-operation of the National
Academy of Sciences, and a committee of the Academy, consisting of Professors
Joseph Henry and J. E. Hilgard, gentlemen of eminent ability and wide reputa-
tion, has given the subject the full consideration which its importance deserves." 62

81 Rep. Comm. of Int. Rev. for 1868, p. xxxiii.

62 Rep. Comm. Int. Rev. for 1867, pp. xxvii, xxviii.

244 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The committee, on its part, believed that an instrument could
be devised that would measure the output of the stills. In its
report of July 21, 1866, the committee remarks:

" The committee confidently believe that a spirit meter can be constructed
which will register the quantity of spirits passing from a still, and afford a
reliable check on the distiller and inspector.

" They recommend that an instrument based upon the principle of Worthing-
ton's water-meter be constructed and submitted to trial.

" Of various inventions submitted for measuring and registering the quantity
of spirits passing from a still, the only one which has commended itself for sim-
plicity and certainty of action, is that of Cox & Murphy, of Montreal, which
the committee likewise recommend to be submitted to actual trial in a distillery,
for several months, under the supervision of an officer of the revenue." 53

And in the report for 1867:

" The desire of the Internal Revenue Department to possess a reliable spirit-
meter having become generally known through its officers and agents, a large
number of inventions were brought forward, from time to time, between June,
1866, and January, 1868, and referred to this committee. The examination of
the various plans and models, and the correspondence incident thereto, involved
the expenditure of much time and labor, the constant aim being to develop any
promising plans by pointing out defects, and making suggestions of improvement
when practicable." 64

The committee examined in all some 18 different meters and
submitted written reports on most of them. This work occupied
a year and a half, the last report being submitted on January 2,
1868. The meter of Cox and Murphy did not, in the end, prove
satisfactory, and the committee finally turned to that of I. P.
Tice, of New York, which was recommended to the Treasury
Department for adoption on April 3, 1867. On August i, 1867,
Joseph Henry and J. E. Hilgard read before the Secretary of
the Treasury and the Commissioner and Deputy Commissioner
of Internal Revenue a statement relative to modes of defeating
the operation of spirits meters.55 On October 9, 1867, they sub-
mitted rules for the use of the Tice meter, and by the end of
that year 19 such meters had been attached to distilleries in

58 Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1866, p. 56.
54 Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1867, p. 12.
KLoc. cit., p. 24.

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 245

New York. Early in 1867 General Meigs was obliged to with-
draw from the committee on account of ill health. He was re-
placed by L. M. Rutherfurd, who in turn was prevented by sick-
ness from taking an active part in the work of the committee. The
labors of 1867 fell, therefore, entirely upon Henry and Hilgard.

No sooner had the adoption of the Tice spirit meter been
decided upon than difficulties began to arise regarding it. The
manufacturer, through sickness and unforeseen mechanical
difficulties, failed to deliver the meters as promptly as agreed
upon, and he also claimed that on account of the small number
ordered the cost of manufacturing them was necessarily greater.
The Treasury Department thereupon increased the order to 100
meters. As already mentioned, a number of these instruments
were attached to distilleries in New York late in 1867 and early
in 1868. They had scarcely been put into operation than a storm
of opposition arose from the distillers, and on February 3, 1868,
a joint resolution of Congress was approved appointing a com-
mission of five persons who, in connection with the committee
of the Academy, should again immediately examine all meters
presented to them for consideration and report to Congress in
detail the results of their examination, together with such recom-
mendations as would in their opinion promote the interests of
the Government. The resolution also directed that all work on
the construction of meters under direction of the Treasury De-
partment should be suspended until the report was submitted,
and that no further contract for such instruments should be made
under the act of March 2, i867.56

The introduction of this resolution led to an extended and
acrimonius discussion in both houses of Congress, a discussion
which took a wide range and even involved the question of the
integrity of the highest officers of the Government. Those who
opposed the measure did so on the ground that no form of meter
would protect the Government from fraud, or that scientific
men were not qualified to pronounce on the practical utility of

"See Stat. at Large, vol. 15, 1869, pp. 246, 247, 4oth Congress, 2d Session, Res. no. 9.

246 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

such instruments as applied to distilleries, or that the new com-
mittee would merely renew the recommendation of the com-
mittee of the Academy, or that to enact the second section of the
resolution, which prohibited the Treasury Department from
attaching any more meters to distilleries until the Commission
reported, would open the door to greater frauds. Those who
favored the resolution pointed out that the Tice meter had
proved effective as far as tried, but that other devices had been
brought forward after the adoption of the former had been
decided upon, which while operating on the same principle,
might give more accurate results, or operating on other prin-
ciples might give a better indication of the amount of spirits
produced or producible. They considered that the inventors of
these devices were entitled to a hearing and that the distillers
should not be compelled to pay for the Tice meters while it was
still uncertain whether they might not be soon discarded for
more effective ones. In the end the resolution prevailed and
was approved.

Upon the passage of this resolution, the manufacturer whose
meters had been adopted by the Treasury Department, I. P.
Tice, discharged his employees and closed his manufactory.
The report of the new commission was submitted in March,
1868, and was again favorable to the Tice meter, which the com-
mittee of the Academy had already recommended. No action
was taken thereon, however, until July 20, 1868, when the Com-
missioner of Internal Revenue was authorized to adopt and pre-
scribe for use such meters as he should deem necessary. He once
more adopted the Tice meter, and Mr. Tice was persuaded to
reopen his manufactory and construct the instruments required.
Though he employed some 125 workmen to construct the meters
and others to attach them to the distilleries, only eleven were so
equipped in November, 1868. The distillers resisted the use of
the meters as far as possible, and some closed their distilleries to
prevent the application of the instruments."

The matter had progressed thus far when the Commissioner
of Internal Revenue began to entertain suspicions as to the

57 Rep. Comm. Int. Rev. for 1868, pp. xx, xxi.

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 247

real utility of the meter and to resolve his doubts he, accordingly,
appointed an expert commission to make a series of practical
tests regarding it in order to ascertain whether its use should be
continued.58

Who these experts were, or what was the nature of their rind-
ing is not disclosed in the reports of the Commissioner of
Internal Revenue, but it is evident that the latter was unfavorable
to the use of the meter, for we read in the report for 1871 that
" the period within which distillers were required to procure
meters was extended from time to time until the 8th day of June,
1871, when Circular No. 96 was issued discontinuing their use."

Thus, at the end of nearly five years' agitation of the subject
the Government abandoned its project of utilizing meters to
gauge the capacity of distilleries, but found itself in possession
of improved instruments for proving spirits. Of the latter,
which were recommended by the committee of the Academy
the Commissioner of Internal Revenue said in 1871, "These
instruments distributed under the present system of inspection,
seem to give general satisfaction, and their accuracy and uni-
formity have relieved the trade of the embarrassments resulting
from errors in gauging."

COMMITTEE ON THE IMPROVEMENT OF GREYTOWN
HARBOR, NICARAGUA. 1866

For one brief period the Academy was concerned with a
question connected with the great problem of an isthmian canal
which had occupied so many minds since the discovery o<f
America. In the middle of the iQth century attention was being
concentrated more and more on Nicaragua as the region which
offered the greatest natural advantages for the construction of
this important artificial waterway, and diplomatic contests were
being waged unceasingly by capitalists and by the principal com-
mercial nations of the world to gain or maintain control over the

'sRep. Comm. Int. Rev. for 1869, pp. xvi, xvii.
59 Rep. Comm. Int. Rev. for 1871, p. vi.
00 Op. cit., p. vii.

248 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

enterprise. Companies were organized which obtained valuable
concessions from the existing Nicaraguan government, only to
have them withdrawn in a few months by a succeeding govern-
ment; undertakings commenced with great enthusiasm and a
liberal outlay soon languished for lack of financial support, or
terminated abruptly in consequence of the expiration of charters ;
adventurers appeared who misled the Nicaraguan legislatures
by claiming the support of European powers, but were soon
repudiated by their governments and forced to withdraw. Such
kaleidoscopic changes went on continuously down to the time
when the French Panama Canal Company decided to offer its
holdings to the United States at a price which the latter was
willing to consider, and attention turned suddenly from Nicara-
gua to Panama.

Among the American companies which undertook to build
the Nicaraguan canal and obtained concessions from the
government was one organized in 1849 and called the " Com-
pania de Transito de Nicaragua." This was soon merged in
the larger " Atlantic and Pacific Ship-Canal Company " con-
trolled by Cornelius Vanderbilt and other American capitalists.
As the ship-canal was likely to be long in building, a subsidiary
company was formed in 1851, which opened a passenger route
from Greytown up the San Juan River and across Lake Nicara-
gua by boat, and thence down to the Pacific coast by a stage road.
This route had been in operation but a few years when the
American adventurer Walker appeared in Nicaragua and hav-
ing been successful in overturning the existing government pro-
ceeded to have the charter of the canal company revoked and its
property confiscated in retaliation for an action unfavorable to
his ambitions which was taken by the United States. While
the company was endeavoring to recover its rights, a French ad-
venturer persuaded the Nicaraguan government to turn over
the canal concession to him, claiming that he was supported in
his enterprise by France. The French government, however,
repudiated him, and the Nicaraguans being now in a friendly
mood toward the United States granted the rights of the steam

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 249

navigation within her territories and the construction of an
interocean canal to a new American organization, known as
the Central American Transit Company of which Francis
Morris was the president.61 It was this company which invoked
the aid of the National Academy of Sciences in solving the
problem of improving the harbor of Greytown on San Juan del
Norte, that was to be the Atlantic terminus of the canal.

At the beginning of the i9th century the harbor was one of
the most important on that coast. In 1832 it was reported that
its width at the mouth was one and three-quarters miles, with
a channel depth of 30 feet. Afterwards it became rapidly choked
by sand, and in 1861 the width of the entrance was only 300
feet, while in 1865 Captain Jones of H. M. S. Shannon reported
that it had a bar across it after a storm from the North, though in
continued fine weather the river scoured out a channel of eight
or ten feet. The chart made by the American engineer Preston
C. F. West shows but 8 feet at the entrance at low water on
February 4, 1865, while on May 25 of the same year this
entrance was closed and a new one was opened through the sand
spit farther to the East.

The idea that the National Academy of Sciences should in-
vestigate the condition of the harbor and if possible recommend
means for improving it appears to have originated with J. E.
Hilgard, who was the Acting Superintendent of the U. S. Coast
Survey in 1866, and corresponded with the Nicaraguan minister
on the subject. The minister, Don Luis Molina, repeated the
suggestion in a letter addressed to Secretary Seward and re-
quested that a committee of the Academy be appointed to carry
it into effect. Seward in turn presented the matter to Joseph
Henry, then Acting President of the Academy, with the request
that he would comply with the wishes of the Nicaraguan min-
ister, and a committee was duly appointed. The correspond-

61 There were two of these transit companies, the relations between which are not clear.
One called the " Nicaraguan Transit Company " had as its president W. H. Webb, while
the other, as noted, was called the " Central American Transit Company," and had Francis
Morris as president.

250 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

ence, which has been printed in the report of the Academy, is

as follows : 62

" DEPARTMENT OF STATE,

"WASHINGTON, July 12, 1866.

" SIR: The department has received a communication from the minister of
the republic of Nicaragua containing a note addressed to him by Mr. J. E. Hil-
gard, in charge of the United States Coast Survey office, recommending the
appointment of a board to consist of the members of the Academy of Sciences, of
which you are the vice-president, for the purpose of investigating and reporting
upon the practicability and best means of improving the navigation of the Lower
San Juan river, and reclaiming the harbor of San Juan del Norte, in Nicaragua,
which recommendation is fully approved by the minister in his communication to
this department. He recommends in addition that Mr. Hilgard form a member
of the board, whom he represents as possessing the necessary charts and reports,
and as being well advised on the difficult subject to be investigated.

" It may not be unnecessary to mention the fact that by a contract entered into
between the government of Nicaragua and the Central American Transit Com-
pany on the loth of November, 1863, the latter undertakes to effect a good
interoceanic transit through the republic of Nicaragua.

" I would thank you if you would act upon the suggestion of the minister of the
republic of Nicaragua; and, in the event of the organization of the board, I will
beg of you to instruct the same, that should a good interoceanic transit be found
impracticable under the limitations contained in the contract of the Central
American Transit Company, above referred to, to inquire into the expediency of
effecting such transit way within the region surveyed by Captain West.

" I have the honor to be, sir, your obedient servant,

" WILLIAM H. SEWARD.
" PROFESSOR JOSEPH HENRY, &c., &c., &c., Washington."

" SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,

" September 20, 1866.

" SIR : I have the honor to inform you that in compliance with your request
of July 1 2th, 1866, the subject of the improvement of the river and harbor of
San Juan del Norte, in Nicaragua, was referred to a committee of the National
Academy of Sciences, and that this committee has made the investigation required,
and now through me presents the accompanying report.

" The committee, which was chosen with reference to special fitness from
previous study and experience for the investigation, consisted of the following
members of the Academy: A. A. Humphreys, major general and Chief Engineer
United States Army; C. H. Davis, rear-admiral United States navy and Super-

62 Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1866, pp. 4, 5.

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT

intendent National Observatory; J. E. Hilgard, assistant United States Coast
Survey, acting Superintendent.

" In accordance with article II, section 4, of the act of incorporation of the
Academy, Mr. Henry M. Mitchell, of the United States Coast Survey, (not a
member of the Academy), was appointed to assist in the investigation.

" The committee, after a careful study of all the materials furnished by Don
Luis Molina, and those obtained from other sources, has arrived at conclusions
and are enabled to give suggestions, which, it is hoped, may be found of value to
the government of Nicaragua, and of importance in the commerce of the world.
The report of the committee points out the causes and progress of the deterioration
of the harbor of Greytown; considers the question of its partial restoration, and
the means to be adopted to attain this end. It also considers the problem of
increasing the depth and volume of water in the river as an essential condition
of the improvement of the entrance of the harbor, and presents a definite opinion
as to the results which may be expected when the works which are indicated
have been completed. It discusses the availability of the Colorado pass, and closes
with a recapitulation of all the conclusions.

" I have the honor to remain, very truly, your obedient servant,

" JOSEPH HENRY,

" Vice-President of the National Academy.
" HON. WILLIAM H. SEWARD,

" Secretary of State."

There is little to add to Henry's summary of the report of the
committee, which report was published in full in 1867 as an
appendix of the Annual Report for the preceding year and gives
a good general idea of the operations of the committee.63

The committee did not visit Nicaragua, but formed its con-
clusions entirely from the documents and maps laid before it
by Molina. Its principal recommendation for the improvement
of the San Juan River and the harbor of Greytown will be
readily understood when the conformation of the lower portion
of the river is explained. At a point about 15 miles from the
coast it divides into two branches one of which retains the name
of San Juan, while the other is known as the Colorado. The
latter has by far the greater flow of water, is comparatively
unobstructed, and is open to navigation by steamboats at all
seasons of the year. The recommendation of the committee

63 Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1866, pp. 4-16, with one chart.

NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

was that a weir should be placed at the point of bifurcation of
the two streams so as to direct about one-half of the water of the
Colorado River to the San Juan, the idea being that the increased
flow in the latter which would result would probably deepen its
channel, while at the same time increasing the supply of water
in the harbor.

It is obvious, however, that the committee regarded the con-
dition of the harbor as practically hopeless, and that it was far
from being convinced that the adoption of its suggestions would
produce satisfactory results. This will appear from the follow-
ing excerpts from the report:

" The deepening that we have advised in the lower San Juan, in the neighbor-
hood of the weir, may prove sufficient to improve the whole stream, since the
great proportion of water added at the dry season and the considerable increase
of the wet season discharge must act powerfully upon the bed of the stream, and
increase its depth wherever a yielding bottom is found. It may, however, well be
feared that this scour, induced along the bed of the stream, will sweep into the
harbor-basin masses of material not so easily removed from the deeper water of
the anchorage-ground as from their present positions.

" It appears possible that the fate of Greytown harbor might have been averted
by timely efforts to arrest the sand and cut off their supply We have pro-
posed improvements, but these must fall very short of a renovation of the noble har-
bor that once welcomed to an ample and secure anchorage the largest ships that

crossed the Caribbean Sea The original bight of Greytown cannot be

restored. The only hope of improvement rests upon the possibility of maintaining
a navigable outlet from the present lagoon by increasing the outflow of the lower
San Juan and arresting the drifting sand of the coast The basin in Grey-
town, where ships formerly lay at anchor, has been largely reduced in size and
depth by the advance of the river delta upon one side and the drifting in of sand
on the other. The time is not very distant at which the river will debouch directly
upon the sea.

" It will be necessary to maintain a sufficient anchorage basin by means of
dredging." 6*

It is a matter for conjecture how far the committee would
have modified its recommendations if it had visited Nicaragua
and made an examination into the conditions actually existing
there. Commander E. P. Lull, U. S. Navy, who made a survey

64 Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1866, pp. 14, 15.

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 253

of the San Juan River in 1873, was not at all hopeful that the
suggestions of the committee could be carried into effect. He
remarks in his report:

"A committee of the National Academy of Sciences in 1867 proposed, as a
partial remedy for the decay of the river and harbor, the dredging out of the
channel of the Lower San Juan and the construction of a weir from Leaf's Island
to Concepcion Island. The latter of these is in the main river, near its right bank,
and above the forks. The former has now become joined to the angle or point of
the mainland between the two branches. Concepcion Island is 2,000 feet from the
point. The strongest part of the current runs between the two. The island is
constantly cutting away at one place and forming at another, being composed
entirely of silt banked around drift-logs which have lodged in the shoal water.

" The weir, if indeed it could be constructed at all with such a combination of
unfavorable conditions, viz., the depth and strength of the water, and the yielding
character of the bottom, would be quite as likely to fail in as to effect, the object in
view, /'. e., the turning of the current into the Lower San Juan, unless the latter
was dredged out to a sufficient width and depth to prevent, by drawing it away,
the water from cutting around the dam. This would have to be done for a dis-
tance of thirteen miles. I confess myself to have been very much discouraged
when these facts and convictions impressed themselves on my mind." 65

On account of these conditions, he proposed to eliminate the
Lower San Juan and carry the traffic in a canal which should
leave the river at a point about 42 miles from the coast. Recent
maps indicate that this plan, with various modifications, was
generally accepted down to the time when the interest in an
interoceanic canal shifted from Nicaragua to Panama.

COMMITTEE ON THE PROTECTION OF COAL MINES FROM
EXPLOSION BY MEANS OF ELECTRICITY. 1870

In the Proceedings of the Academy mention of this committee
is made under date of April, 1870, in the following terms :

" Mr. Gould reported in behalf of himself and Mr. Ferrel, the Committee on
the letter of Mr. Fua, of Padua, addressed to the President of the United States,
in reference to the protection of Coal Mines from explosion by electricity, and
referred by him to the Academy, ' That the same communication has been made to

60 Report of Explorations and Surveys for a Ship Canal through Nicaragua, 1872-73,
p. 61. Sen. Exec. Doc. no. 57, 43d Congress, ist Session.

18

254 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

the academies of Paris and Berlin, by Mr. Fua, and published by them, and since
the methods involve no new principle or mode of application, no action on the
part of the President or Government seems to be needful.'

" The report was accepted and the Committee discharged." 66

On turning to the Comptes Rendus of the Academic des
Sciences, Paris, one finds this statement regarding the matter in
question :

" M. Fua soumet au jugement de F Academic quelques details relatifs a un
precede qu'il croit propre a prevenir les accidentes causes par les explosions du
grisou. Ce precede consiste essentiellement dans 1'emploi de spirals de platine
rendus incandescentes, a certains intervalles, par le passage d'un courant electrique ;
ces spirales mettraient le feu a des meches de coton soufre, trempees dans une
pate gommee de phosphore et de chlorate de potasse." 67

COMMITTEE ON THE EFFECT OF CHEMICALS ON INTERNAL
REVENUE STAMPS. 1870

Prior to 1870 it was the practice of the Government to print
internal revenue stamps on ordinary paper in ink of a single color.
It resulted from this that by skilful manipulation the cancellation
marks could be removed and the stamps used a second time to
avoid the payment of revenue. The Government thus suffered
serious loss, and was under the necessity of devising means of
preventing the continuance of the nefarious practice. The Com-
missioner of Internal Revenue, therefore, introduced radical
changes as regards the kind of paper used for the stamps and the
ink with which they were printed. Instead of employing ordinary
paper, a special kind of paper was adopted, which was manu-
factured under the supervision of the Government. At the same
time it was made unlawful, as in the case of paper for bank-notes,
to make any of it, to sell it or to have it in one's possession. In-
stead of printing with one kind and color of ink, the stamps were
printed in two or more colors, and the printing was divided
between private contractors and the Government, the former
printing certain tints on them, and delivering them to the Bureau

68Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. i, pp. 76-77.
67 Comptes Rendus, vol. 68, p. 805. 1869.

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 25$

of Engraving and Printing which completed them and delivered
them to the office of the Commissioner of Internal Revenue to
be issued.

In order to ascertain whether these changes were likely to be
effective, the Acting Commissioner of Internal Revenue on April
13, 1870, sent some specimens of the stamps to the Academy
with the request that they be examined by it, with regard to
their sensitiveness to the action of chemicals. This request was
contained in the following letter 68 addressed to Joseph Henry,
President of the Academy:

" TREASURY DEPARTMENT, OFFICE OF INTERNAL REVENUE,

"WASHINGTON, April 13, 1870.

" SIR : In accordance with the third Section of the Act of Congress incor-
porating the National Academy of Sciences, I have the honor to submit herewith
specimens of proposed Internal Revenue Stamps for examination and report with
reference to their sensitiveness to chemical agencies applied for the purpose of
removing ink, cancellation marks, and their durability under ordinary usage.

" Very respectfully,

" J. W. DOUGLASS,

" Acting Commissioner.
" PROF. JOSEPH HENRY,

" President National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D. C"

A committee consisting of Wolcott Gibbs, Samuel W. John-
son and John Torrey was at once appointed to consider the
subject. The records of the Academy do not contain the report
of the committee but we may infer that it was to the effect that
the changes introduced would prevent fraud, as the Commis-
sioner remarked in the following year:

" It is believed that the stamps now being furnished under the contracts alluded
to, cannot be tampered with. Especially is this thought to be the case with the
adhesive, and tobacco, snuff, and cigar stamps printed on chameleon paper. This
paper so effectually changes its color upon the application of chemical agents
employed for the restoring of stamps for re-use, as to render restoration to its
original state impossible." 69

Troc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. i, p. 76.
""Rep. Comm. Int. Rev. for 1870-71, p. xiv.

256 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

COMMITTEE ON THE TRANSIT OF VENUS. 1871 AND 1881

Two transits of Venus across the sun's disc have occurred
since the foundation of the Academy fifty years ago. These
took place in 1874 and in 1882. No more will occur until the
year 2002. As early as 1870, or even before that date, plans
began to be formulated for observing these rare celestial phe-
nomena. At the session of the Academy held in Washington
in April, 1870, Simon Newcomb read a paper, " On the coming
transits of Venus and the mode of observing them," in which he
said:

" . . . . Although the next transit does not occur for four years, the pre-
liminary arrangements for its observation are already being made by the govern-
ments and scientific organizations of Europe. It is not likely that our govern-
ment will be backward in furnishing the means to enable its astronomers to take
part in this work. The principal dangers are, I apprehend, those of setting out
with insufficient preparation, with unmatured plans of observation, and without a
good system of cooperation among the several parties. For this reason I beg leave
to call the attention of the Academy to a discussion of the measures by which we
may hope for an accurate result."

After explaining the methods which it was necessary to
employ, he remarked:

" .... I have endeavored to show that no valuable result is to be expected
from hastily-organized and hurriedly-equipped expeditions; that every step in
planning the observations requires careful consideration, and that in all the pre-
paratory arrangements we should make haste very slowly. I make this presenta-
tion with the hope that the Academy will take such action on the matter as may
seem proper and desirable." 70

At the same session a committee was appointed by the Presi-
dent of the Academy to secure the successful observation of the
transit. It consisted of Benjamin Peirce, Superintendent of the
Coast Survey, Rear-Admiral Charles H. Davis, at that time in
charge of the Naval Station at Norfolk, and Commodore B. F.
Sands, Superintendent of the Naval Observatory.

In his report for the year 1870, the Secretary of the Navy,
George M. Robeson, remarked :

™Amer. Journ. Sci., ser. 2, vol. 50, 1870, pp. 74-83. On the mode of observing the coming
Transits of Venus. By Simon Newcomb. Read before the National Academy of Sciences,
April 13, 1870.

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 257

" The arrangements necessary to secure the successful observation of the transit
of Venus, which will occur on December 8, 1874, have begun to receive the atten-
tion of the observatory.

" It is essential to the complete success of these observations that the various
parties which may be sent out by the Government should make their observations
on a uniform and carefully prepared plan.

" The Superintendent of the Observatory has been invited to become a member
of a committee of the National Academy of Sciences, appointed to devise such a
plan. The functions of the Academy being purely advisory, and it being expected
that the cooperation and assistance of the ablest astronomers of the country would
be secured by this committee, the invitation was accepted.

" Although this committee has not yet met, certain experiments and trials with
the apparatus and instruments of observation are necessary in any case. As many
experiments and many alterations of apparatus, all requiring time and careful
consideration, may be necessary, the small appropriation of $3,000, for instruments
and apparatus, is called for." 71

In the Sundry Civil Act for the fiscal year 1872, approved
March 3, 1871, Congress made an initial appropriation for the
expenses of observing the transit, but reduced the amount pro-
posed by the Secretary to $2,ooo.72

For some reason which is not apparent the committee of the
Academy was increased in April, 1871, by the addition of five
new members, namely, L. M. Rutherfurd, J. C. Watson, Simon
Newcomb, J. H. C. Coffin, and F. A. P. Barnard.

The following year (1872) Rear-Admiral Sands, Superin-
tendent of the Naval Observatory, reported thus :

" At the last session of Congress an appropriation was made for the purchase of
instruments for the proper observation of the transit of Venus in 1874, to be
expended under the direction of a commission, to be composed of the Superin-
tendent and two Professors of the Naval Observatory, the President of the
National Academy of Sciences, and the Superintendent of the United States Coast

"Rep. Seer. Navy for 1870, p. 46.

"The item in the Sundry Civil Act is as follows:

"For preparing instruments for observation of transit of Venus, two thousand dollars;
Provided, That this and all other appropriations made for the observations of the transits
of Venus shall be expended, subject to the approval of the Secretary of the Navy, under the
direction of a commission to be composed of the superintendent and two of the professors
of mathematics of the navy attached to the Naval Observatory, the president of the
National Academy of Sciences, and the superintendent of the coast survey, for which services
they shall not receive any compensation." Star, at Large, vol. 16, 1871, p. 529, 4ist Congress,
3d Session, chap. 117, 1871.

258 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Survey. Professor Simon Newcomb, United States Navy, and William Hark-
ness, United States Navy, were detailed as the two Professors of the Observatory,
and, at a meeting of the commission,73 the Naval Observatory was authorized to
take charge of the details of the Transit of Venus expedition. Experiments are
being made and preparations are now in hand for completing contracts for the
manufacture of the necessary instruments and planning the proper temporary
observatories for the several stations to be occupied. This necessarily takes much
of the time of the Professors, but as legitimate work of such an institution it is
cheerfully and zealously performed." 74

In the meantime, in the Sundry Civil Act for 1873, approved
June 10, 1872, Congress had made a second appropriation
for the purchase and preparation of instruments, amounting to
$50,000, to be expended, like the first, under the direction of
the Commission.75

The time of the transit was now approaching and the Chief
of the Bureau of Navigation, Daniel Ammen, reported at the
close of that fiscal year (1873), that the preparations were
practically complete.76 Admiral Sands also remarked, " The
work progresses favorably, and the expeditions are expected to
leave their stations early next June." "

Congress made a third appropriation for the fiscal year 1874,
amounting this time to $100,000, to enable the Secretary of the
Navy to organize parties to observe the transit, and in conjunc-
tion therewith authorized him to detail two vessels to convey
them to their several stations.78

Early in 1874 Admiral Charles H. Davis became Superin-
tendent of the Naval Observatory and in that capacity took part

7*The first meeting of the Commission was held July 22, 1872.

7*Rep. Seer. Navy for 1872, p. 94. Prof. J. H. C. Coffin, Superintendent of the Nautical
Almanac Office, reported the same year.

"As one of the preparations for the transit of Venus, in December, 1874, maps and
tables to facilitate predictions of the several phases of that phenomenon have been con-
structed by Mr. G. W. Hill, of this Office. Their publication has been assumed by this com-
mission on this transit appointed by Congress, as one of their series of valuable papers
relating to it." Op. cit., p. 96.

" Stat. at Large, vol. 17, 1873, p. 367, 42d Congress, 2d Session, chap. 415.

78 Rep. Seer. Navy for 1873, p. 79.

" Op. cit., p. 94.

78 Stat. at Large, vol. 17, 1873, p. 514, 42d Congress, 3d Session, chap. 227, 1873. Sundry
Civil Act for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1874, approved March 3, 1873.

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 259

as chairman of the Transit of Venus Commission in the opera-
tions then in progress.79 His report and that of the Secretary of
the Navy contain an admirable summary of the undertaking up
to June 30, 1874. The Secretary, George M. Robeson, writes:

" It has been a part of the duty of this Department, under provisions of laws
passed by Congress at its last three sessions, to organize expeditions for observing
the transit of Venus, which occurs on December 8 of the present year. A plan
of observation was very carefully matured by the commission created by Congress
for that purpose in 1871, and the organization and arrangement of the parties were
made to accord with that plan. The entire scientific corps of the expedition, num-
bering forty-two persons in all, spent several weeks at the Naval Observatory last
spring in preliminary practice with the same instruments they were to use at the
stations, thus becoming familiar with the difficult and delicate operations involved
in the final observations. The five parties designed for the southern stations
were embarked on the ship Swatara, Capt. Ralph Chandler, and sailed from
New York June 8. So far as yet known the parties were all successfully landed
at the selected stations, with the single exception of that on the Crozet Islands.
Here there is no anchorage, and the constant stormy weather which prevailed
during the period which it was prudent for the ship to delay, prevented a landing.
The possibility of this failure had been anticipated by the commission, and the
Swatara had been directed to land the party at or near Melbourne, in the event
of failure to land at the station first selected.

" The three northern parties were sent by the regular course of commercial
conveyance to Nagasaki, which had been selected as one of the stations. The
parties designed for Wladiwostok and Peking were taken thither from Nagasaki
by naval ships.

" It not being prudent to attempt the return of all the southern parties by the
Swatara, the Monongahela was sent out from the Brazilian station to convey the
party from Kerguelan Island to Rio de Janeiro, whence they can return by regular
lines of travel." 80

Admiral Davis adds some interesting information regarding
the photographic work connected with the observations:

" Under the specific action and direction of this commission, from time to
time the requisite instruments have been selected and made ; the parties have been
constituted, the station adopted, and the work of preparation and instruction
has been carefully matured and strictly executed.

"At the meeting of the gth of February, 1874, it was decided to invite Dr.
Henry Draper, of New York, to take charge of the work of putting into suc-

79 See Life of Charles H. Davis, p. 332.

80 Rep. Seer. Navy for 1874, p. 16.

260 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

cessful execution the various operations necessary for photographing the transit
of Venus by the methods decided upon by the commission, and of instructing the
parties in those operations. Dr. Draper accepted this arduous duty, and per-
formed it in a manner which commands the gratitude and respect of the com-
mission. Dr. Draper declined to receive any compensation or reimbursement for
his invaluable services and for his unavoidable personal expenses while traveling
and residing in Washington, on the service of the commission.

" The system of practice was fully carried out, and the several parties destined
for the observation of the transit of Venus in both hemispheres, left the United
States fully qualified in all respects to perform their duties.

" Instructions for conducting the scientific operations of the parties were pre-
pared by Professor Newcomb, printed, and freely distributed." 81

The Transit of Venus Commission of 1874, which was con-
sidered as having continued in existence, took charge of the
arrangements for the observations of the transit of 1882 and
prepared instructions to the observers that were printed by
authority of the Secretary of the Navy.82 The Secretary remarks
as follows in his report for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1882:

" TRANSIT OF VENUS

" Professor Harkness has been principally occupied in fitting out the parties for
observing the approaching Transit of Venus, and in reducing the zone observations
made in Chili during the years 1850, 1851, and 1852, by the astronomical expe-
dition to the southern hemisphere, under the late Capt. James M. Gilliss

" Everything relating to the organization of the Transit of Venus parties is
confided by law to the Transit of Venus Commission ; but as most of the executive
work has been done at the Observatory, it may be proper to refer to it here.

" The instruments used for the last Transit have been examined and repaired ;
all necessary changes have been made in them, and some new instruments have
been purchased.

" At a very early stage of its deliberations the Commission decided to rely
mainly upon the photographic method of observing, and, to ascertain the most
suitable kind of emulsion, an extensive series of experiments was made by Mr.
Joseph A. Rogers, who has also prepared all the emulsion needed for the various
parties.

81 Rep. Seer. Navy for 1874, pp. 68-69.

82 Instructions for observing the Transit of Venus, December 6, 1882, prepared by the
Commission authorized by Congress, and printed for the use of the observing parties by
authority of the Hon. Secretary of the Navy. Washington, 1882. 4°. Pp. 1-50, with
4 charts.

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 261

" The number of parties organized is the same as at the last Transit, namely,
eight, of which four will remain in the United States, and the other four have
already departed for the southern hemisphere." 83

The following additional information also appears in the same
report:

" TRANSIT OF VENUS

" The preparations for observing the coming transit of Venus have occupied
the attention of the Transit of Venus Commission, of which the Superintendent
of the Naval Observatory is the chairman.

" The method selected for the observation will be similar to that used in 1874,
viz., by photography. A party will occupy each of the following stations: Cape
of Good Hope; Santa Cruz, Patagonia; Santiago de Chile; New Zealand; San
Antonio, Tex.; Cedar Keys, Fla.; Fort Selden, N. Mex. ; and Washington,
D. C." 84

The results of the observations of 1882 have not been published
in detail, and perhaps will not be, but a report from each station
is included in Newcomb's " Astronomical Constants " in the
supplement to the American Ephemeris of 1887, pages 71 to 77.

COMMITTEE ON WATER-PROOFING THE FRACTIONAL

CURRENCY. 1875

In 1875 the Government was making use of a secret,
patented process for water-proofing the paper on which the
fractional currency and funded-loan bonds were printed. The
principal feature of the process was that the paper was sized
after having been printed upon. During the first session of
the 44th Congress, the committee of the House of Representa-
tives on Expenditures in the Treasury Department requested the
Secretary of the Treasury to submit answers to a series of ques-
tions relating to the printing of the securities of the United
States. The last two questions in the series, which numbered
twenty- two in all, were as follows:

"21. Does the amount given in answer to the fifteenth question, include the
expense of labor in the use of the water-proofing process, and also the amount of
royalty paid for its use ?

83 Rep. Seer. Navy for 1882, vol. i, p. 117.

84 Loc. cit., p. no.

262 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

" 22. State if any commission, and composed of what persons, by name, has
examined the value of the water-proofing process, as recommended in the report
of the Committee on Banking and Currency, made February 16, 1875 ; and, if so,
please annex a copy of their report, if any has been made. If no report has been
made to you in writing, has any and what oral report been made to you? And
have you urged the parties having the matter in charge to make report to you." 8S

These detailed inquiries were directed primarily at a com-
mittee of the Academy. In replying to them, on March 31, 1876,
the Secretary of the Treasury, B. H. Bristow, remarked that
no royalty was paid on the water-proofing material, which was
purchased by the gallon, and that on July 30, 1875, he had
requested the President of the Academy, Professor Henry,
to appoint a committee to examine into the merits of the water-
proofing process. He remarked that Professors J. E. Hilgard,
C. F. Chandler, Henry Morton and William Sellers had been
appointed, and continued as follows :

"On the 3Oth of August last [1875] I requested those gentlemen to com-
mence their investigations, and at the same time I instructed the Chief of the
Bureau of Engraving and Printing to afford them every facility therefor in his
power.

" I am advised that they called and examined the machinery for applying the
' water-proofing ' to the paper, and the manner in which it was done, and that
they were furnished with a sample of the material and with specimens of blank
and printed paper, water-proofed and not water-proofed. Every facility to con-
duct their investigation was afforded them, and they were furnished with all
the information possible upon the subject.

" During the autumn Professor Hilgard, chairman of the commission, called on
me and submitted for my inspection a memorandum in writing of the principal
points of his proposed report, which were deduced from his examination. He
stated, as the result of his examination and tests, that he was convinced that the
process in question was of great advantage and of great utility both as to dura-
bility and security, and that he would recommend that the Government should
purchase the invention from the proprietor, with a view to a more economical
application of the process.

" The general tenor of the report having been thus foreshadowed by the
chairman of the commission, I saw no reason, at that time, and have had no cause

85 House Misc. Doc. no. 163, 44th Congress, ist Session, pp. 2, 3; ordered printed, April 3,
1876.

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 263

since, to question the usefulness of the process, and I therefore continued its use
until the Bureau was closed and work on the fractional currency stopped

" Professor Henry has recently procured additional sheets of water-proofed
and not water-proofed paper for the purpose of further testing the matter.

" On the first instant [March I, 1876] I requested him, by letter, to have the
report of the commission made as soon as practicable, it having already been
delayed a considerable time." 86

The committee of the House of Representatives was not
satisfied with these answers and on May 2, 1876, called for all
the papers in the case, the real state of which then became mani-
fest. The report of the committee of the Academy had been
finished and sent to the Secretary of the Treasury on April 29,
1876, who transmitted it with the other papers.87 Professor
Hilgard's memorandum was also included.

From these papers it appears that Professor Hilgard had
changed his opinion regarding the water-proofing process on
account of the results of certain experiments made by Pro-
fessor Morton, and had affixed his signature to a report deny-
ing the value of the process instead of affirming it, as he had
done in his memorandum. In the meantime, Professor Henry
had made certain experiments, as indicated above, and had
reached the conclusion that the committee had not proved that
the process was worthless. He therefore returned the report
with the request that the committee would reconsider its decision.
This the committee found itself unable to do and Professor
Henry then transmitted the report to the Secretary of the
Treasury, but attached a note to it expressing his own convictions
in the matter.

The Secretary of the Treasury had secured an independent
favorable opinion from Prof. John M. Ordway. It followed
therefore, that Hilgard, Morton, Chandler, and Sellers were not
in favor of the continuance of the use of the process, while Henry
and Ordway regarded it as valuable, or at least were not con-
vinced of its worthlessness.

88 Loc. clt., p. 14.

87 It forms part of House Misc. Doc. no. 163, part 2, pp. 22-28, 44th Congress, ist Session.

264 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

COMMITTEES ON THE ARTIFICIAL COLORING OF SUGARS,
ON THE USE OF THE POLARISCOPE TO DETERMINE THE
VALUE OF SUGARS, AND ON DEMARARA SUGARS. 1876-1878

These three committees were appointed in 1876, 1877, and
1878 at the request of the Treasury Department, and were con-
cerned with the question of the valuation of sugars in connec-
tion with customs duties.88 For many years the duties on
different grades of sugars were levied in accordance with their
color, or what was known as the Dutch standard. After a time,
however, the Government began to suspect that certain sugars
were artificially colored, whereby the higher grades were made
to assume the appearance of the lower grades,89 and were in
consequence assessed at a lower rate than that which was prop-
erly chargeable. In a test case which was tried in Baltimore in
1878, the court decided that the fact of the artificial coloring of
the sugars concerned for the purpose of defrauding the revenue
was proven but held that no penalty could be enforced because
it was not demonstrated that the importer had a guilty knowledge
that the coloring was done for the purpose of escaping the higher
duty.90 Thus, while the fact that certain sugars were artificially
colored was no longer in question, the position of the Govern-
ment as regards the collection of duties was no better than before.
Acting on the opinion of the court, however, the Treasury De-
partment temporarily ordered that wherever the color of sugar
was mentioned in the law it should be interpreted as meaning
the color which it would naturally have as a result of the partic-
ular process by which it had been produced, or at the particular
stage to which the process of clarification had been carried.
Whenever there was reason to suspect that sugar had been
artificially colored, its saccharine strength was to be determined
and duty levied in accordance with the color which it would
normally have when of that strength.91 The strength was deter-
mined by the use of the polariscope, and the Customs Office had

88 Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. i, p. 133. Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1879, p. n.
"Rep. Seer. Treas. for 1877, pp. xxvi, xxvii.
90 Rep. Seer. Treas. for 1878, p. xxvii.
"Rep. Seer. Treas. for 1879, pp. xxiv, xxv.

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 265

a corps of employees, known as examiners, whose duty it was
to test samples of sugar by means of the polariscope and report
their findings to the chemist in charge. This system continued
in practice for a few years, but always against protest of the
importers, and in 1882 the Supreme Court decided that the
customs officers were bound under the law to accept the color
as it appeared and levy duties accordingly, although they might
be entirely certain that the coloration was artificial.92

It is not quite clear from the records of the Academy at what
point in the development of the matter its advice was sought by
the Government, or what the exact relationships were between
the different committees, but apparently the main questions re-
lated to the natural colors of different grades of sugar, and the
use of the polariscope in determining saccharine strength.

The first committees were probably appointed in 1876 but
their membership is not a matter of record. They were styled
in the Annual Report of 1879 committees on " Artificial coloring
of sugars designed to simulate a lower grade according to the
standard on which duties are levied " and in the same place the
remark is made : " This subject was repeatedly considered by
committees of the academy in 1876 and 1877, and reports were
made to the [Treasury] department, which for obvious reasons
have not been published." 93 From various statements contained
in the reports of the Secretary of the Treasury it seems allowable
to suppose that the Academy suggested the use of the polariscope,
or even made experiments demonstrating that certain sugars
were artificially colored, and that the fact could be determined
by means of that instrument. The President of the Academy,
Joseph Henry, acted as a separate committee on the use of the
polariscope or polarimeter, for determining the value of sugars,
and reported in 1877. ^n *he same year a third committee,
Frederick A. Genth, reported to the Treasury Department on
" Demarara sugars," but the nature of his report is not a matter
of record.

92 Rep. Seer. Treas. for 1882, pp. xxii, xxiii.
94 Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1879, p. n.

266 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

As already mentioned, the Treasury Department, about the
year 1878, introduced the use of the polariscope in determining
the saccharine strength of certain sugars suspected of being
artificially colored, but in 1882 the Supreme Court ruled that
the Department was obliged under the law to accept the color
as it appeared. This unsatisfactory condition of affairs was
brought to the attention of Congress the same year by the
Secretary of the Treasury who remarked in his report:

" The Supreme Court, in a recent decision, has interpreted the existing law to
be, that customs officers may not look beyond the apparent color, and must classify
the invoices thereby, though satisfied that the color is artificial and made to get a
lower rate of duty. That standard [the Dutch standard] was adopted, doubt-
less, believing that color showed value. The intention was to put upon sugar,
duties in effect ad valorem. As it has come about, however, the grades of sugar
highest in value, when thus artificially colored, come in at the lowest rate of duty.
The purpose of Congress in adopting the Dutch standard is measurably defeated.
Provision should be made for just classification. This may be done by putting on
an ad valorem duty, by a specific duty, or by authorizing some standard other than
that of apparent color. Now, domestic producers do not get the incidental pro-
tection meant to be given them. Importers, too, are subject to embarrassment in
fixing the rate of duty on their goods, and otherwise," 94

On this representation Congress, in 1883, enacted the follow-
ing law, authorizing the use of the polariscope in certain
instances :

" An act to reduce internal-revenue taxation, and for other purposes.

"Be it enacted (etc.), .... (p. 488).

" SEC. 6. That on and after the first day of July, eighteen hundred and eighty-
three, the following sections shall constitute and be a substitute for Title thirty-
three of the Revised Statutes of the United States :

" TITLE xxxui
" DUTIES UPON IMPORTS (p. 489)

" SCHEDULE E. — SUGAR

" All sugars not above No. 13 Dutch standard in color shall pay duty on their
polariscopic test as follows, viz:

" All sugars not above No. 13 Dutch standard in color, all tank bottoms, sirups
of cane juice or of beet juice, melada, concentrated melada, concrete and con-

MRep. Seer. Treas. for 1882, pp. xxii, xxiii.

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 267

centrated molasses, testing by the polariscope not above seventy-five degrees, shall
pay a duty of one and forty-hundredths cent per pound, and for every additional
degree or fraction of a degree shown by the polariscopic test, they shall pay four-
hundredths of a cent per pound additional.

"All sugars above No. 13 Dutch standard in color shall be classified by the
Dutch standard of color, and pay duty as follows, namely: " . . . . (p. 502 ).95

Thus, the use of the polariscope in levying duties on certain
grades of sugar, recommended, as we may believe, by the
National Academy, was finally legalized, and the executive
branch of the Government was aided, for a time, at least, in its
efforts to collect the proper revenue from this commodity.

COMMITTEE ON PROPOSED CHANGES IN THE
AMERICAN EPHEMERIS. 1877

This committee was appointed at the request of the Secretary
of the Navy who, in December, 1877, expressed the desire that
the Academy would advise him as to changes in the Nautical
Almanac which would render that publication more useful to
navigators and others. The members of the committee were
J. E. Hilgard, J. H. C. Coffin, Asaph Hall, Charles A. Schott,
Charles A. Young, James C. Watson and C. H. F. Peters. It
reported at the end of the year 1877 or early in 1878, but the
report appears not to have been published. From the report
of Prof. Simon Newcomb as Superintendent of the Nautical
Almanac for the fiscal year 1877-78, however, we learn the
nature of the changes proposed by the Academy. Under date
of October 26, 1878, he writes: 96

" .... In December, 1877, on recommendation of the office, the honorable
Secretary of the Navy referred to the National Academy of Sciences the question,
what changes were required in the Ephemeris to make it more serviceable to those
who use it. A committee of the Academy recommended several extensive changes,
involving the omission of matter of which some was not regarded as necessary,
and some could be readily derived from data in other parts of the work. The
space thus left was filled by the addition of matter considered useful. The chiefs
of several government surveys desired a large increase in the list of fixed stars
contained in the Ephemeris, in order to facilitate the determination of geographical

85 Stat. at Large, vol. 22, 1883, pp. 488, 489, 502, 47th Congress, 2d Session, 1883, chap. 121.
"Rep. Seer. Navy for 1878, pp. 162-164.

268 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

positions. The changes next in importance consisted in the presentation of more
complete data, maps, and diagrams for the eclipses of the sun and the satellites of
the planets. The changes were so adjusted that the size and cost of the work
should not be materially altered. They commence with the Ephemeris of 1882,
now in press."

In the preface to the Nautical Almanac for the year 1882 we
find the changes adopted mentioned in the following specific
terms : n7

" The contents of the present volume of the American Ephemeris, though sub-
stantially unchanged in their general character, have, in some parts, undergone
material alterations in their form and arrangement."

************

" PART I, Ephemeris for the Meridian of Greenwich .... The principal
change made in it has been the transfer of the sun's co-ordinates and of the geo-
centric ephemerides of Mercury, Uranus, and Neptune from Part II, and the
addition of accurate heliocentric positions of all the planets.

" PART II, Ephemeris for the Meridian of Washington .... The list of
mean places of fixed stars has been greatly enlarged, for the convenience of field-
astronomers.

" PART III, Phenomena .... The additions comprise more complete data
for eclipses of the sun, diagrams showing the configurations of the satellites of
Jupiter, data respecting the disks of Mercury and Venus for the reduction of
meridian and photometric observations, and diagrams, with tables, for identifying
any known satellites of other planets.

" SIMON NEWCOMB,

" Professor U. S: Navy, Superintendent.
" WASHINGTON,

" September 3, 1879."

COMMITTEE ON A PLAN FOR SURVEYING AND MAPPING
THE TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 1878

In the decade following the close of the Civil War the re-
curring discussion of the relative merits of military and civil
control of public enterprises centered around the management of
the surveys of the public domain. We learn that as early as
1869, at the meeting of the National Academy, "one of the
most eminent geologists and geographers in the country made a

w American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac for 1882, ist ed., 1879. Preface, p. Hi.

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 269

sharp attack upon the system of army explorations and its fruits ;
and he was met by the military members of the Academy with
the plea that army officers had done all that, under the circum-
stances, and considering their education to another business,
could fairly be expected of them, and that for this they deserved
gratitude rather than blame." 98

By 1874 *he discussion as regards the surveys had become
more animated and more widespread. It intruded itself upon
the attention of Congress and found its way into the columns of
various magazines and reviews. At this time there were in
existence six distinct surveys or systems of surveys of western
portions of the United States. The United States Geological
Exploration of the Fortieth Parallel, nominally under the direc-
tion of the Engineer Corps of the Army, but conducted by a
civilian, Clarence King; the United States Geological and
Geographical Survey of the Territories under the direction of
the Department of the Interior and conducted by Dr. F. V. Hay-
den; the Geographical and Geological Explorations and Sur-
veys West of the One Hunderdth Meridian, commonly called
" Wheeler's Survey," under the Engineer Corps of the Army
and conducted by Lieut. Wheeler; the U. S. Geographical and
Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region, under the
Department of the Interior and conducted by Major J. W.
Powell; the land-parcelling survey carried on by the General
Land Office of the Department of the Interior; and finally, the
U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, under the Treasury Depart-
ment.

These various surveys differed in their history, their objects,
and their methods. Their work was not coordinated and to a
certain extent the territories in which they operated overlapped.
Referring to the rivalry between civil and military directors
of these surveys the Nation, in the article from which quotation
has already been made, remarked in 1874:

" It appears that the War Department looks with something of jealousy — a
natural jealousy, perhaps, at which we ought not to be surprised — at this inter-
ference of civilians with what had once been its exclusive province ; and its dis-

08 The Nation, May 21, 1874, p. 328.
19

270 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

satisfaction, long expressed freely in private, has now taken shape in a demand
brought recently before Congress and strongly urged, that all national scientific
surveys be placed under the control of the Engineering Bureau of that Depart-
ment and directed by army officers. It is in view of this demand that we have
undertaken a general review of the merits of the case, if perchance we may con-
tribute something toward its settlement. To the educated science of the country,
the movement seems a most unreasonable one. The feeling and opinion of
scientific naen are, we venture to say, well-nigh or altogether unanimous against it.
A strong remonstrance has been sent to Washington from some of the leading
educational institutions — Yale, Harvard, and others — signed by all their scientific
professors; and more and stronger will be likely to follow, if there shall seem to
be any danger that so invidious a selection of the graduates of one school, and that
a military one, to take charge of the public scientific interests of the country,
will be decreed by Congress." "

The subject was discussed in the first session of the 43d Con-
gress (1874) but led to no immediate results. The House Com-
mittee on Public Lands in their report on the resolution of
April 15, 1874, inquiring whether it was not practicable to con-
solidate the surveys under one department, remarked as follows :

" The committee believe that at present it would not be of public benefit to
place the whole of the surveys under one Department.

" The time is approaching, however, when it may be proper so to consolidate
them, with a view to the making of a grand geographical, geological, and topo-
graphical map of the Territories worthy of the nation because of its accuracy and
minuteness of detail; and the committee believe that they would be conducted
most to the public interest by being placed under the control and guidance of
the Interior Department

" In thus keeping separate, for the present, the surveys now making under the
War and Interior Departments, a generous rivalry will be maintained among the
good men therein, and a stimulus will be given to each to do the best work
possible, and a resulting benefit will ensue in more accurate surveys and more
extensive and valuable maps and reports

" The conclusions, therefore, to which the committee have come are, that the
surveys under the War Department, so far as the same are necessary for military
purposes, should be continued ; that all other surveys for geographical, geological,
topographic, and scientific purposes should be continued under the direction of
the Department of the Interior, and that suitable appropriations should be made
by Congress to accomplish these results." 10°

* Loc. cit., p. 328.

100 House Report no. 612, 4sd Congress, ist Session, 1874, pp. 16-18.

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 271

Professor J. D. Whitney, in an article in the North American
Review, remarked:

" The matter has already been up before a committee of Congress, and a very
unpleasant altercation had between the officers and employees of the War Depart-
ment on one side and of the Interior on the other No good has been

accomplished by the Congressional investigation ; the work is still going on exactly
as before. Instead of a careful and systematic consolidation of all the United
States geographical and geological work in the Far West, under one supervision,
in one department, there is just that method employed which leads to bad results
and great waste of money. Congress is at this moment paying to have the same
work done, on the same ground, by two, if not three, different parties, and in two

different departments Liberal appropriations were made for both classes

[military and civil] by Congress, this year as well as the last, and how long this
condition of things will be allowed to contiue no one can foresee." 101

The criticisms of the various surveys contained in the article
just quoted were not acceptable to the War Department, Gen-
eral Comstock, the director of the survey of the Great Lakes,
claiming that since the question of cost had not been considered
they were " worthless and misleading." 102

The matter remained in controversy for some three years
longer. "Finally, in 1878, the Appropriations Committee of the
House announced its determination not to recommend further
appropriations for the surveys until some plan of consolidation
had been determined upon. On March 8, 1878, a demand was
made on the War Department and the Department of the Interior
for a statement as to the cost of all the surveys carried on by those
departments, and the extent to which their fields of operation
overlapped.

The Sundry Civil Act for the fiscal year ending June 30,
i879,103 contained the following provision:

" And the National Academy of Sciences is hereby required, at their next
meeting, to take into consideration the methods and expenses of conducting all
surveys of a scientific character under the War or Interior Department and the

101 J. D. Whitney. Geographical and Geological Surveys, North American Re-view,
vol. 121, 1875, pp. 83-84. See also House Report no. 612, and Senate Report no. 311, 43d
Congress, ist Session; and House Exec. Doc. no. 240, 4$d Congress, ist Session.

102 Sen. Exec. Doc. no. 21, 45th Congress, 3d Session, p. 10.
lw Approved June 20, 1878.

272 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

surveys of the Land Office, and to report to Congress, as soon thereafter as may be
practicable, a plan for surveying and mapping the territories of the United States
on such general system as will, in their judgment, secure the best results at the
least possible cost; and also to recommend to Congress a suitable plan for the
publication and distribution of the reports, maps, and documents and other results
of said surveys."

When this Act was approved on June 20, 1878, the President
of the Academy was in Europe. Upon his return in August and
after consulting members of the Council and others, he ap-
pointed a special committee to consider the subject. This com-
mittee, as he stated in his annual report, consisted of " Professor
James D. Dana, whose long experience as geologist and natur-
alist of the Wilkes Exploring Expedition, and subsequent res-
idence in Washington, while preparing his reports, had especi-
ally fitted him to advise on Government work ; Professor William
B. Rogers, the Nestor of American geology, who had had long
and varied experience with geographical and geological surveys ;
Professor J. S. Newberry, the State Geologist of Ohio, who
had spent several years in the West on Government exploring
expeditions under the War Department; Professor W. P. Trow-
bridge, a graduate of West Point, who, while a member of the
Corps of Engineers, served for several years on the Coast Sur-
vey; Professor Simon Newcomb, whose knowledge of mathe-
matics and astronomy rendered his advice most valuable; and
Professor Alexander Agassiz, whose experience both in mining
engineering and biology made him a fit representative of those
departments." 104 As will be noted, no member of any of the
Government surveys then existing was included in the com-
mittee, the President holding that it would be inappropriate to
designate anyone representing those organizations whose conten-
tions were reported to have caused Congress to consider their
reorganization. This led to a protest by General Humphreys,
Chief of Engineers, who asserted that " a properly constituted
committee should have had among its members those officers in
the Government service whose duties consisted in part or in
whole in making geodetic, topographic, or other scientific sur-

10*Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. i, p. 151.

HENRY DRAPER MEDAL

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 273

veys in the different departments of the government." He
considered that however proficient the members of the com-
mittee might be in their several professions, with one exception,
they were not sufficiently familiar with survey work to form an
opinion as to its requirements.

The committee deliberated some three months, inviting and
considering the views of the directors of the surveys of the
territories, the Acting Chief of Engineers and other officers of the
Army, the Commissioner of the General Land Office and others
interested. We learn from the documents which accompany the
Academy's report that the War Department thought that its
topographic and geodetic surveys should be continued and that
they might advantageously be made the basis of the land-par-
celling surveys of the General Land Office, and that the scale and
topography of its maps might be such that they could be used for
plotting the geological data collected by the geological surveys.
The General Land Office was of the opinion that " combining a
geological and geographical survey with the survey of the public
lands might be most beneficial and economical." Dr. Hayden,
representing the Geological and Geographical Survey of the
Territories, questioned the practicability of a comprehensive
plan of surveys which should include all the scientific organiza-
tions of the Government engaged in such work. He considered
that the combination of the geological and geographical surveys
with the land-parcelling surveys would be fatal to both, and that
the separation of topography and geology would be unwise.
Major Powell representing the Geographical and Geological
Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region, reiterated the opinion
expressed in an earlier report, that such surveys " should be
unified and a common system adopted"; and considered that
they should embrace a geographical department, including " all
methods of mensuration in latitudes, longitudes and altitudes,
absolute and relative " ; and a geological department, including
" all purely scientific subjects relating to geological structure
and distribution, and practical subjects relating to mining and

108 Sen. Exec. Doc. no. 21, 45th Congress, 3d Session, p. 3.

274 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

agricultural industries." He also advanced the view that the
land-parcelling survey should be part of the same organization.
He stated that the transcontinental triangulation of the Coast
Survey and the barometric observations of the Signal Service
could and should be made the basis of further work, but did
not indicate how this was to be done.

On November 6, the committee submitted a unanimous report
to the Academy. The report was considered at a special meeting
held in New York and after three hours' discussion was adopted
with but a single dissenting vote.108 The President of the Acad-
emy thereupon acquainted the principal executive officers of the
Government with the recommendations contained in the report,
which were favorably received by the President, the General of
the Army, the Secretary of the Interior, the Secretary of the
Treasury and the Superintendent of the Coast Survey. The
Chief of Engineers of the Army opposed the plan. On the open-
ing of Congress in December the report was transmitted to
both houses and by them ordered printed.

The committee in this report confined its attention to six
scientific surveys of the public domain which were then in
operation. These were the surveys west of the icoth meridian,
under the War Department; the U. S. Geological and Geograph-
ical Survey of the Territories and the U. S. Geographical
and Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region, under
the Department of the Interior; the U. S. Coast and Geodetic
Survey, under the Treasury Department; and the Land Office
Surveys, under the Interior Department. It pointed out that
the work of these organizations could be summed up under two
headings, " i. Surveys of mensuration, 2. Surveys of geology
and economic resources of the soil," and its recommendation was
that they be recombined to form three distinct organizations.
These were to be as follows : " ( i ) The Coast and Interior Sur-
vey, whose function will embrace all questions of position and
mensuration; (2) the United States Geological Survey, whose
function will be the determination of all questions relating to

10*Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. i, p. 152.

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 275

the geological structure and national resources of the public
domain; (3) the Land Office, controlling the disposition and sale
of the public lands, including all question of title and record.
The Land Office was to get its surveys and measurements from
the Coast and Interior Survey, and its information regarding
the value and classification of lands from the Geological Survey.
The latter organization was to call on the Coast and Interior
Survey for all mensuration data, but would be " authorized to
execute local topographical surveys for special purposes." All
three organizations were to be in the Department of the Interior.

The committee also recommended that a commission be
formed to codify the laws relating to the survey and disposition
of public lands and propose a classification and valuation of
them and a system of surveys for land-parcelling. Other recom-
mendations related to the form of publications and the disposi-
tion of collections of natural history and other specimens made
during the prosecution of the surveys.107

This report, as already mentioned, was transmitted to Con-
gress in December, 1878. It was no sooner printed than the
War Department, through the Secretary of War, George W.
McCrary, and the Chief of Engineers, General Humphreys,
entered a protest against the adoption of its provisions. Sec-
retary McCrary adopted the argument made before the Com-
mittee of the Academy by H. G. Wright, Acting Chief of
Engineers, that in view of the fact that the War Department had
been long engaged in survey work, that its experience in such
work was extensive and diversified, that it had devised and
perfected instruments and methods of work, and that it main-
tained an effective system of safeguarding expenditures, it was
for the best interests of the Government that the work should
continue under its direction.108

General Humphreys' objections to the Academy's plan were
of a somewhat different character. As already mentioned, he

10TFor the full report, see Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1878, pp. 19-22. House Misc. Doc.
no. 7, 46th Congress, ist Session.

108 Sen. Exec. Doc. no. 21, 45th Congress, 3d Session, p. z.

276 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

first asserted that the committee was not properly constituted.
He then pointed out that the committee had prescribed no
methods of work and had made no estimate of expense, and
claimed that it had exceeded its functions in taking the work of
the Coast Survey into consideration. He argued that the geo-
detic work of that organization was not necessary to the proper
surveying of the coasts of the United States and that it was not
as well equipped as the War Department to do the work of
mensuration for all the surveys, as proposed in the Academy's
plan, and that, in any case, the War Department could perform
the necessary work at a much smaller expense. After reviewing
the history of the survey of the Great Lakes, he made the claim
that the kind of land survey of the United States at large recom-
mended by the Academy was unnecessarily refined and would
entail enormous expenses, and, by a very full comparison of
costs, endeavored to show that if really demanded by Congress,
it would be carried out at a much less expense by the War De-
partment than by the Coast Survey.

General Humphreys appended to his letter a communication
from General Comstock, the officer in charge of the survey of
the Northern and Northwestern lakes and the St. Lawrence
and Mississippi rivers, dated October 25, 1875, and entitled
" Considerations of the objects and methods of a natural topo-
graphical survey," in which the methods, cost and uses of differ-
ent kinds of surveys are concisely summarized. General Com-
stock criticised Professor Whitney for omitting the question of
cost from his review of the surveys, already mentioned, and
remarks that on this account " his conclusions as to the value of
the results derived from the funds supplied are worthless or
misleading."

On the publication of General Humphreys' letter, the Super-
intendent of the Coast Survey, C. P. Patterson, addressed a com-
munication on January 18, 1879, to the Secretary of the Treasury
suggesting that there had been a misapprehension on the part of
the former relative to the cost of the Coast Survey work. This
was transmitted to General Humphreys, who thereupon pre-

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 277

pared for the use of Congress another statement in which the
estimates of cost per square mile are considerably reduced. In
closing he remarked:

" To take this work from an organization like the Engineer Department,
superior to all officers employed on its surveys, and exercising a careiul super-
vision over them, and adopt the plan of the National Academy of Sciences, would,
in my judgment, be in opposition to economy, and, if a general survey should be
undertaken, would result in expenses amounting to scores of millions of
dollars." 109

As a reply to the contentions of the War Department, the
Secretary of the Interior on February 7, 1879, sent to the House
of Representatives a letter by Major J. W. Powell on the cost
of the various government surveys.110 This document is in
reality a defence of the Academy's plan. It enumerates the
different kinds of surveys, and explains their objects, gives the
cost of different surveys per square mile, states the amount of
land belonging to the public domain which is unsurveyed and the
cost of surveying it, shows that different systems of geodesy and
topography are employed by the several existing organizations,
and finally gives the reasons why the work should be consoli-
dated under the Interior Department.

In regard to the letters cited above, Major Powell's closing
paragraph contains this reference to the Academy's report:

" The wisdom and integrity of the committee of the National Academy of
Sciences needs no other vindication than that contained in its report to the hon-
orable body that finally endorsed it and transmitted it to Congress. The report
is comprehensive and explicit, and embraces both an administrative plan and a
scientific system for the conduct of surveys." lxl

The report had already been commended by the Nation, which
in an editorial published on January 9, 1879, after describing
the conditions existing in the several surveys and the changes
proposed by the Academy, remarked:

" No opposition prompted by good motives or supported by solid reasons can
be offered to these admirable recommendations. Any objections from the

108 Sen. Ex. Doc. no. 21, part 2, 45th Congress, 3d Session, p. 3. " Letter from the
Secretary of War, communicating further information in relation to a survey of the terri-
tory west of the Mississippi River, as proposed by the National Academy of Sciences."

110 House Exec. Doc. no. 72, 45th Congress, 3d Session. " Cost of Geographical Surveys."

m Op. cit., p. 6.

278 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Engineer Corps of the Army will, we are persuaded, give way on reflection to
considerations of the public good. No chief of the civilian surveys will be likely
to declare himself indispensable, and his pet plan the embodiment by patent right
of all science." 112

The committee on Appropriations of the House of Repre-
sentatives incorporated the whole plan of the Academy in a
bill (House Res. 6140) which was duly reported to Congress.
When the matter came to issue, however, the portion of the plan
relating to the establishment of a single geological survey under
the Department of the Interior and the appointment of a com-
mission to consider the codification of laws relating to the survey
and disposition of the public domain and other matters was
approved, while that providing for the consolidation of all
mensuration work under the Coast Survey was not. The law,
which forms part of the Sundry Civil Act for the fiscal year end-
ing June 30, 1880, which was approved March 3, 1879, is as
follows :

" For the salary of the Director of the Geological Survey, which office is hereby
established, under the Interior Department, who shall be appointed by the Presi-
dent by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, six thousand dollars:
Provided, That this officer shall have the direction of the Geological Survey, and
the classification of the public lands and examination of the Geological Structure,
mineral resources and products of the national domain And the Geo-
logical and Geographical Survey of the Territories, and the Geographical and
Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region, under the Department of the
Interior, and the Geographical Surveys West of the One Hundredth Meridian,
under the War Department, are hereby discontinued, to take effect on the
thirtieth day of June, eighteen hundred and seventy-nine

" For the expenses of a commission on the codification of existing laws relating
to the survey and disposition of the public domain, and for other purposes, twenty
thousand dollars; Provided, That the Commission shall consist of the Commis-
sioner of the General Land Office, the Director of the United States Geological
Survey, and three civilians, to be appointed by the President." . . . . 11S

112 The Nation, vol. 28, p. 29, January 9, 1879. "The proposed reforms in our land and
scientific surveys" (pp. 27-29).

113 Stat. at Large, vol. 20, p. 394, 45th Congress, 3d Session, chap. 182, 1879. See remarks
on the debate in Congress, quoted from the Philadelphia Bulletin in Amer. Nat., vol. 13,
pp. 181-183.

Clarence King, the first director, was nominated by the President about March 24, 1879;
was confirmed by the Senate on April 3, 1879, and took the oath of office on May 24.

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 279

Thus the earlier geological and geographical surveys were
put out of existence and the new United States Geological Sur-
vey, recommended by the Academy, took their place. A pro-
vision was, however, made by Congress for the completion of the
reports of the former.

Professor Dana remarked in the American Journal of Science
in December, 1879:

" The failure of Congress to act favorably with reference to the establishment
of ' Mensuration Surveys,' recommended in the Report of the Committee of the
Academy, is thought to be a deferring of the subject for the time, and not a
rejection of the scheme." 114

This opinion has not been confirmed by any action of Con-
gress up to the present time. The later history of the Geological
Survey, especially, as regards the extension of its work to the
States is one of much interest, but cannot be considered here.115

COMMITTEES ON THE RESTORATION OF THE DECLARATION

OF INDEPENDENCE. 1880 AND 1903

On July 19, 1776, Congress passed the following resolution:

" Resolved, That the Declaration [of Independence] passed on the 4th be fairly
engrossed on parchment with the title and stile [sic] of ' The unanimous declara-
tion of the thirteen united states [sic] of America ' & that the same when
engrossed be signed by every member of Congress." 116

On August 2 the Journal of Congress informs us " The Decla-
ration of independence [sic] being engrossed & compared at the
table was signed." 11T

While the majority of members signed on this date, the signa-
tures of a few were not affixed until some months later.

This parchment copy of the Declaration has passed through
many vicissitudes. It appears to have been in Baltimore when
Congress was sitting there in 1777, but its history between that

114 Amer, Journ. Set., ser. 3, vol. 18, p. 494.

115 Those interested should consult the Amer. Journ. Sci., ser. 3, vol. 18, 1879, pp. 492-
496; vol. 19, 1880, pp. 78-81. Amer. Naturalist, vol. 13, 1879, pp. 343-345, 535-536;
vol. 14, 1880, pp. 68-70.

118 See Hazelton, J. H. The Declaration of Independence — Its History, 1906, p. 208.
117 Loc. cit.

280 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

date and 1814 is uncertain. Hazelton is of the opinion that it
was transferred to Washington in 1800 when that city became
the seat of government. In 1814, during the war with the
British, it appears to have been carried into Virginia for safety.
In 1823, a copperplate facsimile was made by order of John
Quincy Adams, then Secretary of State, from which 200 copies
were struck off and distributed in accordance with a resolution
of Congress. In a letter to the Senate (which received it on
January 2, 1824) Secretary Adams remarked:

" An exact facsimile, engraved in copperplate, has been made by direction of
this department, of the original copy of the Declaration of Independence,

engrossed on parchment Two hundred copies have been struck off from

this plate, and are now at the office of this department, subject to the disposal of
Congress." 118

From 1824 to 1840 the Declaration on parchment seems to
have been kept at the Department of State, but in 1841 it was
transferred to the new building of the Patent Office. Here it
remained until 1877 when it was returned to the Department of
State and preserved in the War, State and Navy building, then
just completed. It has remained there until the present time.

At the end of a century the Government and the people awoke
to the fact that the precious parchment had deteriorated as a
result of the vicissitudes to which it had been subjected, and
was apparently in danger of destruction. In 1880 Congress
passed an Act calling on the Secretary of the Interior and the
National Academy of Sciences to make an examination of it,
with a view to determining what steps should be taken to prevent
its further deterioration, or, if possible, to restore it to its original
condition. In May of that year Carl Schurz, Secretary of the
Interior, requested that a committee be named by the President
of the Academy. President Wm. B. Rogers thereupon ap-
pointed Wolcott Gibbs, J. E. Hilgard, C. F. Chandler, R. E.
Rogers and J. Lawrence Smith. This committee submitted a
brief report on January 18, 1881, as follows:

118 Annals of Congress. See Hazelton, op. cit., p. 289.

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 281

" PROFESSOR WM. B. ROGERS,

" President of the National Academy of Sciences.

" SIR : The Committee of the National Academy of Sciences, to which was
referred the question of the restoration of the faded writing of the original
manuscript of the Declaration of Independence, respectfully reports :

" That, in the judgment of the Committee, it is not expedient to attempt to
restore the manuscript by chemical means, partly because such methods of restora-
tion are at best imperfect and uncertain in their results, and partly because the
Committee believes that the injury to the document in question is due, not merely
to the fading of the ink employed, but also and in a large measure to the fact that
press copies have been taken from the original, so that a part of the ink has been
removed from the parchment.

" The Committee is therefore of the opinion that it will be best, either to cover
the present receptacle of the manuscript with an opaque lid or to remove the
manuscript from its frame and place it in a portfolio, where it may be protected
from the action of light ; and, furthermore, that no press copies of any part of it
should in future be permitted." 119

As a result of this report the receptacle containing the parch-
ment was provided with wooden doors. It was removed from
exhibition in 1893, sealed between glass plates and placed in a
steel safe, where it was no longer exposed to light and was
secure from careless handling. It continued thus until 1903
when John Hay, Secretary of State, entertaining suspicions that
the document was still deteriorating, requested that it be ex-
amined again by a committee of the Academy. Under date of
April 14, 1903, he addressed the following letter120 to President
Agassiz :

" DEPARTMENT OF STATE,

" WASHINGTON, April 14, 1903.
" ALEXANDER AGASSIZ, ESQ.,

" President of the National Academy of Sciences, Cambridge, Mass.

" SIR: In accordance with the provisions of section 3 of the act of incorporating
the National Academy of Sciences, I desire to invite the attention of the National
Academy of Sciences to the condition of the Declaration of Independence, and to
suggest that a committee be appointed to examine it in the library of this Depart-
ment, and that such recommendations as may seem practicable be made to me
touching its preservation. It is now kept out of the light, sealed between two

u*Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. i, pp. 180, 181.
""Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1903, p. 13.

282 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

sheets of glass, presumably proof against air, and locked in a steel safe. I am
unable to say, however, that, in spite of these precautions, observed for the past ten
years, the text is not continuing to fade and the parchment to wrinkle and perhaps
to break.

" I am, sir, your obedient servant,

"JOHN HAY."

The President thereupon appointed C. F. Chandler, J. S.
Billings and Ira Remsen to consider the question a second time.
The report of this committee 121 is of such general interest that
it seems desirable to quote it in full, together with the letter of
acknowledgment written by the Secretary of State upon its
receipt.

" NEW YORK, April 24, 1903.
" HON. JOHN HAY, Secretary of State.

" DEAR SIR: In response to a communication received from you, a committee
was appointed by President Agassiz, of the National Academy of Sciences, to con-
fer with you with regard to the present condition of the Declaration of Independ-
ence, and to make such recommendations as should seem desirable to insure the
preservation of this precious instrument. The committee was also requested to
send their report to you directly, in order to avoid the delay which might result
from reporting in the usual manner to the officers of the Academy. The members
of the committee are John S. Billings, Ira Remsen, and Charles F. Chandler.

" After conferring with you, the committee was given an opportunity to make a
careful examination of the instrument, with the assistance of Mr. A. H. Allen,
Chief of the Bureau of Rolls and Library, and with the assistance of Dr. Wilbur
M. Grey, of the Army Medical Museum.

" The instrument has suffered very seriously from the very harsh treatment to
which it was exposed in the earlier years of the Republic. Folding and rolling
have creased and broken the parchment. The wet press-copying operation, to
which it was exposed about 1820, for the purpose of producing a facsimile copy,
removed a large portion of the ink. Subsequent exposure to the action of light for
more than thirty years, while the instrument was placed on exhibition, has resulted
in the fading of the ink, particularly in the signatures. The present method of
caring for the instrument seems to be the best that can be suggested.

121 This report was reprinted by the Department of State in the form of a circular, and the
following remarks were added to it:

" The Secretary of State has directed that the recommendations of the committee as set
forth in the foregoing report be observed. The Department of State has no copies of the
Declaration of Independence in any form for distribution."

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 283

" The committee is pleased to find that no evidence of mold or other disinte-
grating agents can be discovered upon the parchment by careful microscopic
examination, nor any evidence that disintegration is now in progress.

" The investigation has been facilitated by the photograph that was taken in
1883, two years after the previous examination by a committee of the Academy,
and we would suggest the desirability of taking another photograph of about the
same size, at the present time, and from time to time in the future, as an aid to
future investigation.

" The committee does not consider it wise to apply any chemicals with a view to
restoring the original color of the ink, because such application could be but par-
tially successful, as a considerable percentage of the original ink was removed
in making the copy about 1820, and also because such application might result in
serious discoloration of the parchment; nor does the committee consider it
necessary or advisable to apply any solution, such as collodion, paraffin, etc., with
a view to strengthening the parchment or making it moisture proof.

" The committee is of the opinion that the present method of protecting the
instrument should be continued; that it should be kept in the dark, and as dry
as possible, and never placed on exhibition.

" Very respectfully, yours,

" CHARLES F. CHANDLER,

" Chairman of the Committee" 122

Secretary Hay replied to this letter as follows :

" DEPARTMENT OF STATE,

"WASHINGTON, April 27, 1903.
" PROF. C. F. CHANDLER,

" Chairman Committee of the National Academy of Sciences

to examine the present condition of the Declaration of Independence.

" SIR : I have received your letter of April 24 instant, conveying the report of
the committee appointed by President Agassiz of the National Academy of
Sciences to confer with me respecting the present condition of the Declaration of
Independence, and I beg you to accept for yourself and your colleagues of the
committee — President Remsen, of the Johns Hopkins University, and Dr. Bil-
lings, of the New York Public Library — my thanks for the promptness and thor-
oughness of the examination made by the committee, among the results of which is
the gratifying assurance that no evidence of mold or other disintegrating agents
were discovered upon the parchment under the microscope. I am gratified also to
learn that the present method of caring for the instrument meets the concurrence
of the committee.

" The suggestions and recommendations made by yourself and your colleagues
will be attentively observed by the Department, and I have already caused your

122 Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1903, pp. 13-15.

284 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

advice to be followed by securing a photograph for comparison with that of 1883,
and with others to be taken hereafter, from time to time, as aids to future
investigations.

" The conclusions of the committee, that the application of any chemicals with
the view of restoring the original color of the ink would be unwise, and that the
application of any solution, such as collodion, paraffin, etc., is neither necessary
nor advisable for the purpose of strengthening the parchment or making it
moisture proof, are welcome as avoiding experimental treatment of a document so
precious and historic.

" Again thanking the committee for their attention and care,

" I am, sir, your obedient servant,

" JOHN HAY." 123

It appears from the foregoing correspondence that the second
committee agreed with the first as to the principal causes of the
deterioration observable in the document and as to the best means
of preventing further damage. The press copying mentioned
is no doubt that which took place when the copperplate fac-
simile was made by direction of John Quincy Adams in 1824.
It will be observed that a photograph of the document was made
in 1883 and again in 1903, but since that latter date no more
appear to have been taken. The safe containing it has been
opened but once during the last decade, namely, in May, 1911.

COMMITTEE ON SORGHUM SUGAR. 1881

The varieties of sorghum which are available as sources of
sugar have been cultivated for a long period in China and
Africa. Seed was first imported into the United States from the
former country by way of France, and from Natal about the
year 1855. The sorghum plant is far more hardy than sugar-
cane, and was successfully cultivated over a wide area, especially
in the western and northwestern parts of the United States.
The outbreak of the Civil War caused a scarcity of sugar-cane
throughout the country, and the saccharine products of sorghum
were greatly in demand to supply the deficiency. These
products, however, did not take the form of sugar, but of syrup.
In 1860, nearly 7,000,000 gallons of sorghum syrup were manu-

123 Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1903, pp. 14, 15.

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 285

factored, and in 1870, three years after the close of the war, the
production had risen to 16,000,000 gallons. It increased from
year to year during the next decade, and was about at its maxi-
mum in 1880, when the output was more than 28,000,000 gallons.

Although beginning as early as 1863 some sorghum sugar was
made in the United States every year, it was not until near the
time when sorghum syrup production was at its height that the
attention of the Government was turned toward the promotion
of the manufacture of this kind of sugar. In 1878, before the
agricultural bureau of the Government had developed into the
Department of Agriculture, and while Dr. Peter Collier was the
chemist of the bureau, experiments were commenced under his
direction which were intended to test the possibility of producing
sugar from sorghum on a large scale and at a low cost. The
investigation was entered upon with great enthusiasm and be-
came a matter of wide interest throughout the country. Farmers
and manufacturers cooperated with the Government in pro-
moting the undertaking and large amounts of capital were in-
vested in machinery and appliances for the conversion of
sorghum juices into sugar. The press of the country kept the
subject prominently before the people and it was for some years
a common topic of conversation.

The experiments of the Government were carried on for three
or four years, but resulted unfavorably. The Commissioner of
Agriculture remarked that " the business of manufacturing
sugar from sorghum at the department failed in 1881, having
furnished discouragement rather than information to those en-
gaged in it." The same year Dr. Collier, at the invitation of the
Academy, read a paper at its November session in Philadelphia
on " Facts regarding Sorghum, and some conclusions as to its
value as a source of sugar." Professor Silliman, who had intro-
duced Dr. Collier, then presented the following resolution
which was approved by the Council :

" Resolved, That the subject of sorghum sugar, the experimental results on
which, obtained during the three or four years last past by Dr. Peter Collier, of the
Agricultural Department, submitted in brief, by invitation, to the academy at

20

286 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

its Philadelphia session in November, 1881, is, in the opinion of the academy, of
sufficient importance to be referred to a committee of chemists, members of this
academy, with the request that they give Dr. Collier's results and methods a
careful consideration, and report at their early convenience the conclusions to
which they come." 124

The President, William B. Rogers, appointed as the com-
mittee Benj. Silliman, Samuel W. Johnson, Charles F. Chandler
and J. Lawrence Smith. Not long after the session closed, the
attention of the Commissioner of Agriculture, George B. Loring,
was called by the President to the fact that the Academy had the
sorghum experiments under consideration, and Mr. Loring
thereupon transmitted certain documents for the use of the com-
mittee, with the remark that " if this reference involves a scien-
tific investigation of the sorghum question he will be greatly
obliged for the report." At the same time, the committee was
enlarged by the appointment of Wm. H. Brewer, C. A. Goess-
man and Gideon E. Moore as additional members. The last
two were not members of the Academy.

At the April session of the succeeding year, 1882, an abstract
of the report of the committee was read before the Academy,
and the first draft of the report itself was also submitted. The
complete report was transmitted to the Commissioner of Agri-
culture in the following November. Mr. Loring refers to the
document in his report for 1882 in the following terms :

" At the request of the chemist of the department, I submitted the sorghum
analyses and work of his division to the National Academy of Sciences on the
3Oth of January last for investigation by that body. A committee appointed for
that purpose entered upon their work with great zeal and energy, and their
report, which was laid before me, was, on July 21, withdrawn formally by
the secretary of the academy ' for such action as the academy may deem neces-
sary.' On the 1 5th of November current, the president of the academy presented
to me the final report of that institution, a long and elaborate document, contain-
ing a review of the history of the sorghum industry for twenty-five years, a state-
ment of the scientific investigations made in this country and in Europe into the
quality of sorghum and maize as sugar producing plants, a careful examination of

134 Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1881, p. 19. This paper will be found on pages 64 and 65 of
the report of the committee of the Academy on sorghum. For the full title of the latter
see the footnote on page 287.

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 287

the chemical work of the department, a large volume of testimony received from
sugar manufacturers, and certain suggestions with regard to future investigations
and the work of the department. The report is evidently the result of infinite care,
and has been subjected to careful revision, and I trust it will be found a valuable
text-book for those engaged in the sorghum sugar industry. As a review of the
successes and failures which have attended this industry, it is invaluable. As a
guide to those who are engaged in it, it contains all the important results that
have thus far been obtained by the chemist in his laboratory and the manufacturer
in his mill. This report, together with a most voluminous appendix, making an
interesting mass of matter far too large to be inclosed in the annual volume of the
department for this year, will be issued at an early day as a special publica-
tion." 125

Although it appears to have been the intention of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture to publish the report, it was not issued as a
departmental document. On July 6, 1882, the Senate adopted
a resolution calling on the Commissioner to transmit it to Con-
gress for the use of that body, and it was published as Senate
Miscellaneous Document no. 51, 47th Congress, 2d session.126 It
did not leave the hands of the Commissioner until January 10,
1883, however, and was not published until June of that year.
It was the most voluminous report prepared by any committee
of the Academy and covered 152 printed pages.127

Though conservative in their attitude, the committee speak in
favorable terms of the outlook of the sorghum sugar industry,
and express their faith in its future development. " As a work
of national importance," they remark, " calculated directly to
benefit widely separated sections of the country, it is one that
has been wisely undertaken and encouraged by the Department

125 Rep. Comm. Agric., 1882, p. 680.

26 The resolution was as follows :

Senate, July 6, 1882. "Mr. Windom submitted the following resolution; which was
considered by unanimous consent and agreed to: Resolved, That the Commissioner of
Agriculture be directed to furnish for the use of the Senate a copy of the report of the
Committee of the National Academy of Sciences upon the subject of sorghum sugar,"
Congressional Record, vol. 13, part 6, p. 5669, 47th Congress, ist Session.

127 Forty-seventh Congress, 2d Session, Sen. Misc. Doc. no. 51. National Academy of
Sciences. Investigation of the Scientific and Economic relations of the Sorghum sugar
Industry, being a report made in response to a request from the Hon. George B. Loring,
U. S. Commissioner of Agriculture, by a committee of the National Academy of Sciences.
November, 1882. Washington: Government Printing Office. 1883. 8°. Pp. 1-152.

288 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

of Agriculture, and is deserving of every aid that Congress may
be willing to grant for its encouragement and prosecution."
(p. 24.) Again:

" The spirit of scientific investigation which has led the Department of Agri-
culture through its chemical and agronomic researches to results of such impor-
tance towards developing a new industry of national value has been liberally fos-
tered by the General Government, and to some extent also by certain of the States.
The fruits of this policy are already beginning to show themselves in the decided
success which has attended the production of sugar from sorghum on a commercial
scale in the few cases in which the rules of good practice, evolved especially by
the researches made at the laboratory of the Department of Agriculture, have
been intelligently followed. Sufficiently full returns from the crop of 1882 have
already come to hand to convince us that the Industry is probably destined to be
a commercial success " (p. 53).

The expectations of the committee, though doubtless justified
by the knowledge available at the time at which they were
formed, were not destined to be fulfilled, owing to a combination
of circumstances which could not be foreseen. Congress con-
tinued to appropriate money for sorghum investigations for a
number of years and the Department of Agriculture carried on
experiments with great industry and earnestness, but the scope
of these activities gradually narrowed as the real nature of the
problem began to be perceived, and finally in 1893, they were
discontinued.

In the same year in which the committee of the Academy
reported (1882) the actual manufacture of sugar at the Depart-
ment of Agriculture was found unprofitable and was abandoned.
Attention was then concentrated on increasing the sugar-content
and other desirable qualities of the sorghum plant and on finding
a process for the manufacture of sugar at a low cost. It was
finally determined that the only ready methods of causing the
sugar to crystallize in large quantities and of freeing it from the
starch and gummy substances with which it was associated in-
volved the use of large quantities of alcohol. The high tax on al-
cohol made its use prohibitive and the industry thus encountered
an obstacle which it has never been able to surmount. Although

LAWRENCE SMITH MEDAL

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 289

for many years before and after the Government entered on its
investigations a million or more pounds of sugar were manu-
factured annually in the United States from sorghum, the in-
dustry was always a precarious one, and quite as likely to entail
a loss as to yield a profit. At the critical time in its history a
number of circumstances besides the difficulty regarding the
use of alcohol militated against its development. Among these
the most important was that the price of sugar was unusually
low, a condition brought about largely by the growth of the beet-
sugar industry which proved remunerative and engrossed the
attention of agriculturists in those very sections of the country in
which it was expected that the cultivation of sorghum sugar
would prove a benefit. In 1893 Congress discontinued appro-
priations for sorghum investigations, the Secretary of Agricul-
ture having remarked in his report for that year:

" The experiments in sorghum sugar may, it is believed, be discontinued, the
results of experiments already made leaving apparently nothing more for the
Federal Government to undertake. A stage is now reached when individual
enterprise can and should take advantage of what the Department has accom-
plished." 128

Thus the activities of the Government terminated without
producing the result which the committee of the Academy
expected. The potentialities of sorghum as a source of sugar were
demonstrated, however, and the time may yet come when new
agricultural and commercial conditions and the progress of inven-
tion may bring it into actual use as one of the principal sugar-
producing plants. In the meantime, the money and thought
expended in investigations were not wasted, as sorghum has
proved to be very valuable as a source of table syrups and as a
fodder-plant for cattle.129

128 Rep. Seer. Agric. for 1893, Nov. 20, 1893, pp. 33, 34 (J. Sterling Morton, Secretary).
See also p. 189 of the same report.

129 See H. W. Wiley. The relation of chemistry to the progress of agriculture. Yearbook
U. S. Dep. Agric. for 1899, pp. 242, 243.

290 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

COMMITTEE ON QUESTIONS OF METEOROLOGICAL
SCIENCE AND ITS APPLICATIONS. 1881

This committee was appointed in 1881 at the request of the
Chief Signal Officer of the Army. The Proceedings of the
Academy contain the following information regarding it:

" A communication was laid before the Academy from General William B.
Hazen, Chief Signal Officer, United States Army, under date of April 4, 1881,
asking that a permanent committee be appointed with whom the Signal Officer
might confer from time to time as to the best means of advancing the science of
meteorology and its applications to the benefit of agriculture and commerce.

" The following-named members were thereupon appointed by the President a
Committee on Meteorology to confer and co-operate with the Chief Signal Officer :
Mr. Newcomb, chairman, and Messrs. Loomis, Gibbs (W.), Newton (H. A.),
Ferrel, Schott, and Langley.

" Messrs. Rood and Young were subsequently added to the Committee." 13°

In his report for 1881, General Hazen comments on the
appointment of the committee in the following terms :

" The weather service of the United States has been without a rival in the
practical advantages derived from its labors, but the day has now come when it
should take the stand among the foremost, in the scientific study and investigation
of the higher branches of theoretical meteorology, and it is upon such investiga-
tions intelligently pursued that the hope for greater benefits must mainly rest.
I have endeavored to bring this service into active sympathy and co-operation with
the ablest scientific intellects of the country. In this direction and in response
to my request, the National Academy of Sciences has appointed an advisory com-
mittee of consulting specialists with which I may confer as occasion demands. I
take pleasure in acknowledging this courtesy as showing the establishment of more
intimate relations between the scientific interests of the United States and the
Signal Service." 1S1

The committee appears not to have presented any formal re-
ports but was continued until 1884, when it was discharged. At
this time the Academy had been requested by a Joint Commis-
sion of Congress to express its opinion as to the meteorological
work carried on under the Signal Service.

"°Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. i, pp. 181, 182.

mRep. Chief Signal Officer of the Army, p. 3 (1881) (Wm. B. Hazen).

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 291

COMMITTEE ON THE SEPARATION OF METHYL, OR WOOD
SPIRITS, FROM ETHYL ALCOHOL. 1882

The reasons for which the advice of the Academy was desired
on this subject are very clearly and fully stated in a letter which
the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, Green B. Raum, ad-
dressed to the President on April 12, 1882. He writes:

" There is now pending before Congress a bill (H. R. 5082) ' To authorize the
withdrawal from distillery warehouse, without tax, of alcohol and other spirits
to be used in industrial pursuits,' which bill provides that ' such spirits shall
either first have been mixed with one-ninth of their bulk of methyl, or wood
alcohol, of equal proof strength, or that such spirits shall be withdrawn for use
in tobacco factories, or such other industrial pursuits as shall entail their complete
destruction so that they cannot be recovered by any process of distillation.'

" It is therefore deemed important to the interests of the revenue that a careful
and thorough investigation be made, having for its object the determination of
the fact whether the methyl, or wood spirits may be entirely, or approximately,
separated by distillation, or in any other economical manner from the ethyl alco-
hol, or spirits of wine, upon which the tax is imposed.

" In other words, the information sought is as to whether the science of chem-
istry now enables the possessor of the methylated spirits to separate the ethyl
alcohol from such mixture in such a state of purity, and at such a probable cost as
might enable the holder to sell it in the market at a less price than those persons
who withdraw spirits from bond upon payment of the tax at the rate of ninety cents
per proof gallon.

" I have therefore to respectfully request that a committee of the National
Academy of Sciences be appointed to undertake this investigation, and to inform
this office of the result at the earliest moment practicable.

" I desire particularly to be advised as to the relative vaporizing point of
purified wood-naphtha as compared with distilled spirits of the same specific
gravity, and such other information on the subject as may assist this Office in reach-
ing a conclusion as to whether or not the bill referred to would be liable to abuse
if it should become a law.

" I have to ask if it is the pleasure of the academy to undertake this investiga-
tion, and if so to be informed as to the nature and quantity of alcohol, wood-
naphtha, and other materials which will be needed in the prosecution of this
inquiry." 132

The Acting President, Prof. O. C. Marsh, appointed a com-
mittee consisting of Ira Remsen, G. F. Barker and C. F. Chand-
ler which reported on September 18, 1882. The report covered

mRep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1883, pp. 57, 58.

292 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

various aspects of the question at issue. It began by pointing out
that in both England and Germany the law had for a number
of years permitted the use of methylated spirits in the arts, and
gave a resume of the reports of the committees on which the
legislation was based. It then defined the several liquids known
as ethyl alcohol, methyl alcohol, crude wood-naphtha, and refined
wood-naphtha or wood spirits, and described a number of experi-
ments made by the committee with mixtures of ethyl alcohol
and refined wood-naphtha. The committee summed up its report
as follows :

" The final conclusion to which we are led is this: That by treating the mixt-
ures of ethyl alcohol and wood spirits (in the proportion proposed in the bill now
before Congress) with bone-black, filtering, adding a caustic alkali — as, for
example, caustic potash — and then distilling with the aid of the Hempel tube, the
principal product obtained is nearly free from methyl alcohol, and that the odor
and taste of this product are not very marked. At the same time, even in the best
product thus obtained, the odor and taste characteristic of wood-naphtha can be
detected, though only with difficulty, by those who are unskilled in such matters.
We believe that the method employed by us which gave the best product could be
applied economically on the large scale, and a product fully as good as our best,
if not better than it, might thus be obtained.

" As regards the question whether the product obtained could be used for
drinking purposes, that is difficult for the committee to answer satisfactorily. We
have submitted our best specimens to some well-known dealers in alcohol and alco-
holic beverages, and we learn that the purified product might easily be used in the
manufacture of low-grade whiskies and rum, though all the gentlemen whom we
have consulted on this point have unhesitatingly recognized the presence of the
wood-naphtha in the best specimens.

" It would appear from this that, while after the addition of the wood-naphtha
to alcohol, it is extremely difficult, if not impossible, to separate the two perfectly
and thus regenerate the pure alcohol, it is quite possible to get from the mixture
a product which might be used in the manufacture of alcoholic beverages of
lower order.

" It is plain from the foregoing that, considering our experiments as final, it is
impossible to purify the mixture containing wood-naphtha to a sufficient extent to
make it palatable without the aid of distillation. Hence, apparently, it would
be as difficult to carry on the process of purification on the large scale as to carry
on the illegitimate manufacture of alcohol. This fact, in itself, might be a suffi-
cient protection against fraud, though the committee does not feel competent to
express a decided opinion on this point." 133

"*Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1883, pp. 62, 63.

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 293

COMMITTEE ON GLUCOSE. 1882

The request for the appointment of a committee of the
Academy on the vexed question of glucose was received from the
Commissioner of Internal Revenue a few days after the request
for a committee on methyl alcohol. In a letter addressed to
President Rogers, dated April 27, 1882, the Commissioner
remarks :

" There is now pending before Congress a bill (H. R. 3170) ' to tax and regu-
late the manufacture and sale of glucose,' which bill proposes to so amend the
internal-revenue laws as to impose a special tax upon the manufacturers of, and
dealers in, glucose, and to levy a tax on the article in its solid, liquid, and semi-
liquid form.

" In view of this, I have respectfully to request the appointment of a committee
of the Academy to examine as to the composition, nature, and properties of the
article commercially known as glucose, or grape sugar.

" This office desires to be informed as to the saccharine quality of this product
as compared with cane sugar or molasses, and also especially as to its deleterious
effects when used as an article of food or drink, or as a constituent element of such
articles.

" Numerous specimens of the article in question are in the possession of this,
office which will be placed at the disposal of the Academy.

" Any expense necessarily incurred in conducting this inquiry will be paid upon
the presentation of a properly prepared bill for that purpose." 134

In accordance with the request contained in this letter the
President, Wm. B. Rogers, appointed the following committee
to consider the question at issue: Ira Remsen, C. F. Chandler,
G. F. Barker. The committee reported on September 18, 1882.

The magnitude of the starch-sugar industry in the United
States will be appreciated from the consideration of some
statistics taken from the report of the committee of the Academy
and from other sources. In 1882 there were 32 glucose and
starch-sugar factories in the country with an estimated capacity
of 43,000 bushels of corn a day. In 1884 there were 29 factories
capable of utilizing 40,000 bushels a day. In 1902 the factories
had been reduced by combination to five which, however, used
175,000 bushels of corn a day. The combined capital of four of,

114 Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1883, p. 66.

294 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

these companies amounted to $80,000,000. At the beginning of
the present century the domestic consumption of corn syrup and
corn sugar amounted to 1200 million pounds annually. The
exports for the decade 1893-1903 amounted to more than 1700
million pounds, valued at $28,000,000.

The report of the committee was one of the most extensive
made during the first half century of the Academy and covered 77
printed pages. It contained, besides a general introduction, a
summary of the history of the starch-sugar industry, an account
of the several varieties of glucose and starch-sugar, and of their
chemical composition, an inquiry into the healthfulness of
glucose as a food, analyses of commercial samples of glucose and
starch-sugar with special reference to adulteration, and a list of
factories. To this were added fourteen pages of extracts from
literature relating to starch-sugar, a bibliography covering 28
pages, and a list of patents.

The results of the work of the committee are summarized in
eight paragraphs referring to the following subjects: The his-
tory of starch-sugar, the process of manufacture, the extent of
the industry, the utilization of the products, the relation of
starch-sugar to other sugars, the organic constitutents, the health-
fulness of glucose as a food.

The conclusions were as follows :

" In conclusion, then, the following facts appear as the result of the present
investigation: 1st. That the manufacture of sugar from starch is a long-estab-
lished industry, scientifically valuable and commercially important. 2d. That the
processes which it employs at the present time are unobjectionable in their char-
acter, and leave the product uncontaminated. 3d. That the starch sugar
thus made and sent into commerce is of exceptional purity and uniformity of
composition, and contains no injurious substances. And, 4th, that though having
at best only about three-fifths the sweetening power of cane sugar, yet starch
sugar is in no way inferior to cane sugar in healthfulness, there being no evidence
before the committee that maize starch sugar, either in its normal condition or
fermented, has any deleterious effect upon the system, even when taken in large
quantities." 135

125 Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1883, p. 88.

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 295

COMMITTEE ON THE SIGNAL SERVICE OF THE ARMY, THE
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, THE COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY,
AND THE HYDROGRAPHIC OFFICE OF THE NAVY DEPART-
MENT. 1884

In the Sundry Civil Act approved July 7, 1884, Congress
directed the appointment of a joint commission of the Senate
and House to consider and report on the organization of the
Signal Service of the Army, the Geological Survey, the Coast
and Geodetic Survey, and the Hydrographic Office of the Navy
Department " with the view to secure greater efficiency and
economy of administration of the public service in said bureaus."
It would appear that the demand for this inquiry had a double
origin. In Congress and in the country generally it was thought
that the weather service, which was organized under the Signal
Service of the Army, would be improved and extended if it
were taken out from under the control of the War Department
and placed in charge of civilians. A separate inquiry into this
matter was at first proposed, but subsequently it was merged with
an inquiry into the relationships of the several national surveys.
Regarding the latter the Joint Commission remarked in its
report:

" It has been frequently stated in the course of debates in Congress that the
several scientific Bureaus named were engaged in unnecessary work, so far as prac-
tical results were concerned, and also that there was a duplication of work, two or
more Bureaus being engaged in substantially the same character of investigation
and in the execution of the same work. It was claimed, especially, that the
Geological Survey and the Coast and Geodetic Survey were duplicating their
work; and it was also claimed that the work of the Coast Survey proper could be
more economically performed under the direction of the Navy Department by use
of the force and the organization in that Department known as the Hydrographic
Office, and that that work should be transferred from the Treasury to the
Navy." 136

As originally organized, the Joint Commission consisted of
Senators Wm. B. Allison (chairman), Eugene Hale, and Geo.
H. Pendleton, and Representatives Robert Lowry, Hilary A.
Herbert and Theodore Lyman (secretary). The Commission

1X8 House Reports, 49th Congress, ist Session, Rep. no. 2740, pp. 1-2.

296 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

was unable to report in December, 1884, as the law demanded,
and the time was extended to December, 1885, " or as soon there-
after as may be." In the meanwhile Senator Pendleton and
Representative Lyman had retired from Congress, and were
replaced on the Commission by Senator John T. Morgan and
Representative John T. Wait. The report was finally submitted
on June 10, i886.187 The testimony taken before the Commission
had already been published. It forms a thick volume of more
than a thousand pages.138

Feeling that it should receive the advice of the National
Academy of Sciences, the Commission, through its secretary,
Hon. Theodore Lyman, requested that a committee of the
Academy be appointed to consider the subject in question. The
committee appointed by President Marsh consisted of M. C.
Meigs, Wm. H. Brewer, Cyrus B. Comstock, S. P. Langley,
Simon Newcomb, E. C. Pickering, W. P. Trowbridge, F. A.
Walker, and C. A. Young. All accepted appointment, but sub-
sequently Prof. Newcomb and Gen. Comstock resigned by order
of the Secretary of the Navy and the Secretary of War, respec-
tively. These orders were issued on the ground that it was not
proper for the two members who were active officers of the De-
partments mentioned to be concerned in giving advice to Con-
gress, which might result in action which would embarrass the
heads of those Departments in carrying out their policies.189

On the other hand, President Marsh held that the Academy
should not be deprived of the services of the two members in
formulating advice asked for by the legislative branch of the
Government. He declined, therefore, to accept their resigna-
tions, and laid the matter before the Academy. The Academy
appears, however, to have taken no action regarding it.

MT House Rep. no. 2740, 49th Congress, ist Session.

138 Senate Misc. Doc. no. 82, 49th Congress, ist Session, 1886.

189 This view did not affect the appointment of General Meigs, apparently for the reason
that he was a retired officer. He was requested by the Secretary of War to withdraw, but
upon his submitting a protest the matter was dropped.

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 297

The questions which the committee was requested to consider
were as follows :

" First. What is the organization of the government surveys, and of the
signal service, in the chief countries of Europe, and could any part of this organi-
zation be advantageously adopted in this country?

" Secondly. In what way can the scientific branches above referred to be best
co-ordinated ?

" Thirdly. What changes in, or additions to, these branches are desirable ? " 14°

The report of the committee was submitted on September 24,
1884, and with the appendices, covers 30 pages. To the first
inquiry propounded by the Joint Commission the committee
replied that in its opinion the efficiency of the surveys of the
United States would not be increased by adopting any form of
organization existing in Europe, but that a more extended use
of photography and zincography might prove economical in the
production of maps and charts. It then called attention to a
previous recommendation of the Academy that the Coast Survey
be transferred to the Department of the Interior and that its
work be extended to include topographic land surveys. The
committee recommended that the Weather Bureau be separated
from the Signal Service of the War Department and placed un-
der the control of a scientific commission. No immediate change
in the scope of the Hydrographic Office was recommended,
but it was suggested that when the original survey of the coast
should be finished, the work of re-sounding, re-examining, etc.,
might perhaps be advantageously committed to the Navy De-
partment. Having given attention to these particulars, the com-
mittee then pronounced its conviction that a proper coordination
of the scientific work of the Government would be most satis-
factorily effected by the establishment of a Department of
Science. It was proposed that this Department should include
the Coast and Geodetic Survey under the name of the Coast and
Interior Survey; the Geological Survey, unchanged; a Meteor-
ological Bureau, to which should be transferred the main portion
of the meteorological work of the Signal Service; and a physical

"°Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1884, p. 35.

298 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

observatory, " to investigate the laws of solar and terrestrial
radiation and their application to meteorology, with such other
investigations in exact science as the Government might assign
to it." Attention was also called to the desirability of having
in this department a bureau of standards, which might include
the Bureau of Weights and Measures.

Should Congress consider it inadvisable to establish a new
Department of Science, the committee suggested that all the
scientific bureaus be assembled under some one of the Depart-
ments then existing. In case either action was taken, the Com-
mittee recommended that a permanent scientific commission be
created to direct the policy of the several bureaus, this com-
mission to consist of the Secretary of the Department of
Science, or other Department to which the bureaus should be
assigned (who should be president ex officio), the President of
the National Academy of Sciences, the Secretary of the Smith-
sonian Institution, " two civilians of high scientific reputation,"
an officer of the Engineer Corps of the Army, a professor of
mathematics in the Navy, the Superintendent of the Coast and
Geodetic Survey, the Director of the Geological Survey, the
head of the meteorological bureau.

This report was sent to the Government Commission on
October 16, 1884, together with certain letters of the heads of the
several scientific bureaus concerned.

The more comprehensive recommendations of the committee
of the Academy have not been adopted by Congress up to the
present time. Neither a Department of Science nor a general
scientific commission has been established, but several of the
changes proposed have been made. The meteorological service,
formerly combined with the Signal Service of the Army, has
become a separate bureau under the Department of Agricul-
ture.141 A Bureau of Standards has been established in the
Department of Commerce and Labor to which has been trans-
ferred the work of the former Bureau of Weights and Measures.

'"The Department of Agriculture became an executive department on February 9, 1889,
and the Weather Service was transferred to it on October i, 1890.

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 299

An Astrophysical Observatory has been organized under the
Smithsonian Institution corresponding to the observatory pro-
posed by the committee of the Academy. To this extent, the
views of the committee have found favor with Congress.
Whether the larger plans will eventually be adopted time alone
will reveal.

The report of the committee of the Academy was printed in
the introduction to the volume of testimony given before the
Joint Commission. Many high officials were called upon by
the Commission to express their views or to make statistical or
other statements relative to the matter under investigation, in-
cluding the Lieutenant-General of the Army, the Secretaries of
War and of the Navy, the heads of the several scientific bureaus
concerned and many subordinate officers. The discussion took
a wide range but returned repeatedly to the recommendations of
the committee of the Academy which formed the text for many
remarks.

The report of the Joint Commission in reality comprises
three separate reports. Allison, Hale and Lowry agreed as to
the various questions at issue, and Wait also sided with them,
except in so far as the Signal Service was concerned. Morgan,
Herbert and Wait submitted a separate series of recommenda-
tions regarding the latter, while Herbert and Morgan presented
a minority report relative to the Coast and Geodetic Survey and
the Geological Survey.

The conclusion of the majority of the Commission regarding
the Coast and Geodetic Survey was as follows:

.... A majority of the commission concur with the view expressed by the
Academy of Sciences, that when the original survey shall have been completed it
will be time enough to raise the question whether or not the hydrographic work
involved in these resurveys may not then be transferred to the Navy Department;
but until that time the undersigned believe that question should not be seriously

considered " 142

" There is nothing in the testimony to indicate that the work now performed by
the Survey can be more efficiently performed if transfer is made, nor is it shown

10 House Report no. 2740, 49th Congress, ist Session, p. 6.

300 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

that the Navy can more economically execute the work, so there is no reason either
on the score of efficiency or economy for making the change. It is suggested that
a new method might be adopted, which would result in a considerable saving of
expenditure, but the commission does not regard itself competent to decide upon
the methods to be adopted in a survey so highly scientific in its character and
objects, much less does it feel competent to recommend a change of method which
has received the sanction of the scientists of our country, and has the sanction of
more than two generations of experience and criticism " 143

Regarding the Weather Service, the report remarked:

" A proposition made to establish a weather service as a civilian organization
failed in the commission, three of the commission favoring such transfer, and
three opposing it. Those favoring the transfer submit separately their views on
the subject, which are appended hereto " "4

The conclusion regarding the Hydrographic Office was as
follows :

" The commission unanimously recommend that this office be maintained by
appropriations from year to year in its present state of efficiency." 14B

Concerning the suggestions of the Academy that a commission
be established to direct the work of the scientific bureaus, or
that a department of science be created, the report remarks :

11 .... The commission considered with care the many suggestions respecting
a change of existing law looking to the selection of a supervisory commission,
which should from time to time, and at least once in each year, consider what work
should properly be done by the several bureaus under examination, and supervise
the methods of executing the work committed to them severally. They regard
this as impracticable as long as these bureaus are distributed as now among several
Departments of the Government. They believe it wiser to leave this general direc-
tion and control to each head of Department for the bureau under his supervision.
It would be impracticable to give such Commission power to overrule the head
of a Department, and if this were not done its powers would only be advisory.

" Nor is the Commission prepared to recommend the establishment of a scientific
department of the Government to take charge of all these bureaus. There is no
such duplication of work or necessary connection of these bureaus with each other
as make such establishment essential to their efficiency, as in cases where one
bureau finds it necessary to utilize the work of another, a request for information
and data is always complied with." 14e

148 Op. cit., p. 13.
144 Op. dt., p. 26.

149 Op. cit., p. 28.

146 Op. cit., pp. 53, 54.

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 301

Messrs. Morgan, Herbert and Wait, reported on the Weather
Service as follows: ll7

" As the result of their investigation of the Signal Service Bureau, the under-
signed respectfully submit to Congress the following bill, and recommend its
passage :

" ' A bill to establish a Weather Bureau in the War Department, and for other
purposes.

' ' Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United
States of America in Congress assembled, That on the first day of July, eighteen
hundred and eighty-six, the Signal Service Bureau shall be abolished, and a Bureau
to be styled the Weather Bureau shall be established, to which shall be transferred
the records and property of every kind now in charge of the Signal Service, except
arms and other military equipments and stores, all of which shall be turned over to
the proper officers of the Army.

" ' SEC. 2. That the Weather Bureau shall be organized as a civil establish-
ment to promote meteorological investigations, and shall be under the direction
of the Secretary of War.'

" JOHN T. MORGAN,
" HILARY A. HERBERT,
" JOHN T. WAIT."

Regarding the Coast and Geodetic Survey, Messrs. Herbert
and Morgan made the following minority report:

" The undersigned favor the transfer of the Coast Survey proper to the Hydro-
graphic Office of the Navy Department. We mean to include not only the
hydrography, that is, soundings, etc., now done by naval officers under the
direction of the civilian head of the Coast Survey, but all topography upon
nautical charts, including such triangulation as is incident thereto. We believe
the Navy would execute this work more economically and speedily, and therefore
more effectively, than it is now being done." 148

" So far as a further survey of our coast is concerned, there seems to be a
propriety in transferring that work to the Navy Department. The other duties
now in charge of this establishment, if they cannot be profitably attached to some
existing Department or other Bureau, should be prosecuted under a law exactly
defining their scope and purpose, and with a careful discrimination between the
scientific inquiries which may properly be assumed by the Government and those
which should be undertaken by State authority or by individual enterprise." 149

147 Op. dt., pp. 63-64.

148 Op. cit., p. 66.

149 Report, p. 80.

302 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

COMMITTEE ON PHILOSOPHICAL AND SCIENTIFIC
APPARATUS. 1884

The tariff act approved March 3, 1883, contained the expres-
sion " philosophical and scientific apparatus, instruments, and
preparations," and upon the claim being put forward by some
importers that certain articles which they wished to bring in were
" philosophical " instruments the Treasury Department found
itself unable to decide whether they were really such, or how
they differed from " scientific " instruments. The Acting Sec-
retary of the Treasury, H. F. French, thereupon addressed a
letter to Prof. Spencer F. Baird, Secretary of the Smithsonian
Institution, asking that the Institution prepare a list of philo-
sophical instruments for the use of the collectors of customs. Pro-
fessor Baird having suggested that the Academy might prepare
such a list, Secretary French wrote to the President under date
of September 13, 1884, stating that the Department would be
obliged if he would furnish the list. The President, O. C.
Marsh, thereupon appointed a committee consisting of George
J. Brush, Wolcott Gibbs, S. H. Scudder, Simon Newcomb and
George F. Barker, to report on the subject in question. The
committee reported later in the year, explaining the reasons
which made it impracticable to prepare a list of instruments,
and explaining the meaning of the expression " philosophical
instruments " as follows : 15°

" Although the term ' philosophical ' as applied to instruments has long ceased
to be employed in scientific language, it has a well defined signification in ordinary
use. It has come down from a time when nearly all our knowledge of inanimate
nature was comprehended under the general term ' natural philosophy,' and the
instruments and apparatus necessary for acquiring and illustrating that knowledge
were termed ' philosophical.' The obvious intent of Congress in specially desig-
nating philosophical instruments was to cover the case of institutions and indi-
viduals who might import the instruments and apparatus for the purpose of
improving natural knowledge. It therefore appears to us that the terms ' philo-
sophical apparatus and instruments ' in both clauses quoted should be held to cover
all such instruments and apparatus imported for this purpose.

"°The correspondence and the report of the committee are in the Annual Report of the
Academy for 1884, pp. 65-67.

WATSON MEDAL

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 303

" It does not appear to your committee that the addition of the word ' scientific '
in the last clause of the law quoted comprehends any objects other than those
which may be included under the term ' philosophical ' as hereinbefore defined.
We regard the addition of this word as merely intended to render the meaning
of Congress more explicit." 151

COMMITTEE ON THE ASTRONOMICAL DAY, THE SOLAR
ECLIPSE OF AUGUST, 1886, AND THE ERECTION OF A NEW
NAVAL OBSERVATORY. 1885

As indicated by the heading, this committee was concerned
with three different matters of astronomical importance. It
was appointed at the request of the Secretary of the Navy, W. C.
Whitney, who, on April 22, 1885, addressed the following letter
to the President of the Academy : 152

" NAVY DEPARTMENT,

"WASHINGTON, D. C., April 22, 1885.
" PROFESSOR O. C. MARSH,

" President of the National Academy of Sciences.

" SIR : I have the honor to submit enclosed a copy of Senate Executive Docu-
ment No. 78, 48th Congress, 2nd Session, containing a letter from the Secretary
of the Navy, dated February lyth, 1885, transmitting communications concerning
the proposed change in the time for beginning the astronomical day, as recom-
mended by the recent Meridian Conference.

" I would respectfully request that the National Academy of Sciences take into
consideration the question of adopting the proposed change in the American
Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac, and other astronomical publications, and advise
this Department of its views and recommendations on the subject.

" I have also the honor to submit for your consideration and recommendation
the following questions:

" 1st. As to the advisability of asking Congress to make an appropriation for the
observation of the eclipse of the sun in August, 1886, to be expended by the
Superintendent of the Naval Observatory under direction of the Navy Depart-
ment.

" 2nd. As to the advisability of proceeding promptly with the erection of a new
Naval Observatory upon the site purchased in 1880.

" Very respectfully,

" W. C. WHITNEY,

" Secretary of the Navy."

151 Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1884, p. 67.

152 Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1885, pp. 35-36.

304 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The committee consisted of F. A. P. Barnard (chairman), A.
Graham Bell, J. D. Dana, S. P. Langley, Theodore Lyman, E. C.
Pickering, and C. A. Young.

Of the three subjects presented for its consideration, the com-
mittee gave its attention principally to the question of the erec-
tion of a new observatory building.

THE ASTRONOMICAL DAY

As regards the change in the astronomical day proposed by
the International Meridian Conference, to make it conform to
the civil day, the committee recommended that it be carried into
effect as soon as there should be a general agreement among
astronomers and astronomical establishments to adopt it, and
preferably in 1890 or in 1900. It is well known that from the
earliest times astronomers have been accustomed to reckon the
day as beginning when the sun is on the meridian, or in other
words, at noon; while for ordinary purposes among modern na-
tions the day begins at midnight. In the case of a phenomenon re-
ported as occurring on a certain day between noon and midnight
there is, therefore, room for uncertainty as to the real date, unless
the kind of day be specified. If the astronomical day should be
made to conform to the civil day, this uncertainty would dis-
appear but, on the other hand, there would be a lack of uni-
formity between ancient and recent astronomical records. The
committee considered these difficulties and decided that the
advantage of having a single system of reckoning time over-
balanced the inconvenience of a discrepancy among astronomical
records. This view has not, however, prevailed up to the present
time, and, with few exceptions, astronomers have continued to
regard the day as beginning at noon.

THE SOLAR ECLIPSE OF AUGUST 29, 1886

This eclipse was visible in the tropics and the committee, after
looking into the matter, concluded that it would be observed to
the best advantage in Benguela, West Africa, but as a consider-

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 305

able time would be required for making the necessary prepara-
tions, and it was improbable that any money that might be
appropriated would be available until late in the spring of 1886,
the committee did not recommend that Congress be asked to take
action regarding it.

The eclipse was, however, observed in the West Indies by
astronomers from private American observatories.

THE U. S. NAVAL OBSERVATORY

An act of Congress approved February 4, 1880, provided for
the purchase of a new site for the Naval Observatory in Wash-
ington,153 which since 1844 had been located on a low eminence
near the Potomac River, known as " observatory hill," situated
between 23d and 2^th streets. The affairs of the observatory
form the main theme of the committee's report. For some years
the old site had been generally regarded as very unhealthy, the
building was somewhat dilapidated and had become inad-
equate for the needs of the observatory, the equipment had be-
come more or less antiquated, and the grounds were regarded
as too limited. The committee invited expressions of opinion as
to the advisability of moving from astronomers who had been
attached to the observatory for a long term of years, including
Professor Holden and Professor Newcomb, and also from
various physicians of Washington as to the wholesomeness of the
old site. While opinions differed widely as to the effects of the
malarial surroundings of the observatory caused by river-fogs,
the committee reached the conclusion that a change of location
was desirable. Accordingly, an item was included by the Sec-
retary of the Navy in the estimates for 1887, for beginning the
erection of a new building on the site on the heights back of
Georgetown, and in the act making appropriations for the naval
service for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1887, approved July
26, 1886, Congress gave the necessary authorization, in the
following terms:

" For commencing the erection of the new Naval Observatory on the site
purchased under the act of Congress approved February fourth, eighteen hundred

153 Stat. at Large, vol. 21, p. 64, 46th Congress, zd Session, chap. 19.

306 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

and eighty, fifty thousand dollars : Provided, That the construction of no building
shall be commenced except an observatory proper, with necessary offices for
observers and computers." 154

The new observatory was completed in 1893.

While the committee recognized the importance of a suit-
able site, and adequate equipment and buildings, it was far more
concerned regarding the organization of the observatory. The
main body of its report relates to this subject. It argued
that while astronomers who were naval officers, and especially
James M. Gilliss and Charles H. Davis (both members of the
Academy) had contributed to the reputation of the Observatory,
as an important scientific establishment, that reputation was
derived mainly from the labors of its civilian professors, Walker,
Ferguson, Hall, Holden, Newcomb and others. It, therefore,
recommended that the Observatory be reorganized under a
civilian administration, and that its name be changed from
United States Naval Observatory to the National Observatory
of the United States, which latter designation it bore at a certain
early period in its history.155

COMMITTEE ON THE TARIFF CLASSIFICATION
OF WOOLS. 1885

In the various tariff laws enacted by Congress in the course
of the last forty years, different rates of duties are imposed for
wool in the natural condition of the fleece, and for wool that has
been washed or scoured. Washing is defined as cleansing the
fleece while still on the sheep's back by washing it in cold water,
while scouring is defined as a more effective cleansing of the
wool by means of hot water, or alkalies and other chemicals.
The rate for washed wool is twice, and that for scoured wool
three times the rate for wool in the natural condition. For
some time the appraisers appear to have overlooked the distinc-
tion and much wool was admitted at a less rate than it should

154 Stat. at Large, vol. 24, p. 156, 49th Congress, ist Session, chap. 781, 1886.

155 The report of the committee constitutes Sen. Exec. Doc., no. 67, 49th Congr., ist Sess.
Ordered printed Feb. 10, 1886. See also Sen. Exec. Doc. no. 78, 48th Congr. 2d Sess. 1885.

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 307

have paid under the law. In the report of H. Wheeler Combs,
general appraiser at the port of New York, dated October 30,
1885, we read:

" We had also made inquiry into the discrepancies between the large ports in the
matter of the value and classification of foreign wools — particularly those known
as ' Donskoi wools ' — and were in communication with the officials and reputable
importers at the large ports on this subject. We have learned enough to convince
us that gross undervaluations at all the ports have existed for years, through a
misapprehension on the part of the customs officials of the true value of the cur-
rency on which the traffic is actually based.

" These wools are entered as ' washed wools,' valued at less than 12 cents per
pound. A chemical analysis was made at the laboratory connected with the
appraiser's office, and the chemist reports that they are 'scoured wools.' This
subject is now being carefully investigated by the appraiser of this port." 156

On December 3, 1885, the Secretary of the Treasury, Daniel
Manning, addressed a letter to the President of the Academy, in
which he stated that an appeal had been taken from the decision
of the Collector of Customs at the port of New York in a case
involving the classification of a certain consignment of wool for
tariff purposes, and requested that the Academy would advise
him as to its proper classification. The President appointed a
committee to examine the sample of wool which accompanied
the letter and determine its real character. This committee,
which consisted of C. F. Chandler, W. H. Brewer and Henry
Morton, reported on January 16, 1886, giving its opinion as to
the character of the wool and at the same time offering some
detailed information of a very interesting character as to the
qualities of different kinds of wool. This included a transla-
tion of Chindsinsky's article on the composition of the fleece of
merino and coarse-wooled breeds of sheep. To this were added
analyses of various samples of wools procured by the committee,
including the one received from the Treasury Department, and
a summary of analyses made by other investigations. The com-
mittee then presented the following conclusions:

" From the preceding facts, we see that wool comes into the trade in a very
great variety of purity, some with not over 10 or 15 per cent, of actual wool

156 Report of H. Wheeler Combs, General Appraiser, B. H. Hinds, C. H. Lapp, Special
Agents, New York, October 30, 1885. Rep. Seer. Treas., 1885, p. 126.

308 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

fiber, others with 80 or 85 per cent., and that some of the contaminations are
soluble in cold water, others requiring hot water and soap, or other chemicals, and
still others, mechanical, and requiring special machinery for their removal.

" From all this it will be seen that any classification of wools for tariff, founded
on any of the physical characters named, or on the alleged treatment, as
' unwashed,' ' washed,' or ' scoured,' must of necessity be entirely arbitrary, and in
very many cases uncertain and unsatisfactory, since each character is variable in
itself, and by its combinations allows of an infinite number of gradings and sorts,
so that, however classified, according to these characters there will be many
samples which will lie so near the assumed border lines that their actual place will
be a matter of opinion rather than of demonstration.

" A classification may, however, be founded on chemical characters determined
by the amount of actual wool fiber, which may be used as the fixed quantity for
rating a specific tariff. The actual wool fiber may be readily and accurately
determined by chemical methods, beyond any reasonable question.

" Inasmuch as the commercial values depend greatly on the fineness of the
wools, and any tariff classification founded on the weight of actual wool substance
would bear most heavily on the coarser and cheaper sorts, the ad valorem element
may be combined with the fixed element suggested, in order to meet any special
ends other than that of mere revenue." 15T

Up to the present time, Congress has not adopted the sug-
gestion of the committee in regard to the classification of wools,
but has continued to impose special rates on " washed " wool and
" scoured " wool.

COMMITTEE ON QUARTZ PLATES USED IN SACCHARIMETERS
FOR SUGAR DETERMINATIONS. 1887

After the polariscope method had been used for some years by
the Government in determining the saccharine strength of sugars
on which customs duties were levied, the Treasury Department
appealed to the Academy to test certain quartz plates used in the
saccharimeters. The following letter was addressed to the
Academy by the Secretary of the Treasury, C. S. Fairchild:

" TREASURY DEPARTMENT,

"WASHINGTON, D. C., June 17, 1887.

" GENTLEMEN : Certain questions connected with the classification of imported
sugars are now under consideration by this Department. It becomes necessary
that three standard quartz plates used by appraisers in determining the saccharine

MTRep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1885, p. 99.

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 309

strength of sugars whereby its classification for duty is made, be tested with a view
to ascertain their exact measurement, angle, and ray. I will thank you to inform
me if the necessary test can be made by your Academy, and, if so, upon receipt of
your reply, the plates will be forwarded to such address as you may indicate.

" Respectfully, yours,

" C. S. FAIRCHILD,

" Secretary.™
" The National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D. C."

The President appointed as a committee, Arthur W. Wright,
Edward S. Dana and Charles S. Hastings, requesting them not
only to examine the plates but " to bring out the scientific prin-
ciples involved, as a basis for future work." Three plates were
received for examination from the Treasury Department in June,
1887, and three more in September of the same year. The report
of the committee, which was submitted on December 29, 1887,
contains, in addition to a technical statement regarding the
methods pursued, and the quality and value of each plate
examined, a brief summary of the principles on which the
saccharimeter is based.159

COMMITTEES ON THE MORPHINE CONTENT OF OPIUM.

1886 AND 1887

It seems rather singular that the Treasury Department should
have thought it fitting to send samples of opium to the Academy
for the simple purpose of ascertaining what percentage of
morphine they contained. Nevertheless, this was done on two
occasions; first in 1886 and again in 1887. The Acting Sec-
retary, C. S. Fairchild, seems to have given a literal interpreta-
tion to the section of the charter of the Academy which provides
that it shall examine or investigate any subject of science or art
when called upon by the Government to do so.

The opium in question was part of two lots seized on account
of having been smuggled into the country. The first request for
an analysis was received from the Acting Secretary of the

158 Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1887, p. 37.

158 For the full report and correspondence, see Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1887, pp. 37-45.

310 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Treasury under date of April 7, 1886. The President of the
Academy, Professor Marsh, appointed a committee, consisting
of Ira Remsen and George F. Barker who reported on June 14,
1886. As various methods had been employed for determining
the percentage of morphine in opium, the committee at first
proposed to ascertain which of them was calculated to give the
most accurate results, but having learned that the Treasury
Department would be satisfied with a less thorough investigation,
it confined itself to a single method.

By employing Fliickiger's process, as modified by Squibb, it
was determined that the percentage of morphine in the syrupy
liquid opium was 19.53, ano^ m me same when reduced to a dry
powder, 25.28 per cent.160

A year later, in 1887, a second request was received from the
Acting Secretary of the Treasury for the same information
regarding another sample of smuggled opium. The President
seems not to have been entirely satisfied to have the Academy
called upon to answer these comparatively unimportant inquiries.
Notwithstanding, he requested the same two chemists to serve a
second time, and appointed Professor Charles F. Chandler as the
third member of the committee. In a letter addressed to the
chairman of the committee, however, under date of May 4, 1887,
he remarked: " The province of the Academy is not to conduct
a technical examination merely, but especially to bring out the
scientific principles involved in the investigation, and in this
spirit I wish the work to be undertaken." 161

Having in view this injunction of the President, the committee
returned to its original plan of first testing the various methods
of analysis to ascertain which of them gave the most uniform
results, and then applying this particular method to the problem
at issue. Accordingly, the committee engaged the services of
Mr. I. H. Kastle of Johns Hopkins University to make the
necessary experiments. Five methods were investigated, namely,
that of the United States Pharmacopoeia, Fliickiger's method,

180 Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1886, p. 40.
161 Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1887, p. 32.

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 311

the same as modified by Squibb, Stillwell's modification of the
Fliickiger-Squibb method, and the so-called " Helfenberg
Method " devised by Dietrich. Each of these methods is de-
scribed in the report of the committee, and afterwards the results
obtained from two or more analyses of the sample of opium
received from the Treasury Department by the use of each
method. The conclusion reached was that the Pharmacopoeia
method was far from accurate, while Stillwell's method was in
every way the most satisfactory. A modification of the latter
was devised which shortened the time required for making the
estimations. The opium, which was a thick, black, semi-liquid
mass was found to contain an average amount of 12.16 per cent
of morphine. The report was submitted on August 16, 1887, and
was transmitted to the Secretary of the Treasury two days later.162

COMMITTEE TO FORMULATE A PLAN FOR A SYSTEMATIC
SEARCH FOR THE MAGNETIC NORTH POLE. 1890

The idea of organizing an expedition to search for the Mag-
netic North Pole originated with Colonel W. H. Gilder, United
States Army. Col. Gilder was a member of the expedition sent
out by the American Geographical Society in 1879 to search for
the papers of Sir John Franklin. In 1881 he was a volunteer
on the ship Rodgers, which was sent out by the Government to
search for the Jeannette.

His suggestion of the desirability of sending out an expedition
for the purpose of locating the Magnetic North Pole was made
in 1890 to Professor T. C. Mendenhall, then Superintendent of
the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, who put him into
communication with Professor C. A. Schott.163 On May 28
of the same year Professor Mendenhall addressed a letter to the
Secretary of the Treasury in which he expressed the opinion that
any properly-organized expedition for the purpose ought to
receive the encouragement of the Government, and suggested

162 Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1887, pp. 31-35.

163 See Jour. Araer. Geogr. Soc., vol. 24, pp. 215-261.

312 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

that the National Academy of Sciences be asked to formulate
a plan.

On May 22, 1890, the Acting Secretary of the Treasury,
Geo. S. Batcheller, requested the President of the Academy to
appoint a committee to report on the subject. The President, Pro-
fessor Marsh, appointed S. P. Langley (chairman), Henry L.
Abbot, W. P. Trowbridge, A. M. Mayer, Chas. A. Schott, John
Trowbridge and Charles Carpmael. This committee submitted
a preliminary report on November 12, 1890, in which it stated
that in its opinion a knowledge of the exact position of the Mag-
netic North Pole was not so important " as a study of the changes
in the magnetic elements to be obtained from a cordon of stations,
stretching from Alaska to Newfoundland, supplemented also
by stations in Siberia." It suggested that a cordon of stations
should be established near the line of dip of 89°, and that the
observations should be taken simultaneously at all the stations.164

Here the matter seems to have rested until May 2, 1892, when
a general discussion took place before the American Geograph-
ical Society, Chief Justice Daly of New York presiding. The
preliminary report of the Academy was read, together with
letters from Professor Mendenhall and Professor Marsh, after
which addresses were delivered by Professor Wm. P. Trow-
bridge, Professor Mayer, General Greeley and Colonel Gilder.
Professor Trowbridge read a letter from Professor Schott con-
taining a detailed plan for a survey of the region immediately
surrounding the pole.

Although the meeting was an enthusiastic one, the expedition
was never organized. It seems to have been intended that Col.
Gilder should be the leader, and that Lieut. Schwatka should
accompany him. Lieut. Schwatka died on November 2, i892,165
and this circumstance appears to have interfered with the suc-
cess of the enterprise.

184 Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1890, p. 35.

185 Journ. Amer. Geogr. Soc., vol. 24, p. 618.

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 313

COMMITTEE TO PRESCRIBE AND PUBLISH SPECIFICATIONS
FOR THE PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF THE DEFINITIONS
OF THE AMPERE AND VOLT. 1894

It will be recalled that the Academy sent delegates in 1884 to
the International Congress of Electricians at Paris. At this
congress the " legal ohm " or " congress ohm " was established,
having for its determination the resistance of a column
of mercury 106 centimeters long. It was considered both at
that time and subsequently that this length was not the proper
one and for the further consideration of this and other matters
connected with electrical units an international electrical congress
was held in Chicago in 1893. On this occasion the ohm known as
the " international ohm " was determined upon, having as its
basis the resistance of a column of mercury 106.3 centimeters
long. The " volt," " ampere," " henry " and other units were also
fixed.

In the year following an act was passed by the Congress of
the United States, defining the various units in accordance with
the decisions of the electrical congress. These comprised the
ohm, the ampere, the volt, the coulomb, the farad, the joule, the
watt and the henry; the last, as is well known, named in honor of
Joseph Henry, the first Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution
and second President of the National Academy of Sciences.

The act referred to, which was approved on July 12, i894,186
contained the following provision:

" Sec. 2. That it shall be the duty of the National Academy of Sciences to
prescribe and publish, as soon as possible after the passage of this Act, such
specifications of details as shall be necessary for the practical application of the
definitions of the ampere and volt hereinbefore given, and such specifications
shall be the standard specifications herein mentioned."

For some reason which is not apparent, the Act did not come
to the attention of the President until the last day of October.161
On November 6, he applied to the Secretary of State for an
authentic copy, and received the same on November 9.

198Stat. at Large, vol. 28, p. 101, 53d Congress, zd Session, chap. 131. See also Rep. Nat.
Acad. Sci. for 1894, P- 395 als° for 1895, p. 7.
167 See Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1894, P- 4°-

314 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The same day he appointed the following committee to inves-
tigate and report upon the matter: H. A. Rowland (chair-
man), T. C. Mendenhall, H. L. Abbot, G. F. Barker, J. Trow-
bridge, C. S. Hastings, and C. Barus. Professor Mendenhall
declined appointment and was replaced by Professor A. A.
Michelson. A special meeting was held in New York on
February 9, 1895, to consider the report of the committee, in
which detailed specifications were given for the practical appli-
cation of the ampere and volt, which were prepared to meet the
requirements of the law and were also in accordance with the
international agreement The specifications are quoted in full
in the report of the Academy for 1895 (pp. 9-13), with notes
and illustrations. The Academy then by a unanimous vote
adopted the specifications and prescribed them in accordance
with the Act of Congress. " It was also voted unanimously that
these specifications be published by the sending, by the president,
of a copy of the same to each House of Congress and to the Sec-
retary of State, with the request to the latter that they be issued by
the State Department; and, further, by the printing by the home
secretary of the Academy of a suitable number of copies for
public distribution." "8

COMMITTEE ON THE INAUGURATION OF A RATIONAL
FOREST POLICY FOR THE FORESTED LANDS OF THE
UNITED STATES. 1896

At an early date, the Government of the United States
adopted the policy of purchasing or setting aside from the public
domain certain limited areas of forested land from which to
obtain timber for the use of the Navy, but it was not until the
repeal of the so-called timber-culture laws in 1891 that the
President was authorized to make extensive forest reservations
without reference to any special economic value which they
might possess. As a result of executive action in accordance with

188 See Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1894, PP- J7i 39'42» f°r *$9S> PP- 7'13- The report of the
committee constitutes Sen. Misc. Doc. no. 115, $$d Congr. 3d Sess. Order printed Feb. 19,
1895.

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 315

this provision of law, the reserved forest lands in 1896 comprised
no less than eighteen million acres, for which there was no
definite system of management. Moved apparently by this cir-
cumstance,169 under date of February 15, 1896, the Secretary of
the Interior, Hoke Smith, addressed the following letter to the
President of the Academy: 17°

" DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR,

"WASHINGTON, February 15, 1896.

" SIR: I have the honor, as the head of the Department charged with the
administration of the public domain, to request an investigation and report of your
honorable body, as is provided in the act incorporating the National Academy,
and by article 5, section 5, of its constitution, upon the inauguration of a rational
forest policy for the forested lands of the United States.

" Being convinced of the necessity for a radical change in the existing policy
with reference to the disposal and preservation of the forests upon the public
domain, I particularly desire an official expression from your body upon the fol-
lowing points :

" I. Is it desirable and practicable to preserve from fire and to maintain perma-
nently as forested lands those portions of the public domain now bearing wood
growth for the supply of timber?

" 2. How far does the influence of forest upon climate, soil, and water condi-
tions make desirable a policy of forest conservation in regions where the public
domain is principally situated ?

" 3. What specific legislation should be enacted to remedy the evils now con-
fessedly existing?

" My predecessors in office for the last twenty years have vainly called attention
to the inadequacy and confusion of existing laws relating to the public timber
lands, and consequent absence of an intelligent policy in their administration,
resulting in such conditions as may, if not speedily stopped, prevent a proper
development of a large portion of our country; and because the evil grows more
and more as the years go by, I am impelled to emphasize the importance of the
question by calling upon you for the opinion and advice of that body of scientists
which is officially empowered to act in such cases as this.

" I also beg to refer you to the proposed legislation which has been introduced
into Congress for several years past at the instance of the American Forestry
Association, supported by memorials of private citizens and scientific bodies, and
more especially the memorials presented by the American Association for the
Advancement of Science in 1873, which led to desirable legislation, and again in
1890, 1892, and in 1894.

189 See Yearbook U. S. Dep. Agric., 1899, p. 13.
170 Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1896, p. 13.

316 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

" As I believe that a speedy change in the existing policy is urgent, I request
that you will give an early consideration to this matter, and favor me with such
statements and recommendations as may be laid before Congress for action during
this session.

" I have the honor to be, your obedient servant,

" HOKE SMITH,

" Secretary."

The President of the Academy at once appointed the follow-
ing committee to consider and report on the subject in question:
Charles S. Sargent (chairman), Henry L. Abbot, Alexander
Agassiz, Wm. H. Brewer, Arnold Hague, and Gifford Pinchot.
The President was also, ex officio, a member of the committee.

It was obvious at the outset that no report of value could be
made without a personal inspection by the committee of the
forested areas of the public domain and the forest reservations,
and on the representations of President Wolcott Gibbs, the sum
of $25,000 was appropriated by Congress in the Sundry Civil
Act, approved June n, 1896, to enable the Secretary of the
Interior to meet the expenses of an investigation and report by
the Academy. The committee already mentioned being ac-
ceptable to the Secretary of the Interior, was authorized to visit
the various forested areas and reservations at the expense of the
Government. The members of the committee, with the excep-
tion of the President, Wolcott Gibbs (whose condition of health
forbade his going into the field) and Professor Agassiz, travelled
westward on July 2, 1896, and spent three months in laborious
study and inspection of the forests. They traversed large areas
of unreserved forest, and visited all the reservations established
prior to 1897, except six, which were either of limited extent or
well-known to the members of the committee.

The conditions which they found were truly lamentable.
Except in the national parks, which were effectively guarded by
detachments of the Army, vast sections of the forest reserves
were being destroyed annually by fires started by careless or
ignorant campers and hunters, or by sparks from locomotives.
In some instances they were started by shepherds or by mining

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 317

prospectors for the purpose of clearing the ground. " Nearly
every summer their smoke obscured for months the sight of the
sun over hundreds of square miles." To this destruction by fire
was added a widespread devastation caused by wandering herds
of sheep, which ranged about the borders of the forests, stripping
the ground bare of seedling trees and growing shrubs, trampling
the tender plants, and dislodging the soil on steep mountain
slopes. On the unreserved lands, the theft of timber by settlers,
mining prospectors, railroad contractors and others had assumed
enormous proportions. The Department of the Interior which
was charged with the custody of these lands was powerless to
stop this plunder of the public domain, owing mainly to defec-
tive and conflicting laws and the sentiment of the people in the
States and Territories in which the forests are located that they
belonged to them and not to the people of the United States as a
whole.

Upon its return from the West, the committee on February i,
1897, presented a preliminary report to the Secretary of the
Interior, in which it recommended the establishment of thirteen
new forest reservations, covering somewhat more than twenty-
one million acres, to be added to the seventeen reserves already
existing, which comprised seventeen and one-half million acres.
This report was forwarded to the President on February 6,
1897, by the Secretary of the Interior, David R. Francis, with a
favorable recommendation, and on February 22, the i65th
anniversary of the birth of Washington, President Cleveland
promulgated proclamations establishing the reserves.

About two months later, on May i, 1897, the committee sub-
mitted its complete report on the inauguration of a forest policy,
which was transmitted on the same date by President Wolcott
Gibbs to the Secretary of the Interior and printed at the Govern-
ment Printing Office.171 This report, which covers 45 printed
pages, is comprehensive in scope and contains definite recom-
mendations for the establishment of a national forestry service.

171 See p. 383 ; also Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1897, pp. 29-73, where the report is printed
in full.

22

31 8 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

It begins with a review of Gustav Wex's researches on the rela-
tion of stream-flow to forests in Central Europe, and sets forth
the reasons why attention should be given to the preservation of
the forests of the United States. It then gives a brief account of
the history of forest administration in Europe and of the organi-
zation of the forestry service in France, Germany, India, and
Canada. This is followed by a chapter on the destructive effects
of fires, sheep husbandry and illegal timber cutting in the forest
reserves of the United States, and on the condition of the several
reserves. The committee then proceeds to outline a definite
system of national forest administration, including both tempo-
rary measures and a permanent organization. The disastrous
results of defective and conflicting forest laws are then com-
mented upon, and attention called to the desirability of establish-
ing additional national parks. A summary of the conclusions and
recommendations closes the report.

The form of organization for the national forestry service
recommended by the committee was patterned after that of Ger-
many. It contemplated the formation of a separate forest bureau
in the Department of the Interior, the principal officers of which
were to be a director, an assistant director, and four inspectors.
These officers were to form an advisory board which would pass
on general matters relating to the forests. The actual care of
the forests was to be intrusted to a corps of foresters, assistants,
and rangers. The forest areas of the West were to be grouped
in four departments, each to be in charge of an inspector.

All the officers above the grade of rangers were to be ap-
pointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate, were to
hold office during good behavior, but to be subject to retirement
at the age of 64 years.

Until a permanent corps could be organized, it was proposed
to form a temporary corps recruited mainly from graduates from
West Point. A portion of these officers were to be sent to
Europe to study in the forestry schools of France and Germany,
and it should be their duty on returning to America to organize
a forestry school in the United States for the instruction of the

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 319

forest corps. This part of the program was not regarded by
the committee, or at least by some of its members, as of primary
importance. Stress was, however, laid on the desirability of
offering relatively high rates of compensation and providing
for retirement, in order to attract men of integrity who would
render intelligent and conscientious service.

To provide for the proper establishment of new forest re-
serves, the committee recommended that a board of forest
lands should be created, composed of an officer of the Engineer
Corps of the Army, an officer of the Geological Survey, an
officer of the Coast Survey and two persons not connected with
the Government service, whose duty should be to fix the boun-
daries of such reserves.

These and other recommendations were summarized by the
committee in its report which closes as follows : "

" i. That the Secretary of War, upon the request of the Secretary of the
Interior, shall be authorized and directed to make the necessary details of troops
to protect the forests, timber, and undergrowth on the public reservations, and in
the national parks not otherwise protected under existing laws, until a perma-
nent forest bureau in the Department of the Interior has been authorized and
thoroughly organized. (See bill No. I.)

" 2. That the Secretary of the Interior shall be authorized and directed to issue
the necessary rules and regulations for the protection, growth, and improvement
of the forests on the forest reserves of the United States ; for the sale from them of
timber, firewood, and fencing of actual settlers on and adjacent to such reserves,
and to the owners of mines legally located in them for use in such mines; for
allowing actual settlers who have no timber on their own claims to take from the
reserves firewood, posts, poles, and fencing material necessary for their immediate
personal use ; for allowing the public to enter and cross the reserves ; for granting
to county commissioners rights of way for wagon roads in and across the reserves ;
for granting rights of way for irrigating ditches, flumes, and pipes, and for
reservoir sites; and for permitting prospectors to enter the reserves in search of
valuable minerals ; for opening the reserves to the location of mining claims under
the general mineral laws; and for allowing the owners of unperfected claims or
patents, and the land-grant railroads with lands located in the reserves, to
exchange them under equitable conditions for unreserved lands. (See bill No. 2,
sees. 2-4.)

172 Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1897, pp. 64, 65.

320 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

" 3. That a bureau of public forests shall be established in the Department of
the Interior, composed of officers specially selected with reference to their char-
acter and attainments, holding office during effciency and good behavior and liber-
ally paid and pensioned. (See bill No. 2, sees. 5-11.)

" 4. That a board of forest lands shall be appointed by the President to
determine from actual topographical surveys to be made by the Director of the
Geological Survey what portions of the public domain should be reserved per-
manently as forest lands and what portions, being more valuable for agriculture
or mining, should be open to sale and settlement. (See bill No. 2, sec. 15, and
bill No. 3, sec. 6.)

"5. That all public lands of the United States more valuable for the pro-
duction of timber than for agriculture or mining shall be withdrawn from sale,
settlement, and other disposition and held for the growth and sale of timber.

(See bill No. 3.)
" 6. That certain portions of the Rainier Forest Reserve in Washington and

of the Grand Canyon Forest Reserve in Arizona shall be set aside and governed

as national parks. (See bills, Nos. 4 and 5.)

" Yours, respectfully,

" CHARLES S. SARGENT,
" HENRY L. ABBOT,
" A. AGASSIZ,
" WM. H. BREWER,
" ARNOLD HAGUE,

" GlFFORD PlNCHOT,

" WOLCOTT GIBBS.
" To the President of the National Academy of Sciences."

To aid Congress in enacting laws in accordance with its recom-
mendations, the committee drafted five bills, which are given in
full in the appendix to its report.

The work of the committee has had far-reaching conse-
quences, although the Government did not adopt the system of
forest administration proposed. The proclamation of new forest
reserves, in accordance with the recommendations contained in
the preliminary report of the committee, led to an animated
discussion in Congress, in the course of which the views and
action of President Cleveland and of the committee of the
Academy were vigorously attacked. It resulted therefrom that
the reservations were ordered suspended for a year. They were
subsequently reaffirmed and made effective, however, by Presi-
dent McKinley.

w

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 321

The final report of the committee was to a certain extent fore-
stalled by the action of Congress which in the Sundry Civil Act
for 1898, passed June 4, 1897, made the following provision:

" The Secretary of the Interior shall make provisions for the protection
against destruction by fire and depredations upon the public forests and forest
reservations which may have been set aside or which may be hereafter set aside
under the said Act of March third, eighteen hundred and ninety-one, and which
may be continued; and he may make such rules and regulations and establish
such service as will insure the objects of such reservations, namely, to regulate
their occupancy and use and to preserve the forests thereon from destruction,
etc." 173

In the Sundry Civil Act for 1899, $110,000 was appro-
priated " to meet the expenses of protecting timber on the public
lands," and for other similar purposes, and $75,000 " for the
care and administration of the forest reserves, to meet the
expenses of forest inspectors and assistants, and for the employ-
ment of foresters and other emergency help in the prevention
and extinguishment of forest fires, and for advertising dead
and matured trees for sale within such reservations." 174 These
amounts were to be expended under the Department of the
Interior. The control of the public forests thus remained with
the Interior Department without the formation of a separate
bureau, as recommended by the committee of the Academy.

In the meantime the Government had in the Division of
Forestry in the Department of Agriculture another organiza-
tion concerned with questions of forest management and preser-
vation. The activities of this division increased rapidly year by
year, and finally on February i, 1905, the management of the
public forests was transferred to it from the Department of the
Interior. A special Act of Congress, approved on that date,
provides " that the Secretary of the Department of Agriculture
shall, from and after the passage of this Act, execute or cause
to be executed all laws affecting public lands heretofore or here-
after reserved under the provisions of section twenty-four of the

173 Stat. at Large, vol. 30, p. 35, 55th Congress, ist Session, chap. 2, 1897.
114 Op. clt., p. 618, ssth Congress, 2d Session, chap. 546, 1898.

322 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Act entitled ' An Act to repeal the timber-culture laws, and for
other purposes,' approved March third, eighteen hundred and
ninety-one, and Acts supplemental to and amendatory thereof,
after such lands have been so reserved, excepting such laws as
affect the surveying, prospecting, locating, appropriating, enter-
ing, relinquishing, reconveying, certifying, or patenting of any
of such lands." 175

At the beginning of the fiscal year this bureau, known as the
Forest Service, had in its employ 821 persons, of whom 153 were
professionally trained foresters. In 1908 the force comprised
1779 persons, consisting of 29 inspectors, 98 forest supervisors,
61 deputies, 33 forest assistants, 8 planting assistants, 941 rangers,
521 guards and 88 clerks.176 The scope and magnitude of the
activities of the Service have increased year by year since that
date.

Thus, after the lapse of fifteen years since the committee of
the Academy made its recommendations, the Government has
provided an effective organization for the protection of the
public forests — one which may be fairly said to possess the
principal features, though not the exact form, which the com-
mittee considered desirable. Instead of a bureau of forests in the
Department of the Interior we have the Forest Service in the
Department of Agriculture. Instead of a " director " and
" assistant director," we have a " chief forester " and " associate
forester " ; instead of " head foresters " and " foresters " we have
" forest supervisors " and " deputies." The division into depart-
ments has been adopted. The formation of a special " board of
forest lands " has not been carried into effect, the locating and
surveying of forest lands and kindred duties remaining in charge
of the General Land Office of the Department of the Interior.

The plan of recruiting officers from West Point and providing
for retirement for age has not been adopted, while the forest
schools connected with universities and colleges have supplied
the means of educating young men in the principles of forestry

175 Stat. at Large, vol. 33, part i, p. 628, s8th Congress, 3d Session, chap. 288, sec. i, 1905.
178 Rep. Dep. Agric. for 1908, p. 417.

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 323

and the organization of a forestry school by the Government has
not been necessary. Regarding the importance of the work of
the committee of the Academy in the promotion of the forestry
interests of the United States, Mr. Gifford Pinchot, who was a
member of the committee, and has also been the most conspicuous
advocate of scientific forestry in America, wrote in 1905:

" The work of the committee of the National Academy of Sciences, while it
failed of much that it might have accomplished, nevertheless was the spring from
which the present activity in forest matters was derived. The proclamation of
the reserves which it recommended drew the attention of the country as nothing
else had ever done to the question of forestry. Vigorous discussion of forest
matters by the public press led to a widespread interest, and that in turn to a keen
appreciation of the value of forests in the economy of each State, and to a willing-
ness to take measures to protect them. It may fairly be assumed that, as one
of the results of this awakened interest, the policy of making Government forest
reserves is now established beyond the reach of further question." 17T

The following data were culled from the report of Secretary
Wilson for 1912:

In the midsummer of 1912 the Forest Service employed a total of 4097 persons
and had an appropriation of over $5,000,000 for the current year. This bureau
employed only thirteen persons sixteen years ago. Its administrative and pro-
tective duties alone are discharged in thirty-four States and in Alaska. Besides
having charge of the national forests, this bureau offers to provide owners of
woodlands an opportunity to obtain practical advice and assistance looking toward
the introduction of forest management ori their holdings.

Grazing of the forest lands, which was formerly done destructively, is now
permitted under control of this Department. Grazing permits are issued, and in
1912 over 26,000 permits were issued for the grazing of 1,400,000 cattle, 95,000
horses, and nearly 7,500,000 sheep.

In the care of the national forests much timber is sold, and in 1912 the
timber sales numbered nearly 5800 and embraced 800,000,000 board feet, from
which the receipts were over $1,000,000. The area of the national forests, June
30, 1912, was over 187,000,000 acres.

COMMITTEE ON THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A NATIONAL
RESERVE IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS. 1902

In 1902 the Academy received a letter from the chairman of
the Senate Committee on Forest Reservations and the Protection
of Game relative to the establishment of a reservation in the

177 Yearbook of the Dep. Agric., 1899, p. 297.

324 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Appalachian Mountains. This letter and the report of the com-
mittee of the Academy appointed to consider the matter are
given in full in the Report for the year mentioned. As they
are self-explanatory, they are quoted in full in this place.

" UNITED STATES SENATE
" COMMITTEE ON FOREST RESERVATIONS AND THE PROTECTION OF GAME,

"April 1 6, 1902.
" PROF. ALEX. AGASSIZ,

" President National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D. C.
" DEAR SIR : There is now before Congress a bill looking to the establishment
of a national forest reserve to include the higher and larger masses of mountains
in the Southern Appalachian region.

" This measure is to be considered at an early date by the Senate Committee
on Forest Reservations, and in order that the best interests of the country may be
served in this connection I will be greatly pleased if the Committee on Forest
Reservations may have the benefit of the Academy's advice.

" Yours very truly,

" J. R. BURTON."

" BOSTON, April 30, 1902.
" ALEXANDER AGASSIZ, ESQ.,

" President National Academy of Sciences.

" SIR: The committee of the Academy to whom you have referred the
request of the chairman of the Committee on Forestry of the Senate of the United
States for an opinion on the advisability of establishing an Appalachian forest
reserve, have examined Senate Document No. 84, Fifty-seventh Congress, first
session, being the message from the President of the United States transmitting
a report of the Secretary of Agriculture in relation to the forests, rivers, and
mountains of the Southern Appalachian region (without the accompanying
illustrations), and a copy of Senate bill 5228, for the purchase of a national
forest reserve in the Southern Appalachian Mountain region, to be known as the
' National Appalachian Forest Reserve,' and beg to state that they are in full
sympathy with the principle of forest reservations intended to preserve the
gradual distribution of rainfall in the flow of rivers heading therein.

" They do not feel, however, without a personal examination of the region in
question, qualified to give an opinion as to whether the recent disastrous floods in
various rivers flowing from the Appalachian Mountains, recounted in the reports
transmitted by the Bureau of Forestry and by the Geological Survey and con-
tained in Document No. 84, resulted from the actual destruction of the forests,
and as to whether their repetition could be prevented by a restoration of the

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 325

forest growth. No data or records are presented to show that floods equally
large did not occur in older times.

" To make a proper report would require a certain time, as well as an appro-
priation to meet the expenses incurred by the committee of the academy.

" As regards the provisions of the bill, it appears to the committee to be abso-
lutely essential that the Government shall have full ownership and control of all
reserved lands, and that these shall be in large continuous blocks. To limit such
ownership to detached lots, surrounded by areas held by private parties upon
whose concurrence success must depend, would seem to be entering on a dangerous
copartnership likely to result in large expenditures and litigation.

" C. S. SARGENT,
" HENRY L. ABBOT,
"WM. H. BREWER,
" Committee."

COMMITTEE ON SCIENTIFIC EXPLORATIONS OF THE
PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 1902

Near the close of the year 1902, President Roosevelt sent the
following letter to Professor Alexander Agassiz."8

"WHITE HOUSE,

" WASHINGTON, December 26, 1902.

" MY DEAR MR. AGASSIZ : I should like much a report from the National
Academy of Sciences on the desirability of instituting scientific explorations of
the Philippine Islands and on the scope proper to such an undertaking. The
National Academy is the official scientific adviser of the Government, and I
would like its cooperation in planning a comprehensive investigation of the
natural resources and natural history of the islands. It will of course rest with
Congress to decide the extent to which such a plan can be carried through ; but I
should like, at any rate, to have a plan formulated and to do what I can to have
it adopted.

" Sincerely yours,

" THEODORE ROOSEVELT.
" PROF. ALEXANDER AGASSIZ,

" President of the National Academy, Cambridge, Mass"

Professor Agassiz was absent in Europe when this letter
reached Cambridge, and it was placed in the hands of the Vice-
President, Asaph Hall, who, after consulting with members of

178 Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1904, p. 22.

326 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

the council residing in Baltimore and Washington, appointed
the following committee to formulate a plan of explorations in
accordance with the President's wishes: William H. Brewer
(chairman), George F. Becker, C. Hart Merriam, F. W. Put-
man, and R. S. Woodward. The committee completed and
adopted its report on February 7, 1903. The plan proposed
covered the following subjects which the committee recom-
mended should receive attention in the order here given pro-
vided they could not all be taken up at the same time: Coast
and geodetic surveying and marine hydrography, land topog-
raphy, including surveys and classification of public lands,
geology and mineral resources, botany, systematic forestry (or
forestry problems), zoology, anthropology.

In order to properly coordinate the work, the committee
proposed that it should be in charge of a board of scientific
experts, to be selected from the various scientific bureaus of the
Government. The board was to be assisted by a scientific
council, to consist of the chief field officers of the several bureaus
engaged in the work and presided over by a member of the
Philippine Commission. The council was to have an officer of
the Engineer Corps of the Army and a naval officer associated
with it.

This report was transmitted to President Roosevelt on Feb-
ruary 12, 1903.

On March 9, 1903, about a month after the committee of
the Academy had presented its report, President Roosevelt
appointed a board, called the Board of Scientific Surveys of the
Philippine Islands, for the purpose of developing the plans out-
lined by the Academy.

" WHITE HOUSE,

" WASHINGTON, March 9, 1903.

" MY DEAR SIR: At my request, the National Academy of Sciences has outlined
a comprehensive plan for scientific explorations of the Philippine Islands in a
report, a copy of which I transmit herewith for your information.

" A plan of exploration so broad and systematic has never hitherto been pre-
pared for any region, and if it can be carried into effect, it will add to human

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 327

knowledge a contribution of great importance, highly commendable to the
United States.

" Before taking any further steps in this matter, I desire to have estimates of the
cost of such explorations prepared, assuming that the work is to be completed in
ten years, and that the various branches of the scientific surveys cooperate with one
another systematically and heartily.

" I therefore appoint the following Board of Scientific Surveys to prepare such
estimates and to make such suggestions as may appear to it pertinent in the cir-
cumstances, viz:

" MR. CHARLES D. WALCOTT, Chairman.
" MR. FREDERICK C. COVILLE
" MR. BARTON W. EVERMANN
" MR. W. H. HOLMES
" MR. C. HART MERRIAM

" MR. GlFFORD PlNCHOT

" MR. OTTO H. TITTMANN.

" Sincerely yours,

" THEODORE ROOSEVELT."

The board held five meetings in March, May and June, 1903,
appointed a committee on plans and organization, prepared
estimates of expenditures, drafted a bill for the consideration of
Congress, drew up various memoranda, and transacted other
business. After that the matter was held in abeyance for two
years, but on February 7, 1905, President Roosevelt sent the
report of the committee of the Academy to Congress, with the
following message:

" WHITE HOUSE,

" February 7, 1905.
" To the Senate and House of Representatives:

" Circumstances have placed under the control of this Government the Philip-
pine Archipelago. The islands of that group present as many interesting and novel
questions with respect to their ethnology, their fauna and flora, and their geology
and mineral resources as any region of the world. At my request the National
Academy of Sciences appointed a committee to consider and report upon the
desirability of instituting scientific explorations of the Philippine Islands. The
report of this committee, together with the report of the Board of Scientific
Surveys of the Philippine Islands, including draft of a bill providing for surveys
of the Philippine Islands, which board was appointed by me, after receiving the
report of the committee appointed by the National Academy of Sciences, with

328 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

instructions to prepare such estimates and make such suggestions as might appear
to it pertinent in the circumstances, accompanies this message.

" The scientific surveys which should be undertaken go far beyond any surveys
or explorations which the government of the Philippine Islands, however com-
pletely self-supporting, could be expected to make. The surveys, while of course
beneficial to the people of the Philippine Islands, should be undertaken as a
national work for the information not merely of the people of the Philippine
Islands, but of the people of this country and of the world. Only preliminary
explorations have yet been made in the archipelago, and it should be a matter of
pride to the Government of the United States fully to investigate and to describe
the entire region. So far as may be convenient and practical, the work of this
survey should be conducted in harmony with that of the proper bureaus of the
government of the Philippines; but it should not be under the control of the
authorities of the Philippine Islands, for it should be undertaken as a national
work and subject to a board appointed by Congress or the President. The plan
transmitted recommends simultaneous surveys in different branches of research,
organized on a co-operative system. This would tend to completeness, avoid
duplication, and render work more economical than if the exploration were under-
taken piecemeal. No such organized surveys have ever yet been attempted any-
where ; but the idea is in harmony with modern, scientific, and industrial methods.

" I recommend, therefore, that provision be made for the appointment of a
board of surveys to superintend the national surveys and explorations to be made
in the Philippine Islands, and that appropriations be made from time to time to
meet the necessary expenses of such investigation. It is not probable that the
survey would be completed in a less period than that of eight or ten years, but it is
well that it should be begun in the near future. The Philippine Commission, and
those responsible for the Philippine government are properly anxious that this sur-
vey should not be considered as an expense of that government, but should be
carried on and treated as a national duty in the interests of science.

" THEODORE ROOSEVELT." 179

The papers of the President's board were transmitted to Con-
gress with the report of the committee of the Academy, and
printed in the same document. The plan proposed by the board
conforms in all its essential features to that recommended by the
Academy, except that no provision is made for an advisory
council consisting of the heads, or chief field agents, of the
various surveys.

The message, with the accompanying documents, was referred
to the Committee on the Philippines and ordered to be printed,18'

179 Congr. Record, vol. 39, part 2, pp. 2052, 2057.

180 It forms Sen. Doc. no. 145, $8th Congress, 3d Session, February 7, 1905.

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 329

but was not reported back, and the projected surveys were, there-
fore, never undertaken. They appear to have failed to obtain sup-
port mainly on account of the opposition of the late Dr. Paul C.
Freer, who thought that they would interfere with the scientific
work in the Philippines which was under his jurisdiction as head
of the Government laboratories in Manila. Senator Lodge gave
notice on February 10, 1905, of an amendment which he intended
to propose to the Sundry Civil bill for the fiscal year 1906, con-
sisting of an item for the expenses of the board (^Sth Congress,
3d session) , but on March 2 he wrote : " I went before the Com-
mittee on Appropriations in regard to the amendment and said
all I could for it, but, I am sorry to say, they refused to put it in."
Scientific explorations and investigations were, however,
carried on under the Philippine Commission. Nearly three
years before President Roosevelt addressed his letter to the
Academy, the Philippine Commission had already begun to
establish scientific bureaus to investigate the natural resources
of the islands, and for other similar purposes. A Bureau of
Forestry and a Bureau of Mines were established in 1900. The
following year a Health Bureau, an Agricultural Bureau, a
Bureau of Government Laboratories, an Ethnological Survey
(first called a bureau of Non-Christian Tribes), a Weather
Bureau, and a Bureau of Coast and Geodetic Surveys were estab-
lished. These have all continued to the present time, but in 1906
the Bureau of Government Laboratories and the Bureau of
Mines were combined under the designation of the Bureau of
Sciences, while the Ethnological Survey was incorporated in the
Bureau of Education in 1905, and also the Agricultural Bureau
in 1910. The Bureau of Education had in the meantime become
the Department of Public Instruction. The coast survey and
geodetic work has been carried on jointly by the Philippine
government and the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey.
All these organizations have issued numerous reports, scientific
papers and other publications relating to the Islands.

330 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

COMMITTEE ON THE METHODS AND EXPENSES OF CON-
DUCTING SCIENTIFIC WORK UNDER THE GOVERN-
MENT. 1908

The Sundry Civil Act for 1908-1909, approved May 27, 1908,
contained the following section:

" SECT. 8. The National Academy of Sciences is required, at their next meeting,
to take into consideration the methods and expenses of conducting all surveys of a
scientific character, and all chemical, testing, and experimental laboratories and
to report to Congress as soon thereafter as may be practicable a plan for consoli-
dating such surveys, chemical, testing, and experimental laboratories so as to
effectually prevent duplication of work and reduce expenditures without detri-
ment to the public service.

" It is the judgment of Congress that any person who holds employment under
the United States or who is employed by or receives a regular salary from any
scientific bureau or institution that is required to report to Congress should
refrain from participation in the deliberations of said National Academy of
Science on this subject and from voting on or joining in any recommendation
hereunder." 181

Immediately upon the passage of this Act, President Remsen
appointed a committee consisting of R. S. Woodward, W. W.
Campbell, Edward L. Nichols, Arthur A. Noyes, and Charles
R. Van Hise to consider and report on the subject in question.
The committee submitted its report to the Council on January
9, 1909, and President Remsen on January 16, addressed it to the
Speaker of the House of Representatives. It was transmitted to
Congress by President Roosevelt on January 18 and referred to
the Committee on Appropriations of the House and ordered to
be printed.182

The principal conclusions of the committee are embodied in
the following paragraphs:

" From a general survey of the field of work under consideration three facts
appear to be clearly established, namely:

"First. That the amount of actual duplication of work now carried on by
the government bureaus is relatively unimportant; but that the duplication of
organizations and of plants for the conduct of such work is so considerable as to
need careful attention from Congress in the future.

181 Stat. at Large, vol. 35, part i, p. 387, 6oth Congress, ist Session, chap. 200.

182 It constitutes House Doc. no. 1337, 6oth Congress, 2d Session.

COMMITTEES ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT 331

" Second. That while the consolidation of some of the branches of work now
carried on in several organizations is probably advisable, specific recommendations
in reference to such consolidation can be made wisely only after a careful con-
sideration of all the facts by the board hereinafter suggested or by some similarly
competent body.

" Third. That there has never been hitherto and there is not at present any-
thing like a rational correlation of allied branches of scientific work carried on
by the Government.

" This last fact appears to your committee by far the most important one pre-
sented for consideration." 183

It was suggested by the committee that the permanent board
referred to above should consist of the heads of the various scien-
tific bureaus, two delegates from each house of Congress, and
" five to seven eminent men of science not connected with the
government service."

The recommendations of the Academy have not as yet been
adopted by Congress.184

183 Op. cit., pp. 3, 4-

184 In the foregoing account of the committees appointed by the Academy at the request
of the several branches of the Government, no mention is made of the following, whose
work was either of minor importance, or of such a character that its history is not
accessible :

On National currency, 1863 (Confidential).

On prevention of counterfeiting, 1865 (Confidential).

On the preservation of army knapsacks, 1868. (Correspondence in the files of the
Academy indicates that this committee never reported. The question was one of restoring
knapsacks valued at a million dollars, the paint on which had become soft and sticky.)

On silk culture in the United States, 1870. (See Proc., vol. i, pp. 75, 77, Rep. for 1879,
p. n.)

On the exploration of the Yellowstone region by General Stanley, 1873.

On distinguishing calf's hair goods from woolen goods, 1875 (Confidential).

On building stone for the custom house at Chicago, 1878.

On triangulation connecting the Atlantic and Pacific coasts, 1882.

The Academy had some correspondence with the Department of the Interior in 1893
relative to the appointment of a committee on a conventional standard of color. The
committee, however, was not appointed. (See Rep. Nat. Acad. Sci. for 1893, pp. 43-46;
also for 1894, p. 7.)

APPENDICES

APPENDIX I
LIST OF OFFICERS

PRESIDENT

From To

ALEXANDER DALLAS BACHE 1863 February 14, 1867 1

JOSEPH HENRY (acting) January 25, 1866 January 26, 1868

JOSEPH HENRY January 26, 1868 May 13, 1878 *

O. C. MARSH (acting) May 13, 1878 April 16, 1879

WILLIAM B. ROGERS April 16, 1879 May 30, 1882 x

O. C. MARSH (acting) May 30, 1882 April 20, 1883

O. C. MARSH April 20, 1883 April 19, 1895

WOLCOTT GIBBS April 19, 1895 April 19, 1900 2

ASAPH HALL (acting) April 19, 1900 April 18, 1901

ALEXANDER AGASSIZ April 18, 1901 April 18, 1907

IRA REMSEN April 18, 1907

VICE-PRESIDENT

From To

JAMES D. DANA 1863 August 23, 1865 2

JOSEPH HENRY January 25, 1866 January 26, 1868

WILLIAM CHAUVENET January 26, 1868 December 13, 1870 *

WOLCOTT GIBBS April 19, 1872 April 16, 1878

O. C. MARSH April 16, 1878 April 20, 1883

SIMON NEWCOMB April 20, 1883 April 17, 1889

S. P. LANGLEY April 17, 1889 April 24, 1891 2

F. A. WALKER April 24, 1891 January 5, 1897 *

ASAPH HALL April 22, 1897 April 23, 1903

IRA REMSEN April 23, 1903 April 18, 1907

CHARLES D. WALCOTT April 18, 1907

'Date of death.

2 Date of resignation.

335

336

APPENDICES

HOME SECRETARY

From To

WOLCOTT GIBBS 1863 April 19, 1872 2

J. E. HILGARD April 19, 1872 April 16, 1878

J. H. C. COFFIN April 16,1878 April 22, 1881 2

SIMON NEWCOMB April 22, 1881 April 20, 1883

ASAPH HALL April 20, 1883 April 22, 1897

IRA REMSEN April 22, 1897 April 18, 1901

ARNOLD HAGUE April 18, 1901

FOREIGN SECRETARY

From To

Louis AGASSIZ 1863 December 14, 1873 x

F. A. P. BARNARD April 25, 1874 April 16, 1880

ALEXANDER AGASSIZ April 16, 1880 April 23, 1886

WOLCOTT GIBBS April 23, 1886 April 19, 1895

ALEXANDER AGASSIZ April 19, 1895 April 18, 1901

IRA REMSEN April 18, 1901 April 23, 1903

SIMON NEWCOMB April 23, 1903 April 22, 1909

ALEXANDER AGASSIZ April 22, 1909 March 27, 1910 x

GEORGE E. HALE April 21, 1910

TREASURER

From To

FAIRMAN ROGERS 1863 April 22, 1881 2

J. H. C. COFFIN April 22, 1881 April 22, 1887

J. S. BILLINGS April 22, 1887 April 22, 1898

CHARLES D. WALCOTT April 22, 1898 April 17, 1902 2

S. F. EMMONS April 17, 1902 March 28, 1911 l

WHITMAN CROSS (acting) March 28, 1911 April 20, 1911

WHITMAN CROSS April 20, 191 1

1 Date of death.

2 Date of resignation.

APPENDIX II
LIST OF MEMBERS AND FOREIGN ASSOCIATES

MEMBERS ~ ,„. .

Date of Election

ABBE, CLEVELAND U. S. Weather Bureau, Washington, D. C. 1879

ABBOT, HENRY L., U. S. A 23 Berkeley St., Cambridge, Mass. 1872

ABEL, JOHN JACOB Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. 1912

ALLEN, J. ASAPH. . .American Museum of Natural History, N. Y. City. 1876

AMES, JOSEPH S Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. 1909

BARNARD, E. E Yerkes Observatory, Williams Bay, Wis. 1911

BARUS, CARL Brown University, Providence, R. I. 1892

BECKER, GEORGE F U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. 1901

BELL, A. GRAHAM 1331 Connecticut Ave., Washington, D. C. 1883

BILLINGS, JOHN S., U. S. A.1 32 E. Thirty-first St., New York City. 1883

BOAS, FRANZ Franklin Ave., Grantwood, N. J. 1900

BOCHER, MAXIME Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. 1909

BOLTWOOD, B. B Yale University, New Haven, Conn. 191 1

BOLZA, OSKAR Marienstrasse 7, Freiburg, Germany. 1909

BRANNER, JOHN C Stanford University, California. 1905

CAMPBELL, D. H Stanford University, California. 1910

CAMPBELL, WILLIAM W Lick Observatory, Mount Hamilton, Calif. 1902

CATTELL, JAMES McK Garrison, N. Y. 1901

CHAMBERLIN, THOMAS C University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. 1903

CHANDLER, CHARLES F Columbia University, New York City. 1874

CHANDLER, SETH C Box 216, Wellesley Hills, Mass. 1888

CHITTENDEN, RUSSELL H.. Sheffield Scientific School, New Haven, Conn. 1890

CLARK, W. B Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. 1908

CLARKE, F. W U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. 1909

CLARKE, J. M State Hall, Albany, N. Y. 1909

COMSTOCK, GEORGE C Washburn Observatory, Madison, Wis. 1899

CONKLIN, E. G Princeton, N. J. 1908

COULTER, J. M University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. 1909

COUNCILMAN, WM. T Harvard Medical School, Boston, Mass. 1904

CRAFTS, JAMES M 59 Marlborough St., Boston, Mass. 1872

CREW, HENRY Northwestern University, Evanston, 111. 1909

CROSS, WHITMAN U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. 1908

1 Died March 10, 1913.

337

338 APPENDICES

Date of Election

DALL, WILLIAM H Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. 1897

DANA, EDWARD S Yale University, New Haven, Conn. 1884

DAVENPORT, CHARLES B Cold Spring Harbor, N. Y. 1912

DAVIS, WILLIAM MORRIS 17 Francis Ave., Cambridge, Mass. 1904

DAY, ARTHUR L Geophysical Laboratory, Washington, D. C. 1911

DEWEY, JOHN Columbia University, New York City. 1910

ELKIN, WILLIAM L Yale University Observatory, New Haven, Conn. 1895

FARLOW, W. G Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. 1879

FLEXNER, SIMON Rockefeller Institute, New York City. 1908

FROST, EDWIN B Yerkes Observatory, Williams Bay, Wis. 1908

GILBERT, GROVE K U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. 1883

GILL, THEODORE N Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. 1873

GOOCH, FRANK A Yale University, New Haven, Conn. 1897

GOODALE, GEORGE L Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. 1890

HAGUE, ARNOLD U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. 1885

HALE, GEORGE E Solar Observatory Office, Pasadena, Calif. 1902

HALL, EDWIN H Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. 1911

HARPER, R. A Columbia University, New York City. 191 1

HASTINGS, CHARLES S Yale University, New Haven, Conn. 1889

HAYFORD, JOHN F Northwestern University, Evanston, 111. 1911

HILGARD, EUGENE W University of California, Berkeley, Calif. 1872

HILL, GEORGE W West Nyack, N. Y. 1874

HILLEBRAND, WILLIAM F Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C. 1908

HOLDEN, EDWARD S U. S. Military Academy, West Point, N. Y. 1885

HOLMES, WILLIAM H U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C. 1905

HOWELL, WILLIAM H Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. 1905

IDDINGS, JOSEPH P Brinklow, Md. 1907

JACKSON, CHARLES L 6 Boylston Hall, Cambridge, Mass. 1883

KEMP, JAMES F Columbia University, New York City. 191 1

LINDGREN, WALDEMAR U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. 1909

LOEB, JACQUES Rockefeller Institute, New York City. 1910

MALL, FRANKLIN P Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. 1907

MARK, EDWARD L 109 Irving St., Cambridge, Mass. 1903

MELTZER, SAMUEL JAMES Rockefeller Institute, New York City. 1912

MENDENHALL, THOMAS C 329 North Chestnut St., Ravenna, Ohio. 1887

MERRIAM, C. HART 1919 Sixteenth St., Washington, D. C. 1902

MICHAEL, ARTHUR 219 Parker St., Newton Center, Mass. 1889

MICHELSON, ALBERT A University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. 1888

MINOT, CHARLES S Harvard Medical School, Boston, Mass. 1897

MITCHELL, S. WEIR 1524 Walnut St., Philadelphia, Pa. 1865

MOORE, ELIAKIM H University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. 1901

APPENDICES 339

Date of Election

MORGAN, T. H Columbia University, New York City. 1909

MORLEY, EDWARD W West Hartford, Conn. 1897

MORSE, EDWARD S Salem, Mass. 1876

MORSE, HARMON N Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. 1907

MOULTON, F. R University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. 1910

NEF, JOHN ULRIC University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. 1904

NICHOLS, EDWARD L Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. 1901

NICHOLS, ERNEST F Dartmouth College, Hanover, N. H. 1908

NOYES, ARTHUR A. . Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass. 1905

NOYES, WILLIAM A University of Illinois, Urbana, 111. 1-910

OSBORN, H. F. . .American Museum of Natural History, New York City. 1900

OSBORNE, T. B Agr. Exp. Station, New Haven, Conn. 1910

OSGOOD, WILLIAM FOGG Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. 1904

PEIRCE, BENJAMIN O Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. 1906

PEIRCE, CHARLES S Milford, Pa. 1876

PICKERING, EDWARD C. .Harvard College Observatory, Cambridge, Mass. 1873

PRUDDEN, T. MITCHELL Columbia University, New York City. 1901

PUMPELLY, RAPHAEL Gibbs Ave., Newport, R. I. 1872

PUPIN, MICHAEL I Columbia University, New York City. 1905

PUTNAM, FREDERICK W Peabody Museum, Cambridge, Mass. 1885

REID, H. FIELDING Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. 1912

REMSEN, IRA Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. 1882

RICHARDS, THEODORE W Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. 1899

ROYCE, JOSIAH Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. 1906

SARGENT, CHARLES S Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, Mass. 1895

SCHUCHERT, CHARLES Yale University, New Haven, Conn. 1910

SCOTT, WILLIAM B Princeton University, Princeton, N. J. 1906

SMITH, EDGAR F University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. 1899

SMITH, THEOBALD Harvard Medical School, Boston, Mass. 1908

STIEGLITZ, J. O University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. 191 1

STORY, WILLIAM E Clark University, Worcester, Mass. 1908

THAXTER, ROLAND Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. 1912

THOMSON, ELIHU Swampscott, Mass. 1907

TRELEASE, WM Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, Mo. 1902

TROWBRIDGE, JOHN Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. 1878

VAN HISE, C. R University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. 1902

VAN VLECK, E. B University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. 1911

VERRILL, A. E Yale University, New Haven, Conn. 1872

WALCOTT, CHARLES D Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. 1896

WEBSTER, ARTHUR G Clark University, Worcester, Mass. 1903

WELCH, WILLIAM H 807 St. Paul St., Baltimore, Md. 1895

340 APPENDICES

Date of Election

WELLS, HORACE L Yale University, New Haven, Conn. 1903

WHEELER, HENRY L Sheffield Scientific School, New Haven, Conn. 1909

WHEELER, WILLIAM M Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. 1912

WHITE, DAVID U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. 1912

WILSON, EDMUND B Columbia University, New York City. 1899

WOOD, HORATIO C 4107 Chester Ave., Philadelphia, Pa. 1879

WOOD, ROBERT W Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. 1912

WOODWARD, ROBERT S Carnegie Institution, Washington, D. C. 1896

WRIGHT, ARTHUR W Yale University, New Haven, Conn. 1881

HONORARY MEMBER

SMITH, SIDNEY I Yale University, New Haven, Conn. 1884

FOREIGN ASSOCIATES

ARRHENIUS, S. A Nobel Institute, Stockholm. 1908

AUWERS, G. F. J. ARTHUR. . .Konigl. Akad. der Wissenschaften, Berlin. 1883

BACKLUND, OSKAR Astron. Sternwarte, Pulkowa. 1903

BAEYER, ADOLPH RITTER VON University of Munich. 1898

BARROIS, CHARLES University of Lille. 1908

BR0GGER, W. C University of Christiania. 1903

DEWAR, SIR JAMES University of Cambridge. 1907

EHRLICH, PAUL. . .Konigl. Inst. fur Exper. Therapie, Frankfurt a. Main. 1904

FISCHER, EMIL Chem. Inst., University of Berlin. 1904

FORSYTH, A. R Trinity College, Cambridge. 1907

GEIKIE, SIR ARCHIBALD Haslemere, Surrey. 1901

GILL, SIR DAVID Royal Observatory, Cape Town. 1898

GROTH, PAUL VON University of Munich. 1905

HILBERT, DAVID University of Gottingen. 1907

KAPTEYN, JOHN C University of Groningen. 1907

KLEIN, FELIX University of Gottingen. 1898

KRONECKER, HUGO University of Berne. 1901

LANKESTER, SIR E. RAY South Kensington, London. 1903

LARMOR, SIR JOSEPH St. Johns College, Cambridge. 1908

LORENTZ, HENDRIK ANTON University of Leyden. 1906

MURRAY, SIR JOHN Edinburgh. 1912

OSTWALD, WILHELM Grossbothen, bei Leipsic. 1906

PAVLOV, IVAN PETROVITCH Imp. Inst. for Exper. Med., St. Petersburg. 1908

PENCK, ALBRECHT University of Berlin. 1909

PFEFFER, WILHELM Botanical Institute of the University of Leipsic. 1903

PICARD, CHARLES EMILE University of Paris. 1903

APPENDICES

341

Date of Election

RAMSAY, SIR WILLIAM University College, London. 1904

RAYLEIGH, LORD University of Cambridge. 1898

RETZIUS, GUSTAV University, Stockholm. 1909

ROSENBUSCH, H University of Heidelberg. 1904

RUTHERFORD, ERNEST University of Manchester. 191 1

SEELIGER, HUGO RITTER VON University of Munich. 1908

SUESS, EDOUARD University of Vienna. 1898

THOMSON, SIR JOSEPH J University of Cambridge. 1903

VOLTERRA, VITO University of Rome. 1911

VRIES, HUGO DE University of Amsterdam. 1904

WALDEYER, WILHELM University of Berlin. 1909

WUNDT, WILHELM University of Leipsic. 1909

DECEASED MEMBERS

Date of Election Date of Death

AGASSIZ, ALEXANDER 1866 Mar. 27, 1910

AGASSIZ, Louis (2) Dec. 14, 1873

ALEXANDER, J. H (2) Mar. 2, 1867

ALEXANDER, STEPHEN (2) June 25, 1883

BACHE, ALEXANDER DALLAS (2) Feb. 17, 1867

BAIRD, SPENCER F 1864 Aug. 19, 1887

BARKER, GEORGE F 1876 May 24, 1910

BARNARD, F. A. P (2) Apr. 27, 1889

BARNARD, J. G (2) May 14, 1882

BARTLETT, W. H. C (2) Feb. 11,1893

BEECHER, CHARLES EMERSON 1899 Feb. 14, 1904

Boss, LEWIS 1889 Oct. 5, 1912

BOWDITCH, HENRY P 1887 Mar. 13, 1911

BREWER, WILLIAM H 1880 Nov. 2, 1910

BROOKS, WILLIAM KEITH 1884 Nov. 12, 1908

BROWN-SEQUARD, CHARLES E 1868 Apr. 2, 1894

CASEY, THOMAS L 1890 Mar. 25, 1896

CASWELL, ALEXIS (2) Jan. 8, 1877

CHAUVENET, WILLIAM (2) Dec. 13, 1870

CLARKE, HENRY JAMES 1872 July i, 1873

COFFIN, JAMES 1869 Jan. 6, 1873

COFFIN, J. H. C (2) Jan. 8, 1890

COMSTOCK, CYRUS B 1884 May 29, 1910

COOK, GEORGE H 1887 Sept. 22, 1889

COOKE, JOSIAH P 1872 Sept. 3, 1894

' Incorporators.

342 APPENDICES

Date of Election Date of Death

COPE, EDWARD D 1872 Apr. 12, 1897

COUES, ELLIOTT 1877 Dec. 25, 1899

DAHLGREN, J. A. B (2) Resigned

DALTON, J. C 1864 Feb. 2, 1889

DANA, JAMES D (2) Apr. 14, 1895

DAVIDSON, GEORGE 1874 Dec. 2, 1911

DAVIS, CHARLES H (2) Feb. 18, 1877

DRAPER, HENRY 1877 Nov. 20, 1882

DRAPER, JOHN W 1877 Jan. 4, 1882

DUTTON, C. E 1884 Jan. 4, 1912

EADS, JAMES B 1872 Mar. 8, 1887

EMMONS, SAMUEL F 1892 Mar. 28, 191 1

ENGELMANN, GEORGE (2) Feb. 4, 1884

FERREL, WILLIAM 1868 Sept. 18, 1891

FRAZER, JOHN FRIES (2) Oct. 12, 1872

GABB, WILLIAM M 1876 May 30, 1878

GENTH, F. A 1872 Feb. 2, 1893

GIBBS, JOSIAH WILLARD 1879 Apr. 28, 1903

GIBBS, WOLCOTT (2) Dec. 9 , 1908

GILLISS, JAMES MELVILLE (2) Feb. 9, 1865

GOODE, G. BROWN 1888 Sept. 6, 1896

GOULD, AUGUSTUS A (2) Sept. 15, 1866

GOULD, BENJAMIN A (2) Nov. 26, 1896

GRAY, ASA (2) Jan. 30, 1888

GUYOT, ARNOLD (2) Feb. 8, 1884

HADLEY, JAMES 1864 Aug. i, 1872

HALDEMAN, S. S 1876 Sept. 20, 1880

HALL, ASAPH 1875 Nov. 22, 1907

HALL, JAMES (2) Aug. 7, 1898

HAYDEN, F. V 1873 Dec. 22, 1887

HENRY, JOSEPH (2) May 13, 1878

HILGARD, JULIUS E (2) May 8, 1890

HILL, HENRY B 1883 Apr. 6, 1903

HITCHCOCK, EDWARD (2) Feb. 27, 1864

HOLBROOK, J. E 1868 Sept. 8, 1871

HUBBARD, J. S (2) Aug. 16, 1863

HUMPHREYS, A. A (2) Dec. 27,1883

HUNT, T. STERRY 1873 Feb. 12, 1892

HYATT, ALPHEUS 1875 Jan. 16, 1902

JAMES, WILLIAM 1903 Resigned

3 Incorporators.

APPENDICES

343

Date of Election

JOHNSON, S. W 1866

KEELER, J. E 1900

KING, CLARENCE 1 876

KIRKLAND, JARED P 1865

LANE, J. HOMER 1872

LANGLEY, SAMUEL P 1876

LEA, MATTHEW CAREY 1892

LE CONTE, JOHN 1878

LE CONTE, JOHN L (2)

LE CONTE, JOSEPH 1875

LEIDY, JOSEPH (2)

LESLEY, J. PETER (2)

LESQUEREUX, LEO 1864

LONGSTRETH, MlERS F (2)

LOOMIS, ELIAS 1873

LOVERING, JOSEPH 1873

LYMAN, THEODORE 1872

MAHAN, D. H (2)

MARSH, G. P 1866

MARSH, O. C 1874

MAYER, ALFRED M 1872

MAYO-SMITH, RICHMOND 1890

MEEK, F. B 1869

MEIGS, M. C 1865

MITCHELL, HENRY 1885

MORGAN, LEWIS H 1875

MORTON, HENRY 1874

NEWBERRY, J. S (2)

NEWCOMB, SIMON 1869

NEWTON, H. A (2)

NEWTON, JOHN 1876

NORTON, WILLIAM A 1873

OLIVER, JAMES E 1 872

PACKARD, A. S 1872

PEIRCE, BENJAMIN (2)

PENFIELD, SAMUEL L 1900

PETERS, C. H. F 1876

POURTALES, L. F 1 873

POWELL, JOHN W 1 880

RODGERS, JOHN (2)

Date of Death

July 21, 1909

Aug. 12, 1900

Dec. 24, 1901

Dec. 10, 1877

May 3, 1880

Feb. 27, 1906

Mar. 15, 1897

Apr. 29, 1891

Nov. 15, 1883

July 6, 1901

Apr. 30, 1891

June i, 1903

Oct. 25, 1889

Dec. 27, 1891

Aug. 1 6, 1889

Jan. 1 8, 1892

Sept. 10, 1897

Sept. 1 6, 1871

July 23, 1882

Mar. 1 8, 1899

July 13, 1897

Nov. n, 1901

Dec. 21, 1877

Jan. 2, 1892

Dec. i, 1902

Dec. 14, 1 88 1

May 9, 1902

Dec. 7, 1892

July u, 1909

Aug. 12, 1896
May i, 1895

Sept. 21, 1883

Mar. 27, 1895

Feb. 14, 1905
Resigned

Aug. 13, 1906

July 1 8, 1890

July 19, 1880

Sept. 23, 1902

May 5, 1882

Incorporators.

344

APPENDICES

Date of Election

ROGERS, FAIRMAN (2)

ROGERS, ROBERT E (2)

ROGERS, WM. A 1885

ROGERS, WM. B (2)

ROOD, OGDEN N 1 885

ROWLAND, HENRY A 1881

RUTHERFURD, LEWIS M (2)

SAXTON, JOSEPH (2)

SCHOTT, CHARLES A 1872

SCUDDER, SAMUEL H 1877

SELLERS, WILLIAM 1873

SILLIMAN, BENJ., SR (2)

SILLIMAN, BENJ., JR (2)

SMITH, J. LAWRENCE 1872

STIMPSON, WILLIAM 1868

STRONG, THEODORE (2)

SULLIVANT, W. S 1873

TORREY, JOHN (2)

TOTTEN, J. G (2)

TROWBRIDGE, WILLIAM P 1872

TRUMBULL, JAMES H 1872

TUCKERMAN, EDWARD 1 868

WALKER, FRANCIS A 1 878

WARREN, G. K 1876

WATSON, JAMES C 1868

WATSON, SERENO 1889

WHITE, CHARLES A 1889

WHITMAN, CO 1895

WHITNEY, JOSIAH D (2)

WHITNEY, WILLIAM DWIGHT 1866

WINLOCK, JOSEPH (2)

WOODWARD, J. J 1873

WORTHEN, A. H 1872

WYMAN, JEFFRIES (2)

YOUNG, CHARLES A 1872

Date of Death
Aug. 22, I9OO

Sept. 6, 1884
Mar. i, 1898
May 30, 1882
Nov. 12, 1902
Apr. 1 6, 1901
May 30, 1892
Oct. 26, 1873
July 31, 1901
May 17, 1911
Jan. 24, 1905
Nov. 24, 1864
Jan. 14, 1885
Oct. 12, 1883
May 26, 1873
Feb. i, 1869
Apr. 30, 1882
Mar. 10, 1873
Apr. 22, 1864
Aug. 12, 1892
Aug. 5, 1897
Mar. 15, 1886
Jan. 5, 1897
Aug. 8, 1882
Nov. 23, 1880
Mar. 9, 1892
June 29, 1910
Dec. 6, 1910
Resigned
Resigned
June 11, 1875
Aug. 17, 1884
May 6, 1888
Sept. 4, 1874
Jan. 3, 1908

2 Incorporators.

APPENDICES

345

ADAMS, J. C.
AIRY, SIR GEORGE B.
ARGELANDER, F. W. A.
BAER, KARL ERNEST VON.
BARRANDE, JOACHIM.
BEAUMONT, L. ELIE DE.
BECQUEREL, HENRI.
BERTHELOT, M. P. E.
BERTRAND, J. L. F.

BOLTZMANN, LuDWIG.

BORNET, EDOUARD.

BOUSSINGAULT, J. B. J. D.

BRAUN, ALEXANDER.

BREWSTER, SIR DAVID.

BUNSEN, ROBERT W.

BURMEISTER, C. H. C.

CANDOLLE, ALPHONSE DE.

CAYLEY, ARTHUR.

CHASLES, MICHEL.

CHEVREUL, M. E.

CLAUSIUS, RUDOLPH.

CORNU, ALFRED.

DARWIN, SIR GEORGE HOWARD.

DOVE, H. W.

DUMAS, J. B.

FARADAY, MICHAEL.

GEGENBAUR, KARL.

GYLDEN, HUGO.

HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM ROWAN.

HELMHOLTZ, BARON H. VON.

HOFF, J. H. VAN'T.

HOFMANN, A. W.

HOOKER, SIR JOSEPH D.

HUGGINS, SIR WILLIAM.

HUXLEY, T. H.

IBANEZ, CARLOS.

JANSSEN, J.

JOULE, JAMES P.

KEKULE, AUGUST.

KELVIN, LORD.

KIRCHOFF, G. R.

DECEASED FOREIGN ASSOCIATES

KOCH, ROBERT.
KOHLRAUSCH, FRIEDRICH.
KOLLIKER, ALBERT VON.
LACAZE-DUTHIERS, HENRI DE.
LEUCKART, RUDOLPH.
LIE, SOPHUS.
LIEBIG, JUSTUS VON.
LISTER, LORD.
LOEWY, MAURICE.
LUDWIG, K. F. W.
MAREY, E. J.
MENDELEEFF, D. I.
MILNE-EDWARDS, HENRI.
MOISSAN, HENRI.
MURCHISON, SIR RODERICK I.
OPPOLZER, THEODORE VON.
OWEN, SIR RICHARD.
PASTEUR, Louis.
PETERS, C. A. F.
PLANA, G. A. A.
POINCARE, JULES HENRI.
RAMMELSBERG, C. F.
REGNAULT, VICTOR.
REYMOND, EMIL Du Bois.

RlCHTHOFEN, F. VON.

SACHS, JULIUS VON.
SCHIAPARELLI, GlOVANNI.
STAS, JEAN SERVAIS.
STOKES, SIR GEORGE G.
STRASBURGER, EDOUARD.
STRUVE, OTTO VON.
SYLVESTER, J. J.
TISSERAND, F. F.
VIRCHOW, RUDOLPH VON.
VOGEL, H. C.
WEIERSTRASS, KARL.
WOHLER, FRIEDRICH.
WURTZ, ADOLPH.
ZIRKEL, FERDINAND.
ZITTEL, K. A. R. VON.

APPENDIX III
LIST OF MEDALISTS

ALEXANDER AGASSIZ MEDAL

[Founded in 1911, by Sir John Murray, for original contributions to the science of

oceanography.]

HENRY DRAPER MEDAL

[Founded in 1885, by Mrs. Henry Draper, for investigations in
astronomical physics.]

1886. SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY.

For researches and discoveries in relation to solar radiation.
1888. EDWARD CHARLES PICKERING.

For recent work in astronomical photometry and photography.
1890. HENRY AUGUSTUS ROWLAND.

For researches on the solar spectrum.
1893. HERMAN KARL VOGEL.

For spectroscopic observations upon the motion of stars in the line of

sight.
1899. JAMES EDWARD KEELER.

For researches in spectroscopic astronomy.
1901. SIR WILLIAM HUGGINS.

For investigations in astronomical physics.
1904. GEORGE ELLERY HALE.

For investigations in astronomical physics.
1911. CHARLES GREELEY ABBOT.

For his researches on the infra-red region of the solar spectrum and his
accurate measurements, by improved devices of the solar " constant "
of radiation.

J. LAWRENCE SMITH MEDAL
[Founded in 1885 for the investigation of meteoric bodies.]

1888. H. A. NEWTON.

For investigation of the orbits of meteors.

346

APPENDICES 347

WATSON MEDAL

[Founded in 1883, by James C. Watson, for the promotion of
astronomical research.]

1887. BENJAMIN APTHORP GOULD.

For valuable labors in promoting the progress in astronomical science,
and especially for his establishment of the National Observatory of
the Argentine Republic.

1889. ED. SCHONFELD.

For services in cataloguing and mapping the stars visible in our latitudes,
and especially for his [then] recently published southern " Durch-
musterung." (The medal and gold were forwarded through the
German embassy at Washington.)
1891. ARTHUR AUWERS.

For his contributions to stellar astronomy. (The medal and gold were

forwarded through the German embassy at Washington.)
1894. SETH CARLO CHANDLER.

For researches on the variation of latitude.
1 899. SIR DAVID GILL.

For work in perfecting the application of the heliometer to astronomical
measurements.

APPENDIX IV

LIST OF REPORTS OF COMMITTEES APPOINTED ON BEHALF
OF THE GOVERNMENT

Report of the committee on weights, measures, and coinage.*

Ann. Rep. for 1863, pp. 11-21.
Report on the protection of bottoms of iron vessels from corrosion, etc.

Ann. Rep. for 1863, pp. 21-23.

Report of the chairman of the compass committee to the National Academy of
Sciences, January, 1864.

Ann. Rep. for 1863, pp. 23-96, 7 pis.
Report of the committee on Saxton's alcoholometer.

Ann. Rep. for 1863, pp. 96-97.

Report of the committee of the National Academy of Sciences appointed to
examine the " Wind and Current Charts " and " Sailing Directions " issued
from the Naval Observatory.

Ann. Rep. for 1863, pp. 98-112.
Report of the committee on tests for purity of whiskey.

Ann. Rep. for 1864, p. 5.
Report on the operations of the joint commission on the expansion of steam.

Ann. Rep. for 1864, pp. 5-7.

Report of the committee appointed to test the suitableness of aluminum bronze
for coinage and other purposes.

Ann. Rep. for 1864, pp. 7-10.
Report on the explosion of a boiler on the United States gunboat Chenango.

Ann. Rep. for 1864, pp. 1014.
Report of the committee on Greytown Harbor, Nicaragua.

Ann. Rep. for 1866, pp. 4-16, I chart.
[Report on coating iron head-blocks with zinc.]

Ann. Rep. for 1866, pp. 17-18.

Report of the cdmmittee on methods of inspecting and assessing tax on dis-
tilled spirits.

Ann. Rep. for 1866, pp. 18-38.

* For convenience of reference, the wording of the titles follows as closely as practicable
that given in the reports cited.

348

APPENDICES 349

Report of the committee on methods of inspecting distilled spirits subject
to duty.

Ann. Rep. for 1867, pp. 12-44.

[Report on the question of the value of the water-proofing process employed in
the manufacture of the fractional currency.]

In House Misc. Doc. no. 163, part 2, 44th Congress, ist Session, pp.

22-28, Apr. 3, 1876.
Report on surveys of the Territories.

Ann. Rep. for 1878, pp. 19-22; also House Misc. Doc. no. 5, 45th

Congress, 3d Session, pp. 1-27, Dec. 3, 1878.
Report on the sorghum sugar industry.

Sen. Misc. Doc. no. 51, 47th Congress, 2d Session. 8°, pp. 1-152.

Washington, 1883.
Report on methylated spirits.

Ann. Rep. for 1883, pp. 57-63.
Report on glucose.

Ann. Rep. for 1883, PP- 65-143; also separate.
Report on the national surveys and signal service.

Ann. Rep. for 1884, pp. 33-63; also in Sen. Misc. Doc. no. 82, 49th

Congress, ist Session, pp. i*-37*. 1886.
Report on customs duty on philosophical and scientific apparatus.

Ann. Rep. for 1884, pp. 65-67.

Report on the astronomical day, the eclipse of the sun in 1886, and the erection
of a new Naval Observatory.

Ann. Rep. for 1885, pp. 35-79; also Sen. Exec. Doc. no. 67, 49th Con-
gress, ist Session, February 10, 1886.
Report on tariff classification of wool.

Ann. Rep. for 1885, pp. 81-99; also Treas. Dep. Doc. 805, 1886.
Report on opium.

Ann. Rep. for 1886, pp. 39-40.
Report on opium, 1887.

Ann. Rep. for 1887, pp. 31-35.
Report on sugar determinations.

Ann. Rep. for 1887, pp. 37-45.
Preliminary report on the investigation of the north magnetic pole.

Ann. Rep. for 1890, pp. 33-35.
A conventional standard of color. (Preliminary correspondence.)

Ann. Rep. for 1893, pp. 43-46.

[Report on specifications for the practical application of the definitions of the
ampere and volt.]

Ann. Rep. for 1895, pp. 9-13; also Sen. Misc. Doc. no. 115, 53d Con-
gress, 3d Session, February 19, 1895; see also Ann. Rep. for 1894,
pp. 39-42.
24

350 APPENDICES

Report of the commission appointed by the National Academy of Sciences upon
a forest policy for the forested lands of the United States.

Ann. Rep. for 1897, PP- 29~735 als°> separate, Washington, Government

Printing Office, 1897. 8°, pp. 1-47.

[Report on the question of establishing a forest reserve on the Southern Appa-
lachian region.]

Ann. Rep. for 1902, p. 16.
[Report on the Declaration of Independence.]

Ann. Rep. for 1903, pp. 13-15.
Report on scientific surveys of the Philippine Islands.

Ann. Rep. for 1904, pp. 21-33; also Sen. Doc. no. 145, 58th Congress,

3d Session, February 7, 1905. 8°, pp. 1-22.

Report on the conduct of scientific work under the United States Government.
Ann. Rep. for 1908, pp. 27-31; also House Doc. no. 1337, 6oth Con-
gress, 2d Session, January 18, 1909. 8°, pp. 1-5.

APPENDIX V

ACT OF INCORPORATION, CONSTITUTION, AMENDMENTS

AND RULES

ACT OF INCORPORATION

AN ACT To incorporate the National Academy of Sciences.

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States
of America in Congress assembled, That Louis Agassiz, Massachusetts; J. H.
Alexander, Maryland ; S. Alexander, New Jersey ; A. D. Bache, at large ; F. A. P.
Barnard, at large; J. G. Barnard, United States Army, Massachusetts; W. H. C.
Bartlett, United States Military Academy, Missouri ; U. A. Boyden, Massachu-
setts; Alexis Caswell, Rhode Island; William Chauvenet, Missouri; J. H. C.
Coffin, United States Naval Academy, Maine; J. A. Dahlgren, United States
Navy, Pennsylvania ; J. D. Dana, Connecticut ; Charles H. Davis, United States
Navy, Massachusetts ; George Engelmann, Saint Louis, Mo. ; J. F. Frazer, Penn-
sylvania; Wolcott Gibbs, New York; J. M. Gilliss, United States Navy, District
of Columbia; A. A. Gould, Massachusetts; B. A. Gould, Massachusetts; Asa
Gray, Massachusetts; A. Guyot, New Jersey; James Hall, New York; Joseph
Henry, at large; J. E. Hilgard, at large, Illinois; Edward Hitchcock, Massa-
chusetts; J. S. Hubbard, United States Naval Observatory, Connecticut; A. A.
Humphreys, United States Army, Pennsylvania; J. L. Le Conte, United States
Army, Pennsylvania ; J. Leidy, Pennsylvania ; J. P. Lesley, Pennsylvania ; M. F.
Longstreth, Pennsylvania; D. H. Mahan, United States Military Academy, Vir-
ginia; J. S. Newberry, Ohio; H. A. Newton, Connecticut; Benjamin Peirce,
Massachusetts; John Rodgers, United States Navy, Indiana; Fairman Rogers,
Pennsylvania; R. E. Rogers, Pennsylvania; W. B. Rogers, Massachusetts; L. M.
Rutherfurd, New York; Joseph Saxton, at large; Benjamin Silliman, Connecti-
cut; Benjamin Silliman, junior, Connecticut; Theodore Strong, New Jersey;
John Torrey, New York; J. G. Totten, United States Army, Connecticut;
Joseph Winlock, United States Nautical Almanac, Kentucky; Jeffries Wyman,
Massachusetts; J. D. Whitney, California; their associates and successors duly
chosen, are hereby incorporated, constituted, and declared to be a body corporate,
by the name of the National Academy of Sciences.

SEC. 2. And be it further enacted, That the National Academy of Sciences shall
consist of not more than fifty ordinary members, and the said corporation hereby
constituted shall have power to make its own organization, including its con-
stitution, by-laws, and rules and regulations ; to fill all vacancies created by death,

352 APPENDICES

resignation, or otherwise; to provide for the election of foreign and domestic
members, the division into classes, and all other matters needful or usual in such
institution, and to report the same to Congress.

SEC. 3. And be it further enacted, That the National Academy of Sciences
shall hold an annual meeting at such place in the United States as may be desig-
nated, and the Academy shall, whenever called upon by any Department of the
Government, investigate, examine, experiment, and report upon any subject of
science or art, the actual expense of such investigations, examinations, experi-
ments, and reports to be paid from appropriations which may be made for the
purpose, but the Academy shall receive no compensation whatever for any serv-
ices to the Government of the United States.

Approved, March 3, 1863.

AMENDMENTS
AN ACT To amend the act to incorporate the National Academy of Sciences.

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States
of America in Congress assembled, That the act to incorporate the National
Academy of Sciences, approved March third, eighteen hundred and sixty-three,
be, and the same is hereby, so amended as to remove the limitation of the number
of ordinary members of said academy as provided in said act.

Approved, July 14, 1870.

AN ACT To authorize the National Academy of Sciences to receive and hold trust funds

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States
of America in Congress assembled, That the National Academy of Sciences, incor-
porated by the act of Congress approved March third, eighteen hundred and
sixty-three, and its several supplements, be, and the same is hereby, authorized and
empowered to receive bequests and donations and hold the same in trust, to be
applied by the said academy in aid of scientific investigations according to the
will of the donors.

Approved, June 20, 1884.

CONSTITUTION OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY

As amended and adopted April 17, 1872, and further amended April 20, 1875; April 21,
1881; April 19, 1882; April 18, 1883; April 19, 1888; April 18, 1895; April 20, 1899;
April 17, 1902; April r8, 1906; November 20, 1906; April 17, 1907; November 20, 1907;
April 20, 19x1; April 16, 1912.

PREAMBLE

Empowered by the act of incorporation enacted by Congress, and approved by
the President of the United States on the 3d day of March, A. D. 1863, and in
conformity with the amendment to said act, approved July 14, 1870, the National
Academy of Sciences adopts the following amended constitution and rules :

APPENDICES 353

ARTICLE I. OF MEMBERS

SEC. I. The academy shall consist of members, honorary members, and foreign
associates. Members must be citizens of the United States.

SEC. 2. Members who, from age or inability to attend the meetings of the
academy, wish to resign the duties of active membership, may, at their own
request, be transferred to the roll of honorary members by a vote of the academy.

SEC. 3. The academy may elect 50 foreign associates.

SEC. 4. Honorary members and foreign associates shall have the privilege of
attending the meetings and of reading and communicating papers to the academy,
but shall take no part in its business, shall not be subject to its assessments, and
shall be entitled to a copy of the publications of the academy.

ARTICLE II. OF THE OFFICERS

SEC. I. The officers of the academy shall be a president, a vice president, a
foreign secretary, a home secretary, and a treasurer, all of whom shall be elected
for a term of six years, by a majority of votes present, at the first stated meeting
after the expiration of the current terms, provided that existing officers retain their
places until their successors are elected. In case of a vacancy, the election for
six years shall be held in the same manner at the meeting when such vacancy
occurs, or at the next stated meeting thereafter, as the academy may direct. A
vacancy in the office of treasurer or home secretary may, however, be filled by
appointment of the president of the academy until the next stated meeting of the
academy.

SEC. 2. The officers of the academy, together with six members to be elected
by the academy, shall constitute a council for the transaction of such business as
may be assigned to them by the constitution or the academy.

SEC. 3. The president of the academy, or, in case of his absence or inability to
act, the vice president, shall preside at the meetings of the academy and of the
council; shall name all committees except such as are otherwise especially pro-
vided for; shall refer investigations required by the Government of the United
States to members especially conversant with the subjects and report thereon to
the academy at its meeting next ensuing; and, with the council, shall direct the
general business of the academy.

It shall be competent for the president, in special cases, to call in the aid, upon
committees, of experts or men of special attainments not members of the academy.

SEC. 4. The foreign and home secretaries shall conduct the correspondence
proper to their respective departments, advising with the president and council in
cases of doubt, and reporting their action to the academy at one of the stated
meetings in each year.

It shall be the duty of the home secretary to give notice to the members of the
place and time of all meetings, of all nominations for membership, and of all pro-
posed amendments to the constitution.

354 APPENDICES

The minutes of each meeting shall be duly engrossed before the next stated
meeting under the direction of the home secretary.

SEC. 5. The treasurer shall attend to all receipts and disbursements of the
academy, giving such bond and furnishing such vouchers as the council may
require. He shall collect all dues from members, and keep a set of books showing
a full account of receipts and disbursements. He shall present a general report
at the annual meeting. He shall be the custodian of the corporate seal of the
academy.

ARTICLE III. OF THE MEETINGS

SEC. I. The academy shall hold one stated meeting in each year, called the
annual meeting, in the city of Washington, beginning on the third Tuesday in
April, and another, called the autumn meeting, may be held at such place and
time as the council shall determine.

Special business meetings of the academy may be called, by order of eight
members of the council, at such place and time as may be designated in the call.

Special scientific meetings of the academy may be held at times and places to
be designated by a majority of the council.

SEC. 2. The names of the members present at each session of a meeting shall be
recorded in the minutes, and the members present at any session shall constitute
a quorum for the transaction of business.

SEC. 3. Scientific sessions of the academy, unless otherwise ordered by a
majority of the members present, shall be open to the public; sessions for the
transaction of business shall be closed.

SEC. 4. Stated meetings of the council shall be held during the stated or special
meetings of the academy. Special meetings of the council may be convened at the
call of the president and two members of the council, or of four members of the
council.

SEC. 5. No member who has not paid his dues shall take part in the business
of the academy.

ARTICLE IV. OF ELECTIONS AND RESIGNATIONS

SEC. I. All elections shall be by ballot, and each election shall be held sepa-
rately unless otherwise ordered by this constitution.

SEC. 2. The time for holding an election of officers shall be fixed by the
academy at least one day before the election is held.

SEC. 3. The election of the six members of the council shall be as follows:

At the annual meeting in April, 1907, six members of the council to be
elected, of whom two shall serve for three years, two for two years, and two for
one year, their respective terms to be determined by lot. Each year thereafter
the terms of two members shall expire, and their successors, to serve for three
years, shall be elected at the annual meeting in each year.

APPENDICES 355

SEC. 4. The academy shall be divided by the council into standing committees
representing the principal branches of scientific research. A member may be
assigned to more than one of these committees. The president of the academy
shall appoint, subject to the approval of the council, a member of each committee
as its chairman, who shall be responsible for the work of the committee.

Nominations to membership in the academy shall be made in writing, approved
by a majority of the members of the committee on the branch of research in which
the person nominated is eminent, or by a majority of the council in case there is no
committee on the subject. The nominations shall be sent to the home secretary
by the chairman of the committee before January i of the year in which the
election is to be held, and each nomination shall be accompanied by a list of the
principal contributions of the nominee to science. This list shall be printed by
the home secretary for distribution among the members of the academy.

SEC. 5. Election of members shall be held at the annual meeting in Wash-
ington in the following manner : There shall be two ballots — a preference ballot,
which may be prepared either before or at the annual meeting and must be trans-
mitted to the home secretary, and a final ballot to be taken at the meeting.

Preference ballot. — Each member may inscribe on a ballot not more than 10
names of nominees selected from the submitted list. A list of the nominees shall
then be prepared, on which the names shall be entered in the order of the number
of votes received by each. In case two or more nominees should have the same
number of votes on this preference list, the order in which they shall be placed
on the list shall be determined by a majority vote of those present.

Final ballot. — A vote shall first be taken on the nominee who appears first on
the preference list, and he shall be declared elected if he receive two-thirds of the
votes cast and not less than 2O votes in all, provided that the number of members
of the academy be not 150 or over, in which case to be declared elected he mast
receive four-fifths of the votes cast and not less than 25 votes in all. A vote shall
then be taken in similar manner on the nominee standing second on the prefer-
ence list, and so on until all the nominees on the preference list shall have been
acted on, or until 10 nominees shall have been elected.

Not more than 10 members shall be elected at one annual meeting.

Before and during elections a discussion of the merits of nominees will be
in order.

The election of members may be suspended at any time by a majority vote
of the members present.

SEC. 6. Every member elect shall accept his membership, personally or in
writing, before the close of the next stated meeting after the date of his election.
Otherwise, on proof that the secretary has formally notified him of his election,
his name shall not be entered on the roll of members.

356 APPENDICES

SEC. 7. The election of foreign associates shall be in the following manner :

Foreign associates may be nominated by the council and may be elected at the
annual meeting by a two-thirds vote of the members present. Each member shall
indicate on a ballot those names for which he votes, and those nominees whose
names appear on two-thirds of the votes cast shall be declared elected. A list of
those nominated shall be sent to all members of the academy with the notice of
the meeting at which the election is to be held.

SEC. 8. A diploma, with the corporate seal of the academy and the signatures
of the officers, shall be sent by the appropriate secretary to each member on his
acceptance of his membership and to foreign associates on their election.

SEC. 9. Resignations shall be addressed to the president and acted on by the
academy.

SEC. 10. Whenever a member has not paid his dues for four successive years,
the treasurer shall report the fact to the council, which may report the case to
the academy with the recommendation that the person thus in arrears be declared
to have forfeited his membership. If this recommendation be approved by two-
thirds of the members present, the said person shall no longer be a member of the
academy and his name shall be dropped from the roll.

ARTICLE V. OF SCIENTIFIC COMMUNICATIONS, PUBLICATIONS, AND REPORTS

SEC. I. Communications on scientific subjects shall be read at scientific sessions
of the academy, and papers by any member may be read by the author or by any
other member, notice of the same having been previously given to the secretary.

SEC. 2. Any member of the academy may read a paper from a person who is
not a member, and shall not be considered responsible for the facts or opinions
expressed by the author, but shall be held responsible for the propriety of the
paper.

Persons who are not members may read papers on invitation of the council or of
the committee of arrangements.

SEC. 3. The academy may provide for the publication, under the direction of
the council, of proceedings, memoirs, and reports.

SEC. 4. Propositions for investigations or reports by the academy shall be
submitted to the council for approval, except those requested by the Government
of the United States, which shall be acted on by the president, who will in such
cases report their results to the Government as soon as obtained and to the
academy at its next following stated meeting.

SEC. 5. The advice of the academy shall be at all times at the disposition of
the Government upon any matter of science or art within its scope.

SEC. 6. An annual report to be presented to Congress shall be prepared by the
president, and before its presentation submitted by him, first to the council and
afterwards to the academy, at one of the stated meetings.

APPENDICES 357

SEC. 7. Medals and prizes may be established, and the means of bestowing them
accepted by the academy upon the recommendation of the council, by whom all
the necessary arrangements for their establishment and award shall be made.

Bequests and trusts having for their object the advancement of science may also
be accepted and administered by the academy.

ARTICLE VI. OF THE PROPERTY OF THE ACADEMY

SEC. I . All investments shall be made by the treasurer in the corporate name of
the academy with the approval of a finance committee of three members, to be
appointed annually by the president, of which the treasurer shall be one. Invest-
ments shall be made in bonds of the United States, in state bonds, or bonds or
notes secured by first mortgages on real estate, in investments legal for savings
banks under the laws of Massachusetts or New York, or in other bonds recom-
mended to the treasurer by the fiscal advisers of the academy.

The council shall, at its annual meeting in each year, designate one bank or
trust company in Washington, D. C., and one in New York city, to act, when
requested by the treasurer, as the fiscal advisers of the academy.

The treasurer shall have the authority, with the approval of the finance com-
mittee, to change any investment held by him in the corporate name of the
academy.

SEC. 2. No contract shall be binding upon the academy which has not been first
approved by the council.

SEC. 3. The assessments required for the support of the academy shall be fixed
by the academy on the recommendation of the council.

ARTICLE VII. OF ADDITIONS AND AMENDMENTS

Additions and amendments to the constitution shall be made only at a stated
meeting of the academy. Notice of a proposition for such a change must be
given at a stated meeting, and shall be referred to the council, which may amend
the proposition, and shall report thereon to the academy. Its report shall be con-
sidered by the academy in committee of the whole for amendment.

The proposition as amended, if adopted in committee of the whole, shall be
voted on at the next stated meeting, and if it receives two-thirds of the votes cast
it shall be declared adopted.

Absent members may send their votes on pending changes in the constitution
to the home secretary in writing, and such votes shall be counted as if the members
were present.

RULES

I. In the absence of any officer a member shall be chosen to perform his duties
temporarily, by a plurality of viva voce votes, upon open nominations.

II. On the first day of each stated session, immediately after calling the roll
of members, a recording secretary shall be elected, by a plurality of members pres-
ent, to assist the home secretary in keeping the records of the session.

358 APPENDICES

III. The accounts of the treasurer shall, between January I and January 15
of each year, be audited by a committee of three members to be appointed by the
president at the autumn meeting of the academy. The auditing committee may
employ an expert accountant to examine the books of the treasurer. This com-
mittee shall inspect and verify the bonds, securities, and other property in the
custody of the treasurer and shall compare the expenditures with the vouchers
therefor. The annual report of the treasurer shall be published with that of the
president to Congress. The reports of the treasurer and auditing committee shall
be presented to the academy at the annual meeting.

IV. A committee of arrangements, consisting of five members shall be
appointed by the president for each stated session of the academy. This com-
mittee shall meet not less than two weeks previous to each session. It shall
be in session during the meetings to make arrangements for the reception of the
members, to arrange the business of each day, and, in general, to attend to all
business and scientific arrangements.

It shall be the duty of the committee of arrangements to ascertain the length
of time required for reading the several memoirs presented, and, when it appears
advisable, to recommend a limit of time to be occupied in their discussion.

V. At the meetings the order of business shall be as follows:

1. Chair taken by the president, or, in his absence, by the vice president.

2. Roll of members called by home secretary.

3. Minutes of the preceding meeting read and approved.

4. Stated business.

5. Reports of president, secretaries, treasurer, and committees.

6. Business from council.

7. Other business.

8. On the last day of the session the rough minutes of that day's proceedings
are to be read for correction.

VI. The rules of order of the academy shall be those of the Senate of the
United States, unless suspended by unanimous consent.

VII. Unless otherwise ordered by the academy, the scientific meetings at the
April session shall be held in the afternoon, the mornings being reserved for
business.

VIII. At each meeting the president shall announce the death of any members
who may have died since the preceding meeting. As soon as practicable thereafter
he shall designate a member to write — or with the approval of the president to
secure from some other source — a biographical notice of each deceased member.

IX. The secretaries will receive memoirs at any time, and report the date of
their reception at the next session ; but no memoir shall be published unless it has
been read or presented by title before the academy.

Before publication all memoirs must be referred to the committee on publica-
tion, who may, if they deem best, refer any memoir to a special committee

APPENDICES 359

appointed by the president to determine whether the same should be published
by the academy.

X. Memoirs shall date, in the records of the academy, from the date of their
presentation to the academy, and the order of their presentation shall be so
arranged by the secretary that, so far as may be convenient, those upon kindred
topics shall follow one another.

XI. Papers from persons not members read before the academy and intended
for publication shall be referred at the meeting at which they are read to a com-
mittee of members competent to judge whether the paper is worthy of publication.
Such committee shall report to the academy as early as practicable, and not later
than the next stated session.

XII. The annual report of the academy may be accompanied by a memorial
to Congress in regard to such investigations and other subjects as may be deemed
advisable, recommending appropriations therefor when necessary.

XIII. The proper secretary shall acknowledge all donations made to the
academy, and shall report them at the next stated session.

XIV. The books, apparatus, archives, and other collections of the academy
shall be deposited in some safe place in the city of Washington. A list of the
articles so deposited shall be kept by the home secretary, who is authorized to
employ a clerk to take charge of them.

XV. A stamp corresponding to the corporate seal of the academy shall be kept
by the secretaries, who shall be responsible for the due marking of all books and
other objects to which it is applicable.

Labels or other proper marks of similar device shall be placed upon objects not
admitting of the stamp.

XVI. The treasurer is authorized to defray, when approved by the president,
all the proper expenses of committees appointed to make scientific investigations
at the request of departments of the Government, and in each case to look to the
department requesting the investigation for reimbursement to the academy.

XVII. Nominations for membership should state the full name, residence, the
official position, and the special scientific studies of the candidate. A form of
nomination shall be prepared by the home secretary.

XVIII. Ballots for election of members may be sent by sealing them up in a
blank envelope, and inclosing this in another, across the back of which is written
the name of the sender, and which is addressed to the home secretary; such
envelopes will be opened only by the tellers.

XIX. All discussions as to the claims and qualifications of nominees at meet-
ings of the academy will be held strictly confidential, and remarks and criticisms
then made may be communicated to no person who was not a member of the
academy at the time of the discussion.

XX. Any rule of the academy may be amended, suspended, or repealed on the
written motion of any two members, signed by them, and presented at a stated

360 APPENDICES

session of the academy, provided the same shall be approved by a majority of the
members present.

XXI. The fiscal year of the academy shall end on December 31 of each year.

XXII. The annual reports of the committees on research funds shall, so far
as the academy has authority to determine their form, give a current number to
each award, stating the name, position, and address of the recipient, the subject
of research for which the award is made, and the sum awarded; and in later
annual reports the status of the work accomplished under each award previously
made shall be announced, until the research is completed, when announcement of
its completion and, if published, the title and place of publication shall be stated,
and the record of the award shall be reported as closed.

By a resolution adopted January 12, 1864, the president is ex officio a member
of all government committees of the academy.

APPENDIX VI

TEXT OF BEQUESTS AND TRUSTS

THE ALEXANDER AGASSIZ FUND

The will of Professor Agassiz contains the following clause :
I give to the National Academy of Sciences at Washington the sum of Fifty Thousand
Dollars ($50,000) for the general use of the said Academy.

THE A. D. BACHE FUND

The will of Alexander Dallas Bache, dated March 18, 1862, contains the fol-
lowing provisions:

Item. — As to all the rest and residue of my Estate, including the sum of Five thousand
dollars placed at the disposal of my wife in case she should not desire to make any dis-
position of the same, I direct my executors hereinafter named to apply the income thereof
after the death of my wife according to and under the directions of Joseph Henry of
Washington, Louis Agassiz and Benjamin Peirce of Harvard College, Massachusetts, to the
prosecution of researches in Physical and Natural Science by assisting experimentalists and
observers in such manner and in such sums as shall be agreed upon by the three above-
named gentlemen, or any two of them, whom I constitute a Board of Direction for the
application of the income of my residuary estate for the above objects, after the death of
my said wife. The class of subjects to be selected by this Board, and the results of such
observations and experiments, to be published at the expense of my Trust Estate under
their direction out of the income thereof but without encroaching on the principal.

In case of the death or inability to act of all or any of the three gentlemen I have
named in my wife's lifetime, My will is that she shall supply their places in the Board
of Direction by an Instrument of writing either testamentary or otherwise, desiring that in
the selection of the persons, to administer the income of the trust funds hereby created, she
will have regard to the selection of persons whose attention has been directed to the same
branches of science as those I have named and so that each of the Departments of Physics,
Mathematics, and Natural History shall be represented in the Board. In case of any
vacancy occurring in the Board of Direction after its organization and after the death of
my wife, by reason of the death inability or refusal to act or resignation of any of its mem-
bers, my will is that the surviving or remaining member or members for the time being
shall have power to fill vacancies so occurring in the Board by the selection of other person
or persons to fill such vacancies and so on from time to time as vacancies shall occur. My
intention being that the Board of Direction shall have power to continue its existence and
to filling all vacancies occurring in their body from time to time I direct that a minute of
their proceedings be kept, and that the appointment of any member by the Board shall be
notified in writing to the trustees for the time being of my residuary estate. In the event
of any failure of the Board for the time being to direct the application of the income of my
said residuary estate, or to continue its existence by filling vacancies occurring in their

36l

362

APPENDICES

body, my will is that the application of the income thereof for the purposes and objects
declared in this clause of my Will, shall be made by the Trustees, under the direction of
The American Philosophical Society of Philadelphia.

********#*-*#*

Item. — I hereby nominate and appoint my friends, Peter McCall, Esq., and Morton P.
Henry, Esq., of the City of Philadelphia, and the survivor of them, to be the executors of and
trustees under this my last will and Testament.

CODICIL, JULY 15, 1863.

Item. — I give and devise to my sister Sally Franklin Wainwright the house purchased
by me situated No. 396 West Twentieth Street, in the City of Washington, between G and
H Streets to be held and enjoyed by her during the term of her natural life. After her
death I direct the said house shall pass with the residue of my Estate (subject to a life
estate of my wife Nancy Clarke Bache therein in case she should survive my sister) to
The National Academy of Sciences, upon the Trusts set forth as to the said residue of
my estate.

#***»***#»##«

Item. — My will is that upon the death of my wife all the rest and residue of my Estate
shall be paid over to and vest in the corporation of The National Academy of Sciences
incorporated by Act of Congress, passed the Third day of March, A. D. 1863, whom I
hereby appoint Trustees in the place of my said Executors under the Fourth clause of my
said will to apply the income according to the directions in the said clause contained to the
prosecution of researches in Physical and Natural Science by assisting experimentalists and
observers in such manner and in such sums as shall be agreed upon by the Board of
Direction in the said clause named. My will further is that in case of any failure of the
Board for the time being to direct the application of the income of my residuary estate or
to continue its existence by filling vacancies occurring in their body, the application of the
income thereof for the purposes and objects declared in the said clause shall be made under
the Direction of The National Academy of Sciences instead of The American Philosophical
Society of Philadelphia. In all other respects the said application of the income to the
purposes aforesaid to be made by the same persons and under the same rules as I have pre-
scribed in the said clause of my will.

Duly sworn to before Saml. Lloyd, February 27, 1867, in the city and county of Phila-
delphia.

The last will and testament of Nancy Clarke Bache is as follows:
I hereby, in pursuance and exercise of the power of appointment contained in the last
will and testament of my husband, Alexander Dallas Bache, devise, bequeath, and appoint
the sum of five thousand dollars of the principal of the estate of my said husband, over
which I have a power of appointment by his will, to be paid by his executors, or by such
person or persons as shall hold the principal of the estate at my death, to my nephew,
Henry Wood Bache, absolutely; and I hereby request my nephew, in case he should die
unmarried and without issue, to make such a disposition of this amount by will as will secure
it to be paid at his death to the National Academy of Sciences, at Washington, to be held
by that corporation upon the same trusts and for the same purposes as are declared by my
husband in his will as to the residue of his estate after my death. I expressly desire,
however, that it shall be understood that this request shall not be construed into any
direction which would interfere with his full control of the principal, which is to be paid
into his hands directly.

APPENDICES 363

Second. I hereby direct the house, No. 1624 Chestnut street, in which I now reside, to be
sold by my executor, hereinafter named, within a reasonable time after my death, either at
public or private sale, and after deducting from the purchase money any debts or expenses
connected with the sale and the administration of my estate, which, with the cash on hand
or other property which I may own or possess at my death, shall be sufficient to satisfy, I
direct my executor to pay over the net proceeds to the National Academy of Sciences, at
Washington, to be held by that corporation as trustees in trust to apply the income thereof
to the prosecution of researches in physical and natural science, according to the directions
contained in the last will and testament of my husband as to the residue of his estate after
my death in the same manner as if all the directions contained in the last will and testament
of my husband and in the codicil thereto were herein repeated at length; my object being to
make precisely the same disposition of the proceeds of this house as was made by my
husband of his residuary estate after my death.

Third. I direct all the medals and diplomas of my husband, and the large photograph
of him now in my possession, to be deposited and remain with the National Academy of
Sciences. I have made a memorandum of the disposition of certain other articles, which
I desire shall be carried into effect as if contained in this will. I appoint Morton P. Henry,
of Philadelphia, executor of this my last will and testament

CODICIL, APRIL 19, 1869.

Item. — I hereby direct my executor to pay out of the proceeds of the sale of my said
house, No. 1624 Chestnut street, Philadelphia, which I have directed to be sold, the sum of
five hundred dollars to my nephew, Henry Wood Bache, for his own use and benefit. I
further direct my executor to invest five thousand dollars of the proceeds of sale of said
house in his own name as trustee in such securities as he may think proper, and to pay the
income thereof to my nephew, Henry Wood Bache, during his natural life. After the
death of my nephew, I direct that the principal of the said sum of five thousand dollars
shall go to the National Academy of Sciences, at Washington, in trust for the same uses and
purposes as are declared as to the proceeds of sale of said house by my said will. I
expressly declare that the above bequests to Henry Wood Bache are in addition to the five
thousand dollars I have appointed to him out of my husband's estate.

Item. — I hereby declare that the balance of the proceeds of the sale of my said house
shall go, after paying and providing for the above legacies, as is set forth and declared in
my said will, which in all other respects I hereby republish and declare as my last will and
testament.

Sworn and subscribed before John Campbell, deputy register, in the city and county of
Philadelphia, January 20, 1870.

THE CYRUS B. COMSTOCK FUND

Know all men by these presents, that I, Cyrus B. Comstock, of the City of New York,
to advance knowledge in electricity, magnetism and radiant energy, by the giving of
money prizes for important investigations or discoveries in those subjects, have given,
assigned, transferred and set over, and do by these presents give, assign, transfer and set
over unto the National Academy of Sciences, incorporated by the Act of Congress approved
March 3rd, 1863, and its several supplements, and hereinafter designated as the Trustee,
and unto its successor or successors, ten (10) Union Pacific Railroad Company Registered
First Mortgage and Land Grant Four Per Cent Gold Bonds, Numbers B 588, B 663, B 993,
B 994, B 1106, B 1204, B 1282, B 1290, B 1309, B 1369, each for $1,000, and my check for
Four hundred Dollars ($400.00), bearing even date herewith and payable to the order of the
National Academy of Sciences.

364

APPENDICES

To have and to hold the same unto the said National Academy of Sciences, its successor
or successors in trust and upon the following conditions, to wit:

First. The Trustee shall keep said sum of Four hundred Dollars ($400.00), and said
bonds, or the proceeds thereof and all additions thereto, as a separate fund, to be known as
the " Cyrus B. Comstock Fund."

Second. The Trustee shall have power at any time in its discretion to sell said bonds or
any of them and execute a proper assignment thereof to the purchaser or purchasers, and
shall invest the proceeds thereof and all moneys forming a part of said fund, and keep the
same invested in such securities and in such manner as its constitution shall provide for the
investment of its property or as shall be authorized by law for the investment of trust funds.

Third. The Trustee shall collect the income arising from said fund and apply the same
as follows:

(1) The market value of the fund shall be maintained at not less than Ten thousand
Dollars ($10,000), and any and all depreciation therein shall be made up out of the income
of the fund before any part of such income shall be applied as hereinafter provided. But
when, by the additions hereinafter authorized and directed, the principal of the fund shall
have been increased in the amount of Five thousand Dollars ($5,000.), then and thereafter
the market value of the fund shall be maintained in the manner aforesaid at not less than
Fifteen thousand Dollars ($15,000.).

(2) The balance of the income of said fund shall be set aside and accumulated, and
out of such accumulations the Trustee shall award once for every five years a prize in
money to the bona fide resident of North America, who, not less than one year nor more
than six years before the awarding of the prize, shall have made in the judgment of the
Trustee the most important discovery or investigation in electricity or magnetism or radiant
energy.

Such prize shall be known and designated as the " Comstock Prize," and shall be in an
amount equal to about two-thirds of said balance of the income of said fund for the five
years for which the award shall be made, and shall be paid to the person to whom the
prize shall have been awarded at such time as may be convenient to the Trustee, but the
awarding thereof shall be entirely and in all respects in the discretion of the Trustee. If
no such discovery or investigation shall be deemed by the Trustee to be worthy of the
prize, or if for any other reason the prize shall not be awarded for any period of five years,
then and in that event the money which might have been awarded shall be added to the
principal of the fund and become a part thereof; but the Trustee may in its discretion use
the whole or any part of the amount unawarded for any five years in aiding such investi-
gation or investigations as the Trustee shall deem worthy in electricity, magnetism or
radiant energy to be made by a bona fide resident or residents of North America ; Provided,
however, that the prize shall not be diverted to give such aid oftener than once in fifteen
years.

(3) The balance of the income so accumulated, less the amount to be awarded as a
prize, as provided in the preceding section, shall be added to the principal of the fund and
become a part thereof and subject to the terms and conditions herein contained, as though
such additions had been part of the original donation; Provided, however, that when the
market value of said fund shall have been increased to Fifteen thousand Dollars ($15,000.),
the amount of the prize may be increased in the discretion of the Trustee to more than two-
thirds of the net income as above provided.

Fourth. Upon the failure or inability of the Trustee, its successor or successors, to carry
out the said trust upon the terms and conditions above set forth, said fund together with all
accumulations and unexpended income shall revert to me, the said Cyrus B. Comstock, if
then living; if dead, to my heirs-at-law who shall then be living, per stirpes and not
per capita.

APPENDICES 365

In witness whereof, I, the said Cyrus B. Comstock, have hereunto and unto a duplicate
hereof, set my hand and seal this twenty-seventh day of November, one thousand nine
hundred and seven.

CYRUS B. COMSTOCK.

Sworn and subscribed before Monchure March, notary public, in the city and county of
New York, November 27, 1907.

Know all men by these presents that the National Academy of Sciences, the Trustee
named in the foregoing instrument, hereby acknowledges the receipt from the said Cyrus B.
Comstock of said ten (10) Union Pacific Railroad Company Registered First Mortgage
Railroad and Land Grant Four Per Cent Gold Bonds, Numbers B 588, B 663, B 993, B 994,
Buo6, 61204, 61282, 61290, 61309, 61369 each for $1,000, duly assigned to the said
National Academy of Sciences as Trustee under the foregoing instrument, and his check for
Four hundred Dollars ($400.00), payable to the order of the National Academy of Sciences;
and that, by authority of its Council, the said Trustee hereby accepts and agrees to hold
the same in trust and upon the terms and conditions above set forth.

And the said National Academy of Sciences hereby constitutes and appoints Ira Remsen
its true and lawful attorney, for it and in its name to acknowledge this instrument, and
a duplicate hereof, to be its act before any person having authority to take such
acknowledgment.

In witness whereof, the said the National Academy of Sciences has caused its corporate
seal to be hereunto and unto a duplicate hereof affixed, and these presents, and a duplicate
hereof, to be signed in its name by its President and Treasurer this thirtieth day of
November, one thousand nine hundred and seven.

NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.
By IRA REMSEN, President.
S. F. EMMONS, Treasurer.

Sworn and subscribed before John R. Hooper, notary public, in the city of Baltimore,
State of Maryland, December 4, 1907.

THE HENRY DRAPER FUND
The text of the deed of gift is as follows:

Know all men by these presents that I, Mary Anna Palmer Draper of the City, County
and State of New York, in consideration of the premises, and of the acceptance of the within
trust by the National Academy of Sciences and also in consideration of divers other good and
valuable considerations, we, the said Mary Anna Palmer Draper hereto moving, have given,
granted, assigned, transferred and set over and by these presents do give, grant, assign,
transfer and set over unto the said National Academy of Sciences and to their successors
forever, a certain fund or sum of Six thousand dollars with the interest and income thereof
To have and to hold the same in trust nevertheless upon the special trusts and for the
uses and purposes following, to wit:

First. In trust to invest and to reinvest the said sum of Six thousand dollars and to keep
the same invested in good and safe securities, or in such other manner as shall be, in their
opinion, best for the preservation and maintenance of said fund.

Second. In trust to use the interest, and income thereof for the purpose of striking a
gold medal which shall be called the " Henry Draper Medal," shall be of the value of Two
hundred dollars, and shall be struck in a die to be selected and presented to said National
Academy of Sciences by me, the said Mary Anna Palmer Draper. And the said medal shall
be awarded and presented, from time to time, by the said National Academy of Sciences, to
any person in the United States of America or elsewhere who shall make an original investi-
25

366

APPENDICES

gation in astronomical physics the results of which shall be made known to the public, such
results being in the opinion of the said National Academy of Sciences of sufficient impor-
tance and benefit to science to merit such recognition, provided however that said medal
shall not be presented or awarded more frequently than once in two years, and provided
also that the investigation for which it is awarded or the completed publication thereof
shall have been made since the time of the last preceding award and presentation of said
medal.

Third. In trust that if discoveries of equal importance shall be made in astronomical
physics at or about the same time in the United States of America and also in some other
part of the world, each of which discoveries might in the opinion of said Academy entitle
the discoverer to be considered as a competitor for said medal, preference shall be given in
the awarding thereof to discoveries made by a citizen of the said United States of America.

Fourth. In trust that if the said die shall at any time be lost, destroyed, broken, or in any
manner rendered unfit for the purpose of striking the said medal, a new die shall be pro-
cured exactly similar to the one so selected and presented as aforesaid, and shall be paid
for out of the interest and income of said fund ; and such sum or sums of money as shall
at any time or times be necessary for the proper care, custody and protection of the said
die or of the said fund hereby given, shall also be taken from and out of the interest and
income of the said fund whenever the same shall be deemed necessary by the said National
Academy of Sciences.

Fifth. In trust that, if at any time or times the interest or income of the said trust fund
of Six thousand dollars shall exceed the amount necessary for the striking of said medal,
and the care of the said die and of the fund, such surplus over or above the sum or sums so
rquired for the purposes of the trust as hereinbefore recited and set forth shall be used in
such manner as shall be selected by said National Academy of Sciences in aid of investiga-
tions and work in astronomical physics to be made and carried on by a citizen or citizens of
the United States of America.

And the said National Academy of Sciences doth signify its acceptance of the said fund
of Six thousand dollars, and doth engage to hold and manage the same upon the trusts and
for the uses and purposes herein mentioned and set forth.

In Witness whereof, I, the said Mary Anna Palmer Draper have hereunto set my hand
and seal, and the said National Academy of Sciences hath hereunto caused its corporate seal
to be affixed and these presents to be subscribed by its President, this thirteenth day of
April, in the year eighteen hundred and eighty-three.

MARY ANNA PALMER DRAPER, [SEAL.]
O. C. MARSH, [SEAL N. A. s.]

President National Academy of Sciences.

Sealed and delivered in presence of Edward H. Dixon, Mornay Williams, as to Mary
Anna Palmer Draper.

Witnesses to signature of President Marsh: J. H. C. Coffin, Asaph Hall, Saml. H. Walker.

Executed and acknowledged before Mornay Williams, Notary Public, New York Co.

Acknowledgment of officer of the Academy before Saml. H. Walker, Notary Public, Diit.
of Columbia.

THE WOLCOTT GIBBS FUND
MY DEAR PROFESSORS JACKSON AND LOEB:

May I beg you to present to those from whom I received, a few days since, so signal a
mark of friendship and good will my heartiest, most earnest, and most grateful acknowl-
edgment? The address which I received on my seventieth birthday, signed by more than
zoo friends, pupils, and assistants, brings back my youth in recalling the names of those
who now join to offer me more than mere good wishes to cheer my advancing age. Their

APPENDICES 367

active friendship has taken the form which was most acceptable to me — that of an endow-
ment to assist research in my own branch of science; so that I can feel that in a certain
sense my power to work will not terminate with my life. As the generosity of my friends
permits me also to dispose of the manner in which the endowment shall be administered, I
submit to them, through you, the plan which seems to me best adapted to carry out their
wishes — a plan which has been fully tested in somewhat similar cases and found to work
well in practice.

I therefore propose that the fund raised for endowment shall be given to the National
Academy of Sciences, to hold the same in trust and to invest and reinvest as may be
necessary or advisable. The income or interest of the fund shall be administered by a board
of directors consisting of three persons, of whom at least two shall be members of the
academy. The first board shall consist of Charles Loring Jackson, Thomas M. Drown,
and Ira Remsen, and the directors shall have power to fill vacancies in their own number,
notifying the academy of their action without delay. In case of the deaths of all the mem-
bers of the board, their places shall be filled by persons holding professorships of chemistry,
to be appointed by a vote of the academy. The directors shall make an annual report to the
academy, stating the condition of the fund and the appropriations made during the year.
They shall have absolute and entire control of the disposition of the income of the fund,
employing it in such manner as they may deem for the best interest of chemical science.

It is my belief that the above or a similar arrangement is the best which can be made —
that is to say, the one which is most likely to be of permanent benefit to science. I trust that
it will meet with the approbation of those who have honored me with their confidence and
their regard.

Sincerely, yours, WOLCOTT GIBBS.

NEWPORT, March i, 1892.

THE BENJAMIN APTHORP GOULD FUND

Know all men by these presents that I Alice Bache Gould of the City of Boston and
County of Suffolk, State of Massachusetts, in consideration of the acceptance of the within
Trust by the National Academy of Sciences and also in consideration of divers other good
and valuable considerations have given granted assigned transferred and set over and by
these presents do give grant assign transfer and set over unto the said National Academy of
Sciences and its successors forever a certain fund or sum of twenty thousand (20,000)
dollars with the interest and income thereof to have and to hold the same in trust neverthe-
less upon the special trusts and for the uses and purposes following, to wit:

First. In trust, to invest and reinvest the said sum of twenty thousand dollars
($20,000.) and to keep the same invested under the ordinary rules governing trustees in good
and safe securities in such manner as shall be deemed best for the preservation and main-
tenance of such fund, which shall be known as the "Benjamin Apthorp Gould Fund," in
memory of my father, the late Benjamin Apthorp Gould, of Cambridge, Massachusetts.

Second. In trust to use the net interest and income thereof according to and under the
direction of Lewis Boss of Albany New York Seth C. Chandler of Cambridge Massachusetts
and Asaph Hall of Washington D. C. whom I hereby constitute a Board of Directors for the
application of the income of the said Benjamin Apthorp Gould Fund, for the prosecution of
researches in astronomy, by assisting such observers and investigators in such manner and in
such sums as shall be agreed upon by the three above-mentioned persons or their successors
or by a majority of the then Board.

The Board of Directors however instead of expending all the income of the Fund for
the purposes aforesaid may from time to time vote that such portions thereof as they may
prescribe shall be added to the principal of the said Fund, and such portion shall then be so
added by the Trustees and all such sums once so added shall remain part of the principal.

368

APPENDICES

The Board of Directors shall make an annual report to the National Academy of Sciences
giving such information concerning the Fund as shall be desired by the said Academy.

In case of any vacancy occurring in the Board of Directors by reason of the death,
inability or refusal to act or resignation of any of its members, then the surviving or
remaining members or member for the time being shall have power to fill any vacancy so
occurring in the Board by the selection of another person or persons to fill the same, and so
on from time to time as vacancies shall occur provided however that at least two of the
three directors shall always be members of the National Academy of Sciences. But if at
any time the three Directorships of the Board shall simultaneously be vacant, then the
National Academy of Sciences shall have power to fill these vacancies and the new
Board of Directors in this as in all other cases shall succeed to all the rights duties and
privileges of the former board.

Provided however that if at any time the said Academy from any cause whatever shall
cease to exist or in case at any time any modification of its rights or powers shall be made
by any action other than that of the said Academy itself and such modification shall be fol-
lowed within six months thereafter by a vote of the then Board of Directors approving
the passing and transfer hereinafter mentioned, then and in all of such cases the said Fund
together with all accumulations and unexpended income thereof shall pass and be trans-
ferred to the said Board of Directors who shall thereafter exercise the functions of both
Directors and Trustees, and the said National Academy shall no longer thereafter act as
Trustee, and shall have no power of appointing Directors and none of the Directors need
be members of the said National Academy ; and furthermore after such transfer and passing
the said Directors may at any time appoint any other persons or corporation as Trustees,
reserving to themselves their powers and duties as Directors, and the Fund shall thereupon
pass to such new Trustees to be held upon the same trusts upon which it is hereby given to
the National Academy of Sciences, the principal with its accumulations to be always held
intact and the income applied as shall be best for the advancement of astronomy and for
the honor of my father's memory.

And the said National Academy of Sciences doth hereby signify its acceptance of the
said Fund of twenty thousand dollars ($20,000.) and doth engage to hold the same upon
the trusts and conditions, and for the uses and purposes herein mentioned and set forth.

In witness whereof I the said Alice Bache Gould have hereto set my hand and seal and
the said National Academy of Sciences has caused its corporate name and seal to be hereto
affixed by Wolcott Gibbs its President thereunto duly authorized this seventeenth (xyth)
day of November in the year eighteen hundred and ninety seven (1897).

ALICE BACHE GOULD. [SEAL.]
WOLCOTT GIBBS.
President of the National Academy of Sciences.

W. W. Vaughan, witness to Alice Bache Gould.

O. C. Marsh, witness to Wolcott Gibbs.

J. M. Crafts, witness to Wolcott Gibbs.

C. B. Comstock, witness to Wolcott Gibbs.

To THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS OF THE BENJAMIN APTHORP GOULD FUND.

GENTLEMEN: Believing that elaborate legal restrictions upon the uses of a perpetual
fund may often under changing circumstances hinder the accomplishment of the general
intention of the donor, I have in the deed creating the Benjamin Apthorp Gould Fund
defined its uses as briefly as possible, namely, as " for the prosecution of researches in
astronomy."

Nevertheless I wish hereby to record with you some personal preferences, based upon what
I believe would have been my father's opinions regarding the best use of such a Fund,

APPENDICES 369

expressly stating however that this letter is not intended to restrict the action of the
Board of Directors more than shall in their judgment be expedient and fitting.

First. My object in creating the Fund is two- fold; on the one hand to advance the
science of astronomy, and on the other to honor my father's memory and to insure that his
power to accomplish scientific work shall not end with his own life.

Second. Throughout my father's lifetime his patriotic feeling and scientific ambition were
closely associated, and I wish therefore that a fund bearing his name should be used
primarily for the benefit of investigators in his own country or of his own nationality. I
recognize however that sometimes the best possible service to American science is the
maintenance of close communion between the scientific men of Europe and of America and
that therefore even while acting in the spirit of the above restriction it may occasionally
be best to apply this money to the aid of a foreign investigator working abroad.

In connection with this I must refer to the strong interest felt by my father in the
National Academy of Sciences, and to his belief in the importance of creating and maintain-
ing a single national scientific body whose preeminence should be unquestionable, and of
concentrating power in its hands. I wish to recommend that all three Directors shall be
members of the Academy, although I have made this legally necessary for only two of the
three, and to record the desire to serve the Academy so far as I am able as one of my minor
motives in creating the Trust.

Third. I have copied many of the provisions of the Bache Fund, and it is my hope that
the Boards of Direction of the two Funds may always act in friendly unison, as befits the
long and intimate friendship of the men whose work they perpetuate. I trust that the
new Fund may relieve the Bache Directors of many astronomical expenses, and thus enable
them to devote the same amounts of money to other branches of science. And I recommend
the adoption of a custom now followed by the Bache Board of Directors, by which each
Director upon his own election names to his colleagues the person whom he believes most
fit to succeed him.

Fourth. I wish that in all cases work in the Astronomy of Precision should be distinctly
preferred to any work in Astrophysics, both because of my father's personal preference
and because of the present existence of generous endowments for Astrophysics.

Fifth. The Astronomical Journal long conducted by my father has in my belief exerted
a powerful influence in raising the standard of American astronomy; and in case at some
future time its existence should be imperiled by lack of funds, I wish to recommend it to
the attention of the then Board of Directors. As however I believe that the granting to
any scientific journal of definite rights over such a Fund would be a dangerous precedent,
I here repeat that the Directors are not to consider themselves bound by these my present
wishes further than they deem appropriate in connection with a journal associated with
my father's name.

Sixth. The Benjamin Apthorp Gould fund is intended for the advancement and not
for the diffusion of scientific knowledge. Moreover I prefer that it should be used to defray
the actual expenses of an investigation rather than for the personal support of the investi-
gator during the time of his researches. I do not wish absolutely to exclude the latter im-
portant use, but such an employment of funds seems to me more appropriately the function
of a university than of the National Academy, and I hope therefore that before granting
money for such a purpose the Directors will consider the existing university endowments and
other sources of pecuniary aid for able workers in science.

Finally I wish to express my entire faith in the wise judgment of the first Board of
Directors and my sense of my own good fortune in being able to intrust a memorial of my
father to the hands of men who have been both his scientific associates and his intimate

personal friends. . „ ~

ALICE BACHE GOULD.

BOSTON, November 17, 1897.

370 APPENDICES

THE JOSEPH HENRY FUND

The " Joseph Henry fund " of $40,000 was contributed by " Fairman Rogers,
Joseph Patterson, George W. Childs, A. J. Drexel, F. A. Drexel, Charles H.
Rogers, J. G. Fell, Isaac Lea, Asa Packer, John Welsh, William Blanchard,
James Lenox, The Executors of the Estate of John C. Green, Mrs. John C.
Green, Robert L. Stuart, Miss C. L. Wolfe, William Libbey, E. N. Dickerson,
Cyrus W. Field, Thomas A. Scott, Wm. W. Corcoran, George P. Wetmore,
Thomas H. Powers, J. S. Morgan, J. Pierpont Morgan, I. V. Williamson,
John W. Garrett, Charles S. Coxe, Cyrus H. McCormick, J. E. Caldwell, Wm.
Weightman, Alexr. Brown, Henry C. Gibson, J. Donald Cameron, Samuel M.
Felton, Henry H. Houston, Nathaniel Thayer, John L. Cadwalader, and J. F.
Navarro " —

as an expression of the donors' respect and esteem for Prof. Joseph Henry's personal virtues,
their sense of his life's great devotion to science with its results of important discoveries, and
of his constant labors to increase and diffuse knowledge and promote the welfare of mankind.

This sum of $40,000 the contributors caused to be invested in certain securities,
and to be deposited with and held by the Pennsylvania Company for Insurance of
Lives and Granting Annuities in Trust, which company was required to collect
the income thereon from time to time, and to pay over the same to Prof. Joseph
Henry during his natural life, and after his death, to his wife and daughters, and
after the death of the last survivor " to deliver the said fund and the securities
in which it shall then be invested to the National Academy of Sciences, to be
thenceforward forever held in trust by the National Academy of Sciences under
the name and title of ' the Joseph Henry fund,' the principal to be forever held
intact and the income to be from time to time applied by the said National
Academy of Sciences in its sole discretion to assist meritorious investigators
especially in the direction of original research."

THE JOHN L. LECONTE FUND

The will of Professor Le Conte contains the following clause :
In case all my said children shall die before my said wife without lawful issue, then I

direct the whole income to be paid to her during her natural life and upon her death or in

case my said children shall all die after my said wife without lawful issue and intestate, the

whole of my said Estate shall be distributed as follows:

I give and bequeath unto * * * the National Academy of Sciences incorporated by

Act of Congress of the United States of America the sum of Twenty-five thousand dollars

($25,000).

THE MORRIS LOEB BEQUEST

The will of Morris Loeb, signed January u, 1912, contains the following
clause :

" SEVENTEENTH : I give and bequeath to the National Academy of Sciences in Wash-
ington, in the District of Columbia, the sum of Two thousand five hundred Dollars as a
contribution toward the Wolcott Gibbs Fund, founded in 1892."

APPENDICES 371

THE O. C. MARSH FUND
The will of Professor Marsh contains the following clause :

" I give, devise, and bequeath to the corporation known as the National Academy of
Sciences, in Washington, D. C., the sum of $10,000, as a trust fund, the income to be used
and expended by it for promoting original research in the natural sciences."

THE JOHN MURRAY FUND

This fund came to the Academy in the form of a personal letter to the Home
Secretary, as follows:

To ARNOLD HAGUE, ESQ.,

Secretary of the National Academy,

Washington, D. C., U. S. A.
MY DEAR HAGUE :

I enclose you a cheque for $6000 (=,£1233) which sum I trust the National Academy
will accept from me, for the purpose of founding an Alexander Agassiz gold Medal, to be
awarded for original contributions in the Science of Oceanography to scientific men in any
part of the world, whenever and as often as the President and Council may deem desirable.

Yours very sincerely,

(Signed) JOHN MURRAY.
THE BELLEVUE-STRATFORD,

Philadelphia, 22 April, 1911.

THE J. LAWRENCE SMITH FUND

Know all men by these presents, that I, Sarah Julia Smith, of the City of Louisville, and
County of Jefferson, State of Kentucky, in consideration of the premises and of the
acceptance of the within trust by the National Academy of Sciences, and, also, in consid-
eration of divers other good and valuable considerations, I, the said Sarah Julia Smith,
hereto moving, have given, granted, assigned, transferred, and set over, and by these
presents do give, grant, assign, transfer, and set over unto the said National Academy of
Sciences and to their successors forever, a certain fund or sum of Eight thousand dollars
with the interest and income thereof, to have and to hold the same in trust nevertheless —
upon the special trusts and for the uses and purposes following, to wit:

First. In trust to invest and to reinvest the said sum of Eight thousand dollars, and to keep
the same invested in good and safe securities, or in such other manner as shall be in their
opinion best for the preservation and maintenance of such fund.

Second. In trust to use the interest and income thereof for the purpose of striking a gold
medal which shall be called the " Lawrence Smith Medal," shall be of the value of Two
hundred dollars in gold, and shall be struck in a die to be selected and presented to the said
National Academy of Sciences, by me, the said Sarah Julia Smith. And the said medal
shall be awarded and presented from time to time, by the said National Academy of
Sciences, to any person in the United States of America or elsewhere who shall make an
original investigation of meteoric bodies the results of which shall be made known to the
public, such results being in the opinion of the said National Academy of Sciences of suffi-
cient importance and benefit to science to merit such recognition, provided, however, that said
medal shall not be presented or awarded more frequently than once in two years, and pro-
vided, also, that the investigation for which it is awarded or the completed publication
thereof shall have been made since the time of the last preceding award and presentation
of said medal.

372 APPENDICES

Third. In trust that if investigations of equal importance shall be made in regard to
meteoric bodies at or about the same time in the United States of America and, also, in
some other part of the world, each of which investigations might in the opinion of said
Academy entitle the investigator to be considered as a competitor for said medal, preference
shall be given in the awarding thereof to investigations made by a citizen of the said United
States of America.

Fourth. In trust, that if the said die shall at any time be lost, destroyed, broken, or in
any manner rendered unfit for the purpose of striking the said medal, a new die shall be
procured exactly similar to the one so selected and presented as aforesaid, and shall be
paid for out of the interest and income of the said fund ; and such sum or sums of money
as shall at any time or times be necessary for the care, custody and protection of the said
die or of the said fund hereby given, shall also be taken from and out of the interest and
income of the said fund whenever the same shall be deemed necessary by the said National
Academy of Sciences.

Fifth. In trust that, if at any time or times the interest and income of said trust fund
of Eight thousand dollars shall exceed the amount necessary for the striking of said medal
and the care of the said die and of the fund, such surplus over and above the sum or sums
so required for the purposes of the trust as hereinbefore recited and set forth shall be used
in such manner as shall be selected by the National Academy of Sciences in aid of investi-
gations of meteoric bodies to be made and carried on by a citizen or citizens of the
United States of America.

And the said National Academy of Sciences doth signify its acceptance of the said fund
of Eight thousand dollars and doth engage to hold and manage the same upon the trusts
and for the uses and purposes herein mentioned and set forth.

In witness whereof, I, the said Sarah Julia Smith, have hereunto set my hand and seal,
and the said National Academy of Sciences hath hereunto caused its corporate seal to be
affixed and these presents to be subscribed by its President, this sixth day of May, in the
year one thousand eight hundred and eighty-four.

SARAH JULIA SMITH, [SEAL.]

O. C. MARSH, [SEAL N. A. s.]

President of the National Academy of Sciences.

Sealed and delivered in presence of Annie C. Norton, J. H. Caperton as to Sarah Julia
Smith.

Witnesses to signature of President Marsh: George J. Brush, E. S. Dana.

THE J. C. WATSON FUND

The will of Mr. James C. Watson, dated July n, 1874, contains the following
provisions :

Fifth. I give and devise subject to conditions and legacies hereinbefore and hereafter
mentioned all the rest, residue and remainder of my real and personal estate to the National
Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, of which I am a member, which said
Academy was incorporated by Act of Congress, approved March third, A. D., 1863, to be
aggregated, kept and invested as a perpetual fund the income from which shall be expended
by said Academy for the promotion of Astronomical Science. * * * * I direct that all
other [other than those specifically bequeathed otherwise] stocks bonds and securities owned
by me be converted into money on the most advantageous terms possible and as soon as it
may be advantageous to do so and paid over to the Treasurer of said National Academy of
Sciences. I direct that any other personal property belonging to me, as well as any real
estate of which I may die possessed, except my books and scientific papers, be sold and dis-

APPENDICES 373

posed of as soon as may possibly be done advantageously to the interests of ray estate and
that the proceeds thereof be paid over to the Treasurer of said National Academy of
Sciences.

I direct that my books and scientific papers be transferred to said National Academy of
Sciences, to become a part of the library of said Academy.

In order to carry out the wish hereinbefore expressed as to the disposal of the income
from the fund resulting from my estate hereby devised to said National Academy of
Sciences, I do hereby direct that the designation of the particular objects and works which
may be aided by this fund shall be determined, subject to approval by a vote of the
Academy, by a Board of Trustees, three in number, who shall be members of the Academy
and elected, after the first herein named, by said Academy whenever a vacancy may occur
by death or otherwise. The trustees so appointed shall hold said office, unless voluntarily
relinquished by them, during the period of their membership in the said National Academy
of Sciences, and I do hereby appoint and constitute Julius E. Hilgard of the United States
Coast Survey and Simon Newcomb and J. H. C. Coffin, Professors of Mathematics U. S.
Navy, all of Washington in the District of Columbia, to be the first Board of Trustees for
the purposes herein named.

It is my wish that the Academy may if it shall seem proper provide for a gold medal of
the value of one hundred dollars to be awarded with a further gratuity of one hundred
dollars, from time to time to the person in any country who shall make any astronomical
discovery or produce any astronomical work worthy of special reward as contributing to
our science. It is my further wish that provision be made for preparing and publishing
tables of the motion of all the planets which have been discovered by me, as soon as it may
be practicable to do so and I desire that in all cases the trustees and the Academy shall act
in harmony to obtain results of the greatest possible aid to our Science from the income fund
resulting from my estate. I desire that results so obtained shall be published as speedily as
possible in such manner as may be provided by the Academy.

I direct that the said National Academy of Sciences take all necessary and proper
measures to invest the funds resulting from the property hereby devised where they may be
safe and yield the largest income possible consistent with safety.

APPENDIX VII
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS

ANNUALS

Annual of the National Academy of Sciences for 1863-1864. Cambridge, 1865.
12°. Pp. 1-112.

Annual of the National Academy of Sciences for 1865. Cambridge, 1866.
12°. Pp. 1-130.

Annual of the National Academy of Sciences for 1866. Cambridge, 1867.
12°. Pp. 1-154.

« «

« «

« «

It «

It «

It it

« (I

ANNUAL REPORTS
Date of Publication

For the year 1863 1864 For the year

1864 1865

1865 1866

1866 1867

1867 1868

1872 1873

1878 1879

1879 1880

Report of Proceedings of the
National Academy of .Sciences
from November 16, 1880, to

the close of the year 1881 . . . 1882

For the year 1882 1883

" " " 1883 1884

" " " 1884 1885

1885 1886

1886 1887

1887 1888

1888 1890

1889 1891

1890 1891

1891 1892

Date of Publication

<« «

« «

<( «

it «

« «

« «

1892

1893

1893

l895

1895

1896

1896

1897

1897

1898

1898

1899

1899

, 1900

1900

, 1901

1901

, 1902

1902 ,

1903

1903

1904

1904

1905

1905

1906

1906

1907

1907

1908

1908

1909

1909

1910

1910

1911

1911

1912

1912

I9U

374

APPENDICES 375

BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
VOLUME i. 1877. 8°. PP. i-vi, 1-343 PAGES

JOSEPH STILLMAN HUBBARD By B. A. Gould i- 34

JOSEPH GILBERT TOTTEN By J. G. Barnard 35- 97

BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, SR By Alexis Caswell 99-112

EDWARD HITCHCOCK By J. P. Lesley 113-134

JAMES MELVILLE GILLISS By B. A. Gould 135-179

ALEXANDER DALLAS BACHE By Joseph Henry i8i-2i2d

JOHN H. ALEXANDER By J. E. Hilgard 213-226

WILLIAM CHAUVENET By J. H. C. Coffin 227-244

JOHN FRIES FRAZER By John L. Le Conte 245-256

JAMES HENRY COFFIN By A. Guyot 257-264

JOHN TORREY By Asa Gray 265-276

WILLIAM STARLING SULLIVANT By Asa Gray 277-285

JOSEPH SAXTON By Joseph Henry 287-316

HENRY JAMES CLARK By A. S. Packard, Jr 317-328

JOSEPH WINLOCK By Joseph Levering 329-343

VOLUME 2. 1886. 8°. PP. i-iv, 1-388

PAGES

THEODORE STRONG By Joseph P. Bradley 1-28

DENNIS HART MAHAN By Henry L. Abbot 29-37

Louis AGASSIZ By Arnold Guyot 39- 73

JEFFRIES WYMAN By A. S. Packard 75-126

JARED POTTER KIRTLAND By J. S. Newberry 127-138

SAMUEL STEDMAN HALDEMAN By J. P. Lesley 139-172

GOUVERNEUR KEMBLE WARREN By Henry L. Abbot 173-188

WILLIAM A. NORTON By W. P. Trowbridge 189-199

ANDREW ATKINSON HUMPHREYS. . . .By Henry L. Abbot 201-215

JOHN LAWRENCE SMITH By Benjamin Silliman 217-248

STEPHEN ALEXANDER By C. A. Young 249-259

JOHN LAWRENCE LE CONTE By Samuel H. Scudder 261-293

JOSEPH JANVIER WOODWARD By J. S. Billings 295-307

ARNOLD GUYOT By James D. Dana 309-347

JOHN WILLIAM DRAPER By George F. Barker 349-388

376 APPENDICES

VOLUME 3. 1895. 8°. PP. f-iv, 1-441

PAGES

WILLIAM BARTON ROGERS By Francis A. Walker 1-13

EDWARD TUCKERMAN By W. G. Farlow 15-28

EDWARD B. HUNT By F. A. P. Barnard 29-41

JAMES CRAIG WATSON By George C. Comstock 43- 57

JAMES BUCHANAN EADS By William Sellers 59- 79

HENRY DRAPER By George F. Barker 81-139

SPENCER FULLERTON BAIRD By John S. Billings 141-160

ASA GRAY By W. G. Farlow 161-175

JOHN CALL DALTON By S. Weir Mitchell 177-185

LEO LESQUEREUX By J. P. Lesley 187-212

ELIAS LOOMIS By H. A. Newton 213-252

JONATHAN HOMER LANE By Cleveland Abbe 253-264

WILLIAM FERREL By Cleveland Abbe 265-309

MONTGOMERY C. MEIGS By Henry L. Abbot 311-326

JULIUS ERASMUS HILGARD By E. W. Hilgard 327-338

AMOS HENRY WORTHEN By Charles A. White 339-362

WILLIAM P. TROWBRIDGE By C. B. Comstock 363-367

JOHN LE CONTE By Joseph Le Conte 369-393

FERDINAND VANDIVEER HAYDEN By Charles A. White 395-413*

LEWIS MORRIS RUTHERFURD By B. A. Gould 415-441

VOLUME 4. 1902. 8°. PP. i-iv. 1-240

PAGES

GEORGE ENGELMANN By Charles A. White 1-21

CHARLES HENRY DAVIS By C. H. Davis 23-55

JAMES EDWARD OLIVER By G. W. Hill 57- 74

FIELDING BRADFORD MEEK By Charles A. White 75-91

CHARLES EDOUARD BRowN-SEQUARD.By H. P. Bowditch 93- 97

HUBERT ANSON NEWTON By J. Willard Gibbs 99-124

THOMAS LINCOLN CASEY By Henry L. Abbot 125-134

GEORGE HAMMELL COOK By G. K. Gilbert 135-144

GEORGE BROWN GOODE By S. P. Langley 145-174

JOSIAH PARSONS COOKE By Charles L. Jackson 175-183

WILLIAM AUGUSTUS ROGERS By Edward W. Morley 185-199

FREDERICK AUGUSTUS GENTH By George F. Barker 201-231*

JOHN NEWTON By Cyrus B. Comstock 233-240

*With portrait.

APPENDICES 377

VOLUME 5. 1905. 8°. PP. i-vi, 1-309 pAGjjs

JOSEPH HENRY By Simon Newcomb I- 45*

JOHN EDWARDS HOLBROOK By Theodore Gill 47- 77*

Louis FRANCOIS DEPOURTALES By Alexander Agassiz 79- 89*

AUGUSTUS ADDISON GOULD By Jeffries Wyman and

W. H. Dall 91-113*

HENRY AUGUSTUS ROWLAND By Thomas C. Mendenhall. . 115-140*

THEODORE LYMAN By H. P. Bowditch 141-153*

MATTHEW GARY LEA By George F. Barker 155-208*

FRANCIS AMASA WALKER By John S. Billings 209-218*

JOHN GROSS BARNARD By Henry L. Abbot 219-229*

JAMES EDWARD KEELER By Charles S. Hastings 231-246*

JAMES HADLEY By Arthur Twining Hadley . . 247-254*

HENRY BARKER HILL By Charles Loring Jackson. .255-266*

SERENO WATSON By William H. Brewer 267-290*

ROBERT EMPIE ROGERS By Edgar Fahs Smith 291-309*

VOLUME 6. 1909. 8°. PP. i-vi, 1-472 pAGES

JOHN STRONG NEWBERRY By Charles A. White i- 24*

CLARENCE KING By Samuel Franklin Emmons. 25- 55*

CHARLES EMERSON BEECHER By William Healey Dall. . . . 57- 70*

GEORGE PERKINS MARSH By William M. Davis 71- 80*

JOHN RODGERS By Asaph Hall 81- 92*

FAIRMAN ROGERS By Edgar F. Smith 93-107*

WILLIAM A. ROGERS ( Pt. 2) By Arthur Searle 109-1 17*

SAMUEL LEWIS PENFIELD By Horace L. Wells 119-146*

JOSEPH LE CONTE By Eugene W. Hilgard 147-218*

LEWIS HENRY MORGAN By W. H. Holmes 219-239*

ASAPH HALL By George William Hill. . . .241-309*

ALPHEUS HYATT By William Keith Brooks. . .311-325*

JOSEPH LOVERING By B. Osgood Peirce 327-344*

WILLIAM MORE GABB By William H. Dall 345~36i*

ALEXIS CASWELL By Joseph Lovering 363-372*

JOSIAH WILLARD GIBBS By Charles S. Hastings 373-393*

ELLIOTT COUES By J. A. Allen 395-446*

OGDEN NICHOLAS ROOD By Edward L. Nichols 447-472*

•With portrait.

APPENDICES
VOLUME 7

PAGES

WOLCOTT GIBBS By F. W. Clarke, 1910 i- 22*

WILLIAM KEITH BROOKS By Edwin G. Conklin 23- 88*

CHARLES AUGUSTUS YOUNG By Edwin B. Frost 89-114*

BENJAMIN SILLIMAN By Arthur W. Wright 115-141*

JAMES HAMMOND TRUMBULL By Arthur W. Wright 143-169*

WILLIAM C. H. BARTLETT By Edward S. Holden 171-193*

CYRUS BALLOU COMSTOCK By Henry L. Abbot 195-201*

SAMUEL WILLIAM JOHNSON By Thomas B. Osborne 203-222*

CHARLES ABIATHAR WHITE By William H. Dall 223-243*

SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY By Charles D. Walcott 245-268*

CHARLES OTIS WHITMAN By Edward S. Morse 269-288*

ALEXANDER AGASSIZ By George L. Goodale 289-305*

SAMUEL FRANKLIN EMMONS By Arnold Hague 307-334*

JOSEPH LEIDY By Henry F. Osborn 335-394

CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS
1864, [1872].

CONSTITUTION AND MEMBERSHIP

1876, 1879, 1882, 1883, 1884, 1885, 1886, 1887, 1888, 1890, 1891, 1892,
1893, 1895.

LIST OF OFFICERS AND MEMBERS
1910, I9II, 1912.

MEMOIRS
VOLUME i. 1866. 4°. PP. i-iv, 1-343

1. Reduction of the Observations of the Fixed Stars made by JOSEPH LEPAUTE

D'AGELET, at Paris, during the years 1783-1785, with a Catalogue of the
corresponding Mean Places referred to the Equinox 1 800.0. By B. A.
GOULD. Pp. 1-261.

2. On the Saturnian System. By BENJAMIN PEIRCE. Pp. 263-286.

3. On Shooting Stars. By H. A. NEWTON. Pp. 291-312.

4. On the Distribution of Certain Important Diseases in the United States. By

AUGUSTUS A. GOULD. Pp. 287-290.

5. On Rifled Guns. By W. H. C. BARTLETT. Pp. 313-343.

* With portrait.

APPENDICES 379

VOLUME 2. 1884. 4°. PP. 1-262

1. Report of the Eclipse Expedition to Caroline Island, May, 1883. Pp. 5-146.

2. Experimental Determination of Wave-lengths in the Invisible Prismatic Spec-

trum. By PROF. S. P. LANGLEY. Pp. 147-162, 4 pis.

3. On the Subsidence of Particles in Liquids. By W. H. BREWER. Pp. 163-175.

4. On the Formation of a Deaf Variety of the Human Race. By A. GRAHAM

BELL. Pp. 177-262.

VOLUME 3. 1885-6. 4°. PP. i-uo, 1-169
PART i. 1885

1. The Sufficiency of Terrestrial Rotation for the Deflection of Streams. By

G. K. GILBERT. Pp. 7-10.

2. On the Temperature of the Surface of the Moon. By PROF. S. P. LANGLEY.

Pp. 11-42, pis. 1-6.

3. On a Method of Precisely Measuring the Vibratory Periods of Tuning-forks,

and the Determination of the Laws of the Vibrations of Forks; with
Special Reference of these Facts and Laws to the Action of a Simple
Chronoscope. By PROF. ALFRED M. MAYER. Pp. 43-59, 4 pis.

4. The Baume Hydrometers. By PROF. C. F. CHANDLER. Pp. 61-71.

5. On Small Differences of Sensation. By PROF. C. S. PEIRCE and J. JASTROW.

Pp. 73-83.

6. Description of an Articulate of Doubtful Relationship, from the Tertiary

Beds of Florissant, Colorado. By DR. S. H. SCUDDER. Pp. 85-90.

7. On Structure of the Columella Auris in the Pelycosauria. By PROF. E. D.

COPE. Pp. 91-95.

8. On the Structure of the Brain of the Sessile-eyed Crustacea, i. The Brain

of Asellus and the Eyeless Form Cecidotaa. By PROF. A. S. PACKARD.
Pp. 97-110, pis. 1-5.

PART 2. 1886

9. Contribution to Meteorology. By ELIAS LOOMIS. Pp. 1-66, pis. 1-16.

10. On Flamsteed's Star, " Observed, but not Existing." By C. H. F. PETERS.

Pp. 69-83.

11. Corrigenda in Various Star Catalogues. By C. H. F. PETERS. Pp. 87-97.

12. Ratio of Meter to Yard. By C. B. COMSTOCK. Pp. 101-103.

13. On Composite Photography as Applied to Craniology, by J. S. BILLINGS;

and on Measuring the Cubic Capacity of Skulls, by WASHINGTON MAT-
THEWS. Pp. 105-116, 20 pis.

14. On a New Craniophore for Use in Making Composite Photographs of

Skulls. By J. S. BILLINGS and WASHINGTON MATTHEWS. Pp. 119-
120, 4 pis.

380 APPENDICES

15. (i) On the Syncarida, a Hitherto Undescribed Synthetic Group of Extinct

Malacostracous Crustacea. (2) On the Gampsonychidae, an Undescribed
Family of Fossil Schizopod Crustacea. (3) On the Anthracaridae, a
Family of Carboniferous Macrurous Decapod Crustacea. By A. S.
PACKARD. Pp. 123-139, pis. 1-4.

1 6. On the Carboniferous Xiphosurous Fauna of North America. By A. S.

PACKARD. Pp. 143-157, pis. 5-7.

17. On Two New Forms of Polyodont and Gonorhynchid Fishes from the

Eocene of the Rocky Mountains. By E. D. COPE. Pp. 161-165, i pi.
Note on the Third Memoir, page 45, part i. By ALFRED M. MAYER.
Pp. 167-169.

VOLUME 4. 1888-1889. 4°. PP. 1-270, 1-223
PART i. 1888. PP. 1-270

1. The Cave Fauna of North America, with remarks on the Anatomy of the

Brain and Origin of the Blind Species. By A. S. PACKARD. Pp. 3-156,
pis. 1-27.

2. The Solar and Lunar Spectrum. By S. P. LANGLEY. Pp. 159-170,

5 diagrams.

3. On the Reduction of Photographic Observations, with a Determination of the

Position of the Pleiades, from Photographs by Mr. Rutherfurd. By B. A.
GOULD. Pp. 173-190.

4. Reduction of Photgraphic Observations of the Praesepe. By B. A. GOULD.

Pp. 193-199.

5. Balance for Determining Specific Gravity by Inspection. By F. A. P.

BARNARD. Pp. 203-205.

6. Theory of Magic Squares and of Magic Cubes. By F. A. P. BARNARD.

Pp. 209-270.

PART 2. 1889. PP. 1-223

7. Contributions to Meteorology. By ELIAS LOOMIS. Pp. 7-77, pis. 17-32.

8. On the Determination of Elliptic Orbits from three Observations. By J.

WILLARD GIBBS. Pp. 79-104.

9. The Temperature of the Moon. By S. P. LANGLEY. Pp. 105-212, pis. 1-26.
10. On the Lucayan Indians. By W. K. BROOKS. Pp. 213-223, pis. 1-12.

VOLUME 5. 1891. 4°. PP. 1-590

[i.] Energy and Vision. By S. P. LANGLEY. Pp. 5-18.

[2.] Contributions to Meteorology. By ELIAS LOOMIS. Pp. 21-109, pis. 33-51.
[3.] Report of Studies of Atmospheric Electricity. By T. C. MENDENHALL.
Pp. 111-318.

APPENDICES 381

[4.] The Embryology and Metamorphosis of the Macroura. By W. K. BROOKS
and F. H. HERRICK. Pp. 319-576, pis. i-57-

[5.] On the Application of Interference Methods to Astronomical Measure-
ments. By A. A. MICHELSON. Pp. 577-59O, 7 Pls-

VOLUME 6. 1893. 4°. PP. 1-331

1. On the Capture of Comets by Planets, especially their Capture by Jupiter.

By H. A. NEWTON. Pp. 5-23.

2. Atmospheric Electricity. By ROBERT CATLIN, U. S. A. Pp. 25-33, 7 pis.

3. On Certain new Methods and Results in Optics. By CHARLES S. HASTINGS.

Pp. 35-47-

4. The Proteids or Albuminoids of the Oat Kernel. By THOMAS B. OSBORNE.

Pp. 49-87.

5. A Comparison of Antipodal Faunas. By THEODORE GILL. Pp. 89-124.

6. Families and Sub-Families of Fishes. By THEODORE GILL. Pp. 125-138.

7. Human Bones of the Hemenway Collection in the United States Army

Medical Museum. By WASHINGTON MATTHEWS, Surgeon, U. S. Army ;
DR. J. L. WORTMAN, and DR. JOHN S. BILLINGS, Surgeon, U. S. Army;
Pp. 139-286, pis. 1-59.

8. Further Studies of the Brain of Limulus Polyphemus, with notes on its

Embryology. By ALPHEUS S. PACKARD. Pp. 287-331, pis. 1-36.

VOLUME 7. 1895. 4°. PP. 1-484

1. Monograph of the Bombycine Moths of America, North of Mexico, including

their Transformations and Origin of the Larval Markings and Armature.
By PROF. ALPHEUS S. PACKARD. Pp. 3-291 (explanation of plates, 293-
390), pis. 1-49, maps i-io.

2. On Reaction-Times and the Velocity of the Nervous Impulse. By PROF. J.

McKEEN CATTELL and DR. CHARLES S. DOLLEY. Pp. 391-415.

3. The Bacteria of River Waters. By JOHN S. BILLINGS. Pp. 417-484, pis.

1-5, diagrams 1-5.

VOLUME 8. 1902. 4°. PP. i-iv, 1-648

1. Notes on the Bacteriological Examination of the Soil of Philadelphia. By

M. P. RAVENEL. Pp. 1-41, 3 pis.

2. A Contribution to the Study of the Effect of the Venom of Crotalus Ada-

manteus upon the Blood of Man and Animals. By S. W. MITCHELL and
ALONZO H. STEWART. Pp. [43-56], pis. 1-6.

3. General Perturbations of Minerva (93), by Jupiter, including Terms only of

the First Order with Respect to the Mass, together with a Correction of

Elements. By W. S. EICHELBERGER. Pp. 57-77.

26

382 APPENDICES

4. Ophlura Brevispina. By W. K. BROOKS and CAS WELL GRAVE. Pp. 79-100,

pis. 1-3.

5. Anatomy of Nautilus Pompilius. By LAWRENCE E. GRIFFIN. Pp. 101-197

(explanation of plates, 198-230), pis. 1-17.

6. An Experimental Inquiry Regarding the Nutritive Value of Alcohol. By

W. O. ATWATER and F. G. BENEDICT. Pp. 231-397.

7. West Indian Madreporarian Polyps. By J. E. DUERDEN. Pp. 399-599

(explanation of plates, 600-648), pis. 1-25.

VOLUME 9. 1905. 4°. PP. 1-149

Monograph of the Bombycine Moths of North America, including their Trans-
formations and Origin of the Larval Markings and Armature. Part II.
Family Ceratocampidae, sub-family Ceratocampinae. By ALPHEUS SPRING
PACKARD. Pp. 1-149 (explanation of plates, 151-272), pis. 1-61.

VOLUME 10. 1911. 4°. PP. i-vi, 1-377

1. The Absolute Value of the Acceleration of Gravity determined by the Ring-

pendulum Method. By CHARLES E. MENDENHALL. Pp. 1-23, pis. 1-3.
1905.

2. Claytonia Gronov. A Morphological and Anatomical Study. By THEODORE

HOLM. Pp. 25-37, pis- J'2- 1905.

3. A Research upon the Action of Alcohol upon the Circulation. By HORATIO

C. WOOD and DANIEL M. HOYT. Pp. 39-70, pis. 1-3. 1905.

4. Phoronis architecta: Its Life History, Anatomy, and Breeding Habits. By

WILLIAM KEITH BROOKS and RHEINART PARKER COWLES. Pp. 71-
113 (explanation of plates, 115-148), pis. 1-17. 1905.

5. The Affinities of the Pelagic Tunicates, No. I : On a new Pyrosoma. By

WILLIAM KEITH BROOKS. Pp. 149-156, pis. 1-2. 1906.

6. Commelinaceas. Morphological and Anatomical Studies of the Vegetative

Organs of some North and Central American Species. By THEODORE
HOLM. Pp. 157-192, pis. 1-8. 1906.

7. Tables of Minor Planets discovered by James C. Watson, Part I : Tables of

(93) Minerva, (101) Helena, (103) Hera, (105) Artemis, (115) Thyra.
(119) Althaea, (128) Nemesis, (133) Gyrene, (139) Juewa, (161)
Athor, (174) Phaedra, and (179) Klytaemnestra. By ARMIN O.
LEUSCHNER. Pp. 193-374. 1910.

VOLUME n. 1913. 4°. PP. 1-298

i. Agave in the West Indies. By WILLIAM TRELEASE. Pp. 1-298, pis. A-E,
1-116. 1913.

APPENDICES 383

PROCEEDINGS
VOLUME i. 1896. 8°. Pp. 1-406

PART i. Pp. 1-120. Published 1877.
PART 2. Pp. 121-240. Published 1886.
PART 3. Pp. 241-406. Published 1896.

REPORTS OF COMMITTEES

[Report on the question of the value of the water-proofing process employed
in the manufacture of the fractional currency.] In House Misc. Doc. no. 163,
part 2, 44th Congress, ist Session, pp. 22-28. April 3, 1876.

Forty-fifth Congress, 3d Session, House of Representatives Misc. Doc. no. 5.
Surveys of the Territories. Letter from the Acting President of the National
Academy of Sciences, transmitting a report on the surveys of the Territories.
Ordered printed, December 3, 1878. 8°. Pp. 1-27.

Forty-seventh Congress, 2d Session. Senate Misc. Doc. no. 51. National
Academy of Sciences. Investigation of the scientific and economic relations
of the sorghum sugar industry, being a report made in response to a request from
the Hon. George B. Loring, U. S. Commissioner of Agriculture, by a committee
of the National Academy of Sciences. November, 1882. Washington: Govern-
ment Printing Office. 1883. 8°. Pp. 1-152.

United States Internal Revenue. — Report on glucose, prepared by the National
Academy of Sciences, in response to a request made by the Commissioner of
Internal Revenue. Washington: Government Printing Office. 1884. 8°.
Pp. 1-108.

Report of committee of National Academy of Sciences concerning classification
of Donskoi wool, Jan. 30, 1886. 1886. Treasury Department Doc. no. 805.

Forty-ninth Congress, ist Session. Senate, Ex. Doc. no. 67. Letter from the
Secretary of the Navy, transmitting, in compliance with the Senate resolution,
February 2, 1886, report of National Academy of Sciences upon the proposed
new Naval Observatory. Ordered printed, February 10, 1886.

[Report on the organization of the National Surveys and the Signal Service.]
In Senate Misc. Doc. no. 82, 49th Congress, ist Session. Pp. i*-37*. Ordered
printed, March 16, 1886. 1886.

National Academy of Sciences. Standards for Electrical Measure, February
20, 1895. Printed for the Academy. Washington: Judd & Detweiler, Printers.
1895. 8°. Pp. 1-9.

Fifty-third Congress, 3d Session. Senate, Misc. Doc. no. 115. Report of the
National Academy of Sciences, made in compliance with a requirement of the
law (H. R. 6500) entitled " an act to define and establish the units of electrical
measure," approved July 12, 1894. Ordered printed, February 19, 1895.

384 APPENDICES

Report of the committee appointed by the National Academy of Sciences upon
the inauguration of a forest policy for the forested lands of the United States to
the Secretary of the Interior, May I, 1897. Washington: Government Printing
Office. 1897. 8°. Pp. 1-47.

Fifty-eighth Congress, 3d Session. Senate Doc. no. 145. Report by committee
appointed by Academy to consider desirability of instituting scientific explorations
of Philippine Islands. Pp. 1-22. 8°. Ordered printed, February 7, 1905.

Sixtieth Congress, 2d Session. House of Representatives, Doc. no. 1337.
Conduct of scientific work under United States Government. Message from the
President of the United States, transmitting report of the National Academy of
Sciences relating to the conduct of the scientific work under the United States
Government. Pp. 1-5. 8°. Ordered printed, January 18, 1909.

APPENDIX VIII

LIST OF MEETINGS

1863, April

1864, January
August

1865, January
August

1866, January
August

1867, January
August

1868, January
August

1869, April
August 31

1870, April

1871, April

1872, April
November

1873, April
October

1874, April
November

1875, April
November

1876, April
October

1877, April
October

1878, April
November

1879, April
October

1880, April
November

22. New York City. Chapel of the University of the City
of New York (Organization).

4-9. Washington (Capitol).

4-6. New Haven, Connecticut.

3-7. Washington.

23-26. Northampton, Massachusetts.

24-27. Washington.

7-12. Northampton, Massachusetts.

23-27. Washington.

13-16. Hartford, Connecticut (State House).

22-25. Washington (Capitol).

25-29. Northampton, Massachusetts.

13-17. Washington.

-September 3. Northampton, Massachusetts.

14-17. Washington.

18-23. Washington.

16-19. Washington.

2O-22. Cambridge, Massachusetts.

15-19. Washington.

28-30. New York City.

21-25. Washington.

3-6. Philadelphia.

20-23. Washington.

2-5. Philadelphia.

18-22. Washington.

17-19. Philadelphia.

1 7-20. Washington.

23-25. New York City.

16-19. Washington.

5-8. New York City.

15-18. Washington.

25-30. New York City.

20-23. Washington.

16-19. New York City ( Columbia College ) .

385

386

APPENDICES

1 88 1, April 19-22.
November 15-17.

1882, April 1 8-2 1.
November 14-17.

1883, April 17-21.
November 13-16.

1884, April 15-18.
April 17, Evening.

Washington (All Souls' Church).

Philadelphia.

Washington.

New York City.

Washington.

New Haven, Connecticut.

Washington (U. S. National Museum).

Memorial Service (U. S. National Museum).

1885,

October 14-17.
October 15.

April 21-24.
November 10-13.
1866, April 20-23.
November 9-11.

1887, April 19-22.
November 8-u.

1888, April 17-20.
November 13-15.

Newport, Rhode Island (Court House).

Special business session.

Washington (U. S. National Museum).

Albany, New York (Assembly Parlor at the Capitol).

Washington (U. S. National Museum).

Boston (Massachusetts Institute of Technology).

Washington (U. S. National Museum).

New York City (Columbia College).

Washington (U. S. National Museum).

New Haven, Connecticut (North Sheffield Hall,

Yale University).

Washington (U. S. National Museum).
Philadelphia (University of Pennsylvania).
Washington (U. S. National Museum).
Boston (Boston Society of Natural History).
Washington (U. S. National Museum).
New York City (Columbia College).
Washington (U. S. National Museum).
Baltimore (Johns Hopkins University).
Washington (U. S. National Museum).
Albany, New York (Capitol).
Washington (U. S. National Museum).
October 3O-November i. New Haven, Connecticut (North Sheffield

Hall, Yale University).

1895, February 9 (Special). New York City (Columbia College).
April 16-19. Washington (U. S. National Museum).
October 3O-November I. Philadelphia (University of Pennsylvania

Department of Hygiene).
Washington (U. S. National Museum).
New York City (Columbia University).
Washington (U. S. National Museum).
Boston (Massachusetts Institute of Technology).
Washington (Congressional Library).
New Haven, Connecticut (Sheffield Scientific School).

1889, April 16-19.
November 12-14.

1890, April 15-18.
November 11-13.

1891, April 21-24.
November 10-12.

1892, April 19-22.
November 1-3.

1893, April 1 8-2 1.
November 7-9.

1894, April 17-20.

1896, April 21-24.
November 17-18.

1897, April 20-22.
November 16-18.

1898, April 19-22.
November 15-17.

APPENDICES

387

1899, April 18-20.
November 14-16.

1900, April 17-19.
November 13-14.

1901, April 1 6- 1 8.
November 12-14.

1902, April 15-17.
November 11-12.

1903, April 21-23.
November 17-18.

1904, April 19-21.
November 15-16.

1905, April 18-20.
November 14-15.

1906, April 1 6- 1 8.
November 20-22.

1907, April 1 6- 1 8.

November 19-20.

1908, April 21-23.
November 17-18.

1909, April 20-22.
November 16-18.

1910, April 19-21.
November 8-10.

1911, April 18-20.
November 21-22.

1912, April 16-18.
November 12-13.

Washington (Columbian University).

New York City (Columbia University).

Washington (Columbian University).

Providence, Rhode Island (Brown University).

Washington (U. S. National Museum).

Philadelphia (Houston Hall, University of Pennsyl-
vania).

Washington (U. S. National Museum).

Baltimore (Physical Laboratory, Johns Hopkins Uni-
versity).

Washington (U. S. National Museum).

Chicago (Haskell Oriental Museum, University of
Chicago).

Washington (U. S. National Museum).

New York City (Havemeyer Hall, Columbia Uni-
versity).

Washington (U. S. National Museum).

New Haven, Connecticut (Sheffield Scientific School,
Yale University).

Washington (U. S. National Museum).

Boston (Harvard Medical School).

Washington (Smithsonian Institution and U. S.
National Museum).

New York City ( Schermerhorn Hall, Columbia Uni-
versity) .

Washington (Smithsonian Institution).

Baltimore (Johns Hopkins University).

Washington (Smithsonian Institution).

Princeton, New Jersey (Guyot Hall, Princeton Uni-
versity).

Washington (Smithsonian Institution).

St. Louis (Missouri Botanical Garden).

Washington (U. S. National Museum).

New York City (New York Public Library).

Washington (U. S. National Museum).

New Haven, Connecticut (Sloane Physical Labora-
tory, Yale University).

INDEX

Abbot, Charles G., 61.

awarded Henry Draper Medal, 98.
Abbot, Henry L., 81, 312, 314, 316, 320, 325.
Abel, Professor, 85.
Academic des Sciences, Paris, 56.
Adams, John, 7, 12.
Adams, John Quincy, 280, 284.
Agassiz, Alexander, 84, 93, 100, 272, 281,

316, 320, 324, 325.
death of, 99.

elected President of the Academy, 77.
remarks of Professor Mayer on, 99.
Agassiz Fund. (See Alexander Agassiz

Fund.)
Agassiz, Louis, 4, 5, 9, u, 21, 23, 27, 35,

41, 42.

becomes regent of Smithsonian Institu-
tion, 5.

expedition of to South America, 32.
Agassiz Medal. (See Alexander Agassiz

Medal.)

Airy, Sir G. B., 217.
Albert Medal, Society of Arts, 44.
Alcoholometer, committee on Saxton's, 218.
Alexander Agassiz Fund, 361.
Alexander Agassiz Medal, 101.
Alexander, J. H., 206, 207, 223, 225.

biographical sketch of, 109.
Alexander, Stephen, 21, 27, 34, 62.

biographical sketch of, 112.
Allen, A. H., 282.
Allen, Horatio, 226, 227.
Allison, Wm. B., 295, 299.
American Academy of Arts and Sciences,

103.

objects of, 12.
American Association for the Advancement

of Science, 103.
American coals, resolution on, by Academy,

41, 42.
American Ephemeris, committee on proposed

changes in, 267.

American Geological Society, 15.
American Philosophical Society, 33, 99, 102,

103.

Americanists, International Congress of, 84.
Ammen, Daniel, 258.
Ampere and volt, committee on application

of definitions of, 313.

Annual of the Academy, 17, 28, 29, 32, 35,

44, 219, 226, 227.
first, publication of, 29.
second, publication of, 32.

Appalachian forest reserve, 324.

Apparatus, philosophical and scientific, com-
mittee on, 302.

Argelander, F. W. A., 28.

Army knapsacks, committee on the preser-
vation of, 331.

Associates, foreign, list of, 337.

Association of Academies, International, 80,
81, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 90, 92, 93, 94, 95,

98, 99-

Asteroids, discovery of new, 36.
Astronomical day, the, 304.

committee on the, 303.
Astronomical physics, Pickering's work on,

67.

Astronomical Tables, committee on, 42.
Astronomische gesellschaft, 71.
Auwers, Arthur, awarded the Watson

Medal, 71.

Bache, Alexander Dallas, i, 9, n, 12, 16,

21, 23, 26, 30, 31, 34, 47, 62, 113, 201,

202, 206, 207, 215, 217, 218, 227, 239,

240.

account of first meeting of Academy, by,

22.

address of, 7.
death of, 32.
estate of, 33.

first President of the Academy, 23.
meeting at house of, to arrange plan of

incorporation, 6.
remarks of, on committees, 27.
remarks of, on need of national scientific

organization, 7.

remarks of, on objects of Academy, 13.
will of, 33.
Bache Fund, 34, 38, 45, 64, 76, 101, 361.

grants from, 33, 96.
Bache, Henry Wood, 33.
Bache, Mrs. A. D., death of, 33.
Baird, Spencer F., 30, 41, 302.
Barker, G. F., 293, 302, 310, 314.
Barlow, Joel, 7, 12.

389

390

INDEX

Barnard, F. A. P., 21, 27, 41, 71, 75, 207,
218, 223, 226, 227, 240, 241, 257, 304.

biographical sketch of, 116.

death of, 71.

will of, 71.
Barnard, J. G., 27, 62.

biographical sketch of, 117.
Barnard Medal, 71, 72, 75, 89, 90, 98.

awarded to Ernest Rutherford, 98.

awarded to Henri Becquerel, 89.

awarded to Professor Rontgen, 82.

committee on, 82.

establishment of, 71.

first award of, 72.
Bartlett, J. R., 225.
Bartlett, W. H. C., 75.

biographical sketch of, 119.
Barus, C., 314.
Batcheller, Geo. S., 312.
Baume, hydrometer, committee on, 52.
Beaumont, J. B. Elie de, 28.
Becker, George F., 92, 102, 326.
Becquerel, Henri, awarded Barnard Medal,

89.

Bell, A. Graham, 81, 304.
Benjamin Apthorp Gould Fund, 79, 96, 367.
Bentley, Henry, 46.

Bequests, question of Academy administer-
ing, 58.

Bequests and trusts, text of, 361.
Billings, J. S., 57, 77, 81, 282, 283.
Biographical Memoirs, 104.

publication of first volume of, 28, 44.
Bologna, University of, 57.
Botanical Congress, International, 92.
Botanists, International Association of, 84.
Bourgois, M., 223.
Bowditch, H. P., 81.
Bradley, James, 71.
Brewer, Wm. H., 60, 286, 296, 307, 316,

320, 325, 326.
Brewster, Sir David, 28,
Bristow, B. H., 262.
Brogger, W. C., 93.
Brown, S. J., 64.
Brush, Geo. J., 302.
Building-stone, committee on, 204, 331.
Bunsen, Robert, 28.

Burton, J. R., letter of, regarding a national
Appalachian forest reserve, 324.

Calf's hair goods, committee on distinguish-
ing from woolen goods, 204, 331.
Campbell, W. W., 61, 92, 330.
Capitol, meeting of Academy held in, 30.
Carnegie Institution of Washington, 87.

Caroline Island, eclipse expedition to, 64.

report on, 64.

Carpenter, Captain, 63, 65.
Carpmael, Charles, 312.
Caswell, Alexis, 20, 21, 36, 45, 75, 223.

biographical sketch of, 120.
Cent coins, committee on materials for the

manufacture of, 227.

Centennial Exhibition, Government collec-
tions at, 43.
Central American Transit Company, 249,

250.

Chamberlin, T. C., 92, 95.
Chandler, Charles F., 262, 263, 280, 282,
286, 291, 293, 307, 310.

letter regarding the Declaration of Inde-
pendence, 283.
Chandler, Ralph, 259.
Chandler, Seth C., 75.

awarded Watson Medal, 75.
Chaplain, M., 59.

Chart of the Heavens, resolutions on, 56.
Chase, Salmon P., 27, 206, 227.
Chasles, Michel, 28.
Chauvenet, Wm., 35, 38, 206, 218, 223.

biographical sketch of, 121.
Chemical research, plan for national co-
operation in, 90.

Chemical tables, plan to publish, 99.
Chemicals on revenue stamp, committee on

the effect of, 254.
Chenango, U. S. S., 231, 232.

committee on explosion on the, 230.
Chittenden, R. H., 95.
Circassian, U. S. S., 216.
Classes of Academy, 30, 68.
Classification of membership, committee on,

68, 69.

Cleveland, President, 317, 320.
Coal mines, committee on protection of, 253.
Coast and Geodetic Survey, committee on,

295.

Coffin, J. H. C., 37, 52, 63, 223, 233, 257,
258, 267.

biographical sketch of, 122.

elected Treasurer of Academy, 52.
Coinage, consideration of changes in, 36.
Coinage, weights and measures, bill on, 210.
Collier, Peter, 285, 286.
Color, conventional standard of, corre-
spondence relating to, 331.
Combs, H. Wheeler, 307.
Commercial Advertiser, the, 20.
Commission, Permanent, i, 2, 4, 15.

Select, 2.

on electrical units, resolution on, 54.

INDEX

391

Committee on award of Barnard Medal,
report of, 82, 90, 98.

Committee on award of Henry Draper
Medal, report of, 55, 67, 82, 85.

Committee on award of Lawrence Smith
Medal, report of, 66.

Committee on chemical research, 91.

Committee on experiments on velocity of
light, 49.

Committee on first Henry Draper Medal, 55.

Committee on Gilliss' observations on zones
of stars around the South Pole, 36.

Committee on Harkness' magnetic observa-
tions, 36.

Committee on paleontologic correlation, 101.

Committee on revision of constitution of the
Academy, 38.

Committee on solar eclipse of 1883, 63.

Committee on tables of celestial movements,
42.

Committee on transit of Venus of 1874, 38.

Committee on weights, measures and coin-
age, 36, 45-

Committee to cooperate with National Board
of Health, 50.

Committees, appointment of first, 26.
remarks of Bache on, 27.

Committees on behalf of the Government,

list of, 203.
list of reports of, 348.

" Compass committee," 36, 215.

Comstock, Cyrus B., 207, 271, 276, 296.

Comstock Fund, 91, 363.

Comstock Prize, 91, 92.

Congress of Electricians, 54.

Conklin, E. G., 99.

Conness, Senator, 235.

Constitution, amendment to, 58.
committee on amendment to, 73, 74.

Constitution of the National Academy of
Sciences, 352.

Counterfeiting, committee on the preven-
tion of, 331.

Coville, F. V., 327.

Cox, S. S., 58.

Cox and Murphy, meter of, 244.

Crafts, J. M., 81.

Craig, B. F., 240, 241.

Customhouse at Chicago, committee on
building stone for, 331.

Dahlgren, John A. B., 62.

biographical sketch of, 123.
Daly, Chief Justice, of N. Y., 312.

Dana, Edward S., 309.

Dana, James D., 23, 30, 31, 76, 85, 223, 272,

279, 3°4-

biographical sketch of, 125.
reasons of, for resignation, 30.
Davis, A. McF., 10.

Davis, Charles H., Admiral, i, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7,
8, 9, 10, n, 23, 45, 213, 215, 216, 219,

222, 226, 250, 256, 258, 259, 306.

appointed chief of Bureau of Naviga-
tion, 2.

biographical sketch of, 127.

letter of, to Bache, 222.

letter of, to Gideon Welles, 222.

letters of, on organization of Academy, 3.

relation of, to organization of Academy,

8.

Davis, Charles H., Captain, 2.
Davis, W. M., 95.
Dean, G. W., 217.

Declaration of Independence, committees on
restoration of, 279.

first report of committee on, 281.
Delegates, appointment of, 56, 57, 81, 84,

«S, 92, 95, 98, 99-
practice of appointing, inaugurated by

Academy, 56.

Demarara sugars, committee on, 264.
Dietrich's method of analysis, 311.
Diploma of the Academy, committee on, 23.
Distilled spirits, committee on proving and

gauging, 239.
Douglass, J. W., letter of, regarding

revenue stamps, 255.

Draper Fund. (See Henry Draper Fund.)
Draper, Henry, 55, 63, 207, 259, 260.
Draper, Mrs. Henry, establishment of

Draper Medal by, 55.
Draper Medal. (See Henry Draper

Medal.)

Dublin, University of, 57.
Durchmusterung, Southern, 68.

Eckfeldt, J. R., 229.

Eclipse of sun, 1869, committee on, 36.

May 6, 1883, committee on, 62, 63.
Edison, Thomas A., 46.

Electrical units, committee on application of
definitions of, 313.

commission on, 54.
Electricians, congress of, 54.
Emmons, S. F., 92, 99.
Engelmann, George, 75.

biographical sketch of, 129.
Evermann, B. W., 327.
Experiments on animals, bill relating to, 77.

remarks of Senator Gallinger on, 78.

392

INDEX

Fairchild, C. S., 308, 309.

letter of, on sugar determinations, 308.

Faraday, Michael, 28.

Farlow, Wm. G., 84.

Farnam, Wm. W., letter of, 97.

Ferguson, Professor, 306.

Ferrel, William, 253, 290.

Fillebrown, Lieut., 231.

First organization of Academy, 25.

Fizeau, M., 49.

Folsom, C. W., 238.

Foreign associates of Academy, first list of,
28.

Forest policy, committee on the inaugura-
tion of a, 314.
recommendations of committee on, 319.

Forest reserve, report of committee on
National Appalachian, 324.

Forests of White Mts. and Appalachians,
resolutions on, 93.

Foster, Sir Michael, 86.

Foucault, J. B. L., 49.

Fractional currency, committee on water-
proofing, 261.

Francis, D. R., 317.

Franklin, Benjamin, 7, 12.

Franklin Institute, 226.

Franklin, Sir John, 311.

Frazer, J. F., 21, 36, 42, 218, 223, 231.
biographical sketch of, 132.

Freer, P. C., 329.

French, H. F., 302.

Frye, A. D., 217.

Fua, Mr., 253, 254.

Gallinger, Jacob H., 77, 78.

Garfield, President, 61.

Gay Lussac, J. L., 219.

Geikie, Sir Archibald, 92.

Genth, F. A., 265.

Geological Congress, International, 92, 99.

Geological Society of London, 93.

Geological Survey, committee on, 295.

Geological Survey of Pennsylvania, reports

of, resolution relating to, 77.

Gibbs Fund. (See Wolcott Gibbs Fund.)

Gibbs, Wolcott, 21, 23, 38, 48, 49, 72, 73,

76, 77, 78, 84, 93, 206, 207, 213, 215,

227, 255, 280, 290, 302, 316, 317, 320.

biographical sketch of, 133.

death of, 93.

elected President of the Academy, 48, 77.

elected Vice-President of Academy, 38.

resignation of as President of the
Academy, 84.

Gilbert, Grove K., 92.

Gilder, W. H., 311, 312.

Gill, Sir David, awarded Watson Medal,

82.

Gill, Theodore N., 79, 84.
Gilliss, James M., 30, 34, 36, 221, 260.

biographical sketch of, 135.
Glucose, committee on, 293.
Goessman, C. A., 286.
Goodale, George L., 81.
Goode, G. Brown, 7.
Gould, A. A., 31, 34, 51, 52.
biographical sketch of, 137.
Gould, Alice Bache, letter of, establishing

Gould Fund, 79.
Gould, Benjamin Apthorp, 4, 9, 10, 23, 27,

28, 38, 53, 73, 76, 79, 85, 207, 253.
astronomical works of, 53.
biographical sketch of, 138.
first Watson Medal awarded to, 53.
Gould Fund (see Benjamin Apthorp Gould

Fund), 79, 96.
Government collections at the Centennial

Exhibition, resolution on, 43.
Government, scientific work under the, com-
mittee on, 330.
list of reports of committees on behalf of,

348.
Gray, Asa, 76.

biographical sketch of, 140.
Greeley, A. W., 312.
Green, F. M., 52.
Grey, Wilbur M., 282.
Greytown Harbor, Nicaragua, committee

on the improvement of, 31, 247.
Guyot, Arnold, ir, 30, 206, 223.

biographical sketch of, 142.

Hague, Arnold, 10, 92, 93, 99, 102, 316, 320.

Hale, Eugene, 295, 299.

Hale, George E., 85, 88, 92, 93, 95, 98.

awarded Henry Draper Medal, 85.
Hall, Asaph, 63, 267, 306, 325.
Hall, Chas. F., 39, 40, 41.
Hall, James, 76, 85.

biographical sketch of, 145.
Hall's Third Arctic Expedition, instructions
for, 40.

remarks on, by Henry, 41.
Hamilton, Sir Wm. Rowan, 28.
Harkness, William, 36, 37, 258, 260.
Hartford, U. S. S., 63, 64, 65.
Hastings, Chas. S., 64, 309, 314.
Hay, John, letters from, regarding Declara-
tion of Independence, 281, 283.
Hayden, F. V., 269, 273.

INDEX

393

Hazelton, J. H., 280.
Hazen, Wm. B., 290.

Headstones, committee on galvanic action
in iron, 232.

discussion on, in Senate, 235.

report of committee on, 233.
Hecate, asteriod, 36.
Helena, asteroid, 36.
Henry Draper Fund, 76, 365.
Henry Draper Medal, 55, 67, 70, 74, 81,
82, 85, 98.

awarded to C. G. Abbot, 98.

awarded to E. C. Pickering, 67.

awarded to George E. Hale, 85.

awarded to H. A. Rowland, 70.

awarded to H. K. Vogel, 74.

awarded to J. E. Keeler, 81.

awarded to Sir Wm. Huggins, 82.

awarded to S. P. Langley, 55.

report of committee on award of, 67, 82.

restrictions on award of, 67.
Henry Fund. (See Joseph Henry Fund.)
Henry, Joseph, i, 4, 9, n, 14, 15, 20, 21,
27, 3°, 32, 37, 39, 4i, 42, 4-8, 65, 66,
206, 207, 215, 227, 228, 229, 233, 240,
242, 243, 244, 245, 249, 255, 262, 263,
265, 3i3-

biographical sketch of, 147.

death of, 47.

elected President of Academy, 31, 35.

farewell address of, 46.

letter of, regarding Nicaragua, 250.

letter of, to Hugh McCulloch, 208.

letter of, to the President, 212.

letter to, from E. M. Stanton, 237.

recommended to receive Albert Medal, 44.

remarks of, on incorporation of Academy,
6.

remarks of, on objects of Academy, 13.

remarks of Professor Marsh on the
services of, 47.

resolution on the services of, 46.
Herald, the New York, 21.
Herbert, Hilary A., 295, 299, 301.
Hibben, President, 102.
Hilgard, J. E., 33, 41, 52, 63, 76, 207, 223,
240, 242, 243, 244, 245, 249, 250, 251,
262, 263, 267, 280.

biographical sketch of, 150.
Hill, George W., 10, 258.

letter of, regarding origin of Academy, n.
Hitchcock, Edward, 29, 34.

biographical sketch of, 151.
Hjort, Johan, 221.
Hodgkins Fund, 61.
Holden, E. S., 64, 305, 306.

Holmes, W. H., 327.

Honorary members of Academy, 36.

Hubbard, J. S., 22, 28, 29, 34.

biographical sketch of, 153.

death of, 28.
Huggins, Sir Wm., awarded Henry Draper

Medal, 82.
Humphreys, A. A., 250, 272, 275, 276.

biographical sketch of, 154.
Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 88.
Hunt, T. Sterry, 56.

Hydrographic office, committee on the, 295.
Hydrometer, Baume, 52.

Gay Lussac's, 219.

Tralles', 219, 240.

Hygiene and demography, International
Congress of, 57.

Incorporation, Act of, 351.

bill of, in House, 6.

in Senate, 5.
Incorporators, death of, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32,

34, 36, 38, 42, 45, 47, 75, »5, 93-
list of, 104.

International Association of Academies, 80,
81, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 90, 92, 93, 94, 95,

98, 99-
delegates to, 81, 84, 85, 92, 93, 95, 98, 99.

International Association of Botanists, 84.

International Botanical Congress, 92.

International Bureau of Weights and Meas-
ures, 42, 45, 212.

International conference on metric stand-
ards, 42.

International Congress of Americanists, 84.

International Congress of Arts and Sciences,
88.

International Congress of Hygiene and
Demography, 57.

International Congress on Electrical Units,

54, 55-

American delegates to, 54.
International cooperation in research, Com-
mittee on, 94, 98.
International Geological Congress, 92, 99.

resolution of Academy relative to, 54.
International Meteorological Committee, 88,

89.
International paleontological correlation,

95-
International Seismological Association, 87,

90.

International Statistical Congress, 206.
International Union for Cooperation in

Solar Research, 88, 90, 94, 100.

394

INDEX

International Zoological Congress, 78, 93,

99-
Inventions, exhibition of before Academy,

45-_
Iron ships, committee on magnetic deviation

in, 215.
Iron vessels, committee on protecting the

bottoms of, 213.
Isherwood, B. F., 226.

J. C. Watson Fund, 64, 75, 76, 97, 372.

J. Lawrence Smith Fund, 58, 76, 271.

Jablokoff electric candle, 45.

James, Edmund J., 84.

Jeannette, S. S., 311.

Jefferson, Thomas, 7.

John L. LeConte Fund, 370.

John Murray Fund, 371.

Johnson, Samuel W., 255, 286.

Johnson, W. R., 41.

Jones, Captain, 249.

Joseph Henry Fund, 48, 370.

Kastle, I. H., 310.

Keeler, J. E., awarded Henry Draper

Medal, 81.
King, Clarence, 278.

Langley, S. P., 56, 59, 60, 61, 63, 290, 296,
304, 3*2.

awarded Henry Draper Medal, 55.
Lankester, Sir E. Ray, 92.
Lartigue, M., 223.
Lawrence Smith Fund. (See J. Lawrence

Smith Fund.)
Lawrence Smith Medal, 59.

awarded to H. A. Newton, 66.

restrictions on award of, 67.
Le Conte Fund. (See John L. Le Conte

Fund.)
Le Conte, John L., 62, 225.

biographical sketch of, 156.
Leidy, Joseph, 21, 76.

biographical sketch of, 158.
Lesley, [J]* Peter, 9, 10, 17, 21, 22, 23, 30,
_76, 77, 223.

biographical sketch of, 160.

early promoter of Academy movement, 9.

remarks of, on oath of allegiance, 17.
Lesley, Mrs., 10.
Lewis, G. N., 91.

Lincoln, President, 5, 16.

Lincoln, Robert T., letter of regarding Mt.
Whitney, 60.

Linnasus, Carolus, 93.

List of members at first meeting, 20.

Lister, Lord, letter of, relating to associa-
tion of academies, 80.

Lodge, Senator Henry C., 329.

Loeb bequest. (See Morris Loeb bequest.)

Loeb, Morris, 102.

Longitude, determination of telegraphically,
resolution relating to, 52.

Longstreth, M. F., 76, 162.
biographical sketch of, 162.

Loomis, Elias, 290.

Loring, G. B., 286, 287.

Louisiana Purchase Exposition, 88.

Lovering, Joseph, 207.

Lowry, Robert, 295, 299.

Lull, E. P., 252.

Lyman, Benjamin S., 9, 10.

Lyman, Theodore, 295, 296, 304.

McCrary, G. W., 275.
McCulloch, Hugh, 208, 240.
McKinley, President, 320.
Magnetic north pole, committee on a system-
atic search for, 311.
Mahan, D. H., 163.

biographical sketch of, 163.
Mall, F. P., 95.
Manning, Daniel, 307.
Marcou, Jules, 9.

Marsh Fund. (See O. C. Marsh Fund.)
Marsh, O. C., 47, 48, 49, 53, 57, 66, 77, 97,
291, 296, 302, 303, 310, 312.

acting President of the Academy, 48.

death of, 82.

elected President of the Academy, 49.
Maury, M. F., 219, 220, 221, 223, 224.
Maximilian, Emperor, 221.
Mayer, A. M., 99, 312.

remarks of, on Alexander Agassiz, 99.
Medalists, list of, 346.
Meek, F. B., 41.
Meetings, list of, 385.
Meigs, M. C., 41, 42, 207, 232, 237, 238,

240, 242, 245, 296.
Members of the Academy, honorary, 36.

list of, 337.

original, death of, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 34,
36, 38, 42, 45, 47.

•The letter J was added by Lesley to his name when he came of age, to distinguish his
signature from that of his father.

INDEX

395

Membership of the Academy, classification
of, in 1864, 68.

in 1892, 69.

in 1894, 70.

in 1911, 70.

question of increase of, 34, 37, 39.

restriction on increase of removed, 73.
Memoirs of the Academy, 27, 32, 62, 65,
74, 85, 89, 101.

publication of first volume of, 32.

publication of second and third volumes
of, 62.

publication of fourth volume of, 74.

publication of fifth volume of, 74.

publication of sixth volume of, 74.

publication of seventh volume of, 381.

publication of eighth volume of, 85.

publication of ninth volume of, 89.

publication of tenth volume of, 101.
Mendenhall, T. C., 207, 311, 312, 314.
Merriam, C. Hart, 326, 327.
Merrick, J. V., 226.
Meteorological Committee, International, 88,

89.
Meteorological science and its applications,

committee on, 290.
Meteors, Newton's study of, 66.
Methyl, or wood spirits, committee on
separation of, from ethyl alcohol, 291,
292.
Metric standards, for the States, 211.

international conference on, 42.
Metric system, resolutions relating to, 34, 35.

endorsed by Academy, 32.
Metric weights and measures, bills relating
to, 210.

committee on, 206.

letter of Henry on, 209.

remarks of Bache on, 207.

report of committee on, 208, 209.

use of in post-offices, 211.
Miantonomah, U. S. S., 37.
Michelson, Albert A., 49, 50, 207, 314.
Michigan Agricultural College, soth anni-
versary of, 93.
Milne-Edwards, Henri, 28.
Mitchell, H. M., 251.
Mitchell, S. Weir, 57.
Molina, Don Luis, 249, 251.
Monadnock, U. S. S., 217.

magnetic observations on, 36.
Moore, E. H., 85, 95.
Moore, Gideon E., 286.
Moreau, G., 228.
Morgan, John T., 296, 299, 301.
Morley, E. W., 207.

Morris, Francis, 249.
Morris Loeb bequest, 370.
Morse, Edward S., n, 84.

remarks of, on founders of Academy, n.
Morton, Henry, 262, 263, 307.
Mt. Whitney, committee on, 60.

description of, 59.

Langley's observations on, 59.

reservation on, 60.

shelter for observers on, 61.
Murray Fund. (See John Murray Fund.)
Murray, Sir John, 101, 221.

National Academy of Sciences, act of in-
corporation of, 6, 351.

annals of, 25.

Annual of, 17, 28, 29, 32, 35, 44.

bill of incorporation of, 5, 6.

biographical memoir, first, 28, 44.

Biographical Memoirs of, 375.

classification of members of, 25, 30.

classes of, 39.

committee on diploma of, 23.

committee on experiments on velocity of
light, 49.

committee on organization of, 21.

committee on seal, 23.

constitution of, 352.

constitution of, amendment to, 58.

constitution and by-laws, adoption of, 28.

constitution of, committee on revision of,
St.

Davis' letters relating to, 3, 4.

discussion regarding in 1862, 10.

first meeting of, 20, 22, 25.

first scientific session of, 26, 27.

foreign associates, first list of, 28.

foreign associates of, list of, 337.

founding of the, i.

governmental relations of, 17.

honorary members of, 36.

incorporators of, list of, 104.

medalists of, list of, 346.

meetings of, date of changed, 39.

membership of, question of increase in,

34, 37, 39-

members of, list of, 337.
Memoirs of, 27, 32, 62, 65, 85, 89, 101.
metric system endorsed by, 32.
oath administered to members of, 16, 22.
objects of, 13, 15.
officers of, list of, 335.
organization of, for 1863, 23
original members of, death of, 28, 29, 30,

31, 32, 34, 36, 38, 42, 45, 47, 61, 75,

78, 93-

396

INDEX

National Academy of Sciences — Continued.
plan of incorporating, 4.
principal promoters of, 9.
Proceedings of, 28, 37, 44, 51, 66, 67.
Proceedings of, publication of first volume

of, 44.

second session of in 1864, 28.
sections of, 39.
National Board of Health, committee to

cooperate with, 50.

National cemeteries, iron headstones in, 232.
National cooperation in chemical research,

plan for, 90.

National currency, committee on, 204, 331.
National forest reserve in Southern Appa-
lachians, committee on establishment of

a, 323-

National Institute, annual scientific conven-
tion of, 12.
Naval Observatory, 305.

committee on the erection of a, 303.
Newberry, J. S., 23, 76, 272.
biographical sketch of, 164.
Newcomb, Simon, 41, 49, 50, 63, 81, 85, 92,
207, 256, 257, 258, 260, 261, 267, 268,
272, 290, 296, 302, 305, 306.
Newton, H. A., 59, 63, 76, 85, 166, 207, 290.
awarded Lawrence Smith Medal, 66.
biographical sketch of, 166.
Nicaragua, 251.

Nicaragua, Compania de Transito de, 248.
Nicaraguan Transit Company, 249.
Nichols, E. L., 330.
Northampton, Mass., meeting of Academy

in, 30, 32.

Northwestern University, 84.
Noyes, A. A., 95, 330.

O. C. Marsh Fund, 97, 371.
Officers, list of, 335.
Onondaga, U. S. S., 231.
Opium, committees on the morphine con-
tent of, 309.

Ordway, John M., 263.
Organization of the Academy for 1863, 23.
Osborn, Henry F., 93, 95, 102.

Paleontological correlation, international, 95.

Passaic, the monitor, 217.

Patterson, C. P., 276.

Peirce, Benjamin, 4, 9, 10, 21, 23, 27, 168,

215, 223, 256.
biographical sketch of, 168.

Peirce, C. S., 63, 207.

Pendleton, Geo. H., 295, 296.

Permanent Commission, letter of appoint-
ment, i.

Peters, C. H. F., 56, 267.

Philippine Islands, committee on scientific

explorations of the, 325.
Phonograph, exhibition of, 46.
Physical tables, plan to publish annually, 99.
Pickering, Edward C., 67, 296, 304.

Henry Draper Medal awarded to, 67.
Pinchot, Gifford, 316, 320, 323, 327.
Plana, G. A. A., 28.
Poinsett, J. R., 7.
Polaris, voyage of the, 40.

scientific instructions for expedition of,

40.
Polariscope to determine the value of sugars,

committee on, 264.
Pollock, James, 229, 230.
Powell, J. W., 60, 269, 273, 277.
Preston, E. D., 64.
Princeton University, 102.
Proceedings of the Academy, 28, 37, 44, 51,

66, 67.

publication of first volume of, 44.
Procyon, proper motion of, 71.
Prussian Academy of Sciences, 80, 81.
Publication, committee on, 27.
Publications of the Academy, list of, 374.
Putnam, F. W., 326.

Ramsay, Senator Alexander, 235.
Raum, Green B., 291.

letter of, concerning methyl alcohol, 291.
Rayleigh, Lord, 72, 75.

awarded Barnard Medal, 72, 75.
Remsen, Ira, 81, 84, 282, 283, 291, 293, 310,
33°.

elected President of the Academy, 84.
Reports of committees on behalf of the

Government, list of, 348.
Road, O. N., 290.
Roanoke, the iron-clad, 217.
Robeson, George M., 40, 256, 259.
Rockwell, C. H., 63, 64.
Rodgers, John, 21, 36, 62, 171, 206.

biographical sketch of, 171.
Rodgers, U. S. S., 311.
Rogers, Fairman, 23, 33, 37, 52, 76, 85, 173,
206, 215, 217, 226, 231.

biographical sketch of, 173.

resigns as treasurer of Academy, 52.
Rogers, Joseph A., 260.
Rogers, Robert E., 21, 76, 174, 225, 280.

biographical sketch of, 174.
Rogers, William B., 21, 61, 176, 272, 280,
286, 293.

biographical sketch of, 176.

elected President of the Academy, 48.

letter of, on meeting for organization, 21.

INDEX

397

Rollins, E. A., 243.

Rontgen, W. C., awarded Barnard Medal,

82.
Roosevelt, President, 326, 327, 329.

letter of, regarding Philippine Islands,

325, 326, 327.
Rowland, H. A., 54, 314.

awarded Henry Draper Medal, 70.
Royal Prussian Academy of Sciences, 80, 81.
Royal Society of Canada, 56, 57.
Royal Society, 15, 64, 87, 102.

letter from, 80, 81.
Rucker, D. H., 237.

letter of, regarding headstones, 233.
Ruggles, Samuel B., 206, 209.
Rules of the National Academy, 357.
Rutherford, Ernest, awarded Barnard

Medal, 98.

Rutherfurd, L. M., 23, 27, 76, 178, 206, 232,
245, 257.

biographical sketch of, 178.

Saccharimeters for sugar determinations,

committee on quartz plates used in,

308.

Sands, B. F., 256, 257, 258.
San Juan, Nicaragua, improvement of

harbor of, 31.

Sargent, Chas. S., 316, 320, 325.
Saxton, Joseph, 42, 180, 207, 218, 219, 226,

228, 233.

biographical sketch of, 180.
Saxton's alcoholometer, committee on, 218.
Schonfeld, Edward, award of Watson

Medal to, 68.

Schott, Charles A., 217, 267, 290, 311, 312.
Schriver, Ed., 238.
Schurz, Carl, 280.
Schwatka, Lieut., 312.
Scientific papers, publication of by Academy,

5i-

Scientific work under the government, com-
mittee on methods and expenses of, 330.

Scudder, S. H., 302.

Seismological Association, International, 90.

Seismological laboratory, plan to establish

a, 99-

Seismometry, committee on, 87.
Sellers, Wm., 207, 262, 263.
Seward, William H., letter of, regarding

Nicaragua, 250.
letter from, to Bache, 16.
Shannon, H. M. S., 249.
Sherman, Senator John, 58.
Ship-canal company, Atlantic and Pacific,

248.

Signal Service of the army, committee on,

295.
Silk culture in the United States, committee

on, 331.
Silliman, Benjamin, Jr., 21, 76, 185, 206,

213, 225, 285, 286.
biographical sketch of, 185.
Silliman, Benjamin, Sr., 23, 29, 34, 183,

213.

biographical sketch of, 183.
Singleton, Representative, 58.
Sirius, proper motion of, 71.
Smith, Edgar F., 85.
Smith Fund. (See J. Lawrence Smith

Fund.)
Smith, Hoke, 315.

letter of regarding a rational forest

policy, 315.
Smith, J. Lawrence, 57, 59, 280, 286.

death of, 57.
Smith, Mrs. J. Lawrence, 58, 59.

fund established by, 58.
Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge,

37-

Smithsonian Institution, i, 4, 5, 32, 43, 99.
Solar eclipse of August, 1886, committee on,

3°3. 304-
Solar research, International Union for,

88, 90, 93» 94) ioo.

Solar Union, report on the work of the, 89.
Sorghum sugar, committee on, 284.
Spicer-Simpson, Theodore, 101.
Stanton, E. M., letter of, regarding head-
stones, 237.

Statistical Congress, International, 206.
Steam, expansion of, committee on experi-
ments on the, 226.
Stewart, Wm. M., 41.
Stiles, C. W., 79.
StillwelPs method of analysis, 311.
Strong, Theodore, 27, 36.

biographical sketch of, t86.
Sugars, committee on artificial coloring of,

204, 264.
Sugar determinations, saccharimeters for

use in, 308.

Sumner, Senator Charles, 211.
Sun, total eclipse of, committee on, in 1868,

36.

committee on, in 1883, 62.
act of Congress relating to, 64.
committee on, 63.
resolution relating to, 63.
Surgeon-General's Office, library of, resolu-
tions on catalogue of, 77.

398

INDEX

Surveying the Territories, committee on a

plan for, 268.
Surveys under the Government, views of

the Academy regarding, 48.
Swain, Joseph, 85.
Swarthmore College, 85.
Swiss Society of Natural Sciences, 98.

Tagliabue, Wm. G., 241, 242.

Tariff classification of wools, committee on,

306.

Telephone, carbon, exhibition of, 46.
Territories of United States, committee on

a plan for surveying the, 268.
Thayer, Nathaniel, 32.
Thompson, R. W., 49.
Tice, I. P., 244, 245, 246.
Ticonderoga, U. S. S., 217.
Tilghman, R. A., 226.
Tittmann, O. H., 327.
Torrey, John, 23, 42, 188, 206, 225, 227,

240, 255.

biographical sketch of, 188.
Totten, J. G., 29, 190, 218.

biographical sketch of, 190.
Totten, John, 34.
Towne, J. H., 226.

Transit of Venus, committee on, 256.
Trelease, William, 92.
Triangulation connecting the Atlantic and

Pacific coasts, committee on, 331.
Tribune, the New York, 21.
Trowbridge, John, 54, 314.
Trowbridge, W. P., 207, 215, 272, 296, 312.
Trust funds, act authorizing Academy to

receive and hold, 58.
amounts of, 76.
Trusts, question of Academy administering,

58.

text of bequests and, 361.
Tyndale, Hector, 65.
Tyndall, John, 65, 66.
Tyndall trust fund, 65.

Union for Cooperation in Solar Research,

93-

University of Aberdeen, quaternary cele-
bration of, 92.

University of Berlin, looth anniversary of,
99.

University of Bologna, 8ooth anniversary
of, 57.

University of City of New York, 18.

University of Dublin, 57.

University of Glasgow, 84.

Upton, Winslow, 64.

" Uranometria Argentina " of B. A. Gould,

resolution relating to, 51.
Vanderbilt, Cornelius, 248.
Van Hise, C. R., 85, 92, 330.
Velocity of light, committee on experiments

on, 49.

Vignaud, Henry, 55.
Vincennes, U. S. S., 219, 220.
Vivisection bill, 78.
Vogel, H. K., awarded Henry Draper

Medal, 74.
Von Baer, Karl Ernst, 28.

Wade, Senator B. F., 235.

Walcott, Charles D., 327.

Walker, episode in Nicaragua, 248.

Walker, Francis A., 57, 296.

Walker, Professor, 306.

Washington, George, 7.

Water-meter, Worthington's, 244.

Watson Fund. (See J. C. Watson Fund.)

Watson, James C., 257, 267.

bequest of, 52.
Watson Medal, 53, 68, 71, 74, 75, 82.

awarded to Arthur Auwers, 71.

awarded to Edward Schonfeld, 68.

awarded to Seth C. Chandler, 75.

awarded to Sir David Gill, 82.

first award of, to B. A. Gould, 53.

recommendations of board of trustees on

award of, 75.
Webb, W. H., 249.
Webster, Arthur G., 207.
Weights, Measures, and Coinage, com-
mittee on, 27, 35, 36, 45, 206.
Weights and Measures, International Bu-
reau of, 42, 212.
Welles, Gideon, i, 226.

letter of, 2.

West, Preston C. F., 249, 250.
Wex, Gustav, 318.
Whiskey, committee on the question of tests

for the purity of, 225.
White Mountains, forests of, resolutions on,

93-
Whitney, J. D., 76, 85, 271, 276.

biographical sketch of, 193.
Whitney, W. C., letter from, regarding the

astronomical day, 303.
Wiesbaden, conference at, 81.

delegates to, 81.
Williams, Henry, 213, 214.
Wilson, E. B., 95.
Wilson, Senator Henry, 4, 5, 10, n, 17, 20,

26, 37, 38, 62, 235.

address of, at first meeting of Academy,
18.

INDEX

399

Wilson, James, 323.

Wind and Current Charts and Sailing

Directions, committee on, 219.
Winlock, Joseph, 21, 45, 195, 223.

biographical sketch of, 197.
Wolcott Gibbs Fund, 72, 76, 96, 102, 366.

establishment of, 72.
Woodward, A. S., 207, 326, 330.
Wools, committee on tariff classification of,

306.

World, the New York, 21.
Worthington's water-meter, 244.
Wright, Arthur W., 309.

Wright, H. G., 275.
Wyman, Jeffries, 45, 197.
biographical sketch of, 195.

Yale University, 84.

Yellowstone region, committee on the ex-
ploration of, by General Stanley, 205,

33i-

Youmans, E. L., 65.
Young, C. A., 63, 207, 267, 290, 296, 304.

Zoological Congress, International, 78, 93,
99-

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