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PRINCETON, N. J.

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THE

HISTORY OF SUMATRA,

CONTAINING AN ACCOUNT OF

THE GOVERNMENT, LAWS, CUSTOMS, AND MANNERS

THE NATIVE INHABITANTS,

WITH

A DESCRIPTION OF THE NATURAL PRODUCTIONS,

AND A RELATION OF THE

ANCIENT POLITICAL STATE OF THAT ISLAND.

K''

WILLIAM MARSDEN, F.R.S.

THE THIRD EDITION, WITH CORRECTIONS, ADDITIONS, AND PLATES.

LONDON:

PRINTED FOR THE AUTHOR,

BY j. m‘creery, black-horse-court,

AND SOLD BY

LONGMAN, HURST, REES, ORME, AND BROWN, PATERNOSTER-ROW.

1811.

:/i a : :.Oa

i ■ - - -

[ .1 !/. A

PREFACE.

The island of Sumatra, which, in point of situation and extent, holds
a conspicuous rank on the terraqueous globe, and is surpassed by few
in the bountiful indulgences of nature, has in all ages been unaccount-
ably neglected by writers ; insomuch, that it is at this day less known,
as to the interior parts more especially, that the remotest island of mo-
dern discovery ; although it has been constantly resorted to by Euro-
peans for some centuries, and the English have had a regular establish-
ment there for the last hundred years. It is true that the commercial
importance of Sumatra has much declined. It is no longer the Empo-
rium of Eastern riches, whither the traders of the West resorted with
their cargoes, to exchange them for the precious merchandise of the
Indian Archipelago : nor does it boast now the political consequence it
acquired, when the rapid progress of the Portuguese successes there first
received a check. That enterprising people, who caused so many king-
doms to shrink from the terrour of their arms, met with nothing but dis-
grace in their attempts against Achin, whose monarchs made them
tremble in their turn. Yet still the importance of this island, in the eye
of the natural historian, has continued undiminished, and has equally, at
all periods, laid claim to an attention, that does not appear, at any, to
have been paid to it.

The Portuguese being better warriors than philosophers, and more

A 2 eager

PREFACE.

eager to conquer nations than to explore their manners or antiquities,
it is not surprising that they should have been unable to furnish the
world with any particular and just description of a country which they
must have regarded with an evil eye. The Dutch were the next people
from whom we had a right to expect information. They had an early
intercourse with the island, and have at different times formed settle-
ments in almost every part of it ; yet they are almost silent with respect
to its history.* But to what cause are we to ascribe the remissness of
our own countrymen, whose opportunities have been equal to those of
their predecessors or cotemporaries ? It seems difficult to account for it ;
but the fact is, that, excepting a short sketch of the manners prevailing
in a particular district of the island, published in the Philosophical
Transactions of the year 1778, not one page of information respecting
the inhabitants of Sumatra has been communicated to the public by
any Englishman who has resided there.

To form a general and tolerably accurate account of this country and
its inhabitants, is a work attended with great and peculiar difficulties.
The necessary information is not to be procured from the people them-
selves, whose knowledge and inquiries are to the last degree confined,
scarcely extending beyond the bounds of the district where they first
drew breath; and but very rarely have the almost impervious woods of

Sumatra

* At the period when this remark was written, I was not aware that an account of the
Dutch settlements and commerce in Sumatra, by M. Adolph Eschels-kroon, had in the pre-
ceding year been published at Hamburgh, in the German language ; nor bad the transac-
tions of a literary society, established at Batavia, whose first volume appeared there in
1779, yet reached this country. The work, indeed, ofValentyn, containing a general his-
tory of the European possessions in the East Indies, should have exempted a nation to which
oriental learning is largely indebted, from what 1 now consider as an unmerited reflection.

PREFACE. r

Sumatra been penetrated, to any considerable distance from the sea
coast, by Europeans, whose observations have been then imperfect ;
trusted perhaps to memory only ; or if committed to paper, lost to the
world by their deaths. Other difficulties arise from the extraordinary
diversity of national distinctions, which, under a great variety of inde-
pendent governments, divide this island in many directions ; and yet
not from their number merely, nor from the dissimilarity in their lan-
guages or manners, does the embarrassment entirely proceed : the local
divisions are perplexed and uncertain; the extent of jurisdiction of the
various princes is inaccurately defined ; settlers from different countries,
and at different periods, have introduced an irregular, though powerful
influence, that supersedes in some places the authority of the established
governments, and imposes a real dominion on the natives, where a no-
minal 0110 is not assumed. This, in a course of years, is productive of
innovations that destroy the originality and genuineness of their customs
and manners, obliterate ancient distinctions, and render confused the
path of an investigator.

These objections, which seem to have hitherto proved unsurmount-
able with such as might have been inclined to attempt the history of
Sumatra, would also have deterred me from an undertaking apparently
so arduous, had I not reflected, that those circumstances in which con-
sisted the principal difficulty, were in fact the least interesting to the
public, and of the least utility in themselves. It is of but small import-
ance to determine with precision, whether a few villages on this or that
particular river belong to one petty chief or to another; whether such
a nation is divided into a greater or lesser number of tribes ; or which of
two neighbouring powers originally did homage to the other for its title.
History is only to be prized as it tends to improve our knowledge of
mankind, to which such investigations contribute in a very small degree.

I have

PREFACE.

I have therefore attempted rather to give a comprehensive, than a circum-
stantial description of the divisions of the country into its various go-
vernments ; aiming at a more particular detail, in what respects the
customs, opinions, arts, and industry of the original inhabitants, in
their most genuine state. The interests of the European powers who
have established themselves on the island ; the history of their settle-
ments, and of the revolutions of their commerce, I have not considered
as forming a part of my plan ; but these subjects, as connected with the
accounts of the native inhabitants, and the history of their governments,
are occasionally introduced.

I was principally encouraged to this undertaking by the promises of
assistance I received from some ingenious, and very highly esteemed
friends, who resided with me in Sumatra. It has also been urged to me
here in England, that as the subject is altogether new, it is a duty in-
cumbent on me, to lay the information I am in possession of, however
defective, before the public, who will not object to its being circum-
scribed, whilst its authenticity remains unimpeachable. This last qua-
lity is that which I can with the most confidence take upon me to vouch
for. The greatest portion of what I have described, has fallen within
the scope of my own immediate observation ; the remainder is either
matter of common notoriety to every person residing in the island, or
received upon the concurring authority of gentlemen, whose situation
in the East India Company’s service, long acquaintance with the na-
tives, extensive knowledge of their language, ideas, and manners, and
respectability of character, render them worthy of the most implicit
faith that can be given to human testimony.

I have been the more scrupulously exact in this particular, because
my view was not, ultimately, to write an entertaining book, to which

the

PREFACE.

vii

the marvellous might be thought not a little to contribute, but sincerely
and conscientiously to add the small portion in my power, to the ge-
neral knowledge of the age; to throw some glimmering light on the
path of the naturalist; and more especially to furnish those philosophers,
whose labours have been directed to the investigation of the history of
Man, with facts to serve as data in their reasonings, which are too
often rendered nugatory, and not seldom ridiculous, by assuming as
truths, the misconceptions, or wilful impositions of travellers. The
study of their own species is doubtless the most interesting and impor-
tant that can claim the attention of mankind ; and this science, like all
others, it is impossible to improve by abstract speculation, merely.
A regular series of authenticated facts is what alone can enable us to
rise towards a perfect knowledge in it. To have added one new and
firm step in this arduous ascent, is a merit of which I should be proud
to boast.

Of this third edition it is necessary to observe, that the former two
having made their appearance so early as the years 1783 and 1784, it
would long since have been prepared for the public eye, had not the
duties of an official situation occupied for many years the whole of my
attention. During that period, however, I received from my friends
abroad various useful, and, to me at least, interesting communications,
which have enabled me to correct some inaccuracies, to supply defi-
ciencies, and to augment the general mass of information on the subject
of an island still but imperfectly explored. To incorporate these new
materials requiring that many liberties should be taken with the original
contexture of the work, I became the less scrupulous of making further
•alterations, wherever I thought they could be introduced with advan-
tage

Vlll

PREFACE.

tage. The branch of natural history in particular I trust will be found
to have received much improvement, and I feel happy to have had it in
my power to illustrate several of the most interesting productions of the
vegetable and animal kingdoms by engravings executed from time to
time, as the drawings were procured, and which are intended to accom-
pany the volume in a separate atlas.

Sumatran Alphas et s

Re jail o’.

X X X J // XX &

ka ga. ju/a ta da na pa ka- ma

f d f* ft d //_ /yAW/yAy'AAAv ft d

cha ga. nza sa ra la va wa- ha mb a nig a, nda ?ya. a.

The terrniriatcnpr s a lends of these letters are varied bv the application of the following Signs;

// Duo de-atas changes /

Va to

Jean

/ Ka -tidang

to A fang

// -dogma .

• hah

\ Ka-rnitan

to /p keu

d Ka gurgling

kear

) Ka -tiling

to Aj Jed. 7ci

A Ka , -how an

L Ka -tubing

to kmelcou,

x Ka -midia

lea Jed Jce

0 Mad or bumih-an -

to A0 k;

which- last. lifce- the Jezma

the

Arabians ,

serves to cut off

or deaden

the

vocal' utterance/,

as the term eocprefscs . Of

those

Signs more

than one may be

applied to

the

same character.

at /i/V /in. ”/y lun. /V\n

nuh.

gung. "A

baton. vv/ pur.

mark;

f ■ the

Commencement

of the writing , which proceeds horizontally, from the left hand to the right, the series

of' lines descending , most usually, fro no the top of the /urge; hut not un freg u en tly
the- bottom line is the first written' , and the others in su-cce/sion towards' the- top.

This practice // common . to other tribes J appears to have given life to the idea ^ noticed
at p. 3d3 J that the Dattas lire aecustomed to write pefp end irularly "from the bottom to the
top of the line

Batta .

^T777^ 3C ^ — "O' "

a ha na ma ta da ba- per wa ya sa ga

The Signs which govern, the terrmn citing sounds

la ra nga ja
of these letters are.

vr — ^

nza is

— +

Z4s
O V.

ang , and g u- or ung ; as X te. X + to . 7° ti' . X tang, and ^ tu or tune/ The
final if ha fakes the sound of kr. With the e.reepfton of the first two letters, it does

not appear that any determinate order is observed in the arrangement of the Alphabet ,
which is found- to vary more or le/s in every specimen.

Laiiipomr.

■n ~7 sis vv id; c/ Lrr “T jy zz

lea get nga pa ba ma

Z sy =7 d2pT 777 /w [y yzd vz ste

<p? s1 o yw

' —

cha
lo th esc

.7 <*

/ etters

lua ya a ‘ la tu

the Signs are applied in the fallowing manner;
// *

~T7 (,r -7 7 /n , “77 /van . ~77 /air', "77 3 leei or lee, ~Z 77 /can or Icon .

"77 Jair. -77'/ krai, P mail . as «X P *P P tamp at .

THE

HISTORY OF SUMATRA.

Situation — Name — General Description of the Country, its Mountains >
Lakes, and Rivers — Air and Meteors — Monsoons, and Land and Sea-
Breezes — Minerals and Fossils — Volcanos — Earthquakes — Surfs and
Tides.

IF antiquity holds up to us some models, in different arts and sciences,
which have bctn fmmri inimitable} the moderns, on the other hand,
have carried their inventions and improvements, in a variety of instances,
to an extent and a degree of perfection, of which the former could
entertain no ideas. Among those discoveries in which we have stept so
far beyond our masters, there is none more striking, or more eminently
useful, than the means which the ingenuity of some, and the experience
of others, have taught mankind, of determining with certainty and pre-
cision the relative situation of the various countries of the earth. What
was formerly the subject of mere conjecture, or at best of vague and
arbitrary computation, is now the clear result of settled rule, founded
upon principles demonstratively just. It only remains for the liberality
of princes and states, and the persevering industry of navigators and
travellers, to effect the application of these means to their proper end,
by continuing to ascertain the unknown and uncertain positions of all the
parts of the world, which the barriers of nature will allow the skill and
industry of man to approach.

Sumatra,

SUMATRA.

situation of the Sumatra, the subject of the present work, is an extensive island in

island.

the East Indies, the most western of those which may be termed the
Malayan Archipelago, and constituting its boundary on that side. The
equator divides it obliquely, its general direction being north-west and
south-east, into almost equal parts ; the one extremity lying in five de-
Latitude. grees thirty-three minutes north, and the other, in five degrees fifty-six
minutes south latitude. In respect to relative position, its northern
point stretches into the bay of Bengal ; its south-west coast is exposed to
the great Indian ocean; towards the south it is separated by the straits
of Sunda from the island of Java ; on the east, by the commencement of
the Eastern and China seas, from Borneo and other islands; and on the
north-east, by the straits of Malacca, from the peninsula of Malaya, to
which, according to a tradition noticed by the Portuguese historians, it
is supposed to have been anciently united.

The only point of the island whose longitude has been settled by actual
observation, is Fort Marlborough, near Bencoolen, the principal English
settlement, standing in three degrees forty-six minutes of south latitude.
From eclipses of Jupiter’s satellites observed in June 1769, preparatory
to an observation of the transit of the planet Venus over the sun’s disc,
Mr. Robert Nairne calculated its longitude to he ioi° 42' 45 ; which
was afterwards corrected by the Astronomer Royal to 102 east of Green-
wich. The situation of Achin Head is pretty accurately fixed by compu-
tation at 95° 34' ; and longitudes of places in the straits of Sunda are
well ascertained by the short runs from Batavia, which city has the ad-
vantage of an observatory. By the general use of chronometers in latter
times, the means have been afforded of determining the positions of many
prominent points both on the eastern and western coasts, by which the
map of the island has been considerably improved : but particular sur-
veys, such as those of the bays and islets from Batang-kapas to Padang,
made with great ability by Captain (now Lt. Col.) John Macdonald; of the
coast from Priaman to the islands off Achin by Capt. George Robertson ;
and of Siak River by Mr. Francis Lynch, are much wanted ; and the in-
terior of the country is still very imperfectly known. From sketches of
the routes of Mr. Charles Campbell and of Lieut. Hastings Dare, I have
been enabled to delineate the principal features of the Sarampei, Sungei

Teiiang

Longitude.

Map.

SUMATRA.

Tenang and Korinchi countries, inland of Ipu, Moco-Moco , and Indra-
pura ; and advantage has been taken of all other information that could
be procured. For the general materials from which the map is constructed,

I am chiefly indebted to the kindness of my friend, the late Mr. Alex-
ander Dalrymple, whose indefatigable labours during a long life, have
contributed more than those of any other person to the improvement of
Indian Hydrography. It may be proper to observe, that the map of
Sumatra, to be found in the fifth volume of Valentyn’s great work, is
so extremely incorrect, even in regard to those parts immediately subject
to the Dutch government, as to be quite useless.

Notwithstanding the obvious situation of this island, in the direct track Unknown to
from the ports of India to the spice islands and to China, it seems to
have been unknown to the Greek and Roman geographers, whose in-
formation or conjectures carried them no farther than Selan-dib or Ceylon,
which has claims to be considered as their Taprobane although, during Taprobane.
the middle ages, that celebrated name was almost uniformly applied to
Sumatra. The single circumstance, indeed, of the latter being intersected
by the equator (as Taprobane was said to be) is sufficient to justify the
doubts of those who were disinclined to apply it to the former; and
whether in fact the obscure and contradictory descriptions given by
Strabo, Pomponius Mela, Pliny, and Ptolemy, belonged to any actual
place, however imperfectly known; or whether, observing that a number '
of rare and valuable commodities were brought from an island or islands
in the supposed extremity of the East, they might have been led to give
place in their charts to one of vast extent, which should stand as the
representative of the whole, is a question not to be hastily decided.

The idea of Sumatra being the country of Ophir, whither Solomon sent Ophir.
his fleets for cargoes of gold and ivory, rather than to the coast of Sofala ,
or other part of Africa, is too vague, and the subject wrapt in a veil of
too remote antiquity, to allow of satisfactory discussion; and I shall only
observe, that no inference can be drawn from the name of Ophir found in
maps, as belonging to a mountain in this island and to another in the
peninsula; these having been applied to them by European navigators,
and the word being unknown to the natives.

B 2

Until

SUMATRA.

Until the discovery of the passage to India by the Cape of Good
Hope, the identity of this island as described or alluded to by writers,
is often equivocal, or to be inferred only from corresponding circum-
stances.

Arie^antravel The ^rst ^ie two Arabian travellers of the ninth century, the ac-
count of whose voyages to India and China was translated by Renaudot
from a manuscript written about the year 1173, speaks of a large island
called Ramni, in the track between Sarandib and Sin (or China), that from
the similarity of productions has been generally supposed to mean Suma-
tra; and this probability is strengthened by a circumstance I believe not
hitherto noticed by commentators. It. is said to divide the sea of
HerkencL, or Indian ocean, from the sea of Shelahet (Salahet in F.drisi), and
Salat being the Malayan term both for a strait in general, and for the
well-known passage within the island of Smgapura in particular, this
may be fairly presumed to refer to the straits of Malacca.

Edrisi. Edrisi, improperly called the Nubian geographer, who dedicated his

work to Roger, king of Sicily, in the middle of the twelfth century, de-
scribes the same island, in the first climate, by the name of Al-Rami ; but
the particulars so nearly correspond with those given by the Arabian
traveller, as to shew that the one account was borrowed from the other.
He, very erroneously, however, makes the distance between Sarandib and
that island to be no more than three days’ sail, instead of fifteen. The
island of Sobonna, which he places in the same climate, is evidently
Borneo, and the two passages leading to it, are the straits of Malacca
and of Sunda. What is mentioned of Sumandar, in the second climate,
has no relation whatever to Sumatra, although from the name we are led
to expect it,

Marco Polo. Marco Polo, the celebrated Venetian traveller of the thirteenth
centurj', is the first European who speaks of this island, but under the
appellation of Java minor, which he gave to it by a sort of analogy,
having forgotten, or not having learned from the natives, its appropriate
name. His relation, though fora long time undervalued, and by many
considered as a romantic tale, and liable as it is to the charge of errors

and

SUMATRA.

and omissions, with some improbabilities, possesses, notwithstanding,
strong internal evidence of genuineness and good faith. Containing
few dates, the exact period of his visit to Sumatra cannot be ascer-
tained, but as he returned to Venice in 1295, and possibly five years
might have elapsed in his subsequent tedious voyages and journeys by
Ceylon, the Karnatick, Malabar, Guzerat, Persia, the shores of the
Caspian and Euxine, to Genoa (in a prison at which place he is said
to have dictated his narrative), we may venture to refer it to the
year 1290.

Taking his departure, with a considerable equipment, from a southern
port of China, which he (or his transcriber) named Zaitum, they pro-
ceeded to Ziamba (Tsiampa or Champa, adjoining to the southern part
of Cochin-china J which he had previously visited in 1280, being then in
the service of the emperor Knblai Khan. From thence, he says, to the
island of Java major is a course of fifteen hundred miles, but it is evi-
dent that he speaks of it only from the information of others, and not as
an eye-witness ; nor is it probable that the expedition should have devi-
ated so far from its proper route. He states truly that it is a mart for
spices, and much frequented by traders from the southern provinces of
China. He then mentions in succession the small uninhabited islands of
Sondur and Condur (perhaps Pido Condore ) ; the province of Boeach
otherwise Lochac (apparently Camboja, near to which Condore is situ-
ated) ; the island of Petan (either Patani or Pahang in the peninsula) the
passage to which, from Boeach, is across a gulf (that of Siam ) ; and the
kingdom called Malaiur in the Italian, and Maletur in the Latin version,
which we can scarcely doubt to be the Malayan kingdom of Singa-pura,
at the extremity of the peninsula, or Malacca, then beginning to flourish.
It is not, however, asserted that he touched at all these places, nor does
he seem to speak from personal knowledge, until his arrival at Java minor
(as he calls it) or Sumatra. This island, lying in a south-eastern direc-
tion from Petan (if he does not rather mean from Malaiur, the place last
mentioned) he expressly says he visited, and describes it as being in cir-
cumference two thousand miles (not very wide of the truth in a matter
so vague), extending to the southward so far as to render the polar star
invisible, and divided into eight kingdoms, two of which he did not see,

and

SUMATRA.

and the six others he enumerates as follows : Ferlech, which I apprehend to
be Parlak, at the eastern extremity of the northern coast, where they were
likely to have first made the land. Here he says the people in general
were idolaters; but the Saracen merchants who frequented the place
had converted to the faith of Mahomet the inhabitants of the towns,
whilst those of the mountains lived like beasts, and were in the practice
of eating human flesh. Basma or Basman : this nearly approaches in
sound to Pasaman on the western coast, but I should be more inclined to
refer it to Pase (by the Portuguese written Pa gem) on the northern. The
manners of the people here, as in the other kingdoms, are represented
as savage ; and such they might well appear to one who had long resided
in China. Wild elephants are mentioned, and the rhinoceros is well
described. Samara: this I suppose to be Samar-langa, likewise on the
northern coast, and noted for its bay. Here, he says, the expedition,
consisting of two thousand persons, was constrained to remain five
months, waiting the change of the monsoon; and being apprehensive of
injury from the barbarous natives, they secured themselves, by means of
a deep ditch, on the land side, with its extremities embracing the port,
and strengthened by bulwarks of timber. With provisions they were
supplied in abundance, particularly the finest fish. There is no wheat, and
the people live on rice. They are without vines, but extract an excel-
lent liquor from trees of the palm kind, by cutting off a branch, and
applying to it a vessel, which is filled in the course of a day and night.
A description is then given of the Indian or coco-nut. Dragoian, a
name bearing some, though not much resemblance to Indra-giri, on the
eastern coast; but I doubt his having proceeded so far to the southward
as that river. The customs of the natives are painted as still more atro-
cious in this district. When any of them are afflicted with disorders
pronounced by their magicians to be incurable, their relations cause
them to be suffocated, and then dress and eat their flesh; justifying the
practice by this argument, that if it were suffered to corrupt and breed
worms, these must presently perish, and by their deaths subject the soul
of the deceased to great torments. They also kill and devour such
strangers caught amongst them as cannot pay a ransom. Lambri might
be presumed a corruption of Iambi , but the circumstances related do not
justify the analogy. It is said to produce camphor, which is not found

SUMATRA.

to the southward of the equinoctial line; and also verzino, or red-wood,

(though I suspect benzuin to be the word intended), together with a plant
which he names bird, supposed to be the bakam of the Arabs, or sappan
wood of the eastern islands, the seeds of which he carried with him to
Venice. In the mountainous parts were men with tails a palm long ;
also the rhinoceros, and other wild animals. Lastly, Fanfur or Fansar,
which corresponds better to Campar than to the island of Panchur , which
some have supposed it. Here the finest camphor was produced, equal
in value to its weight in gold. The inhabitants live on rice, and draw
liquor from certain trees, in the manner before described. There are
likewise trees that yield a species of meal. They are of a large size,
have a thin bark, under which is a hard wood about three inches in thick-
ness, and within this the pith, from which, by means of steeping and
straining it, the meal (or sago) is procured, of which he had often eaten
with satisfaction. Each of these kingdoms is said to have had its pecu-
liar language. Departing from Lambri, and steering northward from
Java minor, one hundred and fifty miles, they reached a small island
named Necnram or Norcueran (probably Nancowry, one of the Nicobars ),
and afterwards an island named Angaman ( Andaman J, from whence
steering to the southward of west a thousand miles, they arrived at that
of Zeilan or Seilam, one of the most considerable in the world. — The
editions consulted are chiefly the Italian of Ramusio, 1583, Latin of
Muller, 1671, and French of Bergeron, 1?35, varying much from each
other in the orthography of proper names.

OD0RICUS, a friar, who commenced his travels in 1318, and died at Odoricus.
Padua in 1331, had visited many parts of the East. From the southern
part of the coast of Coromandel he proceeded by a navigation of twenty
days, to a country named Lamori (perhaps a corruption of the Arabian
Al-rami ), to the southward of which is another kingdom named Sumoltra,
and not far from thence a large island named Java. His account, which
was delivered orally to the person by whom it was written down, is ex-
tremely meagre and unsatisfactory.

MANDEVJLLE, who travelled in the fourteenth century, seems to Mandevilie.

have

S U M A T R A.

have adopted the account of Odoricus, when he says, “ Beside the ysle
of Lemery is another that is clept Sumobor ; and fast beside, a great ysle
clept Java.”

N. di Conti. NlCOLO DI CONTI, of Venice, returned from his oriental travels in
1449, and communicated to the secretary of Pope Eugenius IV. a much
more consistent and satisfactory account of what he had seen, than any
of his predecessors. After giving a description of the cinnamon and
other productions of Zeilam, he says he sailed to a great island named
Sumatra, called by the ancients Taprobana , where he was detained one
year. His account of the pepper-plant, of the durian fruit, and of the
extraordinary customs, now well ascertained, of the Batech or Batta
people, prove him to have been an intelligent observer.

Itinerarium

Portngallens,

A small work entitled Itinerarium Portugallensium, printed at Milan
in 1508, after speaking of the island of Sayla, says, that to the eastward
of this there is another called Samotra, which we name Taprobane, dis-
tant from the city of Calechut about three months’ voyage. The inform-
ation appears to have been obtained from an Indian of Cranganore, on
the coast of Malabar, who visited Lisbon in 1501.

L’thema° Bar‘ Ludovico Barthema (Vartoma) of Bologna, began his travels in
1503, and in 1505, after visiting Malacca, which he describes as being
the resort of a greater quantity of shipping than any other port in the
world, passed over to Pedir in Sumatra, which he concludes to be Ta-
probane. The productions of the island, he says, were chiefly exported
to Catai or China. From Sumatra he proceeded to Banda and the
Moluccas, from thence returned by Java and Malacca to the west of
India, and arrived at Lisbon in 1508.

Odoardus Bar.
bosa.

Odoardus Barbosa, of Lisbon, who concluded the journal of his
voyage in 1516, speaks with much precision of Sumatra. He enumerates
many places, both upon the coast, and inland, by the names they now
bear, among which he considers Pedir as the principal j distinguishes
between the Mahometan inhabitants of the coast and the Pagans of the

inland

SUMATRA.

inland country ; and mentions the extensive trade carried on by the for-
mer with Carnbaia in the west of India.

In the account given by Antonio Pigafetta, the companion of Ferdi- Antonio Pig»-
nando de Magaglianes, of the famous circumnavigatory voyage per-
formed by the Spaniards in the years 1519 — 22, it is stated, that from
their apprehension of falling in with Portuguese ships, they pursued
their westerly route from the island of Timor, by the Laut Kidol, or
southern ocean, leaving on their right hand the island of Zamatra
(written in another part of the journal, Somatra) or Taprobana of the
ancients. Mention is also made of a native of that island being on
board, who served them usefully as an interpreter in many of the
places they visited ; and we are here furnished with the earliest speci-
men of the Malayan language.

Previously, however, to this Spanish navigation of the Indian seas, by Port“j?t^*® ex‘
the way of South America, the expeditions of the Portuguese round the
Cape of Good Hope, had rendered the island well known, both in re-
gard to its local circumstances and the manners of its inhabitants. In

a letter from Emanuel king of Portugal to Pope Leo the tenth, dated inEmanuel ki“g

• rey 1 . of Portugal.

1513, lie speaks of the discovery of Zamatra by his subjects ; and the
writings of Joano de Barros, Castanheda, Osorius, and Maffasus, detail
the operations of Diogo Lopez Sequeira at Pedir and Base in 1509, and
those of the great Affonso d’Alboquerque at the same places, in 1511,
immediately before his attack upon Malacca. De Barros also enume-
rates the names of twenty of the principal places of the island with
considerable precision, and observes, that the peninsula or chersonesus
had the epithet of “ aurea ” given to it on account of the abundance of
gold carried thither from Monancabo and Barros, countries in the island
of C,amatra.

Having thus noticed what has been written by persons who actually
visited this part of India at an early period, or published from their
oral communication by cotemporaries, it will not be thought necessary
to multiply authorities by quoting the works of subsequent commenta-

C tors

SUMATRA.

Name of Su-
matra.

tors and geographers, who must have formed their judgments from the
same original materials.

With respect to the name of Sumatra, we perceive that it was un-
known both to the Arabian travellers and to Marco Polo, who indeed
was not likely to acquire it from the savage natives with whom he had
intercourse. The appellation of Java minor, which he gives to the
island, seems to have been quite arbitrary, and not grounded upon any
authority, European or Oriental, unless we can suppose that he had
determined it to be the v?-™? of Ptolemy ; but from the other parts

of his relation it does not appear that he was acquainted with the work
of that great geographer, nor could he have used it with any practical
advantage. At all events it could not have led him to the distinction of
a greater and a lesser Java ; and we may rather conclude, that having
visited (or heard of) the great island properly so called, and not being
able to learn the real name of another, which from its situation and size
might well be regarded as a sister island, he applied the same to both,
with the relative epithets of major and minor. That Ptolemy’s Jaba-dib
or dio was intended, however vaguely, for the island of Java , cannot be
doubted. It must have been known to the Arabian merchants, and he
was indefatigable in his inquiries; but at the same time that they com-
municated the name, they might be ill qualified to describe its geogra-
phical position.

In the rude narrative of Odoricus we perceire the first approach to
the modern name in the word Sumoltra. Those who immediately fol-
lowed him write it with a slight, and often inconsistent, variation in the
orthography, Sumotra, Samotra, Zamatra, and Sumatra. But none of
these travellers inform us from whom they learned it ; whether from the
natives or from persons who had been in the habits of frequenting it
from the continent of India; which latter I think the more probable.
Reland, an able oriental scholar, who directed his attention to the lan-
guages of the islands, says it obtains its appellation from a certain high
land called Samadra, which he supposes to signify in the language of
the country, a “large ant;” but in fact there is not any spot so named;
and although there is some resemblance between semut , the word for an

ant.

SUMATRA.

ant, and the name in question, the etymology is quite fanciful. Others
have imagined that they find an easy derivation in the word samatra, to
be met with in some Spanish or Portuguese dictionaries, as signifying a
sudden storm of wind and rain, and from whence our seamen may have
borrowed the expression ; but it is evident that the order of derivation is
here reversed, and that the phrase is taken from the name of the land in
the neighbourhood of which such squalls prevail. In a Persian work of
the year 1611, the name of Shamatrah occurs as one of those places
where the Portuguese had established themselves ; and in some very
modern Malayan correspondence I find the word Samantara employed
(along with another more usual, which will be hereafter mentioned) to
designate this island. These, it is true, are not entirely free from the
suspicion of having found their way to the Persians and Malays through
the medium of European intercourse; but to a person who is conversant
with the languages of the continent of India, it must be obvious that the
name, however written, bears a strong resemblance to words in the
Sanskrit language: nor should this appear extraordinary, when we con- Piobabiy <ie-

- „ . , • r'l-xT rived from the

sider (what is now fully admitted) that a large proportion ot the Ma-Sauskrit.
layan is derived from that source, and that the names of many places in
this and the neighbouring countries (such as Indra-pura and Indra-giri
in Sumatra, Singa-pura at the extremity of the peninsula, and Suka-
pura and the mountain of Maha-meru in Java) are indisputably of
Hindu origin. It is not my intention, however, to assign a precise ety-
mology; but in order to shew the general analogy to known Sanskrit
terms, it may be allowed to instance Samuder , the ancient name of the
capital of the Carnatik, afterwards called Bider ; Samudra-duta , which
occurs in the Hetopadesa, as signifying the ambassador of the sea ; the
compound formed of su, good, and matra, measure ; and more especially
the word samantara, which implying “ a boundary,” “ intermediate,”
or “ what lies between,” might be thought to apply to the peculiar
situation of an island “intermediate” between two oceans and two
straits.

When on a former occasion it was asserted (and with too much confi-
dence) that “ the name of Sumatra is unknown to the natives, who are Not entirely
ignorant of its being an island, and have no general name for it,” the "he natives!

C 2 expression

SUMATRA.

expression ought to have been confined to those natives with whom I
had an opportunity of conversing, in the southern part of the west-
coast, where much genuineness of manners prevails, with little of the
spirit of commercial enterprise or communication with other countries.
But even in situations more favourable for acquiring knowledge, I be-
lieve it will be found that the inhabitants of very large islands, and espe-
cially if surrounded by smaller ones, are accustomed to consider their
own as terra firma , and to look to no other geographical distinction than
that of the district or nation to which they belong. Accordingly we
find that the more general names have commonly been given by fo-
reigners, and as the Arabians chose to call this island Al-Rami or Lameri>
so the Hindus appear to have named it Sumatra or Samantara.

Since that period, however, having become much better acquainted
with Malayan literature, and perused the writings of various parts of
the peninsula and islands where the language is spoken and cultivated,
Malayan names I am enabled to say that Sumatra is well known amongst the eastern
people and the better-informed of the natives themselves, by the two
indaias. names of Indalas and Pulo Percha, (or in the southern dialect, Pritcho).

Of the meaning or analogies of the former, which seems to have been
applied to it chiefly by the neighbouring people of Java, I have not
any conjecture, and only observe its resemblance (doubtless accidental^
to the Arabian denomination of Spain or Andalusia. In one passage I
find the straits of Malacca termed the sea of Indalas , over which, we
Percha. are gravely told, a bridge was thrown by Alexander the Great. The
latter and more common name is from a Malayan word signifying
“ fragments” or “ tatters,” and the application is whimsically explained
by the condition of the sails of the vessel in which the island was cir-
cumnavigated for the first time; but it may with more plausibility be
supposed to allude to the broken or intersected land for which the
eastern coast is so remarkable. It will indeed be seen in the map, that
in the vicinity of what are called Rupat' s Straits, there is a particular
place of this description named P°. Percha, or the Broken Islands. As
to the appellation of P°. Bcr-api, or Volcano Island, which has also
occurred, it is too indefinite for a proper name, in a region of the globe

where

SUMATRA.

where the phenomenon is by no means rare or peculiar, and should
rather be considered as a descriptive epithet.

In respect to magnitude, it ranks amongst the largest islands in the Magnitude,
world; but its breadth throughout is determined with so little accuracy,
that any attempt to calculate its superficies must be liable to very con-
siderable error. Like Great Britain, it is broadest at the southern
extremity, narrowing gradually to the north; and to this island it is
perhaps in size more nearly allied than in shape.

A chain of mountains runs through its whole extent, the ranges being Mountains,
in many parts double and treble, but situated, in general, much nearer
to the western than the opposite coast; being, on the former, seldom so
much as twenty miles from the sea, whilst on the eastern side the extent
of level country, in the broader part of the island, through which
run the great rivers of Siak, Indra-giri, Jambi, and Palembang, cannot
be less than an hundred and fifty. The height of these mountains,
though very great, is not sufficient to occasion their being covered with
snow, during any part of the year, as those in South America, between
the tropics, are found to be. Mount Ophir, or gunong Pasaman, situated
immediately under the equinoctial line, is supposed to be the highest visi-
ble from the sea; its summit being elevated thirteen thousand eight hun-
dred and forty-two feet above that level ; which is no more than two-thirds
of the altitude the French astronomers have ascribed to the loftiest of the
Andes, but somewhat exceeds that of the Peak of Teneriffe.* Between

these

a The following is the result of observations made by Mr. Robert Nairne, of the height of
Mount Ophir.

Height of the peak above the level of the sea, in feet - - 13,842

English miles - -- -- -- - - 2,6216

Nautical miles ---------------- 2,26325

Inland, nearly - -- -- -- -- -- -- - 26 Naut. miles.

Distance from Massang Point ---- - 32 ditto.

Distance at sea before the peak is sunk under the horizon - 125 ditto.

Latitude of the peak - -- -- -- -- -- - 0°6 Minutes, north.

A volcano mountain, south of Ophir, is short of that in
, . . , > 1377 feet-

height by------*------- - >

Inland

SUMATRA.

Waterfalls.

these ridges of mountains, are extensive plains, considerably elevated
above the surface of the maritime lands, where the air is cool ; and from
this advantage they are esteemed the most eligible portion of the coun-
try, are consequently the best inhabited, and the most cleared from
woods, which elsewhere in general throughout Sumatra, cover both
hills and vallies with an eternal shade. Here too are found many large
and beautiful lakes that extend, at intervals, through the heart of the
country, and facilitate much the communication between the diffe-
rent parts ; but their dimensions, situation, or direction, are very little
known, though the natives make frequent mention of them in the ac-
counts of their journeys. Those principally spoken of are, one of great
extent, but unascertained situation, in the Batta country 5 one in the
Korinclii country, lately visited by Mr. C. Campbel; and another in the
Lampong country, extending towards Pasummah , navigated b_y boats
of a large class, with sails, and requires a day and night to effect the
passage across it ; which may be the case in the rainy season, as that
part of the island, through which the Tulang Bawang river flows, is
subject to extensive inundations, causing it to communicate with the
river of the Palembang. In a journey made many years since by a son
of the Sultan of the latter place, to visit the English resident at Croee,
he is said to have proceeded by the way of that lake. It is much to
be regretted, that the situation of so important a feature in the geogra-
phy of the island should be at this day the subject of uncertain con-
jecture.

Waterfalls and cascades are not uncommon, as may be supposed, in
a country of so uneven a surface as that of the western coast. A

remarkable

Inland, nearly 29 Naut. miles.

In order to form a comparison, I subjoin the height, as computed by mathematicians, of
other mountains in different parts of the world.

Chimborazo, the highest of the Andes, 3220 toises, or 20,633 English feet. Of this
about 2400 feet from the summit are covered with eternal snow.

Carazon, ascended by the French astronomers, - - - - 15,800 English feet.

Peak of Teneriffe. Feuille - 2270 toises, or ... - 13,265 feet.

Mount Blanc, Savoy. Sr. G. Shuckburgh 15,662

Mount iEtna. Ditto ------- 10,954

SUMATRA.

remarkable one descends from the north-side of Mount Pugong. The
island of Mansalar lying off, and affording shelter to the bay of Tappanuli,
presents to the view a fall of very striking appearance, the reservoir of
which the natives assert (in their fondness for the marvellous) to be a
huge shell of the species called Kima (chama gigas), found in great
quantities in that bay, as well as at New Guinea and other parts of
the east.* At the bottom of this fall ships occasionally take in their
water, without being under the necessity of landing their casks ; but
such attempts are liable to extreme hazard. A ship from England (the
Elgin) attracted by the appearance from sea of a small but beautiful
cascade descending perpendicularly from the steep cliff, that, like an
immense rampart, lines the sea-shora near Manna , sent a boat in
order to procure fresh water; but she was lost in the surf, and the
crew drowned.

No country in the world is better supplied with water than the western
coast of the island. Springs are found wherever they are sought for,
and the rivers are innumerable ; but they are in general too small and Rivers,
rapid for the purpose of navigation. The vicinity of the mountains to
that side of the island occasions this profusion of rivulets, and at the
same time the imperfections that attend them, by not allowing them
space to accumulate to any considerable size. On the eastern coast,
the distance of the range of hills not only affords a larger scope for the
course of the rivers before they disembogue, presents a greater surface
for the receptacle of rain and vapours, and enables them to unite a
greater number of subsidiary streams, but also renders the flux more
steady and uniform by the extent of level space, than where the torrent
rolls more immediately from the mountains. But it is not to be understood
that on the western side there are no large rivers. Katann , Indrapura ,

Tabuyong,

* The largest I have seen was brought from Tappanuli by Mr. James Moore, of Arno’s
Vale, in the north of Ireland. It is 3ft. Scinch, in its longest diameter, and 2ft. liinch. across.

One of the methods of taking them, in deep water, is by thrusting a long bamboo between
the valves as they lie open, when by the immediate closure which follows, they are made
fast. I he substance of the shell is perfectly white, several inches thick, is worked by the
natives into arm-rings, and in the hands of our artists is found to take a polish equal to the
finest statuary marble.

SUMATRA.

Tabuyong, and Sinkel, have a claim to that title, although inferior in
■size to Palembang , Jambi, Indrag iri, and Siak. The latter derive
also a material advantage from the shelter given to them by the penin-
sula of Malacca, and Borneo, Banca, and the other islands of the Archi-
pelago, which, breaking the force of the sea, prevent the surf from
forming those bars that choke the entrance of the south-western rivers,
and render them impracticable to boats of any considerable draught
of water. These labour too under this additional inconvenience, that
scarcely any, except the largest, run out to sea in a direct course.
The continual action of the surf, more powerful than the ordinary force
of the stream, throws up at their mouths a bank of sand, which, in
many instances, has the effect of diverting their course to a direction
parallel with the shore, between the cliffs and the beach, until the ac-
cumulated waters at length force their way wherever there is found the
weakest resistance. In the southerly Monsoon, when the surfs are
usually highest, and the streams, from the dryness of the weather, least
rapid, this parallel course is of the greatest extent ; and Moco-moco river
takes a course, at times, of two or three miles, in this manner, before
it mixes with the sea ; but as the rivers swell with the rain, they gradu-
ally remove obstructions and recover their natural channel.

The heat of the air is by no means so intense as might be expected,
in a country occupying the middle of the torrid zone. It is more tem-
perate than in many regions without the tropics, the thermometer, at the
most sultry hour, which is about two in the afternoon, generally fluc-
tuating between 82 and 85 degrees. I do not recollect to have ever
seen it higher than 86 in the shade, at Fort Marlborough ; although at
Natal, in lat. 34' N. it is not unfrequently at 87° and 88°. At sun-rise
it is usually as low as 70; the sensation of cold, however, is much
greater than this would seem to indicate, as it occasions shivering and a
chattering of the teeth ; doubtless from the greater relaxation of the body
and openness of the pores in that climate; for the same temperature in
England would be esteemed a considerable degree of warmth. These
observations on the state of the air apply only to the districts near the
sea-coast, where, from their comparatively low situation, and the greater
compression of the atmosphere, the sun’s rays operate more powerfully.

• Inland,

Sumatra.

i ■*“
1 /

Inland, as the country ascends, the degree of heat decreases rapidly*
insomuch, that beyond the first range of hills, the inhabitants find it
expedient to light fires in the morning, and continue them till the day
is advanced, for the purpose of warming themselves; a practice un-
known in the other parts of the island ; and in the journal of Lieut.

Dare’s expedition it appears, that during one night’s halt on the summit
of a mountain, in the rainy season, he lost several of his party from the
severity of the weather, whilst the thermometer was not lower than 40°.

To the cold also they attribute the backwardness in growth of the coco-
nut tree, which is sometimes twenty or thirty years in coming to per-
fection, and often fails to produce fruit. Situations are uniformly
colder in proportion to their height above the level of the sea, unless
where local circumstances, such as the neighbourhood of sandy plains,
contribute to produce a contrary effect; but in Sumatra the coolness
of the air is promoted by the quality of the soil, which is clayey, and
the constant and strong verdure that prevails, which, by absorbing the
sun’s rays, prevents the effect of their reflection. The circumstance
of the island being so narrow contributes also to its general temperate-
ness, as wind directly or recently from the sea is seldom possessed of
any violent degree of heat, usually acquired in passing over large tracts
of land in the tropical climates. Frost, snow, and hail, I believe to
be unknown to the inhabitants. The hill-people in the country of
Lampong speak, indeed, of a peculiar kind of rain that falls there,
which some have supposed to be what we call sleet ; but the fact is not
sufficiently established. The atmosphere is in common more cloudy
than in Europe, which is sensibly perceived, from the infrequency of
clear star-light nights. This may proceed from the greater rarefaction
of the air occasioning the clouds to descend lower and become more
opaque, or merely from the stronger heat exhaling from the land and
sea a thicker and more plentiful vapour. The fog, called Kabut by
the natives, which is observed to rise every morning among the distant
hills, is dense to a surprising degree; the extremities of it, even when
near at hand, being perfectly defined; and it seldom is observed to dis-
perse till about three hours after sun-rise.

That extraordinary phenomenon, the waterspout, so well known to Waterspout.

D and

SUMATRA.

Thunder and
lightning.

and described by navigators, frequently makes its appearance in these
parts, and occasionally on shore. I had seen many at sea; but the
largest and most distinct (from its proximity) that I had an opportunity
of observing, presented itself to me whilst on horseback. I was so near
to it, that I could perceive what appeared to be an inward gyration,
distinct from the volume surrounding it or body of the tube ; but am
aware that this might have been a deception of sight, and that it was
the exterior part which actually revolved — as quiescent bodies seem to
persons in quick motion, to recede in a contrary direction. Like other
waterspouts, it was sometimes perpendicular and sometimes curved,
like the pipe of a still-head ; its course tending in a direction from Ben-
coolen Bay across the peninsula on which the English settlement stands ;
but before it reached the sea on the other side, it diminished by degrees,
as if from want of the supplies that should be furnished by its proper
element, and collected itself into the cloud from which it depended,
without any consequent fall of water or destructive effect. The whole
operation we may presume to be of the nature of a whirlwind, and the
violent ebullition in that part of the sea to which the lower extremity of
the tube points, to be a corresponding effect to the agitation of the
leaves or sand on shore, which in some instances are raised to a vast
height; but in the formation of the waterspout the rotatory motion of
the wind acts not only upon the surface of the land or sea, but also
upon the overhanging cloud, and seems to draw it downwards.

Thunder and lightning are there so very frequent, as scarcely to at-
tract the attention of persons long resident in the country. During the
north-west monsoon, the explosions are extremely violent; the forked
lightning shoots in all directions, and the whole sky seems on fire ; whilst
the ground is agitated in a degree, little inferior to the motion of a slight
earthquake. In the south-east monsoon, the lightning is more constant,
but the coruscations are less fierce or bright, and the thunder is scarcely
audible. It would seem that the consequences of these awful meteors
are not so fatal there as in Europe; few instances occurring of lives
being lost, or buildings destroyed by the explosions, although electrical
conductors have never been employed. Perhaps the paucity of inha-
bitants, in proportion to the extent of country, and the unsubstantial

materials

SUMATRA.

materials of the houses, may contribute to this observation. I have seen
some trees, however, that have been shattered in Sumatra by the action
of lightning.4

The causes which produce a successive variety of seasons in the parts Monsoon*,
of the earth without the tropics, having no relation or respect to the
region of the torrid zone, a different order takes place there, and the
year is distinguished into two divisions, usually called the rainy and dry
monsoons or seasons, from the weather peculiar to each. In the several
parts of India these monsoons are governed by various particular laws,
in regard to the time of their commencement, period of duration, cir-
cumstances attending their change, and direction of the prevailing wind
according to the nature and situation of the lands and coasts where their
influence is felt. The farther peninsula of India, where the kingdom
of Siam lies, experiences at the same time the effects of opposite
seasons ; the wetern side, in the bay of Bengal, being exposed for half
the year to continual rains, whilst on the eastern side the finest weather
is enjoyed ; and so on the different coasts of Indostan, the monsoons
exert their influence alternately ; the one remaining serene and un-
disturbed, whilst the other is agitated by storms. Along the coast
of Coromandel, the change, or breaking up of the monsoon, as it
is called, is frequently attended with the most violent gales of
wind.

On the west coast of Sumatra, southward of the equinoctial, the
SE. monsoon, or dry season, begins about May, and slackens in Sep-
tember : the NW. monsoon begins about November, and the hard rains
cease about March. The monsoons for the most part commence and
leave off gradually there ; the months of April and May, October
and November, generally affording weather and winds variable and
uncertain.

The causes of these periodical winds have been investigated by several Cause of the

_ , , monsoons.

D 2 able

1 Since the above was written, accounts have been received that a magazine, at Fort
Marlborough, containing four hundred barrels of powder, was fired by lightning, and
blown up, on the 18th of March, 1782.

SUMATRA.

able naturalists, whose systems, however, do not entirely correspond
either in the principles laid down, or in their application to the effects
known to be produced in different parts of the globe. I shall summa-
rily mention what appear to me the most evident, or probable at least,
among the general laws, or inferences, which have been deduced from
the examination of this subject. If the sea were perfectly uninterrupted,
and free from the irregular influence of lands, a perpetual easterly wind
would prevail in all that space comprehended between the twenty-eighth
or thirtieth degrees of north and south latitude. This is primarily occa-
sioned by the diurnal revolution of the earth upon its axis from west to
east; but whether through the operation of the sun, proceeding westward,
upon the atmospheric fluid, or the rapidity of revolution of the solid
body, which leaves behind it that fluid with which it is surrounded, and
thereby causes it virtually to recede in a contrary direction; or whether
these principles co-operate, or unequally oppose each other, as has been
ingeniously contended, I shall not take upon me to decide. It is suffi-
cient to say, that such an effect appears to be the first general law of the
tropical winds. Whatever may be the degree of the sun’s influence upon
the atmosphere, in his transient diurnal course, it cannot be doubted
but that in regard to his station in the path of the ecliptic, his power is
considerable. Towards that region of the air which is rarefied by the
more immediate presence of the heat, the colder and denser parts will
naturally flow. Consequently from about, and a few degrees beyond,
the tropics, on eifher side, the air tends towards the equator; and
combining with the general eastern current before-mentioned, produces
(or would, if the surface were uniform) a NE. wind in the northern
division, and a SE. in the southern; varying in the extent of its course,
as the sun happens to be more or less remote at the time. These are
denominated the trade-winds, and are the subject of the second general
observation. It is evident that with respect to the middle space between
the tropics, those parts which at one season of the year lie to the north-
ward of the sun, are, during another, to the southward of him ; and of
course, that an alteration of the effects last described must take place, ac-
cording to the relative situation of the luminary; or, in other words, that
the principle which causes at one time a NE. wind to prevail at any
particular spot in those latitudes, must, when the circumstances are

changed,

SUMATRA.

changed, occasion a SE. wind. Such may be esteemed the outline of
the periodical winds, which undoubtedly depend upon the alternate
course of the sun, northwards and southwards ; and this I state as the
third general law. But although this may be conformable with ex-
perience in extensive oceans, yet in the vicinity of continents, and great
islands, deviations are remarked that almost seem to overturn the princi-
ple. Along the western coast of Africa, and in some parts of the Indian
seas, the periodical winds, or monsoons, as they are termed in the latter,
blow from the WNW. and SW. according to the situation, extent,
and nature of the nearest lands 5 the effect of which upon the in-
cumbent atmosphere, when heated by the sun, at those seasons in which
he is vertical, is prodigious, and possibly superior to that of any other
cause which contributes to the production or direction of wind. To
trace the operation of this irregular principle through the several winds
prevalent in India, and their periodical failures and changes, would
prove an intricate, but I conceive by no means an impossible task.5 It
is foreign, however, to my present purpose, and I shall only observe, that
the NE. monsoon is changed, on the western coast of Sumatra, to NW.
or WNW. by the influence of the land. During the SE. monsoon,
the wind is found to blow there, between that point and south.

Whilst the sun continues near the equator, the winds are variable, nor is
their direction fixed till he has advanced several degrees towards the
tropic : and this is the cause of the monsoons usually setting in, as I
have observed, about May and November, instead of the equinoctial
months.

Thus much is sufficient with regard to the periodical winds. I shall Land and sea
proceed to give an account of those distinguished by the appellation of
land and sea breezes, which require from me a minuter investigation,
both because, as being more local, they more especially belong to my
subject, and that their nature has hitherto been less particularly treated
of by naturalists.

It has been attempted, and with much ingenious reasoning, by Mr. Semeyns, in the
third vol. of the Haerlem Transactions, which have but lately fallen into my hands.

SUMATRA.

In this island, as well as all other countries between the tropics, of
any considerable extent, the wind uniformly blows from the sea to the
land, for a certain number of hours in the four and twenty, and then
changes, and blows for about as many from the land to the sea; except-
ing only when the monsoon rages with remarkable violence, and even
at such time the wind rarely fails to incline a few points, in compliance
with the efforts of the subordinate cause, which has not power, under
these circumstances, to produce an entire change. On the west coast
of Sumatra, the sea-breeze usually sets in, after an hour or two of
calm, about ten in the forenoon, and continues till near six in the
evening. About seven the land-breeze comes off, and prevails through
the night till towards eight in the morning, when it gradually dies
away.

Cause of the These depend upon the same general principle that causes and regu-

breezes. lates all other wind. Heat acting upon air, rarefies it, by which it
becomes specifically lighter, and mounts upward. The denser parts of
the atmosphere, which surround that so rarefied, rush into the vacuity
from their superior weight; endeavouring, as the laws of gravity re-
quire, to restore the equilibrium. Thus in the round buildings where
the manufactory of glass is carried on, the heat of the furnace in the
centre being intense, a violent current of air may be perceived to force
its way in, through doors or crevices, on opposite sides of the house.
As the general winds are caused by the direct influence of the sun’s
rays upon the atmosphere, that particular deviation of the current dis-
tinguished by the name of land and sea breezes, is caused by the influ-
ence of his reflected rays, returned from the earth or sea on which they
strike. The surface of the earth is more suddenly heated by the rays of
the sun, than that of the sea, from its greater density and state of rest;
consequently it reflects those rays sooner and with more power: but
owing also to its density, the heat is more superficial than that imbibed
by the sea, which becomes more intimately warmed, by its transparency,
and by its motion, continually presenting a fresh surface to the sun. I
shall now endeavour to apply these principles. By the time the rising
sun has ascended to the height of thirty or forty degrees above the
horizon, the earth has acquired, and reflected on the body of air situated

over

SUMATRA.

over it, a degree of heat sufficient to rarefy it and destroy its equili-
brium ; in consequence of which, the body of air above the sea, not
being equally, or scarcely at all rarefied, rushes towards the land 3 and
the same causes operating so long as the sun continues above the hori-
zon, a constant sea-breeze, or current of air from sea to land, prevails
during that time. From about an hour before sun-set, the surface of
the earth begins to lose the heat it has acquired from the more per-
pendicular rays. That influence of course ceases, and a calm suc-
ceeds. The warmth imparted to the sea, not so violent as that of the
land, but more deeply imbibed, and consequently more permanent,
now acts in turn, and by the rarefaction it causes, draw's towards its
region the land air, grown cooler, more dense, and heavier, which con-
tinues thus to flow back, till the earth, by a renovation of its heat in
the morning, once more obtains the ascendency. Such is the general
rule, conformable with experience, and founded, as it seems to me, in
the laws of motion, and the nature of things. The following observa-
tions will serve to corroborate what I have advanced, and to throw
additional light on the subject, for the information and guidance of any
future investigator.

The periodical winds which are supposed to blow during six months
from the NW. and as many from the SE. rarely observe this regula-
rity, except in the very heart of the monsoon ; inclining, almost at all
times, several points to seaward, and not unfrequently blowing from
the SW. or in a line perpendicular to the coast. This must be attri-
buted to the influence of that principle which causes the land and sea
winds proving on these occasions more powerful than the principle of the
periodical winds; which two seem here to act at right angles with each
other; and as the influence of either is prevalent, the winds draw towards
a course perpendicular to, or parallel with the line of the coast. Except-
ing when a squall, or other sudden alteration of weather, to which these
climates are particularly liable, produces an irregularity, the tendency
of the land-wind at night has almost ever a correspondence with the sea-
wind of the preceding or following day ; not blowing in a direction
immediately opposite to it (which would be the case, if the former
were, as some writers have supposed, merely the effect of the accumu-
lation

SUMATR A.

lation and redundance of the latter, without any positive cause), but
forming an equal and contiguous angle, of which the coast is the com-
mon side. Thus, if the coast he conceived to run N. and S., the same
influence, or combination of influences, which produces a sea-wind
at NW. produces a land-wind at NE. ; or adapting the case to Su-
matra, which lies NW. and SE., a sea-wind at S. is preceded or
followed by a land-wind at E. This remark must not be taken in
too strict a sense, but only as the result of general observation. If
the land-wind, in the course of the night, should draw round from E.
to N. it would be looked upon as an infallible prognostic of a W. or
NW. wind the next day. On this principle it is that the natives
foretel the direction of the wind by the noise of the surf at night,
which if heard from the northward, is esteemed the forerunner of a
northerly wind, and vice versa. The quarter from which the noise is
heard depends upon the course of the land-wind, which brings the
sound with it, and drowns it to leeward — the land-wind has a corres-
pondence with the next day’s sea-wind — and thus the divination is
accounted for.

The effect of the sea-wind is not perceived to the distance of more
than three or four leagues from the shore in common, and for the most
part it is fainter in proportion to the distance. When it first sets in, it
does not commence at the remoter extremity of its limits, but very
near the shore, and gradually extends itself farther to sea, as the day
advances ; probably taking the longer or shorter course as the day is
more or less hot. I have frequently observed the sails of ships, at the
distance of four, six, or eight miles, quite becalmed, whilst a fresh sea-
breeze was at the time blowing upon the shore. In an hour afterwards
they have felt its effect.1

Passing along the beach about six o’clock in the evening, when the
sea-breeze is making its final efforts, I have perceived it to blow with a

considerable

1 This observation, as well as many others I have made on the subject, I find corroborated
in the Treatise before quoted from the Haerlem Transactions, which I had not seen when
the present work was first published.

SUMATRA.

considerable degree of warmth, owing to the heat the sea had by that
time acquired, which would soon begin to divert the current of air to-
wards it, when it had first overcome the vis inerlia that preserves motion
in a body after the impelling power has ceased to operate. I have like-
wise been sensible of a degree of warmth on passing, within two hours
after sun-set, to leeward of a lake of fresh water ; which proves the as-
sertion of water imbibing a more permanent heat than earth. In the
day-time the breeze would be rendered cool in crossing the same lake.

Approaching an island situated at a distance from any other land, I
was struck with the appearance of the clouds about nine in the morning, \

which then formed a perfect circle round it, the middle being a clear
azure, and resembled what the painters call a glory. I his I account
for from the reflected rays of the sun rarefying the atmosphere imme-
diately over the island, and equally in all parts, which caused a conflux
of the neighbouring air, and with it the circumjacent clouds. These last,
tending uniformly to the centre, compressed each other at a certain dis-
tance from it, and, like the stones in anarch of masonry, prevented each
other’s nearer approach. That island, however, does not experience the
vicissitude of land and sea breezes, being too small, and too lofty, and
situated in a latitude where the trade or perpetual winds prevail in their
utmost force. In sandy countries the effect of the sun’s rays penetrating
deeply, a more permanent heat is produced, the consequence of which
should be, tbe longer continuance of the sea-breeze in the evening; and
agreeably to this supposition I have been informed, that on the coast of
Coromandel it seldom dies away before ten at night. I shall ordy add on
this subject, that the land-wind on Sumatra is cold, chilly, and damp;
an exposure to it is therefore dangerous to the health, and sleeping in it
almost certain death.

The soil of the Avestern side of Sumatra may be spoken of generally as Soil,
a stiff, reddish clay, covered with a stratum or layer of black mould, of
no considerable depth. From this there springs a strong and perpetual
Arerdure, of rank grass, brush wood, or timber trees, according as the
country has remained a longer or shorter time undisturbed by the conse-
quences of population, which being in most places extremely thin, it

E follows

SUMATRA.

follows that a great proportion of the island, and especially to the south-
ward, is an impervious forest.

Usurface?ss of Along the western coast of the island, the low country, or space of land
which extends from the sea-shore to the foot of the mountains, is inter-
sected and rendered uneven to a surprising degree by swamps, whose ir-
regular and winding course may in some places be traced in a continual
chain for many miles, till they discharge themselves either into the sea,
some neighbouring lake, or the fens that are so commonly found near the
banks of the larger rivers, and receive their overflowings in the rainy mon-
f soons. The spots of land which these swamps encompass become so

many islands and peninsulas, sometimes flat at top, and often mere
ridges ; having in some places a gentle declivity, and in others descending
almost perpendicularly to the depth of an hundred feet. In few parts of
the country of Bencoolen, or of the northern districts adjacent to it, could
a tolerably level space of four hundred yards square be marked out. I
have often, from an elevated situation, where a wider range was sub-
jected to the eye, surveyed with admiration the uncommon face which
nature assumes, and made inquiries and attended to conjectures on the
causes of these inequalities. Some chuse to attribute them to the succes-
sive concussions of earthquakes, through a course of centuries. But they
do not seem to be the effect of such a cause. There are no abrupt fis-
sures ; the hollows and swellings are for the most part smooth and regu-
larly slooping, so as to exhibit not unfrequently the appearance of an am-
phitheatre, and they are clothed with verdure from the summit to the
edge of the swamp. From this latter circumstance it is also evident that
they are not, as others suppose, occasioned by the falls of heavy rains
that deluge the country for one half of the year; which is likewise to be
inferred from many of them having no apparent outlet, and commencing
where no torrent could be conceived to operate. The most summary
way of accounting for this extraordinary unevenness of surface were to
conclude, that in the original construction of our globe, Sumatra was
thus formed by the same hand which spread out the sandy plains of
Arabia, and raised up the Alps and Andes beyond the region of the
clouds. But this is a mode of solution, which, if generally adopted,
would become an insuperable bar to all progress in natural knowledge,

SUMATRA.

by clamping curiosity and restraining research. Nature, we know from
sufficient experience, is not only turned from her original course by the
industry of man, but also sometimes checks and crosses her own career.

What has happened in some instances, it is not unfair to suppose may
happen in others ; nor is it presumption to trace the intermediate causes
of events, which are themselves derived from one first, universal, and
eternal principle. To me it would seem, that the springs of water with
which these parts of the island abound in an uncommon degree, operate Causes of this
directly, though obscurely, to the producing this irregularity of the sur- mequallt>'
face of the earth. They derive their number, and an extraordinary por-
tion of activity, from the loftiness of the ranges of mountains that occu-
py the interior country, and intercept and collect the floating vapours.
Precipitated into rain at such a height, the water acquires in its descent
through the fissures or pores of these mountains, a considerable force,
which exerts itself in every direction, lateral and perpendicular, to pro-
cure a vent. The existence of these copious springs is proved, in the
facility with which wells are every where sunk ; requiring no choice of
ground, but as it may respect the convenience of the proprietor; all si-
tuations, whether high or low, being prodigal of this valuable element.

Where the approaches of the sea have rendered the cliffs abrupt, innu-
merable rills, or rather a continued moisture is seen to ooze through,
and trickle down the steep. Where, on the contrary, the sea has retired
and thrown up banks of sand in its retreat, I have remarked the streams
of water, at a certain level, and commonly between the boundaries
of the tide, effecting their passage through the loose and feeble barrier
opposed to them. In short, every part of the low country is pregnant
with springs that labour for the birth; and these continual struggles, this
violent activity of subterraneous waters, must gradually undermine the
plains above. The earth is imperceptibly excavated, the surface settles
in, and hence the inequalities we speak of. The operation is slow, but
unremitting, and, I conceive, fully capable of the effect.

The earth of Sumatra is rich in minerals and other fossil productions. Mineral pro.
No country has been more famous in all ages for gold, and though the GoM.t0ns’
sources from whence it is drawn may be supposed in some measure ex-
hausted, by the avarice and industry of ages, yet at this day the quan-
tity

SUMATRA.

Copper. Iron.
Tin. Sulphur.

Saltpetre.

Coal.

Hot springs.
Earth oil.

Soft rock.

tity procured is very considerable, and doubtless might be much increas-
ed, were the simple labour of the gatherer assisted by a knowledge of the
arts of mineralogy. There are also mines of copper, iron, and tin. Sul-
phur is gathered in large quantities about the numerous volcanos. Salt-
petre the natives procure, by a process of their own, from the earth
which is found impregnated with it ; chiefly in extensive caves that have
been, from the beginning of time, the haunt of a certain species of birds,
of whose dung the soil is formed. Coal, mostly washed down by the
floods, is collected in several parts, particularly at Kattaun, Ayer-ram-
mi, and Bencoolen. It is light, and not esteemed very good; but I am
informed that this is the case with all coal found near the surface of the
earth, and as the veins are observed to run in an inclined direction, un-
til the pits have some depth, the fossil must be of an indifferent quality.
The little island of Pisang , near the foot of Mount Pugong , was suppos-
ed to be chiefly a bed of rock crystal, but upon examination of speci-
mens taken from thence, they proved to be calcareous spar. Mineral
and hot springs have been discovered in many districts. In taste the
waters mostly resemble those of Harrowgate, being nauseous to the pa-
late. The oleum terrae, or earth oil, used chiefly as a preservative against
the destructive ravages of the white ants, is collected at I pa and else-
where.* There is scarcely any species of hard rock to be met with in
the low parts of the island, near the sea-shore. Besides the ledges of
coral, which are covered by the tide, that which generally prevails is
the napal, as it is called by the inhabitants, forming the basis of the red
cliffs, and not unfrequently the beds of the rivers. Though this napal
has the appearance of rock, it possesses in fact so little solidity, that it is
difficult to pronounce whether it be a soft stone or only an indurated
clay. The surface of it becomes smooth and glossy by a slight attrition,
and to the touch resembles soap, which is its most striking characteris-
tic ; but it is not soluble in water, and makes no effervescence with acids.
Its colour is either grey, brown, or red, according to the nature of the
earth that prevails in its composition. The red napal has by much the
smallest proportion of sand, and seems to possess all the qualities of the

steatite

* The fountain of Naphtha or liquid balsam, found at Pedir, so much celebrated by the
Portuguese writers, is doubtless this oleum terra;, or meniak tanah, as it is called by the Malays.

S U M A T R A.

steatite or soap earth, found in Cornwall aud other countries. The spe-
cimens of stone which I brought from the hills in the neighbourhood of
Bencoolen, were pronounced, by some mineralogists to whom I shewed
them at the time, to be Granite; but upon more particular examination
they appear to be a species of d rap, consisting piincipally ot Feldtspar
and Hornblend, of a greyish colour, and nearly similar to the mountain
stone of North Wales.

Where the encroachments of the sea have undermined the land, the
cliffs are left abrupt and naked, in some places to a very considerable
height. In these many curious fossils are discovered, such as petrified Petrifaction,
wood, and sea-shells of various sorts. Hypotheses on this subject have
been so ably supported and so powerfully attacked, that I shall not pre-
sume to intrude myself in the lists. I shall only observe, that being so
near the sea, many would hesitate to allow such discoveries to be of any
weight in proving a violent alteration to have taken place in the surface
of the terraqueous globe ; whilst, on the other hand, it is unaccountable
how, in the common course of natural events, such extraneous matter
should come to be lodged in strata, at the height, perhaps, of fifty feet
above the level of the water, and as many below the surface of the
land. Here are likewise found various species of earths, which might Coloured

earths.

be applied to valuable purposes, as painters’ colours, and otherwise.

The most common are the yellow and red, probably ochres, and the
white, which answers the description of the milenum of the ancients.

There are a number of volcano mountains in this, as in almost all the Volcanos,
other islands of the eastern Archipelago. They are called in the Malay
language gunong-api, or, more correctly, gunong ber-api. Lava has been
seen to flow from a considerable one near Priamang ; but I have never
heard of its causing any other damage than the burning of woods. This,
however, may be owing to the thinness of population, which does not
render it necessary for the inhabitants to settle in a situation that exposes
them to danger of this kind. T he only volcano I had an opportunity
of observing, opened in the side of a mountain, about twenty miles
inland of Bencoolen, one-fourth way from its top, as nearly as I can
judge. It scarcely ever failed to emit smoke; but the column was only

visible

S U M A T R A.

visible for two or three hours in the morning, seldom rising and pre-
serving its form, above the upper edge of the hill, which is not of a
conical shape, but extending with a gradual slope. The high trees
with which the country thereabout is covered, prevent the crater from
being discernible at a distance ; and this proves, that the spot is not
considerably raised or otherwise affected by the eruptions. 1 could never
Earthquakes, perceive that it had any connection with the earthquakes, which are
very frequently felt there. Sometimes it has emitted smoke upon these
occasions, and in other instances, not. Yet, during a smart earthquake
which happened a few years before my arrival, it was remarked to send
forth flame, which it is rarely known to do.1 The apprehension of the
European inhabitants, however, is rather more excited, when it con-
tinues any length of time without a tendency to an eruption, as they
conceive it to be the vent by which the inflammable matter escapes,
that would otherwise produce these commotions of the earth. Com-
paratively with the descriptions I have read of earthquakes in South
America, Calabria, and other countries, those which happen in Sumatra,
are generally very slight ; and the usual manner of building, renders them
Remarkable but little formidable to the natives. The most severe that I have known,

effects of an

earthquake, was chiefly experienced in the district of Manna, in the year 1770. A
village was destroyed by the houses falling down and taking fire, and
several lives were lost.b The ground was in one place rent a quarter
of a mile, the width of two fathoms, and depth of four or five. A bitu-
minous matter is described to have swelled over the sides of the cavity,
and the earth, for a long time after the shocks, was observed to con-
tract and dilate alternately. Many parts of the hills far inland could
be distinguished to have given way, and a consequence of this was,
that during three weeks. Manna River was so much impregnated with
particles of clay, that the natives could not bathe in it. At this time

was

* Some gentlemen, who deny the fact of its having at any time emitted flame, conjecture,
that what exhibits the appearance of smoke, is more probably vapour, arising from a con-
siderable hot spring. The natives speak of it as a volcano.

h I am informed that in 1763, an entire village was swallowed up by an earthquake in Poolo
Nias , one of the islands which lie off the western coast of Sumatra. In July or August of
the same year, a severe one was felt in Bengal.

SUMATRA.

was formed near to the mouth of Padang Gachi, a neighbouring
river, south of the former, a large plain, seven miles long and half
a mile broad $ where there had been before only a narrow beach. The
quantity of earth brought down on this occasion was so considerable, that
the hill upon which the English resident’s house stands, appears, from
indubitable marks, less elevated by fifteen feet than it was before the event.
Earthquakes have been remarked by some to happen usually upon sud-
den changes of weather, and particularly after violent heats; but I do
not vouch this upon my own experience, which has been pretty ample.

They are preceded by a low rumbling noise like distant thunder. The
domestic cattle and fowls are sensible of the preternatural motion, and
seem much alarmed ; the latter making the cry they are wont to do on
the approach of birds of prey. Houses situated on a low sandy soil are
least affected, and those which stand on distinct hills, suffer most from
the shocks, because the further removed from the centre of motion,
the greater the agitation ; and the loose contexture of the one founda-
tion, making less resistance than the solidity of the other, subjects the
building to less violence. Ships at anchor in the road, though several
miles distant from the shore, are strongly sensible of the concussion.

Besides the new land formed by the convulsions above described, the New land

• J -» T formed.

sea by a gradual recess in some parts, produces the same effect. Many
instances of this kind, of no considerable extent, however, have been
observed within the memory of persons now living. But it would seem to
me, that that large tract of land, called Pulo Point, forming the bay of the
name, near to Silebar , with much of the adjacent country, has thus been
left by the withdrawing, or thrown up by the motion of the sea. Per-
haps the point may have been at first an island (from whence its ap-
pellation of Pido) and the parts more inland, gradually united to it.3
Various circumstances tend to corroborate such an opinion, and to evince
the probability that this was not an original portion of the main,
but new, half-formed land. All the swamps and marshy grounds that

lie

* Since I formed this conjecture, I have been told that such a tradition, of no very ancient
date, prevails amongst the inhabitants.

SUMATRA.

Encroachment
of the sea.

lie within the beach, and near the extremity there are little else,
are known, in consequence of repeated surveys, to be lower than the
level of high water ; the bank of sand alone preventing an inundation.
The country is not only quite free from hills or inequalities of any kind,
but has scarcely a visible slope. Silebar River, which empties itself into
Pulo Bay, is totally unlike those in other parts of the island. The mo-
tion of its stream is hardly perceptible; it is never affected by floods ; its
course is marked out, not by banks covered with ancient and venerable
woods, but by rows of mangroves and other aquatics, springing from the
ooze, and perfectly regular. Some miles from the mouth, it opens into
a beautiful and extensive lake, diversified with small islands, flat, and ver-
dant with rushes only. The point of Pulo is covered with the Arau tree
(casuarina) or bastard pine, as some have called it, which never grows but
in the sea-sand, and. rises fast. None such are found toward Sungei-lamo
and the rest of the shore northward of Marlborough Point, where, on
the contrary, you perceive the effects of continual depredations by the
ocean. The old forest trees are there yearly undermined, and falling,
obstruct the traveller ; whilst about Pulo, the Arau trees are continually
springing up, faster than they can be cut down or otherwise destroyed.
Nature will not readily be forced from her course. The last time I
visited that part, there was a beautiful rising grove of these trees, esta-
blishing a possession in their proper soil. The country, as well imme-
diately hereabout, as to a considerable distance inland, is an entire bed
of sand, without any mixture of clay or mould, which I know to have
been in vain sought for, many miles up the neighbouring rivers. To
the northward of Padang there is a plain, which has evidently been, in
former times, a bay. Traces of a shelving beach are there distinguish-
able at the distance of one hundred and fifty yards from the present
boundary of the sea.

But upon what hypothesis can it be accounted for, that the sea should
commit depredations on the northern coast, of which there are the most
evident tokens, as high up at least as Ipu, and probably to Indrapura,
where the shelter of the neighbouring islands may put a stop to them,
and that it should restore the land to the southward, in the manner I
have described ? I am aware that according to the general motion of

the

SUMATRA.

the tides from east to west, this coast ought to receive a continual acces-
sion, proportioned to the loss which others, exposed to the direction of
this motion, must and do sustain; and it is likely that it does gain upon
the whole. But the nature of my work obliges me to be more attentive
to effects than causes, and to record facts, though they should clash
with systems the most just in theory, and most respectable in point of
authority.

The chain of islands which lie parallel with the west coast of Sumatra, Wands near

the west

may probably have once formed a part of the main, and been separated coast. %

from it, either by some violent effort of nature, or the gradual attrition

of the sea. I should scarcely introduce the mention of this apparently

vague surmise, but that a circumstance presents itself on the coast,

which affords some stronger colour of proof than can be usually obtained

in such instances. In many places, and particularly about Pally, we

observe detached pieces of land standing singly, as islands, at the distance

of one or two hundred yards from the shore, which were head-lands of

points running out into the sea, within the remembrance of the inhabitants.

The tops continue covered with trees or shrubs; but the sides are bare,
abrupt, and perpendicular. The progress of insulation here is obvious
and incontrovertible, and why may not larger islands, at a greater dis-
tance, have been formed, in the revolution of ages, by the same acci-
dents ? The probability is heightened by the direction of the islands,

Nias, Batu, Mantawei, Pagi, Mego, &c. the similarity of rock, soil,
and productions, and the regularity of soundings between them and the
main, whilst without them the depth is unfathomable.

Where the shore is flat or shelving, the coast of Sumatra, as of all Coral rock3
other tropical islands, is defended from the attacks of the sea by a reef
or ledge of coral rock, on which the surfs exert their violence without
further effect than that of keeping its surface even, and reducing to
powder those beautiful excrescences and ramifications which have been
so much the object of the naturalist’s curiosity, and which some in-
genious men, who have analysed them, contend to be the work of insects,
d. he coral powder is in particular places accumulated on the shore in

R great

3 4

Surf.

SUMATRA.

great quantities, and appears, when not closely inspected, like a fine
white sand.

The surf (a word not to be found, I believe, in our dictionaries) is
used in India, and by navigators in general, to express a peculiar swell
and breaking of the sea upon the shore; the phenomena of which not
having been hitherto much adverted to by writers, I shall be the more
circumstantial in my description of them.

The surf forms sometimes but a single range along the shore. At
other times there is a succession of two, three, four, or more, behind
each other, extending perhaps half a mile out to sea. The number
of ranges is generally in proportion to the height and violence of the
surf.

The surf begins to assume its form at some distance from the place
where it breaks, gradually accumulating as it moves forward, till it
gains a height, in common, of fifteen to twenty feet,* when it over-
hangs at top, and falls, like a cascade, nearly perpendicular, involving
itself as it descends. The noise made by the fall is prodigious, and,
during the stillness of the night, may be heard many miles up the
country.

Though in the rising and formation of the surf, the water seems to have
a quick progressive motion towards the land, yet a light body on the
surface is not carried forward, but, on the contrary, if the tide is ebbing,
will recede from the shore ; from which it would follow, that the motion
is only propagated in the water, like sound in air, and not the mass of
water protruded. A similar species of motion is observed on shaking
at one end, a long cord held moderately slack, which is expressed by
the word undulation. I have sometimes remarked, however, that a body
which sinks deep, and takes hold of the water, appears to move towards
. shore

1 It may be presumed that in this estimation of its height I was considerably deceived.

SUMATRA.

shore with the course of the surf, as is perceptible in a boat landing,
which seems to shoot swiftly forward on the top of the swell ; though pro-
bably it is only after having reached the summit, and may owe its velocity
to its own weight in the descent.

Countries where the surfs prevail, require boats of a particular con-
struction, and the art of managing them demands the experience of a
man’s life. All European boats are more or less unfit, and seldom fail
to occasion the sacrifice of the people on board them, in the imprudent
attempts that are sometimes made to land with them on the open coast.

The natives of Coromandel are remarkably expert in the management of
their craft; but it is to be observed, that the intervals between the break-
ing of the surfs are usually on that coast much longer than on the coast
of Sumatra.

The force of the surf is extremely great. I have known it to overset
a country vessel in such a manner, that the top of the mast has stuck
in the sand, and the lower end made its appearance through her bottom.

Pieces of cloth have been taken up from a wreck, twisted and rent by
its involved motion. In some places the surfs are usually greater at high,
and in others at low, water; but I believe they are uniformly more
violent during the spring-tides.

I shall proceed to inquire into the efficient cause of the surfs. The Consideration*
winds have doubtless a strong relation to them. If the air was in all thePcausegof
places of equal density, and not liable to any motion, I suppose the water
would also remain perfectly at rest, and its surface even; abstracting
from the general course of the tides, and the partial irregularities occa-
sioned by the influx of rivers. The current of the air impels the wa-
ter, and causes a swell, which is the regular rising and subsiding of the
waves. This rise and fall is similar to the vibrations of a pendulum,
and subject to like laws. When a wave is at its height, it descends
by the force of gravity, and the momentum acquired in descending,
impels the neighbouring particles, which, in their turn, rise and impel
others, and thus form a succession of waves. This is the case in the
open sea ; but when the swell approaches the shore, and the depth of

F 2 water

SUMATRA.

water is not in proportion to the size of the swell, the subsiding wave,
instead of pressing on a body of water, which might rise in equal quan-
tity, presses on the ground, whose re-action causes it to rush on in that
manner, which we call a surf. Some think that the peculiar form of it
may be plainly accounted for from the shallowness and shelving of the
beach. When a swell draws near to such a beach, the lower parts of
the water meeting first with obstruction from the bottom, stand still,
whilst the higher parts respectively move onward, by which a rolling
and involved motion is produced, that is augmented by the return of the
preceding swell. I object, that this solution is founded on the supposition
of an actual progressive motion of the body of water in forming a surf;
and that certainly not being the fact, it seems deficient. The only real
progression of the water is occasioned by the perpendicular fall, after the
breaking of the surf, when, from its weight, it foams on to a greater or
less distance, in proportion to the height from which it fell, and the
slope of the shore.

That the surfs are not, like common waves, the immediate effect of
the wind, is evident from this, that the highest and most violent often
happen when there is the least wind, and vice versa. And sometimes the
surfs will continue with an equal degree of violence during a variety of
weather. On the west coast of Sumatra, the highest are experienced
during the SE. monsoon, which is never attended with such gales of
wind as the NW. The motion of the surf is not observed to follow
the course of the wind, but often the contrary; and when it blows hard
from the land, the spray of the sea may be seen to fly in a direction
opposite to the body of it, though the wind has been for many hours in
the same point.

Are the surfs the effect of gales of wind at sea, which do not happen
to extend to the shore, but cause a violent agitation throughout a con-
siderable tract of the waters, which motion communicating with less dis-
tant parts, and meeting at length with resistance from the shore, occa-
sions the sea to swell and break in the manner described ? To this I ob-
ject, that there seems no regular correspondence between their magni-
tude, and the apparent agitation of the water without them : that gales

SUMATRA.

of wind, except at particular periods, are very unfrequent in the Indian
seas, where the navigation is well known to be remarkably safe, whilst
the surfs are almost continual ; and that gales are not found to produce
this effect in other extensive oceans. The west coast of Ireland borders
a sea nearly as extensive, and much more wild than the coast of Sumatra,
and yet there, though when it blows hard the swell on the shore is high
and dangerous, is there nothing that resembles the surfs of India.

These, so general in the tropical latitudes, are, upon the most proba- probable cause
ble hypothesis I have been able to form, after long observation, and much
thought and inquiry, the consequence of the trade or perpetual winds
which prevail, at a distance from shore, between the parallels of thirty
degrees north and south, whose uniform and invariable action causes a
long and constant swell, that exists even in the calmest weather, about
the line, towards which its direction tends from either side. This swell
or libration of the sea, is so prodigiously long, and the sensible effect of
its height, of course, so much diminished, that it is not often attended
to ; the gradual slope engrossing almost the whole horizon, when the eye
is not very much elevated above its surface : but persons who have sailed
in those parts may recollect that even when the sea is apparently^the
most still and level, a boat or other object at a distance from the ship,
will be hidden from the sight of one looking towards it from the lower
deck, for the space of minutes together. This swell, when a squall hap-
pens, or the wind freshens up, will, for the time, have other subsidiary
waves on the extent of its surface, breaking often in a direction contrary
to it, and which will again subside as a calm returns, without having
produced on it any perceptible effect. Sumatra, though not continual-
ly exposed to the south-east trade-wind, is not so distant but that its in-
fluence may be presumed to extend to it, and accordingly at Pulo Pi-
sang , near the southern extremity of the island, a constant southerly sea
is observed, even after a hard north-west wind. This incessant and pow-
erful swell rolling in from an ocean, open even to the pole, seems
an agent adequate to the prodigious effects produced on the coast;
whilst its very size contributes to its being overlooked. It reconciles
almost all the difficulties which the phenomena seem to present, and in
particular it accounts for the decrease of the surf during the NW. mon-
soon,

5*8

SUMATRA.

Tides.

soon, the local wind then counteracting the operation of the general one j
and it is corroborated by an observation I have made, that the surfs on
the Sumatran coast ever begin to break at their southern extreme, the
motion of the swell not being perpendicular to the direction of the shore.
This manner of explaining their origin seems to carry much reason with
it ; but there occurs to me one objection which I cannot get over, and
which a regard to truth obliges me to state. The trade-winds are remark-
ably steady and uniform, and the swell generated by them is the same.
The surfs are much the reverse, seldom persevering for two days in the
same degree of violence ; often mountains high in the morning, and
nearly subsided by night. How comes an uniform cause to produce ef-
fects so unsteady, unless by the intervention of secondary causes, whose
nature and operation we are unacquainted with ?

It is clear to me that the surfs, as above described, are peculiar to
those climates which lie within the remoter limits of the trade-winds,
though in higher latitudes large swells and irregular breakings of the sea
are to be met with after boisterous Aveather. Possibly the following
causes may be judged to conspire, with that I have already specified,
towards occasioning this distinction. The former region being exposed
to the immediate influence of the two great luminaries, the water, from
their direct impulse, is liable to more violent agitation than nearer
the poles, where their power is felt only by indirect communication.
The equatorial parts of the earth performing their diurnal revolution,
with greater velocity than the rest, a larger circle being described in
the same time, the waters thereabout, from the stronger centrifugal
force, may be supposed to feel less restraint from the sluggish principle
of matter ; to have less gravity ; and therefore to be more obedient to
external impulses of every kind, whether from the winds or any other
cause.

The spring-tides on the west coast of Sumatra are estimated to rise in
general no more than four feet, owing to its open, unconfined situation,
which prevents any accumulation of the tide, as is the case in narrow
seas. It is always high water there when the moon is in the horizon,
and consequently at six o’clock nearly, on the days of conjunction and

opposition

SUMATRA.

opposition throughout the year, in parts not far remote from the
equator.1 This, according to Newton’s theory, is about three hours
later than the uninterrupted course of nature ; owing to the obvious
impediment the waters meet with in revolving from the eastward.

a Owing to this uniformity it becomes an easy matter for the natives to ascertain the height
of the tide at any hour that the moon is visible. Whilst she appears to ascend, the water
falls, and vice versa; the lowest of the ebb happening when she is in her meridian. The
Vulgar rule for calculating the tides is rendered also to Europeans more simple and practical
from the same cause. There only needs to add together the epact, number of the month,
and day of the month ; the sum of which, if under thirty, gives the moon’s age — the excess,
if over. Allow forty-eight minutes for each day, or which is the same, take four-fifths of
the age, and it will give you the number of hours after six o’clock, at which high water
happens. A readiness at this calculation is particularly useful in a country where the sea-
beach is the general road for travelling.

Distinction

SUMATRA.

Distinction of Inhabitants. — Rejangs chosen for General Description. —
Persons and Complexion. — Clothing and Ornaments.

General ac-
count of the

exhibited a general view of the island, as it. is in the hands

inhabitants, of nature, I shall now proceed to a description of the people who inhabit

and cultivate it, and shall endeavour to distinguish the several species or
classes of them, in such a manner as may best tend to perspicuity, and
to furnish clear ideas of the matter.

writers of voyages, is that of Mahometan inhabitants of the sea coast, and
Pagans of the inland country. This division, though not without its
degree of propriety, is vague and imperfect ; not only because each
description of people differ considerably among themselves, but that the
inland inhabitants are, in some places, Mahometans, and those of the
coast, in others, what they term Pagans. It is not unusual with persons
who have not resided in this part of the East, to call the inhabitants of the
islands indiscriminately by the name of Malays. This is a more consi-
derable error, and productive of greater confusion than the former. By
attempting to reduce things to heads too general, we defeat the very end
we propose to ourselves in defining them at all : we create obscurity
where we wish to throw light. On the other hand, to attempt enumerat-
ing and distinguishing the variety, almost endless, of petty sovereignties
and nations, into which this island is divided, many of which differ no-
thing in person or manners from their neighbours, would be a task both
insurmountable and useless. I shall aim at steering a middle course, and
accordingly shall treat of the inhabitants of Sumatra under the following
summary distinctions, taking occasion as it may offer to mention the
principal subdivisions. And first, it is proper to distinguish the empire

Various modes
of division.

The most obvious division, and which has been usually made by the

SUMATRA.

of Menangkabau and the Malays ; in the next place the Achinese ; then
the Battas ; the Rejangs ; and next to them the people of Lampong .*

Menangkabau being the principal sovereignty of the island, which for-
merly comprehended the whole, and still receives a shadow of homage
from the most powerful of the other kingdoms, which have sprung up
from its ruins, would seem to claim a right to precedence in description,
but I have a sufficient reason for deferring it to a subsequent part of the
work ; which is, that the people of this empire, by their conversion to
Mahometanism, and consequent change of manners, have lost in a greater
degree than some neighbouring tribes, the genuine Sumatran character,
which is the immediate object of my investigation. They are distin-
guished from the other inhabitants of this island by the appellation of
Orang Malayo, or Malays, which, however, they have in common with Malay?,
those of the coast of the Peninsula, and of many other islands ; and the
name is applied to every Mussulman speaking the Malayan as his proper
language, and either belonging to, or claiming descent from, the an-
cient kingdom of Menangkabau; wherever the place of his residence
may be. Beyond Bencoolen to the southward there are none to be met

with,

* In the course of my inquiries amongst the natives, concerning the aborigines of the
island, I have been informed of two different species of people dispersed in the woods, and
avoiding all communication with the other inhabitants. These they call Orang Kubu, and
Orang Gugu. The former are said to be pretty numerous, especially in that part of the country
which lies between Palembang and Jambi. Some have at times been caught and kept as slaves
in Labun ; and a man of that place is now married to a tolerably handsome Kubu girl, who
was carried off by a party that discovered their huts. They have a language quite peculiar
to themselves, and they eat promiscuously whatever the woods afford, as deer, elephant,
rhinoceros, wild hog, snakes, or monkeys. The Gugu are much scarcer than these, differing
in little but the use of speech, from the Orang Utan of Borneo ; their bodies being covered
with long hair. There have not been above two or three instances of their being met with
by the people of Labun (from whom my information is derived), and one of these was
entrapped many years ago, in much the same manner as the carpenter in Pilpay’s Fables
caught the monkey. He had children by a Labun woman, which also were more hairy than
the common race ; but the third generation are not to be distinguished from others. The
reader will bestow what measure of faith lie thinks due to this relation, the veracity of which
I do not pretend to vouch for. It has probably some foundation in truth, but is exaggerated
in the circumstances.

SUMATRA.

with, excepting such as have been drawn thither by, and are in the pay
of, Europeans. On the eastern side of the island they are settled at the
entrance of almost all the navigable rivers, where they more conveniently
indulge their habitual bent for trade and piracy. It must be observed,
indeed, that in common speech the term Malay, like that of Moor in
the continent of India, is almost synonymous with Mahometan ; and
when the natives of other parts learn to read the Arabic character, sub-
mit to circumcision, and practise the ceremonies of religion, they are
often said men-jadi Maldyo, “ to become Malays,” instead of the more
correct expression sudah masuk islam, “ have embraced the faith.” The
distinction will appear more strongly from this circumstance, that whilst
the sultan of Anak Sungei ( Moco-moco), ambitious of imitating the sultan
of Menangkabau , styles himself and his immediate subjects Malays, his
neighbour, the Pangeran of Sungei Lamo, chief of the Rejangs , a very
civilized Mahometan, and whose ancestors for some generations were of
the same faith, seemed offended, in a conversation I had with him, at
my supposing him (as he is usually considered) a Malay, and replied,
with some emotion, “ Malaya fidah, sir ; drang ulu betid skiyo. No
Malay, sir ; I am a genuine, aboriginal countryman.” The two lan-
guages he wrote and talked (I know not if he be still living) with equal
facility j but the Rejang he esteemed his mother tongue.

Attempts to ascertain from what quarter Sumatra was peopled, must
rest upon mere conjecture. The adjacent peninsula (called by Euro-
peans or other foreigners the Malayan Peninsula) presents the most
obvious source of population; and it has accordingly been presumed
that emigrants from thence supplied it and the other islands of the
eastern Archipelago with inhabitants. By this opinion, adopted without
examination, I was likewise misled, and, on a former occasion, spoke
of the probability of a colony from the peninsula having settled upon the
western coast of the island ; but I have since learned from the histories
and traditions of the natives of both countries, that the reverse is the
fact, and that the founders of the celebrated kingdoms of Johor, Singapura,
and Malacca, were adventurers from Sumatra. Even at this day the
inhabitants of the interior parts of the peninsula are a race entirely dis-
tinct from those of the two coasts.

Thus

SUMATRA.

Thus much it was necessary, in order to avoid ambiguity, to say in
the first instance concerning the Malays, of whom a more particular
account will be given in a subsequent part of the work.

As the most dissimilar among the other classes into which I have di-
vided the inhabitants, must of course have very many points of mutual
resemblance, and many of their habits, customs, and ceremonies, in com-
mon, it becomes expedient, in order to avoid a troublesome and useless
repetition, to single out one class from among them, whose manners shall
undergo a particular and full investigation, and serve as a standard
for the whole ; the deviation from which, in other classes, shall after-
wards be pointed out, and the most singular and striking usages peculiar
to each, superadded. Various circumstances induce me, on this occa-
sion, to give the preference to the Rejangs, though a nation of but small
account in the political scale of the island. They are placed in what
may be esteemed a central situation, not geographically, but with re-
spect to the encroachments of foreign manners and opinions, introduced
by the Malays, from the north, and Javans from the south ; which gives
them a claim to originality, superior to that of most others. They are
a people whose form of government and whose laws extend, with very
little variation, over a considerable part of the island, and principally
that portion where the connexions of the English lie. There are tra-
ditions of their having formerly sent forth colonies to the southward; and
in the country of Passummah, the site of their villages is still pointed out;
which would prove that they have formerly been of more consideration
than they can boast at present. They have a proper language, and a
perfect written character. These advantages point out the Rejang people
as an eligible standard of description ; and a motive equally strong that
induces me to adopt them as such, is, that my situation and connexions
in the island, led me to a more intimate and minute acquaintance with
their laws and manners, than with those of any other class. I must
premise, however, that the Malay customs having made their way, in a
greater or less degree, to every part of Sumatra, it will be totally im-
possible to discriminate with entire accuracy, those which are original,
from those which are borrowed: and of course, what I shall say of the
Rejangs, will apply for the most part, not only to the Sumatrans in ge-

G 2 neral

Nation of the
Rejangs a-
dopted as a
standard of
description.

SUMATRA.

Situation of
the Rejang
country.

Persons of the
inhabitants.

General de-
scription.

neral, but may sometimes be, in strictness, proper to the Malays alone,
and by them taught to the higher rank of country people.

The country of the Rejangs is divided, to the north-west, from the
kingdom of Anak Suiigei (of which Moco-moco is the capital) by the
small river of Uri, near that of Kattaun which last, with the district
of Labun on its banks, bounds it on the north or inland side. The
country of Musi, where Palembang River takes its rise, forms its limit
to the eastward. Bencoolen River, precisely speaking, confines it on the
south-east; though the inhabitants of the district called Lemba, extend-
ing from thence to Silebar, are entirely the same people, in manners and
language. The principal rivers, besides those already mentioned, are
Laye , Pally, and Sungeilamo ; on all of which the English have factories,
the resident or chief being stationed at Laye.

The persons of the inhabitants of the island, though differing con-
siderably in districts remote from each other, may in general be com-
prehended in the following description ; excepting the Achinese, whose
commixture with the Moors of the west of India, has distinguished them
from the other Sumatrans.

They are rather below the middle stature ; their bulk is in proportion ;
their limbs are for the most part slight, but well shaped, and particularly
small at the wrists and ancles. Upon the whole they are gracefully
formed, and I scarcely recollect to have ever seen one deformed person
among the natives.* The women, however, have the preposterous custom
of flattening the noses, and compressing the heads of children newly
born, whilst the skull is yet cartilaginous, which increases their natural
tendency to that shape. I could never trace the origin of the practice,
or learn any other reason for moulding the features to this uncouth ap-
pearance,

a Ghirardini, an Italian painter, who touched at Sumatra on his way to China in 1698,
observes of the Malays,

Son di persona tanto ben formata
Quanto mai finger san pittori industri.

He speaks in high terms of the country, as being beautifully picturesque.

SUMATRA.

pearance, but that it was an improvement of beauty in their estimation.
Captain Cook takes notice of a similar operation at the island of Ulietea.
They likewise pull out the ears of infants, to make them stand at an angle
from the head. Their eyes are uniformly dark and clear, and among some,
especially the southern women, bear a strong resemblance to those of the
Chinese, in the peculiarity of formation so generally observed of that
people. Their hair is strong, and of a shining black ; the improvement
of both which qualities it probably owes, in great measure, to the
early and constant use of coco-nut oil, with which they keep it moist.
The men frequently cut their hair short, not appearing to take any pride
in it j the women encourage theirs to a considerable length, and I have
known many instances of its reaching the ground. The men are beard-
less, and have chins so remarkably smooth, that were it not for the
priests displaying a little tuft, we should be apt to conclude that nature
had refused them this token of manhood. It is the same in respect to
other parts of the body, with both sexes ; and this particular attention
to their persons, they esteem a point of delicacy, and the contrary
an unpardonable neglect. The boys, as they approach to the age of
puberty, rub their chins, upper lips, and those parts of the body that
are subject to superfluous hair, with chunam , (quick line) especially of
shells, which destroys the roots of the incipient beard. The few pilae
that afterwards appear, are plucked out from time to time with tweezers,
which they always carry about them for that purpose. Were it not for
the numerous and very respectable authorities, from which we are assured
that the natives of America are naturally beardless, I should think that
the common opinion on that subject had been rashly adopted, and that
their appearing thus at a mature age, was only the consequence of an
early practice, similar to that observed among the Sumatrans. Even
now I must confess that it would remove some small degree of doubt
from my mind, could it be ascertained, that no such custom prevails.3

Their

a It is allowed by travellers, that the Patagonians have tufts of hair on the upper lip and
chin. Captain Carver says, that among the tribes he visited, the people made a regular
practice of eradicating their beards with pincers. At Brussels is preserved, along with a
variety of ancient and curious suits of armour, that of Montezuma, king of Mexico, of which

SUMATRA.

Colour not
ascribable
to climate.

Their complexion is properly yellow, wanting the red tinge that con-
stitutes a tawny or copper colour. They are in general lighter than the
Mestees, or half breed, of the rest of India; those of the superior class,
who are not exposed to the rays of the sun, and particularly their women
of rank, approaching to a great degree of fairness. Did beauty consist
in this one quality, some of them would surpass our brunettes in Europe.
The major part of the females are ugly, and many of them even to dis-
gust, yet there are those among them, whose appearance is strikingly
beautiful; whatever composition of person, features, and complexion,
that sentiment may be the result of.

The fairness of the Sumatrans, comparatively with other Indians,
situated as they are, under a perpendicular sun, where no season of the
year affords an alternative of cold, is, I think, an irrefragable proof, that
the difference of colour in the various inhabitants of the earth, is not the
immediate effect of climate. The children of Europeans born in this
island are as fair as those born in the country of their parents. I have
observed the same of the second generation, where a mixture with the
people of the country has been avoided. On the other hand, the off-
spring and all the descendants of the Guinea and other African slaves
imported there, continue in the last instance as perfectly black as in the
original stock. I do not mean to enter into the merits of the question
which naturally connects with these observations ; but shall only remark,
that the sallow and adust countenances, so commonly acquired by Eu-
ropeans who have long resided in hot climates, are more ascribable to
the effect of bilious distempers, which almost all are subject to in a
greater or less degree, than of their exposure to the influence of the
weather, which few but seafaring people are liable to, and of which the
impression is seldom permanent. From this circumstance I have been
led to conjecture that the general disparity of complexions in different

nations,

the visor, or mask for the face, has remarkably large whiskers ; an ornament which those
Americans could not have imitated, unless nature had presented them with the model. — See
a paper in the Phil. Trans, for 1786, which puts this matter beyond a doubt. In a French
dictionary of the Huron language, published in 1632, I observe a term corresponding to
“ arracher la barbe.”

SUMATRA.

nations, might possibly be owing to the more or less copious secretion,
or redundance of that juice, rendering the skin more or less dark ac-
cording to the qualities of the bile prevailing in the constitutions of each.
But I fear such an hypothesis would not stand the test of experiment,
as it might be expected to follow, that upon dissection, the contents of
a negro’s gall-bladder, or at least the extravasated bile, should uniformly
be found black. Persons skilled in anatomy will determine whether it
is possible that the qualities of any animal secretion can so far affect the
frame, as to render their consequences liable to be transmitted to pos-
terity in their full force.1

The small size of the inhabitants, and especially of the women, may
be in some measure owing to the early communication between the
sexes; though, as the inclinations which lead to this intercourse are
prompted here by nature sooner than in cold climates, it is not unfair
to suppose, that being proportioned to the period of maturity, this is also
sooner attained, and consequently that the earlier cessation of growth of
these people, is agreeable to the laws of their constitution, and not
occasioned by a premature and irregular appetite.

Persons of superior rank encourage the growth of their hand-nails,
particularly those of the fore and little fingers, to an extraordinary
length; frequently tinging them red, with the expressed juice of a shrub,
which they call inei, the henna of the Arabians ; as they do the nails of
their feet also, to which, being always uncovered,, they pay as much
attention as to their hands. The hands of the natives, and even of the
half breed, are always cold to the touch; which I cannot account for
otherwise than by a supposition, that from the less degree of elasticity
in the solids, occasioned by the heat of the climate, the internal action
of the body, by which the fluids are put in motion, is less vigorous,
the circulation is proportionably languid, and of course the diminished

effect

3 In an “ Essay on the Causes of the Variety of Complexion and Figure in the Human
Species,” published at Philadelphia in 17S7, the permanent effect of the bilious secretion,
in determining the colour, is strongly insisted upon.

SUMATRA.

effect is most perceptible in the extremities, and a coldness there is the
natural consequence.

n'subjecf'to The natives t^ie hills, through the whole extent of the island, are
wens. subject to those monstrous wens from the throat, which have been ob-
served of the Vallaisans, and the inhabitants of other mountainous dis-
tricts in Europe. It has been usual to attribute this affection to the
badness, thawed state, mineral quality, or other peculiarity of the waters ;
many skilful men having applied themselves to the investigation of the
subject. My experience enables me to pronounce without hesitation,
that the disorder, for such it is, though it appears here to mark a dis-
tinct race of people (orang-gunong ) , is immediately connected with the
hilliness of the country, and of course, if the circumstances of the water
they use contribute thereto, it must be only so far as the nature of the
water is affected by the inequality or height of the land. But in
Sumatra neither snow nor other congelation is ever produced, which
militates against the most plausible conjecture that has been adopted
concerning the Alpine goitres. From every research that I have been
enabled to make, I think I have reason to conclude, that the complaint
is owing, among the Sumatrans, to the fogginess of the air in the vallies
between the high mountains, where, and not on the summits, the natives
of these parts reside. I before remarked, that between the ranges of hills,
the kabut or dense mist was visible for several hours every morning;
rising in a thick, opaque, and well-defined body, with the sun, and sel-
dom quite dispersed till afternoon. This phasnomenon, as well as that
of the wens, being peculiar to the regions of the hills, affords a presump-
tion that they may be connected ; exclusive of the natural probability
that a cold vapour, gross to an uncommon degree, and continually
enveloping the habitations, should affect with tumours the throats of
the inhabitants. I cannot pretend to say how far this solution may
apply to the case of the goitres, but I recollect it to have been men-
tioned, that the only method of curing the people, is by removing
them from the vallies to the clear and pure air on the tops of the hills;
which .seems to indicate a similar source of the distemper to what I
have pointed out. The Sumatrans do not appear to attempt any remedy
for it, the wens being consistent with the highest health in other respects.

The

SUMATRA.

The personal difference between the Malays of the coast, and the
country inhabitants, is not so strongly marked but that it requires some
experience to distinguish them. The latter, however, possess an evident
superiority in point of size and strength, and are fairer complexioned,
which they probably owe to their situation, where the atmosphere is
colder ; and it is generally observed, that people living near the sea-
shore, and especially when accustomed to navigation, are darker than
their inland neighbours. Some attribute the disparity in constitutional
vigour, to the more frequent use of opium among the Malays, which is
supposed to debilitate the frame ; but I have noted that the Limun
and Batang Asei gold traders, who are a colony of that race settled in
the heart of the island, and who cannot exist a day without opium, are
remarkably bale and stout; which I have known to be observed with a
degree of envy by the opium-smokers of our settlements. The inhabi-
tants of Pasummah , also, are described as being more robust in their
persons, than the planters of the low country.

The original clothing of the Sumatrans is the same with that found
by navigators among the inhabitants of the South Sea islands, and now
generally called by the name of Otaheitean cloth. It is still used
among the Rejangs for their working dress, and I have one in my pos-
session, procured from these people, consisting of a jacket, short draw-
ers, and a cap for the head. This is the inner bark of a certain species
of tree, beaten out to the degree of fineness required; approaching the
more to perfection, as it resembles the softer kind of leather, some
being nearly equal to the most delicate kid-skin ; in which character
it somewhat differs from the South Sea cloth, as that bears a resem-
blance rather to paper, or to the manufacture of the loom. The coun-
try people now conform in a great measure to the dress of the Malays,
which I shall therefore describe in this place, observing that much
more simplicity still prevails among the former, who look upon the
others as coxcombs, who lay out all their substance on their backs,
whilst, in their turns, they are regarded by the Malays with contempt,
as unpolished rustics.

A man’s

Difference in
person be-
tween Ma-
lays and
other Suma-
trans.

Clothing.

SUMATRA.

Mao's dress.

Woman’s

dress.

A man’s dress consists of the following parts. A close waistcoat,
without sleeves, but having a neck like a shirt, buttoned close up to the
top, with buttons, often of gold filagree. This is peculiar to the Ma-
lays. Over this they wear the baju , which resembles a morning gown,
open at the neck, but generally fastened close at the wrists and half way
up the arm, with nine buttons to each sleeve. The sleeves, however,
are often wide and loose, and others again, though nearly tight, reach
not far beyond the elbow; especially of those worn by the younger fe-
males, which, as well as those of the young men, are open in front no
farther down than the bosom, and reach no lower than the waist,
whereas the others hang loose to the knees, and sometimes to the ancles.
They are made usually of blue or white cotton cloth; for the better
sort, of chintz; and for great men, of flowered silks. The kain sarong
is not unlike a Scots highlander’s plaid in appearance, being a piece of
party-coloured cloth about six or eight feet long, and three or four wide,
sewed together at the ends ; forming, as some writers have described it,
a wide sack without a bottom. This is sometimes gathered up, and
slung over the shoulder like a sash, or else folded and tucked about the
waist and hips; and in full dress it is bound on by the belt of the kris
(dagger), which is of crimson silk, and wraps several times round the
body, with a loop at the end, in which the sheath of the kris hangs.
They wear short drawers, reaching half way down the thigh, generally
of red or yellow taffeta. There is no covering to their legs or feet.
Round their heads they fasten, in a particular manner, a fine, coloured
handkerchief, so as to resemble a small turban; the country people
usually twisting a piece of white or blue cloth for this purpose. The
crown of their head remains uncovered, except on journeys, when they
wear a tudong or umbrella-hat, which completely screens them from the
weather.

The women have a kind of bodice, or short waistcoat rather, that
defends the breasts, and reaches to the hips. The kain sarong, before
described, comes up as high as the armpits, and extends to the feet,
being kept on simply by folding and tucking it over, at the breast, ex-
cept when the tali-pending , or zone, is worn about the waist, which forms

SUMATRA.

an additional and necessary security. This is usually of embroidered
cloth, and sometimes a plate of gold or silver, about two inches broad,
fastening in the front with a large clasp of filagree or chased work, with
some kind of precious stone, or imitation of such, in the centre. The
baju, or upper gown, differs little from that of the men, buttoning in the
same manner at the wrists. A piece of fine, thin, cotton cloth, or slight
silk, about five feet long, and worked or fringed at each end, called a
salendang, is thrown across the back of the neck, and hangs down before ;
serving also the purpose of a veil to the women of rank when they walk
abroad. The handkerchief is carried, either folded small in the hand, or
in a long fold, over the shoulder. There are two modes of dressing the
hair, one termed hundei, and the other sanggol. The first resembles much
the fashion in which we see the Chinese women represented in paintings,
and which I conclude they borrowed from thence, where the hair is wound
circularly over the centre of the head, and fastened with a silver bodkin or
pin. In the other mode, which is more general, they give the hair a
single twist as it bangs behind, and then doubling it up, they pass it cross-
wise, under a few hairs separated from the rest, on the back of the head,
for that purpose. A comb, often of tortoise-shell, and sometimes fila-
greed, helps to prevent it from falling down. The hair of the front,
and of all parts of the head, is of the same length, and when loose,
hangs together behind, with most of the women, in very great quantity.
It is kept moist with oil, newly expressed from the coco-nut ; but those
persons who can afford it make use also of an empyreumatic oil ex-
tracted from gum benzoin, as a grateful perfume. They wear no cover-
ing, except ornaments of flowers, which, on particular occasions, are
the work of much labour and ingenuity. The head-dresses of the danc-
ing girls by profession, who are usually Javans, are very artificially
wrought, and as high as any modern English lady’s cap, yielding only
to the feathered plumes of the year 1777- It is impossible to describe
in words these intricate and fanciful matters, so as to convey a just idea
of them. The flowers worn in undress are, for the most part, strung in
wreaths, and have a very neat and pretty effect, without any degree of
gaudiness, being usually white or pale yellow, small, and frequently
only half-blown. Those generally chosen for these occasions, are the
bunga-tanjong ■ and buiiga-mellur : the bunga- chump aka is used to give

H 2 the

SUMATRA.

Distinguishing
ornaments
of virgins.

Mode of filing
teeth.

the hair a fragrance, but is concealed from the sight. They sometimes
combine a variety of flowers in such a manner as to appear like one,
and fix them on a single stalk j but these, being more formal, are less
elegant, than the wreaths.

Among the country people, particularly in the southern countries, the
virgins (anak gaddis , or goddesses, as it is usually pronounced) are
distinguished by a fillet which goes across the front of the hair, and
fastens behind. This is commonly a thin plate of silver, about half an
inch broad : those of the first rank have it of gold, and those of the
lowest class have their fillet of the leaf of the mpah tree. Beside this
peculiar ornament, their state is denoted by their having rings or
bracelets of silver or gold on their wrists. Strings of coins round the
neck are universally worn by children, and the females, before they are
of an age to be clothed, have, what may not be inaptly termed, a
modesty-piece, being a plate of silver in the shape of a heart (called
chaping ) hung before, by a chain of the same metal, passing round the
waist. The young women in the country villages manufacture them-
selves the cloth that forms the body-dress, or kain-sarong , which, for
common occasions, is their only covering, and reaches from the breast
no lower than the knees. The dresses of the women of the Malay bazars,
on the contrary, extend as low as the feet ; but here, as in other in-
stances, the more scrupulous attention to appearances does not accom-
pany the superior degree of real modesty. This cloth, for the wear both
of men and women, is imported from the island of Celebes, or, as it
is here termed, the Baggis country.

Both sexes have the extraordinary custom of filing and otherwise dis-
figuring their teeth, which are naturally very white and beautiful from
the simplicity of their food. For files, they make use of small whetstones
of different degrees of fineness, and the patients lie on their back during
the operation. Many, particularly the women of the Lampong country,
have their teeth rubbed down quite even with the gums; others have
them formed in points ; and some file off no more than the outer coat
and extremities, in order that they may the better receive and retain the
jetty blackness, with which they almost universally adorn them. The

black

SUMATRA.

black used on these occasions is the empyreumatic oil of the coconut
shell. When this is not applied, the filing does not, by destroying what
we term the enamel, diminish the whiteness of the teeth ; but the use of
betel renders them black, if pains be not taken to prevent it. The great
men sometimes set theirs in gold, by casing, with a plate of that metal,
the under row ; and this ornament, contrasted with the black dye, has,
by lamp or candle light, a very splendid effect. It is sometimes in-
dented to the shape of the teeth, but more usually quite plain. They
do not remove it either to eat or sleep.

At the age of about eight or nine, they bore the ears and file the
teeth of the female children; which are ceremonies that must necessarily
precede their marriage. The former they call betende , and the latter
bedabong ; and these operations are regarded in the family, as the occa-
sion of a festival. They do not here, as in some of the adjacent islands,
(of Nias in particular) increase the aperture of the ear to a monstrous
size, so as in many instances to be large enough to admit the hand, the
lower parts being stretched till they touch the shoulders. Their ear-
rings are mostly of gold filagree, and fastened, not with a clasp, but in
the manner of a rivet or nut screwed to the inner part.

Villages.

5 4

SUMATRA.

Villages. — Buildings. — Domestic U tensils. — Food.

I SHALL now attempt a description of the villages and buildings of the
Sumatrans, and proceed to their domestic habits of ceconomy, and those
simple arts, on which the procuring of their food and other necessaries
depends. These are not among the least interesting objects of philoso-
phical speculation. In proportion as the arts in use with any people are
connected with the primary demands of nature, they carry the greater
likelihood of originality, because those demands must have been admi-
nistered to, from a period coeval with the existence of the people them-
selves. Or if complete originality be regarded as a visionary idea, en-
gendered from ignorance and the obscurity of remote events, such arts
must be allowed to have the fairest claim to antiquity at least. Arts of
accommodation, and more especially of luxury, are commonly the effect
of imitation, and suggested by the improvements of other nations, which
have made greater advances towards civilisation. These afford less
striking and characteristic features, in delineating the picture of man-
kind, and though they may add to the beauty, diminish from the genu-
ineness of the piece. We must not look for unequivocal generic marks,
where the breed, in order to mend it, has been crossed by a foreign
mixture. All the arts of primary necessity are comprehended within
two distinctions : those which protect us from the inclemency of the
weather and other outward accidents ; and those which are employed in
securing the means of subsistence. Both are immediately essential to the
continuance of life, and man is involuntarily and immediately prompted
to exercise them, by the urgent calls of nature, even in the merest
possible state of savage and uncultivated existence. In climates like
that of Sumatra, this impulse extends not far. The human machine is
kept going with small effort, in so favourable a medium. The spring
of importunate necessity there soon loses its force, and consequently the
wheels of invention that depend upon it, fail to perform more than a

few

SUMATRA.

few simple revolutions. In regions less mild, this original motive to in-
dustry and ingenuity, carries men to greater lengths, in the application
of arts to the occasions of life; and these, of course, in an equal space
of time, attain to greater perfection, than among the inhabitants of the
tropical latitudes, who find their immediate wants supplied with facility,
and prefer the negative pleasure of inaction, to the enjoyment of any
conveniences that are to be purchased with exertion and labour. This
consideration may perhaps tend to reconcile the high antiquity univer-
sally allowed to Asiatic nations, with the limited progress of arts and
sciences among them; in which they are manifestly surpassed by people
who, compared with them, are but of very recent date.

The Sumatrans, however, in the construction of their habitations,
have stept many degrees beyond those rude contrivances which writers
describe the inhabitants of some other Indian countries to have been
contented with adopting, in order to screen themselves from the im-
mediate influence of surrounding elements. Their houses are not only
permanent, but convenient, and are built in the vicinity of each other,
that they may enjoy the advantages of mutual assistance and protection,
resulting from a state of society.3

The dusuns or villages (for the small number of inhabitants assembled Villages
in each does not entitle them to the appellations of towns) are always
situated on the banks of a river or lake, for the convenience of bathing,
and of transporting goods. An eminence difficult of ascent is usually
made choice of for security. The access to them is by foot-ways, narrow
and winding, of which there are seldom more than two; one to the
country, and the other to the water ; the latter in most places so steep,
as to render it necessary to cut steps in the cliff or rock. The dusuns
being surrounded with abundance of fruit trees, some of considerable
height, as the durian, coco, and betel-nut , and the neighbouring country,

for

a In several of the small islands near Sumatra (including the Nicobars ) whose inhabitants
in general are in a very low state of civilisation, the houses are built circularly. Vid. As
Researches, vol. iv. p. 129. plate.

SUMATRA.

Buildings.

for a little space about, being in some degree cleared of wood for the
rice and pepper plantations, these villages strike the eye at a distance
as clumps merely, exhibiting no appearance of a town or any place
of habitation. The rows of houses form commonly a quadrangle, with
passages or lanes at intervals between the buildings, where, in the more
considerable villages, live the lower class of inhabitants, and where also
their padi- houses or granaries are erected. In the middle of the square
stands the balei or town hall, a room about fifty to an hundred feet long,
and twenty or thirty wide, without division, and open at the sides,
excepting when on particular occasions it is hung with mats or chintz ;
but sheltered in a lateral direction by the deep overhanging roof.

In their buildings neither stone, brick, nor clay, are ever made use of,
which is the case in most countries where timber abounds, and where
the warmth of the climate renders the free admission of air, a matter
rather to be desired, than guarded against : but in Sumatra the frequency
of earthquakes is alone sufficient to have prevented the natives from
adopting a substantial mode of building. The frames of the houses are
of wood, the underplate resting on pillars of about six or eight feet in
height, which have a sort of capital, but no base, and are wider at top
than at bottom. The people appear to have no idea of architecture as
a science, though much ingenuity is often shewn in the manner of work-
ing up their materials, and they have, the Malays at least, technical
terms corresponding to all those employed by our house carpenters.
Their conception of proportions is extremely rude, often leaving those
parts of a frame which have the greatest bearing, with the weakest sup-
port, and lavishing strength upon inadequate pressure. For the floorings
they lay whole bamboos (a well known species of large cane) of four or
five inches diameter, close to each other, and fasten them at the ends to
the timbers. Across these are laid laths of split bamboo, about an inch
wide and of the length of the room, which are tied down with filaments of
the rattans and over these are usually spread mats of different kinds.
This sort of flooring has an elasticity alarming to strangers when they
first tread on it. The sides of the houses are generally closed in with
palupo, which is the bamboo opened, and rendered flat by notching
or splitting the circular joints on the outside, chipping away the corres-
ponding

SUMATRA.

ponding divisions within, and laying it to dry in the sun, pressed down
with weights. This is sometimes nailed on to the upright timbers or
bamboos, but in the country parts, it is more commonly interwoven,
or matted, in breadths of six inches, and a piece, or sheet, formed
at once of the size required. In some places they use for the same
purpose the knlitkayu, or coolicoy, as it is pronounced by the Euro-
peans, who employ it on board ship, as dunnage, in pepper and other
cargoes. This is a bark procured from some particular trees, of which
the bunut and ibu are the most common. When they prepare to take it,
the outer rind is first torn or cut away ; the inner, which affords the
material, is then marked out with a prang , pateel, or other tool, to the
size required, which is usually three cubits by one ; it is afterwards
beaten for some time with a heavy stick, to loosen it from the stem, and
beeing peeled off, is laid in the sun to dry, care being taken to prevent
its warping. The thicker or thinner sorts of the same species of ku -
litkaya , owe their difference to their being taken nearer to, or farther
from, the root. That which is used in building has nearly the texture
and hardness of wood. The pliable and delicate bark of which clothing
is made, is procured from a. tree called kalawi , a bastard species of the
bread-fruit.

The most general mode of covering houses is with the atap , which
is the leaf of a species of palm called nipah. These, previous to their
being laid on, are formed into sheets of about five feet long, and as deep
as the length of the leaf will admit, which is doubled at one end over a
slip or lath of bamboo ; they are then disposed on the roof, so as that
one sheet shall lap over the other, and are tied to the bamboos which
serve for rafters. There are various other and more durable kinds of
covering used. The kulitkayu, before described, is sometimes employed
for this purpose : the galmnpei — this is a thatch of narrow, split bam-
boos, six feet in length, placed in regular layers, each reaching within
two feet of the extremity of that beneath it, by which a treble covering
is formed: tju — this is a vegetable production, so nearly resembling
horse-hair, as scarcely to be distinguished from it. It envelops the stem
of that species of palm called anan , from which the best toddy or palm
wine is procured, and is employed by the natives for a great variety of

I purposes.

S U M A T R A.

purposes. It is bound on as a thatch, in the manner we do straw, and
not uufrequently over the galumpei ; in which case the roof is so durable
as never to require renewal, the iju being of all vegetable substances the
least prone to decay, and for this reason it is a common practice to wrap
a quantity of it round the ends of timbers or posts which are to be fixed
in the ground. I saw a house about twenty miles up Manna River,
belonging to Dupati Bandar Agang , the roof of which was of fifty years
standing. The larger houses have three pitches in the roof 5 the middle
one, under which the door is placed, being much lower than the other
two. In smaller houses there are but two pitches which are always of
unequal height, and the entrance is in the smaller, which covers a kind
of hall, or cooking room.

There is another kind of house, erected mostly for a temporary pur-
pose, the roof of which is flat, and is covered in a very uncommon,
simple, and ingenious manner. Large, straight bamboos are cut of a
length sufficient to lie across the house, and being split exactly in two,
and the joints knocked out, a first layer of them is disposed in close
order, with the inner 01 hollow sides up; aftpr which a second layer,
with the outer or convex sides up, is placed upon the others in such
manner, that each of the convex falls into the two contiguous concave
pieces, covering their edges ; the latter serving as gutters to carry off the
water that falls upon the upper or convex layer.*

The mode of ascent to the houses is by a piece of timber, or stout
bamboo, cut in notches, which latter an European cannot avail himself
of, especially as the precaution is seldom taken of binding them fast.
These are the wonderful light scaling ladders, which the old Portuguese
writers described to have been used by the people of Achin in their wars
with their nation. It is probable that the apprehension of danger from
the wild beasts, caused them to adopt and continue this rude expedient,
in preference to more regular and commodious steps. The detached

buildings

a I find that the original inhabitants of the Philippine islands covered their buildings in the
same manner.

SUMATRA.

•59

buildings in the country, near to their plantations, called talangs, they
raise to the height of ten or twelve feet from the ground, and make a
practice of taking up their ladder at night, to secure themselves from
the destructive ravages of the tigers. I have been assured, but do not
pledge myself for the truth of the story, that an elephant, attempting to
pass under one of these houses, which stand on four or six posts, stuck
by the way; but disdaining to retreat, carried it, with the family it
contained, on his back, to a considerable distance.

In the buildings of the dusuns, particularly where the most respectable
families reside, the wood-work in front is carved, in the style of bas-
relief, in a variety of uncouth ornaments and grotesque figures, not
much unlike the Egyptian hieroglyphics, but certainly without any
mystic or historical allusion.

The furniture of their houses, corresponding with their manner of Furniture,
living, is very simple, and consists of but few articles. Their bed is a
mat, usually of fine texture, and manufactured for the purpose, with
a number of pillows, worked at the ends, and adorned with a shining
substance that resembles foil. A sort of canopy or valance, formed of
various coloured cloths, hangs over head. Instead of tables, they have
what resemble large wooden salvers, with feet, called dnlang ,- round
each of which three or four persons dispose themselves ; and on these
are laid the talams or brass waiters, which hold the cups that contain
their curry, and plantain leaves, or matted vessels, filled with rice.

Their mode of sitting is not cross-legged, as the inhabitants of Turkev
and our tailors use, but either on the haunches, or on the left side,
supported by the left hand, with the legs tucked in on the right side ;
leaving that hand at liberty, which they always, from motives of delicacy,
scrupulously eat with ; the left being reserved for less cleanly offices.

Neither knives, spoons, nor any substitutes for them, are emploved ;
they take up the rice, and other victuals, between the thumb and fin-
gers, and dexterously throw it into the mouth by the action of the thumb,
dipping frequently their hands in water as they eat.

The have a little coarse china ware, imported by the eastern praws, utensil*.

1 2 which

SUMATRA.

Fires.

Mode of kin-
dling them.

which is held a matter of luxury. In cooking they employ a kind of
iron vessel, well known in India by the name of quallie or tauch, resem-
bling in shape the pans used in some of our manufactures, having the
rim wide, and bottom narrow. These are likewise brought from the
eastward. The priu and balanga , species of earthen pipkins, are in more
common use, being made in small quantities in different parts of the is-
land, particularly in Lampong , where they give them a sort of glazing ;
but the greater number of them are imported from Bantam. The original
Sumatran vessel for boiling rice, and which is still much used for that
purpose, is the bamboo; that material of general utility, with which
bountiful nature has supplied an indolent people. By the time the rice
is dressed, the utensil is nearly destroyed by the fire, but resists the
flame so long as there is moisture within.

Fire being wanted among these people but occasionally, and only
when they cook their victuals, there is not much attention paid, in their
buildings, to provide conveniences for it. Their houses have no chim-
neys, and their fire-places are no more than a few loose bricks or stones,
disposed in a temporary manner, and frequently on the landing-place
before the doors. The fuel made use of is wood alone ; the coal which
the island produces never being converted by the inhabitants to that
purpose. The flint and steel for striking fire are common in the country,
but it is a practice certainly borrowed from some other people, as that
species of stone is not a native of the soil. These generally form part
of their travelling apparatus, and especially with those men called risaus
(spendthrifs that turn freebooters), who find themselves often obliged to
take up their habitation in the woods, or in deserted houses. But they
also frequently kindle fire from the friction of two sticks. They chuse
a piece of dry, porous wood, and cutting smooth a spot of it, lay
it in an horizontal direction. They then apply a smaller piece, of
a harder substance, with a blunt point, in a perpendicular position,
and turn it quickly round, between the two hands, as chocolate is mill-
ed, pressing it downwards at the same time. A hole is soon formed
by this motion of the smaller stick ; but it has not penetrated far be-
fore the larger one takes fire. I have also seen the same effect produced,

SUMATRA.

more simply, by rubbing one bit of bamboo, with a sharp edge, across
another.0

Water is conveyed from the spring, in bamboos, which, for this pur-
pose are cut, either to the length of five or six feet, and carried over the
shoulder, or into a number of single joints, that are put together in a
basket. It is drunk out of the fruit called labu here, resembling the
calabash of the West Indies, a hole being made in the side of the neck,
and another at top for vent. In drinking, they generally hold the vessel
at a distance above their mouths, and catch the stream as it falls ; the
liquid descending to the stomach without the action of swallowing.
Baskets ( bronong , bakul) are a considerable part of the furniture of a

man’s

* This mode of kindling fire is not peculiar to Sumatra : we read of the same practice in
Africa, and even in Kamtschatka. It is surprising, but confirmed by abundant authority,
that many nations of the earth, have, at certain periods, being ignorant of the use of fire.
To our immediate apprehension, human existence would seem in such circumstances im-
possible. Every art, every convenience, every necessary of life, is now in the most intimate
manner connected with it: and yet the Chinese, the Egyptians, the Phoenicians, and
Greeks, acknowledged traditions concerning its first discovery in their respective countries.
But, in fact, if we can once suppose a man, or society of men, unacquainted with the being
and uses of this element, I see no difficulty in conceiving the possibility of their supporting
life without it j I mean in the tropical climates; and of centuries passing before they should
arrive at the important discovery. It is true, that lightning and its effects, volcanos, the
firing of dry substances by fortuitous attrition, or of moist, by fermentation, might give
them an idea of its violent and destructive properties; but far from being thence induced to
appropriate and apply it, they would, on the contrary, dread and avoid it, even in its less
formidable appearances. They might be led to worship it as their deity, but not to cherish
it as their domestic. There is some reason <o conclude that the man who first reduced it to
subjection, and rendered it subservient to the purposes of life, procured it from the collision
of two flints ; but the sparks thus produced, whether by accident or design, might be ob-
served innumerable times, without its suggesting a beneficial application. In countries
where those did not present themselves, the discovery had, most probably, its origin in the
rubbing together of dry sticks, and in this operation, the agent and subject co-existing, flame,
with its properties and uses, became more immediately apparent. Still, as no previous idea
was conceived of this latent principle, and consequently no search made, no endeavours
exerted, to bring it to light, I see not the impossibility a priori, of its remaining almost as
long concealed from mankind, as the properties of the loadstone, or the qualities of gun-
powder.

SUMATRA.

Food.

man’s house, and the number of these seen hanging up, are tokens of
the owner’s substance 3 for in them his harvests, of rice or pepper, are
gathered and brought home 3 no carts being employed in the interior
parts of the island which I am now describing. They are made of
slips of bamboo, connected by means of split rattans 3 and are carried,
chiefly by the women, on the back, supported by a string or band
across the forehead.

Although the Sumatrans live, in a great measure, upon vegetable food,
they are not restrained, by any superstitious opinion, from other ali-
ments, and accordingly, at their entertainments, the flesh of the buffalo
(kaj'bau), goat, and fowls, are served up. Their dishes are almost all
prepared in that mode of dressing to which we have given the name of
curry (from a Hindostanic word), and which is now universally known
in Europe. It is called in the Malay language, gulei, and may be com-
posed of any kind of edible, but is generally of flesb or fowl, with a
variety of pulse and succulent herbage, stewed down with certain ingre-
dients, by us termed, when mixed and ground together, curry-powder.
These ingredients are, among others, the cayenne or chili pepper, tur-
meric, sarei or lemon-grass, cardamums, garlick, and the pulp of the
coconut bruised to a milk resembling that of almonds, which is the
only liquid made use of. This differs from the curries of Madras and
Bengal, which have greater variety of spices, and want the coconut.
It is not a little remarkable, that the common pepper, the chief produce
and staple commodity of the country, is never mixed by the natives in
their food. T. hey esteem it heating to the blood, and ascribe a contrary
effect to the cayenne 3 which, I can say, my own experience justifies.
A great diversity ot curries is usually served up at the same time, in
small vessels, each flavoured, to a nice discerning taste, in a different
manner 3 and in this consists all the luxury of their tables. Let their quan-
tity, or variety, or meat, be what it may, the principle article of their
food is rice, which is eaten in a large proportion with every dish, and
very frequently without any other accompaniment than salt and chili
pepper. It is prepared by boiling in a manner peculiar to India 3 its
perfection, next to cleanness and whiteness, consisting in its being,
when thoroughly dressed and soft to the heart, at the same time whole

and

SUMATRA.

and separate, so that no two grains shall adhere together. The manner
of effecting this, is by putting into the earthen or other vessel in which it
is boiled a quantity of water sufficient to cover it ; letting it simmer over
a slow tire; taking off the water by degrees with a flat ladle or spoon,
that the grain may dry, and removing it when just short of burning. At
their entertainments, the guests are treated with rice prepared also in a
variety of modes, by frying it in cakes, or boiling a particular species of
it, mixed with the kernel of the coconut and fresh oil, in small joints of
bamboo. This is called lemmang. Before it is served up, they cut off
the outer rind of the bamboo, and the soft inner coat is peeled away by
the person who eats.

They dress their meat immediately after killing it, while it is still Fiesh-meat.
warm, which is conformable with the practice of the ancients, as re-
corded in Homer and elsewhere, and in this state it is said to eat tenderer
than when kept for a day : longer the climate will not admit of, unless
when it is preserved in that mode called dinding. This is the flesh of the
buffalo cut into small thin steaks, and exposed to the heat of the sun in
fair weather, generally on the thatch of their houses, till it is become so
dry and hard as to resist putrefaction, without any assistance from salt.

Fish is preserved in the sanriR manner, and cargoes of both are sent from
parts of the coast, where they are in plenty, to those where provisions
are in more demand. It is seemingly strange, that heat, which, in a
certain degree, promotes putrefaction, should, when violently increased,
operate to prevent it ; but it must be considered that moisture also is
requisite to the former effect, and this is absorbed in thin substances, by
the sun’s rays, before it can contribute to the production of maggots.

Black ang, a preservation, if it may be so termed, of an opposite kind,
is esteemed a great delicacy among the Malays, and is by them exported
to the west of India. The country Sumatrans seldom procure it. It is
a species of caviare, and is extremely offensive and disgusting to persons
who are not accustomed to it, particularly the black kind, which is the
most common. I he best sort, or the red blachang , is made of the spawn
of shrimps, or of the shrimps themselves, which they take about the
mouths of rivers. They are, after boiling, exposed to the sun to dry*

then

SUMATRA.

then pounded in a mortar, with salt, moistened with a little water, and
formed into cakes, which is all the process. The black sort, used by
the lower class, is made of small fish, prepared in the same manner.
On some parts of the east coast of the island, they salt the roes of a large
fish of the shad kind, and preserve them perfectly dry, and well flavoured.
These are called trobo.

When the natives kill a buffalo, which is always done at their public
meetings, they do not cut it up into joints, as we do an ox, but into
small pieces of flesh, or steaks, which they call bantei. The hide of the
buffalo is sometimes scalded, scraped, and hung up to dry in their
houses, where it shrivels and becomes perfectly hard. When wanted
for use, a piece is chopped off, and being stewed down for a great
number of hours, in a small quantity of water, forms a rich jelly, which,
properly seasoned, is esteemed a very delicate dish.

The sago ( sagu ), though common on Sumatra, and used occasionally
by the natives, is not an article of food of such general use among them,
as with the inhabitants of many other eastern islands, where it is em-
ployed as a substitute for rice. Millet ( randa javoa ) is also cultivated for
food, but not in any considerable quantity.

When these several articles of subsistence fail, the Sumatran has re-
course to those wild roots, herbs, and leaves of trees, which the woods
abundantly afford in every season, without culture, and which the ha-
bitual simplicity of his diet teaches him to consider as no very extraordi-
nary circumstance of hardship. Hence it is that famines in this island,
or, more properly speaking, failures of crops of grain, are never attended
with those dreadful consequences, which more improved countries and
more provident nations experience.

Agriculture .

SUMATRA.

Agriculture. — Bice , its Cultivation, Sfe. — Plantations of Coconut, Betel-
nut, and other Vegetables for domestic Use . — Dye Stuffs.

F ROM their domestic oeconomy I am led to take a view of their labours Agriculture,
in the field, their plantations and the state of agriculture amongst them,
which an ingenious writer esteems the justest criterion of civilization.

The most important article of cultivation, not in Sumatra alone, but Rice,
throughout the East, is rice. It is the grand material of food, on which
an hundred millions of the inhabitants of the earth subsist, and although
chiefly confined by nature to the regions included between, and bordering
on the tropics, its cultivation is probably more extensive than that of
wheat, which the Europeans are wont to consider as the universal staff
of life. In the continent of Asia, as you advance to the northward, you
come to the boundary where the plantations of rice disappear, and the
wheat fields commence ; the cold felt in that climate, owing in part to
the height of the land, being unfriendly to the production of the former
article.

Rice ( oryza sativa ) whilst in the husk is called padi by the Malays
(from whose language the word seems to have found its way to the mari-
time parts of the continent of India), bias when deprived of the husk,
and nasi after it has been boiled ; besides which it assumes other names
in its various states of growth and preparation. This minuteness of dis-
tinction applies also to some other articles of common use, and may be
accounted for upon this principle ; that amongst people whose general
objects of attention are limited, those which do of necessity occupy
them, are liable to be more the subject of thought and conversation than
in more enlightened countries, where the ideas of men have an extensive
range. The kinds of rice also (whether technically of different species
I cannot pronounce) are very numerous, but divided in the first place

K into

SUMATRA.

into the two comprehensive classes of padi ladang or upland, from its
growing in high, dry grounds, and padi sazvah (vulgarly pronounced
sazvur or sour) or low-land, from its being planted in marshes; each of
which is said to contain ten or fifteen varieties, distinct in shape, size, and
colour of the grain, modes of growth, and delicacy of flavour; it being
observed that in general the larger grained rice is not so much prized by
the natives as that which is small, when at the same time white and in
some degree transparent.3 To M. PoiVRE, in his Travels of a Philoso-
pher, we are indebted for first pointing out these two classes, when speak-
ing of the agriculture of Cochin-china. The qualities of the ladang, or
upland rice, are held to be superior to those of the sawah, being whiter,
more nourishing, better tasted, and having the advantage in point of
keeping. Its mode of culture, too, is free from the charge of unhealthi-
ness attributed to the latter, which is of a watery substance, is attended

with

* The following sorts of dry-ground padi have come under my notice, but as the names
vary in different districts, it is possible that some of these may be repetitions, where there
is no striking difference of character — Padi Ebbas, large grain, very common ; — Andalong,
short round grain, grows in whorles or bunches round the stalk, common ; — Galu, light
coloured, scarce ; — Sint, small grain, deep coloured, scarce ; — iju, lightish colour, scarce; —
Kuning, deep yellow, crooked and pointed, fine rice; — Kukur-ballum, small, much crooked
and resembling a dove’s claw, from whence the name ; light coloured, highly esteemed for
its delicate flavour ; — Pisang, outer coat light brown, inner red, longer, smaller, and less
crooked than the preceding; — Brin gin, long, flattish, ribbed, pointed, dead yellow; —
Bujut, shaped like the preceding, but with a tinge of red in the colour ; — Chariap, short,
roundish, reddish yellow ; — Janggut or bearded, small, narrow, pale brown; — Jambi, small,
somewhat crooked and pointed, light brown; — Laye, gibbous, light coloured; — Musang,

long, small, crooked and pointed, deep purple ; — Pandan, small, light coloured ; Pad,

long, crooked and pointed, light yellow; — Puyuh, small, delicate, crooked and pointed,
bright ochre ;-^-Rakkun, roundish grain, resembles the andalong, but larger and deeper
colour; — Sihong, much resembles the Laye in shape and colour; — Sutar, short, roundish,
bright, reddish brown ; — PTdut gading or ivory, long, nearly straight, light yellow ; —
Pulut kechil, small, crooked, reddish yellow ; — Pulut bram, long and rather large grain, purple,
when fresh more nearly red; — Pulut brum lematong, in shape like the preceding, but of a
dead pale colour. Beside these four there is also a black kind of Pulut. Samples of most of
these have been in my possession for a number of years, and still continue perfectly sound.
Of the sorts of rice growing in low grounds I have not specimens. The padi suntong,
which is small, straight, and light coloured, is held to be the finest. In the Lampong
country they make a distinction of padi krawang and padi jerru, of which I know nothing
piore than that the former is a month earlier in growth than the latter.

SUMATRA.

with less increase in boiling, and is subject to a swifter decay ; but of
this the rate of produce from the seed is much greater, and the certainty
of the crops more to be depended on. It is accordingly cheaper, and in
more common use. The seed of each sort is kept separate by the natives,
who assert that they will not grow reciprocally.

For the cultivation of upland padi the site of woods is universally pre- Upland rice,
ferred, and the more ancient the woods the better, on account of the
superior richness of the soil; the continual fall and rotting of the leaves
forming there a bed of vegetable mould, which the open plains do not
afford, being exhausted by the powerful operation of the sun’s rays, and
the constant production of a rank grass called lalang. When this grass,
common to all the eastern islands, is kept under by frequent mowing or
the grazing of cattle (as is the case near the European settlements), its
room is supplied by grass of a finer texture. Many suppose that the
same identical species of vegetable undergoes this alteration, as no fresh
seeds are sown, and the substitution uniformly takes place. But this is
an evident mistake, as the generic characters of the two are essentially
different ; the one being the gramen caricosum, and the other the gra-
men aciculatum, described by Rumphius. The former, which grows to
the height of five feet, is remarkable for the whiteness and softness of the
down or blossom, and the other for the sharpness of its bearded seeds,
which prove extremely troublesome to the legs of those who walk among
it.a If old woods are not at hand, ground covered with that of younger
growth, termed balukar , is resorted to ; but not, if possible, under the

K 2 age

* “ Gramen hoc (caricosum) totos occupat campos, nudosque colles tam dense et la;te
germinans, ut e longinquo haberetur campus oryza consitus, tam luxuriose ac fortiter crescit,
ut neque hortos neque sylvas evitet, alque tam vehementer prorepit, ut areae vix depurari

ac servari possint, licet quotidie deambulentur Potissimum amat solum

flavum arguillosum.” (Gramen aciculatum) “ Usus ejus fere nullus est, sed hie detegendum
est taidiosum ludibrium, quod quis habet, si quis per campos vel in sylvis procedat, ubi hoc
gramen ad vias publicas crescit, quum praetereuntium vestibus, hoc semen quam maxime
inha;ret.” Rumphius, vol. vi. lib. x. chap. 8. and 13. M. Poivre describes the plains of
Madagascar and Java as covered with a long grass which he calls Fatak, and which from the
analogy of the countries in other respects, I should suppose to be the lalang; but he praises
it as affording excellent pasturage ; whereas in Sumatra it is reckoned the worst, and
except when very young it is not edible by the largest cattle ; for which reason the carters

SUMATRA.

age of four or five years. Vegetation is there so strong, that spots which
had been perfectly cleared for cultivation, will, upon being neglected for
a single season, afford shelter to the beasts of the forest ; and the same
being rarely occupied for two successive years, the face of the country
continues to exhibit the same wild appearance, although very extensive
tracts are annually covered with fresh plantations. From this it will be
seen, that in consequence of the fertility to which it gives occasion, the
abundance of wood in the country is not considered by the inhabitants
as an inconvenience, but the contrary. Indeed I have heard a native
prince complain of a settlement made by some persons of a distant tribe
in the inland part of his dominions, whom he should be obliged to expel
from thence, in order to prevent the waste of his old woods. This seemed
a superfluous act of precaution in an island which strikes the eye as one
general, impervious, and inexhaustible forest.

On the approach of the dry monsoon (April and May) or in the course
Mode of clear- of it, the husbandman makes choice of a spot for his ladang , or plantation
ground!*6 of upland rice, for that season, and marks it out. Here it must be ob-
served that property in land depends upon occupancy, unless where
fruit-bearing trees have been planted, and as there is seldom any deter-
mined boundary between the lands of neighbouring villages, such marks
are rarely disturbed. Collecting his family and dependants he next pro-
ceeds to clear the ground. This is an undertaking of immense labour,
and would seem to require herculean force, but it is effected by skill and
perseverance. The work divides itself into two parts. The first (called
tebbas, menebbas ) consists in cutting down the brushwood, and rank vege-
tables, which are suffered to dry during an interval of a fortnight, or
more or less, according to the fairness of the weather, before they pro-
ceed to the second operation (called tebbang , menebbang ) of felling the
large trees. Their tools, the prang and billiong (the former resembling
a bill-hook, and the latter an imperfect adze) are seemingly inadequate
to the task, and the saw is unknown in the country. Being regardless
of the timber, they do not fell the tree near the ground, where the stem

and drovers are in the practice of setting fire to that which grows on the plains, by the road-
side, that the young shoots which thereupon shoot up, may afterwards supply food to their
buffaloes .

SUMATRA.

is thick, but erect a stage, and begin to hew, or chop rather, at the
height of ten or twelve, to twenty or thirty feet, where the dimensions
are smaller (and sometimes much higher, taking off little more than the
head) until it is sufficiently weakened to admit of their pulling it down
with rattans made fast to the branches, instead of ropes.* And
thus by slow degrees the whole is laid low. In some places, however, a
more summary process is attempted. It may be conceived that in the
woods the cutting down trees singly is a matter of much difficulty, on
account of the twining plants which spread from one to the other and
connect them strongly together. To surmount this, it is not an uncom-
mon practice to cut a number of trees half-through, on the same side,
and then fix upon one of great bulk, at the extremity of the space
marked out, which they cut nearly through, and having disengaged it
from these Hanes (as they are termed in the western world) determine its
fall in such a direction as may produce the effect of its bearing down by
its prodigious weight all those trees which had been previously weakened
for the purpose. By this much time and labour are saved, and the ob-
ject being to destroy and not to save the timber, the rending or otherwise
spoiling the stems is of no moment. I could never behold this devasta-
tion without a strong sentiment of regret. Perhaps the prejudices of a
classical education taught me to respect those aged trees as the habita-
tion or material frame of an order of sylvan deities, who were now de-
prived of existence by the sacrilegious hand of a rude, undistinguishing
savage. But without having recourse to superstition, it is not difficult to
account for such feelings on the sight of a venerable wood, old, to appear-
ance, as the soil it stood on, and beautiful beyond what pencil can de-
scribe, annihilated for the temporary use of the space it occupied. It
seemed a violation of nature, in the too arbitrary exercise of power. The
timber, from its abundance, the smallness of consumption, and its dis-
tance in most cases from the banks of navigable rivers, by which means
alone it could be transported to any distance, is of no value ; and trees
whose bulk, height, straightness of stem, and extent of limbs, excite the
admiration of a traveller, perish indiscriminately. Some of the branches
are lopped off, and when these, together with the underwood, are be-
come

* A similar mode of felling is described in the “ Maisen rustique dr Cayenne

SUMATRA,

come sufficiently arid, they are set fire to, and the country, for the
space of a month or two, is in a general blaze and smoke, until the whole
is consumed, and the ground effectually cleared. The expiring wood,
benificent to its ungrateful destroyer, fertilizes for his use, by its ashes
and their salts, the earth which it so long adorned.

Unseasonable wet weather at this period, which sometimes happens,
and especially when the business is deferred till the close of the dry or
south-east monsoon, whose termination is at best irregular, produces
much inconvenience by the delay of burning, till the vegetation has
had time to renew itself ; in which case the spot is commonly abandoned;
or, if partially burned, it is not without considerable toil that it can be
afterwards prepared for sowing. On such occasions there are impostors
ready to make a profit of the credulity of the husbandman who, like all
others whose employments expose them to risks, are prone to supersti-
tion, by pretending to a power of causing or retarding rain. One of
these will receive, at the time of burning the ladangs, a dollar or more
from each family in the neighbourhood, under the pretence of insuring
favourable weather for their undertaking. To accomplish this purpose,
he abstains, or pretends to abstain, for many days and nights, from food
and sleep, and performs various trifling ceremonies; continuing all the
time in the open air. If he espies a cloud gathering, he immediately
begins to smoke tobacco with great vehemence, walking about with a
quick pace, and throwing the puffs towards it with all the force of his
lungs. How far he is successful it is no difficult matter to judge. His
skill, in fact, lies in chusing his time, when there is the greatest pros-
pect of the continuance of fair weather in the ordinary course of nature:
but should he fail, there is an effectual salvo. He always promises to
fulfil his agreement with a Deo volente clause, and so attributes his occa-
sional disappointments to the particular interposition of the deity. The
cunning men who, in this and many other instances of conjuration, im-
pose on the simple country people, are always Malayan adventurers, and
not unfrequently priests. The planter whose labour has been lost by
such interruptions, generally finds it too late in the season to begin on
another ladang, and the ordinary resource for subsisting himself and fami-
ly, is to seek a spot of sazvah ground, whose cultivation is less dependant

upon

SUMATRA.

upon accidental variations of weather. In some districts much confusion
in regard to the period of sowing is said to have arisen from a very extra-
ordinary cause. Anciently, say the natives, it was regulated by the
stars, and particularly by the appearance (heliacal rising) of the bintang
baniak or pleiades; but after the introduction of the Mahometan religion,
they were induced to follow the returns of the puasa or great annual fast,
and forgot their old rules. The consequence of this was obvious ; for
the lunar year of the hejrah being eleven days short of the sydereal or
solar year, the order of the seasons was soon inverted ; and it is only
astonishing that its inaptness to the purposes of agriculture should not
have been immediately discovered.

When the periodical rains begin to fall, which takes place gradually Sowing,
about October, the planter assembles his neighbours (whom he assists in
turn), and with the aid of his whole family proceeds to sow his ground,
endeavouring to complete the task in the course of one day. In order
to ensure success, he fixes, by the priest’s assistance, on a lucky day,
and vows the sacrifice of a kid, if his crop should prove favourable; the
performance of which is sacredly observed, and is the occasion of a feast
in every family after harvest. The manner of sowing ( tugal-menugal )
is this. Two or three men enter the plantation, as it is usual to call the
pcidi-i ield, holding in each hand sticks about five feet long and two
inches diameter, bluntly pointed, with which, striking them into the
ground as they advance, they make small, shallow holes, at the distance
of about five inches from each other. These are followed by the women
and elder children with small baskets containing the seed-grain (saved
with care from the choicest of the preceding crop) of which they drop
four or five grains into every hole, and passing on, are followed by the
younger children, who with their feet (in the use of which the natives
are nearly as expert as with their hands) cover them lightly from the
adjacent earth, that the seed may not be too much exposed to the birds,
which, as might be expected, often prove destructive foes. The ground,
it should be observed, has not been previously turned up by any instru-
ment of the hoe or plough kind, nor would the stumps and roots of trees
remaining in it admit of the latter being worked; although employed
under other circumstances, as will hereafter appear. If rain succeeds,

the

SUMATRA.

Reaping.

the padi is above ground in four or five days ; but by an unexpected run
of dry weather, it is sometimes lost, and the field sowed a second time.
When it has attained a month or six weeks’ growth, it becomes necessary
to clear it of weeds ( siang-menyiang ), which is repeated at the end of
two months or ten weeks; after which the strength it has acquired is
sufficient to preserve it from injury in that way. Huts are now raised
in different parts of the plantation, from whence a communication is
formed over the whole by means of rattans, to which are attached scare-
crows, rattles, clappers, and other machines for frightening away the
birds, in the contrivance of which they employ incredible pains and
ingenuity; so disposing them that a child, placed in the hut, shall be
able, with little exertion, to create a loud, clattering noise, to a great
extent; and on the borders of the field are placed at intervals a species
of windmill fixed on poles, which, on the unexperienced traveller, have an
effect as terrible as those encountered by the knight of La Mancha.
Such precautions are indispensable for the protection of the corn, when
in the ear, against the numerous flights of the pipi, a small bird with a
light brown body, white head, and bluish beak, rather less than the
sparrow, which in its general appearance and habits it resembles. Se-
veral of these lighting at once upon a stalk of padi , and bearing it
down, soon clear it of its produce, and thus, if unmolested, destroy
whole crops.

At the time of sowing the padi, it is a common practice to sow also,
in the interstices, and in the same manner, jagong or maiz, which grow-
ing up faster, and ripening before it (in little more than three months)
is gathered without injury to the former. It is also customary to raise
in the same ground a species of momordica, the fruit of which comes for-
ward in the course of two months.

The nominal time allowed from the sowing to the reaping of the crop
is five lunar months and ten days ; but from this it must necessarily vary
with the circumstances of the season. When it ripens, if all at the same
time, the neighbours are again summoned to assist, and entertained for
the day : if a part only ripens first, the family begin to reap it, and proceed
through the whole by degrees. In this operation, called tuwei-menuzvei

from

SUMATRA.

7 3

from the instrument used, they take off the head of corn (the term of
“ ear ” not being applicable to the growth of this plant) about six inches
below the grain, the remaining stalk or halm being left as of no value.

The tuwei is a piece of wood about six inches long, usually of carved
work, and about two inches diameter, in which is fixed lengthwise a
blade of four or five inches, secured at the extremes by points bent to a
right angle, and entering the wood. To this is added a piece of very
small bamboo from two to three inches long, fixed at right angles across
the back of the wood, with a notch for receiving it, and pinned through
by a small peg. This bamboo rests in the hollow of the hand, one end
of the piece of wood passing between the two middle fingers, with the
blade outwards ; the natives always cutting from them.® With this in
the right hand, and a small basket slung over the left shoulder, they
very expeditiously crop the heads of padi one by one, bringing the stalk
to the blade with their two middle fingers, and passing them, when cut,
from the right hand to the left. As soon as the left hand is full, the
contents are placed in regular layers in the basket (sometimes tied up in
a little sheaf), and from thence removed to larger baskets, in which the
harvest is to be conveyed to the dtixun or village, there to be lodged in
the tangkian or barns, which are buildings detached from the dwelling-
houses, raised like them from the ground, widening from the floor to-
wards the roof, and well lined with boards or coolitcoy. In each
removal care is taken to preserve the regularity of the layers, by which
means it is stowed to advantage, and any portion of it readily taken out
for use.

Sawahs are plantations of padi in low, wet ground, which, during the Low ground
growth of the crop, in the rainy season between the months of October nce'
and March,5 are for the most part overflowed to the depth of six inches

The inhabitants of Menangkabau are said to reap with an instrument resembling a
sickle.

b In the Trans, of the Batavian Society the following mention is made of the cultivation
of rice in Java. The padi sawa is sown in low, watered grounds, in the month of March,
transplanted in April, and reaped in August. The padi tipar is sown in high, ploughed

L lands,

SUMATRA.

or a foot, beyond which latter the water becomes prejudicial. Leve
marshes, of firm bottom, under a moderate stratum of mud, and not
liable to deep stagnant water, are the situations preferred; the narrower
hollows, though very commonly used for small plantations, being more
liable to accidents from torrents and too great depth of water, which
the inhabitants have rarely industry enough to regulate to advantage by
permanent embankments. They are not, however, ignorant of such
expedients, and works are sometimes met with, constructed for the pur-
pose, chiefly, of supplying the deficiency of rain to several adjoining
saivahs, by means of sluices, contrived with no small degree of skill and
attention to levels.

In new ground, after clearing it from the brushwood, reeds, and aqua-
tic vegetables with which the marshes, when neglected are overrun, and
burning them at the close of the dry season, the soil is, in the begin-
ning of the wet, prepared for culture by different modes of working.
In some places a number of buffaloes, whose greatest enjoyment con-
sists in wading and rolling in mud, are turned in, and these by their
motions contribute to give it a more uniform consistence, as well as en-
rich it by their dung. In other parts less permanently moist, the soil
is turned up either with a wooden instrument between a hoe and a pick-
axe, or with the plough, of which they use two kinds ; their own, drawn
by one buffalo, extremely simple, and the wooden share of it doing little
more than scratch the ground to the depth of six inches; and one they
have borrowed from the Chinese, drawn either with one or two buffa-
loes, very light, and the share more nearly resembling ours, turning the
soil over as it passes, and making a narrow furrow. In sawahs, how-
ever, the surface has in general so little consistence, that no furrow is
perceptible, and the plough does little more than loosen the stiff mud to
some depth, and cut the roots of the grass and weeds, from which it is
afterwards cleared by means of a kind of harrow or rake, being a thick

plank

lands, in November, and reaped in March (earlier in the season than I could have sup-
posed). When sown where woods have been recently cut down, or in the clefts of the hills
(klooven van het gebergte) it is named padi gaga. Vol. 1. p. 27.

SUMATRA.

plank of heavy wood, with strong wooden teeth, and loaded with earth
where necessary. This they contrive to drag along the surface, for the
purpose, at the same time, of depressing the rising spots and filling up
the hollow ones. The whole being brought as nearly as possible to a
level, that the water may lie equally upon it, the sazvah is, for the more
effectual securing of this essential point, divided into portions nearly
square or oblong (called piring, which signifies a dish), by narrow banks
raised about eighteen inches, and two feet wide. These drying become
harder than the rest, confine the water, and serve the purpose of foot-
ways throughout the plantation. When there is more water in one
division than another, small passages are cut through the dams, to pro-
duce an equality. Through these apertures water is also, in some in-
stances, introduced from adjacent rivers or reservoirs, where such exist,
and the season requires their aid. The innumerable springs and rivulets
with which this country abounds, render unnecessary! the laborious pro-
cesses by which water is raised and supplied to the rice grounds in the
western part of India, where the soil is sandy : yet still the principal
art of the planter consists, and is required, in the management of this
article ; to furnish it to the ground in proper and moderate quantities,
and to carry it off from time to time by drains ; for if suffered to be long
stagnant, it would occasion the grain to rot.

Whilst the sawahs have been thus in preparation to receive the padi, a Transpianta-
small, adjacent, and convenient spot of good soil has been chosen, in
which the seed-grain is sown as thick as it can well lie on the ground,
and is then often covered with layers of lalang (long grass, instead of
straw) to protect the grain from the birds, and perhaps assist the vege-
tation. When it has grown to the height of from five to eight inches, or
generally at the end of forty days from the time of sowing, it is taken
up, in showery weather, and transplanted to the sawah, where holes are
made four or five inches asunder to receive the plants. If they appear
too forward, the tops are cropped off. A supply is at the same time
reserved in the seed-plots to replace such as may chance to fail upon
removal. These plantations, in the same manner as the ladangs, it
is necessary to cleanse from weeds at least twice in the first two or
three months ; but no maiz or other seed is sown among the crop. When

L 2 the

SUMATRA.

the padi begins to form the ear, or to blossom, as the natives express it,
the water is finally drawn off, and at the expiration of four months from
the time of transplanting, it arrives at maturity. The manner of guard-
ing against the birds is similar to what has been already described ; but
the low ground crop has a peculiar and very destructive enemy in the
rats, which sometimes consume the whole of it, especially when the
plantation has been made somewhat out of season ; to obviate which
evil, the inhabitants of a district sow by agreement pretty nearly at the
same time; whereby the damage is less perceptible. In the mode of
reaping, likewise, there is nothing different. Upon the conclusion of the
harvest it is an indispensable duty to summon the neighbouring priests
to the first meal that is made of the new rice, when an entertainment is
given according to the circumstances of the family. Should this cere-
mony be omitted, the crop would be accursed ( haram ), nor could the
whole household expect to outlive the season. This superstition has
been by the Mahometans judiciously engrafted on the stock of credulity
in the country people.

The same spot of low ground is for the most part used without regu-
lar intermission for several successive years, the degree of culture they
bestow by turning up the soil, and the overflowing water, preserving
its fertility. They are not, however, insensible to the advantage of oc-
casional fallows. In consequence of this continued use the value of the
sawah grounds differs from that of ladangs, the former being, in the
neighbourhood of populous towns particularly, distinct property, and of
regularly ascertained value. At Natal, for example, those containing
between one and two acres sell for sixteen to twenty Spanish dollars. In
the interior country, where the temperature of the air is more favourable
to agriculture, they are said to sow the same spot with ladang rice for
three successive years ; and there also it is common to sow onions as soon
as the stubble is burned off. Millet ( randa jawa ) is sown at the same
time with the padi. In the country of Manna , southward of Bencoolen,
a progress in the art of cultivation is discovered, superior to what appears
in almost any other part of the island; the Batta country, perhaps,
alone excepted. Here may be seen pieces of land in size from five to
fifteen acres, regularly ploughed and harrowed. The difference is thus

accounted

SUMATRA.

accounted for. It is the most populous district in that southern part,
with the smallest extent of sea-coast. The pepper plantations and la-
dangs together having in a great measure exhausted the old woods in the
accessible parts of the country, and the inhabitants being therein de-
prived of a source of fertility which nature formerly supplied, they
must either starve, remove to another district, or improve by cultivation
the spot where they reside. The first is contrary to the inherent prin-
ciple that teaches man to preserve life by every possible means : their
attachment to their native soil, or rather their veneration for the sepul-
chres of their ancestors, is so strong, that to remove would cost them a
struggle almost equal to the pangs of death : necessity, therefore, the
parent of art and industry, compels them to cultivate the earth. The Rate of pro-

diice.

produce of the grounds thus tilled is reckoned at thirty for one; from
those in the ordinary mode about an hundred fold on the average, the
ladangs yielding about eighty, and the sawahs an hundred and twenty.

Under favourable circumstances I am assured the rate of produce is
sometimes so high as an hundred and forty fold. The quantity sown
by a family is usually from five to ten bamboo measures or gallons. These
returns are very extraordinary compared with those of our wheat-fields
in Europe, which, I believe, seldom exceed fifteen, and are often under
ten. To what is this disproportion owing ? to the difference of grain,
as rice may be in its nature extremely prolific ? to the more genial in-
fluence of a warmer climate ? or to the earth’s losing by degrees her
fecundity, from an excessive cultivation ? Rather than to any of these
causes, I am inclined to attribute it to the different process followed in
sowing. In England the saving of labour and promoting of expedition
are the chief objects, and in order to effect these, the grain is almost
universally scattered in the furrows; excepting where the drill has been
introduced. The Sumatrans, who do not calculate the value of their
own labour or that of their domestics on such occasions, make holes in
the ground, as has been described, and drop into each a few grains;1

a In an address from the Bath Agricultural Society, dated 13th October, 1795, it is strongly
recommended to the cultivators of land (on account of the then existing scarcity of grain)
to adopt the method of dibbling wheat. The holes to be made either by the common dibble.

SUMATRA.

Fertility

soil.

or by a process still more tedious, raise the seed in beds, and then plant
it out. Mr. Charles Miller, in a paper published in the Phil. Trans,
has shewn us the wonderful effects of successive transplantation. How
far it might be worth the English farmer’s while to bestow more labour
in the business of sowing the grain, with the view of a proportionate in-
crease in the rate of produce, I am not competent, nor is it to my pre-
sent purpose, to form a judgment. Possibly as the advantage might be
found to lie rather in the quantity of grain saved in the sowing, than
gained in the reaping, it would not answer his purpose ; for although
half the quantity of seed-corn bears reciprocally the same proportion to
the usual produce, that double the latter does to the usual allowance of
seed, yet in point of profit the scale is different. To augment this, it
is of much more importance to increase the produce from a given quan-
tity of land, than to diminish the quantity of grain necessary for sowing
it.

Notwithstanding the received opinion of the fertility of what are call-
ed the Malay Islands, countenanced by the authority of M. Poivre and
other celebrated writers, and still more by the extraordinary produce of
grain, as above stated, I cannot help saying that I think the soil of the
western coast of Sumatra is in general rather steril than rich. It is for
the most part a stiff, red clay, burned nearly to the state of a brick,
where it is exposed to the influence of the sun. The small proportion
of the whole that is cultivated, is either ground from which old woods
have been recently cleared, whose leaves had formed a bed of vegetable
earth some inches deep, or else ravines into which the scanty mould of
the adjoining hills has been washed by the annual torrents of rain. It is
true, that in many parts of the coast there are, betweeen the cliffs and the

sea-beach,

or with an implement having four or more points in a frame, at the distance of about four
inches every way, and to the depth of an inch and half ; dropping two grains into every
hole. The man who dibbles is to move backwards, and to be followed by two or three women
or children, who drop in the grains. A bush-hurdle, drawn across the furrows by a single
horse, finishes the business. About six pecks of seed-wheat per acre are saved by this me-
thod. The expense of dibbling, dropping, and covering, is reckoned, in Norfolk, at about
six shillings per acre. (Times Newspaper of 20th of October, 1795.)

SUMATRA.

sea-beach, plains varying in breadth and extent, of a sandy soil, proba-
bly left by the sea, and more or less mixed with earth in proportion to
the time they have remained uncovered by the waters; and such are
found to prove the most favourable spots for raising the productions of
other parts of the world. But these are partial and insufficient proofs of
fertility. Every person who has attempted to make a garden of any kind
near Fort Marlborough, must well know how ineffectual a labour it
would prove, to turn up with the spade a piece of ground adopted at
random. It becomes necessary for this purpose to form an artificial soil
of dung, ashes, rubbish, and such other materials as can be procured.
From these alone he can expect to raise the smallest supply of vegetables
for the table. I have seen many extensive plantations of coconut, pinang ,
lime, and coffee-trees, laid out at a considerable expense by different
gentlemen, and not one do I recollect to have succeeded; owing, as it
would seem, to the barrenness of the soil, although covered with long
grass. These disappointments have induced the Europeans almost en-
tirely to neglect agriculture. The more industrious Chinese colonists,
who work the ground with indefatigable pains, and lose no opportunity
of saving and collecting manure, are rather more successful; yet have I
heard one of the most able cultivators among this people, who, by the
dint of labour and perseverance, had raised what then appeared to me a
delightful garden, designed for profit as well as pleasure, declare that
his heart was almost broken in struggling against nature ; the soil being
so ungrateful, that instead of obtaining an adequate return for his trouble
and expense, the undertaking was likely to render him a bankrupt ; and
which he would inevitably have been, but for assistance afforded him
by the East India Company.® The natives, it is true, without much or

any

* Some particular plants, especially the tea, Key Sun used to tell me he considered as his
children : his first care in the morning, and his last in the evening, was to tend and cherish
them. I heard with concern of his death soon after the first publication of this work, and
could have wished the old man had lived to know that the above small tribute of attention
had been paid to his merits as a gardener.

In a letter received from the late ingenious Mr. Charles Campbell, belonging to the me-
dical establishment of Fort Marlborough, whose communications I shall have future occasion

SUMATRA.

any cultivation raise several useful trees and plants; but they are in very
small quantities, and immediately about their villages, where the ground
is fertilized in spite of their indolence, by the common sweepings of their
houses and streets and the mere vicinity of their buildings. I have often
had occasion to observe, in young plantations, that those few trees which
surrounded the house of the owner, or the hut of the keeper, considera-
bly over-topped their brethren of the same age. Every person at first
sight, and on a superficial view of the Malayan countries, pronounces
them the favourites of nature, where she has lavished her bounties with
a profusion unknown in other regions, and laments the infatuation of the
people, who neglect to cultivate the finest soil in the world. But I have
scarcely known one, who, after a few years’ residence, has not entirely •
altered his opinion. Certain it is, that in point of external appearance
they may challenge all others to comparison. In many parts of Suma-
tra, rarely trodden by human foot, scenes present themselves adapted
to raise the sublimest sentiments in minds susceptible of the impression.
But how rarely are they contemplated by minds of that temper! and yet
it is alone

“ For such the rivers dash their foaming tides,

The mountain swells, the vale subsides,

The stately wood detains the wand’ring sight,

And the rough barren rock grows pregnant with delight.”

Even

to notice, he writes on the 29th of March, 1802, “ I must not omit to say a word about my
attempts to cultivate the land. The result of all my labours in that way was disappoint-
ment, almost as heart-breaking as that of the unlucky Chinaman ; whose example, however,
did not deter me. After many vexations, I descended from the plains into the ravines, and
there met with the success denied me on the elevated land. In one of these, through
which runs a small rivulet emptying itself into the lake of Dusun Besar , I attempted a plan-
tation of coffee, where there are now upwards of seven thousand plants firmly rooted and
putting out new leaves.” This cultivation has since been so much increased, as to become
an important article of commerce.

It should at the same time be acknowledged, that our acquaintance with the central and
eastern parts of the island is very imperfect, and that much fertile land may be found be-
yond the range of mountains.

SUMATRA.

Even where there are inhabitants, to how little purpose, as it respects
them, has she been profuse in ornament ! In passing through places
where my fancy was charmed with more luxuriant, wild, and truly pic-
turesque views than I had ever before met with, I could not avoid regret-
ting, that a country so captivating to the eye should be allotted to a race
of people who seem totally insensible of its beauties. But it is time to
return from this excursion, and pursue the progress of the husbandman
through his remaining labours.

Different nations have adopted various methods of separating the grain
from the ear. The most ancient we read of was that of driving cattle
over the sheaves, in order to trample it out. Large planks ; blocks of
marble ; heavy carriages, have been employed in later times for this end.
In most parts of Europe the flail is now in use, but in England begins
to be superseded by the powerful and expeditious, but complicated thresh-
ing-machine. The Sumatrans have a mode differing from all these.
The bunches of padi in the ear being spread on mats, they rub out the
grain between and under their feet; supporting themselves, in common,
for the more easy performance of this labour, by holding with their hands
a bamboo placed horizontally over their heads. Although, by going
always unshod, their feet are extremely callous, and therefore adapted
to the exercise, yet the workmen when closely tasked by their masters,
sometimes continue shuffling till the blood issues from their soles. This
is the universal practice throughout the island.

After treading out, or threshing, the next process is to winnow the corn,

( mengirei ), which is done precisely in the same manner as practised by
us. Advantage being taken of a windy day, it is poured out from a
sieve or fan ; the chaff dispersing, whilst the heavier grain falls to the
ground. I his simple mode seems to have been followed in all ages and
countries, though now giving place, in countries where the saving of
labour is a principal object, to mechanical contrivances.

In order to clear the grain from the husk, by which operation the padi
acquires the name of rice (bras), and loses one half of its measured quan-
tity, two bamboos of the former yielding only one of the latter, it is first

M spread

Modes of
threshing,

SUMATRA.

spread out in the sunshine to dry ( jumur ), and then pounded in large
wooden mortars ( lesung ), with heavy pestles (alu) made of a hard species
of wood, until the outer coat is completely separated from it ; when it is
again fanned. This business falls principally to the lot of the females of
the family, two of whom commonly work at the same mortar. In some
places (but not frequently) it is facilitated by the use of a lever, to the end
of which a short pestle or pounder is fixed ; and in others by a machine
which is a hollow cylinder or frustum of a cone, formed of heavy wood,
placed upon a solid block of the same diameter, the contiguous surfaces
of each being previously cut in notches or small grooves, and worked back-
wards and forwards, horizontally, by two handles or transverse arms ; a
spindle fixedin the centre of the lower cylinder serving as an axis to the
upper or hollow one. Into this the grain is poured, and it is thus made
to perform the office of the hopper, at the same time with that of the
upper, or moveable stone, in our mills. In working, it is pressed down-
wards to increase the friction, which is sufficient to deprive the padi of
its outer coating.

The rice is now in a state for sale, exportation, or laying up. To
render it perfectly clean for eating, a point to which they are particu-
larly attentive, it is put a second time into a lesung of smaller size, and
being sufficiently pounded without breaking the grains, it is again
winnowed, by tossing it dexterously in a flat sieve, until the pure and
spotless corns are separated from every particle of bran. They next wash
it in cold water, and then proceed to boil it in the manner before de-
scribed.

Rice as an
article of
trade.

As an article of trade, the Sumatran rice seems to be of a more perish-
able nature than that of some other countries, the upland rice not being
expected to keep longer than twelve months, and the low-land shewing
signs of decay after six. At Natal there is a practice of putting a quan-
tity of the leaves of a shrub called lagimdi (vitex trifolia) amongst it, in
granaries, or the holds of vessels, on the supposition of its possessing the
property of destroying or preventing the generation of weevils that usu-
ally breed in it. In Bengal, it is said, the rice intended for exportation
is steeped in hot water, whilst still in the husk, and afterwards dried by

exposure

SUMATRA,

exposure to the sun ; owing to which precaution, it will continue sound
for two or three years, and is on that account imported for garrison store
at the European settlements. If retained in the state of padi, it will keep
very long without damaging.1 2 The country people lay it up unthreshed
from the stalk, and beat it out (as we render their word tumbuk ) from
time to time as wanted for use or sale.

The price of this necessary of life differs considerably throughout the
island, not only from the circumstances of the season, but according to
the general demand at the places where it is purchased, the degree of
industry excited by such demand, and the aptitude of the country to
supply it. The northern parts of the coast, under the influence of the
Achinese, produce large quantities ; particularly Susu and Tampat-tuan,
where it is (or used to be) purchased at the rate of thirty bamboos (gal-
lons) for the Spanish dollar, and exported either to Achin or to the set-
tlement of Natal for the use of the Residency of Fort Marlborough. At
Natal also, and for the same ultimate destination, is collected the pro-
duce of the small island of Nias, whose industrious inhabitants, living
themselves upon the sweet potatoe (convolvulus batatas) cultivate rice
for exportation only, encouraged by the demand from the English and
(what were) the Dutch factories. Not any is exported from Natal of its
actual produce; a little from Ayer Bungi ; more from the extensive but
neglected districts of Pasaman and Masang , and many cargoes from the
country adjacent to Padang. Our pepper settlements to the northward
of Fort Marlborough, from Moco Moco to Laye inclusive, export each a
small quantity, but from thence southward to Kro'i, supplies are required
for the subsistence of the inhabitants, the price varying from twelve to
four bamboos, according to the season. At our head settlement the con-
sumption of the civil and military establishments, the Company’s labourers,
together with the Chinese and Malaj^an settlers, so much exceeds the
produce of the adjoining districts (although exempted from any obligation
to cultivate pepper) that there is a necessity for importing a quantity

from

1 I have in my possession specimens of a variety of species which were transmitted to me
twelve years ago, and are still perfectly sound.

M 2

SUMATRA.

Cocouut.

from the islands of Java and Bally, and from Bengal, about three to six-
thousand bags annually.3

The rice called pulat or bras sc-pulat (oryza gelatinosa) of which men-
tion has been made in the list (p. 66) is in its substance of a very pecu-
liar nature, and not used as common food, but with the addition of coco-
nut kernel, in making a viscous preparation called lemavg which I have
seen boiled in a green bamboo, and other juadahs or friandises. It is
commonly distinguished into the white, red, and black sorts, among
which the red appears to be the most esteemed. The black chiefly is
employed by the Chinese colonists at Batavia and Fort Marlborough in
the composition of a fermented liquor called bram or brum, of which the
basis is the juice extracted from a species of palm.

The Coconut tree, kalapa, mor (cocos nucifera) may be esteemed the
next important object of cultivation, from the uses to which its produce
is applied j although by the natives of Sumatr a it is not converted to such
a variety of purposes as in the Maldives and those countries where nature
has been less bountiful in other gifts. Its value consists principally in
the kernel of the nut, the consumption of which is very great, being an
essential ingredient in the generality of their dishes. From this also,
but in a state of more maturity, is procured the oil in common use near
the sea-coast, both for anointing the hair, in cookery, and for burning
in lamps. In the interior country other vegetable oils are employed, and
light is supplied by a kind of links made of dammar or resin. A liquor,
commonly known in India by the name of toddy, is extracted from this
as well as from other trees of the palm-kind. Whilst quite fresh it is
sweet and pleasant to the taste, and is called nira. After four and
twenty hours it acidulates, ferments, and becomes intoxicating, in which
state it is called tuak. Being distilled with molasses and other ingredi-
ents, it yields the spirit called arrack. In addition to these, but of tri-
fling importance, are the cabbage or succulent pith at the head of the

tree,

1 This has reference to the period between 1770 and 1780, generally. So far as respects
the natives there has been no material alteration.

SUMATRA.

tree, which, however, can be obtained only when it is cut down, and
the fibres of the leaves, of which the natives form their brooms. The
stem is never used for building, nor any carpenter’s purposes, in a
country where fine timber so much abounds. The fibrous substance of
the husk is not there manufactured into cordage, as in the west of India,
where it is known by the name of coir ; rattans and eju (a substance to
be hereafter described), being employed for that purpose. The shell of
the nut is but little employed as a domestic utensil, the lower class of
people preferring the bamboo and the labu (cucurbita lagenaria) ; and the
better sort being possessed of coarse china-ware. If the filaments sur-
rounding the stem are any where manufactured into cloth, as has been
asserted, it must be in countries that do not produce cotton, which is a
material beyond all comparison preferable : besides that certain kind of
trees, as before observed, afford, in their soft and pliable inner bark,
what may be considered as a species of cloth ready woven to their
hands.

This tree, in all its species, stages, fructification, and appropriate
uses, has been so elaborately and justly described by many writers, es-
pecially the celebrated Rumphius, in his Herbarium Amboinense, and
Van Rheede, in his Hortus Malabaricus, that to attempt it here would
be an unnecessary repetition, and I shall only add a few local observa-
tions on its growth. Every dusun is surrounded with a number of fruit-
bearing trees, and especially the coconut, where the soil and tempera-
ture will allow them to grow, and near the bazars or sea-port towns,
where the concourse of inhabitants is in general much greater than in
the country, there are always large plantations of them, to supply the
extraordinary demand. The tree thrives best in a low, sandy soil, near
the sea, where it will produce fruit in four or five years; whilst in the
clayey ground it seldom bears in less than seven to ten years. As you
recede from the coast the growth is proportion ably slower, owing to the
greater degree of cold among the hills ; and it must attain there nearly
its full height before it is productive, whereas in the plains a child can
generally reach its first fruit from the ground. Here, said a countryman
at Laxje, if I plant a coconut, or durian tree, I may expect to reap the
fruit of it ; but in Labun (an inland district) I should only plant for

SUMATRA.

my great-grandchildren. In some parts, where the land is particularly
high, neither these, the betelnut, nor pepper-vines, will produce fruit
at all.

It has been remarked by some writer, that the great date-bearing
palm-tree, and the coconut, are never found to flourish in the same coun-
try. However this may hold good as a general assertion, it is a fact that
not one tree of that species is known to grow in Sumatra, where the
latter, and many others of the palm kind, so much abound. All the
small low islands which lie off the western coast are skirted, near the
sea-beach, so thickly with coconut trees, that their branches touch each
other, whilst the interior parts, though not on a higher level, are en-
tirely free from them. This, beyond a doubt, is occasioned by the
accidental floating of the nuts to the shore, where they are planted by
the hand of nature, shoot up, and bear fruit; which, falling when it
arrives at maturity, causes a successive reproduction. Where uninha-
bited, as is the case with Pulo Mego, one of the southernmost, the nuts
become a prey to the rats and squirrels ; unless when occasionally dis-
turbed by the crews of vessels, which go thither to collect cargoes for
market on the main-land. In the same manner, as we are told by Fla-
court,® they have been thrown upon the coast of Madagascar, and are
not there indigenous; as I have been also assured by a native. Yet it
appears that the natives call it voaniou, which is precisely the name by
which it is familiarly known in Sumatra, being buah-nior ,• the v being
uniformly substituted for b, and f for p, in the numerous Malayan
words occurring in the language of the former island. On the other
hand, the singular production to which the appellation of sea- coconut
( kalapa laut) has been given, and which is known to be the fruit of a
species of borassus growing in one of the Sechelles Islands,1* not far from
Madagascar, are sometimes floated as far as the Malayan coasts, where
they are supposed to be natives of the ocean, and were held in high ve-
neration

* Histoire de I’isle Madagascar, p. 127.

b See a particular description of the sea-coconut, with plates, in the Voyage a la Nou'
velle Guinee, par Sonnerat, p. 3.

SUMATRA.

neration for their miraculous effects in medicine, until about the year
1772 a large cargo of them was brought to Bencoolen by a French ves-
sel, when their character soon fell with their price.

The pinang (areca catechu L.) or betel-nut tree (as it is usually, but Pinang or

iii- i-/v . . . betel-nut.

improperly, called, the betel being a different plant) is in its mode of
growth and appearance not unlike the coconut. It is, however, straight-
er in the stem, smaller in proportion to the height, and more graceful.

The fruit, of which the varieties are numerous, (such as the pinang betul,
pinang ambun, and p 'nang wangi) is, in its outer-coat, about the size of
a plumb ; the nut, something less than that of the nutmeg, but rounder.

This is eaten with the leaf of the strih or betel (piper betel L.) a climbing
plant, whose leaf has a strong aromatic flavour, and other stimulating
additions ; a practice that shall be hereafter described. Of both of these
the natives make large plantations.

In respect to its numerous and valuable uses, the bambu or bamboo- Bamboo,
cane (arundo bambos) holds a conspicuous rank amongst the vegetables
of the island, though I am not aware that, it is any where cultivated for
domestic purposes, growing wild, in most parts, in great abundance.

In the Batta country, and perhaps some other inland districts, they
plant a particular species very thickly about their kmnpongs or fortified
villages, as a defence against the attacks of an enemy ; the mass of hedge
which they form being almost impenetrable. It grows in common to
the thickness of a man’s leg, and some sorts to that of the thigh. The
joints are from fifteen to twenty inches asunder, and the length about
twenty to forty feet. In all manner of building it is the chief material,
both in its whole state, and split into laths and otherwise, as has already
appeared in treating of the houses of the natives; and the various other
modes of employing it will be noticed either directly or incidentally in the
course of the work.

The sugar-cane (tubbu) is very generally cultivated, but not in large Sugar-cane,
quantities, and more frequently for the sake of chewing the juicy reed,
which they consider as a delicacy, than for the manufacture of sugar.

Yet this is not unattended to, for home consumption, especially in the

northern

i 88

SUMATRA.

Jaggri.

Sago.

northern districts. By the Europeans and Chinese large plantations
have been set on foot near Bencoolen, and worked from time to time
with more or less effect ; but in no degree to rival those of the Dutch at
Batavia, from whence, in time of peace, the exportation of sugar ( gula)y
sugar-candy [gula batu) and arrack, is very considerable. In the southern
parts of the island, and particularly in the district of Manna, every vil-
lage is provided with two or three machines, of a peculiar construction,
for squeezing the cane; but the inhabitants are content with boiling the
juice to a kind of sirop. In the Lampong country they manufacture
from the liquor yielded by a species of palm-tree, a moist, clammy,
imperfect kind of sugar, called jaggri in most parts of India.*

This palm, named in Sumatra anau, and by the eastern Malays go-
muto, is the borassus gomutus of Loureiro, the saguerus pinnatus of the
Batavian Transact, and the cleophora of Gaertner. Its leaves are long
and narrow, and though naturally tending to a point, are scarcely ever
found perfect, but alwaysjagged at the end. The fruit grows in bunches
of thirty or forty together, on strings three or four feet long, several of
which hang from one shoot. In order to procure the /lira or toddy (held
in higher estimation than that from the coconut-tree), one of these shoots
for fructification is cut off a few inches from the stem, the remaining
part is tied up and beaten, and an incision is then made, from which
the liquor distils into a vessel or bamboo closely fastened beneath. This
is replaced every twenty-four hours. The anau palm produces also (be-
side a little sago) the remarkable substance called iju and gomuto, exactly
resembling coarse black horse-hair, and used for making cordage of a
very excellent kind, as well as for many other purposes, being nearly
incorruptible. It encompasses the stem of the tree, and is seemingly
bound to it by thicker fibres or twigs, of which the natives make pens
for writing. Toddy is likewise procured from the lontar or borassus
flabellifer, the tala of the Hindus.

The Rambiya, puhn sagu, or proper sago tree, is also of the palm kind.

Its

‘ This word is evidently the sliakar of the Persians, the Latin saccharum, and our sugar.

SUMATRA.

Its trunk contains a farinaceous and glutinous pith, that being soaked,
dried, and granulated, becomes the sago of our shops, and has been too
frequently and accurately described (by Rumphius, in particular, Vol. I.
ch. 17 and 18, and by M. Poivre) to need a repetition here.

The nibong (caryota urens), another species of palm, grows wild in Nibong.
such abundance, as not to need cultivation. The stem is tall, slender,
and straight, and being of a hard texture on the outer part, it is much
used for posts in building the slight houses of the country, as well as for
paling of a stronger kind than the bamboo usually employed. Within-
side it is fibrous and soft, and when hollowed out, being of the nature
of a pipe, is well adapted to the purpose of gutters or channels to con-
vey water. The cabbage, as it is termed, or pith at the head of the
tree (the germ of the foliage) is eaten as a delicacy, and preferred to
that of the coconut.

The nipah, (cocos nypa, Lour.) a low species of palm, is chiefly valu- Nipah.
able for its leaves, which are much used as thatch for the roofs of houses.

The pulpy kernels of the fruit (called buah atap) are preserved as a
sweetmeat, but are entirely without flavour.

The paku bindu (cycas circinalis) has the general appearance of a Cycas.
young, or rather dwarf coconut-tree, and like that and the nibong pro-
duces a cabbage that is much esteemed as a culinary vegetable. The
tender shoots are likewise eaten. The stem is short and knobby, the
lower part of each branch (if branches they may be called) prickly, and
the blossom yellow. The term paku , applied to it by the Malays, shews
that they consider it as partaking of the nature of the fern (filix), and
Rumphius, who names it sapor calappa and olus calappoides, describes
it as an arborescent species of osmunda. It is well depicted in Vol. I.
tab. 22.

The maiz or Turkey-corn (zea mays), called jagong, though very Maiz.
generally sown, is not cultivated in quantities as an article of food, ex-
cepting in the Batta country. The ears are plucked whilst green, and,
being slightly roasted on the embers, are eaten as a delicacy. Chili or

N Cayenne

S U M A T R A.

Cayenne pepper (capsicum), called improperly lada panjang or long
pepper, and also lada merah, red pepper, which, in preference to the
common or black pepper, is used in their curries and with almost every
article of their food, always finds a place in their irregular and inartifi-
cial gardens. To these, indeed, their attention is very little directed,
in consequence of the liberality with which nature, unsolicited, supplies
their wants. Turmeric (curcuma) is a root of general use. Of this
there are two kinds, the one called kunyit merah, an indispensable ingre-
dient in their curries, pilaws, and sundry dishes ; the other, kunyit tummu
(a variety with coloured leaves, and a black streak running along the
mid-rib) is esteemed a good yellow dye, and is sometimes employed in
medicine. Ginger (amomum zinziber) is planted in small quantities.
Of this, also, there are two kinds, alia jai (zinziber majus), and alia
padas (zinziber minus), familiarly called se-pade or se-pudde, from a word
signifying that pungent, acrid, taste in spices, which we express by the
vague term cc hot.” The tummu (costus arabicus), and lampuyang (amo-
mum zerumbet), are found both in the wild and cultivated state, being
used medicinally; as is also the galangale (krempferia galanga). The
coriander, called katumbar, and the cardamum, puah lako, grow in abund-
ance. Of the puali (amomum) they reckon many species, the most com-
mon of which has very large leaves, resembling those of the plantain
and possessing an aromatic flavour not unlike that of the bay tree.
The jintan or cumin-seed (cuminum) is sometimes an ingredient in cur-
ries. Of the Morunggei or kelor (guilandina moringa L. hyperanthera
moringa Wilden.), a tall shrub with pinnated leaves, the root has the
appearance, flavour, and pungency of the horse-radish, and the long
pods are dressed as a culinary vegetable ; as are also the young shoots of
the pringgi (cucurbita pepo), various sorts of the lapang or cucumber,
and of the lobak or radish. The inei or henna of the Arabians (lawsonia
inermis) is a shrub with small light-green leaves, yielding an expressed
juice, with which the natives tinge the nails of their hands and feet.
Ampalas (delima sarmentosa and ficus ampelos) is a shrub whose blossom
resembles that of our hawthorn in appearance and smell. Its leaf has
an extraordinary roughness, on which account it is employed to give the
ast fine polish to carvings in wood and ivory, particularly the handles
and sheaths of their krises, on which they bestow much labour. 1 he

leaf

SUMATRA.

leaf of the sipit also, a climbing species of fig, having the same quality,
is put to the same use. Ganja or hemp (cannabis) is extensively cul-
tivated, not for the purpose of making rope, to which they never apply
it, but to make an intoxicating preparation, called bang, which they
smoke in pipes along with tobacco. In other parts of India a drink is
prepared by bruising the blossoms, young leaves, and tender parts of the
stalk. Small plantations of tobacco, which the natives call tambaku, are
met with in every part of the country. The leaves are cut, whilst green,
into fine shreds, and afterwards dried in the sun. The species is the
same as the Virginian, and were the quantity increased, and people
more expert in the method of curing it, a manufacture and trade of con-
siderable importance might be established.

The kaluwi is a species of urtica or nettle, of which excellent twine, Pniastwme.
called pulas, is made. It grows to the height of about four feet, has a
stem imperfectly ligneous, without branches. When cut down, dried,
and beaten, the rind is stripped off, and then twisted as we do the hemp.

It affords me great satisfaction to learn that the manufacture of rope
from this useful plant has lately attracted the attention of the Company’s
Government, and that a considerable nursery of the kaluwi has been
established in the Botanic Garden at Calcutta, under the zealous and
active management of Dr. Roxburgh, who expresses his opinion, that so
soon as a method shall be discovered of removing a viscid matter found to
adhere to the fibres, the kaluwi hemp, or pulas, will supersede every
other material. The bagu tree (gnetum gnemon, L.) abounds on the
southern coast of the island, where its bark is beaten, like hemp, and the
twine manufactured from it is employed in the construction of large
fishing nets. The young leaves of the tree are dressed in curries. In
the island of Nias they make a twine of the baru tree (hibiscus tiliaceus),
which is afterwards woven into a coarse cloth for bags. From the pisang
(musa) a kind of sewing-thread is procured by stripping filaments from
the mid-ribs of the leaves as well as from the stem. In some places this
thread is worked in the loom. The kratau, a dwarf species of mulberry
(morus, foliis profunde incisis) is planted for the food of the silk-worms,
which they rear, but not to any great extent, and the raw silk produced
from them seems of but an indifferent quality. The samples I have seen

N 2

were

SUMATRA.

were white instead of yellow, in large, flat cakes, which would require
much trouble to wind off, and the filaments appeared coarse; but this
may be partly occasioned by the method of loosening them from the bags,
which is by steeping them in hot water. Jarak (ricinus and palma
christi) from whence the castor oil is extracted, grows wild in abundance,
especially near the sea-shore. Bijin (sesamum indicum) is sown exten-
sively in the interior districts, for the oil it produces, which is there used
for burning, in place of the coconut-oil so common near the coast.

Elastic gum. In the description of the urceola elastica, or caout-chouc vine, of Su-
matra and Pulo-Pinang, by Dr. W. Roxburgh, in the Asiat. Res. Vol. V.
p. 167, he says, “ For the discovery of this useful vine, we are, I be-
lieve, indebted to Mr. Howison, late surgeon at P. Pinang ; but it would
appear he had no opportunity of determining its botanical character.
To Dr. Charles Campbell, of Fort Marlborough, we owe the gratifica-
tion arising from a knowledge thereof. About twelve months ago I
received from that gentleman, by means of Mr. Fleming, very complete
specimens, in full foliage, flower, and fruit. From these I was enabled
to reduce it to its class and order in the Linnaean system. It forms a
new genus immediately after tabernasmontana, and consequently belongs
to the class called contortae. One of the qualities of the plants of this
order is, their yielding, on being cut, a juice which is generally milky,
and for the most part deemed of a poisonous nature.” Of another plant,
producing a similar substance, I received the following information from
Mr. Campbell, in a letter dated in November, 1803: “ You may re-
member a trailing plant with a small yellowish flower, and a seed vessel
of an oblong form, containing one seed; the whole plant resembling
much the caout-chouc. To this, finding it wholly non-descript, I have
taken the liberty to attach your name. It has no relationship to a
genus yielding a similar substance, of which I sent a specimen to Dr.
Roxburgh at Bengal, who published an account of it under the name of
urceola. It is called jintan by the Malays, and of its three species I
have accurately ascertained two, the jintan itam and jintan burong, the
latter very rare. Its leaves are of a deep glossy green, and the flowers
lightly tinged with a pale yellow; it belongs to the tetrandria, and is a
handsome plant — but more of this with the drawing.” Unfortunately,

however,

SUMATRA.

however, neither this drawing, nor any part of his valuable collection
of materials for improving the natural history of that interesting country,
which he bequeathed to me by his will, have yet reached my hands.

Mr. Charles Miller observed in the country, near Bencoolen, a gum
exuding spontaneously from the paty tree, which appeared very much
to resemble the gum-arabic ; and as they belong to the same genus of
plants, he thought it not improbable that this gum might be used for the
same purposes. In the list of new species by F. Norona (Batav. Trans.
Vol. V.) he gives to the pete of Java the name of acacia gigantea; which
I presume to be the same plant.

Kachang is a term applied to all sorts of pulse, of which a great variety
is cultivated; as the kachang china (dolichos sinensis), kachang pntih
(dolichos katjang), k. ka-karah (d. lignosus), k. kechil (phaseolus radiatus),
k. ka-karah gatal (dolichos pruriens) and many others. The kachang
tanah (arachis hypogsea) is of a different class, being the granulose roots
(or, according to some, the self-buried pods) of an herb with a yellow,
papilionaceous flower, the leaves of which have some resemblance to the
clover, but double only, and like it, affords rice pasture for cattle. The
seeds are always eaten fried or parched, from whence they obtain their
common appellation of kachang goring.

The variety of roots of the yam and potatoe kind, under the general
name of ubi, is almost endless; the dioscorea being generally termed
ubi kechil (small), and the convolvulus, ubi gaddng (large) ; some of which
latter, of the sort called at Bencoolen the China yam, weigh as much as
forty pounds, and are distinguished into the white and the purple. The
fruit of the trong (melongena), of which the egg-plant is one species, is
much eaten by the natives, split and fried. They are commonly known
by the name of brinjals, from the beringelhas of the Portuguese.

Tarum or indigo (indigofera tinctoria) being the principal dye-stuff
they employ, the shrub is always found in their planted spots ; but they
do not manufacture it into a solid substance, as is the practice elsewhere.
The stalks and branches having lain for some days in water to soak and

macerate,

Gum.

Pulse.

Yams.

Dye-stuft'?.

Indigo.

SUMATRA.

Kasumba.

macerate, they then boil it, and work among it with their hands a smalt
quantity of chunam (quick lime, from shells), with leaves of the paku
sabba ( a species of fern) for fixing the colour. It is afterwards drained
off, and made use of in the liquid state.

There is another kind of indigo, called in Sumatra thrum akar , which
appears to be peculiar to that country, and was totally unknown to bo-
tanists to whom I shewed the leaves upon my return to England in the
beginning of the year 1780. The common kind is known to have small
pinnated leaves growing on stalks imperfectly ligneous. This, on the
contrary, is a vine, or climbing plant, with leaves from three to five inches
in length, thin, of a dark green, and in the dried state discoloured with
blue stains. It yields the same dye as the former sort ; they are pre-
pared also in the same manner, and used indiscriminately, no preference
being given to the one above the other, as the natives informed me ; ex-
cepting inasmuch as the thrum akar , by reason of the largeness of the
foliage, yields a greater proportion of sediment. Conceiving it might
prove a valuable plant in our colonies, and that it was of importance in
the first instance that its identity and class should be accurately ascer-
tained, I procured specimens of its fructification, and deposited them
in the rich and extensively useful collection of my friend Sir Joseph
Banks. In a paper on the Asclepiadeae, highly interesting to botanical
science, communicated by Mr. Robert Brown (who has lately explored
the vegetable productions of New Holland and other parts of the East)
to the Wernerian Society of Edinburgh, and printed in their Transac-
tions, he has done me the honour of naming the genus to which this
plant belongs, Marsdenia, and this particular species Marsdenia tinc-
torial

Under the name of kasumba are included two plants yielding materials
for dying, but very different from each other. The kasumba (simply) or

kasumba

a “ 2. M. caule volubili, foliis cordatis ovato-oblongis acuminatis glabriusculis basi antice
glandulosis, tbyrsis lateralibus, fauce barbata. Tarram akkar Marsd. Sumat. p. 78, edit.2cL
Hab. In insula Sumatra, (v. s. in Herb. Banks.)

SUMATRA.

kasumba jazva, as it is sometimes called, is the carthamus tinctorius, of
which the flowers are used to produce a saffron colour, as the name im-
ports. The kasumba kling or galuga. is the bixa orellana, or arnotto of
the West Indies. Of this the capsule, about an inch in length, is co-
vered with soft prickles or hair, opens like a bivalve shell, and contains
in its cavities a dozen or more seeds, the size of grape-stones, thickly
covered with a reddish farina, which is the part that constitutes the

<tye-

Sapang , the Brazil-wood, ( ccesalpinia sappan ), whether indigenous or
not, is common in the Malayan countries. The heart of this being cut
into chips, steeped for a considerable time in water, and then boiled, is
used for dying here, as in other countries. The cloth or thread is re-
peatedly dipped in this liquid, and hung to dry between each wetting,
till it is brought to the shade required. To fix the colour, alum is added
in the boiling.

Of the tree called bangkudu in some districts, and in others mangkudu
(morinda umbellata) the outward parts of the root, being dried, pounded,
and boiled in water, afford a red dye ; for fixing which, the ashes pro-
cured from the stalks of the fruit and midribs of the leaves of the coconut
are employed. Sometimes the bark or wood of the sapang tree is mixed
with these roots. It is to be observed that another species of bajigkudu,
with broader leaves (morinda citrifolia) does not yield any colouring mat-
ter ; but is, as I apprehend, the tree commonly planted in the Malayan
peninsula and in Pido Pinang, as a support to the pepper vine.

Ubar is a red wood resembling the logwood ( hamatoxylon ) of Hondu-
ras, and might probably be employed for the same purpose. It is used
by the natives in tanning twine for fishing nets, and appears to be the
okir or tanarius major of Rumph. Vol. III. p. 192. and jambolifera rezi-
noso of Lour. FI. C. C. p. 231. Their black dye is commonly made
from the coats of the mangostin fruit and of the kataping (terminalia
catappa). With this the blue cloth from the west of India is changed to
a black, as usually worn by the Malays of Menangkabau . It is said to
be steeped in mud in order to fix the colour.

The

Red wood.

SUMATRA.

The roots of the chapada or champadak (artocarpus integrifolia) cut
into chips and boiled in water produce a yellow dye. To strengthen the
tint, a little turmeric (the kunyit tumma or variety of curcuma already
spoken of) is mixed with it, and alum to fix it ; but as the yellow does
not hold well, it is necessary that the operation of steeping and drying
should be frequently repeated.

Fruits y

SUMATRA.

Fruits, Flowers, Medicinal Shrubs and Herbs.

Nature, says a celebrated writer,1 seems to have taken a pleasure in Fruit*,
assembling in the Malayan countries her most favourite productions;
and with truth I think it may be affirmed, that no region of the earth
can boast an equal abundance and variety of indigenous fruits ; for al-
though the whole of those hereafter enumerated cannot be considered as
such, yet there is reason to conclude that the greater part may ; for the
natives, who never appear to bestow the smallest labour in improving or
even in cultivating such as they naturally possess, can hardly be sus-
pected of taking the pains to import exotics. The larger number grow
wild, and the rest are planted in a careless, irregular manner about their
villages.

The mangustin, called by the natives manggis and manggista (garcinia Mangustin.
mangostana, L.) is the pride of these, countries, 10 which it. exclusively
belongs, and has, by general consent, obtained, in the opinion of Eu-
ropeans, the pre-eminence amongst Indian fruits. Its characteristic
quality is extreme delicacy of flavour, without being rich or luscious. It
is a drupe of a brownish red colour, and the size of a common apple,
consisting of a thick rind, somewhat hard on the outside, but soft and
succulent within, encompassing kernels which are covered with a juicy

and

a “ Les terres possedees par les Malais, sont en general de tres-bonne qualite. La nature
semble avoir pris plaisir d’y placer ses plus excellentes productions. On y voit tous les
fruits delicieux que j’ai dit se trouver sur le territoire de Siam, et une multitude d’autres
fruits agreables qui sont particulars a ces isles.” “ On y respire un air embaume par une
multitude de fleurs agreables qui se succedent toute l’ann^e, et dont 1’odeur suave penetre
jusqu’ a fame, et inspire la volupte la plus seduisante. II n’est point de voyageur qui en
se promenant dans les campagnes de Malacca, ne se sente invite a fixer son sejour dans un
lieu si plein d’ agremens, dont la nature seule a fait tous les frais.”

Voyages d’un Philosop/ie, par M. Poivre, p. 56.

SUMATRA.

Durian.

Bread-fruit.

and perfectly white pulp, which is the part eaten, or, more properly,
sucked, for it dissolves in the mouth. Its qualities are as innocent as
they are grateful, and the fruit may be eaten in any moderate quantity
without danger of surfeit, or other injurious effects. The returns of its
season appeared to be irregular, and the periods short.

The durian (durio zibethinus) is also peculiar to the Malayan coun-
tries. It is a rich fruit, but strong, and even offensive, in taste as well as
smell, to those who are not accustomed to it, and of a very heating qua-
lity; yet the natives (and others who fall into their habits) are passion-
ately addicted to it, and during the time of its continuing in season live,
almost wholly upon its luscious and cream-like pulp ; whilst the rinds,
thrown about in the bazars, communicate their scent to the surrounding
atmosphere. The tree is large and lofty ; the leaves are small in pro-
portion, but in themselves long and pointed. The blossoms grow in
clusters on the stem and larger branches. The petals are five, of a yel-
lowish white, surrounding five branches of stamina, each bunch con-
taining about twelve, and each stamen having four antherae. The pointal
is knobbed at top. When the stamina and petal fall, the empalement
resembles a fungus, nr»H n^oi-ly in shape, a Scot’s bonnet. The fruit is
in its general appearance not unlike the bread-fruit, but larger, and its
coat is rougher.

The sukan kapas, and sukun biji or kalawi, are two species of the
bread-fruit tree (artocarpus incisa). The former is the genuine, edible
kind, without kernels, and propagated by cuttings of the roots. Though
by no means uncommon, it is said not to be properly a native of Suma-
tra. The kalawi, on the contrary, is in great abundance, and its bark
supplies the country people with a sort of cloth for their working dresses,
The leaves of both species are deeply indented, like those of the fig, but
considerably longer. The bread-fruit is cut in slices, and, being boiled
or broiled on the fire, is eaten with sugar, and much esteemed. It can-
not, however, be considered as an article of food, and I suspect that
in quality it is inferior to the bread-fruit of the South-Sea Islands.

Jack-fruit.

The Malabaric name of jacca, or the jack-fruit, is applied both to

SUMATRA.

the champadak or chapada (artocarpus integrifolia, L. and polyphemajaca,

Lour.) and to the nangka (artocarpus integrifolia, L. and polyphema
champeden. Lour). Of the former the leaves are smooth and pointed ;
of the latter they are roundish, resembling those of the Cashew. This
is the more common, less esteemed, and larger fruit, weighing, in
some instances, fifty or sixty pounds. Both grow in a peculiar manner
from the stem of the tree. The outer coat is rough, containing a num-
ber of seeds or kernels (which, when roasted, have the taste of chesnuts)
inclosed in a fleshy substance, of a rich, and to strangers too strong smell
and flavour, but which gains upon the palate. When the fruit ripens,
the natives cover it with mats, or the like, to preserve it from injury by
the birds. Of the viscous juice of this tree they make a kind of bird-
lime : the yellow wood is employed for various purposes, and the root
yields a dye-stuff.

The mango, called mangga and mampalam (mangifera indica, L.) is Mango,
well known to be a rich, high-flavoured fruit of the plumb kind, and is
found here in great perfection ; but there are many inferior varieties,
beside the ambachang, or mangifera foetida, and the tais.

Of the jambu (eugenia, L.) there are several species, among which Jambu.
th ejambu merah or kling (eug. malaccensis) is the most esteemed for the
table, and is also the largest. In shape it has some resemblance to the
pear, but is not so taper near the stalk. The outer skin, which is very
fine, is tinged with a deep and beautiful red, the inside being perfectly
white. Nearly the whole substance is edible, and when properly ripe
it is a delicious fruit ; but otherwise, it is spongy and indigestible. In
smell, and even in taste, it partakes much of the flavour of the rose; but
this quality belongs more especially to another species, called jambu ayer
mawar , or the rose-water jambu. Nothing can be more beautiful than
the blossoms, the long and numerous stamina of which are of a bright pink
colour. The tree grows in a handsome, regular, conical shape, and has
large, deep-green, pointed leaves. The jambu ayer (eugenia aquea) is
a delicate and beautiful fruit in appearance, the colour being a mixture
of white and pink; but in its flavour, which is a faint, agreeable acid,
it does not equal the jambu merah.

O 2

100

SUMATRA.

Plantain. Of the pisctug, or plantain (musa paradisiaca, L.) the natives reckon
above twenty varieties, including the banana of the West Indies. Among
these the pisang amas, or small yellow plantain, is esteemed the most
delicate; and next to that the pisang raja, pisang dingen, and pisang
kalle.

Pine-apple. The nanaS} or pine-apple (bromelia ananas), though certainly not
indigenous, grows here in great plenty with the most ordinary culture.
Some think them inferior to those produced from hot-houses in England;
but this opinion may be influenced by the smallness of their price, which
does not exceed two or three pence. With equal attention, it is pro-
bable, they might be rendered much superior, and their variety is con-
siderable. The natives eat them with salt.

Oranges. Oranges f limau manis) of many sorts, are in the highest perfection.

That called limau japun, or Japan orange, is a fine fruit, not commonly
known in Europe. In this the cloves adhere but slightly to each other,
and scarcely at all to the rind, which contains an unusual quantity of
the essential oil. The limau gadang , or pum pie-nose (citrus aurantium),
called in the West Indies the shaddock (from the name of the captain
who carried them thither), is here very fine, and distinguished into the
white and red sorts. Limes or limau kapas, and lemons, limau kapas
panjang, are in abundance. The natives enumerate also the limau langga ,
limau kambing, limau pipit, limau sindi masam, and limau sindi manis.
The true citron, or limau karbau, is not common, nor in esteem.

Guava. The guava (psidium pomiferum) called jambu biji, and also jambu pro-

tukal (for Portugal, in consequence, as we may presume, of its having
been introduced by the people of that country) has a flavour which some
admire, and others equally dislike. The pulp of the red sort is some-
times mixed with cream by Europeans, to imitate strawberries, from a
fond partiality to the productions of their native soil ; and it is not un-
usual, amidst a profusion of the richest eastern fruits, to sigh for an
English codling or gooseberry.

Custard-apple. The siri kaya , or custard-apple (annona squamosa), derives its name

from

SUMATRA.

101

from the likeness which its white and rich pulp bears to a custard, and
it is accordingly eaten with a spoon. The norm, as it is called by the
natives (annona reticulata), is another species of the same fruit, but not
so grateful to the taste.

The kaliki, or papaw (carioa papaja), is a. large, substantial, and Papaw.
wholesome fruit, in appearance not unlike a smooth sort of melon, but
not very highly flavoured. The pulp is of a reddish yellow, and the
seeds, which are about the size of grains of pepper, have a hot taste like
cresses. The water-melon, called here samangka (cucurbita citrullus) is
of very fine quality. The rock, or musk melons, are not common.

Tamarinds, called asam jawa, or the Javan acid, are the produce of Tamarind,
a large and noble tree, with small pinnated leaves, and supply a grateful
relief in fevers, which too frequently require it. The natives preserve
them with salt, and use them as an acid ingredient in their curries and
other dishes. It may be remarked, that in general they are not fond of
sweets, and prefer many of their fruits whilst green, to the same in their
ripe state.

The rambutan (nephelium lappaceum,L. Mant.) is in appearance not Rambutan.
much unlike the fruit of the arbutus, but larger, of a brighter red, and
covered with coarser hair or soft spines, from whence it derives its name.

The part eaten is a gelatinous and almost transparent pulp surrounding
the kernel, of a rich and pleasant acid.

The lanseh, likewise but little known to botanists, is a small, oval Lanseh.
fruit, of a whitish brown colour, which, being deprived of its thin outer
coat, divides into five cloves, of which the kernels are covered with a
fleshy pulp, subacid, and agreeable to the taste. The skin contains a
clammy juice, extremely bitter, and, if not stripped with care, it is apt
to communicate its quality to the pulp. M. Correa de Serra, in les An-
nales duMus. d’ Hist. Nat. Tom.X. p. 157. pi. 7. has given a description
of the lansium domesticum, from specimens of the fruit preserved in the
collection of Sir Joseph Banks. The chupak, ayer-ayer, and rambe are
species or varieties of the same fruit.

102

SUMATRA.

Blimbing.

Kataping.

Species of
chesnut.

Kamiling.

Rattan.

Of the blimbing (averrhoa carambola) a pentagonal fruit, containing
five flattish seeds, and extremely acid, there are two sorts, called pen-
juru and besi. The leaves of the latter are small, opposite, and of a sap-
green; those of the former grow promiscuously, and are of a silver green.
There is also the blimbing buln (averrhoa billimbi), or smooth species.
Their uses are chiefly in cookery, and for purposes where a strong acid
is required, as in cleaning the blades ot their krises and bringing out the
damask, for which they are so much admired. The cheremi (averrhoa
acida) is nearly allied to the blimbing besi , but the fruit is smaller, of an
irregular shape, growing in clusters close to the branch, and containing
each a single hard seed or stone. It is a common substitute for our acid
fruits in tarts.

The kataping (terminalia catappa, L. and juglans catappa, Lour.)
resembles the almond both in its outer husk and the flavour of its kernel;
but instead of separating into two parts, like the almond, it is formed of
spiral folds, and is developed somewhat like a rose-bud, but continuous,
and not in distinct laminae.

The barangan (a species of fagus) resembles the chesnut. The tree
is large, and the nuts grow sometimes one, two, and three in a husk.
The jerring , a species of mimosa, resembles the same fruit, but is larger
and more irregularly shaped than the barangan. The tree is smaller. The
tapus (said to be a new genus belonging to the tricoccae) has likewise some
analogy, but more distant, to the chesnut. There are likewise three
nuts in one husk, forming in shape an oblong spheroid. If eaten un-
boiled, they are said to inebriate. The tree is large.

The fruit named kamtri, kamiling, and more commonly buah kras, or
the hard fruit (camirium cordifolium, Gaert. and juglans camirium, Lour.)
bears much resemblance to the walnut in the flavour and consistence of
the kernel; but the shell is harder, and does not open in the same
manner. The natives of the hills make use of it as a substitute for the
coconut, both in their cookery, and for procuring a delicate oil.

The rotan salak (calamus zalacca, Gasrt.) yields a fruit, the pulp of

which

SUMATRA.

10S

which is sweetish, acidulous, and pleasant. Its outer coat, like those
of the other rofans, is covered with scales, or the appearance of nice
basket-work. It incloses sometimes one, two, and three kernels, of a
peculiar horny substance.

The cashew-apple and nut, called jambu muniet, or monkey-jambu Cashew,
(anacardium occidentale), are well known for the strong acidity of the
former, and the caustic quality of the oil contained in the latter, from
tasting which the inexperienced often suffer.

The pomegranate or dalima (punica granatum) flourishes here, as in pomegranate,
all warm climates.

Grape-vines are planted with success by Europeans for their tables. Grapes, &c.
but not cultivated by the people of the country. There is found in the
woods a species of wild grape, called pringat (vitis indica) ; and also a
strawberry, the blossom of which is yellow, and the fruit has little fla-
vour. Beside these there are many other, for the most part wild fruits,
of which some boast a fine flavour, and others are little superior to our
common berries, but might be improved by culture. Such are the buah
kandis , a variety of garcinia (it should be observed that buah, signifying
fruit, is always prefixed to the particular name), buah malaka (phyllan-
thus emblica), rakam (carissa spinarum), bangkudu or mangkudu (mo-
rinda citrifolia), sikaduduk (melastoma), kitapan (callicarpa japonica).

“ You breathe in the country of the Malays (says the writer before Flower*,
quoted) an air impregnated with the odours of innumerable flowers of
the greatest fragrance, of which there is a perpetual succession through-
out the year, the sweet flavour of which captivates the soul, and inspires
the most voluptuous sensations.” Although this luxurious picture may
be drawn in too warm tints, it is not, however, without its degree of
justness. The people of the country are fond of flowers in the ornament
of their persons, and encourage their growth, as well as that of various
odoriferous shrubs and trees.

The kananga (uvaria cananga, L.) being a tree of the largest size, sur- Kananga.

passed

104

SUMATRA.

Cbampaka.

Tanjong.

Gardenia.

Hibiscus.

passed by few in the forest, may well take the lead, on that account, in
a description of those which bear flowers. These are of a greenish yel-
low, scarcely distinguishable from the leaves, among which the bunches
hang down in a peculiar manner. About sun-set, if the evening be
calm, they diffuse a fragrance around that affects the sense at the distance
of some hundred yards.

Champaka (michelia champaca). This tree grows in a regular, co-
nical shape, and is ornamental in gardens. The flowers are a kind of
small tulip, but close and pointed at top ; their colour a deep yellow ; the
scent strong, and at a distance agreeable. They are wrapped in the
folds of the hair, both by the women, and by young men who aim at
gallantry.

Bunga tanjong (mimusops elengi, L.) A fair tree, rich in foliage, of
a dark green; the flowers small, radiated, of a yellowish white, and
worn in wreaths by the women ; their scent, though exquisite at a dis-
tance, is too powerful when brought nigh. The fruit is a drupe, con-
taining a large, blackish, flatted seed.

Sangklapa (gardenia flore simplice). A handsome shrub with leaves
of very deep green, long-pointed; the flowers a pure white, without
visible stamina or pistil, the petals standing angularly to each other.
It has little or no scent. The pachah-piring (gardenia florida, described
by Rumph. under the name of catsjopiri) is a grand, white, double flower,
emitting a pleasing and not powerful odour.

The bunga raya (hibiscus rosa sinensis) is a well-known shrub, with
leaves of a yellowish green, serrated and curled. Of one sort the flower
is red, yielding a juice of deep purple, and when applied to leather
produces a bright black ; from whence its vulgar name of the shoe-flower.
Of another sort the blossom is white. They are without smell.

Bunga or kumbang kamboja (plumeria obtusa) is likewise named bunga
kubur-an, from its being always planted about graves. The flower is large,
white, yellow towards the centre, consisting of five simple, smooth,

thick

Plumeria.

SUMATRA.

105

thick petals, without visible pistil or stamina, and yielding a strong scent.

The leaf of the tree is long, pointed, of a deep green, remarkable in this,
that round the fibres proceeding from the midrib run another set near
the edge, forming a handsome border. The tree grows in a stunted, irre-
gular manner, and even whilst young has a venerable, antique appear-
ance.

The bunga malati and bung a malnr (nyctanthes sambac) are different Nyctanthes.
names for the same humble plant, called mugri in Bengal. It bears a
pretty, white flower, diffusing a more exquisite fragrance, in the opinion
of most persons, than any other of which the country boasts. It is much
worn by the females ; sometimes in wreaths, and various combinations,
along with the bunga tanjong, and frequently the unblown buds are
strung in imitation of rows of pearls. It should be remarked, that the
appellative bu?iga, or flower, (pronounced bungo in the south-western
parts of Sumatra), is almost ever prefixed to the proper name, as buah
is to fruits. There is also the malati china (nyctanthes multiflora) ; the
elegant bunga malati susun (nyctanthes acuminata); anH the celebrated
bunga tonking (pergularia odoratissimaj, >vhose fascinating sweets have Perguiaha.
been widely dispersed in England by the successful culture and liberal
participation of Sir Joseph Banks. At Madras it obtained the appella-
tion of West-coast, i.e. Sumatran creeper, which marks the quarter from
whence it was obtained. At Bencoolen, the same appellation is familiarly
applied to the bunga tali-tali (ipomoea quamoclit), a beautiful, little,
monopetalous flower, divided into five angular segments, and closing at
sunset. From its bright crimson colour, it received from Rumphius the
name of flos cardinalis. The plant is a luxuriant creeper, with a hair-
like leaf.

The angsuka, or bunga jarum-jarum (pavetta indica), obtained from Pavetta in-
Rumphius, on account of the glowing red colour of its long calices, the d,ca> &Cl
name of flamma sylvarum peregrina. The bunga marak (poinciana pul-
cherrima) is a most splendid flower, the colours being a mixture of yellow
and scarlet, and its form being supposed to resemble the crest of the
peacock, from whence its Malayan name, which Rumphius translated.

P The

106

SUMATRA.

Pandan.

Epidendra.

The ildgasari (calophyllum nagassari) bears a much admired blossom,
well known in Bengal ; but in the upper parts of India, called nagakeh-
sir, and in the Batavian Trans, acacia aurea. The bakong, or salaiidap
l(crinum Asiaticum), is a plant of the lily kind, with six large, white,
turbinated petals of an agreeable scent. It grows wild, near the beach,
amongst those plants which bind the loose sands. Another and beauti-
ful species of the bakong has a deep shade of purple mixed with the white.
The kachubong (datura metel) appears also to flourish mostly by the sea-
side. It bears a white, infundibuliform flower, rather pentagonal than
round, with a small hook at each angle. The leaves are dark green,
pointed, broad and unequal at the bottom. The fruit is shaped like an
apple, very prickly, and full of small seeds. Sundal malam or harlot
of the night (polyanthes tuberosa), is so termed, from the circumstance
of its diffusing its sweet odours at that season. It is the tuberose of our
gardens, but growing with great vigour and luxuriance. The bwiga
mazvur (rosa semperflorens, Curtis, No. 284), is small, and of a deep crim-
son colour. Tts scent is delicate, and by no means so rich as that yielded
by the mep« of on r climate. I he amaranth us cristatus (celosia castrensis,
L.) is probably a native, being found commonly in the interior of the
Batta country, where strangers have rarely penetrated. The various
species of this genus are called by the general name of bayam, of which
some are edible, as before observed.

Of tli e pandan (pandanus), a shrub with very long, prickly leaves, like
those of the pine-apple or aloe, there are many varieties, of which some
are highly fragrant, particularly the pandan wangi (pandanus odoratis-
sima, L.), which produces a brownish white spath or blossom, one or
two feet in length. This the natives shred fine and wear about their per-
sons. The pandan pudak, or keura of Thunberg, which is also fragrant,
I have reason to believe the same as the wangi. The common sort is
employed for hedging, and called caldera by Europeans in many parts
of India. In the Nicobar islands it is cultivated, and yields a fruit
called the melori, which is one of the principle articles of food.

Bunga aiiggrek (epidendrum). The species or varieties of this re-
markable tribe of parasitical plants are very numerous, and may be

said

SUMATRA.

said to exhibit a variety of loveliness. Kaempfer describes two kinds by
the names of angurek warna and katong’ging s the first of which I appre-
hend to be the anggrek bunga putri (angraecum scriptum, R.) and the
other the anggrek kasturi (angraecum moschatum, R.) or scorpion flower,
from its resembling that insect, as the former does the butter-fly. The
musky scent resides at the extremity of the tail.*

The buiiga tarati or seruja (nymphaea nelumbo) as well as several other
beautiful kinds of aquatic plants, are found upon the inland waters of Water lilies,
this country. Daum gandi or tabling bru (nepenthes destillatoria) can
scarcely be termed a flower, but is a very extraordinary climbing plant.

From the extremity of the leaf a prolongation of the mid-rib, resem-
bling the tendril of a vine, terminates in a membrane formed like a
tankard with the lid or valve half opened ; and growing always nearly
erect, it is commonly half full of pure water from the rain or dews.

This monkey-cup (as the Malayan name implies) is about four or five
inches long and an inch in diameter. Giving landak (crotalaria retusa)
is' a papilionaceous flower, resembling the lupin, yellow, and tinged
at the extremities with red. From the rattling of its seed in the pod it
obtains its name, which signifies porcupine-bells, alluding to the small
bells worn about the ancles of children. The daup (bauhinia) is a small,
white, semiflosculous flower, with a faint smell. The leaves alone
attract notice, being double, as if united by a hinge, and this peculi-
arity suggested the Linnaean name, which was given in compliment to
two brothers of the name of Bauhin, celebrated botanists, who always
worked conjointly.

To the foregoing list, in every respect imperfect, many interesting

plants

* “ Habetur hsec planta apud Javanos in deliciis et magno studio colitur ; turn ob floris
eximium odorem, quern spirat, moschi, turn ob singularem elegantiam et figuram scorpionis,

quam exhibet speetaculo sane jocundissimo, ut negem quicquam elegantius et

admiratione dignius in regno vegetabili me vidisse Odorem flos moschi ex-

quisitissimum atque adeo copiosum spargit, ut unicus stylus floridus totum conclave
impleat. Qui vero odor, quod maxime mireris, in extrema parte petali caudam referentis,
residet ; qu& abicissa, omnis cessat odoris expiratio.” Amoen exoticae, p. 868.

P 2

108

SUMATRA.

plants might be added by an attentive and qualified observer. The
natives themselves have a degree of botanical knowledge that surprises
Europeans. They are in general, and at a very early age, acquainted
not only with the names, but the properties of every shrub and herb
amongst that exuberant variety with which the island is clothed. They
distinguish the sexes of many plants and trees, and divide several of
the genera into as many species as our professors. Of the paku or fern
I have had specimens brought to me of twelve sorts, which they told
me were not the whole, and to each they gave a distinct name.

Medicinal Some of the shrubs and herbs employed medicinally are as follows,
herbs*

Scarcely any of them are cultivated, being culled from the woods or
plains as they happen to be wanted.

Lagundi (vitex trifolia, L.). The botanic characters of this shrub are
well known. The leaves, which are bitter and pungent rather than
aromatic, are considered as a powerful antiseptic, and are employed
in fevers in the place of Peruvian bark. They are also put into
granaries, and among cargoes of rice to prevent the destruction of the
grain by weevils.

Katupong resembles the nettle in growth; in fruit, the blackberry.
I have not been able to identify it. The leaf, being chewed, is used
in dressing small fresh wounds. Ship, a kind of wild fig, is applied
to the scurf or leprosy of the Nias people, when not inveterate.
Sikaduduk (melastoma) has the appearance of a wild rose. A decoction
of its leaves is used for the cure of a disorder in the sole of the foot,
called maltas, resembling the impetigo or ring- worm. Ampadu-bruang
or bear’s gall (brucea, foliis serratis) is the lussa raja of Rumphius,
excessively bitter, and applied in infusion, for the relief of disorders in
the bowels. Kabu (unknown). Of this the bark and root are used for
curing the kudis or itch, by rubbing it on the part affected. Maram-
puyan (a new genus). The young shoots of this, being supposed to
have a refreshing and corroborating quality, are rubbed over the body
and limbs after violent fatigue. Mali-mali (unknown). The leaf of
this plant, which bears a white umbellated blossom, is applied to reduce

swellings.

SUMATRA.

109

swellings. Chapo (conyza balsamifera) resembles the sage (salvia) in
colour, smell, taste, and qualities, but grows to the height of six feet,
has a long jagged leaf, and its blossom resembles that of groundsel.
Murribungan (unknown). The leaves of this climber are broad, round-
ish, and smooth. The juice of its stalk is applied to heal excoriations
of the tongue. Ampi-ampi (unknown). A climbing plant, with leaves
resembling the box, and a small flosculous blossom. It is used as a
medicine in fevers. Kadu (sp. of piper), with a leaf in shape and taste
resembling the betel. It is burned to preserve children newly-born
from the influence of evil spirits. Gumbai (unknown). A shrub with
monopitalous, stillated, purple flowers, growing in tufts. The leaves
are used in disorders of the bowels. Tabulan bukan (unknown). A
shrub bearing a semiflosculous blossom, applied to the cure of sore eyes.
Kachang prang (dolichos ensiformis). The pods of this are of a huge
size, and the beans, of a fine crimson colour, are used in diseases of
the pleura. Sipit, a species of fig, with a large oval leaf, rough to the
touch, and rigid. An infusion of it is swallowed in iliac affections.
Daun se-dingin (cotyledon laciniata). This leaf, as the name denotes,
is of a remarkably cold quality. It is applied to the forehead to cure
the head-ach, and sometimes to the body in fevers. Long pepper (piper
longum) is used medicinally. Turmeric, also, mixed with rice reduced
to powder, and then formed into a paste, is much used outwardly, in
cases of colds, and pains in the bones ; and chunam or quick lime, is
likewise commonly rubbed on parts of the body affected with pain. In
the cure of the kura or boss (from the Portuguese word ba9o), which is
an obstruction of the spleen, forming a hard lump in the upper part of
the abdomen, a decoction of the following plants is externally applied :
sipit tunggul ; madang tandok (a new genus, highly aromatic); ati aycr
(sp. of arum ?) tapa besi ; paku dong (a most beautiful fern, with leaves
like a palm; genus not ascertained) ; tapa badak (a variety of callicarpa);
laban (vitex altissima) ; pisang ruko (sp. of musa) ; and paku lamiding
(sp. of polypodium ?) ; together with a juice extracted from the akar
malabatei (unknown). In the cure of the kurap, tetter or ringworm,
they apply the daun galinggan (cassia quadri-alata) an herbaceous shrub,
with large pinnated leaves and a yellow blossom. In the more inveterate
cases, barangan (coloured arsenic, or orpiment), a strong poison, is rubbed

in.

SUMATRA.

Upas tree.

in. The milky exsudation from the sudu-sudu (euphorbia nerii folia) is
valued highly by the natives for medicinal purposes. Its leaves eaten
by sheep or goats occasion present death.

On the subject of the pulm upas or poison tree (arbor toxicaria, R.),
of whose properties so extraordinary an account was published in the
London Magazine for September, 1785, by Mr. N. P Foersch, a surgeon
in the service of the Dutch East India Company, at that time in Eng-
land, I shall quote the observations of the late ingenious Mr. Charles
Campbell, of the medical establishment at Fort Marlborough. “ On
my travels in the country at the back of Bencoolen I found the upas
tree, about which so many ridiculous tales have been told. Some seeds
must by this time have arrived in London in a packet I forwarded to
Mr. Aiton at Kew. The poison is certainly deleterious, but not in so
terrific a degree as has been represented. Some of it in an inspissated
state you will receive by an early opportunity. As to the tree itself, it
does no manner of injury to those around it. I have sat under its shade,
and seen birds alight upon its branches ; and as to the story of grass
not growing beneath it, every one who has been in a forest must know
that grass is not found in such situations.” For further particulars re-
specting this poison-tree, which has excited so much interest, the reader
is referred to Sir George Staunton’s Account of Lord Macartney’s Em-
bassy, Vol. I. p. 272. to Pennant’s Outlines of the Globe, Vol. IV.
p. 42. where he will find a copy of Foersch’s original narrative ; and to
a Dissertation by Professor C. P. Thunberg upon the Arbor toxicaria
Macassariensis, in the Mem. of the Upsal Acad, for 1788. The in-
formation given by Rumphius upon the subject of the Ipo or Upas, in
his Herb. Amboin. Vol. II. p.263. will also be perused with satisfac-
tion.* It is evident that some of the exaggerated stories related to him

a Since the above was written I have seen the “ Dissertation sur les Effets d’un Poison
de Java, appele Upas tieute, & c. ; presentee a la Faculte de Medicine de Paris le 6 Jnillet
1809, par M. Alire Raffeneau-Delile,” in which he details a set of curious and interesting
experiments on this very active poison, made with specimens brought from Java by M.
Leschenault; and also a second dissertation, in manuscript, (presented to the Royal Society,)
upon the effects of similar experiments made with what he terms the upas antiar. The
former he fetates to be a decoction or extract from the bark of the roots of a climbing plant

SUMATRA.

ill

by the people of Celebes (the plant not being indigenous at Amboina)
suggested to Mr. Foersch, the fables with which he amused the world.

of the genus strychnos, called tieute by the natives of Java ; and the latter to be a milky,
bitter, and yellowish juice, running from an incision in the bark of a large tree (new genus)
called antiar ; the word upas meaning, as M. Leschenault understands, vegetable poison of
any kind. A small branch of the puhn upas, with some of the poisonous gum, was brought to
England in 1806, by Dr. Roxburg, who informed Mr. Lambert that a plant of it which he
had procured from Sumatra was growing rapidly in the Company’s Botanic Garden at
Calcutta. A specimen of the gum, by the favour of the latter gentleman, is in my pos=
session.

Beasts.

112

SUMATRA.

Beasts.

Buffalo.

Beasts. — Reptiles. — Fish. — Birds. — Insects.

The animal kingdom claims attention, but the quadrupeds of the island
being in general the same as are found elsewhere throughout the East,
already well described, I shall do little more than furnish a list of those
which have occurred to my notice ; adding a few observations on such as
may appear to require them.

The karbau, or buffalo, constituting a principal part of the food of
the natives, and being the only animal employed in their domestic la-
bours, it is proper that T should enter into some detail of its qualities
and uses ; although it may be found not to differ materially from the
buffalo of Italy, and to be the same with that of Bengal. The indivi-
duals of the species, as is the case with other domesticated cattle, differ
extremely from each other in their degree of perfection, and a judgment
is not to be formed of the superior kinds, from such as are usually fur-
nished as provision to the ships from Europe. They are distinguished
into two sorts ; the black and the white. Both are equally employed in
work, but the latter is seldom killed for food, being considered much
inferior in quality, and by many as unwholesome, occasioning the body
to break out in blotches. If such be really the effect, it may be pre-
sumed that the light flesh-colour is itself the consequence of some original
disorder, as in the case of those of the human species who are termed
white negroes. The hair upon this sort is extremely thin, scarcely serv-
ing to cover the hide; nor have the black buffaloes a coat like the cattle
of England. The legs are shorter than those of the ox, the hoofs larger,
and the horns are quite peculiar, being rather square or flat than round,
excepting near the extremities ; and whether pointing backward, as in
general, or forwards, as they often do, are always in the plane of the
forehead, and not at an angle, as those of the cow-kind. They contain
much solid substance, and are valuable in manufacture. The tail hangs

down

SUMATRA.

down to the middle joint of the leg only, is small, and terminates in a
bunch of hair. The neck is thick and muscular, nearly round, but
somewhat flatted at top, and has little or no dewlap dependant from it.
The organ of generation in the male has an appearance as it the extre-
mity were cut off. It is not a salacious animal. The female goes nine
months with calf, which it suckles during six, from four teats. W hen
crossing a river it exhibits the singular sight of carrying its young one on
its back. It has a weak cry, in a sharp tone, very unlike the lowing
of oxen. The most part of the milk and butter required for the Euro-
peans (the natives not using either) is supplied by the buffalo, and its
milk is richer than that of the cow, but not yielded in equal quantity.
What these latter produce is also very small compared with the dai-
ries of Europe. At Batavia, likewise, we are told that their cows are
small and lean, from the scantiness of good pasture, and do not give
more than about an English quart of milk, sixteen of which are required
to make a pound of butter.

The inland people, where the country is tolerably practicable, avail
themselves of the strength of this animal to draw timber felled in the
woods : the Malays and other people on the coast train them to the draft,
and in many places to the plough. Though apparently of a dull, ob-
stinate, capricious nature, they acquire from habit a surprising docility,
and are taught to lift the shafts of the cart with their horns, and to place
the yoke, which is a curved piece of wood attached to the shafts, across
their necks ; needing no further harness than a breast-band, and a string
that is made to pass through the cartilage of the nostrils. They are also,
for the service of Europeans, trained to carry burthens suspended from
each side of a pack-saddle, in roads, or rather paths, where carriages
cannot be employed. It is extremely slow, but steady in its work. The
labour it performs, however, falls short of what might be expected from
its size and apparent strength, any extraordinary fatigue, particularly
during the heat of the day, being sufficient to put a period to its life,
which is at all times precarious. The owners frequently experience the
loss of large herds, in a short space of time, by an epidemic distemper,
called bandung (obstruction), that seizes them suddenly, swells their bo-

Q. dies,

114

SUMATRA.

dies, and occasions, as it is said, the serum of the blood to distil through
the tubes of the hairs.

The luxury of the buffalo consists in rolling itself in a muddy pool,
which it forms, in any spot, for its convenience, during the rainy sea-
son. This it enjoys in a high degree, dexterously throwing with its horn
the water and slime, when not of a sufficient depth to cover it, over its
back and sides. Their blood is perhaps of a hot temperature, which
may render this indulgence, found to, be quite necessary to their health,
so desirable to their feelings; and the mud, at the same time, forming a
crust upon their bodies, preserves them from the attack of insects, which
otherwise prove very troublesome. Their owners light fires for them in
the evening, in order that the smoke may have the same effect, and they
have the instinctive sagacity to lay themselves down to leeward, that
they may enjoy its full benefit.

Although common in every part of the country, they are not under-
stood to exist in the proper wild or indigenous state, those found in the
• woods being termed karbau jalang, or stray buffaloes, and considered as
the subject of property; or if originally wild, they may afterwards, from
their use in labour and food, have been all catched and appropriated by-
degrees. They are gregarious, and usually found in large numbers to-
gether, but sometimes met with singly, when they are more dangerous
to passengers. Like the turkey, and some other animals, they have an
antipathy to a red colour, and are excited by it to mischief. When in
a state of liberty they run with great swiftness, keeping pace with the
speed of an ordinary horse. Upon an attack or alarm they fly to a short
distance, and then suddenly face about and draw up in battle-array with
surprising quickness and regularity; their horns being laid back, and
their muzzles projecting. Upon the nearer approach of the danger that
presses on them, they make a second flight, and a second time halt and
form ; and this excellent mode of retreat, which but few nations of the
human race have attained to such a degree of discipline as to adopt, they
continue till they gain the fastnesses of a neighbouring wood. Their
principal foe, next toman, is the tiger; but only the weaker sort, and the

females

SUMATRA.

115

females fall a certain prey to this ravager, as the sturdy male buffalo
can support the first vigorous stroke from the tiger’s paw, on which the
fate of the battle usually turns.

The cow, called sapi (in another dialect sampi) and jawi, is obviously Cow.
a stranger to the country, and does not appear to be yet naturalized.

The bull is commonly of what is termed the Madagascar breed, with a
large hump upon the shoulders, but from the general small size of the
herds, I apprehend that it degenerates, from the want of good pasture,
the spontaneous production of the soil being too rank.

The horse, kuda: the breed is small, well made, and hardy. The Horse,
country people bring them down in numbers for sale in nearly a wild
state; chiefly from the northward. In the Batta country they are eaten
as food; which is a custom also amongst the people of Celebes.

Sheep, biri-biri and domba : small breed, introduced probably from Sheep, &c.
Bengal. Goat, kambing : beside the domestic species, which is in ge-
neral small and of a light brown colour, there is the kambing utan> or wild
goat. One which I examined was three feet in height* and four in the
length of the body. It had something of the gazelle in its appearance,
and, with the exception of the horns, which were about six inches long
and turned back with an arch, it did not much resemble the common
goat. The hinder parts were shaped like those of a bear, the rump slop-
ing round off from the back ; the tail was very small, and ended in a
point; the legs clumsy; the hair along the ridge of the back rising coarse
and strong, almost like bristles; no beard; over the shoulder was a large
spreading tuft of greyish hair; the rest of the hair black throughout; the
scrotum globular. Its disposition seemed wild and fierce, and it is said
by the natives to be remarkably swift. Hog, babi : that breed we call
Chinese. The wild hog, babi utan. Dog, anjing : those brought from
Europe lose in a few years their distinctive qualities, and degenerate at
length into the cur with erect ears, kuyu, vulgarly called the pariah dog.

An instance did not occur of any one going mad during the period of
my residence. Many of them are affected with a kind of gonorrhoea.

Otter, anjing ayer (mustela lutra). Cat, kuching: these in every respect

Q 2 resemble

116

SUMATRA.

resemble our common domestic cat, excepting that the tails of all are
more or less imperfect, with a knob or hardness at the end, as if they
• had been cut or twisted off. In some the tail is not more than a few
inches in length, whilst in others it is so nearly perfect, that the defect
can be ascertained only by the touch. Rat, tikus: of the grey kind.
Mouse, tikus kechil.

Elephant. Elephant, gajah : these huge animals abound in the woods, and from
their gregarious habits usually traversing the country in large troops to-
gether, prove highly destructive to the plantations of the inhabitants,
obliterating the traces of cultivation by merely walking through the
grounds; but they are also fond of the produce of their gardens, particu-
larly of plantain trees and the sugar-cane, which they devour with eager-
ness. Tins indulgence of appetite often proves fatal to them, for the
owners knowing their attachment to these vegetables, have a practice of
poisoning some part of the plantation, by splitting the canes and putting
yellow arsenic into the clefts ; which the animal unwarily eats of, and
dies. Not being by nature carnivorous, the elephants are not fierce, and
seldom attack a man but when fired at or otherwise provoked. Except-
ing a few kept for state by the king of Achin, they are not tamed in any
part of the island.

Rhinoceros. The rhinoceros, badak, both that with a single horn and the double
horned species, are natives of these woods. The latter has been particu-
larly described by the late ingenious Mr. John Bell (one of the pupils of
Mr. John Hunter) in a paper printed in Vol. LXXXIII. of the Phil.
Trans for 1793. The horn is esteemed an antidote against poison, and
on that account formed into drinking cups. I do not know any thing to
warrant the stories told of the mutual antipathy, and the desperate en-
counters of these two enormous beasts.

Hippopota- Hippopotamus, kuda ayer : the existence of this quadruped in the
island of Sumatra having been questioned by M. Cuvier, and not having
myself actually seen it, I think it necessary to state that the immediate
authority upon which I included it in the list of animals found there,
was a drawing made by Mr. Whalfeldt, an officer employed on a survey

SUMATRA.

117

of the coast, who had met with it at the mouth of one of the southern
rivers, and transmitted the sketch along with his report to the govern-
ment, of which I was then secretary. Of its general resemblance to that
well-known animal there could be no doubt. M. Cuvier suspects that
I may have mistaken for it the animal called by naturalists the dugong,
and vulgarly the sea-cow, which will be hereafter mentioned; and it
would indeed be a grievous errourto mistake for a beast with four legs, a
fish with two pectoral fins serving the purposes of feet; but, independ-
ently of the authority I have stated, the kuda-ayer, or river-horse, is
familiarly known to the natives, as is also the duyong (from which Ma-
layan word the dugong of naturalists has been corrupted) ; and I have
only to add, that in a register given by the Philosophical Society of Ba-
tavia, in the first Vol. of their Transactions, for 1799, appears the article
“ couda aijeer, rivier paard, hippopotamus” amongst the animals of
Java.

Bear, bruang : generally small and black : climbs the coconut trees in Bear, &c.
order to devour the tender part or cabbage. Of the deer kind there
are several species: rusa, the stag, of which some are very large; kijang ,
the roe, with unbranched horns, the emblem of swiftness and wildness
with the Malayan poets ; palandok, napu , and kanchil, three varieties,
of which the last is the smallest, of that most delicate animal, termed by
Buffon the chevrotin, but which belong to the moschus. Of a kanchil
measured at Batavia, the extreme length was sixteen inches, and the
height ten behind, and eight at the shoulder. Babi-rusa, or hog-deer:
an animal of the hog kind, with peculiar tusks resembling horns. Of
this there is a representation in Valentyn, Vol. III. p. 268. fig. c. and
also in the very early travels of Cosmas, published in Thevenot’s Collect.

Vol. I. p. 2. of the Greek Text. The varieties of the monkey tribe are
innumerable : among them the best known are the muniet , karra, bru,
siamang (or simia gibbon of Buffon), and lutong. With respect to the
appellation of orang utan , or wild man, it is by no means specific, but
applied to any of these animals of a large size that occasionally walks
erect, and bears the most resemblance to the human figure. Sloth, ku-
kang , ka-malas-an (lemur tardigradus). Squirrel, tupei; usually small
and dark-coloured. Teleggo , stinkard.

Tiger,

118

SUMATRA.

Tiger. Tiger, arimau, machang : this beast is here of a very large size, and proves

a destructive foe to man as well as to most other animals. The heads
being frequently brought in to receive the reward given by the East India
Company for killing them, I had an opportunity of measuring one, which
was eighteen inches across the forehead. Many circumstances respect-
ing their ravages, and the modes of destroying them, will occur in the
course of the work. Tiger-cat, kuching-rimau (said to feed on vegeta-
bles as well as flesh). Civet-cat, tanggalong (viverra civetta) : the na-
tives take the civet, as they require it for use, from a peculiar receptacle
under the tail of the animal. It appears from the Ayin Akbari (Vol. I. p.
103.) that the civet used at Dehli was imported from Achin. Pole-cat,
musang (viverra fossa, or a new species). Porcupine (hystrix longicauda)
landak, and, for distinction, babi landak. Hedge-hog (erinaceus) lan-

Peng-goiing. dak. Peng-goling, signifying the animal which rolls itself up ; or pan-
golin of Buffon : this is distinguished into the peng-goling rambut, or
hairy sort (myrmophoga) , and the peng-goling sisik, or scaly sort, called
more properly tanggiling (species of manis) ; the scales of this are esteemed
by the natives for their medicinal properties. See Asiat. Researches, Vol.
I. p. 376. and Vol. II. p. 353.

Bats. Of the bat kind there is an extraordinary variety : the churi-churi is

the smallest species, called vulgarly burong tikus , or the mouse-bird ;
next to these is the kalalawar then the kalambit. ; and the kalutvang (noc-
tilio) is of considerable size ; of these I have observed very large flights
occasionally passing at a great height in the air, as if migrating from one
country to another, and Captain Forrest notices their crossing the straits
of Sunda from Java head to Mount Pngong ; they are also seen hanging
by hundreds upon trees. The flying foxes and flying squirrels (lemur vo-
lans), which by means of a membrane extending from what may be
termed the fore-legs to those behind, are enabled to take short flights,
are also not uncommon.

Aiigators and Aligators, baaya, (crocodilus biporcatus of Cuvier) abound in most of
the rivers, grow to a large size, and do much mischief. The guana, or
iguana, biawak (lacerta iguana) is another animal of the lizard kind,
about three or four feet in length, harmless, excepting to the poultry

and

SUMATRA.

119

and young domestic cattle, and sometimes itself eaten as food. The
bingkarong is next in size, has hard, dark scales on the back, and is often
found under heaps of decayed timber ; its bite venomous. The koke, goke ,
or toke, as it is variously called, is a lizard, about ten or twelve inches
long, frequenting old buildings, and making a very singular noise. Be-
tween this and the small house-lizard ( clnchak ) are many gradations in
size, chiefly of the grass-lizard kind, which is smooth and glossy. The
former are in length from about four inches down to an inch or less, and
are the largest reptiles that can walk in an inverted situation : one of
these, of size sufficient to devour a cockroach, runs on the ceiling of a
room, and in that situation seizes its prey with the utmost facility. This
they seem to be enabled to do, from the rugose structure of their feet,
with which they adhere strongly to the smoothest surface. Sometimes,
however, on springing too eagerly at a fly, they lose their hold, and
drop to the floor ; on which occasions a circumstance occurs not un-
deserving of notice. The tail being frequently separated from the body
by the shock (as it may be, at any of the vertebrae, by the slightest force,
without loss of blood or evident pain to the animal, and sometimes, as
it would seem, from the effect of fear alone) within a little time, like
the mutilated claw of a lobster, begins to renew itself. They are pro-
duced from eggs about the size of the wren’s, of which the female carries
two at a time, one in the lower, and one in the upper part of the abdo-
men, on opposite sides ; they are always cold to the touch, and yet the
transparency of their bodies gives an opportunity of observing that their
fluids have as brisk a circulation as those of warm blooded animals : in
none have I seen the peristaltic motion so obvious as in these. It may not
be useless to mention that these phenomena were best observed at night,
when the lizard was on the outside of a pane of glass, with a candle on
the inside. There is, I believe, no class of living creatures in which
the gradations can be traced with such minuteness and regularity as in
this; where, from the small animal just described, to the huge aligator
or crocodile, a chain may be traced containing almost innumerable links,
of which the remotest have a striking resemblance to each other, and
seem, at first view, to differ only in bulk. The cameleon, gruning : Cameieon.
these are about a foot and half long, including the tail ; the colour, green
with brown spots, as I had it preserved ; when alive in the woods they

are

120

SUMATRA.

are generally green, but not from the reflection of the leaves, as some
have supposed. When first caught they usually turn brown, apparently
the effect of fear or anger, as men become pale or red ; but, if undis-
turbed, soon resume a deep green on the back, and a yellow green on
the belly, the tail remaining brown. Along the spine, from the head
to the middle of the back, little membranes stand up like the teeth of a
saw. As others of the genus of lacerta they feed on flies and grass-
hoppers, which the large size of their mouths, and peculiar structure of
their bony tongues, are well adapted for catching. The flying lizard,
kubin, or chachak tei'bang (draco volans), is about eight inches in its
extreme length, and the membranes which constitute the wings are
about two or three inches in extent. These do not connect with the
fore and hind legs, as in the bat tribe, but are supported by an elonga-
tion of the alternate ribs, as pointed out by my friend Mr. Everard Home.
They have flapped ears, and a singular kind of pouch or alphorges, under
the jaws. In other respects they much resemble the cameleon in ap-
pearance. They do not take distant flights, but merely from tree to
tree, or from one bough to another. The natives take them by springes
fastened to the stems.

With animals of the frog kind ( kodok ) the swamps every where teem;
and their noise upon the approach of rain is tremendous. They furnish
prey to the snakes, which are found here of all sizes and in great variety
of species ; the larger proportion harmless, but of some, and those ge-
nerally small and dark-coloured, the bite is mortal. If the cobra capelo,
or hooded snake, be a native of the island, as some assert, it must be
extremely rare. The largest of the boa kind ( ular sauh) that I had an
opportunity of observing, was no more than twelve feet long. This was
killed in a hen-house, where it was devouring the poultry. It is very
surprising, but not less true, that snakes will swallow animals of twice
or three times their own apparent circumference; having in their jaws
or throat a compressive force that gradually and by great efforts reduces
the prey to a convenient dimension. I have seen a small snake ( ular
sini ) with the hinder legs of a frog sticking out of its mouth, each of them
nearly equal to the smaller parts of its own body, which in the thickest
did not exceed a man’s little finger. The stories told of their swallowing

deer.

Frogs.

Snakes.

SUMATRA.

121

deer, and even buffaloes, in Ceylon and Java, almost choke belief, but
I cannot take upon me to pronounce them false ; for if a snake of three
inches diameter can gorge a fowl of six, one of thirty feet in length, and
proportionate bulk and strength, might well be supposed capable of
swallowing a beast of the size of a goat ; and I have respectable autho-
rity for the fact, that the fawn of a kijang or roe was cut out of the body
of a very large snake killed at one of the southern settlements. The
poisonous kinds are distinguished by the epithet of ular bisa, among
which is the biludak or viper. The ular garang , or sea-snake, is coated
entirely with scales, both on the belly and tail, not differing from those
on the back, which are small and hexagonal ; the colour is grey, with
here and there shades of brown. The head and about one-third of the
body from thence is the smallest part, and it increases in bulk towards
the tail, which resembles that of the eel. It has not any dog-fangs.

The tortoise, kura-kura, and turtle, katong, are both found in these Tortoise,
seas ; the former valuable for its scales, and the latter as food; the land-
tortoise (testudo grreca) is brought from the Sechelles Islands. There is
also an extensive variety of shell-fish. The cray-fish, udang laut (cancer
homarus or ecrevisse de mer), is as large as the lobster, but wants its
biting claws. The small fresh water cray-fish, the prawns and shrimps,

(all named udangy with distinctive epithets), are in great perfection.

The crab, kapiting and katam (cancer), is not equally fine, but exhibits
many extraordinary varieties. The kima, or gigantic cockle, (chama)
has been already mentioned (p. 15). The oysters, tiram , are by no
means so good as those of Europe. The smaller kind are generally found
adhering to the roots of the mangrove, in the wash of the tide. The
muscle, kupang (mytilus), rimis (donax), kapang (teredo navalis), sea-
egg, built babi (echinus), bia papeda (nautilus), ruma gorita (argonauta),
bia unam (murex), bia baldng (cuprea), and many others may be added
to the list. The beauty of the madrepores and corallines, of which the
finest specimens are found in the recesses of the Bay of Tappanuli , is not
to be surpassed in any country. Of these a superb collection is in the
possession of Mr. John Griffiths, who has given, in Vol. XCVI. of the
Phil. Trans, the “ Description of a rare species of Worm-Shells, disco-
vered at an island lying off the NW. coast of Sumatra.” In the same

R volume

122

SUMATRA.

Fi»h.

Whale.

Voilier.

volume is also a Paper by Mr. Everard Home, containing Observations
on the Shell of the Sea Worm found on the Coast of Sumatra, proving
it to belong to a species of Teredo ; with an Account of the Anatomy of
the Teredo Navalis.” The former he proposes to call the teredo gigan-
tea. The sea-grass, or ladang laut, concerning which Sir James Lan-
caster tells some wonderful stories, partakes of the nature of a sea-worm
and of a coralline ; in its original state it is soft and shrinks into the sand
from the touch ; but when dry it is quite hard, straight, and brittle.

The duyong is a very large sea-animal or fish, of the order of mamma-
lia, with two large pectoral fins serving the purposes of feet. By the
early Dutch voyagers it was, without any obvious analogy, called the
sea-cow ; and from the circumstance of the head being covered with a
kind of shaggy hair, and the mammae of the female being placed imme-
diately under the pectus, it has given rise to the stories of mermaids in
the tropical seas. The tusks are applied to the same uses as ivory, espe-
cially for the handles of krises, and being whiter are more prized. It has
much general resemblance to the manati or lamantinof the West Indies,
and has been confounded with it ; but the distinction between them has
been ascertained by M. Cuvier, Annales du Mus. d’ H. Nat. XXII.
cabier, p. 308.'

The grampus whale (species of delphinus) is well known to the na-
tives by the names of pawns and gajah mlna ; but I do not recollect to
have heard any instance of their being thrown upon the coast. Of the
ikan layer (genus novum schombro affine) a grand specimen is preserved
in the British Museum, where it was deposited by Sir Joseph Banks;*
and a description of it by the late M. Brousonet, under the name of le
Voilier, is published in the Mem. de V Acad, de Scien. de Paris for 1786,

p. 450,

* “ Sometime ago (says Captain Forrest) a large fish, with valuable teeth, being cast ashore
in the IUano districts, there arose a dispute who should have the teeth, but the Magindanoers
carried it.” Voyage to New Guinea, p. 272. See also Valentyn, Vol. III. p. 341.

b This fish was hooked by Mr. John Griffiths near the southern extremity of the west
coast of Sumatra, and was given to Captain Curoming of the Britannia indiaman, by whom
it was presented to Sir Joseph Banks.

SUMATRA.

123

p. 450, pi. x. It derives its appellation from the peculiarity of its dorsal
fin, which rises so high as to suggest the idea of a sail ; but it is most
remarkable for what should rather be termed its snout than its horn, being
an elongation of the frontal bone, and the prodigious force with which
it occasionally strikes the bottoms of ships, mistaking them, as we may
presume, for its enemy or prey. A large fragment of one of these bones,
which had transfixed the plank of an East India ship, and penetrated
about eighteen inches, is likewise preserved in the same national collec-
tion, together with the piece of plank, as it was cut out of the ship’s
bottom upon her being docked in England. Several accidents of a simi-
lar nature are known to have occurred. There is an excellent represent-
ation of this fish, under the name of fetisso, in Barbot’s Description of the
Coasts of Guinea, plate 18, which is copied in Astley’s Collection of
Voyages, Vol. II. plate 73.

To attempt an enumeration of the species of fish with which these seas Various fish,
abound, would exceed my power, and I shall only mention briefly some
of the most obvious; as the shark, liiyu (squalus) ; skate, ikan pari,

(raya) ; ikan mua (muraena) ; ikan chanak (gymnotus); ikan gajah (ce-
pole) ; ikan karang or bonna (chaetodon), described by Mr. John Bell, in
Vol. LXXXII. of the Phil. Trans. It is remarkable for certain tumours
filled with oil, attached to its bones. There are also the ikan krapo, a
kind of rock-cod or sea-perch ; ikan marrang or kitang (teuthis), com-
monly named the leather fish, and among the best brought to table ;
jinnihin , a rock-fish shaped like a carp ; bawal or pomfret (species of
chaetodon) ; balanak, jumpul , and marra, three fish of the mullet kind
(mugil) ; kuru (polynemus) ; ikan lidah , a kind of sole ; tingeri , resem-
bles the mackerel; gagu, cat-fish; summa , a river fish, resembling the
salmon; ringkis , resembles the trout, and is noted for the size of its roe;
ikan tambarah, I believe the shad of Siak River ; ikan gadis, good river
fish, about the size of a carp ; ikan bada, small, like white bait ; ikan
gorita, sepia; ikan terbang, flying-fish (exoccetus). The little sea-horse
(syngnathus hippocampus) is commonly found here.

Of birds the variety is considerable, and the following list contains but Birds,
a small portion of those that might be discovered in the island by a qua-

R 2 lified

124

SUMATRA.

lifted person, who should confine his researches to that branch of natural
history.

.Kuwau, The kuwauy or Sumatran pheasant (phasianus argus), is a bird of un-

common magnificence and beauty ; the plumage being perhaps the most
rich, without any mixture of gaudiness, of all the feathered race. It is
found extremely difficult to keep it alive for any considerable time after
catching it in the woods, yet it has in one instance been brought to
England; but having lost its fine feathers by the voyage, it did not
excite curiosity, and died unnoticed. There is now a good specimen
in the Liverpool Museum. It has, in its natural state, an antipathy
to the light, and in the open day is quite moped and inanimate. When
kept in a darkened place it seems at its ease, and sometimes makes use
of the note or call from which it takes its name, and which is rather
plaintive than harsh. The flesh, of which I have eaten, perfectly resem-
bles that of the common pheasant ( tugang ), also found in the woods, but
the body is of much larger size. T have reason to believe that it is not,
as supposed, a native of the North or any part of China. From the
Malayan Islands, of which it is the boast, it must be frequently carried
thither. The peacock, burong marak (pavo), appears to be well known

Peacock, &c. to the natives, though, I believe, not common. I should say the same
of the eagle and the vulture (coracias), to the one or the other of which
the name of raja wali is familiarly applied. The kite, alang (falco), is
very common, as is the crow, gadak (corvus), and jack-daw, pong
(gracula), with several species of the wood-pecker. The king-fisher
(alcedo) is named burong buaya, or the aligator bird. The bird of
paradise, burong supan, or elegant bird, is known here only in the dried
state, as brought from the Moluccas and coast of New Guinea ( tanah
papuah).

The rhinoceros bird, horn-bill, or calao (buceros), called by the na-
tives anggang and burong taun, is chiefly remarkable for what is termed
the horn, which in the most common species extends half way down the
upper mandible of its large beak, and then turns up ; but the varieties of
shape are numerous. The length of one I measured whilst alive was ten
inches and an half; the breadth, including the horn, six and an half;

length

SUMATRA.

125

length from beak to tail four feet; wings four feet six inches ; height one
foot ; length of neck one foot ; the beak whitish ; the horn yellow and red ;
the body black; the tail white ringed with black; rump, and feathers
on the legs down to the heel, white : claws three before and one behind;
the iris red. In a hen chick there was no appearance of a horn, and the
iris was whitish. They eat either boiled rice or tender fresh meat. Of
the use of such a singular cavity I could not learn any plausible conjec-
ture. As a receptacle for water, it must be quite unnecessary in the
country of which it is a native.

Of the stork kind there are several species, some of great height and stork, &c.
otherwise curious, as the burong kambing and burong ulary which fre-
quent the rice plantations in wet ground. We find also the heron, bu -
rong kuntul (ardea) ; the snipe, kandidi (scolopax) ; the coot, or water
hen, ayam ayer (fulica) ; and the plover, cheruling (charadrius). The
cassawary, burong rusa, is brought from the island of Java.

The domestic hen is as common as in most other countries. In some the
bones (or the periostea) are black, and these are at least equally good as
food. The hen of the woods, ayam barugo, or ayam utan, (which latter
name is in some places applied to the pheasant) differs little from the
common sort, excepting in the uniformity of its brown colour. In the
Lampong country, of Sumatra, and western part of Java lying opposite
to it, there is a very large breed of fowls, called ayam jago ; of these I
have seen a cock peck from off of a common dining table ; when inclined
to rest, they sit on the first joint of the leg, and are then taller than the
ordinary fowls. It is singular, if the same country produces likewise
the diminutive breed that goes by the name of Bantam. A species of
partridge is called ayam gunong, or mountain hen.

Beside the pigeon, merapeti and burong darah (columba), and two Dovc«.
common species of doves, the one of a light brown or dove-colour, called
ballum, and the other green, called punei, there are of the latter some
most exquisite varieties : the punei jambu is smaller than the usual size of
doves; the back, wings, and tail, are green; the breast and crop are
white, but the front of the latter has a slight shade of pink ; the fore-
part

126

SUMATRA.

part of the head is of a deep pink, resembling the blossom of the jambu
fruit, from whence its name; the white of the breast is continued in a
narrow’ streak, having the green on one side and the pink on the other,
half round the eye, which is large, full, and yellow; of which colour is
also the beak. It will live upon boiled rice and padi; but its favourite
food, when wild, is the berry of the rumplinnei (ardisia coriacea), perhaps
from this circumstance so called. The selaya, or punei andu , another
variety, has the body and wings of deep crimson, with the head, and ex-
tremity of its long indented tail, white; the legs red. It lives on the
worms generated in the decayed part of old trees, and is about the size
of a blackbird'. Of the same size is the bui'ong sawei, a bird of a bluish
black colour, with a dove-tail, from which extend two very long feathers,
terminating circularly. It seems to be what is called the widow bird,
and is formidable to the kite. The burong pipit resembles the sparrow in
its appearance; habits, numbers, and the destruction it causes to the
grain. The quail, puynh (coturnix) ; but whether a native or a bird of
passage, I cannot determine. The starling (sturnus), of which I know
not the Malayan name. The swallow, layang-layang (hirundo), one
species of which, called layang buhi , from its being supposed to collect
the froth of the sea, is that which constructs the edible nests. The mu-
rei , or dial-bird; resembling a small magpie, has a pretty but short note.
There is not any bird in the country that can be said to sing. The ti-
yong, or mino, a black bird with yellow gills, has the faculty of imitating
human speech in greater perfection than any other of the feathered tribe.
There is also a yellow species, but not loquacious. Of the parrot kind
the variety is not so great as might be expected, and consists chiefly of
those denominated paroquets. The beautiful luri, though not uncom-
mon, is brought from the eastward. The kakatua is an inhabitant
chiefly of the southern extremity of the island.

The Indian goose, angsa and gangsa (anser) ; the duck, bebck and
itik (anas) ; and the teal, belibi, are common.

With insects the island may truly be said to swarm ; and I doubt whe-
ther there is any part of the world where greater variety is to be found.
Of these I shall only attempt to enumerate a few : the kunavg, or fire-
fly

Insects.

SUMATR A.

127

fly, larger than the common fly, (which it resembles), with the phos-
phoric matter in the abdomen, regularly and quickly intermitting its
light, as if by respiration; by holding one of them in my hand I could
see to read at night ; Upas, the cockroach (blatta) ; chingkarek, the
cricket (gryllus) ; lebah, taun, the bee (apis), whose honey is gathered
in the woods; kumbang, a species of apis, that bores its nest in timber,
and thence acquires the name of the carpenter ; sumut, the ant (formica),
the multitudes of which overrun the country, and its varieties are not
less extraordinary than its numbers. The following distinctions are the
most obvious : the krangga, or great red ant, about three-fourths of an
inch long, bites severely, and usually leaves its head, as a bee its sting,
in the wound ; it is found mostly on trees and bushes, and forms its nest
by fastening together, with a glutinous matter, a collection of the leaves
of a branch, as they grow; the common red ant; the minute red ant;
the large black ant, not equal in size to the krangga, but with a head of
disproportioned bulk; the common black ant; and the minute black
ant : they also differ from each other in a circumstance which I believe
has not been attended to ; and that is the sensation with which they af-
fect the taste when put into the mouth, as frequently happens uninten-
tionally : some are hot and acrid, some bitter, and some sour. Perhaps
this will be attributed to the different kinds of food they have accidentally
devoured; but I never found one which tasted sweet, though I have
caught them in the fact of robbing a sugar or honey-pot. Each species
of ant is a declared enemy of the other, and never suffers a divided em-
pire. Where one party effects a settlement, the other is expelled ; and
in general they are powerful in proportion to their bulk, with the excep-
tion of the white ant, sumut putih (termes), which is beaten from the field
by others of inferior size ; and for this reason it is a common expedient
to strew sugar on the floor of a warehouse, in order to allure the formicae
to the spot, who do not fail to combat and overcome the ravaging, but
unwarlike termites. Of this insect and its destructive qualities I had in-
tended to give some description, but the subject is so elaborately treated
(though with some degree of fancy) by Mr. Smeathman in Vol. LXXI.
of the Phil. Trans, for 1781, who had an opportunity of observing them
in Africa, that I omit it as superfluous. Of the wasp kind there are
several curious varieties. One of them may be observed building its nest

128

SUMATRA.

of moistened clay against a wall, and inclosing in each of its numerous
compartments a living spider; thus revenging upon this blood-thirsty
race the injuries sustained by harmless flies, and providently securing for
its own young a stock of food. Lalat, the common fly (musca) ; lalat
kada (tabanus) ; lalat karban (oestrus) ; niamok , agas, the gnat or mos-
quito (culex), producing a degree of annoyance equal to the sum of all
the other physical plagues of a hot climate, but even to these I found
that habit rendered me almost indifferent; kala-jingking, the scorpion
(scorpio), the sting of which is highly inflammatory and painful, but
not dangerous; sipasan, centipede (scholopendra), not so venomous as
the preceding; alipan (jules) ; alintahy water-leech (hirudo) ; achih ,
small land-leech, dropping from the leaves of trees whilst moist with
dew, and troublesome to travellers in passing through the woods. To
this list I shall only add the suala, tripan, or sea-slug (holothurion),
which, being collected from the rocks and dried in the sun, is exported
to China, where it is an article of food.

Vegetable

SUMATRA.

129

Vegetable productions of the island considered as articles of commerce.
Pepper. — Cultivation of Pepper. — Camphor. — Benzoin. — Cassia, SCc.

Of those productions of Sumatra, which are regarded as articles of pepper,
commerce, the most important and most abundant is pepper. This is
the object of the East India Company’s trade thither, and this alone it
keeps in its own hands ; its servants, and merchants under its protec*
tion, being free to deal in every other commodity.

Many of the princes or chiefs in dilferent parts of the island having in- Establishment
vited the English to form settlements in their respective districts, factories
were accordingly established, and a permanency and regularity thereby
given to the trade, which was very uncertain whilst it depended upon the
success of occasional voyages to the coast ; disappointments ensuing not
only from failure of adequate quantities of pepper to furnish cargoes when
required, but also from the caprices and chicanery of the chiefs with
whom the disposal of it lay, the motives of whose conduct could not be
understood by those who were unacquainted with the language and
manners of the people. These inconveniencies were obviated when the
agents of the Company were enabled, by their residence on the spot, to
obtain an influence in the country, to inspect the state of the planta-
tions, secure the collection of the produce, and make an estimate of the
tonnage necessary for its conveyance to Europe.

In order to bind the chiefs to the observance of their original promises
and professions, and to establish a plausible and legal claim, in opposi-
tion to the attempts of rival European powers to interfere in the trade of
the same country, written contracts, attended with much form and so-
lemnity, were entered into with the former ; by which they engaged to
oblige all their dependants to cultivate pepper, and to secure to us the
exclusive purchase of it ; in return for which they were to be protected

S from

130

SUMATRA.

Price.

from their enemies, supported in the rights of sovereignty, and to be
paid a certain allowance or custom, on the produce of their respective
territories.

The price for many years paid to the cultivators for their produce,
was ten Spanish dollars or fifty shillings per bahar of five hundred weight
or five hundred and sixty pounds. About the year 1780, with a view to
their encouragement and the increase of investment, as it is termed, the
sum was augmented to fifteen dollars. To this cost is to be added the
custom above-mentioned, varying in different districts according to spe-
cific agreements, but amounting in general to one dollar and an half,
or two dollars on each bahar , which is distributed amongst the chiefs at an
annual entertainment; and presents are made at the same time to plant-
ers who have distinguished themselves by their industry. This low
price, at which the natives submit to cultivate the plantations, affording
to each man an income of not more than from eight to twelve dollars
yearly, and the undisturbed monopoly we have so long possessed of the
trade, from near Indrapura northward to Flat Point southward, are
doubtless in a principal degree to be attributed to the peculiar manner in
which this part of the island is shut up, by the surfs which prevail along
the south-west coast, from communication with strangers, whose com-
petition would naturally produce the effect of enhancing the price of the
commodity. The general want of anchorage too, for so many leagues
to the northward of the Straits of Sunda, has in all ages deterred the Chi-
nese and other eastern merchants from attempting to establish an inter-
course, that must be attended with imminent risk to unskilful navigators ;
indeed, I understand it to be a tradition among the natives who border
on the sea-coast, that it is not many hundred years since these parts
began to be inhabited, and they speak of their descent as derived from
the more inland country. Thus it appears that those natural obstruc-
tions, which we arc used to lament as the greatest detriment to our trade,
are in fact advantages to which it in a great measure owes its existence.
In the northern countries of the island, where the people are numerous
and their ports good, they are found to be more independent also, and
refuse to cultivate plantations upon any other terms than those on which
they can deal with private traders.

SUMATRA.

131

In the cultivation of pepper (piper nigrum, L.)a the first circumstance Cultivation of
that claims attention, and on which the success materially depends, is the P PP r’
choice of a proper site for the plantation. A preference is usually given to
level ground lying along the banks of rivers or rivulets, provided they are
not so low as to be inundated, both on account of the vegetable mould
commonly found there, and the convenience of water-carriage for the
produce. Declivities, unless very gentle, are to be avoided, because the
soil loosened by culture, is liable in such situations to be washed away
by heavy rains. AUhen these plains, however, are naked, or covered
with long grass only, they will not be found to answer without the as-
sistance of the plough and of manure; their fertility being exhausted by
exposure to the sun. How far the returns in general might be increased
by the introduction of these improvements in agriculture I cannot take
upon me to determine ; but I fear, that from the natural indolence of the
natives, and their want of zeal in the business of pepper-planting, occa-
sioned by the smallness of the advantage it yields to them, they will
never be prevailed upon to take more pains than they now do. The
planters, therefore, depending more upon the natural qualities of the soil
than on any advantage it might receive from their cultivation, find none
to suit their purpose better than those spots which, having been covered
with old woods and long fertilized by decaying foliage and trunks, have
recently been cleared for laclangs or padi fields, in the manner already
described ; where it was also observed, that being allured by the cer-
tainty of abundant produce from a virgin soil, and having land for the
most part at will, they renew their toil annually, and desert the ground
so laboriously prepared, after occupying it for one, or at the furthest for
two, seasons. Such are the most usual situations chosen for the pepper
plantations ( kabun ) or gardens, as they are termed ; but, independently
of the culture of rice, land is very frequently cleared for the pepper in
the first instance, by felling and burning the trees.

The ground is then marked out in form of a regular square or oblong, Formation of

S 2 with

a See Remarks on the Species of Pepper (and on its Cultivation) at Prince of Wales Island,
by Dr. William Hunter, in the Asiat. Res. Vol. IX. p. 383.

132

S U M A T R A.

Vegetating

props.

with intersections throughout, at the distance of six feet, (being equal to
five cubits of the measure of the country) the intended interval between
the plants, of which there are commonly either one thousand or five hun-
dred in each garden ; the former number being required from those who
are heads of families (their wives and children assisting them in their
work), and the latter from single men. Industrious or opulent persons
sometimes have gardens of two or three thousand vines. A border twelve
feet in width, within which limit no tree is suffered to grow, surrounds
each garden, and it is commonly separated from others by a row of
shrubs or irregular hedge. Where the nature of the country admits of
it, the whole or greater part of the gardens of a dusun or village lie adja-
cent to each other, both for the convenience of mutual assistance in
labour, and mutual protection from wild beasts; single gardens being
often abandoned from apprehension of their ravages, and where the own-
er has been killed in such a situation, none will venture to replace him.
After lining out the ground, and marking the intersections by slight
stakes, the next business is to plant the trees that are to become props
to the pepper, as the Romans planted elms, and the modern Italians
more commonly plant poplars and mulberries, for their grape-vines.
These are cuttings of the chingkariang (erythrina corallodendron), usu-
ally called chinkareens, put into the ground about a span deep, suffici-
ently early to allow time for a shoot to be strong enough to support the
young pepper-plant when it comes to twine about it. The cuttings are
commonly two feet in length, but sometimes a preference is given to the
length of six feet, and the vine is then planted as soon as the chinkareen
has taken root: but the principal objections to this method are, that in
such state they are very liable to fail and require renewal, to the preju-
dice of the garden ; and that their shoots are not so vigorous as those of
the short cuttings, frequently growing crooked, or in a lateral instead of
a perpendicular direction. The circumstances which render the chinka-
reen particularly proper for this use, are its readiness and quickness of
growth, even after the cuttings have been kept some time in bundles,*

a It is a common and useful practice to place these bundles of cuttings in water about
two inches deep, and afterwards to reject such of them as in that state do not shew signs of
vegetation.

SUMATRA.

J33

if put into the ground with the first rains; and the little thorns with
which it is armed enabling the vine to take a firmer hold. They are dis-
tinguished into two sorts, the white and red, not from the colour of the
flowers (as might be supposed) for both are red, but from the tender
shoots of the one being whitish, and of the other being of a reddish hue.
The bark of the former is of a pale ash colour, of the latter brown ; the
former is sweet, and the food of elephants, for which reason it is not
much used in parts frequented by those animals ; the latter is bitter and
unpalatable to them; but they are not deterred by the short prickles
which are common to the branches of both sorts.

Trial has frequently been made of other trees, and particularly of the
bangkudu or mangkudu (morinda citrifolia), but none have been found to
answer so well for these vegetating props. It has been doubted, indeed,
whether the growth and produce of the pepper-vine are not considerably
injured by the chinkareen, which may rob it of its proper nourishment
by exhausting the earth ; and on this principle, in other of the eastern
islands, (Borneo, for instance) the vine is supported by poles, in the
manner of hops in England. Yet it is by no means clear to me, that
the Sumatran method is so disadvantageous in the comparison as it may
seem ; for, as the pepper-plant lasts many years, whilst the poles, ex-
posed to sun and rain, and loaded with a heavy weight, cannot be sup-
posed to continue sound above two seasons, there must be a frequent
renewal, which, notwithstanding the utmost care, must lacerate and
often destroy the vines. It is probable also that the shelter from the vio-
lence of the sun’s rays afforded by the branches of the vegetating prop,
and which, during the dry monsoon, is of the utmost consequence, may
counterbalance the injury occasioned by their roots; not to insist on the
opinion of a celebrated writer, that trees, acting as siphons, derive from
the air and transmit to the earth as much of the principle of vegetation,
as is expended in their nourishment.

When the most promising shoot of the chinkareen reserved for rearing
has attained the height of twelve to fifteeen feet (which latter it is not to
exceed), or in the second year of its growth, it must be headed or top-
ped;

134

SUMATRA.

Description
of the pep-
per vine.

Modes of pro-
pagating it.

ped ; and the branches that then extend themselves laterally, from the
upper part only, so long as their shade is required, are afterwards lopped
annually at the commencement of the rainy season (about November),
leaving little more than the stem; from whence they again shoot out to
afford their protection during the dry weather. By this operation also
the damage to the plant that would ensue from the droppings of rain
from the leaves, is avoided.

The pepper-vine is, in its own climate, a hardy plant, growing rea-
dily from cuttings or layers, rising in several knotted stems, twining
round any neighbouring support, and adhering to it by fibres that shoot
from every joint at intervals of six to ten inches, and from which it pro-
bably derives a share of its nourishment. If suffered to run along the
ground, these fibres would become roots ; but in this case (like the ivy)
it would never exhibit any appearance of fructification, the prop being
necessary for encouraging it to throw out its bearing shoots. It climbs
to the height of twenty or twenty-five feet, but thrives best when re-
strained to twelve or fifteen, as in the former case the lower part of the
vine bears neither leaves nor fruit, whilst in the latter it produces both
from within a foot of the ground. The stalk soon becomes ligneous, and
in time acquires considerable thickness. The leaves are of a deep green
and glossy surface, heart-shaped, pointed, not pungent to the taste, and
have but little smell. The branches are short and brittle, not projecting
above two feet from the stem, and separating readily at the joints. The
blossom is small and white ; the fruit round, green when young and full-
grown, and turning to a bright red when ripe and in perfection. It
grows abundantly from all the branches, in long, small clusters of twenty
to fifty grains, somewhat resembling bunches of currants, but with this
difference, that every grain adheres to the common stalk, which oc-
casions the cluster of pepper to be more compact, and it is also less
pliant.

The usual mode of propagating the pepper is by cuttings, a foot or
two in length, of the horizontal shoots that run along the ground from the
foot of the old vines (called lado sulur), and one or two of these are plant-
ed

SUMATRA.

135

ed within a few inches of the young chinkareen, at the same time with
it, if of the long kind, or six months after, if of the short kind, as before
described. Some, indeed, prefer an interval of twelve months; as in
good soil the luxuriancy of the vine will often overpower and bear down
the prop, if it has not first acquired competent strength. In such soil
the vine rises two or three feet in the course of the first year, and four or
five more in the second, by which time, or between the second and third
year of its growth, it begins to shew its blossom ( be-gagang ), if in fact
it can be called such, being nothing more than the germ of the future
bunch of fruit, of a light straw colour, darkening to green as the fruit
forms. These germs or blossoms are liable to fall untimely (gugur) in
very dry weather, or to be shaken off in high winds (although from this
accident the gardens are in general well sheltered by the surrounding
woods), when, after the fairest promise, the crop fails. In the rainy
weather that succeeds the first appearance of the fruit, the whole vine is
loosened from the chinkareen, and turned down again into the earth, a
hole being dug to receive it, in which it is laid circularly or coiled, leav-
ing only the extremity above ground, at the foot of the chinkareen, which
it now reascends with redoubled vigour, attaining in the folloAving season
the height of eight or ten feet, and bearing a full crop of fruit. There
is said to be a great nicety in hitting the exact time proper for this ope-
ration of turning down ; for if it be done too soon, the vines have been
known not to bear till the third year, like fresh plants ; and on the other
hand, the produce is ultimately retarded, when they omit to turn them
down until after the first fruit has been gathered; to which, avarice of
present, at the expense of future advantage, sometimes inclines the own-
ers. It is not very material how many stems the vine may have in its
first growth, but now one only, if strong, or two at the most, should be
suffered to rise and cling to the prop : more would be superfluous and
only weaken the whole. The supernumerary shoots, however, are use-
fully employed, being either conducted through narrow trenches to ad-
jacent chinkareens, whose vines have failed, or taken off at the root and
transplanted to others more distant, where, coiled round and buried as
the former, they rise with the same vigour, and the garden is completed
of uniform growth, although many of its original vines have not suc-
ceeded.

Turning down
the vines.

136

SUMATRA.

ceeded. With these off-sets or layers (called anggor and tettas) new gar-
dens may be at once formed ; the necessary chinkareens being previously
planted, and of sufficient growth to receive them.

This practice of turning down the vines, which appears singular, but
certainly contributes to the duration as well as strength of the plants,
may yet amount to nothing more than a substitute for transplantation.
Our people observing that vegetables often fail to thrive when permitted
to grow up in the same beds where they were first set or sown, find it
advantageous to remove them, at a certain period of their growth, to
fresh situations. The Sumatrans observing the same failure, have had
recourse to an expedient nearly similar in its principle, but effected in a
different and perhaps more judicious mode.

In order to lighten the labour of the cultivator, who has also the in-
dispensable task of raising grain for himself and his family, it is a com-
mon practice, and not attended with any detriment to the gardens, to
sow padi in the ground in which the chinkareens have been planted, and
when this has become about six inches high, to plant the cuttings of the
vines, suffering the shoots to creep along the ground until the crop has
been taken off; when they are trained to the chinkareens; the shade of
the corn being thought favourable to the young plants.

The vines, as has been observed, generally begin to bear in the course
Pbefring°f °f the third year from the time of planting, but the produce is retarded
for one or two seasons by the process just described ; after which it in-
creases annually for three years, when the garden (about the seventh or
eighth year) is esteemed in its prime, or at its utmost produce; which
state it maintains, according to the quality of the soil, from one to four
years, when it gradually declines, for about the same period, until it is
no longer worth the labour of keeping it in order. From some, in good
ground, fruit has been gathered at the age of twenty years; but such
instances are uncommon. On the first appearance of decline it should
be renewed, as it is termed; but, to speak more properly, another gar-
den should be planted to succeed it, which will begin to bear before the
old one ceases.

The

SUMATRA.

137

The vine having acquired its full growth, and being limited by the Modeofprun-
height of the chinkareen, sometimes grows bushy and overhangs at top,
which, being prejudicial to the lower parts, must be corrected by prun-
ing or thinning the top branches, and this is done commonly by hand,
as they break readily at every joint. Suckers too, or superfluous side-
shoots ( charang ), which spring luxuriantly, are to be plucked away.

The ground of the garden must be kept perfectly clear of weeds, shrubs,
and whatever might injure or tend to choke the plants. During the hot
months of June, July, and August, the finer kinds of grass may be per-
mitted to cover the ground, as it contributes to mitigate the effects of the
sun’s power, and preserves for a longer time the dews, which at that
season fall copiously; but the rank species, called lalang , being particu-
larly difficult to eradicate, should not be suffered to fix itself, if it can be
avoided. As the vines increase in size and strength less attention to the
ground is required, and especially as their shade tends to check the
growth of weeds. In lopping the branches of the chinkareens prepara-
tory to the rains, some dexterity is required that they may fall clear of
the vine, and the business is performed with a sharp prang or bill that
generally separates at one stroke the light, pithy substance of the bough.

For this purpose, as well as that of gathering the fruit, light, triangular

ladders made of bamboo are employed. As soon as any of the berries or Time of ga-

J J thenng.

corns redden, the bunch is reckoned fit for gathering, the remainder being
then generally full-grown, although green ; nor would it answer to wait
for the whole to change colour, as the most mature would drop off. It
is collected in small baskets slung over the shoulder, and with the assist-
ance of the women and children conveyed to a smooth, level spot of
clean, hard ground, near the garden or the village, where it is spread,
sometimes upon mats, to dry in the sun ; but exposed at the same Mode of dry-
time to the vicissitudes of the weather, which are not much regarded, cleansing,
nor thought to injure it. In this situation it becomes black and shri-
velled, as we see it in Europe, and as it dries is hand-rubbed occasion-
ally to separate the grains from the stalk. It is then winnowed in large,
round, shallow sieves, called nyiru , and put in large vessels made of bark
(kulitkayu) under their houses, until the whole of the crop is gathered, or
a sufficient quantity for carrying (usually by water) to the European
factory or gadong, at the mouth of the river. That which has been ga-

T thered

138

SUMATRA.

White pepper.

Appearance
of the gar-
den*.

thered at the properest stage of maturity will shrivel the least ; but, if
plucked too soon, it will in a short time, by removal from place to place,
become mere dust. Of this defect trial may be made by the hand ; but
as light pepper may have been mixed with the sound, it becomes neces-
sary that the whole should be garbled at the scale by machines con-
structed for the purpose. Pepper that has fallen to the ground overripe,
and been gathered from thence, will be known by being stripped of its
outer coat, and in that state is an inferior kind of white pepper.

This was for centuries supposed in Europe to be the produce of a dif-
ferent plant, and to possess qualities superior to those of the common
black pepper; and accordingly it sold at a considerably higher price.
But it has lost in some measure that advantage since it has been known
that the secret depended merely upon the art of blanching the grains of
the other sort, by depriving it of the exterior pellicle. For this purpose
the ripest red grains are picked out and put in baskets to steep, either in
running water (which is preferred), in' pits dug for the occasion, near
the banks of rivers, or in stagnant pools. Sometimes it is only buried in
the ground. In any of these situations it swells, and, in the course of a
week or ten days, bursts its tegument, from which it is afterwards care-
fully separated by drying in the sun, rubbing between the hands, and
winnowing. It has been much disputed, and is still undetermined, to
which sort the preference ought to be given. The white pepper has this
obvious recommendation, that it can be made of no other than the best
and soundest grains, taken at their most perfect stage of maturity : but,
on the other hand, it is argued, that by being suffered to remain the ne-
cessary time in water, its strength must be considerably diminished; and
that the outer husk, which is lost by the process, has a peculiar flavour
distinct from that of the heart, and though not so pungent, more aroma-
tic. For the white pepper the planter receives the fourth part of a dollar,
or fifteen-pence, per bamboo or gallon measure, equal to about six pounds
weight. At the sales in England the prices are at this time in the pro-
portion of seventeen to ten or eleven, and the quantity imported has for
some years been inconsiderable.

The gardens being planted in even rows, running parallel, and

SUMATRA.

139

at right angles with each other, their symmetrical appearance is very
beautiful, and rendered more striking by the contrast they exhibit to the
wild scenes of nature which surround them. In highly cultivated coun-
tries, such as England, where landed property is all lined out, and
bounded and intersected with walls and hedges, we endeavour to give our
gardens and pleasure grounds the charm of variety and novelty, by imi-
tating the wildness of nature, in studied irregularities. Winding walks,
hanging woods, craggy rocks, falls of water, are all looked upon as im-
provements; and the stately avenues, the canals, and rectangular lawns
of our ancestors, which afforded the beauty of contrast, in ruder times,
are now exploded. This difference of taste is not merely the effect of
caprice, nor entirely of refinement, but results from the change of cir-
cumstances. A man who should attempt to exhibit in Sumatra, the
modern, or irregular style of laying out grounds, would attract but little
attention, as the unimproved scenes adjoining on every side, would pro-
bably eclipse his labours. Could he, on tlie contrary, produce, amidst
its magnificent wilds, one of those antiquated parterres, with its canals
and fountains, whose precision he has learned to despise, his work would
create admiration and delight. A pepper garden cultivated in England,
would not, in point of external appearance, be considered as an object
of extraordinary beauty, and would be particularly found fault with for
its uniformity ; yet, in Sumatra, I never entered one, after travelling
many miles, as is usually the case, through the woods, that I did not
find myself affected with a strong sensation of pleasure. Perhaps the
simple view of human industry, so scantily presented in that island,
might contribute to this pleasure, by awakening those social feelings
that nature has inspired us with, and which make our breasts glow on
the perception of whatever indicates the prosperity and happiness of our
fellow-creatures.

Once in every year, a survey of all the pepper-plantations is taken Surveys,
by the Company’s European servants, resident at the various settlements,
in the neighbourhood of which that article is cultivated. The number
of vines in each particular garden is counted ; accurate observation is
made of its state and condition; orders are given, where necessary, for
further care, for completion of stipulated quantity, renewals, changes

T 2 of

SUMATRA.

of situation for better soil ; and rewards and punishments are distributed
to the planters, as they appear, from the degree of their industry or re-
missness, deserving of either. Minutes of all these are entered in the
survey-book, which, beside giving present information to the chief, and
to the governor and council, to whom a copy is transmitted, serves as a
guide and check for the survey of the succeeding year. An abstract of
the form of the book is as follows. It is divided into sundry columns,
containing the name of the village ; the names of the planters ; the num-
ber of chinkareens planted ; the number of vines just planted ; of young
vines, not in a bearing state, three classes or years ; of young vines in a
bearing state, three classes ; of vines in prime ; of those on decline ; of
those that are old, but still productive; the total number; and lastly the
quantity of pepper received during the year. A space is left for occa-
sional remarks, and at the conclusion is subjoined a comparison of the
totals of each column,, for the whole district or residency, with those of
the preceding year. This business the reader will perceive to be at-
tended with considerable trouble, exclusive of the actual fatigue of the
surveys, which, from the nature of the country, must necessarily be
performed on foot, in a climate not very favourable to such excursions.
The journeys in few places can be performed in less than a month, and
often require a much longer time.

The arrival of the Company’s Resident at each dusun is considered
as a period of festivity. The chief, together with the principal inha-
bitants, entertain him and his attendants with rustic hospitality, and
when he retires to rest, his slumbers are soothed, or interrupted, by the
songs of young females, who never fail to pay this compliment to the
respected guest; and receive in return some trifling ornamental and
useful presents (such as looking-glasses, fans, and needles) at his depar-
ture.

Succession of The inhabitants, by the original contracts of the head men with the
Company, are obliged to plant a certain number of vines; each family one
thousand, and each young unmarried man five hundred ; and, in order
to keep up the succession of produce, so soon as their gardens attain to
their prime state, they are ordered to prepare others, that they may be-
gin

SUMATRA.

341

gin to bear as the old ones fall off ; but as this can seldom be enforced,,
till the decline becomes evident, and as young gardens are liable to va-
rious accidents which older ones are exempt from, the succession is
rendered incomplete, and the consequence is, that the annual produce
of each district fluctuates, and is greater or less, in the porportion of the
quantity of bearing vines to the whole number. To enter minutely into
the detail of this business, will not afford much information or entertain-
ment to the generality of readers, who will, however, be surprised to
hear that pepper-planting, though scarcely an art, so little skill appears
to be employed in its cultivation, has nevertheless been rendered an ab-
struse science, by the investigations which able men have bestowed upon,
the subject. These took their rise from censures conveyed for supposed
mismanagement, when the investment, or annual provision of pepper,
decreased in comparison with preceding years, and which was not sa-
tisfactorily accounted for by unfavourable seasons. To obviate such
charges, it became necessary for those who superintended the business,
to pay attention to, and explain the efficient causes which unavoidably
occasioned this fluctuation, and to establish general principles of cal-
culation, by which to determine at any time, the probable future pro-
duce of the different residencies. These will depend upon a knowledge
of the medium produce of a determinate number of vines, and the me-
dium number to which this produce is to be applied ; both of which are
to be ascertained only from a comprehensive view of the subject, and a
nice discrimination. Nothing general can be determined from detached
instances. It is not the produce of one particular plantation in one
particular stage of bearing, and in one particular season; but the mean
produce of all the various classes of bearing vines collectively, drawn
from the experience of several years, that can alone be depended on in
calculations of this nature. So in regard to the medium number of vines
presumed to exist at any residency in a future year, to which the me-
dium produce of a certain number, one thousand, for instance, is to be
applied, the quantity of young vines of the first, second, and third year,
must not be indiscriminately advanced, in their whole extent, to the
next annual stage, but a judicious allowance, founded on experience,
must be made, for the accidents to which, in spite of a resident’s ut-
most care, they will be exposed. Some are lost by neglect or death of

' . the

142

SUMATRA.

the owner ; some are destroyed by inundations, others by elephants and
wild buffaloes, and some by unfavourable seasons and from these several
considerations, the number of vines will ever be found considerably de-
creased, by the time they have arrived at a bearing state. Another
important object of consideration, in these matters, is the comparative
state of a residency at any particular period, with what may be justly
considered as its medium state. There must exist a determinate propor-
tion between any number of bearing vines, and such a number of young
as are ncccooary to replace them when they go off and keep up a regular
succession. This will depend in general upon the length of time before
they reach a bearing state, and during which they afterwards continue in
it. If this certain proportion happens at any time to be disturbed, the
produce must become irregular. Thus, if at any period, the number of
bearing vines shall be found to exceed their just proportion to the total
number, the produce, at such period, is to be considered as above the
mean, and a subsequent decrease may with certainty be predicted, and
vice versd. If then this proportion can be known, and the state of po-
pulation in a residency ascertained, it becomes easy to determine the
true medium number of bearing vines in that residency.

There are, agreeably to the form of the survey book, eleven stages
or classes of vines, each advanced one year. Of these classes, six are
bearing, and five young. If, therefore, the gardens were not liable to
accidents, but passed on from column to column undiminished, the true
proportion of the bearing vines to the young would be as six to five, or
to the total, as six to eleven. But the various contingences above hinted
at, must tend to reduce this proportion ; while, on the other hand, if any
of the gardens should continue longer than is necessary to pass through
all the stages on the survey-book, or should remain more than one year
in a prime state, these circumstances would tend to increase the porpor-
tion. What then is the true medium proportion, can onlv be deter-
mined from experience, and by comparing the state of a residency at
various successive periods. In order to ascertain this point, a very in-
genious gentleman, and able servant of the East India Company,* to

• whom

* Mr. John Crisp.

SUMATRA.

143

whom I am indebted for the most part of what I have laid before the
reader on this part of the subject, drew out, in the year 1777, a general
comparative view of Manna residency, from the surveys of twelve years,
annexing the produce of each year. From the statement it appeared,
that the proportion of the bearing vines to the whole number, in that
district, was no more than 5,1 to 11, instead of 6 to 11, which would
be the proportion, if not reduced by accidents; and further, that when
the whole produce of the twelve years was diffused over the whole num-
ber of bearing vines during that period, the produce of one thousand
vines came out to be four hundred and fifty-three pounds, which must
therefore be estimated as the medium produce of that residency. The
same principle of calculation being applied to the other residencies, it
appeared, that the mean annual produce of one thousand vines, in all
the various stages of bearing, taken collectively throughout the coun-
try, deduced from the experience of twelve years, was four hundred and
four pounds. It likewise became evident from the statements drawn
out by that gentleman, that the medium annual produce of the Com-
pany’s settlements on the west coast of Sumatra, ought to be estimated
at twelve hundred tons, of sixteen hundred weight ; which is corrobo-
rated by an average of the actual receipts for any considerable number
of vears.

Thus much will be sufficient to give the reader an idea of pepper-
planting as a kind of science. How far, in a commercial light, this
produce answers the Company’s views in supporting the settlements, is
foreign from my purpose to discuss, though it is a subject on which
not a little might be said. It is the history of the island, and its inha-
bitants, and not of the European interests, that I attempt to lay before
the public.

The natives distinguish three species of pepper, which are called at Species of
different places by different names. At Laye , in the Rejang country, pepper'
they term them lado kawur, lado manna, and lado jambi , from the parts
where each sort is supposed to prevail, or from whence it was first
brought to them. The lado kawur, or Lampong pepper, is the strong-
est plant, and bears the largest leaf and fruit ; is slower in coming to

perfection

144

S U M A T R A.

Seasons.

perfection than the second, but of much longer duration. The leaf and
fruit of the lado manna are somewhat smaller, and it has this peculiarity,
that it bears soon and in large quantities, but seldom passes the third
or fourth year’s crop. The jambi , which [has deservedly fallen into dis-
repute, is of the smallest leaf and fruit, very short lived, and not with-
out difficulty trained to the chinkareen. In some places to the south-
ward they distinguish two kinds only, lado sudid and lado jambi. Lado
sulur and lado anggor are not distinctions of species ; the former denot-
ing the cuttings of young creeping shoots commonly planted, in oppo-
sition to the latter, which is the term for planting by layers.

The season of the pepper vines bearing, as well as that of most other
fruits-trees on Sumatra, is subject to great irregularities, owing, perhaps,
to the uncertainty of the monsoons, which are not there so strictly peri-
odical, as on the western side of India. Generally speaking, however,
the pepper produces two crops in the year; one called the greater crop
(pupul agung ) between the months of October and March ; the other
called the lesser or half crop ( buah sello) between the months of April and
September, which is small in proportion as the former has been consider-
able, and vice versa. Sometimes, in particular districts, they will be
employed in gathering it in small quantities, during the whole year
round, whilst, perhaps, in others, the produce of that year is confined
to one crop ; for although the regular period between the appearance of
the blossom and maturity is about four months, the whole does not ripen
at once, and blossoms are frequently found on the same vine with green
and ripe fruit. In Laye residency, the principal harvest of pepper, in
the year 1766, was gathered between the months of February and May;
in 1767 and 1768, about September and October; in 1778, between
June and August ; and for the four succeeding years was seldom received
earlier than November and December. Long continued droughts, which
sometimes happen, stop the vegetation of the vines, and retard the pro-
duce. This was particularly experienced in the year 177-5, when, fora
period of about eight months, scarcely a shower of rain fell to moisten
the earth. The vines were deprived of their foliage ; many gardens pe-
rished, and a general destruction was expected. But this apparent ca-
lamity was attended with a consequence not foreseen, though analogous

SUMATRA.

145

to the usual operations of nature in that climate. The natives, when
they would force a tree that is backward, to produce fruit, strip it of its
leaves, by which means the nutritive juices are reserved for that more
important use, and the blossoms soon begin to shew themselves in a-
bundance. A similar effect was displayed in the pepper gardens, by
the inclemency of the season. The vines, as soon as the rains began
to descend, threw out blossoms in a profusion unknown before ; old gar-
dens, which had been unprolific for two or three years, began to bear;
and accordingly the crop of 1776-7 considerably surpassed that of many
preceding years.

The pepper is mostly brought down from the country on rafts (ra/foY), Transportations
which are sometimes composed of rough timbers, but usually of large ofpepper
bamboos, with a platform of split bamboos, to keep the cargo dry.

They are steered at both head and stern, in the more rapid rivers, with a
kind of rudder, or scull rather, having a broad blade, fixed in a fork or
crutch. Those who steer are obliged to exert the whole strength of the
body, in those places especially where the fall of water is steep, and the
course winding ; but the purchase of the scull is of so great power, that
they can move the raft bodily across the river, when both ends are acted
upon at the same time. But, notwithstanding their great dexterity, and
their judgment in chusing the channel, they are liable to meet with ob-
struction in large trees and rocks, which, from the violence of the stream,
occasion their rafts to be overset, and sometimes dashed to pieces.

It is a generally received opinion, that pepper does not sustain any da-
mage by an immersion in sea water; a circumstance that attends, per-
haps, a fourth part of the whole quantity shipped from the coast. The
surf, through which it is carried in an open boat, called a sampan lon~
chore, renders such accidents unavoidable. This boat, which carries one
or two tons, being hauled up on the beach, and there loaded, is shoved
off, with a few people in it, by a number collected for that purpose,
who watch the opportunity of a lull, or temporary intermission of the
swell. A tambaiigan, or long narrow vessel, built to contain from ten to
twenty tons, (peculiar to the southern part of the coast) lies at anchor
without, to receive the cargoes from the sampans. At many places,

U where

146

SUMATRA.

Nutmegs and
cloves.

where the kwallas, or mouths of the rivers, are tolerably practicable, the
pepper is sent out at once in the tambangans over the bar; but this, ow-
ing to the common shallowness of the water, and violence of the surfs,
is attended with considerable risk. Thus the pepper is conveyed, either
to the warehouses at the head-settlement, or to the ship from Europe
lying there to receive it. About one-third part of the quantity of black
pepper collected, but none of the white, is annually sent to China. Of
the extent and circumstances of the trade in pepper carried on by private
merchants (chiefly American) at the northern ports of Nalabu, Sasu, and
Mukki, where it is managed by the subjects of Achin , I have not any
accurate information, and only know that it has increased considerably
during the last twelve years.

It is well known with what jealousy and rigour the Batavian govern-
ment has guarded against the transplantation of the trees producing nut-
megs and cloves from the islands of Banda and Amboina to other parts of
India. To elude its vigilance many attempts have been made by the Eng-
lish, who considered Sumatra to be well adapted, from its local circum-
stances, to the cultivation of these valuable spices ; but all proved inef-
fectual, until the reduction of the eastern settlements in 1796, afforded
the wished for opportunity, which was eagerly seized by Mr. Robert
Broff, at that period chief of the Residency of Fort Marlborough. As the
culture is now likely to become of importance to the trade of this coun-
try, and the history of its introduction may hereafter be thought inte-
resting, I shall give it in Mr. Broff’s own words. “ The acquisition of
the nutmeg and clove plants became an object of my solicitude the mo-
ment I received by Capt. Newcombe, of his Majesty’s ship Orpheus,
the news of the surrender of the islands where they are produced ; being
convinced, from the information I had received, that the country in the
neighbourhood of Bencoolen, situated as it is in the same latitude with
the Moluccas, exposed to the same periodical winds, and possessing the
same kind of soil, would prove congenial to their culture. Under this
impression I suggested to the other members of the Board the expediency
of freighting a vessel for the two-fold purpose of sending supplies to the
forces at Amboina, for which they were in distress, and of bringing in
return as many spice-plants as could be conveniently stowed. The

proposition

SUMATRA.

147

proposition was acceded to, and a vessel, of which I was the principal
owner (no other could be obtained) was accordingly dispatched in July,

1806$ but the plan was unfortunately frustrated by the imprudent con-
duct of a person on the civil establishment, to whom the execution was
entrusted. Soon afterwards, however, I had the good fortune to be more
successful, in an application I made to Capt. Hugh Moore, who com-
manded the Phoenix country ship, to undertake the importation ; stipu-
lating with him to pay a certain sum for every healthy plant he should
deliver. Complete success attended the measure : he returned in July, First introduc-
1798, and I had the satisfaction of planting myself, and distributing for tl0n’
that purpose, a number of young nutmeg and a few clove trees, in the
districts of Bencoolen and Silebar, and other more distant spots, in order
to ascertain from experience the situations best adapted to their growth.

I particularly delivered to Mr. Charles Campbell, botanist, a portion to
be under his own immediate inspection ; and another to Mr. Edward
Coles, this gentleman having in his service a family who were natives of
a spice island, and had been used to the cultivation. When I quitted
the coast in January, 1799, I had the gratification of witnessing the
prosperous state of the plantations, and of receiving information from the
quarters where they had been distributed, of their thriving luxuriantly ;
and since my arrival in England various letters have reached me, to the
same effect. To the merit, therefore, of introducing this important
article, and of forming regulations for its successful culture, I put in my
exclusive claim ; and am fully persuaded that if a liberal policy is adopt-
ed, it will become of the greatest commercial advantage to the Company
and to the nation.”

Further light will be thrown upon this subject, and the progress of the
cultivation, by the following extract of a letter to me from Mr. Camp-
bell, dated in November, 1803. “ Early in the year 1798, Mr. Broff,

to whom the highest praise is due for his enterprising and eonsiderative
scheme of procuring the spice trees from our newly-conquered islands
(after experiencing much disappointment and want of support) overcame
every obstacle, and we received, through the agency of Mr. Jones, com-
mercial resident at Amboina , five or six hundred nutmeg plants, with
about fifty cloves ; but these latter were not in a vigorous state. They

U 2

were

148

SUMATRA.

Second im-
portation
of plant*.

Culture
left to indi-
vidual?.

were distributed, and put generally under my inspection. Their culture
was attended with various success, but Mr. Coles, from the situation of
his farm, near Silebar River, but not too close to the sea-shore, and
from, I believe, bestowing more personal attention than any of us, has
outstripped his competitors. Some trees which I planted as far inland
as the Sugar-loaf Mountain, blossomed with his, but the fruit was first
perfected in his ground. The plants were dispatched from Amboina
in March, 1798, just bursting from the shell, and two months ago I
plucked the perfect fruit, specimens of which I now send you ; being a
period of five years and nine months only; whereas in their native land
eight years at least are commonly allowed. Having early remarked the
great promise of the trees, I tried by every means in my power to interest
the Bengal government in our views, and at length, by the assistance of
Dr. Roxburgh, I succeeded. A few months ago his son arrived here
from Amboina, with twenty-two thousand nutmeg plants, and upwards
of six thousand cloves, which are already in my nurseries, and flourish-
ing like those which preceded them. About the time the nutmegs
fruited, one clove tree flowered. Only three of the original importation
had survived their transit and the accidents attending their planting out.
Its buds are now filling, and I hope to transmit specimens of them also.
The Malay chiefs have eagerly engaged in the cultivation of their re-
spective shares. I have retained eight thousand nutmegs as a plantation,
from which the fruit may hereafter be disseminated. Every kind of soil,
and every variety of situation, has been tried. The cloves are not yet
widely dispersed, for being a tender plant, I chuse to have them under
my own eye.” Since the death of Mr. Campbell, Mr. Roxburgh has
been appointed to the superintendance, and the latest accounts from
thence justify the sanguine expectations formed of the ultimate impor-
tance of the trade ; there being at that period upwards of twenty thou-
sand nutmeg trees in full bearing, capable of yielding annually two hun-
dred thousand pounds weight of nutmegs, and fifty thousand pounds of
mace. The clove plants have proved more delicate, but the quality of
their spice equal to any produced in the Moluccas. It is understood,
that the Company has declined the monopoly of the trade, and left the
cultivation to individual exertion; directing, however, that its own im-
mediate plantations be kept up by the labour of convicts from Bengal,

and

SUMATRA.

149

and reserving to itself an export duty of ten per cent, on the value of the
spices.

Among the valuable productions of the island as articles of commerce,
a conspicuous place belongs to the camphor.

This peculiar substance, called by the natives kapur-barus ,a and dis-
tinguished by the epithet of native camphor from another sort which
shall be mentioned hereafter, is a drug for which Sumatra and Borneo
have been celebrated from the earliest times, and with the virtues of
which the Arabian physicians appear to have been acquainted. Che-
mists formerly entertained opinions extremely discordant in regard to the
nature and the properties of camphor ; and even at this day they seem
to be but imperfectly known. It is considered, however, as a sedative
and powerful diaphoretic : but my province is to mention such particu-
lars of its history as have come within my knowledge, leaving to others
to investigate its most beneficial uses.

The tree is a native of the northern parts of the island only, not being
found to the southward of the line, nor yet beyond the third degree of N.
latitude. It grows, without cultivation, in the woods lying near to the
sea-coast, and is equal in height and bulk to the largest timber trees,
being frequently found upwards of fifteen feet in circumference. For
carpenters’ purposes the wood is in much esteem, being easy to work?
light, durable, and not liable to be injured by insects, particularly by
the kumbang, a species of the bee, whose destructive perforations have
been already mentioned; but is also said to be more affected than most
others by the changes of the atmosphere. The leaf is small, of a round-
ish oval, the fibres running straight and parallel to each other, and ter-
minates in a remarkably long and slender point. The flower has not yet
been brought to England. The fruit is described by C. F. Gaertner (De

Seminibus,

a The word kupur appears to be derived from the Sanskrit karpura, and the Arabic and
Persian kafur (from whence our camphor), to have been adopted from the language of the
country where the article is produced. Barus is the name of a place in Sumatra.

Camphor.

Place of
growth.

Wood.

150

SUMATRA.

Seminibus, Vol. III. p. 49. tab. clxxxvi.) by the name of Dryobalanops
aromatica, from specimens in the collection of Sir Joseph Banks; but he
has unaccountably mistaken it for the cinnamon tree, and spoken of it
as a native of Ceylon. It is also described, from the same specimens,
by M. Correa de (Serra Annales du Museum d’ Histoire Naturelle, Tom.
X. p. 159- pi. 8.) by the name of Pterigium teres ; without any refer-
ence whatever to the nature of the tree as yielding this valuable drug.
A beautiful engraving of its very peculiar foliage has been made under
the direction of Mr. A. B. Lambert.

Camphor The camphor is found in the concrete state in which we see it, in

found in the

fissures. natural fissures or crevices of the wood, but does not exhibit any exte-
riour appearance by which its existence can be previously ascertained,
and the persons whose employment it is to collect it, usually cut down a
number of trees, almost, at random, before they find one that contains a
sufficient quantity to repay their labour, although always assisted in their
research by a professional conjurer, whose skill must be chiefly employed
in concealing or accounting for his own mistakes. It is said, that not a
tenth part of the number felled is productive either of camphor or of
camphor-oil ( meniak kapur ), although the latter is less rare; and that
parties of men are sometimes engaged for two or three months together
in the forests, with very precarious success. This scarcity tends to en-
hance the price. The tree, when cut down, is divided transversely into
several blocks, and these again are split with wedges into small pieces,
from the interstices of which the camphor, if any there be, is extracted.
That which comes away readily in large flakes, almost transparent, is
esteemed the prime sort or head ; the smaller, clean pieces are considered
as belly, and the minute particles, chiefly scraped from the wood, and
often mixed with it, are called foot; according to the customary terms
adopted in the assortment of drugs. The mode of separating it from
these and other impurities, is by steeping and washing it in water, and
sometimes with the aid of soap. It is then passed through sieves or
screens of different apertures, in order to make the assortment, so far as
that depends upon the size of the grains ; but much of the selection is
also made by hand, and particular care is taken to distinguish from the

SUMATRA.

151

more genuine kinds, that which is produced by an artificial concretion
of the essential oil.

The inquiries I formerly made on the subject (not having been myself Camphor oil.
in the district where the tree grows) led me to believe with confidence
that the oil, and the dry crystallized resin were not procured from the
same individual tree ; but in this I was first undeceived by Mr. R.
Maidman, who, in June 1788, wrote to me from Tappanuli , where he
was resident, to the following effect : “ I beg your acceptance of a
piece of camphor wood, the genuine quality of which I can answer
for, being cut by one of my own people, who was employed in making
charcoal, of which the best for smiths’ work is made from this wood.

On cutting deep into a pretty large tree, the fine oil suddenly gushed
out, and was lost for want of a receiver. He felled the tree, and having
split it, brought me three or four catties (four or five pounds) of the
finest camphor I ever saw, and also this log, which is very rich. My
reason for being thus particular is, that the country people have a me-
thod of pouring oil of inferior camphor trees into a log of wood that has
natural cracks, and by exposing this to the sun every day for a week,
it appears like genuine camphor ; but is the worst sort.” This coex-
istence of the two products lias been since confirmed to me by others,
and is particularly stated by Mr. Macdonald in his ingenious paper on
certain “ Natural Productions of Sumatra” published in the Asiat.

Res. Vol. IV. Calcutta 1795. It seems probable on the whole, that as
the tree advances in age, a greater proportion of this essential oil takes
a concrete form, and it has been observed to me, that when the fresh
oil has been allowed to stand and settle, a sediment of camphor is pro-
cured ; but the subject requires further examination by well informed
persons on the spot.

Head camphor is usually purchased from those who procure it, at price.
the rate of six Spanish dollars the pound, or eight dollars the catty, and
sells in the China market at Canton for nine to twelve dollars the
pound, or twelve to fifteen hundred dollars the pekul of a hundred cat-
ties or one hundred thirty-three pounds and a third, avoirdupoise.

When of superior quality it sells for two thousand dollars, and I have

been

152

SUMATRA.

Japan cam-
phor.

been assured, that some small, choice samples, have produced upwards,
of thirty dollars per catty.1 * 3 It is estimated that the whole quantity
annually brought down for sale, on the western side of the island, does
not exceed fifty pekul. The trade is chiefly in the hands of the Achi-
nese settled at Sinkell , who buy the article from the Batta people, and
dispose of it to the Europeans and Chinese settlers.

It has been commonly supposed that the people of China or Japan
prepare a factitious substance resembling native camphor, and impreg-
nated with its virtues by the admixture of a small quantity of the ge-
nuine, which is sold to the Dutch factory for thirty or forty dollars the
pekul, sent to Holland, and afterwards refined to the state in which we
see it in our shops, where it is sold at eight to twelve shillings the
pound. It appears, however, an extraordinary circumstance, that any
article could possibly be so adulterated, bearing at the same time the
likeness and retaining the sensible qualities of its original, as that the
dealers should be enabled, with profit to themselves to re-sell it for the
fiftieth part of the price they gave. But upon inquiry of an ingenious
person long resident in China, I learned that the Japan camphor is by
no means a factitious substance, but the genuine produce of a tree
growing in abundance in the latter country, different in every character
from that of Sumatra or Borneo, and well known to our botanists by
the name of laurus camphora, L. He further informed me that the
Chinese never mix the Sumatran camphor with that from Japan, but
purchase the former for their own use, at the before-mentioned extrava-
gant price, from an idea of its efficacy, probably superstitious, and
export the latter as a drug not held in any particular estimation. Thus
we buy the leaves of their tea-plant, at a high rate, and neglect herbs,
the natives of our own soil, possessing perhaps equal virtues. It is

known

1 See Price Currents of the China trade. Camphor was purchased in Sumatra by

Commodore Beaulieu, in 1622, at the rate of fifteen Sp. dol. for twenty eight ounces,

which differs but little from the modern price. In the Trans, of the Society at Batavia, it
appears that the camphor of Borneo sells in their market for 3200 rix dollars, and that ot
Japan for 50 rix dollars the pekul.

SUMATRA.

153

known also that the Japan camphor, termed factitious, will evaporate till
it wholly disappears, and at all stages of its diminution retain its full pro-
portion of strength ; which does not seem the property of an adulterat-
ed or compounded body. Kaempfer informs us that it is prepared from
a decoction of the wood and roots of the tree, cut into small pieces ;
and the form of the lumps in which it is brought to us shews that it has
undergone a process. The Sumatran sort, though doubtless from its
extreme volatility it must be subject to decrease, does not lose any very
sensible quantity from being kept, as I find from the experience of
many years that it has been in my possession. It probably may not
be very easy to ascertain its superiority over the other in the materia me-
dica, not being brought for sale to this country, nor generally admi-
nistered; but from a medical person who practised at Bencoolen, I
learned that the usual dose he gave was from half a grain to one or two
grains at the most. The oil, although hitherto of little importance as
an article of commerce, is a valuable domestic medicine, and much
used by the natives as well as Europeans, in cases of strains, swellings,
and rheumatic pains; its particles, from their extreme subtilty, readily
entering the pores. It undergoes no preparation, and is used in the
state in which, upon incision, it has distilled from the tree. The kayu
putih (melaleuca leucadendron) oil, which is somewhat better known
in England, is obtained in the same manner; but to procure the meniak
kayu or common wood-oil, used for preserving timber or boards exposed
to the weather, from decay, and for boiling with dammar to pay the
bottoms of ships and boats, the following method is practised. They
make a transverse incision into the tree, to the depth of some inches,
and then cut sloping down from the notch, till they leave a flat super-
ficies. This they hollow out to a capacity to receive about a quart.
They then put into the hollow a bit of lighted reed, and let it remain
for about ten minutes, which acting as a stimulus, draws the fluid to
that part. In the space of a night the liquor fills the receptacle pre-
pared for it, and the tree continues to yield a lesser quantity for three
successive nights, when the fire must be again applied : but on a few
repetitions it is exhausted.

Benzoin

154

SUMATRA.

Benzoin. Benzoin or Benjamin (styraz benzoin1) called by the Malays kami-
nian, is, like the camphor, found almost exclusively in the Batta coun-
try, to the northward of the equator, but not in the Achinese dominions
immediately beyond that district. It is also met with, though rarely,
south of the line, but there, either from natural inferiority or want of
skill in collecting it, the small quantity produced is black and of little
value. The tree does not grow to any considerable size, and is of no
value as timber. The seeds or nuts, which are round, of a brown co-
lour, and about the size of a moderate bolus, are sown in the padi-
fields, and afterwards require no other cultivation than to cleay away
the shrubs from about the young plants. In some places, especially
near the sea-coast, large plantations of it are formed, and it is said that
the natives, sensible of the great advantage accruing to them from the
trade, in a national point of view, oblige the proprietors, by legal re-
gulation, to keep up the succession.

Mode of pro- When the trees have attained the age of about seven years, and are

six or eight inches in diameter, incisions are made in the bark, from
whence the balsam or gum (as it is commonly termed, although being
soluble in spirits and not in water, it is rather a resin) exudes, which is
carefully pared off. The purest of the gum, or Head benzoin, is that
which comes from these incisions during the first three years, and is
white, inclining to yellow, soft, and fragrant; after which it gradually
changes to the second sort, which is of a reddish yellow, degenerating
to brown ; and at length when the tree, which will not bear a repeti-
tion of the process for more than ten or twelve years, is supposed to be
worn out, they cut it down, and when split in pieces procure, by
scraping, the worst sort, or Foot benzoin, which is dark coloured, hard,
and mixed more or less with parings of the wood and other impurities.
The Head is further distinguished into Europe and India-head, of
which the first is superior, and is the only sort adapted to the home-
market: the latter, with most of the inferior sorts, is exported to Ara-
bia,

a See a Botanical Description of this tree by my friend Mr. Jonas Dryander, with a
plate, in Vol. LXXVII. p. 307. of the Phil. Trans, for the year 1787.

SUMATRA.

155

bia,1 Persia, and some parts of India, where it is burned, to perfume
with its smoke their temples and private houses, expel troublesome
insects, and obviate the pernicious effects of unwholesome air or
noxious exhalations j in addition to which uses, in the Malayan coun-
tries, it is always considered as a necessary part of the apparatus in ad-
ministering an oath. It is brought down from the country for sale in
large cakes, called tampang, covered with mats ; and these, as a staple
commodity, are employed in their dealings for a standard of value, to
which the price of other things have reference, as in most parts of the
world to certain metals. In order to pack it in chests, it is necessary to
soften the coarser sorts with boiling water ; for the finer, it is sufficient
to break the lumps and to expose it. t.o the heat of the sun. The greater
part of the quantity brought to England is re-exported from thence to
countries where the Roman Catholic and Mahometan religions prevail,
to be there burnt as incense in the churches and temples.b The re-
mainder is chiefly employed in medicine, being much esteemed as an
expectorant and styptic, and constitutes the basis of that valuable bal-
sam distinguished by the name of Turlington, whose very salutary
effects, particularly in healing green and other wounds, is well known
to persons abroad who cannot always obtain surgical assistance. It is
also employed, if I am not misinformed, in the preparation of court
sticking plaister. The gum or resin called dulang is named by us
scented benzoin from its peculiar fragrance. The rasamala (lignum pa-
puanum of Rumphius, and altingia excelsa of the Batavian Trans.) is
a sort of wild benzoin, of little value, and not, in Sumatra, considered
as an object of commerce.

Cassia

* Les Arabes tirent beaucoup d’autres sortes d’encens de 1’ Habbesch, de Sumatra, Siam,
Java, & c. et parmi celles-la une qu’ils appellent Bachor (bakhor) Java, & que les Anglois
nomment Benzoin, est tres-semblable a 1’ Oliban. On en exporte en grande quantite en
Turquie paries golfes d’Arabie & de Perse, & la moindre des trois especes de Benzoin, que
les marchands vendent, est estimee meilleure que l’Oliban d’Arabie. Niebuhr, Description
de l’Arabie, p. 126.

v According to Mr. Jackson the annual importation of Benzoin at Mogodor, from Lon-
don, is about 13,0001b. annually.

X 2

lo6

SUMATRA.

Cassia.

Cassia or kulit manis (laurus cassia) is a coarse species of cinnamon
which flourishes chiefly, as well as the two foregoing articles, in the
northern part of the island ; but with this difference, that the camphor
and benzoin grow only near the coast, whereas the cassia is a native of
the central parts of the country. It is mostly procured in those dis-
tricts which lie inland of Tapanuli , but it is also found in Musi , where
Palembang River takes its rise. The leaves are about four inches long,
narrower than the bay (to which tribe it belongs) and more pointed;
deep green; smooth surface, and plain edge. The principal fibres
take their rise from the peduncle. The young leaves are mostly of
reddish hue. The blossoms grow six in number upon slender foot-
stalks, close to the bottom of the leaf. They are monopetalous, small,
white, stellated in six points. The stamina are six, with one stile,
growing from the germen, which stands up in three brownish segments,
resembling a cup. The trees grow from fifty to sixty feet high, with
large, spreading, horizontal branches, almost as low as the earth. The
root is said to contain much camphor, that may be obtained by boiling
or other processes unknown on Sumatra. No pains is bestowed on the
cultivation of the cassia. The bark, which is the part in use, is com-
monly taken from such of the trees as are a foot or eighteen inches
diameter, for when they are younger, it is said to be so thin, as to lose
all its qualities very soon. The difference of soil and situation alters
considerably the value of the bark. Those trees which grow in a high,
rocky soil, have red shoots, and the bark is superior to that which is
produced in a moist clay, where the shoots are green. I have been
assured by a person of extensive knowledge, that the cassia produced on
Sumatra, is from the same tree which yields the true cinnamon, and that
the apparent difference arises from the less judicious manner of quilling
it. Perhaps the younger and more tender branches should be prefer-
red ; perhaps the age of the tree, or the season of the year, ought to be
more nicely attended to ; and lastly, I have known it to be suggested,
that the mucilaginous slime which adheres to the inside of the fresh
peeled rind, does, when not carefully wiped off, injure the flavour of
the cassia, and render it inferior to that of the cinnamon. I am inform-
ed that it has been purchased by Dutch merchants at our India sales,
where it sometimes sold to much loss, and afterwards by them shipped

for

SUMATRA.

157

for Spain, as cinnamon, being packed in boxes which had come from
Ceylon with that article. The price it bears in the island is about ten
or twelve dollars the pecul.

Rattans, or rotan (calamus rotang) furnish annually many large car-
goes, chiefly from the eastern side of the island, where the Dutch buy
them to send to Europe ; and the country traders for the western parts
of India. Walking-canes, or toiigkat, of various kinds, are also produc-
ed near the rivers which open to the straits of Malacca.

In almost every part of the country two species of cotton are culti-
vated, namely, the annual sort named kapas (gossypium herbaceum),
and the shrub cotton named kapas besar (gossypium herboreum). The
cotton produced from both appears to be of very good quality, and
might, with encouragement, be procured in any quantities ; but the na-
tives raise no more than is necessary for their own domestic manufactures.
The silk cotton or kapok (bombax) is also to be met with in every village.
This is, to appearance, one of the most beautiful raw materials the hand
of nature has presented. Its fineness, gloss, and delicate softness, ren-
der it, to the sight and touch, much superior to the labour of the silk-
worm ; but owing to the shortness and brittleness of the staple, it is es-
teemed unfit for the reel and loom, and is only applied to the unworthy
purpose of stuffing pillows and mattresses. Possibly it has not undergone
a fair trial in the hands of our ingenious artists, and we may yet see it
converted into a valuable manufacture. It grows in pods, from four to
six inches long, which burst open when ripe. The seeds entirely resem-
ble the black pepper, but are without taste. The tree is remarkable, ,
from the branches growing out perfectly straight and horizontal, and be-
ing always three, forming equal angles, at the same height : the diminu-
tive shoots likewise grow flat; and the several gradations of branches
observe the same regularity to the top. Some travellers have called it
the umbrella tree, but the piece of furniture called a dumb waiter, ex-
hibits a more striking picture of it.

The betel-nut or pinang (area catechu) before mentioned, is a con-
siderable

Rattans.

Cotton.

Betel-nut.

158

SUMATRA.

Coffee.

Dammar.

siderable article of traffic to the coast of Coromandel or Telinga, particu-
larly from Achin.

The coffee trees are universally planted, but the fruit produced here
is not excellent in quality, which is probably owing entirely to the want
of skill in the management of them. The plants are disposed too close
to each other, and are so much overshaded by other trees, that the sun
cannot penetrate to the fruit ; owing to which the juices are not well
ripened, and the berries, which become large, do not acquire a proper
flavour. Add to this, that the berries are gathered whilst red, which is
before they have arrived at a due degree of maturity, and which the
Arabs always permit them to attain to, esteeming it essential to the
goodness of the coffee. As the tree is of the same species with that
cultivated in Arabia, there is little doubt, but with proper care, this
article might be produced of a quality equal, perhaps superior, to that
imported from the West Indies ; though probably the heavy rains on
Sumatra, may prevent its attaining to the perfection of the coffee of
Mocha/

The dammar is a kind of turpentine or resin from a species of pine,
and used for the same purposes to which that and pitch are applied. It
is exported in large quantities to Bengal and elsewhere. It exudes, or

flows

1 For these observations on the growth of the coffee, as well as many others on the vegeta-
ble productions of the island, I am indebted to the letters of Mr. Charles Miller, entered on
the Company’s records at Bencoolen, and have to return him my thanks for many communi-
cations since his return to England. On the subject of this article of produce I have since
received the following interesting information from the late Mr. Charles Campbell, in a let-
ter dated November, 1803. “The coffee you recollect on this coast Ifound so degenerated
from want of culture and care, as not to be worth the rearing. But this objection has been
removed, for more than three years ago I procured twenty -five plants from Mocha ; they
produced fruit in about twenty months, are now in their second crop, and loaded be-
yond any fruit trees I ever saw. The average produce is about eight pounds a tree ; but so
much cannot be expected in extensive plantations, nor in every soil. The berries are in no
respect inferior in flavour to those of the parent country.” This cultivation, I am happy to
bear, has since been carried to a great extent.

SUMATRA.

159

flows rather, spontaneously, from the tree in such plenty, that there is
no need of making incisions to procure it. The natives gather it in
lumps from the ground, where it has fallen, or collect it from the shores
of bays and rivers, whither it has floated. It hangs from the bough of
the tree which produces it, in large pieces, and hardening in the air it
becomes brittle, and is blown off by the first high wind. When a quan-
tity of it has fallen in the same place, it appears like a rock, and thence,
they say, or more probably from its hardness, it is called dammar batu ;
by which name it is distinguished from the dammar kruyen. This is
another species of turpentine, yielded by a tree growing in Lampong ,
called kruyen, the wood of which is white and porous. It differs from
the common sort, or dammar batu, in being soft and whitish, having
the consistence, and somewhat the appearance of putty. It is in much
estimation for paying the bottoms of vessels, for which use, to give it
firmness and duration, it ought to be mixed with some of the hard kind,
of which it corrects the brittleness. The natives, in common, do not
boil it, but rub or smear it on with their hands a practice which is pro-
bably derived from indolence, unless, as I have been informed, that
boiling it, without oil, renders it hard. To procure it, an incision is
made in the tree.

Dragon’s blood, sanguis draconis, or jaranang, is a drug obtained from
a large species of rattan, called rotan jaranang, growing abundantly in
the countries of Palembang and Jambi, where it is manufactured and ex-
ported, in the first instance to Batavia, and from thence to China, where
it is held in much estimation ; but whether it be precisely the drug of
our shops, so named, I cannot take upon me to determine. I am in-
formed that it is prepared in the following manner: the stamina and
others parts of fructification of this plant, covered with the farina, are mix-
ed with a certain proportion of white dammar , and boiled in water until
the whole is well incorporated, and the water evaporated ; by which time
the composition has acquired a red colour, and, when rubbed between
the fingers, comes off in a dry powder. Whilst soft, it is usually poured
into joints of small bamboo, and shipped in that state. According to
this account, which I received from my friend Mr. Philip Braham,
who had an opportunity of acquiring a knowledge of the process, the

Dragon’s

blood.

resinous

SUMATRA.

160

resinous quality of the drug belongs only to the dammar , and not to the
rotan.

Gambir. Gambir, or gatah gambir, is a juice extracted from the leaves of a
plant of that name, inspissated by decoction, strained, suffered to cool
and harden, and then cut into cakes of different shapes, or formed into
balls. It is very generally eaten by the natives with their sirih or be-
tel, and is supposed to have the property of cleansing and sweetening
the mouth 3 for which reason it is also rubbed to the gums of infants.
For a minute detail of the culture and manufacture of this article at Ma-
lacca, see the Batavian Trans. Vol. II. p. 356, where the plant is classed
between the portlandia and roella of L. In other places it is obtained
from a climbing or trailing plant, evidently the funis uncatus of Rum-
phius.* See also “ Observations on the Nauclea Gambir,” by Mr. W.
Hunter, in the Linnaean Trans. Vol. IX. p. 218. At Siak, Kampar,
and Indragiri, on the eastern side of Sumatra, it is an important article
of commerce.

Lignum aloes. The agallochin, agila-wood, or lignum aloes, called by the natives
kalambak and kayu gahru, is highly prized in all parts of the East, for
the fragrant scent it emits in burning. I find these two names used in-
discriminately in Malayan writings, and sometimes coupled together 3
but Valentyn pronounces the gahru to be an inferior species, and the
Batavian Catalogue describes it as the heart of the rasamala, and differ-
ent from the genuine kalambak. This unctuous substance, which burns
like a resin, is understood to be the decayed, and probably disordered,
part of the tree. It is described by Kaempfer (Amaenit, p. 903), under
the Chinese name of siukoo, and by Dr. Roxburgh under that of aquilla-
ria agallocha.

Timber. The forests contain an inexhaustible store and endless variety of timber

trees,

a “ Hoc unum adhuc addendum est, in Sumatra nempe ac forte in Java aliam quoque
esse plantam repentem gatta gambir akar dictam, quae forte unas eaedemque erunt plantae ;
ac verbum akar Malaiensibus denotat non tantum radicem, sed repentem quoque fruticem.”
Vol. V. p. 64.

SUMATRA.

161

trees, many sorts of which are highly valuable, and capable of being
applied to ship-building and other important purposes. On the western
coast the general want of navigable rivers has materially hindered both
the export and the employment of timber ; but those on the eastern side,
particularly Siak, have heretofore supplied the city of Batavia with great
abundance, and latterly the naval arsenal at P°. Pinang with what is
required for the construction of ships of war. The teak, however, the Teak-
pride of Indian forests, called by the Malays jati (tectona grandis, L.),
does not appear to be indigenous to this island, although flourishing to
the northward and southward of it, in Pegu and Java; and I believe it
is equally a stranger to the Malayan peninsula. Attempts have been
made by the servants of the Company to promote its cultivation. Mr.

Robert Hay had a plantation near Bencoolen, but the situation seemed
unfavourable. Mr. John Marsden, when resident of Laye in the year
1776, sowed some seeds of it, and distributed a quantity amongst the
inhabitants of his district. The former, at least, throve exceedingly, as
if in their natural soil. The appearance of the tree is stately, the leaves
are broad and large, and they yield, when squeezed, a red juice. The
wood is well known to be, in many respects, preferable to oak, working
more kindly, surpassing it in durability, and having the peculiar pro-
perty of preserving the iron bolts driven into it from rust; a property
that may be ascribed to the essential oil or tar contained in it, and which
has lately been procured from it in large quantities by distillation at Bom-
bay. Many ships built at that place have continued to swim so long,
that none could recollect the period at which they were launched. For
masts and yards the wood preferred is the red bintangur (a species of
uvaria), which in all the maritime parts of India has obtained the name
of poon or palm, from the Malayan word signifying tree in general; as Poon,&c.
payu upas , the poison tree, puhn kayu, a timber tree, &c. The cam-
phor wood, so useful for carpenters’ purposes, has been already men-
tioned. Kayu pindis or kapini (species of metrosideros), is named also
kyau besi , or iron-wood, on account of its extraordinary hardness, which
turns the edge of common tools. Marbau (metrosideros amboinensis, R.)
grows to a large size, and is used for beams both in ship and house-
building, as well as for other purposes to which oak is applied in Europe.

Pinaga is valuable as crooked timber, and used for frames and knees of

Y ships.

162

SUMATRA.

ships, being also very durable. It frequently grows in the wash of the
sea. Juar, ebony, called in the Batavian Catalogue kayu arang , or
charcoal- wood, is found here in great plenty. Kayu gadis, a wood pos-
sessing the flavour and qualities of the sassafras, and used for the same
purposes in medicine, but in the growth of the tree resembling rather
our elm than the laurus (to which latter tribe the American sassafras be-
longs), is very common in the plains near Bencoolen. Kayu arau (ca-
suarina littorea) is often termed a bastard pine, and as such gave name
to the Isle of Pines discovered by Capt. Cook. By the Malays it is
usually called kayu chamara, from the resemblance of its branches to the
ornamental cow-tails of Upper India. It has been already remarked of
this tree, whose wood is not particularly useful, that it delights in a low
sandy soil, and is ever the first that springs up from land relinquished by
the sea. The rangas or rarigi, commonly supposed to be the manchi-
neel of the West Indies, but perhaps only from the noxious quality of
its juices, is the arbor vernicis of Rumphius, and particularly described
in the Batav. Trans. Vol. V. under the name of Manga deleteria sylves-
tris, fructu parvo cordiformi. In a list of plants in the same volume, by
F. Norona, it is termed anacardium encardium. The wood has some
resemblance to mahogany, is worked up into articles of furniture, and
resists the destructive ravages of the white ant, but its hardness and
acrid sap, which blisters the hands of those employed about it, are ob-
jections to its general use. I am not aware of the natives procuring a
varnish from this tree. Of the various sorts of tree producing dammar ,
some are said to be valuable as timber, particularly the species called
dammar laut, not mentioned by Rumphius, which is employed at P«
Pinang for frame timbers of ships, beams, and knees. Kamuning (ca-
munium, R. chalcas paniculata, Lour.) is a light coloured wood, close,
and finely grained, takes an exquisite polish, and is used for the sheaths
of krises. There is also a red grained sort, in less estimation. The ap-
pearance of the tree is very beautiful, resembling in its leaves the larger
myrtle, with a white flower. The langsani likewise is a wood hand-
somely veined, and is employed for cabinet and carved work. Beside
these the kinds of wood most in use are the madang, ballam, mar anti ,
laban, and marakuli. The variety is much greater, but many, from
their porous nature and proneness to decay, are of very little value,
and scarcely admit of seasoning before they become rotten.

I cannot

SUMATRA.

163

I cannot quit the vegetable kingdom without noticing a tree, which
although of no use in manufacture or commerce, not peculiar to the is-
land, and has been often described, merits yet, for its extreme singula-
rity, that it should not be passed over in silence. This is the jawi-jawi
and idang-ulang of the Malays, the banian tree of the continent, the
grossularia domestica of Rumphius, and the ficus indica or ficus race-
mosa of Linnaeus. It possesses the uncommon property of dropping
roots or fibres from certain parts of its boughs, which, when they touch
the earth, become new stems, and go on increasing to such an extent,
that some have measured, in circumference of the branches, upwards of
a thousand feet, and have been said to afford shelter to a troop of horse.'
These fibres, that look like ropes attached to the branches, when they
meet with any obstruction in their descent, conform themselves to the
shape of the resisting body, and thus occasion many curious metamor-
phoses. I recollect seeing them stand in the perfect shape of a gate,
long after the original postsand cross piece had decayed and disappeared ;
and I have been told of their lining the internal circumference of a large
bricked well, like the worm in a distiller’s tub j there exhibiting the view
of a tree turned inside out, the branches pointing to the centre, instead
of growing from it. It is not more extraordinary in its manner of
growth, than whimsical and fantastic in its choice of situations. From
the side of a wall, or the top of a house, it seems to spring spontaneously.
Even from the smooth surface of a wooden pillar, turned and painted, I
have seen it shoot forth, as if the vegetative juices of the seasoned timber
had renewed their circulation, and begun to produce leaves afresh. I
have seeen it flourish in the centre of a hollow tree, of a very different
species, which, however, still retained its verdure, its branches encom-
passing those of the adventitious plant, whilst its decayed trunk enclosed
the stem, which was visible, at interstices, from nearly the level of the

Y 2 plain

a The following is an account of the dimensions of a remarkable banian or burr tree, near
Manjee, twenty miles west of Patna in Bengal. Diameter 363 to 375 feet. Circumference
of shadow at noon, 1116 feet. Circumference of the several stems, in number fifty or sixty,
921 feet. Under this tree sat a naked Fakir, who had occupied that situation for twenty-five
years; but he did not continue there the whole year through, for his vow obliged him to lie,
during the four cold months, up to his neck in the waters of the river Ganges.

164

SUMATRA.

plain on which they grew. This, in truth, appeared so striking a cu-
riosity, that I have often repaired to the spot, to contemplate the singu-
larity of it. How the seed, from which it is produced, happens to
occupy stations seemingly so unnatural, is not easily determined. Some
have imagined the berries carried thither by the wind, and others, with
more appearance of truth, by the birds; which, cleansing their bills
where they light, or attempt to light, leave, in those places, the seeds,
adhering by the viscous matter which surrounds them. However this
be, the jazvi-jawi, growing on buildings without earth or water, and de-
riving from the genial atmosphere its principle of nourishment, proves in
its increasing growth highly destructive to the fabric where it is har-
boured ; for the fibrous roots, which are at first extremely fine, penetrate
common cements, and overcoming, as their size enlarges, the most pow-
erful resistance, split, with the force of the mechanic wedge, the most
substantial brickwork. When the consistence is such as not to admit
the insinuation of the fibres, the root extends itself along the outside, and
to an extraordinary length, bearing, not unfrequently, to the stem, the
proportion of eight to one, when young. I have measured the former
sixty inches, when the latter, to the extremity of the leaf, which took
up a third part, was no more than eight inches. I have also seen it wave
its boughs at the apparent height of two hundred feet, of which the
roots, if we may term them such, occupied at least one hundred ; form-
ing, by their close combination, the appearance of a venerable gothic
pillar. It stood near the plains of Krakap, but, like other monuments of
antiquity, it had its period of existence, and is now no more.

Gold ,

SUMATRA.

165

Gold, Tin , and other Metals . — Bees-wax. — Ivory. — Bird' s-nest , Sic.

Import- Trade.

Beside those articles of trade afforded by the vegetable kingdom. Gold.
Sumatra produces many others, the chief of which is gold. This valu-
able metal is found mostly in the central parts of the island; none (or
with few exceptions) being observed to the southward of Limun, a branch
of Jambi River, nor to the northward of Nalabu, from which port Achin
is principally supplied. Menangkabau has always been esteemed the
richest seat of it; and this consideration probably induced the Dutch to
establish their head factory at Padang, in the immediate neighbourhood
of that kingdom. Colonies of Malays from thence have settled them-
selves in almost all the districts where gold is procured, and appear to be
the only persons who dig for it in mines, or collect it in streams ; the
proper inhabitants or villagers confining their attention to the raising of
provisions, with which they supply those who search for the metal. Such
at least appears to be the case in Limun, Batang Asei , and Pakalang
jambu , where a considerable gold-trade is carried on.

It has been generally understood at the English settlements that earth
taken up from the beds of rivers, or loosened from the adjacent banks,
and washed by means of rivulets diverted towards the newly- opened
ground, furnishes the greater proportion of the gold found in the island,
and that the natives are not accustomed to venture upon any excavation
that deserves the name of mining; but our possession, during the present
war, of the settlements that belonged to the Dutch, has enabled us to
form juster notions on the subject, and the following account, obtained
from well-informed persons on the spot, will shew the methods pursued
in both processes, and the degree of enterprise and skill employed by the
workmen.

In the districts situated inland of Padang , which is the principal mart

for

166

SUMATRA.

for this article, little is collected otherwise than from mines ( tambang )
by people whose profession it is to work them, and who are known by
the appellation of orang guild. The metal brought down for sale is for
the most part of two sorts, distinguished by the terms amas supayang and
amas sungei-abu, from the names of places where they are respectively
procured. The former is what we usually call rock-gold, consisting
of pieces of quartz more or less intermixed with veins of gold, generally
of fine quality, running through it in all directions, and forming beauti-
ful masses, which, being admired by Europeans, are sometimes sold by
weight as if the whole were solid metal. The mines yielding this sort
are commonly situated at the foot of a mountain, and the shafts are
driven horizontally, to the extent of from eight to twenty fathoms.
The gold to which sungei-abu gives name is, on the contrary, found in
the state of smooth, solid lumps, in shape like gravel, and of various
sizes, the largest lump that I have seen, weighing nine ounces, fifteen
grains, and one in my possession (for which I am indebted to Mr. Charles
Holloway) weighing eight grains less than nine ounces. This sort is al-
so termed amas lichin or smooth gold, and appears to owe that quality to
its having been exposed, in some prior state of the soil or conformation
of the earth, to the action of running water, and deprived of its sharp
and rough edges by attrition. This form of gravel is the most common
in which gold is discovered. Gold-dust or amas urei is collected either
in the channels of brooks running over ground rich in the metal, in
standing pools of water occasioned by heavy rains, or in a number of
holes dug in a situation to which a small rapid stream can be directed.

The tools employed in working the mines are an iron crow three feet
in length, called tabah , a shovel called changkul, and a heavy iron mal-
let or hammer, the head of which is eighteen inches in length and as
thick as a man’s leg, with a handle in the middle. With this they beat
the lumps of rock till they are reduced to powder, and the pounded
mass is then put into a sledge or tray, five or six feet long and one and
an half broad, in the form of a boat, and thence named Indu. To this
vessel a rope of iju is attached, by which they draw it, when loaded,
out of the horizontal mine, to the nearest place where they can meet

with

SUMATRA.

167

with a supply of water, which alone is employed to separate the gold
from the pulverized quartz.

In the perpendicular mines the smooth or gravel-gold is often found
near the surface, but in small quantities, improving as the workmen ad-
vance, and again often vanishing suddenly. This they say is most likely
to be the case, when, after pursuing a poor vein they suddenly come to
large lumps. When they have dug to the depth of four, six, or some,
times eight fathoms, (which they do at a venture, the surface not afford-
ing any indications on which they can depend) they work horizontally,
supporting the shaft with timbers ; but to persons acquainted with the
berg-werken of Germany or Hungary, these pits would hardly appear to
merit the appellation of mines.1 In Siberia, however, as in Sumatra,
the hills yield their gold by slightly working them. Sand is commonly
met with at the depth of three or four fathoms, and beneath this a stra-
tum of napal or steatite, which is considered as a sign that the metal
is near; but the least fallible mark is a red stone, called batu kawi, lying
in detached pieces. It is mostly found in red and white clay, and often
adhering to small stones, as well as in homogeneous lumps. The gold is
separated from the clay by means of water poured on a hollow board, in
the management of which the persons employed are remarkably expert.

In these perpendicular mines the water is drawn off by hand in pails
or buckets. In the horizontal, they make two shafts or entries in a di-
rection parallel to each other, as far as they mean to extend the work,
and there connect them by a cross trench. One of these, by a difference
in their respective levels, serves as a drain to carry off the water, whilst
the other is kept dry. They work in parties of from four or five, to forty
or fifty in number ; the proprietor of the ground receiving one half of
the produce, and the undertakers the other ; and it does not appear that
the prince receives any established royalty. The hill people affect a

kind

1 It has been observed to me, that it is not so much the want of windlasses or machines
(substitutes for which they are ready enough at contriving) that prevents excavation to a
great depth, as the apprehension of earthquakes, the effect of which has frequently been
to overwhelm them before they could escape even from their shallow mines.

168

SUMATRA.

kind of independence or equality, which they express by the term of
sama rata.

It may well be imagined that mines of this description are very nume-
rous, and in the common estimation of the natives they amount to no
fewer than twelve hundred in the dominions of Menang/cabau. A consider-
able proportion of their produce (perhaps one half) never comes into the
hands of Europeans, but is conveyed to the eastern side of the island,
and yet I have been assured on good authority, that from ten to twelve
thousand ounces have annually been received, on public and private ac-
count, at Padang alone; at Nalabu about two thousand. Natal eight
hundred, and Maco-moco six hundred. The quality of the gold collect-
ed in the Padang districts is inferior to that purchased at Natal and
Moco-moco, in consequence of the practice of blending together the un-
equal produce of such a variety of mines, which in other parts it is cus-
tomary to keep distinct. The gold from the former is of the fineness of
from nineteen to twenty-one, and from the latter places is generally of
from twenty-two to twenty-three carats. The finest that has passed
through my hands was twenty-three carats, one grain and an half ; as-
sayed at the Tower of London. Gold of an inferior touch, called amas
muda from the paleness of its colour, is found in the same countries
where the other is produced. I had some assayed which was two carats
three grains worse than standard, and contained an alloy of silver ; but
not in a proportion to be affected by the acids. I have seen gold brought
from Mampawah in Borneo, which was in the state of a fine, uniform
powder, high coloured, and its degree of fineness not exceeding fifteen
or sixteen carats. The natives suppose these differences to proceed from
an original essential inferiority of the metal, not possessing the art of se-
parating it from the silver or copper. In this island it is never found in
the state of ore, but is always completely metallic. A very little pale
gold is now and then found in the Lampong country.

Of those who dig for it, the most intelligent, distinguished by the name
of sudagar or merchants, are intrusted by the rest with their collections,
who carry the gold to the places of trade on the great eastern rivers, or
to the settlements on the west coast, where they barter it for iron (of

which

SUMATRA.

169

which large quantities are consumed in tools for working the mines),
opium, and the fine piece-goods of Madras and Bengal, with which
they return, heavily loaded to their country. In some parts of the
journey they have the convenience of water carriage, on lakes and rivers j
but in others they carry on their backs a weight of about eighty pounds,
through woods, over streams, and across mountains ; in parties general-
ly of one hundred or more, who have frequent occasion to defend their
property against the spirit of plunder and extortion which prevails among
the poorer nations, through whose districts they are obliged to pass.
Upon the proposal of striking out any new road, the question always
asked by these intermediate people is, “ apa ontong kami , what is to be
our advantage ?”

When brought to our settlements it was formerly purchased at the rate
of eighteen Spanish dollars the tail, or about three pounds five shillings
the ounce, but in later times it has risen to twenty-one dollars, or to
three pounds eighteen shillings the ounce. Upon exportation to Eu-
rope, therefore, it scarcely affords a profit to the original buyer, and
others who employ it as a remittance, incur a loss, when insurance and
other incidental charges are deducted. A duty of five per cent which it
had been customary to charge at the East India-house, was, about twenty
years ago, most liberally remitted by the Company, upon a representa-
tion made by me to the Directors of the hardship sustained in this respect
by its servants at Fort Marlborough, and the public benefit that would ac-
crue from giving encouragement to the importation of bullion. The
long continuance of war, and peculiar risk of Indian navigation re-
sulting from it, may probably have operated to counteract these good
effects.

It has generally been thought surprising that the European Compa-
nies who have so long had establishments in Sumatra, should not have
considered it an object to work these mines upon a regular system, with
proper machinery, and under competent inspection ; but the attempt
has in fact been made, and experience and calculation may have taught
them that it is not a scheme likely to be attended with success, owing
among other causes, to the dearness of labour, and the necessity it

■Z would

Priet.

170

SUMATRA.

would occasion for keeping up a force in distant parts of the country, for
the protection of the persons engaged and the property collected. Euro-
peans cannot be employed upon such work in that climate, and the natives
are unfit for (nor would they submit to) the laborious exertion required
to render the undertaking profitable. A detailed, and in many respects
interesting account of the working a gold mine at Sileda, with a plate
representing a section of the mine, is given by Elias Hesse,* who, in the
year 1682, accompanied the Bergh-Hoofdman, Benj. Olitzsch, and a
party of miners from Saxony, sent out by the Dutch East-India Com-
pany for that purpose. The superintendant, with most of his people,
lost their lives, and the undertaking failed. It is said at Padang that
the metal proved to be uncommonly poor. Many years later, trial was
made of a vein running close to that settlement ; but the returns not be-
ing adequate to the expense, it was let to farm, and in a few years fell
into such low repute as to be at length disposed of by public auction, at
a rent of two Spanish dollars.1* The English company also having intel-
ligence of a mine said to be discovered near Fort Marlborough, gave
orders for its being worked; but if it ever existed, no trace now re-
mains.

Before the gold dust is weighed for sale, in order to cleanse it from all

impurities

* Ost-Indische Reise-beschreibung oder Diarium. Leipzig, 1690, 8vo. See also J. W.
Vogel’s Ost-Indianische Reise-beschreibung. Altenburg, 1704, 8vo.

b The following is an extract of a letter from Mr. James Moore, a servant of the Com-
pany, dated from Padang, in 1778. “ They have lately opened a vein of gold in the country
inland of this place, from which the governor at one time received an hundred and fifty tials
(two hundred ounces). He has procured a map to be made of a particular part of the gold
country, which points out the different places where they work for it; and also the situation
of twenty-one Malay forts, all inhabited and in repair. These districts are extremely po-
pulous, compared to the more southern part of the island. They collect and export annual-
ly to Batavia, about two thousand five hundred tials of gold from this place : the quantity
never exceeds three thousand tials, nor falls short of two thousand.” This refers to the pub-
lic export on the Company’s account, which agrees with what is stated in the Batav. Trans.
“ In een goed Jaar geeven de Tigablas cottas omtrent 3000 Thail, zynde 6 Thail een Mark,
dus omtrent 500 Mark Goud, van ’t gchalte van 19. tot 20. carat.”

SUMATRA.

171

impurities and heterogeneous mixtures, whether natural or fraudulent,
(such as filings of copper or of iron) a skilful person is employed, who,
by the sharpness of his eye, and long practice, is able to effect this to a
surprising degree of nicety. The dust is spread out on a kind of wooden
platter, and the base particles ( lanchong ) are touched out from the mass
and put aside one by one, with an instrument, if such it may be termed,
made of cotton cloth rolled up to a point. If the honesty of these gold-
cleaners can be depended upon, their dexterity is almost infallible ; and
as some check upon the former, it is usual to pour the contents of each
parcel when thus cleansed, into a vessel of aqua-fortis, which puts their
accuracy to the test. The parcels or bulses in which the gold is packed
up, are formed of the integument that covers the heart of the buffalo.
This has the appearance of bladder, but is both tougher and more pli-
able. In those parts of the country where the traffic in the article is
considerable, it is generally employed as currency instead of coin ; every
man carries small scales about him, and purchases are made with it so
low as to the weight of a grain or two of padi. Various seeds are used
as gold weights, but more especially these two ; the one called rakat or
saga-timbangan (glycine abrus T. or abrus maculatus of the Batav. Trans.)
being the well-known scarlet pea with a black spot; twenty -four of
which constitute a mas, and sixteen mas a tail: the other called saga-
puhn and kondori batang (adenanthera pavonia, L.), a scarlet or rather
coral bean, much larger than the former, and without the black spot.
It is the candarin-weight of the Chinese, of which an hundred make a
tail , and equal, according to the tables published by Stevens, to 5,7984
gr. troy; but the average weight of those in my possession is 10,50
grains. The tad differs however in the northern and southern parts of
the island, being at Natal twenty-four penny-weights, nine grains, and
at Padang, Bencoolen, and elsewhere, twenty-six penny weights, twelve
grains. At Achin the bangkal of thirty penny-weights, twenty-one
grains, is the standard. Spanish dollars are every where current, and ac-
counts are kept in dollars, sukus (imaginary quarter dollars) and kepping
or copper cash, of which four hundred go to the dollar. Beside these,
there are silver fanams, single, double, and treble (the latter called tali)
coined at Madras; twenty-four fanams or eight talis being equal to the
Spanish dollar, which is always valued in the English settlements at five

Z 2 shillings

SUMATRA.

Tin.

Copper.

shillings sterling. Silver rupihs have occasionally been struck in Bengal,
for the use of the settlements on the coast of Sumatra, but not in suffi-
cient quantities to become a general currency; and in the year 1786,
the Company contracted with the late Mr. Boulton of Soho, for a cop-
per coinage, the proportions of which I was desired to adjust, as well
as to furnish the inscriptions ; and the same system, with many improve-
ments suggested by Mr. Charles Wilkins, has since been extended to
the three Presidencies of India. At Achin, small, thin gold and silver
coins were formerly struck and still are current ; but I have not seen any
of the pieces that bore the appearance of modern coinage ; nor am I
aware that this right of sovereignty is exercised by any other power in
the island.

Tin, called timar , is a very considerable article of trade, and many
cargoes of it are yearly carried to China, where the consumption is chiefly
for religious purposes. The mines are situated in the island of Bangka,
lying near Palembang, and are said to have been accidentally discovered
there in 1710. by the burning of a house. They are worked by a colo-
ny of Chinese (said in the Batav. Trans, to consist of twenty-five thou-
sand persons) under the nominal direction of the king of Palembang ,
but for the account and benefit of the Dutch Company, which has en-
deavoured to monopolize the trade, and actually obtained two millions
of pounds yearly; but the enterprising spirit of private merchants,
chiefly English and American, finds means to elude the vigilance
of its cruizers, and the commerce is largely participated by them. It is
exported for the most part in small pieces or cakes called tampang, and
sometimes in slabs. M. Sonnerat reports that this tin (named calin by
the French writers), was analised by M. Daubenton, who found it to be
the same metal as that produced in England ; but it sells something
higher than our grain-tin. In different parts of Sumatra, there are in-
dications of tin-earth, or rather sand, and it is worked at the mountain of
Suiigei-pagu, but not to any great extent. Of this sand, at Bangka , a
pikulf or 1331b. is said to yield about 7<5lb. of the metal.

A rich mine of copper is worked at Mukki near Labuan-haji, by the
Achinese. The ore produces half its original weight in pure metal, and

SUMATRA.

17S

is sold at the rate of twenty dollars the pikul. A lump which I deposited
in the Museum of the East-India Company, is pronounced to be native
copper. The Malays are fond of mixing this metal with gold, in equal
quantities, and using the composition, which they name swasa, in the
manufacture of buttons, betel boxes, and heads of krises. I have never
heard silver spoken of as a production of this part of the East. Iron ore
is dug at a place named Turaivang, in the eastern part of Menangkabau,
and there smelted, but not, I apprehend, in large quantities, the con-
sumption of the natives being amply supplied with English and Swedish
bar-iron, which they are in the practice of purchasing by measure in-
stead of weight.

Sulphur ( balerang ) as has been mentioned, is abundantly procured
from the numerous volcanos, and especially from that very great one
which is situated about a day’s journey inland from Priaman. Yellow
Arsenic ( barangan ) is also an article of traffic.

In the country of Kattaun, near the head of Urei river, there are ex-
tensive caves {goha) from the soil of which saltpetre (mesiya mantah ) is
extracted. M. Whalfeldt, who was employed as a surveyor, visited
them in March 1773. Into one he advanced seven hundred and forty-
three feet, when his lights were extinguished by the damp vapour. Into
a second he penetrated six hundred feet, when after getting through a
confined passage, about three feet wide and five in height, an opening
in the rock led to a spacious place forty feet high. The same caves were
visited by Mr. Christopher Terry and Mr. Charles Miller. They are the
habitation of innumerable birds, which are perceived to abound the
more, the farther you proceed. Their nests are formed about the up-
per parts of the cave, and it is thought to be their dung simply that
forms the soil (in many places from four to six feet deep, and from fifteen
to twenty broad) which affords the nitre. A cubic foot of this earth,
measuring seven gallons, produced on boiling seven pounds, fourteen
ounces of saltpetre, and a second experiment gave a ninth part more.
This I afterwards saw refined to a high degree of purity ; but I conceive
that its value would not repay the expense of the process.

The

Iron.

Sulphur.

Saltpetre.

174

SUMATRA.

Birds-nest.

The edible birds-nest, so much celebrated as a peculiar luxury of the
table, especially amongst the Chinese, is found in similar caves in dif-
ferent parts of the island, but chiefly near the sea-coast, and in the
greatest abundance at its southern extremity. Four miles up the river
Kroi there is one of considerable size. The birds are called layang-la-
yang, and resemble the common swallow, or, perhaps, rather the mar-
tin. I had an opportunity of giving to the British Museum some of these
nests with the eggs in them. They are distinguished into white and
black, of which the first are by far the more scarce and valuable, being
found in the proportion of one only to twenty-five. The white sort sells
in China at the rate of a thousand to fifteen hundred dollars the pikul,
(according to the Batav. Trans, for nearly its weight in silver) the black
is usually disposed of at Batavia at about twenty or thirty dollars for the
same weight, where I understand it is chiefly converted into a kind of
glue. The difference between the two sorts has by some been supposed
to be owing to the mixture of the feathers of the birds with the viscous
substance of which the nests are formed ; and this they deduce from the
experiment of steeping the black nests for a short time in hot water,
when they are said to become white to a certain degree. Among the
natives I have heard a few assert, that they are the work of a different
species of bird. It was also suggested to me, that the white might pro-
bably be the recent nests of the season in which they were taken, and the
black, such as had been used for several years successively. This opi-
nion appearing plausible, I was particular in my inquiries as to that
point, and learned what seems much to corroborate it. When the natives
prepare to take the nests, they enter the cave with torches, and forming
ladders of bamboos notched, according to the usual mode, they ascend and
pull down the nests, which adhere in numbers together, from the sides and
top of the rock. I was informed, that the more regularly the cave is
thus stript, the greater proportion of white nests they are sure to find,
and that on this experience they often make a practice of beating down
and destroying the old nests in larger quantities than they trouble them-
selves to carry away, in order that they may find white nests the next
season in their room. The birds, I am assured, are seen, during the
building time, in large flocks upon the beach, collecting in their beaks

the

SUMATRA.

175

the foam thrown up by the surf, of which there appears little doubt of
their constructing their gelatinous nests, after it has undergone, perhaps,
some preparation from commixture with their saliva or other secretion
in the beak or the craw ; and that this is the received opinion of the na-
tives appears from the bird being very commonly named layang-buhi, the
foam-swallow. Linnaeus, however, has conjectured, and with much
plausibility, that it is the animal substance frequently found on the
beach, which fishermen call blubber or jellies, and not the foam of the
sea, that these birds collect; and it is proper to mention, that in a De-
scription of these Nests by M. Hooyman, printed in Vol. III. of the
Batav. Trans, he is decidedly of opinion, that the substance of them has
nothing to do with the sea-foam, but is elaborated from the food of the
bird. Mr. John Crisp informed me that he had seen at Padavg a com-
mon swallow’s nest, built under the eaves of a house, which was com-
posed partly of common mud, and partly of the substance that constitutes
the edible nests. The young birds themselves are said to be very deli-
cate food, and not inferior in richness of flavour to the beccafico.

The szvala, tripan, or sea-slug (holothurion), is likewise an article of Tripan.
trade to Batavia and China, being employed, as birds-nest or vermicelli,
for enriching soups and stews, by a luxurious people. It sells at the
former place for forty-five dollars per pikul, according to the degree of
whiteness and other qualities.

Bees wax is a commodity of great importance in all the eastern islands, Wax.
from whence it is exported, in large oblong cakes, to China, Bengal,
and other parts of the continent. No pains are taken with the bees,
which are left to settle where they list (generally on the boughs of trees)
and are never collected in hives. Their honey is much inferior to that
of Europe, as might be expected from the nature of the vegetation.

Gum-lac, called by the natives ampalu or ambalu , although found upon Gum-lac.
trees, and adhering strongly to the branches, is known to be the work
of insects, as wax is of the bee. It is procured in small quantities from
the country inland of Bencoolen ; but at Padang is a considerable article
of trade. Foreign markets, however, are supplied from the countries of

Siam

176

SUMATRA.

Siam and Camboja. It is chiefly valued in Sumatra for the animal part,
found in the nidus of the insect, which is soluble in water, and yields a
very fine purple dye, used for colouring their silks and other webs of do-
mestic manufacture. Like the cochineal it would probably, with the
addition of a solution of tin, become a good scarlet. I find in a Bisayan
dictionary, that this substance is employed by the people of the Philip-
pine Islands, for staining their teeth red. For an account of the lac
insect, see in the Phil. Trans. Vol. LXXI. p. 374. a paper by Mr. James
Kerr.

ivory. The forests abounding with elephants, ivory ( gading ) is consequently

found in abundance, and is carried both to the China and Europe markets.
The animals themselves were formerly the objects of a considerable traf-
fic from Achin to the coast of Coromandel , or kling country, and vessels
were built expressly for their transport ; but it has declined, or perhaps
ceased altogether, from the change which the system of warfare has un-
dergone, since the European tactics have been imitated by the princes
of India.

Fi»h-roes. The large roes of a species of fish (said to be like the shad, but more
probably of the mullet-kind) taken in great quantities at the mouth of
Siak River, are salted and exported from thence to all the Malayan
countries, where they are eaten with boiled rice, and esteemed a deli-
cacy. This is the botarga of the Italians, and here called trobo and
telur-trobo.

import-trade. The most general articles of import-trade are the following. From
the coast of Coromandel various cotton goods, as long-cloth, blue
and white, chintz, and coloured handkerchiefs, of which those manu-
factured at Pidicat are the most prized; and salt: from Bengal, mus-
lins, striped and plain, and several other kinds of cotton goods, as
cossaes, baftaes, hummums, &c. taffetas and some other silks ; and opi-
um in considerable quantities : from the Malabar coast, various cotton
goods, mostly of a coarse, raw fabrick : from China, coarse porcelain,
kwalis or iron pans, in sets of various sizes, tobacco shred very fine, gold
thread, fans, and a number of small articles : from Celebes (known here

SUMATRA.

177

by the names of its chief provinces, Mangkasar, Bugis, and Mandar),
Java , Balli, Ceram , and other eastern islands, the rough, striped cot-
ton cloth, called kain sarong , or vulgarly bugis-clouting , being the uni-
versal body-dress of the natives; krises and other weapons, silken kris-
belts, tudongs or hats, small pieces of ordnance, commonly of brass,
called rantaka, spices, and also salt of a large grain, and sometimes
rice, chiefly from Balli : from Europe, silver, iron, steel, lead, cutlery,
various sorts of hardware, brass wire, and broad cloths, especially scar-
let. It is not within my plan to enlarge on this subject, by entering
into a detail of the markets for, or prices of, the several articles, which
are extremely fluctuating, according to the more or less abundant or
scanty supply. Most of the kinds of goods above enumerated are inci-
dentally mentioned in other parts of the work, as they happen to b^
connected with the account of the natives who purchase them.

178

SUMATRA.

Arts and Ma-
nufactures.

Filagree.

Mode of
working it.

Arts and Manufactures. — Art of Medicine. — Sciences. — Arithmetic. —
Geography. — Astronomy. — Music , Sic.

I SHALL now take a view of those arts and manufactures which the
Sumatrans are skilled in, and which are not merely domestic, but con-
tribute rather to the conveniences, and in some instances to the luxuries,
than to the necessaries of life. I must remind the reader that my ob-
servations on this subject are mostly drawn from the Rejangs , or those
people of the island who are upon their level of improvement. We
meet with accounts in old writers, of great founderies of cannon in the
dominion of Achtn , and it. is certain that fire-arms, as well as krisest
are at this day manufactured in the country of Menangkabau ; but my
present description does not go to these superior exertions of art, which
certainly do not appear among those people of the island whose manners,
more immediately, I am attempting to delineate. What follows, how-
ever, would seem an exception to this limitation; there being no manu-
facture in that part of the world, and perhaps I might be justified in
saying, in any part of the world, that has been more admired and cele-
brated, than the fine gold and silver filagree of Sumatra. This, in-
deed, is, strictly speaking, the work of the Malayan inhabitants ; but
as it is in universal use and wear throughout the country, and as the
goldsmiths are settled every where along the coast, I cannot be guilty of
much irregularity in describing here the process of their art.

There is no circumstance that renders the filagree a matter of greater
curiosity, that the coarseness of the tools employed in the workmanship,
and which, in the hands of an European, would not be thought suffi-
ciently perfect for the most ordinary purposes. They are rudely and
inartificially formed, by the goldsmith ( pandei ), from any old iron he can
procure. When you engage one of them to execute a piece of work,

his

SUMATRA.

179

his first request is usually for a piece of iron hoop, to make his wire-
drawing instrument; an old hammer head, stuck in a block, serves for
an anvil ; and I have seen a pair of compasses composed of two old
nails tied together at one end. The gold is melted in a piece of a priuk
or earthen rice pot, or sometimes in a crucible of their own making, of
common clay. In general they use no bellows, but blow the fire with
their mouths, through a joint of bamboo, and if the quantity of metal
to be melted is considerable, three or four persons sit round their furnace,
which is an old broken kwali or iron pot, and blow together. At Pa-
dang alone, where the manufacture is more considerable, they have
adopted the Chinese bellows. Their method of drawing the wire dif-
fers but little from that used by European workmen. When drawn to
a sufficient fineness, they flatten it, by beating it on their anvil ; and
when flattened, they give it a twist, like that i« the whalebone handle of
a punch-ladle, by rubbing it on a block of wood, with a flat stick. Af-
ter twisting, they again beat it on the anvil, and by these means it be-
comes flat wire with indented edges. With a pair of nippers they fold
down the end of the wire, and thus form a leaf, or element of a flower
in their work, which is cut off. The end is again folded and cut off,
till they have got a sufficient number of leaves, which are all laid on
singly. Patterns of the flowers or foliage, in which there is not very
much variety, are prepared on paper, of the size of the gold plate on
which the filagree is to be laid. According to this, they begin to dis-
pose on the plate the larger compartments of the foliage, for which they
use plain flat wire of a larger size, and fill them up with the leaves before
mentioned. To fix their work they employ a glutinous substance, made of
the small red pea with a black spot before mentioned, ground to a pulp, on
a rough stone. This pulp they place on a young coconut, about the size
of a walnut, the top and bottom being cut off. I at first imagined that ca-
price alone might have directed them to the use of the coconut for this
purpose ; but I have since reflected on the probability of the juice of
the young fruit being necessary to keep the pulp moist, which would
otherwise speedily become dry and unfit for the work. After the
leaves have been all placed in order, and stuck on, bit by bit, a solder
is prepared of gold filings and borax, moistened with water, which they
strew or daub over the plate with a feather, and then putting it in the

2 A 2 fire

180

SUMATRA.

fire for a short time, the whole becomes united. This kind of work on
a gold plate, they call karrang papan : when the work is open, they call
it karrang trus. In executing the latter, the foliage is laid out on a
card, or soft kind of wood covered with paper, and stuck on, as before
described, with the paste of the red seed ; and the work, when finished,
being strewed over with their solder, is put into the fire, when the card
or soft wood burning away, the gold remains connected. The greatest
skill and attention is required in this operation, as the work is often made
to run by remaining too long, or in too hot a fire. If the piece be large,
they solder it at several times. When the work is finished, they give it
that fine, high colour they so much admire, by an operation which they
term sapoh. This consists in mixing nitre, common salt, and alum,
reduced to powder and moistened, laying the composition on the fila-
gree, and keeping it nvnr m. rnnrWaf^ fire until it dissolves and becomes
yellow. In this situation the piece is kept for a longer or shorter time,
according to the intensity of colour they wish the gold to receive. It is
then thrown into water, and cleansed. In the manufacture of baju but-
tons, they first make the lower part flat, and having a mould formed of
a piece of buffalo’s horn, indented to several sizes, each like one half of
a bullet mould, they lay their work over one of these holes, and with a
horn punch they press it into the form of the button. After this they
complete the upper part. The manner of making the little balls, with
which their works are sometimes ornamented, is as follows. They take
a piece of charcoal, and having cut it flat and smooth, they make in it a
small hole, which they fill with gold dust, and this melted in the fire
becomes a little ball. They are very inexpert at finishing and polishing
the plain parts, hinges, screws, and the like, being in this as much ex-
celled by the European artists, as these fall short of them in the fineness
and minuteness of the foliage. The Chinese also make filagree, mostly
of silver, which looks elegant, but wants likewise the extraordinary
delicacy of the Malayan work. The price of the workmanship depends
upon the difficulty or novelty of the pattern. In some articles of usual
demand, it does not exceed one-third of the value of the gold; but,
in matters of fancy, it is generally equal to it. The manufacture is
not now (1780) held in very high estimation in England, where cost-
liness is not so much the object of luxury, as variety; but, in the

revolution

SUMATRA.

181

revolution of taste, it may probably be again sought after, and admired
as fashionable.

But little skill is shewn amongst the country people in forging iron.
They make nails, however, though not much used by them in building,
wooden pins being generally substituted ; also various kinds of tools, as
the prang or bill, the banchi. , rembe, billiong, and papatil, which are dif-
ferent species of adzes, the kapak or axe, and the pangkur or hoe.
Their fire is made with charcoal ; the fossil coal which the country pro-
duces being rarely, if ever, employed, except by the Europeans ; and
not by them of late years, on the complaint of its burning away too
quickly : yet the report made of it in 1719 was, that it gave a surer heat
than the coal from England. The bed of it (described rather as a large
rock above ground) lies four days’ journey up Bencoolen River, from
whence quantities are washed down by the floods. The quality of coal
is rarely good near the surface. Their bellows are thus constructed:
two bamboos, of about four inches diameter and five feet in length,
stand perpendicularly near the fire ; open at the upper end, and stopt
below. About an inch or two from the bottom a small joint of bamboo
is inserted into each, which serve as nozles, pointing to, and meeting at,
the fire. To produce a stream of air, bunches of feathers, or other soft
substance, being fastened to long handles, are worked up and down in
the upright tubes, like the piston of a pump. These, when pushed
downwards, force the air through the small horizontal tubes ; and by
raising and sinking each alternately, a continual current or blast is kept
up ; for which purpose a boy is usually placed on a high seat or stand.
I cannot refrain from remarking, that the description of the bellows used
in Madagascar , as given by Sonnerat, Vol. II. p. 60, so entirely corres-
ponds with this, that the one might almost .pass for a copy of the other.

The progress they have made in carpenter’s work has been already
pointed out, where there buildings were described. They are ignorant
of the use of the saw, excepting where we have introduced it among
them. Trees are felled by chopping at the stems, and in procuring
boards., they are confined to those, the direction of whose grain, or

other

Iron manu-
facture*.

Carpenter!*

work.

SUMATRA.

182

other qualities, admit of their being easily split asunder. In this repect
the species called maraud and marakuli have the preference. The tree,
being stripped of its branches and its bark, is cut to the length required,
and by the help of wedges split into boards. These being of irregular

Tool*. thickness, are usually dubbed upon the spot. The tool used for this
purpose is the rernbe, a kind of adze. Most of their smaller work, and
particularly on the bamboo, is performed with the papadl, which resem-
bles in shape, as much as in name, the patupatuoi the New-Zealanders,
but has the vast superiority of being made of iron. The blade, which is
fastened to the handle with a nice and curious kind of rattan-work, is so
contrived as to turn in it, and by that means can be employed either as
an adze or small hatchet. Their houses are generally built with the assist-
ance of this simple instrument alone. The billiong is no other than a
large papadl, with a handle of two or three feet in length, turning, like
that, in its socket.

Cements. The chief cement they employ, for small work, is the curd of buffalo-
milk, called j brakat. It is to be observed that butter is made (for the use
of Europeans only; the words used by the Malays, for butter and cheese,
monteiga and queijo , being pure Portuguese) not as with us, by churn-
ing, but by letting the milk stand till the butter forms of itself on the
top. It is then taken off with a spoon, stirred about with the same in a
flat vessel, and well washed in two or three waters. The thick sour milk
left at the bottom, when the butter or cream is removed, is the curd here
meant. This must be well squeezed, formed into cakes, and left to dry,
when it will grow nearly as hard as flint. For use, you must scrape
some of it off, mix it with quick lime, and moisten it with milk. I
think there is no stronger cement in the world, and it is found to hold,
particularly in a hot and damp climate, much better than glue ; prov-
ing also effectual in mending china-ware. The viscous juice of the
saga- pea (abrus) is likewise used in the country as a cement.

ink. Ink is made by mixing lamp-black with the white of egg. To pro-

cure the former they suspend over a burning lamp an earthen pot, the
bottom of which is moistened, in order to make the soot adhere to it.

Painting

SUMATRA.

183

Painting and drawing they are quite strangers to. In carving, both Designing,
in wood and ivory, they are curious and fanciful, but their designs are
always grotesque and out of nature. The handles of the krises are the
most common subjects of their ingenuity in this art, which usually ex-
hibit the head and beak of a bird, with the folded arms of a human
creature, not unlike the representation of one of the Egyptian deities.

In cane and basket work they are particularly neat and expert ; as well
as in mats, of which some kinds are much prized for their extreme fine-
ness and ornamental borders.

Silk and cotton cloths, of varied colours, manufactured by themselves. Looms,
are worn by the natives in all parts of the country ; especially by the
women. Some of their work is very fine, and the patterns prettily fan-
cied. Their loom or apparatus for weaving ( tunun ) is extremely de-
fective, and renders their progress tedious. One end of the warp being
made fast to a frame, the whole is kept tight, and the web stretched out
by means of a species of yoke, which is fastened behind the body, when
the person weaving sits clown. Every second of the longitudinal threads,
or warp, passes separately through a set of reeds, like the teeth of a
comb, and the alternate ones through another set. These cross each
other, up and down, to admit the woof, not from the extremities, as in
our looms, nor effected by the feet, but by turning edge-ways two flat
sticks which pass between them. The shuttle ( turak ) is a hollow reed,
about sixteen inches long, generally ornamented on the outside, and
closed at one end, having in it a small bit of stick, on which is rolled the
woof or shoot. The silk cloths have usually a gold head. They use
sometimes another kind of loom, still more simple than this, being no
more than a frame in which the warp is fixed, and the woof darned with
a long, small-pointed shuttle. For spinning the cotton they make use of
a machine very like ours. The women are expert at embroidery, the
gold and silver thread for which is procured from China, as well as their
needles. For common work, their thread is the pulas before mentioned,
or else filaments of the pis ang (musa).

Different kinds of earthenware, I have elsewhere observed, are manu- Earthenware,
factured in the island.

They

184

SUMATRA.

Perfumes.

Oil.

Torches,

They have a practice of perfuming their hair with oil of benzoin,
which they distil themselves from the gum, by a process doubtless of
their own invention. In procuring it, a priuk, or earthen rice pot, co-
vered close, is used for a retort. A small bamboo is inserted in the side
of the vessel, and well luted with clay and ashes, from which the oil
drops as it comes over. Along with the benzoin they put into the retort,
a mixture of sugar cane and other articles, that contribute little or no-
thing to the quantity or quality of the distillation; but no liquid is added.
This oil is valued among them at a high price, and can only be used by
the superior rank of people.

The oil in general use is that of the coconut, which is procured in the
following manner. The fleshy part being scraped out of the nut, which
for this use must be old, is exposed for some time to the heat of the sun.
It is then put into a mat bag, and placed in the press ( kampahan ) between
two sloping timbers, which are fixed together in a socket in the lower
part of the frame, and forced towards each other by wedges in a groove
at top, compressing by this means the pulp of the nut, which yields an
oil, that falls into a trough made for its reception below. In the farther
parts of the country, this oil also, owing to the scarcity of coconuts, is
dear, and not so much used for burning as that from other vegetables,
and the dammar or rosin, which is always at hand. When travelling at
night they make use of torches or links, called suluh, the common sort of
which are nothing more than dried bamboos of a convenient length,
beaten at the joints, till split in every part ; without the addition of any
resinous or other inflammable substance. A superior kind is made by
filling with dammar a young bamboo, about a cubit long, well dried, and
having the outer skin taken off.

These torches are carried with a view, chiefly, to frighten away the
tigers, which are alarmed at the appearance of fire; and for the same
reason it is common to make a blaze with wood, in different parts round
their villages. The tigers prove to the inhabitants, both in their jour-
nies and even their domestic occupations, most fatal and destructive
enemies. The number of people annually slain by these rapacious ty-
rants of the woods, is almost incredible. I have known instances of

whole

SUMATRA.

185

Whole villages being depopulated by them. Yet, from a superstitious pre-
judice, it is with difficulty they are prevailed upon, by a large reward
which the India Company offers, to use methods of destroying them,
till they have sustained some particular injury in their own family or kin-
dred, and their ideas of fatalism contribute to render them insensible to
the risk. Their traps, of which they can make variety, are very inge- Tiger-trap?,
niously contrived. Sometimes they are in the nature of strong cages,
with falling doors, into which the beast is enticed by a goat or dog
enclosed as a bait ; sometimes they manage that a large timber shall fall,
in a groove, across his back ; he is noosed about the loins with strong
rattans, or he is led to ascend a plank, nearly balanced, which, turning
when he is past the centre, lets him fall upon sharp stakes prepared be-
low. Instances have occurred of a tiger being caught by one of the for-
mer modes, which had many marks in his body of the partial success of
this last expedient. The escapes, at times, made from them by the na-
tives are surprising, but these accounts in general carry too romantic an
air to admit of being repeated as facts. The size and strength of the
species which prevails on this island are prodigious. They are said to
break with a stroke of their fore paw, the leg of a horse or a buffalo;
and the largest prey they kill is without difficulty dragged by them into
the woods. This they usually perform on the second night, being sup-
posed, on the first, to gratify themselves with sucking the blood only.

Time is by this delay afforded to prepare for their destruction ; and to
the methods already enumerated, beside shooting them, I should add that
of placing a vessel of water, strongly impregnated with arsenic, near the
carcase, which is fastened to a tree to prevent its being carried off. The
tiger having satiated himself with the flesh, is prompted to assuage his
thirst with the tempting liquor at hand, and perishes in the indulgence.

Their chief subsistence is most probably the unfortunate monkeys with
which the woods abound. They are described as alluring them to their
fate, by a fascinating power, similar to what has been supposed of the
snake, and I am not incredulous enough to treat the idea with contempt,
having myself observed that when an aligator, in a river, comes under
an overhanging bough of a tree, the monkeys, in a state of alarm and
distraction, crowd to the extremity, and chattering and trembling, ap-
proach nearer and nearer to the amphibious monster that waits to devour

2 B them

186

SUMATRA.

Fishing.

them as they drop, which their fright and number renders almost una-
voidable. These aligators likewise occasion the loss of many inhabi-
tants, frequently destroying the people as they bathe in the river, ac-
cording to their regular custom, and which the perpetual evidence of the
risk attending it cannot deter them from. A superstitious idea of their
sanctity also (or, perhaps, of consanguinity, as related in the journal of
the Endeavour’s voyage) preserves these destructive animals from molest-
ation, although, with a hook of sufficient strength, they may be taken
without much difficulty. A musket ball appears to have no effect upon
their impenetrable hides.

Besides the common methods of taking fish, of which the seas that
wash the coasts of Sumatra afford an extraordinary variety and abund-
ance, the natives employ a mode, unpractised, I apprehend, in any
part of Europe. They steep the root of a certain climbing plant, called
tuba , of strong narcotic qualities, in the water where the fish are observed,
which produces such an effect, that they become intoxicated and to ap-
pearance dead, float on the surface of the water, and are taken with the
hand. This is generally made use of in the basons of water, formed by
the ledges of coral rock which, having no outlet, are left full when the
tide has ebbed. a In the manufacture and employment of the casting-net
they are particularly expert, and scarcely a family near the sea-coast is
without one. To supply this demand, great quantities of the pulas twine
are brought down from the hill-country to be there worked up ; and in
this article we have an opportunity of observing the effect of that con-
formation which renders the handy-work of orientals (unassisted by ma-
chinery) so much more delicate than that of the western people. Mr.

Crisp

* In Capain Cook’s second voyage is a plate representing a plant used for the same pur-
pose at Otaheite, which is the exact delineation of one whose appearance I was well ac-
quainted with in Sumatra, and which abounds in many parts of the sea-beach; but which
is a different plant from the tuba-akar, but may be another kind, named tuba-biji. In South
America also, we are informed, the inhabitants procure fish after this extraordinary manner^
employing three different kinds of plants ; but whether any of them be the same with that
of Otaheite or Sumatra, I am ignorant. I have lately been informed that this practice is
not unknown in England, but has been prohibited. It is termed “foxing the drug made
use of was the coculus indicus.

SUMATRA.

IS?

Crisp possessed a net of silk, made in the country behind Padang, the
meshes of which were no wider than a small finger-nail, that opened
sixteen feet in diameter. With such they are said to catch small fish in
the extensive lake situated on the borders of Menangkabau. Birds, par- Bird-catching,
ticularly the plover ( cheruling ) and quails (puyu) are caught by snares or
springes laid for them in the grass. These are of iju, which resembles
horsehair, many fathoms in length, and disposed in such a manner as to
entangle their feet ; for which purpose they are gently driven towards
the snares. In some parts of the country they make use of clasp-nets.

I never observed a Sumatran to fire a shot at a bird, though many of
them, as well as the more eastern people, have a remarkably fine aim ;
but the mode of letting off the match-locks, which are the pieces most
habitual to them, precludes the possibility of shooting flying. Gun- Gunpowder,
powder is manufactured in various parts of the island, but less in the
southern provinces than amongst the people of Menangkabau , the Bat -
tas , and Achinese, whose frequent wars demand large supplies. It ap-
pears, however, by an agreement upon record, formed in 1728, that
the inhabitants of Anak-sungei were restricted from the manufacture,
which they are stated to have carried to a considerable extent. It is
made, as with us, of proportions of charcoal, sulphur, and nitre, but
the composition is very imperfectly granulated, being often hastily pre-
pared, in small quantities, for immediate use. The last article, though
found in the greatest quantity in the saltpetre-caves before spoken of,
is most commonly procured from goat’s dung, which is always to be had
in plenty.

Sugar (as has already been observed) is commonly made, for domestic Sugar,
use, from the juice of a species of palm, boiled till a consistence is
formed, but scarcely at all granulated, being little more than a thick
syrup. This spread upon leaves to dry, made into cakes, and afterwards
folded up in a peculiar vegetable substance, called upih , which is the
sheath that envelopes the branch of the pinang tree, where it is inserted
in the stem. In this state it is called jaggri, and beside its ordinary uses
as sugar, it is mixed with chiinam in making cement for buildings, and
that exquisite plaster for walls which, on the coast of Coromandel, equals
Parian marble in whiteness and polish. But in many parts of the island

2 B 2 sugar

188

SUMATRA.

sugar is also made from the sugar-cane. The rollers of the mill used for
this purpose are worked by the endless screw instead of cogs, and are
turned with the hand, by means of a bar passing through one of the
rollers which is higher than the other. As an article of traffic amongst
the natives it is not considerable, nor have they the art of distilling ar-
rack, the basis of which is molasses, along with the juice of the anau or
of the coconut palm in a state of fermentation. Both, however, are
manufactured by Europeans.4

Sa,t- Salt is here, as in most other countries, an article of general con-

sumption. The demand for it is mostly supplied by cargoes imported,
but they also manufacture it themselves. The method is tedious. They
kindle a fire close to the sea beach, and gradually pour upon it sea
water. When this has been continued for a certain time, the water eva-
porating, and the salt being precipitated among the ashes, they gather
these in baskets, or in funnels made of the bark or leaves of trees, and
again pour sea water on them, till the particles of salt are well sepa-
rated, and pass, with the water, into a vessel placed below to receive
them. This water, now strongly impregnated, is boiled till the salt ad-
heres in a thick crust to the bottom and sides of the vessel. In burning
a square fathom of firewood, a skilful person procures about five gallons
of salt. What is thus made, has so considerable a mixture of the salt of
the wood, that it soon dissolves, and cannot be carried far into the coum
try. The coarsest grain is preferred.

Artofmedi- The art of medicine, among the Sumatrans, consists almost entirely

cine.

a Many attempts have been made by the English to bring to perfection the manufacture
of sugar and arrack from the canes ; but the expences, particularly of the slaves, were al-
ways found to exceed the advantages. Within these few years (about 1777) that the plan-
tations and works were committed to the management of Mr. Henry Botham, it has mani-
festly appeared that the end is to be obtained, by employing the Chinese in the works of the
field, and allowing them a proportion of the produce, for their labour. The manufacture
had arrived at considerable perfection, when the breaking out of war gave a check to its
progress ; but the path is pointed out, and it may be worth pursuing. The sums of money
thrown into Batavia for arrack and sugar have been immense.

SUMATRA.

189

in the application of simples, in the virtues of which they are well skil-
led. Every old man and woman is a physician, and their rewards de-
pend upon their success; but they generally procure a small sum in
advance, under the pretext of purchasing charms.' The mode of prac-
tice is either by administering the juices of certain trees and herbs in-
wardly, or by applying outwardly a poultice of leaves chopped small,
upon the breast or part affected, renewing it as soon as it becomes dry.
For internal pains, they rub oil on a large leaf of a stimulant quality,
and heating it before the fire, clap it on the body of the patient, as a
blister, which produces very powerful effects. Bleeding they never use,
but the people of the neighbouring island of Nias are famous for their
skill in cupping, which they practise in a manner peculiar to them-
selves.

In fevers they give a decoction of the herb lakun, and bathe the pa-
tient, for two or three mornings, in warm water. If this does not prove
effectual, they pour over him, during the paroxysm, a quantity of cold
water, rendered more chilly by the daiin sedingin (cotyledon laciniata)
which, from the sudden revulsion it causes, brings on a copious perspi-
ration. Pains and swellings in the limbs are likewise cured by sweating;
but for this purpose, they either cover themselves over with mats, and
sit in the sunshine at noon, or if the operation be performed within

doors,

* Charms are there hung about the necks of children, as in Europe, and also worn by
persons whose situations expose them to risk. They are long narrow scrolls of paper, filled
with incoherent scraps of verse, which are separated from each other by a variety of fanci-
ful drawings. A charm against an ague I once accidentally met with, which from circum-
stances 1 conclude to be a translation of such as are employed by the Portuguese Christians
in India. Though not properly belonging to my subject, I present it to the reader. “ (Sign
of the cross). When Christ saw the cross he trembled and shaked ; and they said unto him
hast thou an ague ? and he said unto them, I have neither ague nor fever; and whosoever
bears these words, either in writing or in mind, shall never be troubled with ague or fever.
So help thy servants, O Lord, who put their trust in thee !” From the many folds that ap-
pear in the original, I have reason to apprehend that it had been worn, and by some Eng-
lishmen, whom frequent sickness and the fond love of life, had rendered weak and supersti.
tious enough to try the effects of this barbarous and ridiculous quackery.

Fevers.

190

SUMATRA.

Leprosy.

doors, a lamp, and sometimes a pot of boiling herbs, is enclosed in the
covering with them.

There are two species of leprosy known in these parts. The milder
sort, or impetigo, as I apprehend it to be, is very common among the
inhabitants of Nias; great numbers of whom are covered with a white
scurf or scales, that renders them loathsome to the sight. But this dis-
temper, though disagreeable from the violent itching and other inconve-
niences with which it is attended, does not appear immediately to affect
the health ; slaves in that situation being bought and sold for field and
other out-door work. It is communicated from parents to their offspring,
but though hereditary, it is not contagious. I have sometimes been in-
duced to think it nothing more than a confirmed stage of the serpigo or
ringworm, or it may be the same with what is elsewhere termed the
shingles. I have known a Nias man who has effected a temporary re-
moval of this scurf, by the frequent application of the golinggang or
daun kurap (cassia alata) and such other herbs as are used to cure the
ringworm, and sometimes by rubbing gunpowder and strong acids to
his skin ; but it always returned after some time. The other species
with which the country people are in some instances affected, is doubt-
less, from the description given of its dreadful symptoms, that severe
kind of leprosy which has been termed elephantiasis, and is particularly
described in the Asiat. Res. Vol. II. the skin coming off in flakes, and
the flesh falling from the bones, as in the lues venerea. This disorder
being esteemed highly infectious, the unhappy wretch who labours un-
der it, is driven from the village he belonged to, into the woods, where
victuals are left for him, from time to time, by his relations. A prang
and a knife are likewise delivered to him, that he may build himself a
hut, which is generally erected near to some river or lake, continual
bathing being supposed to have some effect in removing the disorder, or
alleviating the misery of the patient. Few instances of recovery have
been known. There is a disease called the nambi which bears some
affinity to this, attacking the feet chiefly, the flesh of which it eats
away. As none but the lowest class of people seem to suffer from this
complaint, I imagine it proceeds in a great degree from want of clean-
liness.

The

SUMATRA.

191

The small pox ( katumbuhan ) sometimes visits the island and makes Smaii-pox.
terrible ravages. It is regarded as a plague, and drives from the country
thousands whom the infection spares. Their method of stopping its
progress (for they do not attempt a cure) is by converting into an hos-
pital or receptacle for the rest, that village where lie the greatest num-
ber of sick, whither they send all who are attacked by the disorder, from
the country round. The most effectual methods are pursued to prevent
any person’s escape from this village, which is burnt to the ground as
soon as the infection has spent itself, or devoured all the victims thus
offered to it. Inoculation was an idea long unthought of, and as it could
not be universal, it was helrl to be a dangerous experiment for Europeans
to introduce it partially, in a country where the disorder makes its ap-
pearance at distant intervals only unless those periods could be seized,
and the attempts made, when and where there might be well founded
apprehension of its being communicated in the natural way. Such an
opportunity presented itself in 1780, when great numbers of people
(estimated at a third of the population) were swept away in the course of
that and the two following years ; whilst upon those under the immediate
influence of the English and Dutch settlements inoculation was prac-
tised with great success. I trust that the preventive blessing of vaccina-
tion has or will be extended to a country so liable to be afflicted with
this dreadful scourge. A distemper called chachar , much resembling
the small pox, and in its first stages mistaken for it, is not uncommon.

It causes an alarm, but does not prove mortal, and is probably what we
term the chicken pox.

The venereal disease, though common in the Malay bazars, is in the Venereal dis-
inland country almost unknown. A man returning to his village with ea9e‘
the infection, is shunned by the inhabitants as an unclean and interdict-
ed person. The Malays are supposed to cure it with the decoction of a
china root, called by them gadong , which causes a salivation.

When a man is by sickness, or otherwise, deprived of his reason, or insanity,
when subject to convulsion fits, they imagine him possessed by an evil
spirit, and their ceremony of exorcism is performed by putting the un-
fortunate wretch into a hut, which they set fire to about his ears, suffer-
ing

192

Sciences.

Arithmetic.

Measures.

SUMATRA.

ing him to make his escape through the flames in the best manner he
can. The fright, which would go nigh to destroy the intellects of a
reasonable man, may perhaps have, under contrary circumstances, an
opposite effect.

The skill of the Sumatrans in any of the sciences, is, as may be pre-
sumed, very limited. Some, however, I have met with, who, in arith-
metic, could multiply and divide, by a single multiplier or divisor, seve-
ral places of figures. Tens of thousands ( laksa ) are the highest class of
numbers the Malay language has a name for. In counting over a quan-
tity of small articles, each tenth, anrl nfYorwards each hundredth piece,
is put aside j which method is consonant with the progress of scientific
numeration, and probably gave it origin. When they may have occa-
son to recollect at a distance of time, the tale of any commodities they
are carrying to market, or the like, the country people often assist their
memory by tying knots on a string, which is produced when they want
to specify the number. The Peruvian quipos were, I suppose, an im-
provement upon this simple invention.

They estimate the quantity of most species of merchandize by what
we call dry measure, the use of weights, as applied to bulky articles,
being apparently introduced among them by foreigners ; for the pikul
and catti are used only on the sea coast, and places which the Malays
frequent. The kulak or bamboo, containing very nearly a gallon, is the
general standard of measure among the Rejangs : of these eight hundred
make a koyan : the chupah is one quarter of a bamboo. By this measure
almost all articles, even elephants’ teeth, are bought and sold ; but by a
bamboo of ivory they mean so much as is equal in weight to a bamboo
of rice. This still includes the idea of weight, but is not attended with
their principal objection to that mode of ascertaining quantity, which
arises, as they say, from the impossibility of judging by the eye of the
justness of artificial weights, owing to the various materials of which
they may be composed, and to which measurement is not liable. The
measures of length here, as perhaps originally among every people upon
earth, are taken from the dimensions of the human body. The deppa ,
or fathom, is the extent of the arms from each extremity of the fingers:

the

SUMATRA.

193

the etta , asta , or cubit, is the fore-arm and hand ; kaki is the foot ;
jarigka is the span ; and jarri, which signifies a finger, is the inch. These
are estimated from the general proportions of middle-sized men, others
making an allowance in measuring, and not regulated by an exact
standard.

The ideas of geography, among such of them as do not frequent the Geography,
sea, are perfectly confined, or rather they entertain none. Few of them
know that the country they inhabit is an island, or have any general
name for it. Habit renders them expert in travelling through the woods,
where they perform journeys of weeks and months without seeing a dwel-
ling. In places little frequented, where they have occasion to strike
out new paths, (for roads there are none) they make marks on trees, for
the future guidance of themselves and others. I have heard a man say,

“ I will attempt a passage by such a route, for my father, when living,
told me that he had left his tokens there.” They estimate the distance of
places from each other, by the number of days, or the proportion of the
day, taken up in travelling it, and not by measurement of the space.

Their journey, or day’s walk, may be computed at about twenty miles;
but they can bear a long continuance of fatigue.

The Malays, as well as the Arabs and other Mahometan nations, fix Astronomy,
the length of the year at three hundred and fifty-four days, or twelve
lunar months of twenty-nine days and an half; by which mode of reckon-
ing, each year is thrown back about eleven days. The original Su-
matrans rudely estimate their annual periods from the revolution of the
seasons, and count their years from the number of their crops of grain
[taun padi ) ; a practice, which, though not pretending to accuracy,
is much more useful for the general purposes of life, than the lunar pe-
riod, which is merely adapted to religious observances. They, as well
as the Malays, compute time by lunations, but do not attempt to
trace any relation or correspondence, between these smaller measures
and the solar revolution. Whilst more polished nations were multiplying
mistakes and difficulties, in their endeavours to ascertain the completion
of the sun’s course through the ecliptic, and in the mean while suffering

2 C their

194

SUMATRA.

their nominal seasons to become almost the reverse of nature, these peo-
ple, without an idea of intercalation, preserved, in a rude way, the account
of their years free from essential, or at least progressive errour, and the
confusion which attends it. The division of the month into weeks I be-
lieve to be unknown, except where it has been taught with Mahometan-
ism; the day of the moon’s age being used instead of it, where accuracy
is required; nor do they subdivide the day into hours. To denote the
time of day, at which any circumstance they find it necessary to speak
of, happened, they point with their finger to the height in the sky at
which the sun then stood. And this mode is the more general and pre-
cise, as the sun, so near the equator, ascends and descends almost per-
pendicularly, and rises and sets, at all seasons of the year, within a few
minutes of six o’clock. Scarcely any of the stars or constellations are dis-
tinguished by them. They notice, however, the planet Venus, but do
not imagine her to be the same at the different periods of her revolution ;
when she precedes the rising, and follows the setting sun. They are
aware of the night on which the new moon should make its appearance,
and the Malays salute it with the discharge of guns. They also know
when to expect the returns of the tides, which are at their height, on
the south-western coast of the island, when that luminary is in the ho-
rizon, and ebb as it rises. When they observe a bright star near the
moon (or rubbing against her, as they express it), they are apprehensive
of a storm ; as European sailors foretel a gale from the sharpness of her
horns. These are both, in part, the consequence of an unusual clear-
ness in the air, which, proceeding from an extraordinary alteration of
the state of the atmosphere, may naturally be followed by a violent rush-
ing of the circumjacent parts, to restore the equilibrium, and thus prove
the prognostic of high wind. During an eclipse they make a loud noise
with sounding instruments, to prevent one luminary from devouring the
other, as the Chinese, to frighten away the dragon; a superstition that
has its source in the ancient systems of astronomy (particularly the Hindu)
where the nodes of the moon are identified with the dragon’s head and
tail. They tell of a man in the moon, who is continually employed in
spinning cotton, but that every night a rat gnaws his thread, and ob-
liges him to begin his work afresh. This they apply as an emblem of

endless

195

SUMATRA.

endless and ineffectual labour, like the stone of Sisyphus, and the sieves
of the Danaides.

With history and chronology the country people are but little ac-
quainted ; the memory of past events being preserved by tradition only.

They are fond of music, and have many instruments in use among Music,
them, but few, upon inquiry, appear to be original, being mostly bor-
rowed from the Chinese and other more eastern people ; particularly the
kalintang, gong, and sulin. The violin has found its way to them from
the westward. The kalintang resembles the sticcado and the harmonica ;
the more common ones having the cross pieces, which are struck with
two little hammers, of split bamboo, and the more perfect, of a certain
composition of metal which is very sonorous. The gongs, a kind of bell,
but differing much in shape, and struck on the outside, are cast in sets
regularly tuned to thirds, fourth, fifth, and octave, and often serve as a
bass, or under part, to the kalintang. They are also sounded for the
purpose of calling together the inhabitants of the village upon any par-
ticular occasion ; but the more ancient and still common instrument for
this use, is a hollowed log of wood, named katut. The sulin is the
Malayan flute. The country flute is called serdum. It is made of bam-
boo, is very imperfect, having but few stops, and resembles much an
instrument described as found among the people of Otaheite. A single
hole underneath, is covered with the thumb of the left hand, and the
hole nearest the end at which it is blown, on the upper side, with a
finger of the same hand. The other two holes are stopt with the right
hand fingers. In blowing they hold it inclined to the right side. They
have various instruments of the drum kind, particularly those called
tingkah, which are in pairs, and beaten with the hands at each end.

They are made of a certain kind of wood hollowed out, covered with dried
goat-skins, and laced with split rattans. It is difficult to obtain a pro-
per knowledge of their division of the scale, as they know nothing of it
in theory. The interval we call an octave, seems to be divided with
them into six tones, without any intermediate semitones, which must con-
fine their music to one key. It consists in general of but few notes, and
the third is the interval that most frequently occurs. Those who perform

2 C 2

196

SUMATRA.

on the violin, use the same notes as in our division, and they tune the
instrument, by fifths, to a great nicety. They are fond of playing the
octave, but scarcely use any other chord. The Sumatran tunes very
much resemble, to my ear, those of the native Irish, and have usually,
like them, a flat third : the same has been observed of the music of Ben-
gal, and, probably, it will be found that the minor key obtains a prefer-
ence amongst all people at a certain stage of civilization.

Langtiagcs —

o o

SUMATRA.

197

Languages — Malayan — Arabic character used — Languages of the interior
people — Peculiar characters — Specimens of languages and of alphabets.

BEFORE I proceed to an account of the laws, customs, and manners Languages,
of the people of the island, it is necessary that I should say something
of the different languages spoken on it ; the diversity of which has been
the subject of much contemplation and conjecture.

The Malayan language, which has commonly been supposed original Malayan
in the peninsula of Malayo, and from thence to have extended itself
throughout the eastern islands, so as to become the lingua franca of that
part of the globe, is spoken every where along the coasts of Sumatra,
prevails without the mixture of any other, in the inland country of Me-
nangkabau and its immediate dependencies, and is understood in almost
every part of the island. It has been much celebrated, and justly, for
the smoothness and sweetness of its sound, which have gained it the ap-
pellation of the Italian of the East. This is owing to the prevalence of
vowels and liquids in the words (with many nasals which may be thought
an objection) and the infrequency of any harsh combination of mute
consonants. These qualities render it well adapted to poetry, which
the Malays are passionately addicted to. They amuse all their leisure
hours, including the greater portion of their lives, with the repetition of
songs which are, for the most part, proverbs illustrated, or figures of Songs,
speech applied to the occurrences of life. Some that they rehearse, in
a kind of recitative, at their bimbangs or feasts, are historical love tales,
like our old English ballads, and are often extemporaneous productions..

An example of the former species is as follows : —

Apa gunu passang palitu,

Kallo tidah dangan sumbu’nia ?

Apa guna berminc matta,

Kallo tidah dangan sunggu’nia ?

What

198

SUMATRA.

Arabic cha-
racter used
by Malays.

What signifies attempting to light a lamp.

If the wick be wanting ?

What signifies playing with the eyes.

If nothing in earnest be intended ?

It must be observed, however, that it often proves a very difficult matter
to trace the connexion between the figurative and the literal sense of the
stanza. The essentials in the composition of the pantun , for such these
little pieces are called, the longer being called dendang, are the rhyth-
mus and the figure, particularly the latter, which they consider as the
life and spirit of the poetry. I had a proof of this in an attempt which
I made to impose a pantun of my own composing on the natives, as a
work of their countrymen. The subject was a dialogue between a lover
and a rich, coy mistress : the expressions were proper to the occasion,
and in some degree characteristic. It passed with several, but an old
lady who was a more discerning critic than the others, remarked that it
was “ katta katta saja ” — mere conversation; meaning that it was desti-
tute of the quaint and figurative expressions which adorn their own
poetry. Their language, in common speaking, is proverbial and senten-
tious. If a young woman prove with child before marriage, they ob-
serve it is “ daulu buah, kadian bujiga” — “ the fruit before the flower.”
Hearing of a person’s death, they say, “ nen matti , matti ; nen idup, be-
kraja: kallo sampi janji’nia, apa buli buat ?" — “ Those who are dead, are
dead; those who survive must work: if his allotted time was expired,
what resource is there?” The latter phrase they always make use of, to
express their sense of inevitability, and has more force than any transla-
tion of it I can employ.

Their writing is in the Arabic character, with modifications to adapt
that alphabet to their language, and in consequence of the adoption of
their religion from the same quarter, a great number of Arabic words
are incorporated with the Malayan. The Portuguese too have furnish-
ed them with several terms, chiefly for such ideas as they have acquired
since the period of European discoveries to the eastward. They write on
paper, using ink of their own composition, with pens made of the twig of
the anau tree. I could never discover that the Malays had any original
written characters, peculiar to themselves, before they acquired those

now

SUMATRA.

199

now in use ; but it is possible that such might have been lost ; a fate
that may hereafter attend the Batta , Rejang, and others of Sumatra, on
which the Arabic daily makes encroachments. Yet I have had frequent
occasion to observe the former language written by inland people, in the
country character; which would indicate that the speech is likely to
perish first. The Malayan books are very numerous, both in prose and
verse. Many of them are commentaries on the koran, and others, ro"
mances or heroic tales.

The purest or most elegant Malayan is said, and with great appear*
ance of reason, to be spoken at Malacca. It differs from the dialect
used in Sumatra chiefly in this, that words, in the latter, made to ter_
minate in “ o,” are in the former, sounded as ending in “ a .” Thus
they pronounce lada (pepper) instead of lade. Those words which end
with “ k ” in writing, are, in Sumatra, always softened in speaking, by
omitting it ; as “ tabbe bannia ,” “ many compliments,” for “ tabbek
banniak ;” but the Malaccans, and especially the more eastern people,
who speak a very broad dialect, give them generally the full sound.
The personal pronouns also differ materially in the respective coun-
tries.

Attempts have been made to compose a grammar of this tongue, upon
the principles on which those of the European languages are formed.
But the inutility of such productions is obvious. Where there is no in-
flexion of either nouns or verbs, there can be no cases, declensions,
moods, or conjugations. All this is performed by the addition of certain
words expressive of a determinate meaning, which should not be consi-
dered as mere auxiliaries, or as particles subservient to other words.
Thus, in the instance of rumah , a house ; deri pada rumah signifies “ from
a house but it would be talking without use or meaning, to say that
deri pada is the sign of the ablative case of that noun, for then every
preposition should equally require an appropriate case, and as well as
«e of,” “ to,” and “ from,” we should have a case for deatas rumah “ on
top of the house.” So of verbs : “ kallo saya buli jalan ” <e If I could
walk :” this may be termed the preter-imperfect tense of the subjunctive
or potential mood, of the verb jalan ,• whereas it is in fact a sentence, of

which

200

SUMATRA.

which jalan, buli, &e. are constituent words. It is improper, Isay, to
talk of the case of a noun, which does not change its termination,
or the mood of a verb, which does not alter its form. An useful set
of observations might be collected, for speaking the language with cor-
rectness and propriety, but they must be independent of the technical
rules of languages founded on different principles.*

^use'ianguagea Beside the Malayan there are a variety of languages spoken in Suma-
^^“^^tra, which, however, have not only a manifest affinity among them-
selves, but also to that general language which is found to prevail in,
and to be indigenous to all the islands of the eastern sea ; from Mada-
gascar to the remotest of Captain Cook’s discoveries ; comprehending a
wider extent than the Roman, or any other tongue, has yet boasted.
Indisputable examples of this connexion and similarity, I have exhibited
in a paper which the Society of Antiquaries have done me the honour to
publish in their Archaeologia, Vol. VI. In different places it has been
more or less mixed and corrupted, but between the most dissimilar
branches, an evident sameness of many radical words is apparent, and
in some, very distant from each other in point nf situation, as for in-
stance the Philippines and Madagascar, the deviation of the words is
scarcely more than is observed in the dialects of neighbouring provinces
of the same kingdom. To render this comparison of languages more
extensive, and, if possible, to bring all those spoken throughout the
world, into one point of view, is an object of which I have never lost
sight, but my hopes of completing such a work are by no means san-
guine.

The principal of these Sumatran languages are the Batta, the Rejang,
and the Lampong, whose difference is marked, not so much by the want
of correspondence in the terms, as by the circumstance of their being
Peculiar writ- expressed in distinct and peculiar written characters. But whether this
te^ d ac apparent difference be radical and essential, or only produced by acci-
dent

* I have ventured to make this attempt, and have also prepared a Dictionary of the lan-
guage, which it is my intention to print with as little delay as circumstances will admit.

SUMATRA.

201

dent and the lapse of time, may be thought to admit of doubt ; and in
order that the reader may be enabled to form his own judgment, a plate
containing the Alphabetical characters of each, with the mode of ap-
plying the orthographical marks to those of the Rejang language in par-
ticular, is annexed. It would indeed be extraordinary, and perhaps
singular in the history of human improvement, that divisions of people
in the same island, with equal claims to originality, in stages of civiliza-
tion nearly equal, and speaking languages derived from the same source,
should employ characters different from each other, as well as from the
rest of the world. It will be found, however, that the alphabet used in
the neighbouring island of Java (given by Corneille Le Brun), that used
by the Tagala people of the Philippines (given by Thevenot), and by
the Bugis people of Celebes (given by Capt. Forrest), vary at least as
much from these and from each other, as the Rejang from the Batta.

The Sanskrit scholar will at the same time perceive in several of them an
analogy to the rythmical arrangement, terminating with a nasal, which
distinguishes the alphabet of that ancient language, whose influence is
known to have been extensive in this quarter. In the country of Achin ,
where the language differs considerably from the Malayan, the Arabic
character has nevertheless been adopted, and on this account it has less
claim to originality.

Their manuscripts of any bulk and importance are written with ink of On bark of
their own making, on the inner bark of a tree cut into slips of several bamboo,
feet in length, and folded together in squares each square or fold an-
swering to a page or leaf. For more common occasions they write on
the outer coat of a joint of bamboo, sometimes whole, but generally
split into pieces of two or three inches in breadth, with the point of the
weapon worn at their side, which serves the purpose of a stylus ; and
these writings, or scratchings rather, are often performed with a consi-
derable degree of neatness. Thus the Chinese also are said by their his-
torians to have written on pieces of bamboo, before they invented paper.

Of both kinds of manuscript, I have many specimens in my possession.

The lines are formed from the left hand towards the right, contrary to
the practice of the Malays and the Arabians.

2 D

202

SUMATRA.

In Java, Siam , and other parts of the East, beside the common lan-
guage of the country, there is established a court language spoken by
persons of rank only ; a distinction invented for the purpose of keeping
the vulgar at a distance, and inspiring them with respect for what they
do not understand. The Malays also have their bhasa dalam, or courtly
style, which contains a number of expressions not familiarly used in
common conversation or writing, but yet by no means constituting a se-
parate language, any more than, in English, the elevated style of our
poets and historians. Amongst the inhabitants of Sumatra in general,
disparity of condition is not attended with much ceremonious distance
of behaviour between the persons.

SPECIMENS

SUMATRA.

203

SPECIMENS OF LANGUAGES SPOKEN IN SUMATRA.

Malay.

Achin.

Batta.

Rejang.

Lampong.

One

Satu

Sah

Sadah

Sye

Two

Dua

Duo

Duy

Rowah

Three

Tiga

Tlu

Tolu

Tcllau

Tullu

Four

Am pat

Pat

Opat

’Mpat

Ampah

Five

Lima

Limung

Limah

Lerno

Limah

Six

Anam

Nam

Onam

Num

Anam

Seven

Tuju

Paitu

Tujua

Pitu

Eight

Slappan

Dlappan

Uallu

Delapun

Uallu

Nine

Samhilan

Sakurang

Siah

Sembilan

Siwah

Ten

Sapuluh

Saplu

Sapulu

Depulu

Pulu

Husband

Laki

Lakai

Morah

Lakye

Kajun

Wife

Bini

Binai

Abu

Suma

Kajun

Father

Bapa

Ammah

Bapa

Bapah

Mother

Inang

Indo

In ah

Head

Kapala

Ulu

Ulau

Uluh

Eyes

Mata

Matah

Mahta

Matty

Mattah

Nose

Idong

Idun

Aygoug

long

Hair

Rambut

Obu

Buho

Teeth

Gigi

Gegui

Ningi

Aypin

Ipun

Hand

Tangan

Jarruai

Tan'gan

Tan-gun

Chulu

Day

Ari

Urai

Torang-hari

Bili-lueng

Ranni

Night

Malam

Borgning

B. kalemun

Binghi

White

Putih

Nabottar

Putiah

Mandak

Black

Itam

Hetam

Nabirong

Melu

Mallum

Good

Baik

Gaet

Dengan

Baye

Butti

Die

Mati

Mattay

Mahtay

Mattoi

Jahal

Fire

Api

Apuy

Alipi

Opoay

Appuy

Water

Ayer

Ayk

Beole

Wye

Earth

Tanah

Tano

Tana

Pita

Tanah

Coconut

Kalapa. Nior

Krambi

Niole

Klappah

Rice

Bras

Briagh

Dahano

Bias

Fish

Ikan

Inkur

Dakay

Konn

Iwah

Hog

Babi

Buy

Babi

Suitemba

Babui

Sun

,Mata-ari

Mattaurai

Mahtah-hari

Matty-bily

Mata-ranni

Moon

Bulan

Bulun

Bulan

Bulun

Bulan

Amba. Aku

Ulun

Ahu

Uku

Gniah

God

Allah-tala

Allah

Daibattah

Ula-tallo

Allah-tala

2 D 2 Comparative

204

SUMATRA.

Comparative
state of
Sumatrans
in society.

Comparative state of the Sumatrans in civil society — Difference of Character
between the Malays and other inhabitants. Government — Titles and power
of the chiefs among the Rejangs. Influence of the Europeans — Govern-
ment in Passummah.

Considered as a people occupying a certain rank in the scale of
civil society, it is not easy to determine the proper situation of the inha-
bitants of this island. Though far distant from that point to which the
polished states of Europe have aspired, they yet look down, with an
interval almost as great, on the savage tribes of Africa and America.
Perhaps if we distinguish mankind summarily into five classes; but of
which each would admit of numberless subdivisions ; we might assign a
third place, to the more civilized Sumatrans, and a fourth, to the re-
mainder. In the first class, I should of course include some of the re-
publics of ancient Greece, in the days of their splendour; the Romans,
for some time before and after the Augustan age ; France, England, and
other refined nations of Europe, in the latter centuries ; and perhaps
China. The second might comprehend the great Asiatic empires at
the period of their prosperity; Persia, the Mogul, the Turkish, with
some European kingdoms. In the third class, along with the Suma-
trans, and a few other states of the eastern archipelago, I should rank
the nations on the northern coast of Africa, and the more polished Arabs.
The fourth class, with the less civilized Sumatrans, will take in the peo-
ple of the new discovered islands in the South Sea ; perhaps the celebrated
Mexican and Peruvian empires; the Tartar hordes, and all those so-
cieties of people in various parts of the globe, who, possessing personal
property, and acknowledging some species of established subordination,
rise one step above the Caribs, the New Hollanders, the Laplanders,
and the Hottentots, who exhibit a picture of mankind in its rudest and
most humiliating aspect.

SUMATRA.

205

As mankind are by nature so prone to imitation, it may seem surpris- Few improve-
ing that these people have not derived a greater share of improvement, ^dfrom^
in manners and arts, from their long connection with Europeans, par-
ticularly with the English, who have now been settled among them for
an hundred years. Though strongly attached to their own habits, they
are nevertheless sensihle of their inferiority, and readily admit the pre-
ference to which our attainments in science, and especially in mechanics,
entitle us. I have heard a man exclaim, after contemplating the struc-
ture and uses of a house-clock, “ Is it not fitting that such as we, should
be slaves to people who have the ingenuity to invent, and the skill to
construct, so wonderful a machine as this ?” “ The sun,” he added, “is
a machine of this nature.” “ But who winds it up ?” said his companion.

<c Who but Allah," he replied. This admiration of our superior attain-
ments is, however, not universal ; for, upon an occasion similar to the
above, a Sumatran observed, with a sneer, “ How clever these people
are in the art of getting money.”

Some probable causes of this backwardness may be suggested. We
carry on few or no species of manufacture at our settlements; every thing
is imported ready wrought to its highest perfection; and the natives,
therefore, have no opportunity of examining the first process, or the pro-
gress of the work. Abundantly supplied with every article of convenience
from Europe, and prejudiced in their favour because from thence, we
make but little use of the raw materials Sumatra affords. We do not spin
its cotton ; we do not rear its silk-worms ; we do not smelt its metals ;
we do not even hew its stone : neglecting these, it is in vain we ex-
hibit to the people, for their improvement in the arts, our rich brocades,
our time-pieces, or display to them, in drawings, the elegance of our
architecture. Our manners likewise are little calculated to excite their
approval and imitation. Not to insist on the licentiousness that has at
times been imputed to our communities; the pleasures of the table;
emulation in wine; boisterous mirth; juvenile frolics, and puerile amuse-
ments, which do not pass without serious, perhaps contemptuous, ani-
madversion— setting these aside, it appears to me, that even our best
models are but ill adapted for the imitation of a rude, incurious, and
unambitious people, Their senses, not their reason, should be acted

on.

206

SUMATRA.

on, to rouse them from their lethargy ; their imaginations must be
warmed; a spirit of enthusiasm must pervade and animate them, before
they will exchange the pleasures of indolence for those of industry.
The philosophical influence that prevails, and characterizes the present
age, in the western world, is unfavourable to the producing these effects.
A modern man of sense and manners despises, or endeavours to despise,
ceremony, parade, attendance, superfluous and splendid ornaments in
his dress or furniture : preferring ease and convenience, to cumbrous
pomp, the person first in rank is no longer distinguished by his apparel,
his equipage, or his number of servants, from those inferior to him ;
and though possessing real power, is divested of almost every external
mark of it. Even our religious worship partakes of the same simplicity.
It is far from my intention to condemn or depreciate these manners, con-
sidered in a general scale of estimation. Probably, in proportion as the
prejudices of sense are dissipated by the light of reason, we advance
towards the highest degree of perfection our natures are capable of;
possibly perfection may consist in a certain medium which we have
already stept beyond ; but certainly all this refinement is utterly incom-
prehensible to an uncivilized mind, which cannot discriminate the ideas
of humility and meanness. We appear to the Sumatrans to have dege-
nerated from the more splendid virtues of our predecessors. Even the
richness of their laced suits, and the gravity of their perukes, attracted
a degree of admiration ; and I have heard the disuse of the large hoops
worn by the ladies, pathetically lamented. The quick, and to them
inexplicable, revolutions of our fashions, are subject of much astonish-
ment, and they naturally conclude, that those modes can have but little
intrinsic merit which we are so ready to change; or at least that our
caprice renders us very incompetent to be the guides of their improve-
ment. Indeed, in matters of this kind, it is not to be supposed that an
imitation should take place, owing to the total incongruity of manners
in other respects, and the dissimilarity of natural and local circumstances.
But, perhaps, I am superfluously investigating minute and partial causes
of an effect, which one general one may be thought sufficient to pro-
duce. Under the frigid, and more especially the torrid zone, the inha-
bitants will naturally preserve an uninterrupted similarity and consistency
of manners, from the uniform influence of their climate. In the tem-
perate

SUMATRA.

207

perate zones, where this influence is equivocal, the manners will be
fluctuating, and dependent rather on moral than physical causes.

The Malays and the other native Sumatrans differ more in the features of Difference in

character

their mind than in those of their person. Although we know not that between the
this island, in the revolutions of human grandeur, ever made a distinguish- otSsuma-
ed figure in the history of the world (for the Achinese, though powerful t*ans’
in the sixteenth century, were very low in point of civilization) yet the
Malay inhabitants have an appearance of degeneracy, and this renders
their character totally different from that which we conceive of a savage,
however justly their ferocious spirit of plunder on the eastern coast, may
have drawn upon them that name. They seem rather to be sinking into
obscurity, though with opportunities of improvement, than emerging
from thence to a state of civil or political importance. They retain a
strong share of pride, but not of that laudible kind which restrains men
from the commission of mean and fraudulent actions. They possess
much low cunning and plausible duplicity, and know how to dissemble
the strongest passions and most inveterate antipathy, beneath the utmost
composure of features, till the opportunity of gratifying their resentment
offers. Veracity, gratitude, and integrity, are not to be found in the
list of their virtues, and their minds are almost strangers to the sentiments
of honour and infamy. They are jealous and vindictive. Their courage
is desultory, the effect of a momentary enthusiasm, which enables them
to perform deeds of incredible desperation ; but they are strangers to that
steady magnanimity, that cool heroic resolution in battle, which con-
stitutes in our idea the perfection of this quality, and renders it a virtue.*

Yet it must be observed, that from an apathy almost paradoxical, they
suffer under sentence of death, in cases where no indignant passions could
operate to buoy up the mind to a contempt of punishment, with astonish-
ing composure and indifference ; uttering little more on these occasions,
than a proverbial saying, common among them, expressive of the inevi-
tability

a In the history of the Portuguese wars in this part of the East, there appear some excep-
tions to this remark, and particularly in the character of Laksamanna (his title of commander
in chief being mistaken for his proper name), who was truly a great man and most consum-
mate warrior.

208

SUMATRA.

Character of
native Su-
matrans.

tability of fate — tc apa bull buat ?” To this stoicism, their belief in
predestination, and very imperfect ideas of a future, eternal existence,
doubtless contribute.

Some writer has remarked, that a resemblance is usually found, between
the disposition and qualities of the beasts proper to any country, and
those of the indigenous inhabitants of the human species, where an in-
tercourse with foreigners has not destroyed the genuineness of their cha-
racter. The Malay may thus be compared to the buffalo and the tiger.
In his domestic state, he is indolent, stubborn, and voluptuous as the
former, and in his adventurous life, he is insidious, blood-thirsty, and
rapacious as the latter. Thus also the Arab is said to resemble his camel,
and the placid Hindu his cow.

The Sumatran of the interior country, though he partakes in some de-
gree of the Malayan vices, and this partly from the contagion of example,
possesses many exclusive virtues; but they are more properly of the ne-
gative than the positive kind. He is mild, peaceable, and forbearing,
unless his anger be roused by violent provocation, when he is implacable
in his resentments. He is temperate and sober, being equally abstemious
in meat and drink. The diet of the natives is mostly vegetable; water is
their only beverage ; and though they will kill a fowl or a goat for a
stranger, whom perhaps they never saw before, nor ever expect to see
again, they are rarely guilty of that extravagance for themselves; nor
even at their festivals ( bimbang ), where there is a plenty of meat, do they
eat much of any thing but rice. Their hospitality is extreme, and bound-
ed by their ability alone. Their manners are simple ; they are generally,
except among the chiefs, devoid of the Malay cunning and chicane ; yet
endued with a quickness of apprehension, and on many occasions disco-
vering a considerable degree of penetration and sagacity. In respect to
women, they are remarkably continent, without any share of insensibility.
They are modest; particularly guarded in their expressions ; courteous in
their behaviour ; grave in their deportment, being seldom or never ex-
cited to laughter; and patient to a great degree. On the other hand,
they are litigious; indolent; addicted to gaming; dishonest in their
dealings with strangers, which they esteem no moral defect; suspicious;

regardless

SUMATRA.

209

regardless of truth ; mean in their transactions ; servile ; though cleanly
in their persons, dirty in their apparel, which they never wash. They are
careless and improvident of the future, because their wants are few, for
though poor, they are not necessitous ; nature supplying, with extraor-
dinary facility, whatever she has made requisite for their existence.

Science and the arts have not, by extending their views, contributed to
enlarge the circle of their desires ; and the various refinements of luxury,
which in polished societies become necessaries of life, are totally unknown
to them. The Afnkassur anA Bugis people, who come annually in their
j Draws from Celebes to trade at Sumatra, are looked up to by the inha-
bitants, as their superiors in manners. The Malays affect to copy their
style of dress, and frequent allusions to the feats and achievements of
these people are made in their songs. Their reputation for courage,
which certainly surpasses that of all other people in the eastern seas, ac-
quires them this flattering distinction. They also derive part of the re-
spect paid them, from the richness of the cargoes they import, and the
spirit with which they spend the produce in gaming, cock-fighting, and
opium-smoking.

Having endeavoured to trace the character of these people, with as Government,
much fidelity and accuracy as possible, I shall now proceed to give an
account of their government, laws, customs, and manners ; and, in or-
der to convey to the reader the clearest ideas in my power, I shall de-
velope the various circumstances in such order and connection as shall
appear best to answer this intent, without confining myself, in every
instance, to a rigid and scrupulous arrangement under distinct heads.

The Rejang people, whom, for reasons before assigned, I have fixed Rejangs di-
upon for a standard of description, but which apply generally to the tribes."1*0
orang ulu, or inhabitants of the inland country, are distinguished into
tribes, the descendants of different ancestors. Of these there are four
principal, who are said to trace their origin to four brothers, and to have
been united from time immemorial in a league offensive and defensive ;
though it may be presumed, that the permanency of this bond of union
is to be attributed rather to considerations of expediency resulting from
their situation, than to consanguinity, or any formal compact. The in-

2 E habitants

210

SUMATRA.

Their go-
vernment.

Pan ge ran.

His authority.

habitants live in villages, called dusun, each under the government of a
head man or magistrate, styled dupati, whose dependants are termed
his ana-buah , and in number seldom exceed one hundred. The dupatis
belonging to each river (for here the villages being almost always situ-
ated by the water-side, the names we are used to apply to countries or
districts, are properly those of the rivers) meet in a judicial capacity at
the kwab, where the European factory is established, and are then dis-
tinguished by the name of proattin. The pangeran (a Javanese title) or
feudal chief of the country, presides over the whole. It is not an easy
matter to describe in what consists the fealty of a dupati to his pangeran ,
or of his ana-buah to himself, so very little in either case is practically
observed. Almost without arts, and with but little industry, the state
of property is nearly equal among all the inhabitants, and the chiefs
scarcely differ, but in title, from the bulk of the people. Their authority
is no more than nominal, being without that coercive power, necessary
to make themselves feared and implicitly obeyed. This is the natural
result of poverty among nations habituated to peace ; where the two
great political engines, of interest and military force, are wanting. Their
government is founded in opinion, and the submission of the people is
voluntary. The domestic rule of a private family, beyond a doubt, sug-
gested first the idea of government in society, and this people having
made but small advances in civil policy, theirs continues to retain a
strong resemblance of its original. It is connected also with the princi-
ple of the feudal system, into which it would probably settle, should it
attain to a greater degree of refinement. All the other governments
throughout the island are likewise a mixture of the patriarchal and feu-
dal; and it may be observed, that where a spirit of conquest has reduced
the inhabitants under the subjection of another power, or has added fo-
reign districts to their dominion, there the feudal maxims prevail : where
the natives, from situation or disposition, have long remained undisturbed
by revolutions, there the simplicity of patriarchal rule obtains; which
is not onlj'- the first, and natural form of government, of all rude nations
rising from imperceptible beginnings, but is perhaps also the highest state
of perfection at which they can ultimately arrive. It is not in this art
alone that we perceive the next step from consummate refinement, lead-
ing to simplicity.

The

SUMATRA.

211

The foundation of right to government among these people, seems. Much limited,
as I said, to be the general consent. If a chief exerts an undue autho-
rity, or departs from their long established customs and usages, they con-
ceive themselves at liberty to relinquish their allegiance. A command-
ing aspect, an insinuating manner, a ready fluency in discourse, and a
penetration and sagacity in unravelling the little intricacies of their dis-
putes, are qualities which seldom fail to procure to their possessor re-
spect and influence, sometimes, perhaps, superior to that of an acknow-
ledged chief. The pangean, indeed, claims despotic sway, and as far as
he can find the means, scruples not to exert it ; but his revenues being
insufficient to enable him to keep up any force, for carrying his mandates
into execution, his actual powers are very limited, and he has seldom
found himself able to punish a turbulent subject, any otherwise than by
private assassination. In appointing the heads of dusuns, he does little
more than confirm the choice already made among the inhabitants, and
were he arbitrarily to name a person of a different tribe, or from another
place, he would not be obeyed. He levies no tax, nor has any revenue,

(what he derives from the India Company being out of the question)
or other emolument from his subjects, than what accrues to him from the
determination of causes. Appeals lie to him in all cases, and none of the
inferior courts, or assemblies of proattms , are competent to pronounce
sentence of death. But all punishments being, by the laws of the country,
commutable for fines, and the appeals being attended with expence and
loss of time, the parties generally abide by the first decision. Those
dusuns which are situated nearest to the residence of the pangeran , at
Sungey-lamo, acknowledge somewhat more of subordination than the
distant ones, which, even in case of war, esteem themselves at liberty to
assist or not, as they think proper, without being liable to consequences.

In answer to a question on this point, “ we are his subjects, not his slaves,”
replied one of the proattins. But from the pangeran you hear a tale
widely different. He has been known to say, in a political conversation 5
“ such and such dusuns there will be no trouble with ; they are my
powder and shot;” explaining himself by adding, that he could dispose
of the inhabitants, as his ancestors had done, to purchase ammunition
in time of war.

2 E2

The

212

SUMATRA.

Origin of the The father of P anger an Mangko Raja (whose name is preserved from
eran in^Re” oblivion by the part he took in the expulsion of the English from Fort
Marlborough in the year 1719,) was the first who bore the title of parig-
eran of Sungey-lamo. He had before been simply Baginda Sabyam. Until
about an hundred years ago, the southern coast of Sumatra, as far as
Urei River, was dependant on the king of Bantam, whose Jennang (lieu-
tenant or deputy) came yearly to Silebar or Bencoolen, collected the pep-
per and filled up the vacancies, by nominating, or rather confirming in
their appointments, the proattins. Soon after that time, the English hav-
ing established a settlement at Bencoolen, the jennang informed the chiefs
that he should visit them no more, and raising the two head men of
Sungey-lamo and Sungey-itam, (the latter of whom is chief of the Lemba
country, in the neighbourhood of Bencoolen River ; on which, however,
the former possesses some villages, and is chief of the Rejang tribes) to
the dignity of pangeran, gave into their hands the government of the
country, and withdrew his master’s claim. Such is the account given
by the present possessors, of the origin of their titles, which nearly cor-
responds with the recorded transactions of the period. It followed natu-
rally that the chief thus invested should lay claim to the absolute autho-
rity of the king whom he represented, and, on the other band, that the
proattins should still consider him but as one of themselves, and pay him
little more than nominal obedience. He had no power to enforce his
plea, and they retain their privileges, taking no oath of allegiance, nor
submitting to be bound by any positive engagement. They speak of
him, however, with respect, and in any moderate requisition, that does
not affect their adat or customs, they are ready enough to aid him, ( to -
long, as they express it) but rather as matter of favour than acknowledged
obligation.

The exemption from absolute subjection, which the dupatis contend
for, they allow in turn to their ana-buahs, whom they govern by the influ-
ence of opinion only. The respect paid to one of these, is little more
than as to an elder of a family held in esteem, and this the old men of the
dusun share with him, sitting by his side in judgment on the little dif-
ferences that arise among themselves. If they cannot determine the

cause,

SUMATRA.

2 13

cause, or the dispute be with one of a separate village, the neighbouring
proatfins of the same tribe meet for the purpose. From these litigations
arise some small emoluments to the dupati, whose dignity, in other re-
spects, is rather an expence than an advantage. In the erection of pub-
lic works, such as the ballei or town-hall, he contributes a larger share
of materials. He receives and entertains all strangers, his dependants
furnishing their quotas of provision, on particular occasions; and their
hospitality is such, that food and lodging are never refused to those by
whom they are required.

Though the rank of dupati is not strictly hereditary, the son, when Succession of
of age, and capable, generally succeeds the father, at his decease: if too dupdtls‘
young, the father’s brother, or such one of the family as appears most
qualified, assumes the post; not as a regent, but in his own right; and
the minor comes in, perhaps, at the next vacancy. If this settlement
happens to displease any portion of the inhabitants, they determine
amongst themselves what chief they will follow, and remove to his village,
or a few families, separating themselves from the rest, elect a chief; but
without contesting the right of him whom they leave. The chiefs, when
nominated, do not, however, assume the title of dupati, until confirmed
by the pangeran, or by the Company’s Resident. On every river there
is at least one superior proattin , termed a pambarab , who is chosen by
the rest, and has the right or duty of presiding at those suits and festi-
vals in which two or more villages are concerned, with a larger allotment
of the fines, and (like Homer’s distinguished heroes) of the provisions
also. If more tribes than one are settled on the same river, each has
usually its pambarab. Not only the rivers or districts, but, indeed, each
dusun, is independent of, though not unconnected with, its neighbours;
acting in concert with them by specific consent.

The system of government among the people near the sea-coast, who, inflnence of
towards the southern extreme of the island, are the planters of pepper, .^Europe'
is much influenced by the power of the Europeans, who are virtually
the lords paramount, and exercise, in fact, many of the functions of
sovereignty. The advantages derived to the subject from their sway,
both in a political and civil sense, are infinitely greater than persons at

a distance

214

SUMATRA.

a distance are usually inclined to suppose. Oppressions may be some-
times complained of at the hands of individuals, but, to the honour of
the Company’s service let me add, they have been very rare, and of
inconsiderable magnitude. Where a degree of discretionary power is
intrusted to single persons, abuses will, in the nature of things, arise
in some instances ; cases may occur, in which the private passions of
the Resident will interfere with his public duty $ but the door has ever
been open for redress, and examples have been made. To destroy this
influence and authority, in order to prevent these consequences, were to
cut off a limb in order to remove a partial complaint. By the Com-
pany’s power, the districts over which it extends are preserved in un-
interrupted peace. Were it not for this power, every dusun of every
river would be at war with its neighbour. The natives themselves al-
low it, and it was evinced, even in the short space of time during which
the English were absent from the coast, in a former war with France.
Hostilities of district against district, so frequent among the independ-
ent nations to the northward, are, within the Company’s jurisdiction,
things unheard of ; and those dismal catastrophes, which in all the
Malayan islands are wont to attend on private feuds, but very rarely
happen. ‘c I tell you honestly,” said a dupati , much irritated against
one of his neighbours, « that it is only you,” pointing to the Resident
of Laye , “ that prevents my plunging this weapon into his breast.”
The Resident is also considered as the protector of the people from the
injustice and oppression of the chiefs. This oppression, though not
carried on in the way of open force, which the ill-defined nature of their
authority would not support, is scarcely less grievous to the sufferer.
Expounders of the law, and deeply versed in the chicanery of it, they
are ever lying in wait to take advantage of the necessitous and ig-
norant, till they have stripped them of their property, their family, and
their personal liberty. To prevent these practices ; the partial adminis-
tration of justice in consequence of bribes ; the subornation of wit-
nesses ; and the like iniquities ; a continual exertion of the Resident’s
attention and authority is required; and as that authority is accidentally
relaxed, the country falls into confusion.

It is true, that this interference is not strictly consonant with the

spirit

SUMATRA.

215

spirit of the original contracts entered into by the Company with the
native chiefs ; who, in consideration of protection from their enemies ;
regular purchase of the produce of their country; and a gratuity to
themselves, proportioned to the quantity of that produce, undertake,
on their part, to oblige their dependants to plant pepper; to refrain from
the use of opium, the practice of gaming, and other vicious excesses;
and to punish them in case of non-compliance. But however prudent
or equal these contracts might have been at the time their form was
established, a change of circumstances; the gradual and necessary in-
crease of the Company’s sway, which the peace and good of the country
required; and the tacit consent of the chiefs themselves, (among whom
the oldest living have never been used to regard the Company, who have
conferred on them their respective dignities, as their equals, or as trading
in their districts upon sufferance) have long antiquated them ; and cus-
tom and experience have introduced in their room, an influence on one
side, and a subordination on the other, more consistent with the power of
the Company, and more suitable to the benefits derived from the mode-
rate and humane exercise of that power. Prescription has given its sanc-
tion to this change, and the people have submitted to it without mur-
muring; as it was introduced, not suddenly, but with the natural course
of events, and bettered the condition of the whole while it tended to
curb the rapacity of the few. Then let not short-sighted or designing
persons, upon false principles of justice, or ill-digested notions of liberty,
rashly endeavour to overturn a scheme of government, doubtless not per-
fect, but which seems best adapted to the circumstances it has respect to,
and attended with the fewest disadvantages. Let them not vainly exert
themselves to procure redress of imaginary grievances, for persons who
complain not, or to infuse a spirit of freedom and independence, in a
climate where nature possibly never intended they should flourish, and
which, if obtained, would apparently be attended with effects, that all
their advantages would badly compensate.

In Pusswnmah , which nearly borders upon Rejang , to the southward, Government in
there appears some difference in the mode of government, though the Pas9ummah-
same spirit pervades both ; the chiefs being equally without a regular
coercive power, and the people equally free in the choice of whom they

will

216

SUMATRA.

will serve. This is an extensive, and, comparatively, populous country*
bounded on the north by that of Lamattang, and on the south-east by
that of Lampong ; the river of Padang-guchi marking the division from
the latter, near the sea-coast. It is distinguished into Passummah lebbar,
or the broad, which lies inland, extending to within a day’s journey of
Muaro Mulang , on Palembang River; and Passummah ulu Manna, which
is on the western side of the range of hills, whither the inhabitants are
said to have mostly removed, in order to avoid the government of Pa-
lembang.

It is governed by four pangerans , who are independent of each other,
but acknowledge a kind of sovereignty in the sultan of Palembang , from
whom they hold a chap (warrant) and receive a salin (investiture), on
their accession. This subordination is the consequence of the king of
Bantam' s former influence over this part of the island, Palembang being
a port anciently dependant on him, and now on the Dutch, whose in-
strument the sultan is. There is an inferior pangeran in almost every
dusnn (that title being nearly as common in Passummah, as dupati to-
wards the sea-coast) who are chosen by the inhabitants, and confirmed
by the superior pangeran, whom they assist in the determination of
causes. In the low country, where the pepper-planters reside, the title
of kalippah prevails; which is a corruption of the Arabic word khalifah,
signifying a vicegerent. Each of these presides over various tribes, which
have been collected at different times (some of them being colonists from
Rejang, as well as from a country to the eastward of them, named Haji)
and have ranged themselves, some under one, and some under another
chief ; having also their superior proattin, or pambarab, as in the north-
ern districts. On the rivers of Peeno, Manna, and Bankannon, are two
kalippahs respectively, some of whom are also pangerans, which last
seems to be here rather a title of honour, or family distinction, than of
magistracy. They are independent of each other, owning no superior ;
and their number, according to the ideas of the people, cannot be in-
creased.

♦

Laws

SUMATRA.

217

haws and Customs — Mode of deciding Causes — Code of Lazes.

THERE is no word in the languages of the island which properly and Laws or cu*
strictly signifies law ; nor is there any person or class of persons among
the Rejangs regularly invested with a legislative power. They are go-
verned in their various disputes, by a set of long-established customs
( adat ), handed down to them from their ancestors, the authority of
which is founded on usage and general consent. The chiefs, in pro-
nouncing their decisions, are not heard to say, “ so the law directs,” but
“ such is the custom.” It is true, that if any case arises, for which there
is no precedent on record (of memory), they deliberate and agree on
some mode, that shall serve as a rule in future similar circumstances.

If the affair be trifling, that is seldom objected to; but when it is a mat-
ter of consequence, the paiigeran, or kalippah, (in places where such are
present) consults with the proattins, or lower order of chiefs, who fre-
quently desire time to consider of it, and consult with the inhabitants of
their dusun. When the point is thus determined, the people voluntarily
submit to observe it as an established custom ; but they do not acknow-
ledge a right in the chiefs, to constitute what laws they think proper, or
to repeal or alter their ancient usages, of which they are extremely te-
nacious and jealous. It is, notwithstanding, true, that by the influence
of the Europeans, they have at times been prevailed on, to submit to
innovations in their customs ; but, except when they perceived a mani-
fest advantage from the change, they have generally seized an opportu-
nity of reverting to the old practice.

All causes, both civil and criminal, are determined by the several Mode of
chiefs of the district, assembled together, at stated times, for the purpose caused8
of distributing justice. These meetings are called becharo , (which sig-
nifies also to discourse or debate) and among us, by an easy corruption,
bechars. Their manner of settling litigations, in points of property, is

2 F rather

218

SUMATRA.

rather a species of arbitration, each party previously binding himself to
submit to the award, than the exertion of a coercive power, possessed by
the court, for the redress of wrongs.

The want of a written criterion of the laws, and the imperfect stability
of traditionary usage, must frequently, in the intricacies of their suits,
give rise to contradictory decisions ; particularly as the interests and
passions of the chiefs are but too often concerned in the determination of
the causes that come before them. This evil had long been perceived by
the English Residents, who, in the countries where we are settled, pre-
side at the bechars, and being instigated by the splendid example of the
Governor-general of Bengal (Mr. Hastings), under whose direction a
Compilation code of the laws of that empire was compiled (and translated by Mr.

Halhed), it was resolved, that the servants of the Company at each of
the subordinates, should, with the assistance of the ablest and most ex-
perienced of the natives, attempt to reduce to writing, and form a system
of the usages of the Sumatrans, in their respective residencies. This
was accordingly executed in some instances, and a translation of that
compiled in the residency of Laye coming into my possession, I insert
it here, in the original form, as being attended with more authority and
precision, than any account furnished from my own memorandums
could pretend to.

“ REJANG LAWS.

<c For the more regular and impartial administration of justice in the
Residency of Laye , the laws and customs of the Rejangs, hitherto pre-
served by tradition, are now, after being discussed, amended, and rati-
fied, in an assembly of the patigeran , pambarabs , and proattins, com-
mitted to writing, in order that they may not be liable to alteration ;
that those deserving death or fine may meet their reward; that causes
may be brought before the proper judges, and due amends made for de-
faults ; that the compensation for murder may be fully paid ; that pro-
perty may be equitably divided ; that what is borrowed may be restored;
that gifts may become the undoubted property of the receiver ; that
debts may be paid, and credits received, agreeably to the customs that

have

SUMATRA.

219

have been ever in force, beneath the heavens and on the face of the earth.

By the observance of the laws, a country is made to flourish, and where

they are neglected or violated, ruin ensues.

“ BECHARS, SUITS, OR TRIALS.

“ The plaintiff and defendant first state to the bench the general cir-
cumstances of the case. If their accounts differ, and they consent to
refer the matter to the decision of the proattins or bench, each party is
to give a token, to the value of a saku, that he will abide by it, and
to find security for the c/iogo, a sum stated to them, supposed to ex-
ceed the utmost probable damages.

DOLLARS, DOLLARS.

“ If the chogo do not exceed SO the bio or fee paid by each is 1|
Ditto .... 30 to 50 . . ditto ....

Ditto .... 50 to 100 . ditto ... 5

Ditto .... 100 and upwards ditto .... 9

“ All chiefs of dnsuns, or independent tallangs, are entitled to a seat on
the bench upon trials.

“ If the pangeran sits at the bechar, he is entitled to one half of all bio ,
and of such fines, or shares of fines, as fall to the chiefs, the pambarabs
and other proattins dividing the remainder.

“ If the pangeran be not present, the pambarabs have one-third, and the
other proattins two-thirds of the foregoing. Though a single pambarab
only sit, he is equally entitled to the above one-third. Of the other
proattins, five are requisite to make a quorum.

“ No bechar, the chogo of which exceeds five dollars, to be held by the
proattins , except in the presence of the Company’s Resident, or his
assistant.

“ If a person maliciously brings a false accusation, and it is proved such,
he is liable to pay a sum equal to that which the defendant would
have incurred, had his design succeeded ; which sum is to be divided
between the defendant and the proattins, half and half.

“ The fine for bearing false witness, is twenty dollars and a buffalo.

“ The punishment of perjury is left to the superior powers [prang aliis).
Evidence here is not delivered on previous oath.

2 F 2

Process is
suits.

“ INHERITANCE.

SUMATRA.

Laws of in-
heritance.

Of outlawry.

“ INHERITANCE.

“ If the father leaves a will, or declares before witnesses his intentions
relative to his effects or estate, his pleasure is to be followed in the
distribution of them amongst his children.

“ If he dies intestate, and without declaring his intentions, the male
children inherit, share and share alike, except that the house and
pusako (heirlooms, or effects on which, from various causes, super-
stitious value is placed) devolve invariably to the eldest.

“ The mother (if by the mode of marriage termed jujur, which, with
the other legal terms, will be hereafter explained) and the daughters
are dependant on the sons.

“ If a man, married by semando, dies, leaving children, the effects re-
main to the wife and children. If the woman dies, the effects remain
to the husband and children. If either dies, leaving no children, the
family of the deceased is entitled to half the effects.

“ OUTLAWRY.

“ Any person unwilling to be answerable for the debts or actions of his
son. or other relation under his charge, may outlaw him, by which
he, from that period, relinquishes all family connexion with him, and
is no longer responsible for his conduct.

<e The outlaw to be delivered up to the Resident or pangeran, accom-
panied with his writ of outlawry, in duplicate, one copy to be lodged
with the Resident, and one with the outlaw’s pambarab.

“ The person who outlaws must pay all debts to that day.

“ On amendment, the outlaw may be recalled to his family, they pay-
ing such debts as he may have contracted whilst outlawed, and redeem-
ing his writ by payment of ten dollars and a goat, to be divided among
the pangeran and pambaraba.

<c If an outlaw commits murder, he is to suffer death.

" If murdered, a bangun, or compensation, of fifty dollars, is to be
paid for him to the pangeran.

If an outlaw wounds a person, he becomes a slave to the Company or
pangeran for three years. If he absconds, and is afterwards killed, no
bangun is to be paid for him.

“ If

SUMATRA.

221

<c If an outlaw wounds a person, and is killed in the scuffle, no bangun
is to be paid for him.

fC If the relations harbour an outlaw, they are held willing to redeem
him, and become answerable for his debts.

“ THEFT.

<f A person convicted of theft, pays double the value of the goods stolen, Theft,
with a fine of twenty dollars and a buffalo, if they exceed the value
of five dollars : if under five dollars, the fine is five dollars and a goat;
the value of the goods still doubled.

“ All thefts under five dollars, and all disputes for property, or offences
to that amount, may be compromised by the proattins whose depen-
dants are concerned.

<f Neither assertion, nor oath of the prosecutor, are sufficient for con-
viction, without token (chino) of the robbery, viz. some article re-
covered of the goods stolen ; or evidence sufficient.

<c If any person, having permission to pass the night in the house of
another, shall leave it before day-break, without giving notice to the
family, he shall be held accountable for any thing that may be that
night missing.

“ If a person passing the night in the house of another, does not com-
mit his effects to the charge of the owner of it, the latter is not ac-
countable, if they are stolen during the night. If he has given them
in charge, and the stranger’s effects only are lost during the night, the
owner of the house becomes accountable. If effects both of the owner
and lodger are stolen, each is to make oath to the other that he is not
concerned in the robbery, and the parties put up with their loss, or
retrieve it as they can.

ec Oaths are usually made on the koran, or at the grave of an ancestor,
according as the Mahometan religion prevails more or less. The party
intended to be satisfied by the oath, generally prescribes the mode and
purport of it.

BANGUN.

222

SUMATRA.

Bangun, or
compensa-
tion for
murder.

“ BANGUN.

DOLLARS.

“ The bangun, or compensation for the murder of a pambarab, is 500

Ditto ■ . of an inferior proattin 250

Ditto of a common person — man or boy 80

Ditto ditto . . . Avoman or girl 150

Ditto . of the legitimate children or wife of a pambarab 250
Exclusive of the abo\re, a fine of fifty dollars and a buffalo, as tippong
bumi (expiation), is to be paid on the murder of a pambarab ; of
twenty dollars and a buffalo, on the murder of any other ; which goes
to the pambarab and proattins.

“ The bangun of an outlaw is fifty dollars, Avithout tippong bumi.

“ No bangun is to be paid for a person killed in the commission of a
robbery.

C£ The bangun of pambarabs and proattins is to be divided betAveen the
pangeran and pambarabs, one half ; and the family of the deceased,
the other half.

££ The bangun of private persons is to be paid to their families; de-
ducting the adat ulasan of ten per cent, to the pambarabs and pro-
attins.

<( If a man kills his slave, he pays half his price, as bangun , to the pang-
eran, and the tippong bumi to the proattins.

“ If a man kills his wife by jujur, lie pays her bangun to her family, or
to the proattins, accoiding as the tali kulo subsists or not.

££ If a man kills or wounds his wife by semando, he pays the same as for
a stranger.

C£ If a man wounds his wife by jujur, slightly, he pays one tail or two
dollars.

££ If a man wounds his wife by jujur, with a weapon, and an apparent
intention of killing her, he pays a fine of twenty dollars.

££ If the tali kulo (tie of relationship) is broken, the wife’s family can no
longer claim bangun or fine : they revert to the proattins.

“ If a pambarab wounds his wife by jujur, he pays five dollars and a
goat.

££ If a pambarab’s daughter, married by jujur , is wounded by her hus-
band, he pays five dollars and a goat.

For

SUMATRA.

“ For a wound occasioning the loss of an eye or limb, or imminent dan-
ger of death, half the bangun is to be paid.

“ For a wound on the head, the pampas, or compensation, is twenty
dollars.

“ For other wounds, the pampas from twenty dollars downwards.

" If a person is carried off and sold beyond the hills, the offender, if
convicted, must pay the bangun. If the person has been recovered
previous to the trial, the offender pays half the bangun.

“ If a man kills his brother, he pays to the proattins the tippong bumi.

“ If a wife kills her husband, she must suffer death.

“ If a wife by semando wounds her husband, her relations must pay
what they would receive if he wounded her.

“ DEBTS AND CREDITS.

“ On the death of a person in debt (unless he die an outlaw, or married Debts,
by ambel-anak ) his nearest relation becomes accountable to the cre-
ditors.

“ Of a person married by ambel-anak , the family he married into is an-
swerable for debts contracted during the marriage : such as were pre-
vious to it, his relations must pay.

“ A father, or head of a family, has hitherto been in all cases liable to
the debts of his sons, or younger relations under his care ; but to pre-
vent as much as possible his suffering by their extravagance, it is now
resolved —

“ That if a young, unmarried man ( bujang ) borrows money, or pur-
chases goods without the concurrence of his father, or of the head of
his family, the parent shall not be answerable for the debt. Should
the son use his father’s name in borrowing, it shall be at the lender’s
risk, if the father disavows it.

“ If any person gives credit to the debtor of another (publicly known as
such, either in the state of mengiring, when the whole of his labour
belongs to the creditor, or of be-blah , when it is divided) the latter
creditor can neither disturb the debtor for the sum, nor oblige the
former to pay it. He must either pay the first debt ( membulati , con-
solidate).

224

SUMATRA.

solidate), or let his claim lie over till the debtor finds means to dis-
charge it.

“ Interest of money has hitherto been three fanams per dollar per
month, or one hundred and fifty per cent, per annum. It is now
reduced to one fanam , or fifty per cent, per annum, and no person is
to receive more, under penalty of fine, according to the circumstances
of the case.

“ No more than double the principal can in any case be recovered at
law. A person lending money at interest, and letting it lie over be-
yond two years, loses the surplus.

“ No pepper planter to be taken as a debtor mengiring, under penalty
of forty dollars.

“ A planter in debt may engage in any work for hire that does not inter-
fere with the care of his garden, but must on no account mengiring ,
even though his creditor offers to become answerable for the care of
his garden.

u If a debtor mengiring absconds from his master (or creditor, who has a
right to his personal service) without leave of absence, he is liable to
an increase of debt, at the rate of three fanams per day. Females
have been hitherto charged six fanams, but are now put upon a
footing the same as the men.

“ If a debtor mengiring, without security, runs away, his debt is liable
to be doubled if he is absent above a week.

“ If a man takes a person mengiring, without security for the debt,
should the debtor die in that predicament, the creditor loses his mo-
ney, having no claim on the relations for it.

« If a person takes up money, under promise of mengiring at a certain
period, should he not perform his agreement, he must pay interest for
the money, at one fanam per dollar per month.

“ If a person, security for another, is obliged to pay the debt, he is en-
titled to demand double from the debtor but this claim to be mode-
rated according to circumstances.

“ If a person sues for a debt which is denied, the onus proband i lies with
the plaintiff. If he fails in proof, the defendant, on making oath to
the justness of his denial, shall be acquitted.

“ If

SUMATRA.

225

“ If a debtor taking care of a pepper garden, or one that gives half pro-
duce to his creditor ( be-blah ), neglects it, the person in whose debt he
is, must hire a man to do the necessary work ; and the hire so paid
shall be added to the debt. Previous notice shall, however, be given to
the debtor, that he may, if he pleases, avoid the payment of the hire,
by doing the work himself.

“ If a person’s slave, or debtor mengiring, be carried off, and sold be-
yond the hills, the offender is liable to the bangun, if a debtor, or to
his price, if a slave. Should the person be recovered, the offender is
liable to a fine of forty dollars, of which the person that recovers him
has half, and the owner or creditor, the remainder. If the offender be
not secured, the reward shall be only five dollars to the person that
brings the slave, and three dollars the debtor, if on this side the hills ;
if from beyond the hills, the reward is doubled.

“ marriage.

The modes of marriage prevailing hitherto, have been principally by Lawsregpd-
jujur, or by ambel-anak j the Malay semando being little used. The b ar
obvious ill consequences of the two former, from the debt or slavery
they entailed upon the man that married, and the endless lawsuits
they gave rise to, have at length induced the chiefs to concur in their
being, as far as possible, laid aside ; adopting in lieu of them, the
semando malayo , or mardiko ; which they now strongly recommend to
their dependants, as free from the incumbrances of the other modes,
and tending, by facilitating marriage, and the consequent increase of
population, to promote the welfare of their country. Unwilling,
however, to abolish arbitrarily a favourite custom of their ancestors,
marriage by jujur is still permitted to take place, but under such re-
strictions as will, it is hoped, effectually counteract its hitherto per-
nicious consequences. Marriage by ambel-anak, which rendered a
man and his descendants the property of the family he married into,
is now prohibited, and none permitted for the future, but by semando,
or jujur, subject to the following regulations.

“ The jujur of a virgin ( gadis ) has been hitherto one hundred and

2 G twenty

S U M A T R A.

twenty dollars : the adat annexed to it, have been tulis tanggil, fifteen
dollars ; upah daiin kodo, six dollars, and tali kido, five dollars :

“ The jujur of a widow, eighty dollars, without the adat ,• unless her
children by the former marriage went with her, in which case the
jujur gad is was paid in full.

C( It is now determined, that on a man’s giving his daughter in mar-
riage, by jujur , for the future, there shall, in lieu of the above, be
fixed a sum not exceeding one hundred and fifty dollars, to be in full
for jujur and all adat whatever. That this sum shall, when the mar-
riage takes place, be paid upon the spot ; that if credit is given for
the whole, or any part, it shall not be recoverable by course of law ;
and as the sum includes the tali kido, or bond of relationship, the wife
thereby becomes the absolute property of the husband. The marriage
by jujur being thus rendered equivalent to actual sale, and the difficulty
enhanced by the necessity of paying the full price upon the spot, it is
probable, that the custom will in a great measure cease, and though
not positively, be virtually abolished. Nor can a lawsuit follow from
any future jujur.

“ The adat , or custom, of the semando malayo or mardiko, to be paid by
the husband to the wife’s family upon the marriage taking place, is
fixed at twenty dollars and a buffalo, for such as can afford it ; and at
ten dollars and a goat, for the poorer class of people.

“ Whatever may be acquired by either party during the subsistence of
the marriage, becomes joint property, and they are jointly liable to
debts incurred, if by mutual consent. Should either contract debts
without the knowledge and consent of the other, the party that con-
tracts, must alone bear them, in case of a divorce.

“ If either party insists upon, or both agree in it, a divorce must follow.
No other power can separate them. The effects, debts, and credits,
in all cases to be equally divided. If the man insists upon the di-
vorce, he pays a charo of twenty dollars to the wife’s family, if he
obtained her a virgin; if a widow, ten dollars. If the woman insists
on the divorce, no charo is to be paid. If both agree in it, the man
pays half the charo.

“ If a man married by semando dies — Vide <c Inheritance.”

SUMATRA.

22?

“ If a man carries oft’ a woman with her consent, and is willing either
to pay her price at once b y jujur, or marry her by semando, as the fa-
ther or relations please, they cannot reclaim the woman, and the mar-
riage takes place.

“ If a man carries off a girl under age, (which is determined by her not
having her ears bored, and teeth filed — bulum bertlnde berdabong)
though with her own consent, he pays, exclusive of the adat jujur, or
semando , twenty dollars, if she be the daughter of a pambarab ; and
ten dollars for the daughter of any other, whether the marriage takes
place or not.

“ If a risau , or person without property and character, carries off a wo-
man (though with her own consent) and can neither pay the jujur,
nor adat semando, the marriage shall not take place, but the man be
fined five dollars and a goat for misdemeanour. If she be under age,
his fine ten dollars and a goat.

“ If a man has but one daughter, whom, to keep her near him, he wishes
to give in marriage by semando ; should a man carry her off, he shall
not be allowed to keep her by jujur , though he offer the money
upon the spot. If he refuses to marry her by semando, no marriage
takes place, and he incurs a fine to the father of ten dollars and a
goat.

“ If a man carries off a woman under pretence of marriage, he must
lodge her immediately with some reputable family. If he carries her
elsewhere, for a single night, he incurs a fine of fifty dollars, payable
to her parents or relations.

“ If a man carries off a virgin against her inclination (me-ulih) he incurs
a fine of twenty dollars and a buffalo : if a widow, ten dollars and a
goat, and the marriage does not take place. If he commits a rape,
and the parents do not chuse to give her to him in marriage, he incurs
a fine of fifty dollars.

“ The adat Fibei, or custom of giving one woman in exchange for
another taken in marriage, being a modification of the jujur , is still
admitted of; but if the one be not deemed an equivalent for the other,
the necessary compensation (as the pangalappang , for nonage) must be
paid upon the spot, or it is not recoverable by course of law. If a
virgin is carried off (te-lari gadis) and another is given in exchange for

2 G 2 her>

228

SUMATRA. •

her, by adat libei, twelve dollars must be paid with the latter, as adat
ka-salah.

“ A man married by ambel-anak, may redeem himself and family, on
payment of the jujur and adat of a virgin before-mentioned.

cc The charo of a jujur marriage is twenty-five dollars. If the jujur be
not yet paid in full, and the man insists on a divorce, he receives back
what he has paid, ]p« twenty-five dollars. If the woman insists, no
charo can be claimed by her relations. If the tali kulo is putus (bro-
ken) the wife is the husband’s property, and he may sell her if he
pleases.

ce If a man compels a female debtor of his to cohabit with him, her
debt, if the fact be proved, is thereby discharged, if forty dollars
and upwards : if under forty, the debt is cleared, and he pays the
difference. If she accuses her master, falsely, of this offence, her
debt is doubled. If he cohabits with her by her consent, her parents
may compel him to marry her, either by jujur or semando , as they
please.

" If an unmarried woman proves with child, the man against whom the
fact is proved, must marry her ; and they pay to the proattins a joint
fine of twenty dollars and a buffalo. This fine, if the parties agree to
it, may be levied in the country by the neighbouring proattins (with-
out bringing it before the regular court).

c< If a woman proves with child by a relation within the prohibited de-
grees, they pay to the proattins a joint fine of twice fifty dollars, and
two buffaloes ( hukum duo akup).

“ A marriage must not take place between relations, within the third
degree, or tungal ncne. But there are exceptions for the descendants
of females, who passing into other families become as strangers. Of
two brothers, the children may not intermarry. A sister’s son may
marry a brother’s daughter; but a brother’s son maj not marry a sister’s
daughter.

“ If relations within the prohibited degrees intermarry, they incur a
fine of twice fifty dollars and two buffaloes, and the marriage is not
valid.

“ On the death of a man married by jujur or purchase, any of his
brothers, the eldest in preference, if he pleases, may succeed to his

bed.

SUMATRA.

229

bed. If no brother chases it, they may give the woman in marriage
to any relation on the father’s side, without adat; the person who
marries her replacing the deceased ( mangabalu ). If no relation takes
her, and she is given in marriage to a stranger, he may be either
adopted into the family, to replace the deceased, without adat, or
he may pay her jujur, or take her by semando, as her relations please.

" If a person lies with a man’s wife, by force, he is deserving of death ;
but may redeem his head by payment of the baiigun, eighty dollars, to
be divided between the husband and proattins.

“ If a man surprises his wife in the act of adultery, he may put both
man and woman to death upon the spot, without being liable to any
baiigun. If he kills the man and spares his wife, he must redeem her
life, by payment of fifty dollars to the proattins. If the husband
spares the offender, or has only information of the fact from other
persons, he may not afterwards kill him, but has his remedy at law,
the fine for adultery being fifty dollars, to be divided between the hus-
band and the proattins. If he divorces his wife on this account, he
pays no charo.

“ If a younger sister be first married, the husband pays six dollars, adat
pelalu, for passing over the elder.

“ GAMING.

“ All gaming, except cock-fighting at stated periods, is absolutely pro- Gaming,
hibited. The fine for each offence is fifty dollars. The person in
whose house it is carried on, if with his knowledge, is equally liable
to the fine with the gamesters. A proattin knowing of gaming in
his dusun , and concealing it, incurs a fine of twenty dollars. One
half of the fines goes to the informer ; the other to the Company, to be
distributed among the industrious planters, at the yearly payment of
the customs.

“ OPIUM FARM.

** The fine for the retailing of opium by any other than the person who Opium.

farms

c230

SUMATRA.

farms the license, is fifty dollars for each offence: one half to the
farmer, and the other to the informer.

“ The executive power for enforcing obedience to these laws and cus-
toms, and for preserving the peace of the country, is, with the con-
currence of the pangeran and proattins, vested in the Company’s Re-
sident.

“ Done at Laye, in the month Rabia-al akhir, in the year of the
Hejra 1193, answering to April 1779.

<c John MarsdeN, Resident.”

Laws or Adat Having procured likewise a copy of the regulations sanctioned by the
chiefs of the Passummah country assembled at Manna, I do not hesitate
to insert it, not only as varying in many circumstances from the pre-
ceding, but because it may eventually prove useful to record the docu-
ment.

“ INHERITANCE.

inheritance. “ If a person dies, having children, these inherit his effects in equal por-
tions, and become answerable for the debts of the deceased. If any
of his brothers survive, they may be permitted to share with their ne-
phews, but rather as matter of courtesy than of right, and only when
the effects of the deceased devolved to him from his father or grand-
father. If he was a man of rank, it is common for the son who suc-
ceeds him in title to have a larger share. This succession is not con-
fined to the eldest born, but depends much on private agreement in
the family. If the deceased person leaves no kindred behind him, the
tribe to which he belonged shall inherit his effects, and be answerable
for his debts.

“ DEBTS.

Debts. “ When a debt becomes due, and the debtor is unable to pay his cre-
ditors.

Executive

power.

SUMATRA.

231

ditors, or has no effects to deposit, he shall himself, or his wife, or his
children, live with the creditor as a bond-slave or slaves, until redeemed
by the payment of the debt.

<f If a debt is contracted without any promise of interest, none shall be
demanded, although the debt be not paid until some time after it first
became due. The rate of interest is settled at twenty per cent, per
annum ; but in all suits relating to debts on interest, how long soever
they may have been outstanding, the creditor shall not be entitled to
more interest than may amount to a sum equal to the capital : if the
debt is recent, it shall be calculated as above. If any person lends to
another a sum exceeding twenty-five dollars, and sues for payment
before the chiefs, he shall be entitled only to one year’s interest on the
sum lent. If money is lent to the owner of a paoh'-plantation, on an
agreement to pay interest in grain, and after the harvest is over the
borrower omits to pay the stipulated quantity, the lender shall be en-
titled to receive at the rate of fifteen dollars for ten lent ; and if the
omission should be repeated another season, the lender shall be entitled
to receive double the principal. In all cases of debt contested, the
onus probandi lies with the demandant, who must make good his claim
by creditable evidence, or in default thereof, the respondent may by
oath clear himself from the debt. On the other hand, if the respond-
ent allows such a debt to have existed, but asserts a previous payment,
it rests with him to prove such payment by proper evidence, or in de-
fect, the demandant shall by oath establish his debt.

“ EVIDENCE AND OATHS.

“ In order to be deemed a competent and unexceptionable evidence, a Evidence,
person must be of a different family and dnsun from the person in whose
behalf he gives evidence, of good character, and a free man : but if
the dispute be between two inhabitants of the same dnsun , persons of
such dusun are allowed to be complete evidence. In respect to the
oath taken by the principals in a dispute, th ehu/cuman (or comprehen-
sive quality of the oath) depends on the nature of the property in dis-
pute: if it relates to the effects of the grandfather, the hukuman must
extend to the descendants from the grandfather ; if it relates to the

effects

232

SUMATRA.

effects of the father, it extends to the descendants of the father, &c.
If any of the parties proposed to be included in the operation of the
oath refuse to subject themselves to the oath, the principal in the suit
loses his cause.

“ PAWNS OR PLEDGES.

Pawns. “ If any person holding a pawn or pledge, such as wearing-apparel,
household effects, or krises, swords, or kujur (lances), shall pledge it
for a larger sum than he advanced for it, be shall be answerable to the
owner for the full value of it, on payment of the sum originally advanc-
ed. If any person holding as a pledge, man, woman, or child, shall
pledge them to any other at an advanced sum, or without the know-
ledge of the owner, and by these means the person pledged should be
sold as a slave, he shall make good to the owner the full value of such
slave, and pay a fine of twenty-eight dollars. If any person whatever,
holding man, woman, or child, as a pawn, either with janji lalu (term
expired) or not, or with or without the consent of the original owner,
shall sell such person as a slave without the knowledge of the Resident
and Chiefs, he shall be fined twenty-eight dollars.

“ BUFFALOES.

Cattle. “ All persons who keep buffaloes shall register at the godo?ig (factory-
house) their ting a s or mark ; and, in case any dispute shall arise about a
marked buffalo, no person shall be allowed to plead a mark that is not
registered. If any wild (stray) buffalo or buffaloes, unmarked, shall
be taken in a kandang (staked inclosure) they shall be adjudged the
property of any who takes upon himself to swear to them ; and if it
should happen that two or more persons insist upon swearing to the
same buffaloes, they shall be divided among them equally. If no
individual will swear to the property, the buffaloes are to be con-
sidered as belonging to the kalippah or magistrate of the district where
they were caught. The person who takes any buffaloes in his kan-
dang shall be entitled to a gratuity of two dollars per head. If any
buffaloes get into a pepper-garden, either by day or night, the owner

SUMATRA.

233

of the garden shall have liberty to kill them, without being answerable
to the owner of the buffaloes : yet, if it shall appear on examination
that the garden was not properly fenced, and from this defect suffers
damage, the owner shall be liable to such fine as the Resident and
Chiefs shall judge it proper to impose.

“ THEFT.

“ A person convicted of stealing money, wearing-apparel, household ef- Theft,
fects, arms, or the like, shall pay the owner double the value of the
goods stolen, and be fined twenty-eight dollars. A person convicted
of stealing slaves, shall pay to the owner at the rate of eighty dollars
per head, which is estimated to be double the value, and fined twenty-
eight dollars. A person convicted of stealing betel, fowls, or coconuts,
shall pay the owner double the value, and be fined seven dollars; half
of wdiich fine is to be received by the owner. If buffaloes are stolen,
they shall be valued at twelve dollars per head : padi at four bakid
(baskets) for the dollar. If the stolen goods be found in the possession
of a person who is not able to account satisfactorily how he came by
them, he shall be deemed the guilty person. If a person attempting
to seize a man in the act of thieving, shall get hold of any part of his
clothes which are known, or his kris or sizvah, this shall be deemed a
sufficient token of the theft. If two witnesses can be found who saw
the stolen goods in possession of a third person, such person shall be
deemed guilty, unless he can account satisfactorily how he became
possessed of the goods. The oath taken by such witnesses shall either
include the descendants of their father, or simply their own descend-
ants, according to the discretion of the chiefs who sit as judges. If
several people sleep in one house, and one of them leaves the house in
the night without giving notice to any of the rest, and a robberv be
committed in the house that night, the person so leaving the house
shall be deemed guilty of the crime, provided the owner of the stolen
goods be willing to subject himself to an oath on the occasion ; and
provided the other persons sleeping in the house shall clear themselves
by oath from being concerned in the theft: but if it should happen
that a person so convicted, being really innocent, should in after time

2 H discover

234

SUMATRA.

Murder.

discover the person actually guilty, he shall have liberty to bring his
suit and recover. If several persons are sleeping in a house, and a rob-
bery is committed that night, although none leave the house, the
whole shall be obliged to make oath that they had no knowledge of,
or concern in, the theft, or on refusal shall be deemed guilty. In
all cases of theft where only a part of the stolen goods is found, the
owner must ascertain upon oath the whole amount of his loss.

“ MURDER, WOUNDING, AND ASSAULT.

“ A person convicted of murder shall pay to the relations of the deceased
a bangun of eighty-eight dollars, one suku, and seventy-five cash ; to
the chiefs a fine of twenty-eight dollars ; the bhasa lurah , which is
a buffalo and one hundred bamboos of rice; and the palantan, which
is fourteen dollars. If a son kills his father, or a father his son, or a
man kills his brother, he shall pay a fine of twenty-eight dollars, and
the bhasa lurah as above. If a man kills his wife, the relations of the
deceased shall receive half a bangun: if any other kills a man’s wife,
the husband is entitled to the bangun , but shall pay out of it, to the
relations of the wife, ten dollars. In wounds a distinction is made in
the parts of the body. A wound in any part from the hips upward,
is esteemed more considerable than in the lower parts. If a person
wounds another with sword, kris, kujur, or other weapon, and the
wound is considerable, so as to maim him, he shall pay to the person
wounded a hd\i-bangun, and to the chiefs, half of the fine for murder,
with half of the bhasa lurah, &c. If the wound is trifling, but fetches
blood, he shall pay the person wounded the tepong of fourteen dollars,
and be fined fourteen dollars. If a person wounds another with a
stick, bamboo, &c. he shall simply pay the tepong of fourteen dollars.
If in any dispute between two people krises are drawn, the person who
first drew his kris shall be fined fourteen dollars. If any person hav-
ing a dispute assembles together his friends with arms, he shall be fined
twenty-eight dollars.

MARRIAGE,

SUMATRA.

235

“ MARRIAGE, DIVORCE, &C.

“ There are two modes of marriage used here : one by purchase, called Marriage.
jujur or kulu, the other by adoption, called ambel anak. First of
jujur.

“ When a person is desirous of marrying, he deposits a sum of money jujnr.
in the hands of the father of the virgin, which is called the pagatan.

This sum is not esteemed part of the purchase, but as an equivalent
for the dandanan (paraphernalia, or ornamental apparel) of the bride,
and is not fixed, but varies according to the circumstances and rank
of the father. The amount of the jujur is fixed at seventy dollars, in-
cluding the hump niawa (price of life), forty dollars, a kris with gold
about the head and silver about the sheath, valued at ten dollars, and
the meniudakan billi or putus kulo (completion of purchase) at twenty.

If a young man runs away with a gadis or virgin, without the consent
of the father, he does not act contrary to the laws of the country ; but
if he refuses to pay the full jujur on demand, he shall be fined twenty-
eight dollars. If the father, having received the pagatan of one man,
marries his daughter to another before he returns the money to the
first, he shall be fined fourteen dollars, and the man who marries the
daughter shall also be fined fourteen dollars. In case of divorce (which
may take place at the will of either party) the dandanan brought by
the wife is to be valued and to be deducted from the purchase-money.

If a divorce originates from the man, and before the whole purchase-
money is paid, the man shall recfeive back what he has advanced,
after deducting the dandanan as above, and fourteen dollars, called
penusutan. If the divorce originates with the woman, the whole pur-
chase-money shall be returned, and the children, if any, remain with
the father. If a divorce originates with the man, when the whole
purchase-money has been paid, or kulo sudah putus, he shall not be en-
titled to receive back the purchase-money, but may recal his wife
whenever it shall be agreeable to him. An exact estimation is made
of the value of the woman’s ornaments, and what are not restored with
her, must be made good by the husband. If there are children, they
are in this case to be divided, or if there be only one, the husband is

2 H 2 to

2 J(i

S U M A T R A,

Ambel anak.

to allow the woman fifteen dollars, and to take the child. Secondly,,
of ambel anak.

“ When a man marries after the custom, called ambel anak, he pays no
money to the father of the bride, but becomes one of his family, and
is entirely upon the footing of a son ; the father of his wife being
thenceforward answerable for his debts, &c. in the same manner as
for his own children. The married man becomes entirely separate
from his original family, and gives up his right of inheritance. It is,
however, in the power of the father of the wife to divorce from her his
adopted son whenever he thinks proper, in which case the husband is
not entitled to any of the children, nor to any effects other than sim-
ply the clothes on his back : but if the wife is willing still to live with
him, and he is able to redeem her and the children by paying the fa-
ther an hundred dollars, it is not at the option of the father to refuse
accepting this sum ; and in that case the marriage becomes a kulo or
jujur, and is subject to the same rules. If any unmarried woman is
convicted of incontinence, or a married woman of adultery, they shall
pay to the chiefs a fine of forty dollars, or in defect thereof, become
slaves, and the man with whom the crime was committed shall pay a
fine of thirty dollars, or in like manner become a slave ; and the par-
ties between them shall also be at the expence of a buffalo and an
hundred bamboos of rice. This is called the gawe pati or panjingan.
if an unmarried woman proves with child, and refuses to name the
man with whom she was guilty, she shall pay the whole fine of seventy
dollars, and furnish the buffalo, &c. If a woman after marriage
brings forth a child before the due course of nature, she shall be fined
twenty-eight dollars. If a man keeps a young woman in his house
for any length of time, and has a child by her without being regu-
larly married, he shall be fined twenty-eight dollars, and furnish a
buffalo and an hundred bamboos of rice. If a person detects the of-
fenders in the act of adultery, and attempting to seize the man, is
obliged to kill him in self-defence, he shall not pay the ban gun, nor
be fined, but only pay the bhasa lurah, which is a buffalo and an
hundred bamboos of rice. On the other hand, if the guilty person
kills the one who attempts to seize him, he shall be deemed guilty of
murder, and pay the baiigun and fine accordingly. If a man holding

a woman

SUMATRA.

237

a woman as a pawn, or in the condition of mengiring shall commit
fornication with her, he shall forfeit his claim to the debt, and the
woman become free.

cc OUTLAWRY.

“ If the members of afamily have suffered inconvenience from the ill con-
duct of any of their relations, by having been rendered answerable for their
debts, &c. it shall be in their power to clear themselves from all future
responsibility on his account by paying to the chiefs the sum of thirty
dollars, a buffalo, and an hundred bamboos of rice. This is termed buang
surat. Should the person so cast out be afterwards murdered, the re-
lations have forfeited their right to the bangun, which devolves to the
chiefs.

“ Dated at Manna , July 1807.

“ John Crisp, Resident.”

Outlawry.

Remarks

238

SUMATRA.

Remarks on
the forego-
ing laws.

Mode of
pleading.

Remarks on, and elucidation of, the various Laws and Customs — Modes of
Pleading — Nature of Evidence — Oaths — Inheritance — Outlawry — Theft,
Murder, and compensation for it — Account of a Feud — Debts — Slavery.

XHE foregoing system of the adat, or customs of the country, being
digested chiefly for the use of the natives, or of persons well acquainted
with their manners in general, and being designed, not for an illustra-
tion of the customs, but simply as a standard of right, the fewest and
concisest terms possible have been made use of, and many parts must
necessarily be obscure to the bulk of readers. I shall, therefore, revert
to those particulars that may require explanation, and endeavour to
throw a light upon the spirit and operation of such of their laws espe-
cially, as seem most to clash with our ideas of distributive justice. This
comment is the more requisite, as it appears that some of their regula-
tions, which were judged to be inconsistent with the prosperity of the
people, were altered and amended, through the more enlightened reason
of the persons who acted as the representatives of the English company j
and it may be proper to recal the idea of the original institutions.

The plaintiff and defendant usually plead their own cause, but if cir-
cumstances render them unequal to it, they are allowed to pinjam mulut,
(borrow a mouth). Their advocate may be a proattin , or other person
indifferently ; nor is there any stated compensation for the assistance,
though, if the cause be gained, a gratuity is generally given, and too
apt to be rapaciously exacted by these chiefs from their clients, when
their conduct is not attentively watched. The proattin also, who is se-
curity for the damages, receives privately some consideration ; but none
is openly allowed of. A refusal on his part to become security for his
dependant or client, is held to justify the latter in renouncing his civil
dependance, and chusing another patron.

Evidence

SUMATRA.

239

Evidence is used among these people in a manner very different from Evidence,
the forms of our courts of justice. They rarely admit it on both sides of
the question ; nor does the witness first make a general oath to speak
the truth, and nothing but the truth. When a fact is to be established,
either on the part of the plaintiff, or of the defendant, he is asked if he
can produce any evidence to the truth of what he asserts. On answering
in the affirmative, he is directed to mention the person. This witness
must not be a relation, a party concerned, nor even belong to the same
dusnn. He must be a responsible man, having a family, and a deter-
minate place of residence. Thus qualified, his evidence may be ad-
mitted. They have a settled rule in respect to the party that is to pro-
duce evidence. For instance ; A. sues B. for a debt : B. denies the
debt : A. is now to bring evidence to the debt, or, on failure thereof, it
remains with B. to clear himself of the debt, by swearing himself not
indebted. Had B. acknowledged that such a debt had formerly sub-
sisted, but was since paid, it would be incumbent on B. to prove the
payment by evidence, or on failure it would rest with A. to confirm the
debt’s being still due, by his oath. This is an invariable mode, observed
in all cases of property.

As their manner of giving evidence differs from ours, so also does the Oath.».
nature of an oath among them differ from our idea of it. In many cases
it is requisite that they should swear to what it is not possible in the na-
ture of things they should know to be true. A. sues B. for a debt due
from the father or grandfather of B. to the father or grandfather of A.

The original parties are dead, and no witness of the transaction sur-
vives. How is the matter to be decided ? It remains with B. to make
oath, that his father or grandfather never was indebted to those of A. •
or that it he was indebted, the debt had been paid. This, among us,
would be esteemed a very strange method of deciding causes j but among
these people, something of the kind is absolutely necessary. As they
have no sort ot written accounts, nor any thing like records or registers
among them, it would he utterly impossible for the plaintiff to establish
the debt, by a positive proof, in a multitude of cases j and were the suit
to be dismissed at once, as with us, for want of such proof, numbers
of innocent persons would lose the debts really due to them, through

the

240

SUMATRA.

the knavery of the persons indebted, who would scarce ever fail to deny
a debt. On the side of the defendant again ; if he was not permitted
to clear himself of the debt by oath, but that it rested with the plaintiff
only, to establish the fact by a single oath, there would be a set of un-
principled fellows daily swearing debts against persons who never were
indebted to any of their generation. In such suits, and there are many
of them, it requires no small discernment to discover, by the attendant
circumstances, where the truth lies ; but this may be done, in most in-
stances, by a person who is used to their manners, and has a personal
knowledge of the parties concerned. But what they mean by their
oath, in those cases, where it is impossible they should be acquainted
with the facts they design to prove, is no more than this ; that they are
so convinced of the truth of the matter, as to be willing to subject them-
selves to the paju sumpah (destructive consequences of perjury) if what
they assert is believed by them to be false. The form of words used is
nearly as follows : “ If what I now declare, namely” (here the fact is
recited) “ is truly and really so, may I be freed and clear from my oath :
if what I assert is wittingly false, may my oath be the cause of my de-
struction.” But it may be easily supposed, that where the punishment
for a false oath rests altogether with the invisible powers, where no di-
rect infamy, no corporal punishment is annexed to the perjury, there
cannot fail to be many, who would viakan sumpah (swallow an oath),
and willingly incur the guilt, in order to acquire a little of their neigh-
bour’s property.

Although an oath, as being an appeal to the superior powers, is suppos-
ed to come within their cognizance alone, and that it is contrary to
the spirit of the customs of these people, to punish a perjury by human
means, even if it were clearly detected j yet, so far prevalent is the
opinion of their interposition in human affairs, that it is verv seldom
any man of substance, or who has a family that he fears may suffer bv
it, will venture to forswear himself ; nor are there wanting apparent ex-
amples to confirm them in this notion. Any accident that happens to
a man, who has been known to take a false oath, or to his children or
grandchildren, is carefully recorded in memory, and attributed to this
sole cause. The dupati of Gunong Selong and his family have afforded an

instance

SUMATRA.

241

instance that is often quoted among the Rejangs, and has evidently had
great weight. It was notorious, that he had, about the year 1770, taken
in the most solemn manner, a false oath. He had at that time five sons
grown up to manhood. One of them, soon after, in a scuffle with some
bug is (country soldiers) was wounded, and died. The dupati , the
next year, lost his life in the issue of a disturbance he had raised in the
district. Two of the sons died afterwards, within a week of each other.
Mas Kaddah, the fourth, is blind; and Treman , the fifth, lame. All
this is attributed to, and firmly believed to be the consequence of, the
father’s perjury.

In administering an oath, if the matter litigated respects the property
of the grandfather, all the collateral branches of the family descended
from him, are understood to be included in its operation : if the father’s
effects only are concerned, or the transaction happened in his life time,
his descendants are included : if the affair regards only the present
parties, and originated with them, they and their immediate descend-
ants only, are comprehended in -the consequences of the oath ; and if
any single one of these descendants refuses to join in the oath, it vitiates
the whole ; that is, it has the same effect, as if the party himself refused
to swear ; a case that not unfrequently occurs. It may be observed that
the spirit of this custom tends to the requiring a weight of evidence, and
an increase of the importance of the oath, in proportion as the distance
of time renders the fact to be established less capable of proof in the
ordinary way.

Sometimes the difficulty of the case alone, will induce the court to
insist on administering the oath to the relations of the parties, although
they are nowise concerned in the transaction. I recollect an instance
where three people were prosecuted for a theft. There was no positive
proof against them, yet the circumstances were so strong, that it appeared
proper to put them to the test of one of these collateral oaths. They
were all willing, and two of them swore. When it came to the turn of
the third, he could not persuade his relations to join with him, and lie
was accordingly brought in for the whole amount of the goods stolen,
and penalties annexed.

2 I

Collateral

oaths.

These

SUMATRA.

442

These customs bear a strong resemblance to the rules of proof esta-
blished among our ancestors, the Anglo-Saxons, who were likewise oblig-
ed, in the case of oaths taken for the purpose of exculpation, to produce
a certain number of compurgators ; but, as these might be any indif-
ferent persons, who would take upon them to bear testimony to the
truth of what their neighbour swore, from an opinion of his veracity,
there seems to be more refinement, and more knowledge of human na-
ture in the Sumatran practice. The idea of devoting to destruction, by
a wilful perjury, not himself only, but all, even the remotest branches
of a family which constitutes his greatest pride, and of which the de-
ceased heads are regarded with the veneration that was paid to the dii
lares of the antients, has doubtless restrained many a man from taking
a false oath, who, without much compunction, would suffer thirty or an
hundred compurgators of the former description to take their chance
of that fate. Their strongest prejudices are here converted to the most
beneficial purposes.

Ceremony The place of greatest solemnity for administering an oath, is the
an^ath.5 krammat or burying ground of their ancestors, and several superstitious
ceremonies are observed on the occasion. The people near the sea-coast,
in general, by long intercourse with the Malays, have an idea of the
Koran, and usually employ this in swearing, which the priests do not
fail to make them pay for ; but the inland people keep, laid up in their
houses, certain old reliques, called in the Rejang language pesakko, and
in Malayan, sactian, which they produce when an oath is to be taken.
The person who has lost his cause, and with whom it commonly rests to
bind his adversary by an oath, often desires two or three days’ time, to
get ready these his swearing apparatus, called on such occasions sumpa-
han, of which some are looked upon as more sacred, and of greater effi-
cacy than others. They consist of an old rusty kris, a broken gun
barrel, or any antient trumpery, to which chance or caprice has annexed
an idea of extraordinary virtue. These they generally dip in water, which
the person who swears drinks off, after having pronounced the form of
words before-mentioned.* Th e pangeran of Snngei-layno has by him cer-
tain

” The form of taking an oath among the people of Madagascar very nearly resembles the
ceremonies used by the Sumatrans. There is a strong similarity in the articles they swear
on, and in the circumstance of their drinking the consecrated water.

SUMATRA.

24.3

tain copper bullets, which had been steeped in water, drunk by the Sungei-
etam chiefs, when they bound themselves never to molest his districts :
which they have only done since, as often as they could venture it with
safety, from the relaxation of our government. But these were political
oaths. The most ordinary sumpalian is a kris, and on the blade of this
they sometimes drop lime-juice, which occasions a stain on the lips of
the person performing the ceremony ; a circumstance that may not im-
probably be supposed to make an impression on a weak and guilty mind.
Such would fancy that the external stain conveyed to the beholders au
image of the internal. At Manna the sumpahan most respected is a gun
barrel. When produced to be sworn on, it is carried to the spot in
state, under an umbrella, and wrapt in silk. This parade has an ad-
vantageous effect, by influencing the mind of the party, with an high
idea of the importance and solemnity of the business. In England, the
familiarity of the object, and the summary method of administering
oaths, are well known to diminish their weight, and to render them too
often nugatory. They sometimes swear by the earth, laying their hands
upon it, and wishing that it may never produce aught fpr their nou-
rishment, if they speak falsely. In all these ceremonies, they burn on
the spot a little gum benzoin — cc Et acerra thuris plena , positusque carbo
in cespite vivo.”

It is a striking circumstance, that practices which boast so little of
reason in their foundation ; which are in fact so whimsical and childish,
should yet be common to nations, the most remote in situation, climate,
language, complexion, character, and every thing that can distinguish
one race of people from another. Formed of like materials, and furnish-
ed with like original sentiments, the uncivilized tribes of Europe and of
India, trembled from the same apprehensions, excited by similar ideas,
at a time when they were ignorant, or even denied the possibility of each
other’s existence. Mutual wrong and animosity, attended with disputes
and accusations, are not by nature confined to either description of
people. Each, in doubtful litigations, might seek to prove their inno-
cence, by braving, on the justice of their cause, those objects which in-
spired amongst their countrymen, the greatest terrour. The Sumatran,
impressed with an idea of invisible powers, but not of his own immor-

2 I 2 tality,

244

SUMATRA.

Inheritance.

tality, regards with awe the supposed instruments of their agency, and
swears on / 'crises , bullets, and gun barrels ; weapons of personal destruc-
tion. The German Christian of the seventh century, more indifferent
to the perils of this life, but not less superstitious, swore on bits of rotten
wood, and rusty nails, which he was taught to revere, as possessing
efficacy to secure him from eternal perdition.

When a man dies, his effects, in common course, descend to his male
children in equal shares; but if one among them is remarkable for his
abilities above the rest, though not the eldest, he usually obtains the
largest proportion, and becomes the head of the tungguan or house ; the
others voluntarily yielding him the superiority. A pangeran of Manna
left several children ; none of them succeeded to the title, but a name
of distinction was given to one of the younger, who was looked upon as
chief of the family, after the father’s decease. Upon asking the eldest
how it happened that the name of distinction passed over him, and was
conferred on his younger brother, he answered with great naivete, “ be-
cause I am accounted weak and silly.” If no male children are left, and
a daughter only remains, they contrive to get her married by the mode
of ambel anak , and thus the tungguan of the father continues. An equal
distribution of property among children is more natural, and conform-
able to justice, than vesting the whole in the eldest son, as prevails
throughout most part of Europe ; but where wealth consists in landed
estate, the latter mode, beside favouring the pride of family, is attended
with fewest inconveniences. The property of the Sumatrans being per-
sonal merely, this reason does not operate with them. Land is so abund-
ant in proportion to the population, that they scarcely consider it as the
subject of right, any more than the elements of air and water; excepting
so far as in speculation the prince lays claim to the whole. The ground,
however, on which a man plants or builds, with the consent of his neigh-
bours, becomes a species of nominal property, and is transferable ; but
as it costs him nothing, beside his labour, it is only the produce which
is esteemed of value, and the compensation he receives is for this alone.
A temporary usufruct is accordingly all that they attend to, and the
price, in case of sale, is generally ascertained by the coconut, durian,
and other fruit trees, that have been planted on it ; the buildings being

for

SUMATRA.

245

for the most part but little durable. Whilst any of those subsist, the
descendants of the planter may claim the ground, though it has been for
years abandoned. If they are cut down, he may recover damages ; but
if they have disappeared in the course of nature, the land reverts to the
public.

They have a custom of keeping by them a sum of money, as a re-
source against extremity of distress, and which common exigencies do
not call forth. This is a refined antidote against despair, because, whilst
it remains possible to avoid encroaching on that treasure, their affairs
are not at the worst, and the idea of the little hoard serves to buoy up
their spirits, and encourage them to struggle with wretchedness. It
usually, therefore, continues inviolate, and descends to the heir, or is lost
to him by the sudden exit of the parent. From their apprehension of
dishonesty, and insecurity of their houses, their money is for the most
part concealed in the ground, the cavity of an old beam, or other secret
place; and a man, on his death-bed, has commonly some important dis-
covery of this nature to make to his assembled relations.

The practice of outlawing an individual of a family by the head of it
(called lepas or buang daiigan surat, to Jet loose, or cast out with a writ-
ing) has its foundation in the custom which obliges all the branches to
be responsible for the debts contracted by any one of the kindred. When
an extravagant and unprincipled spendthrift is running a career that ap-
pears likely to involve his family in ruinous consequences, they have the
right of dissolving the connexion, and clearing themselves of further re-
sponsibility, by this public act, which, as the writ expresses it, sends
forth the outcast, as a deer into the woods, no longer to be considered as
enjoying the privileges of society. This character is what they term
risau , though it is sometimes applied to persons not absolutely outlawed,
but of debauched and irregular manners.

In the Saxon law we find a strong resemblance to this custom ; the
kindred of a murderer being exempt from the feud, if they abandoned
him to his fate. 1 hey bound themselves in this case neither to converse
with him, nor to furnish him with meat or other necessaries. This is

precisely

Outlawry.

346

SUMATRA.

precisely the Sumatran outlawry, in which it is always particularly spe-
cified (beside what relates to common debts) that if the outlaw kills a
person, the relations shall not pay the compensation, nor claim it if he
is killed. But the writ must have been issued before the event, and they
cannot free themselves by a subsequent process, as it would seem the
Saxons might. If an outlaw commits murder, the friends of the de-
ceased may take personal revenge on him, and are not liable to be called
to an account for it ; but if such be killed, otherwise than in satisfaction
for murder, although his family have no claim, the prince of the country
is entitled to a certain compensation, all outlaws being nominally his pro-
perty, like other wild animals.

Compensation It seems strange to those who are accustomed to the severity of penal
for murder.,. .... . . ,

laws, which in most instances inflict punishment exceeding by many de-
grees the measure of the offence, how a society can exist, in which the
greatest of all crimes is, agreeably to established custom, expiated by the
payment of a certain sum of money; a sum not proportioned to the rank
and ability of the murderer, nor to the premeditation, or other aggravat-
ing circumstances of the fact, but regulated only by the quality of the
person murdered. The practice had doubtless its source in the imbecility
of government, which being unable to enforce the law of retaliation, the
most obvious rule of punishment, had recourse to a milder scheme of re-
tribution, as being preferable to absolute indemnity. The latter it was
competent to carry into execution, because the guilty persons readily
submit to a penalty which effectually relieves them from the burthen of
anxiety for the consequences of their action. Instances occur in the
history of all states, particularly those which suffer from internal weak-
ness, of iniquities going unpunished, owing to the rigour of the pains de-
nounced against them by the law, which defeats its own purpose. The
original mode of avenging a murder, was probably by the arm of the
person nearest in consanguinity, or friendship, to the deceased ; but this
was evidently destructive of the public tranquillity, because thereby the
wrong became progressive, each act of satisfaction, or justice, as it was
called, being the source of a new revenge, till the feud became general in
the community ; and some method would naturally be suggested to put a
stop to such confusion. The most direct step is to vest in the magistrate

SUMATRA.

247

or the law the rights of the injured party, and to arm them with a vin-
dictive power ; which principle, the policy of more civilized societies
has refined to that of making examples in terrorem , with a view of pre-
venting future, not of revenging past crimes. But this requires a firm-
ness of authority to which the Sumatran governments are strangers.
They are without coercive power, and the submission of the people is
little other than voluntary ; especially of the men of influence, who are
held in subjection rather by the sense of general utility planted in the
breast of mankind, attachment to their family and connexions, and
veneration for the spot in which their ancestors were interred, than by the
apprehension of any superior authority. These considerations, however,
they would readily forego, renounce their fealty, and quit their country,
if in any case they were in danger of paying with life, the forfeit of their
crimes; to lesser punishments those ties induce them to submit; and to
strengthen this hold, their customs wisely enjoin that every the remotest
branch of the family shall be responsible for the payment of their ad-
judged and other debts; and in cases of murder, the bangun , or com-
pensation, may be levied on the inhabitants of the village the culprit
belonged to, if it happens that neither he, nor any of his relations can
be found.

The equality of punishment, which allows to the rich man the faculty
of committing, with small inconvenience, crimes that bring utter de-
struction on the poor man and his family, and which is in fact the
greatest inequality, originates certainly from the interested design of those
through whose influence the regulation came to be adopted. Its view was
to establish a subordination of persons. In Europe, the absolute distinc-
tion between rich and poor, though too sensibly felt, is not insisted upon
in speculation, but rather denied or explained away in general reasoning.
Among the Sumatrans it is coolly acknowledged, and a man without
property, family, or connexions, never, in the partiality of self-love,
considers his own life as being of equal value with that of a man of sub-
stance. A maxim, though not the practice, of their law, says, “ that
he who is able to pay the bangun for murder, must satisfy the relations
of the deceased ; he who is unable, must suffer death.” But the avarice
of the relations prefers selling the body of the delinquent tor what his

slavery

248

SUMATRA.

slavery will fetch them (for such is the effect of imposing a penalty that
cannot be paid) to the satisfaction of seeing the murder revenged by the
public execution of a culprit of that mean description. Capital punish-
ments are, therefore, almost totally out of use among them ; and it is
only par la loi du plus fort, that the Europeans take the liberty of hang-
ing a notorious criminal, now and then; whom, however, their own
chiefs always condemn, and formally sentence.

Corporal pu- Corporal punishment of any kind is rare. The chain, and a sort of
rushment. stocks> mac|e 0f the pinang tree, are adopted from us ; the word “ pa-
song ,” now commonly used to denote the latter, originally signifying,
and being still frequently applied to confinement in general. A kind of
cage made use of in the country, is probably their own invention. “ How
do you secure a prisoner, (a man was asked) without employing a chain
or our stocks ?” “ We pen him up,” said he, “ aswe would a bear.”

The cage is made of bamboos laid horizontally, in a square, piled al-
ternately, secured by timbers at the corners, and strongly covered in at
top. To lead a runaway, they fasten a rattan round his neck, and pass-
ing it through a bamboo somewhat longer than his arms, they bring his
hands together and make them fast to the bamboo, in a state rather of
constraint than of pain, which, I believe, never is wantonly or unneces-
sarily inflicted. If the offender is of a desperate character, they bind him
hands and feet, and sling him on a pole. When they would convey a
person, from accident or otherwise unable to walk, they make a palan-
quin by splitting a large bamboo near the middle of its length, where
they contrive to keep it open, so that the cavity forms a bed ; the ends
being preserved whole, to rest upon their shoulders.

)

The custom of exacting the bangun for murder, seems only designed
with a view of making a compensation to the injured family, and not
of punishing the offender. The word signifies tc awaking” or “ raising
up,” and the deceased is supposed to be replaced, or raised again to his
family, in the payment of a sum proportioned to his rank, or equivalent
to his or her personal value. The price of a female slave is generally
more than that of a male, and therefore, I heard a chief say, is the
bangun of a woman more than that of a man. It is upon this principle

that

SUMATRA.

249

that their laws take no cognizance of the distinction between a wilful
murder, and what we term manslaughter. The loss is the same to the
family, and therefore the compensations are alike. A dupati of Laye,
in an ill hour, stept unwarily across the mouth of a cannon, at the instant
it was fired off for a salute, and was killed by the explosion ; upon which
his relations immediately sued the serjeant of the country-guard, who
applied the match, for the recovery of the bangun ; but they were cast,
and upon these grounds ; that the dupati was instrumental in his own
death, and that the Company’s servants being amenable to other laws
for their crimes, were not, by established custom, subject to the bangun
or other penalties inflicted by the native chiefs, for accidents resulting
from the execution of their duty. The tippong bumi , expiation, or pu-
rification of the earth from the stain it has received, was, however, gra-
tuitously paid. No plea was set up, that the action was unpremeditated,
and the event chance-medley.

The introduction of this custom is beyond the extent of Sumatran
tradition, and has no connexion with, or dependance on, Mahometanism,
being established amongst the most inland people from time immemorial.
In early ages it was by no means confined to that part of the world. The
bangun is perfectly the same as the compensation for murder in the rude
institutions of our Saxon ancestors, and other northern nations. It is
the eric of Ireland, and the of the Greeks. In the compartments
of the shield of Achilles, Homer describes the adjudgment of a fine for
homicide. It would seem then to be a natural step in the advances from
anarchy to settled government, and that it can only take place in such
societies as have already a strong idea of the value of personal property ;
who esteem its possession of the next importance to that of life, and
place it in competition with the strongest passion that seizes the human
soul.

The compensation is so regularly established among the Sumatrans,
that any other satisfaction is seldom demanded. In the first heat of
resentment retaliation is sometimes attempted, but the spirit soon eva-
porates, and application is usually made, upon the immediate discovery
of the fact, to the chiefs of the country, for the exertion of their influ-

2 K ence.

250

SUMATRA.

Account of
a feud.

ence, to oblige the criminal to pay the bangun. His death is then
not thought of, unless he is unable, and his family unwilling, to raise
the established sum. Instances, it is true, occur, in which the pro-
secutor knowing the European law in such case, will, from motives of
revenge, urge to the Resident the propriety of executing the offender,
rather than receive the money ; but if the latter is ready to pay it, it
is contrary to their laws to proceed further. The degree of satisfac-
tion that attends the payment of the bangun , is generally considered as
absolute to the parties concerned j they receive it as full compensation,
and pretend to no farther claim upon the murderer and his family.
Slight provocations, however, have been sometimes known to renew
the feud, and there are not wanting instances of a son’s revenging his
father’s murder, and willingly refunding the bangun. When, in an
affray, there happen to be several persons killed on both sides, the bu-
siness of justice is only to state the reciprocal losses, in the form of an
account current, and order the balance to be discharged, if the numbers
be unequal. The following is a relation of the circumstances of one of
these bloody feuds, which happened whilst I was in the island but
which become every year more rare, where the influence of our govern-
ment extends.

Raddin Siban was the head of a tribe in the district of Manm, of
which Pangeran Raja-Kalippah was the official chief ; though by the
customs of the country he had no right of sovereignty over him. The
pangeran' s not allowing him what he thought an adequate share of fines,
and other advantages annexed to his rank, was the foundation of a jea-
lousy and ill will between them, which an event that happened a few
years since, raised to the highest pitch of family feud. Lessut , a younger
brother of the pangeran, had a wife who was very handsome, and whom
Raddin Siban had endeavoured to procure, whilst a virgin, for his younger
brother, who was in love with her: but the pangeran had contrived to
circumvent him, and obtained the girl for Lessut. However, it seems
the lady herself had conceived a violent liking for the brother of Raddin
Siban, who found means to enjoy her after she was married, or was vio-
lently suspected so to have done. The consequence was, that Lessut
killed him, to revenge the dishonour of his bed. Upon this the families

were

SUMATRA.

251

were presently up in arms, but the English Resident interfering, preserved
the peace of the country, and settled the affair agreeably to the customs
of the place, by bangun and fine. But this did not prove sufficient to
extinguish the fury which raged in the hearts of Raddin Siban's family,
whose relation was murdered. It only served to delay the revenge until
a proper opportunity offered of gratifying it. The people of the country
being called together on a particular occasion, the two inimical families
were assembled, at the same time, in Manna bazar. Two younger bro-
thers (they had been five in all) of Raddin Siban , going to the cockpit,
saw Raja Muda the next brother of the pangeran, and Lessut his younger
brother, in the open part of a house which they passed. They quickly
returned, drew their krises, and attacked the pangeran' s brothers, calling
to them, “ if they were men, to defend themselves.” The challenge was
instantly accepted, Lessut, the unfortunate husband, fell; but the aggres-
sors were both killed by Raja Muda, who was himself much wounded.
The affair was almost over before the scuffle was perceived. The bodies
were lying on the ground, and Raja Muda was supporting himself against
a tree which stood near the spot, when Raddin Siban, who was in a house
on the opposite side of the bazar at the time the affray happened, be-
ing made acquainted with the circumstances, came over the way, with
his lance in his hand. He passed on the contrary side of the tree, and
did not see Raja Muda, but began to stab with his weapon the dead body
of Lessut, in excess of rage, on seeing the bloody remains of his two bro-
thers. Just then. Raja Muda , who was half dead, but had his kris
in his hand, still unseen by Raddin Siban, crawled a step or two, and
thrust the weapon into his side, saying “ Matti kau" — “ die thou !”
Raddin Siban spoke not a word, but put his hand on the wound, and
walked across to the house from whence he came, at the door of which
he dropped down and expired. Such was the catastrophe. Raja Muda
survived his wounds, but being much deformed by them, lives a melan-
choly example of the effects of these barbarous feuds.

In cases of theft, the swearing a robbery against a person suspected is
of no effect, and justly, for were it otherwise, nothing would be more
common than the prosecution of innocent persons. The proper proofs

2 K 2

Proof of
theft.

are

252

SUMATRA.

Law respect-
ing debts.

are either, seizure of the person in the fact, before witnesses, or discovery
of the goods stolen, in possession of one who can give no satisfactory
account how he came by them. As it frequently happens that a man
finds part only of what he had lost, it remains with him, when the rob-
bery is proved, to ascertain the whole amount, by oath, which in that
point is held sufficient.

The law which renders all the members of a family reciprocally
bound for the security of each others debts, forms a strong connexion
among them, and occasions the elder branches to be particularly watch-
ful of the conduct of those, for whose imprudence they must be an-
swerable.

When a debtor is unable to pay what he owes, and has no relation or
friends capable of doing it for him j or when the children of a deceased
person do not find property enough to discharge the debts of their parent,
they are forced to the state which is called mengiring, which simply
means to follow or be dependant on, but here implies the becoming
a species of bondslaves to the creditor, who allows them subsistance and
clothing, but does not appropriate the produce of their labour to the
diminution of their debt. Their condition is better than that of pure
slavery, in this, that the creditor cannot strike them, and they can change
their masters, by prevailing on another person to pay their debt, and ac-
cept of their labour on the same terms. Of course they may obtain
their liberty, if they can by any means procure a sum equal to their debt;
whereas a slave, though possessing ever so large property, has not the
right of purchasing his liberty. If, however, the creditor shall demand
formally the amount of his debt, from a person mengiring , at three
several times, allowing a certain number of days between each demand,
and the latter is notable to persuade any one to redeem him, he becomes,
by the custom of the country, a pure slave ; upon the creditor’s giving
notice to the chief, of the transaction. This is the resource he has against
the laziness or untoward behaviour of his debtor, who might otherwise,
in the state of mengiring, be only a burthen to him. If the children of a
deceased debtor are too young to be of service, the charge of their main-
tenance

SUMATRA.

253

tenance is added to the debt. This opens a door for many iniquitous
practices, and it is in the rigorous, and frequently perverted, exertion of
these rights, which a creditor has over his debtor, that the chiefs are
enabled to oppress the lower class of people, and from which abuses the
English Residents find it necessary to be the most watchful to restrain
them. In some cases, one half of the produce of the labour is ap-
plied to the reduction of the debt, and this situation of the insolvent
debtor is termed be-blah. Meranggau is the condition of a married wo-
man who remains as a pledge for a debt in the house of the creditor
of her husband. If any attempt should be made upon her person,
the proof of it annuls the debt 3 but should she bring an accusation
of that nature, and be unable to prove it to the satisfaction of the court,
and the man takes an oath in support of his innocence, the debt must
be immediately paid by the family, or the woman be disposed of as
a slave.

When a man of one district or country has a debt owing to him from
the inhabitant of a neighbouring country, of which he cannot recover
payment, an usual resource is to seize on one or more of his children,
and carry them off; which they call andak. The daughter of a Rejang
dupati was carried off in this manner by the Labun people. Not hear-
ing for some time from her father, she sent him cuttings of her hair and
nails, by which she intimated a resolution of destroying herself, if not
soon released.

The"right of slavery is established in Sumatra, as it is throughout the Slavery.
East, and has been all over the world ; yet but few instances occur of
the country people actually having slaves ; though they are common
enough in the Malayan, or sea-port towns. Their domestics and la-
bourers are either dependant relations, or the orang mengiring above
described, who are usually called debtors ; but should be distinguished
by the term of insolvent debtors. The simple manners of the people
require that their servants should live, in a great measure, on a footing
of equality with the rest of the family, which is inconsistent with the
authority necessary to be maintained over slaves, who have no principle

254

S U M A T R A.

to restrain them but that of personal fear,1 and know that their civil
condition cannot be altered for the worse. There is this advantage,
also, that when a debtor absconds, they have recourse to his relations
for the amount of his debt, who, if unable to pay it, must mengiring
in his room; whereas, when a slave makes his escape, the law can give
no redress, and his value is lost to the owner. These people, moreover,
are from habit, backward to strike, and the state of slavery unhappily
requires the frequent, infliction of punishment in that mode. A slave
cannot possess, independently, any property ; yet it rarely happens that
a master is found mean and sordid enough to despoil them of the fruits
of their industry ; and their liberty is generally granted them, when in
a condition to purchase it, though they cannot demand it of right.
It is nothing uncommon for those belonging to the Europeans, to pos-
sess slaves of their own, and to acquire considerable substance. Their
condition is here, for the most part, less unhappy than that of persons
in other situations of life. I am far from wishing to diminish the hor-
rour that should ever accompany the general idea of a state, which,
whilst it degrades the species, I am convinced is not necessary among
mankind ; but I cannot help remarking, as an extraordinary fact, that
if there is one class of people eminently happy above all others upon
earth, it is the body of Caffres, or negro slaves belonging to the India
Company at Bencoolen. They are well clothed and fed, and supplied
with a proper allowance of liquor ; their work is by no means severe ;
the persons appointed as their immediate overseers, are chosen, for their
merit, from amongst themselves ; they have no occasion of care or
anxiety for the past or future, and are naturally of a lively and open

temper.

* I do not mean to assert, that all men in the condition of slaves are devoid of principle :
I have experienced the contrary, and found in them affection and strict honesty : but that
there does not result from their situation, as slaves, any principle of moral rectitude ;
whereas every other condition of society has annexed to it, ideas of duty and mutual ob-
ligation, arising from a sense of general utility. That sublime species of morality derived
from the injunctions of religion, it is almost universally their fate to be likewise strangers to;
because slavery is found inconsistent with the spirit of the gospel, not merely as inculcating
phdanthropy, but inspiring a principle of equality amongst mankind.

SUMATRA.

255

temper. The contemplation of the effects which such advantages pro-
duce, must afford the highest gratification to a benevolent mind. They
are usually seen laughing or singing whilst at work, and the intervals
allowed them are mostly employed in dancing to their rude instrumental
music, which frequently begins at sun-set, and ceases only with the
day-light, that recals them to their labour. Since they were first car-
ried thither, from different parts of Africa and Madagascar, to the
present hour, not so much as the rumour of disturbance or discontent
has ever been known to proceed from them. They hold the natives of
the island in contempt, have a degree of antipathy towards them, and
enjoy any mischief they can do them ; and these in their turn regard the
Cajfres as devils half humanized.

The practice said to prevail elsewhere, of men selling themselves for
slaves, is repugnant to the customs of the Sumatrans, as it seems to rea-
son. It is an absurdity to barter any thing valuable, much more civil
existence, for a sum which, by the very act of receiving, becomes again
the property of the buyer. Yet, if a man runs in debt, without a pros-
pect of paying, he does virtually the same thing, and this, in cases of
distress, is not uncommon ; in order to relieve, perhaps, a beloved wife,
or favourite child, from similar bondage. A man has even been known
to apply in confidence to a friend, to sell him to a third person, conceal-
ing from the purchaser the nature of the transaction till the money was
appropriated.

Ignorant stragglers are often picked up in the country, by lawless
knaves in power, and sold beyond the hills. These have sometimes pro-
cured their liberty again, and prosecuting their kidnappers, have reco-
vered large damages. In the district of Allas, a custom prevails, by
which, if a man has been sold to the hill people, however unfairly, he is
restricted on his return from associating with his countrymen, as their
equal, unless he brings with him a sum of money, and pays a fine for his
re-enfranchisement, to his kalippah or chief. This regulation has taken
its rise from an idea of contamination, among the people, and from art
and avarice among the chiefs.

Modes

256

SUMATRA.

Motives for
altering
some of
their mar-
riage cus-
toms.

Reasons
against this
alteration.

Modes of Marriage, and Customs relative thereto — Polygamy — Festivals —
Games — Cock-fighting — Use and effects of Opium.

BY much the greater number of the legal disputes, among these people,
have their source in the intricacy attending their marriage contracts. In
most uncivilized countries these matters are very simple, the dictates of
nature being obeyed, or the calls of appetite satisfied, with little cere-
mony, or form of convention; but with the Sumatrans, the difficulties,
both precedent and subsequent, are increased to a degree unknown even
in the most refined states. To remedy these inconveniences, which might
be supposed to deter men from engaging in marriage, was the view of
the Resident of Laye, beforementioned, who prevailed upon them to
simplify their engagements, as the means of preventing litigation between
families, and of increasing the population of the country. How far his
liberal views will be answered, by having thus influenced the people to
change their customs; whether they will not soon relapse into the an-
cient track ; and whether, in fact, the cause that he supposed, did ac-
tually contribute to retard population, I shall not pretend to determine ;
but as the last is a point on which a difference of opinion prevails, I shall
take the liberty of quoting here, the sentiments of another servant of the
Company (the late Mr. John Crisp) who possessed an understanding
highly enlightened.

<c This part of the island is in a low state of population, but it is an
error to ascribe this to the mode of obtaining wives by purchase. The /
circumstance of children constituting part of the property of the parents,
proves a most powerful incentive to matrimony, and there is not, per-
haps, any country on the face of the earth, where marriage is more ge-
neral than here, instances of persons of either sex passing their lives in a
state of celibacy, being extremely rare. The necessity of purchasing does
not prove such an obstacle to matrimony, as is supposed. Was it indeed

true

SUMATRA.

25?

true that every man was obliged to remain single, till he had accumu-
lated, from the produce of his pepper-garden, a sum adequate to the
purchase of a wife, married pairs would truly be scarce. But the people
have other resources ; there are few families who are not in possession
of some small substance ; they breed goats and buffaloes, and in general
keep in reserve some small sum for particular purposes. The purchase-
money of the daughter serves also to provide wives for the sons. Certain
it is, that the fathers are rarely at a loss for money to procure them
wives, so soon as they become marriageable. In the districts under my
charge are about eight thousand inhabitants, among whom I do not
conceive it would be possible to find ten instances of men of the age of
' thirty years unmarried. We must then seek for other causes of the
paucity of inhabitants, and indeed they are sufficiently obvious; among
these, we may reckon that the women are by nature unprolific, and
cease gestation at an early age; that, almost totally unskilled in the me-
dical art, numbers fall victims to the endemic diseases of a climate, nearly
as fatal to its indigenous inhabitants, as to the strangers who settle among
them : to which we may add, that the indolence and inactivity of the
natives, tend to relax and enervate the bodily frame, and to abridge the
natural period of their lives.”

The modes of marriage, according to the original institutions of these
people, are by jujur, by ambel anak, or by semando. The jujur is a
certain sum of money, given by one man to another, as a consideration
for the person of his daughter, whose situation, in this case, differs not
much from that of a slave to the man she marries, and to his family. His
absolute property in her depends, however, upon some nice circumstances.
Beside the batang jujur (or main sum), there are certain appendages or
branches, one of which, the tali kulo , of five dollars, is usually, from
motives of delicacy or friendship, left unpaid, and so long as that is
the case, a relationship is understood to subsist between the two families,
and the parents of the woman have a right to interfere on occasions of
ill treatment : the husband is also liable to be fined for wounding her;
with other limitations of absolute right. When that sum is finally paid,
which seldom happens but in cases of violent quarrel, the tali kulo (tie
of relationship) is said to be putus (broken), and the woman becomes

2 L to

Modes of
marriage.

258

S U M A T R A.

to all intents the slave of her lord.* She has then no title to claim a di-
vorce in any predicament; and he may sell her, making only the first
offer to her relations. The other appendages, as already mentioned, are
the tulis tanggil (the meaning of which I cannot satisfactorily ascertain,
this and many other of the legal terms being in the Rejang or the Pas-
summah and not the Malayan language) and the upah daan kodo, which
is a consideration for the expence of the marriage feast, paid to the girl’s
parent, who provides it. But sometimes it is deposited at the wedding,
when a distribution is made of it amongst the old people present. The
words allude to the leaf in which the rice is served up. These additional
sums are seldom paid or claimed, before the principal is defrayed, of
which a large proportion, as fifty, eighty, and sometimes an hundred
and four dollars, is laid down at the time of marriage, or in the first visit
(after the parties are determined in their regards) made by the father of
the young man, or the bujang himself, to the father of the woman. Upon
opening his design this money is tendered as a present, and the other’s
acceptance of it is a token that he is inclined to forward the match. It
lies often in his hands three, six, or twelve months before the marriage
is consummated. He sometimes sends for more, and is seldom refused.
Until at least fifty dollars are thus deposited, the man cannot take his
wife home; but so long as the matter continues dalam rasa-an (under

consideration)

a I cannot omit to remark here, that however apposite the word tali, which in Malayan
signifies a cord, may be to the subject of the marriage tie, there is very strong evidence of
the term, as applied to this ceremony, having been adopted from the customs of the Hindu
inhabitants of the peninsula of India, in whose language it has a different meaning. Among
others who have described their rites is M. Sonnerat. In speaking of the mode of marriage
called j variant, which, like the jajur, “ n’est autre chose qu’un achat que le mari fait de sa
femme,” he says, “ le mari doit aussi fournir le tali, petit joyau d’ or, qu’il attache avec
un cordon au col de la fille; c’est la derniere ceremonie ; elle donne la sanction au marriage,
qui ne peut plus etre rompu des que le tali est attache.” Voyage aux Indes, &c. tom. 1. p.
70. The reader will also find the Sumatran mode of marriage by ambel anak, or adoption,
exactly described at p. 72. An engraving of the tali is given by P. Paolino, Systema Brah-
inanicum, tab. xxii. This resemblance is not confined to the rites of marriage, for it is
remarked by Sir W. Jones that, “ among the laws of the Sumatrans two positive rules con-
cern ng sureties and interest appear to be taken word for word from the Indian legislators.”
A«. Res. Vol. III. p. 9.

S UMATR A.

2.59

consideration) it would be deemed scandalous in the father to listen to
any other proposals. When there is a difficulty in producing the neces-
sary sum, it is not uncommon to resort to an expedient termed mengir-
ing jujur , that is, to continue a debtor with the family until he can raise
money sufficient to redeem himself; and after this, long credit is usu-
ally given for the remainder. Years often elapse, if the families con-
tinue on good terms, without the debt being demanded, particularly
when an hundred and four dollars have been paid, unless distress obliges
them to it. Sometimes it remains unadjusted to the second and third
generation, and it is not uncommon to see a man suing for the jujur of the
sister of his grandfather. These debts constitute, in fact, the chief part
of their substance ; and a person is esteemed rich who has several of
them due to him, for his daughters, sisters, aunts, and great aunts.
Debts of this nature are looked upon as sacred, and are scarcely ever
lost. In Passummah, if the race of a man is extinct, and some of these
remain unpaid, the dusun or village to which the family belonged, must
make it good to the creditor ; but this is not insisted upon amongst the
Rejangs.

In lieu of paying the jujur, a barter transaction, called libei, some-
times takes place, where one gadis (virgin) is given in exchange for
another; and it is not unusual to borrow a girl for this purpose, from a
friend or relation, the borrower binding himself to replace her, or pay
her jujur , when required. A man who has a son and daughter, gives
the latter in exchange for a wife to the former. The person who receives
her, disposes of her as his own child, or marries her himself. A brother
will give his sister in exchange for a wife, or, in default of such, procure
a cousin for the purpose. If the girl given in exchange be under age, a
certain allowance per annum is made, till she becomes marriageable.
Beguppok is a mode of marriage differing a little from the common jujur,
and, probably, only taking place where a parent wants to get off a
child labouring under some infirmity or defect. A certain sum is in this
case fixed, below the usual custom, which, when paid, is in full for her
value, without any appendages. In other cases likewise, the jujur is
sometimes lessened, and sometimes increased, by mutual agreement ;

' but on trials it is always estimated at an hundred and twenty dollars. If

2 L 2 a wife

260

SUMATRA.

a wife dies soon after marriage, or at any time without children, the
full jujur cannot be claimed ; it is reduced to eighty dollars ; but should
more than that have been laid down in the interim, there is no refund-
ing. The jujur of a widow, which is generally eighty dollars, without
appendages, is again reduced upon a third marriage, allowances being
made for dilapidation. A widow, being with child, cannot marry again
till she is delivered, without incurring a penalty. In divorces it is the
same. If there be no appearance of pregnancy, she must yet abstain
from making another choice, during the period of three months and ten
days.

When the relations and friends of the man go in form to the parents
of the girl to settle the terms of the marriage, they pay at that time
the adat. besasala, or earnest, of six dollars generally ; and these kill a
goat or a few fowls to entertain them. It is usually some space of time
(except in cases of telari gadis or elopement) after the payment of the
besasala, before the wedding takes place ; but, when the father has re-
ceived that, he cannot give his daughter to any other person, without
incurring a fine; which the young lady sometimes renders him liable
to ; for whilst the old folk are planning a match by patutan, or regular
agreement between families, it frequently happens that miss disappears
with a more favoured swain, and secures a match of her own choice.
The practice styled telari gadis , is not the least common way of de-
termining a marriage, and from a spirit of indulgence and humanity,
which few codes can boast, has the sanction of the laws. The father
has only the power left, of dictating the mode of marriage, but cannot
take his daughter away, if the lover is willing to comply with the cus-
tom in such cases. The girl must be lodged, unviolated, in the house
of some respectable family, till the relations are advised of the enleve-
ment, and settle the terms. If, however, upon immediate pursuit, they
are overtaken on the road, she may be forced back, but not after she has
taken sanctuary.

By the Mosaic law, if a man left a widow, without children, his bro-
ther was to marry her. Among the Sumatrans, with or without chil-
dren, the brother, or nearest male relation of the deceased, unmarried,

(the

SUMATRA.

2()1

(the father excepted) takes the widow. This is practised both by Malays
and country people. The brother, in taking the widow to himself, be-
comes answerable for what may remain due of her purchase money, and
in every respect represents the deceased. This is phrased ganti tikar
bantal'nia — supplying his place on his mat and pillow.

Chastity prevails more, perhaps, among these than any other people. Chastity of

J r r , the women

It is so materially the interest ot the parents to preserve the virtue ot
their daughters unsullied, as they constitute the chief of their substance,
that they are particularly watchful in this respect. But as marriages in
general do not take place so early as the forwardness of nature in that
climate would admit, it will sometimes happen, notwithstanding their
precaution, that a young woman, not chusing to wait her father’s plea-
sure, tastes the fruit by stealth. When this is discovered, he can oblige
the man to marry her, and pay the jujur ; or, if he chuses to keep
his daughter, the seducer must make good the difference he has occa-
sioned in her value, and also pay the fine, called tippong bumi, for re-
moving the stain from the earth. Prostitution for hire is, I think, un-
known in the country, and confined to the more polite bazars, where
there is usually a concourse of sailors and others, who have no honest
settlement of their own, and whom, therefore, it is impossible to re-
strain from promiscuous concubinage. At these places, vice generally
reigns in a degree proportioned to the number and variety of people of
different nations who inhabit them, or occasionally resort thither. From
the scenes which these sea-ports present, travellers too commonly form
their judgment, and imprudently take upon them to draw, for the in-
formation of the world, a picture of the manners of a people.

The different species of horrid and disgustful crimes, which are em-
phatically denominated, against nature, are unknown on Sumatra j nor
have any of their languages terms to express such ideas.

Incest, or the intermarriage of persons within a certain degree of con- incest,
sanguinity, which is, perhaps, (at least after the first degree) rather an
offence against the institutions of human prudence, than a natural crime,
is forbidden by their customs, and punishable by fine : yet the guilt is

often

262

Adultery.

Divorces.

Second mode
of marriage.

S U M A T R A.

often expiated by a ceremony, and the marriages, in many instances,
confirmed.

Adultery is punishable by fine ; but the crime is rare, and suits on the
subject still less frequent. The husband, it is probable, either conceals
his shame, or revenges it with his own hand.

If a man would divorce a wife he has married by jujur , he may
claim back what he has paid in part, less twenty-five dollars, the adat
charo, for the damage he has done her; but if he has paid the jujur
in full, the relations may chuse whether they will receive her or not ;
if not, he may sell her. If a man has paid part of a jujur, but can-
not raise the remainder, though repeatedly dunned for it, the parents
of the girl may obtain a divorce ; but if it is not with the husband's
concurrence, they lose the advantage of the charo , and must refund
all they have received. A woman married by jujur must bring with
her, effects to the amount of ten dollars, or, if not, it is deducted from
the sum ; if she brings more, the husband is accountable for the dif-
ference. The original ceremony of divorce consists in cutting a rattan-
cane in two, in presence of the parties, their relations, and the chiefs
of the country.

In the mode of marriage by ambel anak, the father of a virgin makes
choice of some young man for her husband, generally from an inferior
family, which renounces all further right to, or interest in, him, and he
is taken into the house of his father-in-law, who kills a buffalo on the
occasion, and receives twenty dollars from the son’s relations. After this,
the buruk baik'nia (the good and bad of him) is vested in the wife’s fa-
mily. If he murders or robs, they pay the bangun , or the fine. If
he is murdered, they receive the bangun. They are liable to any debts
he may contract after marriage ; those prior to it remaining with his pa-
rents. He lives in the family, in a state between that of a son and a
debtor. He partakes as a son of what the house affords, but has no pro-
perty in himself. His rice plantation, the produce of his pepper garden,
with every thing that he can gain or earn, belong to the family. He
is liable to be divorced at their pleasure, and though he has children,

must

SUMATRA.

263

must leave all, and return naked as he came. The family sometimes
indulge him with leave to remove to a house of his own, and take his
wife with him ; but he, his children, and effects, are still their property.

If he has not daughters by the marriage, he may redeem himself and
wife, by paying her jujur ; but if there are daughters before they be-
come emancipated, the difficulty is enhanced, because the family are
likewise entitled to their value. It is common, however, when they are
upon good terms, to release him, on the payment of one jujur, or at
most with the addition of an adat of fifty dollars. With this addition,
he may insist upon a release, whilst his daughters are not marriageable.

If the family have paid any debts for him, he must also make them good.

Should he contract more than they approve of, and they fear his adding
to them, they procure a divorce, and send him back to his parents; but
must pay his debts to that time. If he is a notorious spendthrift, they
outlaw him, by means of a writ presented to the magistrate. These are
inscribed on slips of bamboo with a sharp instrument, and I have several
of them in my possession. They must banish him from home, and if
they receive him again, or assist him with the smallest sum, they are
liable to all his debts. On the prodigal son’s return, and assurance of
amendment, this writ may be redeemed, on payment of five dollars to
the proattins, and satisfying the creditors. This kind of marriage is pro-
ductive of much confusion, for till the time it takes place, the young
man belongs to one dusun and family, and afterwards to another, and as
they have no records to refer to, there is great uncertainty in settling
the time when debts were contracted, and the like. Sometimes the
redemption of the family, and their return to the former dusun, take
place in the second or third generation ; and in many cases it is doubtful
whether they ever took place or not ; the two parties contradicting each
other, and, perhaps, no evidence to refer to. Hence arise various and
intricate bechars.

Besides the modes of marriage above described, a third form, called Third, or
semando, has been adopted from the Malays, and thence termed semando moEf
malayo or mardika (free). This marriage is a regular treaty between marnase
the parties, on the footing of equality. The adat paid to the girl’s

friends

264

SUMATRA.

friends has usually been twelve dollars. The agreement stipulates, that
all effects, gains, or earnings, are to be equally the property of both,
and, in case of divorce by mutual consent, the stock, debts, and credits,
are to be equally divided. If the man only insists on the divorce, he
gives the woman her half of the effects, and loses the twelve dollars he
has paid. If the woman only claims the divorce, she forfeits her right
to the proportion of the effects, but is entitled to keep her tikar, bantal,
and dandan (paraphernalia), and her relations are liable to pay back the
twelve dollars ; but it is seldom demanded. This mode, doubtless the most
conformable to our ideas of conjugal right and felicity, is that which the
chiefs of the Rejang country have formally consented to establish through-
out their jurisdiction, and to their orders the influence of the Malayan
priests will contribute to give efficacy.

In the ambel anak marriage, according to the institutions of Passum -
mah, when the father resolves to dismiss the husband of his daughter,
and send him back to his da sun , the sum for which he can redeem his
wife and family is an hundred dollars : and if he can raise that, and the
woman is willing to go with him, the father cannot refuse them • and
now the affair is changed into a kulo marriage ; the man returns to his
former tungguan (settlement or family), and becomes of more consequence
in society. These people are no strangers to that sentiment which we
call a regard to family. There are some families among them more es-
teemed than others, though not graced with any title or employment in
the state. The origin of this distinction it is difficult to trace ; but it
may have arisen from a succession of men of abilities, or from the re-
putation for wisdom or valour of some ancestor. Every one has a regard
to his race ; and the probability of its being extinct is esteemed a great
unhappiness. This is what they call tungguan putus, and the expression
is used by the lowest member of the community. To have a wife, a
family, collateral relations, and a settled place of residence, is to have
a tungguan, and this they are anxious to support and perpetuate. It
is with this view, that when a single female only remains of a family,
they marry her by ambel anak ; in which mode the husband’s con-
sequence is lost in the wife’s, and in her children the tungguan of her

father

SUMATRA.

26.5

father is continued. They find her a husband that will menegga tung-
guan, or, as it is expressed amongst the Rejangs menegga rumah, set up
the house again.

The semando marriage is little known in P assummah. I recollect that
a pangeran of Manna having lost a son by a marriage of this kind with a
Malay woman, she refused, upon the father’s death, to let the boy suc-
ceed to his dignities, and at the same time become answerable for his
debts, and carried him with her from the country ; which was produc-
tive of much confusion. The regulations there in respect to incontinence
have much severity, and fall particularly hard on the girl’s father, who
not only has his daughter spoiled, but must also pay largely for her
frailty. To the northward, the offence is not punished with so much
rigour, yet the instances are there said to be rarer, and marriage is more
usually the consequence. In other respects, the customs of P assummah
and Rejang are the same in these matters.

The rites of marriage, nikah, (from the Arabian) consist simply in
joining the hands of the parties, and pronouncing them man and wife,
without much ceremony, excepting the entertainment which is given
on the occasion. This is performed by one of the fathers, or the chief
of the dusun, according to the original customs of the country ; but
where Mahometanism has found its way, a priest or imam executes the
business.

But little apparent courtship precedes their marriages. Their man-
ners do not admit of it : the bujang and gadis (youth of each sex) be-
ing carefully kept asunder, and the latter seldom trusted from under the
wing of their mothers. Besides, courtship, with us, includes the idea
of humble entreaty on the man’s side, and favour and condescension on
the part of the woman, who bestows person and property for love. The
Sumatran, on the contrary, when he fixes his choice, and pays all that he
is worth, for the object of it, may naturally consider the obligation on
his side. But still, they are not without gallantry. They preserve a
degree of delicacy and respect towards the sex, which might justify their

2 M retorting

Rites of mar-
riage.

Courtship.

266

SUMATRA.

Marriage

festivals.

Order ob-
served.

retorting on many of the polished nations of antiquity, the epithet of
barbarians. The opportunities which the young people have, of seeing
and conversing with each other, are at the bimbangs, or public festivals,
held at the balei, or town-hall of the dusun. On these occasions, the
unmarried people meet together, and dance and sing in company. It
may be supposed that the young ladies cannot be long without their par-
ticular admirers. The men, when determined in their regards, generally
employ an old woman as their agent, by whom they make known their
sentiments, and send presents to the female of their choice. The parents
then interfere, and the preliminaries being settled, a bimbang takes
place. At these festivals, a goat, a buffalo, or several, according to the
rank of the parties, are killed, to entertain, not only the relations and in-
vited guests, but all the inhabitants of the neighbouring country who
chuse to repair to them. The greater the concourse, the more is the
credit of the host, who is generally, on these occasions, the father of the
girl ; but the different branches of the family, and frequently all the peo-
ple of the dusun, contribute a quota of rice.

The young women proceed in a body to the upper end of the balei ,
where there is a part divided off for them, by a curtain. The floor is
spread with their best mats, and the sides and ceiling of that extremity
of the building are hung with pieces of chintz, palampores, and the
like. They do not always make their appearance before dinner ; that
time, with part of the afternoon, previous to a second or third meal,
being appropriated to cock-fighting, and other diversions peculiar to the
men. Whilst the young are thus employed, the old men consult toge-
ther upon any affair that may be at the time in agitation; such as re-
pairing a public building, or making reprisals upon the cattle of a neigh-
bouring people. The bimbangs are often given on occasions of business
only, and as they are apt to be productive of cabals, the Europeans re-
quire that they shall not be held without their knowledge and approba-
tion. To give authority to their contracts and other deeds, whether of
a public or private nature, they always make one of these feasts. Writ-
ings, say they, may be altered or counterfeited, but the memory of what
is transacted and concluded in the presence of a thousand witnesses,

must

SUMATRA.

267

must remain sacred. Sometimes, in token of the final determination of
an affair, they cut a notch in a post, before the chiefs ; which they call
tako kayu.

In the evening their softer amusements take place ; of which the Amusement

. . of dancing.

dances are the principal. These are performed either singly, or by two
women, two men, or with both mixed. Their motions and attitudes
are usually slow, and too much forced to be graceful ; approaching often
to the lascivious, and not unfrequently the ludicrous. This is, I believe,
the general opinion formed of them by Europeans, but it may be the
effect of prejudice. Certain I am, that our usual dances are, in their
judgment, to the full as ridiculous. The minuets they compare to the
fighting of two game-cocks, alternately approaching and receding. Our
country-dances they esteem too violent and confused, without shewing
grace or agility. The stage dances, I have not a doubt, would please
them. Part of the female dress, called the saiendang, which is usually
of silk, with a gold head, is tied round the waist, and the ends of this,
they, at times, extend behind them with their hands. They bend for-
ward as they dance, and usually carry a fan, which they close and strike
smartly against their elbows, at particular cadences. They keep time
well, and the partners preserve a consistency with each other, though
the figure and steps are ad libitum. A brisker movement is sometimes
adopted, which proves more conformable to the taste of the English
spectators.

Dancing is not the only amusement on these occasions. A gadis
sometimes rises, and leaning her face on her arm, supporting herself
against a pillar, or the shoulder of one of her companions, with her back
to the audience, begins a tender song. She is soon taken up, and an- Singing,
swered, by one of the bujangs in company, whose greatest pretensions to
gallantry and fashion are founded on an adroitness at this polite accom-
plishment. The uniform subject, on such occasions, is love, and as the
words are extempore, there are numberless degrees of merit in the com-
position, which is sometimes surprisingly well turned, quaint, and even
witty. Professed story-tellers are sometimes introduced, who are raised
on a little stage, and during several hours arrest the attention of their

2 M 2 audience,

268

S V M A T R A.

audience, by the relation of wonderful and interesting adventures. There
are also characters of humour amongst them, who, by buffoonery, mi-
micry, punning, repartee, and satire, (rather of the Sardonic kind)
are able to keep the company in laughter, at intervals, during the course
of a night’s entertainment. The assembly seldom breaks up before day-
light, and these bimbangs are often continued for several days and nights
together, till their stock of provisions is exhausted. The young men
frequent them in order to look out for wives, and the lasses of course
Dresses. set themselves off to the best advantage. They wear their best silken
dresses, of their own weaving ; as many ornaments of filigree as they
possess; silver rings upon their arms and legs; and earrings of a particu-
lar construction. Their hair is variously adorned with flowers, and per-
fumed with oil of benzoin. Civet is also in repute, but more used by the
Cosmetic men. To render their skin fine, smooth, and soft, they make use of a

mode of white cosmetic, called pupur. The mode of preparing it is as follows,

pieparing -phe kas;s js fme rjce> which is a long time steeped in water, and let to
ferment, during which process the water becomes of a deep red colour,
and highly putrid, when it is drained off, and fresh added successively
until the water remains clear, and the rice subsides in the form of a fine,
white paste. It is then exposed to the sun to dry, and being reduced to
a powder, they mix with it ginger, the leaves of a plant called by them
dilam, and by Europeans patch-leaf (melissa lotoria,R.), which gives to
it a peculiar smell, and also, as is supposed, a cooling quality. They
add likewise the flowers of th ejagong (maiz) ; kayu chendana (sandal wood);
and the seeds of a plant called there kapas antu (fairy-cotton), which is
the hibiscus abelmoschus, or musk seed. All these ingredients, after
being moistened and well mixed together, are made up into little balls,
and when they would apply the cosmetic, these are diluted with a drop
of water, rubbed between the hands, and then on the face, neck, and
shoulders. They have an apprehension, probably well founded, that
a too abundant or frequent application, will, by stopping the pores of
the skin, bring on a fever. It is used, with good effect, to remove that
troublesome complaint, so well known to Europeans in India, by the
name of the prickly heat; but it is not always safe for strangers thus
to check the operations of nature in a warm climate. The Sumatran
girls, as well as our English maidens, entertain a favourable opinion of

the

S U M A T R A.

26 9

the virtues of morning dew, as a beautifier, and believe that by rubbing
it to the roots of the hair, it will strengthen and thicken it. With
this view they take pains to catch it before sun-rise, in vessels, as it
falls.

If a wedding is the occasion of the bimbang, the couple are married,
perhaps, the second or third day; but it may be two or three more, ere
the husband can get possession of his bride ; the old matrons making it
a rule to prevent him, as long as possible, and the bride herself holding
it a point of honour, to defend to extremity that jewel, which she tvould
yet be disappointed in preserving.1 They sit up in state, at night, on
raised cushions, in their best clothes and trinkets. They are some-
times loaded on the occasion, with all the finery of their relations, or
even the whole dusun and carefully eased of it when the ceremony is
over. But this is not the case with the children of persons of rank. I
remember being present at the marriage of a young woman, whose beauty
would not have disgraced any country, with a son of Raddin , prince of
Madura, to whom the English gave protection from the power of the
Dutch, after his father had fallen a sacrifice.15 She was decked in un-
borrowed plumes. Her dress was eminently calculated to do justice to
a fine person ; her hair, in which consists their chief pride, was disposed
with extreme grace; and an uncommon elegance and taste were dis-
played in the workmanship and adjustment of her ornaments. It must

a It is recorded, that the jealousy between the English and Dutch at Bantam, arose from
a preference shewn to the former by the king, at a festival which he gave upon obtaining a
victory of this nature, which his bride had long disputed with him. For a description of a
Malayan wedding, with an excellent plate representing the conclusion of the ceremony and
the sleeping apartment, I beg to refer the reader to Captain Forrest’s Voyage to New Gui-
nea, p. 286, 4to. edit. The bed-place is described at p. 232, and the processional car ( per -
urakan) at p. 241. His whole account of the domestic manners of the people of Mindanau,
at the court of which he lived on terms of familiarity, will be found highly amusing.

b The circumstances of this disgraceful affair are preserved in a book, entitled “A Voyage
to the East Indies in 1747 and 1748.” This Raddin Taman ggung, a most intelligent and
respectable man, died at Bencoolen in the year 1790. Ilis sons possess the good qualities
of their father, and are employed in the Company’s service.

Consummation
of marriages.

270

SUMATRA.

Number of
wives.

be confessed, however, that this taste is by no means general, especially
amongst the country people. Simplicity, so essential to the idea, is
the characteristic of a rude and quite uncivilized people; and is again
adopted by men in their highest state of refinement. The Sumatrans
stand removed from both these extremes. Rich and splendid articles of
dress and furniture, though not often procured, are the objects of their
vanity and ambition.

The bimbangs are conducted with great decorum and regularity. The
old women are very attentive to the conduct of the girls, and the male
relations are highly jealous of any insults that may be shewn them. A
lad, at one of these entertainments, asked another his opinion of a gadis
who was then dancing. “ If she was plated with gold,” replied he, “ I
would not take her for my concubine, much less for iny wife.” A brother
of the girl happened to be within hearing, and called him to account
for the reflection thrown on his sister. Krises were drawn, but the by-
standers prevented mischief. The brother appeared the next day, to
take the law of the defamer, but the gentleman, being of the risau de-
scription, had absconded, and was not to be found.

The customs of the Sumatrans permit their having as many wives by
jujur, as they can compass the purchase of, or afford to maintain ; but
it is extremely rare that an instance occurs of their having more than
one, and that only among a few of the chiefs. This continence they
in some measure owe to their poverty. The dictates of frugality are
more powerful with them, than the irregular calls of appetite, and make
them decline an indulgence, that their law does not restrain them from.
In talking of polygamy, they allow it to be the privilege of the rich,
but regard it as a refinement which the poor Rejangs cannot pretend
to. Some young risaus have been known to take wives in different
places, but the father of the first, as soon as he hears of the second
marriage, procures a divorce. A man married by semando cannot take
a second wife, without repudiating the first, for this obvious reason,
that two or more persons could not be equally entitled to the half of his
effects.

Montesquieu

SUMATRA.

271

Montesquieu infers, that the law which permits polygamy is physi- Questionof
eally conformable to the climate of Asia. The season of female beauty
precedes that of their reason, and from its prematurity soon decays.

The empire of their charms is short. It is therefore natural, the presi-
dent observes, that a man should leave one wife to take another : that
he should seek a renovation of those charms which had withered in his
possession. Rut are these the real circumstances of polygamy ? Surely
not. It implies the cotemporary enjoyment of women in the same
predicament ; and I should consider it as a vice, that has its source in
the influence of a warm atmosphere upon the passions of men, which,
like the cravings of other disordered appetites, make them miscalculate
their wants. It is, probably, the same influence, on less rigid nerves,
that renders their thirst of revenge so much more violent, than among
northern nations; but we are not, therefore, to pronounce murder to be
physically conformable to a southern climate. Far be it from my in-
tention, however, to put these passions on a level ; I only mean to
shew, that the president’s reasoning proves too much. It must further
be considered, that the genial warmth, which expands the desires of
the men, and prompts a more unlimited exertion of their faculties, does
not inspire their constitutions with proportionate vigour ; but, on the
contrary, renders them, in this respect, inferior to the inhabitants
of the temperate zone ; whilst it equally influences the desires of the
opposite sex, without being found to diminish from their capacity of
enjoyment. From which I would draw this conclusion, that if nature
intended that one woman only should be the companion of one man,
in the colder regions of the earth, it appears also intended, a fortiori,
that the same law should be observed in the hotter ; inferring nature’s
design, not from the desires, but from the abilities with which she has
endowed mankind.

Montesquieu has further suggested, that the inequality in the compa-
rative numbers of each sex born in Asia, which is represented to be
greatly superior on the female side, may have a relation to the law that
allows polygamy. But there is strong reason to deny the reality of this
supposed excess. The Japanese account, taken from Kaempfer, which
makes them to be in the proportion of twenty-two to eighteen, is very

inconclusive,

272

SUMATRA.

inconclusive, as the numbering of the inhabitants of a great city can fur-
nish no propertest ; and the account of births at Bantam , which states
the number of girls to be ten to one boy, is not only manifestly absurd,
but positively false. I can take upon me to assert, that the proportion
of the sexes, throughout Sumatra, does not sensibly differ from that as-
certained in Europe ; nor could I ever learn from the inhabitants of the
many eastern islands whom I have conversed with, that they were con-
scious of any disproportion in this respect.

Connexion But from whatever source we derive polygamy, its prevalence seems
lygamy and to be universally attended with the practice of giving a valuable con-
wives.aSe°f sideration for the woman, instead of receiving a dowry with her. This is
a natural consequence. Where each man endeavours to engross several,
the demand for the commodity, as a merchant would express it, is in-
creased, and the price of course enhanced. In Europe, on the contrary,
where the demand is small ; whether owing to the paucity of males from
continual diminution; their coldness of constitution, which suffers them
rather to play with the sentimental, than act from the animal passion ;
their corruption of manners leading them to promiscuous concubinage;
or, in fine, the extravagant luxury of the times, which too often renders a
family an insupportable burthen;— whatever may be the cause, it becomes
necessary, in order to counteract it, and produce an additional incitement
to the marriage state, that a premium be given with the females. We
find in the history of the earliest ages of the world, that where a plura-
lity of women was allowed of, by law or custom, they were obtained by
money or service. The form of marriage by semando, among the Ma-
lays, which admits but of one partner, requires no sum to be paid by
the husband to the relations of the wife, except a trifle, by way of token,
or to defray the expences of the wedding-feast. The circumstance of the
rejangs confining themselves to one, and at the same time giving a price
for their wives, would seem an exception to the general rule laid down ;
but this is an accidental, and perhaps temporary restraint, arising, it may
be, from the European influence, which tends to make them regular and
industrious, but keeps them poor : affords the means of subsistence to
all, but the opportunity of acquiring riches to few or none. In their ge-
nuine state, war and plunder caused a rapid fluctuation of property ; the

little

SUMATRA.

973

little wealth now among them, derived mostly from the India Company’s
expenditure, circulates through the country in an equal stream, returning
chiefly, like the water exhaled in vapours from the sea, to its original
source. The custom of giving jajurs had most probably its founda-
tion in polygamy; and the superstructure subsists, though its basis is
partly mouldered away ; but being scarcely tenantable, the inhabitants
are inclined to quit, and suffer it to fall to the ground. Moderation in
point of women destroying their principle, the jujurs appear to be de-
void of policy. Open a new spring of luxury, and polygamy, now con-
fined to a few individuals amongst the chiefs, will spread throughout the
people. Beauty will be in high request ; each fair one will be sought
for by many competitors ; and the payment of the jujur be again es-
teemed a reasonable equivalent for possession. Their acknowledging
the custom under the present circumstances to be a prejudicial one, so
contrary to the spirit of eastern manners, which is ever marked with a
blind veneration for the establishments of antiquity, contributes to
strengthen considerably the opinion I have advanced.

Through every rank of the people there prevails a strong spirit of Gaming.
gaming, which is a vice that readily insinuates itself into minds naturally
indisposed to the avocations of industry ; and being in general a seden-
tary occupation, is more adapted to a warm climate, where bodily
exertion is in few instances considered as an amusement. Beside the
common species of gambling with dice, which, from the term dadu ap- Dice,
plied to it, was evidently introduced by the Portuguese, they have several
others; as the judi, a mode of playing with small shells, which are taken Other mode*,
up by handfuls, and being counted out by a given number at a time
(generally that of the party engaged), the success is determined by the
fractional number remaining, the amount of which is previously guessed
at by each of the party. They have also various games on chequered
boards or other delineations, and persons of superior rank are in general
versed in the game of chess, which they term main gajah, or the game Chess,
of the elephant, naming the pieces as follows : king, raja ; queen or
vizir, mantri ; bishop or elephant, gajah; knight or horse, kuda ; cas-
tle, rook, or chariot, ter ; and pawn or foot-soldier, bidak. For check !
they use the word sah ; and for check-mate, mat or mad. Among these

2 N

namess

274

SUMATRA.

Cock-fighting.

Rules of
cocking.

names, the only one that appears to require observation, as being pe-
culiar, is that for the castle or rook, which they have borrowed from the
Tamul language of the peninsula of India, wherein the word ter (answer-
ing to the Sanskrit rat'ha ) signifies a chariot, (particularly such as are
drawn in the processions of certain divinities), and not unaptly trans-
ferred to this military game, to complete the constituent parts of an
army. Gambling, especially with dice, is rigorously forbidden through-
out the pepper districts, because it is not only the child, but the parent of
idleness, and by the events of play often throws whole villages into con-
fusion. Debts contracted on this account are declared to be void.

To cock-fighting they are still more passionately addicted, and it is
indulged to them under certain regulations. Where they are perfectly
independent, their propensity to it is so great, that it resembles rather
a serious occupation, than a sport. You seldom meet a man travelling
in the country, without a cock under his arm, and sometimes fifty per-
sons in a company, when there is a bimbang in one of the neighbouring
villages. A country-man coming down, on any occasion, to the bazar,
or settlement at the mouth of the river, if he boasts the least degree of
spirit, must not be unprovided with this token of it. They often game
high at their meetings ; particularly when a superstitious faith in the
invincibility of their bird has been strengthened by past success. An
hundred Spanish dollars is no very uncommon risk, and instances have
occurred of a father’s staking his children or wife, and a son his mother
or sisters, on the issue of a battle ; when a run of ill luck has stripped
them of property, and rendered them desperate. Quarrels, attended
with dreadful consequences, have often arisen on these occasions.

By their customs, there are four umpires appointed to determine on
all disputed points in the course of the battles; and from their decision
there lies no appeal ; except the Gothic appeal to the sword. A person
who loses, and has not the ability to pay, is immediately proscribed,
departs with disgrace, and is never again suffered to appear at the galan-
gavg. This cannot with propriety be translated, a cock-pit , as it is ge-
nerally a spot on the level ground, or a stage erected, and covered in. It
is inclosed with a railing, which keeps off the spectators ; none but the

. handlers

SUMATRA.

275

handlers and heelers being admitted within side. A man who has an
high opinion of, and regard for his cock, will not fight him under a
certain number of dollars, which he places in order on the floor: his
poorer adversary is perhaps unable to deposit above one half: the stand-
ers-by make up the sum, and receive their dividends in proportion, if
successful. A father, at his death-bed, has been known to desire his son
to take the first opportunity of matching a certain cock, for a sum equal
to his whole property, under a blind conviction of its being betuah, or
invulnerable.

Cocks of the same colour are never matched, but a grey against a pile,
a yellow against a red, or the like. This might have been originally de-
signed to prevent disputes, or knavish impositions. The Malay breed of
cocks is much esteemed by connoisseurs who have had an opportunity of
trying them. Great pains is taken in the rearing and feeding; they are
frequently handled, and accustomed to spar in public, in order to pre-
vent any shyness. Contrary to our laws, the owner is allowed to take up
and handle his cock during the battle, to clear his eye of a feather, or
his mouth of blood. When a cock is killed, or runs, the other must
have sufficient spirit and vigour left to peck at him three times, on his
being held to him for that purpose, or it becomes a drawn battle ; and
sometimes an experienced cocker will place the head of his vanquished
bird, in such an uncouth posture, as to terrify the other, and render him
unable to give this proof of victory. The cocks are never trimmed,
but matched in full feather. The artificial spur used in Sumatra, resem-
bles in shape the blade of a scimitar, and proves a more destructive wea-
pon than the European spur. It has no socket, but is tied to the leg,
and in the position of it, the nicety of the match is regulated. As in
horse-racing, weight is proportioned to inches, so in cocking, a bird of
superior weight and size is brought to an equality with his adversary, by
fixing the steel spur so many scales of the leg above the natural spur,
and thus obliging him to fight with a degree of disadvantage. It rarely
happens that both cocks survive the combat.

Matches

In the northern parts of the island, where gold-dust is the common
medium of gambling, as well as of trade, so much is accidentally dropt

2 N 2 in

276

SUMATRA.

in weighing and delivering, that at some cock pits, where the resort of
people is great, the sweepings are said, probably with exaggeration,
to be worth upwards of a thousand dollars per annum to the owner of
the ground; beside his profit of two fanams (five-pence) for each battle.

Quail-fighting. In some places they match quails, in the manner of cocks. These
fight with great inveteracy, and endeavour to seize each other by the
tongue. The Achinese bring also into combat the dial bird (murei)
which resembles a small magpie, but has an agreeable, though imperfect
note. They sometimes engage one another on the wing, and drop to the
ground in the struggle.

Fencing. They have other diversions of a more innocent nature. Matches of
fencing, or a species of tournament, are exhibited on particular days ;
as at the breaking up of their annual fast, or month of ramadan, called
there the puasci. On these occasions they practise strange attitudes, with
violent contorsions of the body, and often work themselves up to a degree
of frenzy ; when the old men step in, and carry them off. These ex-
ercises, in some circumstances, resemble the idea which the ancients have
given us of the pyrrhic or war dance; the combatants moving at a distance
from each other, in cadence, and making many turns and springs, un-
necessary in the representation of a real combat. This entertainment
is more common among the Malays, than in the country. The chief
weapons of offence used by these people, are the kujur or lance, and the
hr is. This last is properly Malayan, but in all parts of the island, they
have a weapon equivalent, though in general less curious in its struc-
ture, wanting that waving in the blade, for which the kris is remarkable,
and approaching nearer to daggers or knives.

Among their exercises we never observe jumping or running. They
smile at the Europeans, who, in their excursions, take so many unneces-
sary leaps. The custom of going barefoot, may be a principal impe-
diment to this practice, in a country overrun with thorny shrubs, and
where no fences occur to render it a matter of expediency.

They have a diversion similar to that described by Homer, as prac-
tised

Diversion of
tossing a
ball.

SUMATRA.

277

tised among the Phaeacians, whieh consists in tossing an elastic wicker
ball, or round basket of split rattans, into the air, and from one player
to another, in a peculiar manner. This game is called by the Malays
sipak raga, or in the dialect of Bencoolen, chipak rago, and is played by
a large party standing in an extended circle, who endeavour to keep up
the ball, by striking it either perpendicularly, in order to receive it
again, or obliquely to some other person of the company, with the foot
or the hand, the heel or the toe, the knee, the shoulder, the head, or
with any other part of the body ; the merit appearing to consist in pro-
ducing the effect in the least obvious or most whimsical manner ; and
in this sport many of them attain an extraordinary degree of expertness.

Among the plates of Lord Macartney’s Embassy will be found the re-
presentation of a similar game, as practised by the natives of Cochin-
china.

The Sumatrans, and more particularly the Malays, are much at- Smoking of
tached, in common with many other eastern people, to the custom of
smoking opium. The poppy which produces it. not growing on the
island, it is annually imported from Bengal in considerable quantities, in
chests containing an hundred and forty pounds each. It is made up in
cakes of five or six pounds weight, and packed with dried leaves ; in
which situation it will continue good and vendible for two years, but
after that period grows hard, and diminishes considerably in value. It
is of a darker colour, and is supposed to have less strength than the
Turkey opium. About an hundred and fifty chests are consumed annu-
ally on the West coast of Sumatra; where it is purchased, on an average,
at three hundred dollars the chest, and sold again, in smaller quantities,
at five or six. But, on occasions of extraordinary scarcity, I have known
it to sell for its weight in silver, and a single chest to fetch upwards of
three thousand dollars.

The method of preparing it for use is as follows. The raw opium is Preparation,
first boiled or seethed in a copper vessel ; then strained through a cloth,
to free it from impurities; and then a second time boiled. The leaf of
the tambaku , shred fine, is mixed with it, in a quantity sufficient to absorb
the whole ; and it is afterwards made up into small pills, about the size

278

SUMATRA.

Effects of
opium.

of a pea, for smoking. One of these being put into the small tube that
projects from the side of the opium pipe, that tube is applied to a lamp,
and the pill being lighted, is consumed at one whiff or inflation of the
lungs, attended with a whistling noise. The smoke is never emitted by
the mouth ; but usually receives vent through the nostrils, and some-
times, by adepts, through the passage of the ears and eyes. This pre-
paration of the opium is called maddat, and is often adulterated in the
process, by mixing jaggri, or pine sugar, with it j as is the raw opium,
by incorporating with it the fruit of the pisang or plantain.

The use of opium among these people, as that of intoxicating liquors
among other nations, is a species of luxury which all ranks adopt ac-
cording to their ability, and which, when once become habitual, it is al-
most impossible to shake off. Being, however, like other luxuries, expen-
sive, few only, among the lower or middling class of people, can compass
the regular enjoyment of it, even where its use is not restrained ; as it is
among the pepper-planters, to the times of their festivals. That the prac-
tice of smoking opium must be in some degree prejudicial to the health,
is highly probable ; yet I am inclined to think that effects have been
attributed to it, much more pernicious to the constitution than it in
reality causes. The bugis soldiers, and others in the Malay bazars, whom
we see most attached to it, and who use it to excess, commonly appear
emaciated ; but they are in other respects abandoned and debauched.
The Limun and Batang Asset gold-traders, on the contrary, who are an
active, laborious class of men, but yet indulge as freely in opium as any
others whatever, are, notwithstanding, the most healthy and vigorous
people to be met with on the island. It has been usual also to attribute
to the practice, destructive consequences of another nature ; from the
frenzy it has been supposed to excite in those who take it in quantities.
But this should probably rank with the many errours that mankind have
been led into, by travellers addicted to the marvellous ; and there is every
reason to believe, that the furious quarrels, desperate assassinations, and
sanguinary attacks, which the use of opium is said to give birth to, are
idle notions, originally adopted through ignorance, and since main-
tained, from the mere want of investigation, without having any solid
foundation. It is not to be controverted, that those desperate acts of in-
discriminate

SUMATRA.

279

discriminate murder, called by. us, mucks, and by the natives, mcugamok,
do actually take place, and frequently too. in some parts of the East (in
Java in particular) but it is not equally evident that they proceed from
any intoxication, except that of their unruly passions. Too often they are
occasioned by excess of cruelty and injustice in their oppressors. On the
West coast of Sumatra about twenty thousand pounds weight of this
drug are consumed annually, yet instances of this crime do not happen,
(at least within the scope of our knowledge) above once in two or three
years. During my residence there I had an opportunity of being an eye-
witness but to one muck. The slave of a Portuguese woman, a man of
the island of Nias, who in all probability had never handled an opium
pipe in his life, being treated by his mistress with extreme severity, for
a trifling offence, vowed he would have revenge if she attempted to
strike him again ; and ran down the steps of the house, with a knife in
each hand, as it is said. She cried out, mengamok ! The civil guard
was called, who having the power, in these cases, of exercising sum-
mary justice, fired half a dozen rounds into an outhouse where the
unfortunate wretch had sheltered himself on their approach ; and from
whence he was at length dragged, covered with wounds. Many other
mucks might perhaps be found, upon scrutiny, of the nature of the fore-
going, where a man of strong feelings was driven, by excess of injury, to
domestic rebellion.

It is true that the Malays, when in a state of war they are bent on
any daring enterprize, fortify themselves with a few whiffs of opium, to
render them insensible to danger; as the people of another nation are
said to take a dram for the same purpose; but it must be observed, that
the resolution for the act precedes, and is not the effect of the intoxica-
tion. They take the same precaution, previous to being led to public
execution ; but on these occasions shew greater signs of stupidity than
frenzy. Upon the whole, it may be reasonably concluded, that the san-
guinary achievements, for which the Malays have been famous, or in-
famous rather, in history, are more justly to be attributed to the natural
ferocity of their disposition, or to the influence upon their manners of a
particular state of society, than to the qualities of any drug whatever.
The pretext of the soldiers of the country-guard for using opium is,

that

280

SUMATRA.

Piratical ad-
ventures.

that it may render them watchful on tlaeir nightly posts : we, on the
contrary, administer it to procure sleep ; and according to the quantity
it has either effect. The delirium it produces is known to be so very
pleasing, that Pope has supposed this to have been designed by Homer,
when he describes tbe delicious draught prepared by Helen, called ne-
penthe, which exhilarated the spirits, and banished from the mind the
recollection of woe.

It is remarkable that at Batavia, where the assassins just now described,
when taken alive, are broken on the wheel, with every aggravation of
punishment that the most rigorous justice can inflict, the mucks yet
happen in great frequency ; whilst at Bencoolen, where they are executed
in the most simple and expeditious manner, the offence is extremely rare.
Excesses of severity in punishment may deter men from deliberate and
interested acts of villany, but they add fuel to the atrocious enthusiasm
of desperadoes. A further proof of the influence that mild government
has upon the manners of people, is, that the piratical adventures, so com-
mon on the eastern coast of the island, are unknown on the western. Far
from our having apprehensions of the Malays, the guards at the smaller
English settlements are almost entirely composed of them, with a mix-
ture of Bugis or Makasar people. Europeans, attended by Malays only,
are continually travelling through the country. They are the only per-
sons employed in carrying treasure to distant places ; in the capacity of
secretaries for the country correspondence ; as civil officers, in seizing
delinquents, among the planters, and elsewhere ; and as masters and
supercargoes of the tamhangans, praws, and other small coasting vessels.
So great is the effect of moral causes and habit, upon a physical character
esteemed the most treacherous and sanguinary.

Custom

SUMATRA,

281

Custom of chewing Betel — Emblematic presents — Oratory — Children —
Names — Circumcision — Funerals — Religion.

WHETHER to blunt the edge of painful reflection, or owing to an Custom ot
aversion our natures have to total inaction, most nations have been beteL^
addicted to the practice of enjoying by mastication, or otherwise, the
flavour of substances possessing an inebriating quality. The South
Americans chew the cocoa and mambee, and the eastern people, the betel
and areca , or, as they are called in the Malay language, sirih and pi -
nang. This custom has been accurately described by various writers, and
therefore it is almost superfluous to say more on the subject, than that the
Sumatrans universally use it; carry the ingredients constantly about them;
and serve it to their guests on all occasions ; the prince in a gold stand,
and the poor man in a brass box, or mat bag. The betel-stands of the
better rank of people are usually of silver, embossed with rude figures.

The Sultan of Moco-moco was presented with one by the India Com-
pany, with their arms on it ; and he possesses beside, another of gold
filagree. The form of the stand is the frustum of an hexagonal py-
ramid, reversed ; about six or eight inches in diameter. It contains
many smaller vessels, fitted to the angles, for holding the nut, leaf, and
chunam, which is quick lime made from calcined shells ; with places for
the instruments ( kachip ) employed in cutting the first, and spatulas for
spreading the last.

When the first salutation is over, which consists in bending the body,
and the inferior’s putting his joined hands between those of the superior,
and then lifting them to his forehead, the betel is presented as a token
of hospitality, and an act of politeness. To omit it on the one hand, or
to reject it on the other, would be an affront ; as it would be likewise,
in a person of subordinate rank, to address a great man without the
precaution of chewing it before he spoke. All the preparation consists in

2 O spreading

282

SUMATRA.

spreading on the sirih leaf, a small quantity of the chunam, and folding
it up with a slice of the pinang nut. Some mix with these, gambir,
which is a substance prepared from the leaves of a tree of that name, by
boiling their juices to a consistence, and made up into little balls or
squares, as before spoken of : tobacco is likewise added, which is shred
fine for the purpose, and carried between the lip and upper row of teeth.
From the mastication of the first three, proceeds a juice which tinges
the saliva of a bright red, and which the leaf and nut, without the chu-
nam, will not yield. This hue being communicated to the mouth and
lips is esteemed ornamental 3 and an agreeable flavour is imparted to the
breath. The juice is usually, (after the first fermentation produced by the
lime) though not always, swallowed by the chewers of betel. AVe might
reasonably suppose that its active qualities would injure the coats of the
stomach, but experience seems to disprove such a consequence. It is com-
mon to see the teeth of elderly persons stand loose in the gums, which is
probably the effect of this custom, but I do not think that it affects the
soundness of the teeth themselves. Children begin to chew betel very
young, and yet their teeth are always beautifully white, till pains are
taken to disfigure them, by filing, and staining them black. To persons
who are not habituated to the composition, it causes a strong giddiness,
astringes and excoriates the tongue and fauces, and deadens for a time
the faculty of taste. During the pnasa, or fast of ramadan, the Mahome-
tans among them abstain from the use of betel, whilst the sun continues
above the horizon 3 but excepting at this season, it is the constant luxury
of both sexes, from an early period of childhood, till, becoming toothless,
they are reduced to the necessity of having the ingredients previously
reduced to a paste for them, that without further effort the betel may
dissolve in the mouth. Along with the betel, and generally in the chu-
nam, is the mode of conveying philtres, or love charms. How far they
prove effectual I cannot take upon me to say, but suppose that they are
of the nature of our stimulant medicines, and that the direction of the
passion is of course indiscriminate. The practice of administering poison
in this manner is not followed in latter times 3 but that the idea is not
so far eradicated, as entirely to prevent suspicion, appears from this
circumstance 3 that the guest, though taking a leaf from the betel-service
of his entertainer, not unfrequently applies to it his own chunam, and

never

SUMATRA.

283

never omits to pass the former between his thumb and fore finger, in
order to wipe off any extraneous matter. This mistrustful procedure is
so common as not to give offence.

Beside the mode beforementioned of enjoying the flavour of tobacco,
it is also smoked by the natives and for this use, after shredding it fine,
whilst green, and drying it well, it is rolled up in the thin leaves of a
tree, and is in that form called roko , a word they appear to have bor-
rowed from the Dutch. The rokos are carried in the betel-box, or more
commonly under the destar or handkerchief which, in imitation of a
turband, surrounds the head. Much tobacco is likewise imported from
China, and sells at a high price. It seems to possess a greater pun-
gency than the Sumatran plant, which the people cultivate for their
own use, in the interior parts of the island.

The custom of sending emblematical presents, in order to make known,
in a covert manner, the birth, progress, or change of certain affections
of the mind, prevails here, as in some other parts of the East ; and not
only flowers of various kinds have their appropriate meaning, but also
cayenne-pepper, betel-leaf, salt, and other articles, are understood by
adepts to denote love, jealousy, resentment, hatred, and other strong
feelings.

The Sumatrans in general are good speakers. The gift of oratory
seems natural to them. I knew many among them, whose harangues
I have listened to with pleasure and admiration. This may be accounted
for, perhaps, from the constitution of their government, which being
far removed from despotism, seems to admit, in some degree, every
member of the society to a share in the public deliberations. Where
personal endowments, as has been observed, will often raise a private
man to a share of importance in the community, superior to that of a
nominal chief, there is abundant inducement for the acquisition of these
valuable talents. The forms of their judicial proceedings, likewise,
where there are no established advocates, and each man depends upon
his own, or his friend’s abilities, for the management of his cause, must
doubtless contribute to this habitual eloquence. We may add to these

2 0 2 conjectures.

Tobacco

Emblematic

presents.

Oratory.

284

SUMATRA.

conjectures, the nature of their domestic manners, which introduce the
sons, at an early period of life, into the business of the family, and the
counsels of their elders. There is little to be perceived among them, of
that passion for childish sports which marks the character of our boys,
from the seventh to the fourteenth year. In Sumatra you may observe
infants, not exceeding the former age, full dressed, and armed with a
kris, seated in the circle of the old men of the dusun, and attending to
their debates with a gravity of countenance not surpassed by their grand-
fathers. Thus initiated, they are qualified to deliver an opinion in pub-
lic, at a time of life when an English schoolboy could scarcely return an
answer to a question beyond the limits of his grammar or syntax, which
he has learned by rote. It is not a little unaccountable, that this peo-
ple, who hold the art of speaking in such high esteem, and evidently
pique themselves on the attainment of it, should yet take so much pains
to destroy the organs of speech, in filing down, and otherwise disfiguring
their teeth; and likewise adopt the uncouth practice of filling their
mouths with betel, whenever they prepare to hold forth. We must con-
clude, that it is not upon the graces of elocution they value an orator,
but his artful and judicious management of the subject matter; together
with a copiousness of phrase, a perspicuity of thought, an advantageous
arrangement, and a readiness, especially, at unravelling the difficulties
and intricacies of their suits.

Chiid-beariDg. The curse entailed on women in the article of child-bearing does not
fall so heavy in this as in the northern countries. Their pregnancy,
scarcely at any period prevents their attendance on the ordinary domestic
duties; and usually within a few hours after their delivery they walk to
the bathing-place, at a small distance from the house. The presence of
a sage femme is often esteemed superfluous. The facility of parturition
may probably be owing to the relaxation of the frame, from the warmth
of the climate; to which cause also, may be attributed the paucity of
children borne by the Sumatran women, and the early decay of their
beauty and strength. They have the tokens of old age, at a season of
life when European woman have not passed their prime. They are like
the fruits of the country, soon ripe, and soon decayed. They bear
children before fifteen, are generally past it at thirty, and grey-headed

and

SUMATRA.

285

and shrivelled at forty. I do not recollect hearing of any woman who
had six children, except the wife of Raddin of Madura , who had
more ; and she, contrary to the universal custom, did not give suck to
hers.

Mothers carry the children, not on the arm, as our nurses do, but
straddling on the hip, and usually supported by a cloth, which ties in
a knot on the opposite shoulder. This practice, I have been told,
is common in some parts of Wales. It is much safer than the other
method, less tiresome to the nurse, and the child has the advantage
of sitting in a less constrained posture : but the defensive armour of
stays, and offensive weapons called pins, might be some objection to
the general introduction of the fashion in England. The children are
nursed but little ; not confined by any swathing or bandages; and being
suffered to roll about the floor, soon learn to walk and shift for them-
selves. When cradles are used, they are swung suspended from the
ceiling of the rooms.

The country people can very seldom give an account of their age,
being entirely without any species of chronology. Among those coun-
try people who profess themselves Mahometans, to very few is the
date of the Hejra known ; and even of those who in their writings
make use of it, not one in ten can pronounce in what year of it he was
born. After a few taunpadi (harvests) are elapsed, they are bewildered
in regard to the date of an event, and only guess at it from some con-
temporary circumstance of notoriety ; as the appointment of a particular
dapati i the incursion of a certain enemy, or the like. As far as can
be judged from observation, it would seem, that not a great propor-
tion of the men attain to the age of fifty, and sixty years is accounted a
long life.

The children among the Rejangs have generally a name given to them
by their parents soon after their birth, which is called “ namo daging
Th egalar (cognomen), another species of name, or title, as we improperly
translate it, is bestowed at a subsequent, but not at any determinate, pe-
riod : sometimes, as the lads rise to manhood, at an entertainment given

Treatment of
children.

Age of the
people.

Names.

286

SUMATRA.

by the parent, on some particular occasion ; and often at their marriage.
It is generally conferred by the old men of the neighbouring villages,
when assembled; but instances occur of its being, irregularly, assumed
by the persons themselves; and some never obtain any galar. It is also
not unusual, at a convention held on business of importance, to change
the galar of one or two of the principal personages, to others of superior
estimation ; though it is not easy to discover in what this pre-eminence
consists, the appellations being entirely arbitrary, at the fancy of those
who confer them : perhaps in the loftier sound, or more pompous allusion
in the sense, which latter is sometimes carried to an extraordinary pitch
of bombast, as in the instance of “ Penguncliang bumi ,” or “ Shaker of
the world,” the title of a pangeran of Manna. But a climax is not al-
ways perceptible in the change.

FfromhiTed The father> *n man7 parts of the country, particularly in Passum-
cwid. mah, is distinguished by the name of his first child, as “ Pa-Ladin ,”
or “ Pa-Rindu ,” [Pa for bapa, signifying “ the father of”) and loses
in this acquired, his own proper name. This is a singular custom, and
surely less conformable to the order of nature, than that which names
the son from the father. There, it is not usual to give them a galar
on their marriage, as with the Rejangs, among whom the filionymic is
not so common, though sometimes adopted, and occasional^' joined with
the galar ; as Radin-pa-Chirano. The women never change the name
given them at the time of their birth ; yet frequently they are called,
through courtesy, from their eldest child, “ Ma si ano ,” the mother
of such an one ; but rather as a polite description, than a name. The
word or particle “Si” is prefixed to the birth-names of persons, which
almost ever consist of but a single word, as Si Bintang, Si Tolong; and
we find from Captain Forrest’s voyage, that in the island of Mindanau ,
the infant son of the Raja Muda was named Se Mama.

Hesitate to
pronounce
their own
name.

A Sumatran ever scrupulously abstains from pronouncing his own
name; not, as I understand, from any motive of superstition, but merely
as a punctilio in manners. It occasions him infinite embarrassment,
when a stranger, unacquainted with their customs, requires it of him.
As soon as he recovers from his confusion, he solicits the interposition of

his

SUMATRA.

287

his neighbour. He is never addressed, except in the case of a superior
dictating to his dependant, in the second person, but always in the third ; Address in^the
using his name or title, instead of the pronoun; and when these are un-
known, a general title of respect is substituted, and they say, for instance,

“ apa orang kaya punia suka” “what is his honour’s pleasure” for “ what
is your, or your honour’s pleasure?” When criminals, or other ignomi-
nious persons, are spoken to, use is made of the pronoun personal kau
(a contraction of angkaii) particularly expressive of contempt. The
idea of disrespect annexed to the use of the second person, in discourse,
though difficult to be accounted for, seems pretty general in the world.

The Europeans, to avoid the supposed indecorum, exchange the sin-
gular number for the plural ; but I think, with less propriety of effect
than the Asiatic mode ; if to take off from the bluntness of address be
the object aimed at.

The boys are circumcised, where Mahometanism prevails, between Circumcision,
the sixth and tenth year. The ceremony is called krat kulop and buang
or lepas main (casting away their shame), and a bimbang is usually given
on the occasion ; as well as at the ceremony of boring the ears and filing
the teeth of their daughters, (before described) which takes place at
about the age of ten or twelve ; and until this is performed, they cannot,
with propriety, be married.

At their funerals, the corpse is carried to the place of interment on a Funerals,
broad plank, which is kept for the public service of the dusun, and
lasts for many generations. It is constantly rubbed with lime, either
to preserve it from decay, or to keep it pure. No coffin is made use of;
the body being simply wrapped in white cloth, particularly of the sort
called hummums. In forming the grave, (kubur), after digging to a
convenient depth, they make a cavity in the side, at bottom, of suffi-
cient dimensions to contain the body, which is there deposited on its
right side. By this mode the earth litprally lies light upon it; and the
cavity, after strewing flowers in it, they stop up by 'two boards, fast-
ened angularly to each other, so that the one is on the top of the
corpse, whilst the other defends it on the open side ; the edge resting
on the bottom of the grave. The outer excavation is then filled up with

earth ;

288

SUMATRA.

Religion.

earth ; and little white flags, or streamers, are stuck in order around.
They likewise plant a shrub, bearing a white flower, called kumbang- m
kamboja (plumeria obtusa), and in some places, wild marjoram. The
women who attend the funeral make a hideous noise, not much unlike
the Irish howl. On the third and seventh day, the relations perform a
ceremony at the grave, and at the end of twelve months, that of tegga
batu, or setting up a few long, elliptical stones, at the head and foot ;
which, being scarce in some parts of the country, bear a considerable
price. On this occasion, they kill and feast on a buffalo, and leave the
head to decay on the spot, as a token of the honour they have done to
the deceased, in eating to his memory.* The ancient burying-places
are called krammat, and are supposed to have been those of the holy
men by whom their ancestors were converted to the faith. They are
held in extraordinary reverence, and the least disturbance or violation
of the ground, though all traces of the graves be obliterated, is regarded
as an unpardonable sacrilege.

In works descriptive of the manners of people little known to the
world, the account of their religion , usually constitutes an article of the
first importance. Mine will labour under the contrary disadvantage.
The ancient and genuine religion of the Rejangs, if in fact they ever
had any, is scarcely now to be traced ; and what principally adds to its
obscurity, and the difficulty of getting information on the subject, is,
that even those among them who have not been initiated in the princi-
ples of Mahometanism, yet regard those who have, as persons advanced

a step

a The above ceremonies (with the exception of the last) are briefly described in the fol-
lowing lines, extracted from a Malayan poem.

Setelah sudah de tangisi, nia
Lalu de kubur de tanamkan ’nia
De umbel koran de ajikan ’nia
Sopaya lepas deri sangsara ’nia
Mengaji de kubur tujuh ari
Setelah de khatam tiga kali
Sudah de tegga batu sakali
Membayer utang pada si-mati.

SUMATRA.

289

a step in knowledge beyond them, and therefore hesitate to own cir-
cumstantially, that they remain still unenlightened. Ceremonies are
fascinating to mankind, and without comprehending with what views
they were instituted, the profanum vulgus naturally give them credit for
something mysterious and above their capacities ; and accordingly pay
them a tribute of respect. With Mahometanism, a more extensive field
of knowledge (I speak in comparison) is open to its converts, and some
additional notions of science are conveyed. These help to give it im-
portance ; though it must be confessed, they are not the most pure tenets
of that religion, which have found their way to Sumatra ; nor are even
the ceremonial parts very scrupulously adhered to. Many who profess
to follow it, give themselves not the least concern about its injunctions,
or even know what they require. A Malay at Manna upbraided a
countryman , with the total ignorance of religion his nation laboured
under. “ You pay a veneration to the tombs of your ancestors : what
foundation have you for supposing that your dead ancestors can lend you
assistance?” “ It maybe true; answered the other; but what founda-
tion have you for expecting assistance from Allah and Mahomet ?" “ Are,
you not aware, replied the Malay , that it is written in a Book ? Have
you not heard of the Koran ?” The native of Passummah, with con-
scious inferiority, submitted to the force of this argument.

If by religion is meant a public or private form of worship, of any
kind ; and if prayers, processions, meetings, offerings, images, or priests,
are any of them necessary to constitute it, I can pronounce that the
Rejangs are totally without religion, and cannot, with propriety, be even
termed pagans, if that, as I apprehend, conveys the idea of mistaken
worship. They neither worship God, devil, nor idol. They are not,
however, without superstitious beliefs of many kinds, and have cer-
tainly a confused notion, though perhaps derived from their intercourse
with other people, of some species of superior beings, who have the
power of rendering themselves visible or invisible at pleasure. These
they call “ orang alus” “fine, or impalpable beings,” and regard them
as possessing the faculty of doing them good or evil ; deprecating their
wrath, as the sense of present misfortunes, or apprehension of future,
prevails in their minds. But when they speak particularly of them, they

2 P call

290

SUMATRA.

call them by the appellations of “ maleikat ” and “ jin,” which are
the angels and evil spirits of the Arabians, and the idea may probably
have been borrowed at the same time with the names. These are the
powers they also refer to in an oath. I have heard a dupati say, “ My
grandfather took an oath that he would not demand the jujur of that
woman, and imprecated a curse on any of his descendants that should
do it : I never have, nor could I without salah kapada maleikat — an
offence against the angels.” Thus they say also, “ de tolong nabi,
maleikat ,” “ the prophet and angels assisting.” This is pure Maho-
metanism.

No name for The clearest proof that they never entertained an idea of Theism,

the deity. r

or the belief of one supreme power, is, that they have no word in their
language to express the person of God, except the “ Allah tala ” of the
Malays, corrupted by them to “ Ulah tallo .” Yet, when questioned

on the subject, they assert their ancestors’ knowledge of a deity, though
their thoughts were never employed about him ; but this evidently
means no more than that their forefathers, as well as themselves, had
heard of the Allah of the Mahometans ( Allah orang isldm).

idea of inri- They use, both in Rejang and Passummali , the w’ord “ dewa ,” to ex-
s'bie beings- press a superior, invisible class of beings but each country acknow-
ledges it to be of foreign derivation, and they suppose it Javanese. Radin,
of Madura, an island close to Java , wdio was well conversant with the
religious opinions of most nations, asserted to me, that “ dewa ” was an
original word of that country for a superior being, which the Javans of
the interior believed in j but with regard to w7hom they used no ceremo-
nies or forms of worship :a that they had some idea of a future life, but
not as a state of retribution ; conceiving immortality to be the lot of
' rich, rather than of good men. I recollect, that an inhabitant of one

8 In the Transactions of the Batavian Society, Vols. I. and III. is to be found a History
of these Dewas of the Javans, translated from an original MS. The mythology is child-
ish and incoherent. The Dutch commentator supposes them to have been a race of
men held sacred, forming a species of Hierarchy, like the government of the Lamas in
Tartary.

SUMATRA.

291

of the islands farther eastward observed to me, with great simplicity,
that only great men went to the skies ; how should poor men find ad-
mittance there ? The Sumatrans, where untinctured with Mahometan-
ism, do not appear to have any notion of a future state. Their con-
ception of virtue or vice extends no farther than to the immediate effect
of actions, to the benefit or prejudice of society, and all such as tend
not to either of these ends, are, in their estimation, perfectly indifferent.

Notwithstanding what is asserted of the originality of the word
cc dewa ,” I cannot help remarking its extreme affinity to the Persian
word c< div or diw,” which signifies £C an evil spirit” or te bad ge-
nius.” Perhaps, long antecedent to the introduction of the faith of the
khalifs among the eastern people, this word might have found its way,
and been naturalized in the islands ; or, perhaps, its progress was in a
contrary direction. It lias likewise a connexion in sound, with the
names used to express a deity, or some degree of superior being, by
many other people of this region of the earth. The Battas, inhabitants
of the northern end of Sumatra, whom I shall describe hereafter, use
the word daibattah or daivattah ,• the Chingalese of Ceylon, dexviju ; the
Telingas of India, dai-zvundu ; the Biajus of Borneo, dewattah ; the
Papuas of New Guinea, ’wat ; and the Pampangos of the Philippines,
diaata. It bears likewise an affinity (perhaps accidental) to the dens
and deitas of the Romans.1

The superstition which has the strongest influence on the minds of the
Sumatrans, and which approaches the nearest to a species of religion,
is that which leads them to venerate, almost to the point of worshipping,

2 P 2 the

Veneration
for the
manes and
tombs of
their an-
cestors.

1 At the period when the above was written I was little aware of the intimate connexion,
now well understood to have anciently subsisted between the Hindus and the various nations
beyond the Ganges. The most evident proofs appear of the extensive dissemination both
of their language and mythology throughout Sumatra, Java, Balli, (where at this day they
are best preserved) and the other eastern islands. To the Sanskrit words dtwa and dewata,
signifying divinities in that great mother-tongue, we are therefore to look for the source
of the terms, more or less corrupted, that have been mentioned in the text. See Asiat.
Res. Vol. IV. p. 223.

29£

SUMATRA.

Metempsy

chosis.

the tombs and manes of their deceased ancestors ( nenek puyang). These
they are attached to as strongly as to life itself, and to oblige them to
remove from the neighbourhood of their krammat, is like tearing up a
tree by the roots ; these, the more genuine country people regard
chiefly, when they take a solemn oath, and to these they apostrophize
in instances of sudden calamity. Had they the art of making images,
or other representations of them, they would be perfect lares, penates, or
household gods. It has been asserted to me by the natives (conformably
to what we are told by some of the early travellers) that in very ancient
times, the Sumatrans made a practice of burning the bodies of their
dead, but I could never find any traces of the custom, or any circum-
stances that corroborated it.

They have an imperfect notion of a metempsychosis, but not in any
degree systematic, nor considered as an article of religious faith. Po-
pular stories prevail amongst them, of such a particular man being
changed into a tiger, or other beast. They seem to think, indeed, that
tigers in general are actuated with the spirits of departed men, and no
consideration will prevail on a countryman to catch or to wound one,
but in self-defence, or immediately after the act of destroying a friend
or relation. They speak of them with a degree of awe, and hesitate to
call them by their common name ( rimau or machang ) terming them
respecfully satwa (the wild animals), or even nenek (ancestors) ; as
really believing them such, or by way of soothing and coaxing them ;
as our ignorant country folk call the fairies “ the good people.” When
an European procures traps to be set, by the means of persons less su-
perstitious, the inhabitants of the neighbourhood have been known to
go at night to the place, and practise some forms, in order to persuade
the animal, when caught, or when he shall perceive the bait, that it was
not laid by them, or with their consent. They talk of a place in the
country where the tigers have a court, and maintain a regular form of
government, in towns, the houses of which are thatched with women’s
hair. It happened that in one month seven or eight people were killed
by these prowling beasts in Manna district; upon which a report be-
came current, that fifteen hundred of them were come down from Pas-
summah ; of which number, four were without understanding (gila)y

and

SUMATRA.

293

and having separated from the rest, ran about the country occasioning
all the mischief that was felt. The aligators also are highly destructive,
owing to the constant practice of bathing in the rivers, and are regarded
with nearly the same degree of religious terrour. Fear is the parent of
superstition, by ignorance. Those two animals prove the Sumatran’s
greatest scourge. The mischief the former commit is incredible, whole
villages being often depopulated by them, and the suffering people
learn to reverence, as supernatural effects, the furious ravages of an
enemy they have not resolution to oppose.

The Sumatrans are fmuly persuarlpd that various particular persons
are, what they term “ betuah” (sacred, impassive, invulnerable, not
liable to accident) ; and this quality they sometimes extend to things
inanimate; as ships and boats. Such an opinion, which we should sup-
pose every man might have an opportunity of bringing to the test of
truth, affords a humiliating proof of the weakness and credulity of hu-
man nature, and the fallibility of testimony, when a film of prejudice
obscures the light of the understanding. I have known two men, whose
honesty, good faith, and reasonableness in the general concerns of life
were well established, and whose assertions would have weight in trans-
actions of consequence : these men I have heard maintain, with the
most deliberate confidence, and an appearance of inward conviction of
their own sincerity, that they had more than once, in the course of their
wars, attempted to run their weapons into the naked body of their ad-
versary, which they found impenetrable, their points being continually
and miraculously turned, without any effort on the part of the orang be-
tuah : and that hundreds of instances, of the like nature, where the in-
vulnerable man did not possess the smallest natural means of opposition,
had come within their observation. An English officer, with more cou-
rage and humour than discretion, exposed one imposture of this kind.
A man having boasted in his presence, that he was endowed with this
supernatural privilege, the officer took an opportunity of applying to
his arm the point of a sword, and drew the blood; to the no little di-
version of the spectators, and mortification of the pretender to superior
gifts, who vowed revenge, and would have taken it, had not means
been used to keep him at a distance. But a single detection of char-

latanerie ,

294

SUMATRA.

No missiona-
ries.

latanerie, is not effectual to destroy a prevalent superstition. These
impostors are usually found among the Malays, and not the more sim-
ple country people.

No attempts, I have reason to think, have ever been made by mis-
sionaries, or others, to convert the inhabitants of the island to Christi-
anity, and I have much doubt, whether the most zealous and able would
meet with any permanent success in this pious work. Of the many
thousands baptized in the eastern islands by the celebrated Francis Xa-
vier, in the sixteenth century, not one of their descendants are now found
to retain a ray of the light imparted to them j and probably, as it was
novelty only, and not conviction, that induced the original converts to
embrace a new faith, the impression lasted no longer than the sentiment
which recommended it, and disappeared as rapidly as the itinerant apostle.
Under the influence, however, of the Spanish government at Manilha,
and of the Dutch at Batavia, there are many native Christians, educated
as such from children. In the Malayan language Portuguese and Chris-
tians are confounded under the same general name ; the former being
called “ orang Zerani ,” by corruption for “ Nazerani.” This neglect
of missions to Sumatra is one cause that the interior of the country
has been so little known to the civilized world.

The

SUMATRA.

295

The Country of Lampong and its Inhabitants — Language — Government —
Wars — Peculiar Customs — Religion.

HAVING thus far spoken of the manners and customs of the Rejangs
more especially, and adverted, as occasion served, to those of the Pas-
summah people, who nearly resemble them, I shall now present a cursory
view of those circumstances in which their southern neighbours, the
inhabitants of the Lampong country, differ from them, though this dissi-
militude is not very considerable ; and shall add such information as I
have been enabled to obtain respecting the people of Korinchi , and other
tribes dwelling beyond the ranges of hills which bound the pepper-dis-
tricts.

By the Lampong country is understood, a portion of the southern
extreme of the island, beginning, on the west coast, at the river of
Padang-guchi, which divides it from Passummah, and extending across
as far as Palembang, on the north-east side, at which last place the set-
tlers are mostly Javans. On the south and east sides, it is washed by
the sea, having several ports in the Straits of Sunda, particularly Key-
sers and Lampong Bays ; and the great river Tulang-bawang runs
through the heart of it, rising from a considerable lake between the
ranges of mountains. That division which is included by Padang-gu-
chi, and a place called Nassal, is distinguished by the name of Briuran,
and from thence southward to Flat-point, by that of Laut-Kawur ; al-
though Kawur, properly so called, lies in the northern division.

Upon the Tulang-bawang, at a place called Mangala , thirty-six
leagues from its mouth, the Dutch have a fortified post. There also
the representative of the king of Bantam , who claims the dominion of
the whole country of Lampong, has his residence ; the River Masusi,
which runs into the former, being the boundary of his territories, and

those

Limits of the
Lampong
country.

Tulang baw-
ang River.

SUMATRA.

296

those of the sultan of Palembang. In the neighbourhood of these rivers
the land is so low as to be overflowed in the rainy season, or months of
January and February, when the waters have been known to rise many
feet in the course of a few hours ; the villages, situated on the higher
spots, appearing as islands. The houses of those immediately on the
banks are built on piles of iron-wood timber, and each has before it
a floating raft for the convenience of washing. In the western parts,
towards Samaiigka, on the contrary, the land is mountainous, and
Keyser’s Peak, as well as Pugong, are visible to a great distance at sea.

inhabitants. The country is best inhabited in the central and mountainous parts,
where the people live independent, and in some measure secure from
the inroads of their eastern neighbours, the Javans, who, from about
Palembang and the Straits, frequently attempt to molest them. It is,
probably, within but a very few centuries, that the south-west coast of
this country has been the habitation of any considerable number of peo-
ple ; and it has been still less visited by strangers, owing to the unshel-
tered nature of the sea thereabouts, and want of soundings, in general,
which renders the navigation wild and dangerous for country vessels ;
and to the rivers being small and rapid, with shallow bars and almost
ever a high surf. If you ask the people of these parts from whence they
originally came ; they answer, from the hills, and point out an inland
place near the great lake, from whence, they say, their forefathers
emigrated : and further than this it is impossible to trace. They, of all
the Sumatrans, have the strongest resemblance to the Chinese, particu-
larly in the roundness of face, and constructure of the eyes. They are
also the fairest people of the island, and the women are the tallest, and
esteemed the most handsome.

Language. Their language differs considerably, though not essentially, from
that of the Rejangs, and the characters they use are peculiar to them-
selves ; as may be observed in the specimens exhibited.

Government. The titles of government are pangeran (from the Javans), kariyer, and
kiddimong or nebihi ; the latter nearly answering to dapati among the
Rejangs. The district of Kro'i, near Mount Pugong , is governed by

five

SUMATRA.

297

five magistrates, called Paji'ggau-linio, and a sixth, superior, called by way
of eminence, Panggau ,• but their authority is said to be usurped, and is
often disputed. The word, in common, signifies a gladiator or prize-
fighter. The pangeran of Suko, in the hills, is computed to have four
or five thousand dependants, and sometimes, on going a journey, he levies
a tali, or eighth part of a dollar, on each family ; which shews his au-
thority to be more arbitrary, and probably more strictly feudal, than
among the Rejangs, where the government is rather patriarchal. This
difference has doubtless its source in the wars and invasions to which

•

the former people are exposed.

The Javanese banditti, as has been observed, often advance into the Wart,
country, and commit depredations on the inhabitants, who are not, in
general, a match for them. They do not make use of fire-arms. Beside
the common weapons of the island, th ey fight with aong lance, which
is carried by three men; the foremost guiding the point, and covering
himself and his companions with a large shield. A compact body, thus
armed, would have been a counterpart of the Macedonian phalanx ; but
can prove, I should apprehend, of but little use among a people, with
whom war is carried on in a desultory manner, and more in the way of
ambuscade, than of general engagement, in which alone troops so
armed could act with effect.

Inland of Samangka, in the Straits of Sunda, there is a district, say
the Lampongs , inhabited by a ferocious people, called orang A bung, who
were a terrour to the neighbouring country, until their villages were
destroyed some years ago by an expedition from the former place.

Their mode of atoning for offences against their own community, or,
according to a Malayan narrative in my possession, of entitling them-
selves to wives, was, by bringing to their dusuns the heads of strangers.

The account may be true, but, without further authentication, such
stories are not to be too implicitly credited, on the faith of a people who
are fond of the marvellous, and addicted to exaggeration. Thus they
believed the inhabitants of the island Engano to be all females, who
were impregnated by the wind; like the mares in Virgil’s Georgies.

2 Q

The

295

SUMATRA.

Manners.

The manners of the Lampongs are more free, or rather licentious,
than those of any other native Sumatrans. An extraordinary liberty of
intercourse is allowed between the young people of different sexes, and
the loss of female chastity is not a very uncommon consequence. The
offence is there, however, thought more lightly of, and instead of pu-
nishing the parties, as in Passummah and elsewhere, they prudently
endeavour to conclude a legal match between them. But if this is not
effected, the lady still continues to wear the insignia of virginity, the fil-
let and arm-rings, and takes her place as such at festivals. It is not only
on these public occasions, that the young men and women have oppor-
tunities of forming arrangements, as in most other parts of the island.
They frequently associate together at other times ; and the former are
seen gallantly reclining in the maiden’s lap, whispering soft nonsense,
whilst she adjusts and perfumes his hair, or does a friendly office of less
delicacy to an European apprehension. At bimbangs , the women often
put on their dancing dress in the public hall, letting that garment
which they mean to lay aside, dexterously drop from under, as the other
passes over the head ; but sometimes, with an air of coquetry, display-
ing, as if by chance, enough to warm youthful imaginations. Both
men and women anoint themselves before company, when they prepare
to dance ; the women, their necks and arms, and the men their breasts.
They also paint each others faces ; not, seemingly, with a view of
heightening, or imitating the natural charms, but merely as matter of
fashion ; making fantastic spots with the finger on the forehead, tem-
ples, and cheeks, of white, red, yellow, and other hues. A brass salver
[tallam) covered with little china cups, containing a variety of paints, is
served up for this purpose.

Instances have happened here, though rarely, of very disagreeable con-
clusions to their feasts. A party of risans among the young fellows,
have been known suddenly to extinguish the lights, for the purpose of
robbing the girls, not of their chastity, as might be apprehended, but
of the gold and silver ornaments of their persons. An outrage of this
nature I imagine could only happen in Lampong, where their vicinity
to Java affords the culprits easier and surer means of escape, than in
the central parts of the island ; and here too their companies appear to

be more mixed, collected from greater distances, and not composed,
as with the Rejang people, of a neighbourly assemblage of the old men
and women of a few contiguous villages, with their sons and daughters,
for the sake of convivial mirth, of celebrating a particular domestic
event, and promoting attachments and courtship amongst the young
people.

In every dusun there is appointed a youth, well fitted by nature and
education for the office, who acts as master of the ceremonies at their
public meetings, arranges the young men and women in their proper
places, makes choice of their partners, and regulates all other circum-
stances of the assembly, except the important ceconomy of the festival
part or cheer, which comes under the cognizance of one of the elders.
Both parts of the entertainment are preceded by long, complimentary
speeches, delivered by the respective stewards, who, in return, are answered
and complimented on their skill, liberality, and other qualities, by
some of the best bred amongst the guests. Though the manner of con-
ducting, and the appendages of these feasts, are superior in style to
the rustic hospitality of some of the northern countries, yet they are
esteemed to be much behind those, in the goodness and mode of dress-
ing their food. The Lampongs eat almost all kinds of flesh, indiscri-
minately, and their guleis (curries or made dishes) are said, by connois-
seurs, to have no flavour. They serve up the rice, divided into por-
tions for each person, contrary to the practice in the other countries 5
the tallam being covered with a handsome crimson napkin, manufac-
tured for that use. They are wont to entertain strangers with much
more profusion, than is met with in the rest of the island. If the guest
is of any consequence, they do not hesitate to kill, beside goats and
fowls, a buffalo, or several, according to the period of his stay, and the
number of his attendants. One man has been known to entertain a
person of rank and his suite for sixteen days, during which time there
were not less than an hundred dishes of rice spread each day, containing,
some one, some two bamboos. They have dishes here, of a species of
china or earthen ware, called “ batu benauang ,” brought from the east-
ward ; remarkably heavy, and very dear j some of them being valued at

2Q2 forty

Particular

customs.

300

SUMATRA.

Reception of
stranger*.

Marriages.

forty dollars a piece. The breaking one of them is a family loss of no
small importance.

Abundantly more ceremony is used among these people, at interviews
with strangers, than takes place in the countries adjacent to them. Not
only the chief person of a party travelling, but every one of his atten-
dants, is obliged, upon arriving at a town, to give a formal account of
their business, or occasion of coming that way. When the principal
man of the dusun is acquainted by the stranger with the motives of his
journey, he repeats his speech at full length, before he gives an answer;
and if it is a person of great consequence, the words must pass through
two or three mouths, before they are supposed to come with sufficient
ceremony to his ears. This, in fact, has more the air of adding to his
own importance and dignity, than to that of the guest ; but it is not
in Sumatra alone, that respect is manifested by this seeming contra-
diction.

The terms of the jujur, or equivalent for wives, is the same here,
nearly, as with the Rejangs. The kris-head is not essential to the bar-
gain, as among tho ppnplp of Passummah. The father of the girl never
admits of the putus tali kulo , or whole sum being paid, and thereby
withholds from the husband, in any case, the right of selling his wife,
who, in the event of a divorce, returns to her relations. Where the
putus tali is allowed to take place, he has a property in her, little
differing from that of a slave, as formerly observed. The particular sums
which constitute the jujur are less complex here than at other places.
The value of the maiden’s golden trinkets is nicely estimated, and her
jujur regulated according to that, and the rank of her parents. The
semando marriage scarcely ever takes place but among poor people, where
there is no property on either side, or, in the case of a slip in the conduct
of the female, when the friends are glad to make up a match in this
way, instead of demanding a price for her. Instances have occurred,
however, of countrymen of rank affecting a semando marriage, in order to
imitate the Malayan manners ; but it has been looked upon as improper;
and liable to create confusion.

The

SUMATRA.

SOI

The fines and compensation for murder are in every respect the same,
as in the countries already described.

The Mahometan religion has made considerable progress amongst the Religion.
LampongSy and most of their villages have mosques in them : yet an at-
tachment to the original superstitions of the country, induces them to
regard with particular veneration the ancient burying-places of their
fathers, which they piously adorn, and cover in from the weather.

In some parts, likewise, they superstitiou ly believe that certain trees, Superstitious

J .... opinions.

particularly those of a venerable appearance (as an old jawi-jawi or ba-
nian tree) are the residence, or rather the material frame of spirits of the
woods; an opinion which exactly answers to the idea entertained by the
ancients, of the dryades and hama-dryades. At Benkunat , in the Lam-
pong country, there is a long stone, standing on a flat one, supposed by
the people to possess extraordinary power or virtue. It is reported to
have been once thrown down into the water, and to have raised itself
again to its original position ; agitating the elements at the same time
with a prodigious storm. To approach it without respect, they believe
to be the source of misfortune to the offender.

The inland people of that country are said to pay a kind of adoration
to the sea, and to make to it an offering of cakes and sweatmeats
on their beholding it for the first time, deprecating its power of doing
them mischief. This is by no means surprising, when we consider the
natural proneness of unenlightened mankind, to regard with superstitious
awe, whatever has the power of injuring them without controul, and
particularly when it is attended with any circumstances mysterious and
inexplicable to their understandings. The sea possesses all these qua-
lities. Its destructive and irresistible power is often felt, and especially
on the coasts of India, where tremendous surfs are constantly breaking
on the shore, rising often to their greatest degree of violence, without
any apparent external cause. Add to this, the flux and reflux, and
perpetual ordinary motion of that element; wonderful even to philoso-
phers who are acquainted with the cause ; unaccountable to ignorant
men, though long accustomed to the effects ; but to those who only

once

302

SUMATRA.

once or twice in their lives have been eye witnesses to the phasnomeba,
supernatural and divine. It must not, however, be understood, that
any thing like a regular worship is paid to the sea by these people, any
more than we should conclude, that people in England worship witches,
when they nail a horse-shoe on the threshold, to prevent their approach,
or break the bottoms of egg-shells, to hinder them from sailing in them.
It is with the inhabitants of Lampong no more than a temporary senti-
ment of fear and respect, which a little familiarity soon effaces. Many
of them, indeed, imagine it endowed with a principle of voluntary
motion. They tell a story of an ignorant fellow, who observing with
astonishment its continual agitation, carried a vessel of sea water with
him, on his return to the country, and poured it into a lake, in full ex-
pectation of seeing it perform the same fanciful motions he had admired
it for in its native bed.a

* The manners of the natives of the Philippine or Luzon Islands correspond in so many
striking particulars with those of the inland Sumatrans, and especially where they differ
most from the Malays, that I think no doubt can be entertained, if not of a sameness of
origin, at least of an intercourse and connection in former times, which now no longer
exists. The following instances are taken from an essay preserved by Thevenot, entitled
Relation des Philippines par un religieux ; traduite d’un manuserit Espagnol du cabinet de Mons.
Dom. Carlo del Pezzo (without date), and from a manuscript communicated to me by Alex.
Dalrymple, Esq. “ The chief Deity of the Tagalas is called Bathala mei Capal, and also
Diuuta ; and their principal idolatry consists in adoring those of their ancestors, who sig-
nalized themselves for courage or abilities ; calling them Humalagar, i. e. manes: They

make slaves of the people who do not keep silence at the tombs of their ancestors. They
have great veneration for the crocodile, which they call nono, signifying grandfather, and
make offerings to it. Every old tree they look upon as a superior being, and think it a
crime to cut it down. They worship also stones, rocks, and points of land, shooting arrows
at these last as they pass them. They have priests, who, at their sacrifices, make many
contorsions and grimaces, as if possessed with a devil. The first man and woman, they say,
were produced from a bamboo, which burst in the island of Sumatra ; and they quarrelled
about their marriage. The people mark their bodies in various figures, and render them of
the colour of ashes : have large holes in their ears : blacken and file their teeth, and make
an opening which they fill up with gold : they used to write from top to bottom, till the
Spaniards taught them to write from left to right : bamboos and palm leaves serve them for
paper. They cover their houses with straw, leaves of trees, or bamboos split in two, which
serve for tiles. They hire people to sing and weep at their funerals ; burn benzoin ; bury
their dead on the third day in strong coffins -} and sometimes kill slaves to accompany theif
deceased masters.0

The

SUMATRA,

303

The latter account is more particular, and appears of modern date.

“ They held the caiman, or alligator, in great reverence, and when they saw him they called
him nono, or grandfather, praying with great tenderness that he would do them no harm,
and to this end, offered him of whatever they had in their boats, throwing it into the water.
There was not an old tree to which they did not offer divine worship, especially that called
balete ; and even at this time they have some respect for them. Beside these they had cer-
tain idols inherited from their ancestors, which the Tagalas called Anito, and the Bisayans,
Divata. Some of these were for the mountains and plains, and they asked their leave when
they would pass them : others for the corn fields, and to these they recommend them, that
they might be fertile, placing meat and drink in the fields for the use of the Anitos. There
was one, of the sea, who had care of their fishing and navigation ; another of the house,
whose favour they implored at the birth of a child, and under whose protection they placed
it. They made Anitos also of their deceased ancestors, and to these were their first invoca-
tions in all difficulties and dangers. They reckoned amongst these beings, all those who
were killed by lightning or alligators, or had any disastrous death, and believed that they were
carried up to the happy state, by the rainbow, which they call Balan-gao. In general they
endeavoured to attribute this kind of divinity to their fathers, when they died in years, and
the old men, vain with this barbarous notion, affected in their sickness a gravity and comT
posure of mind, as they conceived, more than human, because they thought themselves
commencing Anitos. They were to be interred at places marked out by themselves, that
they might be discovered at a distance and worshipped. The missionaries have had great
trouble in demolishing their tombs and idols ; but the Indians, inland, still continue the cus-
tom of pasing tabi sa nono, or asking permission of their dead ancestors, when they enter
any wood, mountain, or corn field, for hunting or sowing ; and if they omit this ceremony^
imagine their nonos will punish them with bad fortune,

“ Their notions of the creation of the world, and formation of mankind, had something
ridiculously extravagant. They believed that the world at first consisted only of sky and
water, and between these two, a glede ; which, weary with flying about, and finding no place
to rest, set the water at variance with the sky, which, in order to keep it in bounds, and
that it should not get uppermost, loaded the water with a number of islands, in which the
glede might settle and leave them at peace. Mankind, they said, sprang out of a large cane
with two joints, that, floating about in the water, was at length thrown by the waves against the
feet of the glede, as it stood on shore, which opened it with its bill, and the man came out
of one joint, and the woman out of the other. These were soon after married by consent
of their God, Bathala Meycapal, which caused the first trembling of the earth ; and from
thence are descended the different nations of the world.”

Account

304

SUMATRA.

Country of
Korinchi.

Mr. Camp-
bell’s jour-
ney.

Situation of
lake.

Account of the inland Country of Korinchi — Expedition to the Serampei and

Sungei-tenang Countries.

At the back of the range of high mountains by which the countries of
Indrapura and Anak-sungei are bounded, lies the district or valley of
Korinchi , which, from its secluded situation, has hitherto been little
known to Europeans. In the year 1800, Mr. Charles Campbell, whose
name I have had frequent occasion to mention, was led to visit this spot,
in the laudable pursuit of objects for the improvement of natural history,
and from his correspondence I shall extract such parts as I have reason
to hope will be gratifying to the reader.

“ The country of Korinchi says this indefatigable traveller, cc first
occupied my attention. From the sea-coast, at Moco-moco , to the foot
of the mountains, cost us three days’ weary journey, and although our
path was devious, I cannot estimate the distance at less than thirty miles,
for it was late on the fourth day when we began to ascend. Your con-
jecture, that the ridge is broader betwixt the plains of Anak-sungei and
valley of Korinchi, than that which we see from Bencoolen, is just. Our
route in general lay north-east, until we attained the summit of the first
high range ; from which elevated situation, through an opening in the
wood, the Pugi or Nassau Islands were clearly visible. During the next day
our course along the ridge of hills was a little to the northward of north-
west, and for the two following days almost due north, through as noble
a forest as was ever penetrated by man. On the evening of the last, we
descended by a steep and seemingly short path from the summit of the
second range (for there are obviously two) into the Korinchi country.
This descent did not occupy us more than twenty minutes, so that the
valley must lie at a great height above the level of the sea; but it was
yet a few days march to the inhabited and cultivated land on the border
of the great lake, which I conjecture to be situated directly behind

Indrapura ,

SUMATRA.

305

Indrapura, or north-east from the mouth of that river. There are two

lakes, but one of them is inconsiderable. I sailed for some time on the

< •

former, which may be nearly as broad as the strait between Bencoolen
and Rat Island. My companions estimated it at seven miles ; but the
eye is liable to much deception, and having seen nothing for many days
but rivulets, the grandeur of the sheet of water, when it first burst upon
our sight, perhaps induced us to form too high a notion of its extent.
Its banks were studded with villages ; it abounds with fish, particularly
the summah, a species of cyprinus; its waters are clear and beautiful, from
the reflection of the black and shining sand which covers the bottom in
many places to the depth of eight or ten inches.

“ The inhabitants are below the common stature of the Malays, with
harder visages and higher cheek-bones, well knit in their limbs, and
active; not deficient in hospitality, but jealous of strangers. The wo-
men, excepting a few of the daughters of the chiefs, were in general ill-
favoured, and even savage in their aspect. At the village of In-juan on
the borders of the lake I saw some of them with rings of copper and shells
among their hair; they wore destars round their heads like the men, and
almost all of them had shears or small daggers at their sides. They were
not shut up or concealed from us, but mixed with our party, on the
contrary, with much frankness. The people dwell in hordes, many
families being crowded together in one long building. That in which I
lived gave shelter to twenty-five families. The front was one long, un-
divided virandah, where the unmarried men slept ; the back part was
partitioned into small cabins, each of which had a round hole, with a
door to fit it, and through this the female inmates crept backwards and
forwards, in the most awkward manner and ridiculous posture. This
house was in length two hundred and thirty feet, and elevated from the
ground. Those belonging to the chiefs were smaller, well constructed
of timber and plank, and covered with shingles or thin plates of board
bound on with rattans, about the size, and having much the appearance,
of our slates. The dresses of the young women of rank were pretty
enough. A large blue turband, woven with silver chains, which, meet-
ing behind and crossing, were fastened to the ear-rings’jn festoons, deco-
rated their heads. In this was placed a large plume of cock’s feathers,

2 R bending

Inhabitants.

Buildings..

Dresses.

306

SUMATRA.

bending forward over the face. Thejacket was blue, of a silky texture,
their own work, and bordered with small gold chain. The body-dress,
likewise of their own weaving, was of cotton mingled with silk, richly
striped and mixed with gold thread ; but they wear it no lower than the
knees. The youths of fashion were in a kind of harlequin habit, the
fore-part of the trowsers white, the back-part blue; their jacket after the
same fashion. They delighted much in an instrument made from some
part of the iju palm tree, which resembled and produced a sound like the
jews-harp. Their domestic ceconomy (I speak of the houses of the
chiefs) seemed better regulated than it generally is in these countries ;
Cookery. they seemed tolerably advanced in the art of cookery, and had much

variety of food ; such as the flesh of deer, which they take in rattan

snares, wild ducks, abounding on the lake ; green pigeons, quails innu-
merable ; and a variety of fish beside the summah already mentioned, and
the ikan gadis, a species of carp, which attains to a greater size here

Esculent than in the rivers. The potatoe, which was introduced there many

vegetables. years agQ^ -g now a COmmon article of food, and cultivated with some

attention. Their plantations supply many esculent herbs, fruits, and
roots ; but the coconut, although reared as a curiosity, is abortive in these
inland regions, and its place is supplied by the bnah kras (juglans cami-
rium), of which they also make their torches. Excellent tobacco is
grown there, also cotton and indigo, the small leafed kind. They get
some silk from Palembang, and rear a little themselves. The communi-
cation is more frequent with the north-west shore than with the eastern,
and of late, since the English have been settled at Pulo C/imco, they prefer
going there for opium, to the more tedious (though less distant) journey
Cold. by which they formerly sought it at Moco-moco. In their cock-pits the
gold-scales are frequent, and I have seen considerable quantities weighed
out by the losers. This metal, I am informed, they get in their own
country, although they studiously evaded all inquiries on the subject.
Gunpowder. They make gunpowder, and it is a common sport among the young boys
to fire it out of bamboos. In order to increase its strength, in their opi-
nion, they mingle it with pepper-dust.

“ In a small recess on the margin of the lake, overhung with very rug-
ged cliffs, and accessible only by water, I saw one of those receptacles

Lepers.

SUMATRA.

307

of misery to which the leprous, and others afflicted with diseases supposed
to be contagious, are banished. I landed much against the remonstrances
of my conductors, who would not quit the boat. There were in all seven
of these unfortunate people basking on the beach, and warming the
wretched remains of their bodies in the sun. They were fed at stated
periods, by the joint contribution of the neighbouring villages, and I
was given to understand, that any attempt to quit this horrid exile was
punished with death.

“ I had little time for botanizing; but I found there many plants un- Peculiar
known to the low lands. Among them were a species of prune, the pla'U>
water-hemlock, and the strawberry. This last was like that species
which grows in our woods ; but it was insipid. I brought the roots with
me to Fort Marlborough, where it lingered a year or two after fruiting,
and gradually died.* I found there also a beautiful kind of the hedy-
chium coronarium, now ranked among the kaempferias. It was of a
pale orange, and had a most grateful odour. The girls wear it in their
hair, and its beautiful head of lily flowers is used in the silent language
of love; to the practice of which, during your stay here, I suppose you
were no stranger, and which indicates a delicacy of sentiment one would
scarcely expect to find in the character of so rude a people.

“ Although the chiefs received us with hospitality, yet the mass of peo- Character
pie considered our intentions as hostile, and seemed jealous of our intru- ofpeoplc*
sion. Of their women, however, they were not at all jealous, and the
familiarity of these was unrestrained. They entertained us with dances
after their fashion, and made some rude attempts at performing a sort of
pantomime. I may now close this detail with observing, that the natives
of this mountainous region have stronger animal spirits than those of the
plains, and pass their lives with more variety than the torpid inhabitants
of the coast ; that they breathe a spirit of independence, and being fre-
quently engaged in warfare, village against village, they would be better

2 R 2 prepared

a This plant has fruited also in England, but doubts are entertained of its being really a
fragaria. By Dr. Smith it is termed a potentella.

SUMATRA.

508

Suspicions.

Expedition
to interior
country.

Origin of dis-
turbances.

prepared to resist any invasion of their liberties. They took great of-
fence at a large package carried by six men, which contained our ne-
cessaries, insisting that within it we had concealed a prink apt , for so
they call a mortar or howitzer, one of which had been used with success
against a village on the borders of their country, during the rebellion of
the son of the sultan of Moco-moco and even when satisfied respecting
this, they manifested so much suspicion, that we found it necessary to
be constantly on our guard, and were once nearly provoked by their
petulance and treachery to proceed to violence. When they found our
determination, they seemed humble, but were not even then to be trusted j
and when we were on our return, a friendly chief sent us intelligence
that an ambuscade had been laid for us in one of the narrow passes of
the mountains. We pursued our journey, however, without meeting
any obstruction.” On the subject of gold I have only to add to Mr.
Campbell’s information, that in the enumeration by the natives of places
where there are gold-mines, Korinchi is always included.

Opportunities of visiting the interior parts of the island have so seldom
occurred, or are likely to occur, that I do not hesitate to present to the
reader an abstract of the Journal kept by Lieutenant Hastings Dare (now
a captain on the Bengal establishment) whilst commanding an expedi-
tion to the countries of Ipu, Serampei, and Sungei-tenang , which border,
to the south-east, on that of Korinchi above described ; making at the
same time my acknowledgments to that gentleman for his obliging com-
munication of the original, and my apologies for the brevity to which
my subject renders it necessary to confine the narrative.

“ Sultan Asing , brother to the present sultan of Moco-moco , in con-
junction with Pa Muncha and Sultan Sidi, two hill-chiefs his relations,
residing at Pakalang-jambu and Jambi, raised a small force, with which,
in the latter part of the year 1804, they made a descent on Ipu, one of
the Company’s districts, burnt several villages, and carried off a number
of the inhabitants. The guard of native Malay troops not being suffi-
ciently strong to check these depredations, a party was ordered from
Fort Marlborough, under the command of Lieut. Hastings Dare, con
sisting of eighty-three sepoy officers and men, with five lascars, twenty-

two

SUMATRA.

309

two Bengal convicts, and eighteen of the Bugis-g uard ; in the whole one
hundred and twenty-eight.

‘‘Nov. 22, 1804. Marched from Fort Marlborough, and Dec. 3, ar-
rived at Ipu. The roads extremely bad from the torrents of rain that fell.

4th. Mr. Hawthorne, the Resident, informed us that the enemy had
fortified themselves at a place called Tabe-si-kuddi, but on hearing of the
approach of the detachment, had gone off to the hills in the Suiigei-
tenang country and fortified themselves at Koto Tuggoh, a village that
had been a receptacle for all the vagabonds from the districts near the
coast. 13th. Having procured coolies and provisions, for which we have
been hitherto detained, quitted Ipu in an ENE. direction, and passed
through several pepper and rice plantations. At dusun Baru one of our
people caught a fine large fish, called ikan gadis. 14th. Marched in a
SE. direction ; crossed several rivulets, and reached again the banks of
Ipu river, which we crossed. It was about four feet deep, and very
rapid. Passed the night at dusun Arah. The country rather hilly;
thermometer 88° at noon. loth. Reached dusun Tanjong , the last place
in the Ipu district where rice or any other provision is to be found, and
these were sent on from Talcing Puttei , this place being deserted by its
inhabitants, several of whom the enemy had carried off with them as
slaves. The country very hilly, and roads, in consequence of the heavy
rains, bad and slippery. 1 6th. Marched in aN. and E. direction. After
crossing the Ayer Ikan stream twice, we arrived at some hot springs, Hotspriogs.
about three or four miles, in the winding course we were obliged to take,
from dusun Tanjong, situated in a low, swampy spot, about sixty yards
in circumference. This is very hot in every part of it, excepting (which
is very extraordinary) one place on its eastern side, where, although a
hot spring is bubbling up within one yard of it, the water running from
it is as cold as common spring water. In consequence of the excessive
heat of the place, and softness of the ground, none of us could get close
to the springs ; but upon putting the thermometer within three yards of
them, it immediately rose to 120° of Fahrenheit. We could not bear
our fingers any time in the water. It tasted copperish and bitter;
there was a strong sulphureous smell at the place, and a green sediment
at the bottom and sides of the spring, with a reddish or copper-coloured

scum

310

SUMATRA.

scum floating on the surface. After 1 again crossing the Ikan stream
we arrived at dusun Simpang. The enemy had been here, and had
burned nearly half of the village, and carried off the inhabitants. The
road from Tanjong to Simpa?ig was entirely through a succession of pep-
per-gardens and rice plantations. We are now among the hills. Coun-
try in a higher state of cultivation than near the coast, but nearly de-
serted, and must soon become a waste. Could not get intelligence of the
enemy. Built huts on Ayer Ikan , at Napali Kapah. l?th. Marched in
a S. direction, and crossed Ayer Tubbu, passing a number of durian trees
on its bank. Again crossed the stream several times. Arrived early at
Tabe-si-kuddi , a small talang, where the enemy had built three batteries
or entrenchments, and left behind them a quantity of grain, but vege-
tating and unfit for use. Previously to our reaching these entrenchments
some of the detachment got wounded in the feet with ranjaus, set very
thickly in the ground in every direction, and which obliged us to be
very cautious in our steps, until we arrived at the banks of a small rivulet,
Ranjaus. called the Nibong, two or three miles beyond them. Ranjaus are slips
of bamboo, sharpened at each end ; the part that is stuck in the ground
being thicker than the opposite end, which decreases to a fine, thin
point, and is hardened by dipping it in oil and applying it to the smoke
of a lamp near the flame, d hey are planted in the foot-paths, some-
times erect, sometimes sloping, in small holes, or in muddy and miry
places, and when trodden upon (for they are so well concealed as not to
be easily seen) they pierce through the foot and make a most disagree-
able wound, the bamboo leaving in it a rough, hairy stuff it has on its
outside, which irritates, inflames, and prevents it from healing. The
whole of the road this day lay over a succession of steep hills, and in the
latter part covered with deep forests. The whole of the detachment did
not reach our huts on the bank of the Nibong stream till evening, much
time being consumed in bringing on the mortar and magazine. Picked
up pouches, musket stocks, &c. and saw new huts, near one of which
was a quantity of dotted blood and a fresh grave. 18th. Proceeded
ENE. and passed several rivulets. Regained the banks of the Ipu river,
running NE. to SW. here tolerably broad and shallow, being a succession
of rapids over a rough, stony bed. Encamped both this night and the
last where the enemy had built huts. 19th. Marched in a N. direction.

S U M A T R A.

311

More of the detachment wounded by ranjaus planted in the path-ways.

Roads slippery and bad from rains, and the hills so steep, it is with dif-
ficulty we get the mortar and heavy baggage forward. Killed a green
snake with black spots along its back ; about four feet long, four to five
inches in girt, and with a thick, stumpy tail. The natives say its bite
is venomous. Our course to-day has been N. along the banks of the Ipu
river; the noise of the rapids so great, that when near it we can with
difficulty hear each other speak. 20th. Continued along the river, cross-
ing it several times. Came to a hot spring, in the water of which the
thermometer rose to 100®, at a considerable distance from its source.

The road to-day tolerably level and good. We were much plagued by a
small kind of leech, which dropped on us from the leaves of the trees. Leeches,
and got withinside our clothes. We were, in consequence, on our halt-
ing every day, obliged to strip and bathe ourselves, in order to detach
them from our bodies, filled with the blood they bad sucked from us.

They were not above an inch in length, and before they fixed themselves,
as thin as a needle, so that they could penetrate our dress in any part.

We encamped this evening at the conflux of the Simpang stream and Ipu
river. Our huts were generally thatched with the puar or wild carda-
mum leaf, which grows in great abundance on the banks of the rivers
in this part of the country. It bears a pleasant acid fruit, growing much
in the same way as the maiz. In long journeys through the woods,
when other provisions fail, the natives live principally on this. The leaf
is something like that of the plantain, but not nearly so large. 21st.
Arrived at a spot called Dingau-benar, from whence we were obliged to
return on account of the coolies not being able to descend a hill which
was at least an hundred and fifty yards high, and nearly perpendicular.

In effecting it we were obliged to cling to the trees and roots, without
which assistance it would have been impracticable. It was nearly even-
ing before one half of the detachment had reached the bottom, and it
rained so excessively hard, that we were obliged to remain divided for
the night ; the rear party on the top of the steep hill, and the advanced
on the brow of another hill. One of the guides and a Malay cooley
were drowned in attempting to find a ford across the Ipu river. I was
along time before wre could get any fire, every thing being completely
soaked through, and the greater part of the poor fellows had not time to

build

312

SUMATRA.

Irregularity
of compass.

build huts for themselves. Military disposition for guarding baggage,
preventing surprise, &c. 22d. We had much difficulty in getting the

mortar and its bed down, being obliged to make use of long, thick rat-
tans, tied to them, and successively to several trees. It was realy admi-
rable to observe the patience of the sepoys and Bengal convicts on this
occasion. On mustering the coolies, found that nearly one half had run
during the night, which obliged us to fling away twenty bags of rice,
besides salt and other articles. Our course lay N. crossing the river
several times. My poor faithful dog Gruff was carried away by the
violence of the stream and lost. We were obliged to make bridges, by
cutting down tall trees, laying them across the stream, and interlacing
them with rattans.

“ We were now between two ranges of very high hills ; on our right
hand Bukit Pandang, seen from a great distance at sea; the road shock-
ingly bad. Encamped on the western bank. 23d. Marched in a N.
direction ; the roads almost impassable. The river suddenly swelled so
much, that the rear party could not join the advanced, which was so
fortunate as to occupy huts built by the enemy. There were fires in two
of them. We were informed, however, that the Serampei and Sungei-
tenang people often come this distance to catch fish, which they dry and
carry back to their country. At certain times of the year great quan-
tities of the ringkis and ikan-gadis are taken, besides a kind of large
conger-eel. We frequently had fish, when time would admit of the
people catching them. It is impossible to describe the difficulties we
had to encounter in consequence of the heavy rains, badness of the roads,
and rapidity of the river. The sepoy officer and many men ill of fluxes
and fevers, and lame with swelled and sore feet. 24th. Military precau-
tions. Powder damaged. Thunder and lightning, with torrents of rain.
Almost the whole of the rice rotten or sour. 23th. Continued to march
up the banks of the river. No inhabitants in this part of the country.
The compass for these several days has been very irregular. We have
two with us, and they do not at all agree. The road less bad. At one
place we saw bamboos of the thickness of a man’s thigh. There were
myriads of very small flies this evening, which teazed us much. Occu-
pied some huts we found on the eastern bank. This is Christmas even-
ing;

SUMATRA.

313

ing; to us, God knows, a dull one. Our wines and liquors nearly
expended, and we have but one miserable half-starved chicken left, al-
though we have been on short allowance the whole way. 26th. Roads
tolerable. Passed a spot called Kappah, and soon after a waterfall,
named Ipu-machang, about sixty feet high. Picked up a sick man be-
longing to the enemy. He informed us that there were between two
and three hundred men collected at Koto Tuggoh, under the command
of Sutan Sidi, Sutan Asing, and Pa Mancha. These three chiefs made
a festival, killing buffaloes, as is usual with the natives of Sumatra on
such occasions, at this place, and received every assistance from the
principal Dupati, who is also father-in-law to Pa Muncha. They pos-
sess sixty stand of muskets, beside blunderbusses and wall-pieces. They
had quitted the Company’s districts about twenty-three days ago, and
are gone, some to Koto Tuggoh , and others to Pakalavg-jambu. 27th.

Marched in a NNE. direction; passed over a steep hill which took us
three hours hard walking. The river is now very narrow and rapid, not
above twelve feet across ; it is a succession of waterfalls every three or
four yards. After this our road was intricate, winding, and bad. We
had to ascend a high chasm formed in the rock, which was effected by
ladders from one shelf to another. Arrived at the foot of Bukit Pandang,
where we found huts, and occupied them for the night. We have been
ascending the whole of this day. Very cold and rainy. At night we
were glad to make large fires, and use our blankets and woollen clothes.

Having now but little rice left, we were obliged to put ourselves to an
allowance of one bamboo or gallon measure among ten men ; and the
greater part of that rotten. 28th. Ascended Bukit Pandang in an ENE. Ascend a high
direction. Reached a small spring of water called Pondo Kubang, the only
one to be met with till the hill is descended. About two miles from the
top, and from thence all the way up, the trees and ground were co-
vered very thick with moss; the trees much stunted, and altogether the
appearance was barren and gloomy ; to us particularly so, for we could
find little or nothing wherewith to build our huts, nor procure a bit of
dry wood to light a fire. In order to make one for dressing the victuals,

Lieut. Dare was compelled to break up one of his boxes, otherwise he
and Mr. Alexander, the surgeon, must have eaten them raw. It rained
hard all night, and the coolies and most of the party were obliged to lie

2 S down

314

SUMATRA.

Men die from
severity of
weather.

down on the wet ground in the midst of it. It was exceedingly cold to
our feelings; in the evening the thermometer was down to 30°, and in
the night to 43°. In consequence of the cold, inclemency, and fatigue,
to which the coolies were exposed, seven of them died that night. The
lieutenant and surgeon made themselves a kind of shelter with four tar-
paulins that were fortunately provided to cover the medicine chest and
surgical instruments, but the place was so small, that it scarcely held
them both. In the evening when the former was sitting on his camp-
stool, whilst the people were putting up the tarpaulins, a very small
bird, perfectly black, came hopping about the stool, picking up the
worms from the moss. It was so tame and fearless, that it frequently
perched itself on his foot, and on different parts of the stool ; which
shews that these parts of the country must be very little frequented by
human beings. 29th. Descended Bukit Pandang Another cooley died
this morning. We are obliged to fling away shells. After walking
some time many of the people recovered, as it was principally from
cold and damps they suffered. Crossed a stream called Inum , where
we saw several huts. In half an hour more arrived at the banks of the
greater Ayer Dikit river, which is here shallow, rapid, and about eighty
yards broad. We marched westerly along its banks, and reached a hut
opposite to a spot called Rantau Kramas, where we remained for the
night, being prevented from crossing by a flood. 30th. Cut down a
large tree and threw it across the river ; it reached about half way over.
With this, and the assistance of rattans tied to the opposite side, we
effected our passage and arrived at Rantau Kramas. Sent off people
to Raima Alii, one of the Serampei villages, about a day’s march from
hence, for provisions. Therm. 39".

The greater Ayer Dikit river, on the N. side of which this place lies,
runs nearly from E. to W. There are four or five bamboo huts at it,
for the temporary habitation of travellers passing and repassing this way,
being in the direction from the Serampei to the Sungei-tenang country.
These huts are covered with bamboos (in plenty here) split and placed
like pantiles, transversely over each other, forming, when the bamboos
are well-grown, a capital and lasting roof (see p. 58). 31st. A Malay

man and woman taken by our people report, that the enemy, thirteen

1 _• days

SUMATRA.

315

lays ago, had proceeded two' days march beyond Koto Tuggoh. Received
some provisions from Ranna Alii. The enemy, we are informed, have
dug holes, and put long stakes into them, set spring-spears, and planted
the road very thickly with ranjans, and were collecting their force at
Koto Tuggoh (signifying the strong fortress) to receive us. 1805. Jan.
1st and 2d. Received some small supplies of provisions.

“ On the 3d we were saluted by shouting and firing of the enemy from
the heights around us. Parties were immediately sent oft* in different
directions, as the nature of the ground allowed. The advanced party
had only time to fire two rounds, when the enemy retired to a strong
position on the top of a steep hill where they had thrown up a breast-
work, which they disputed for a short time. On our getting possession
of it, they divided into three parties and fled. We had one sepoy
killed, and several of the detachment wounded by the ranjaus. Many
of the enemy were killed and wounded, and the paths they had taken
covered with blood ; but it is impossible to tell their numbers, as they
always carry them off the moment they drop, considering it a disgrace
to leave them on the field of battle. If they get any of the bodies of
their enemies, they immediately strike off the head, and fix it on a long
pole, carrying it to their village as a trophy, and addressing to it every
sort of abusive language. Those taken alive in battle are made slaves.
After completely destroying every thing in the battery, we marched,
and arrived at the top of a very high hill, where we built our huts for
the evening. The road was thickly planted with ranjaus , which, with
the heavy rains, impeded our progress, and prevented us from reaching
a place called Danau-pau. Our course to-day has been NE. and eas-
terly; the roads shockingly bad, and we were obliged to leave behind
several coolies and two sepoys, who were unable to accompany us. 4th.
Obliged to fling away the bullets of the cartridges, three-fourths of
which were damaged, and other articles. Most of the detachment sick
with fluxes and fevers, or wounded in the feet. Marched in an eastern
direction. Reached a spot very difficult to pass, being knee-deep in
mud for a considerable way, with ranjaus concealed in the mud, and
spring-spears set in many places. We were obliged to creep through a
thicket of canes and bamboos. About noon the advanced party arrived

2 S 2 at

Come up with
the enemy.

Attack.

316

SUMATRA.

at a lake, and discovered that the enemy were on the opposite side of a
small stream that ran from the lake, where they had entrenched them- .
selves behind four small batteries, in a most advantageous position, being
on the top of a steep hill, of difficult access, with the stream on one side.
Entrench- the lake on the other, and the other parts surrounded by a swamp. We
tacked and immediately commenced the attack, but were unable, from the number

c&rncda •

of ranjaus in the only accessible part, to make a push on to the enemy.
However, about one o’clock, we effected our purpose, and completely
got possession of the entrenchments, which, had they been properly
defended, must have cost us more than the half of our detachment. We
had four sepoys severely wounded, and almost the whole of our feet
dreadfully cut. Numbers of the enemy were killed and wounded. They
defended each of the batteries with some obstinacy against our fire, but
when once we came near them, they could not stand our arms, and ran
in every direction. At this place there are no houses nor inhabitants,
but only temporary huts, built by the Sungei-tenang people, who come
here occasionally to fish. The lake, which is named Danau-pau , has
a most beautiful appearance, being like a great amphitheatre ; sur-
rounded by high and steep mountains covered with forests. It is about
two miles in diameter. ■ We occupied some huts built by the enemy.
The place is thickly surrounded with bamboos.

Motives for “ In consequence of the number of our sick and wounded, the small
theUcoast.t0 strength of coolies to carry their baggage, and the want of medicines
and ammunition, as well as of provisions, we thought it advisable to
return to Rantau Kramas ; and to effect this, we were obliged to fling
away the mortar-bed, shells, and a number of other things. We
marched at noon, and arrived in the evening at the top of the hill where
we had before encamped, and remained for the night. 6th. Reached
Rantau Kramas. 7th. Marching in torrents of rain. People exceedingly
harassed, reduced, and emaciated. Relieved by the arrival of Serampei
people with some provisions from Raima Alii. 8th. After a most fa-
tiguing march, arrived at that place half-dead with damps and cold.
The bearers of the litters for the sick were absolutely knocked up, and
we were obliged to the sepoys for getting on as we did. Our route was
NW. with little variation. 9th. Remained at Ranna Alii. This serampei

village

SUMATRA.

317

village consists of about fifteen houses, and may contain an hundred
and fifty or two hundred inhabitants. It is thickly planted all round
with a tall hedge of live bamboos, on the outside of which ranjaus are
planted to the distance of thirty or forty feet. Within side of the hedge
there is a bamboo pagar or paling. It is situated on a steep hill sur-
rounded by others, which in many places are cleared to their tops,
where the inhabitants have their ladangs or rice plantations. They
appeared to be a quiet, inoffensive set of people ; their language differ-
ent from the Malayan, which most of them spoke, but very imperfectly
and hardly to be understood by us. On our approach, the women and
children ran to their ladangs , being, as their husbands informed us,
afraid of the sepoys. Of the women whom we saw, almost every one
had the goitres or swellings under the throat ; and it seemed to be more Goitres,
prevalent with these than with the men. One woman in particular had
two protuberances dangling at her neck as big as quart bottles.

“ There are three dupatis and four mantris to this village, to whom we
made presents, and afterwards to the wives and families of the inhabitants.

10th and 11th. Preparing for our march to Moco-moco, where we can
recruit our force, and procure supplies of stores and ammunition. 12th.
Marched in a N. and NW. direction. Passed over a bridge of curious Hanging
construction across the Ayer Abu river. It was formed of bamboos tied bndse‘
together with iju ropes, and suspended to the trees, whose branches
stretched nearly over the stream.

“ The Serampei women are the worst favoured creatures we ever saw,
and uncouth in their manners. Arrived at Tanjong Kasiri, another for-
tified village, more populous than Hanna Alii. 13th. The sick and heavy
baggage were ordered to Tanjong Agung, another Serampei village. 14th.

Arrived at Ayer Grau or Abu, a small river, within a yard or two of
which we saw columns of smoke issuing from the earth, where there Hot springs
were hot springs of water bubbling up in a number of places. The
stream was quite warm for several yards, and the ground and stones were
so hot, that there was no standing on them for any length of time. The
large pieces of quartz, pumice, and other stones apparently burnt, in-
duce us to suppose there must have formerly been a volcano at this

spot.

318

SUMATR A.

Coconuts.

Cassia.

Peculiar re-
gulation.

spot, which is a deep vale, surrounded by high hills. Arrived much
fatigued at Tanjong Agung , where the head dupati received us in his
best style. He seemed to know more of European customs and manners
than those whom we have hitherto met with, and here, for the first time
since quitting the Ipu district, we got coconuts, which he presented to
us. We saw numbers of cassia-trees in our march to-day. The bark,
which the natives brought us in quantities, is sweet, but thick and
coarse, and much inferior to cinnamon. This is the last and best for-
tified village in the Serampei country, bordering on the forests between
that and Anak-Sungei. They have a custom here of never allowing
any animal to be killed in any part of the village but the balei or town-
hall ; unless the person wishing to do otherwise consents to pay a fine
of one fathom of cotton-cloth to the priest for his permission. The old
dupati told us there had been formerly a great deal of sickness and blood-
shed in the village, and it had been predicted, that unless this custom
were complied with, the like would happen again. We paid the fine,
had the prayers of the priest, and killed our goats where and as we
pleased. 16th. Marched in a south-westerly direction, and, after pass-
ing many steep hills, reached the lesser Ayer Dikit river, which we
crossed, and built our huts on its western bank. 17th. Marched in a
west, and afterwards a south, direction ; the roads, in consequence of
the rain ceasing to-day, tolerably dry and good, but over high hills. Ar-
rived at Ayer Prikan, and encamped on its western bank ; its course
N. and S. over a rough, stony bed; very rapid, and about thirty yards
across, at the foot of Bukit Lintang. Saw to-day abundance of cassia-
trees. 18th. Proceeded to ascend Bukit Lintang , which in the first part
was excessively steep and fatiguing; our route N. and NW. when de-
scending, SSW. Arrived at one of the sources of the Sungei-ipu. De-
scending still farther we reached a small spring, where we built our
huts. 19th. On our march this day we were gratified by the receipt of
letters from our friends at Bencoolen, by the way of Moco-moco, from
whence the Resident, Mr. Russell, sent us a supply of wine and other
refreshments, which we had not tasted for fourteen days. Our course
lay along the banks of the Sungei-ipu, and we arrived at huts prepared
for us by Mr. Russell. 20th. At one time our guide lost the proper
path, by mistaking for it the track of a rhinoceros (which are in great

numbers

SUMATRA.

319

numbers in these parts), and we got into a place where we were teazed
with myriads of leeches. Our road, excepting two or three small hills,
was level and good. Reached the confluence of the Ipu and Si Luggan
rivers, the latter of which rises in the Korinchi country. Passed Gunong
Payong, the last hill, as we approached Moco-moco, near to which had
been a village formerly burnt and the inhabitants made slaves by Pa
Mancha and the then t/iankumudo (son of the sultan). 21st. Arrived at
talang Rantau Riang, the first Moco-moco or Anak-Sungei village, where
we found provisions dressed for us. At dusun Si Ballozve, to which our
road lay south-easterly, through pepper and rice plantations, sampans
were in readiness to convey us down the river. This place is remark-
able for an arau tree (casuarina), the only one met with at such a
distance from the sea. The country is here level in comparison with
what we have passed through, and the soil rather sandy, with a mixture
of red clay. 22d. The course of the river is SW. and W. with many
windings. Arrived at Moco-moco.

“ Fort Ann lies on the southern and the settlement on the northern side
of the Si Luggan river, which name belongs properly to the place also,
and that of Moco-moco to a small village higher up. The bazar consists
of about one hundred houses, all full of children. At the northern end
is the sultan’s, which has nothing particular to distinguish it, but only
its being larger than other Malay houses. Great quantities of fish are
procured at this place, and sold cheap. The trade is principally with
the hill-people, in salt, piece-goods, iron, steel, and opium ; for which
the returns are provisions, timber, and a little gold-dust. Formerly
there was a trade carried on with the Padang and other ate aiigin peo-
ple, but it is now dropped. The soil is sandy, low, and flat.

“ It being still necessary to make an example of the Sungei-tenang peo-
ple for assisting the three hostile chiefs in their depredations, in order
thereby to deter others from doing the same in future ; and the men
being now recovered from their fatigue, and furnished with the requisite
supplies, the detachment began to march, on the 9th of February, for
Ayer Dikit. It now consists of Lieut. Dare, Mr. Alexander, surgeon,
seventy sepoys, including officers, twenty-seven lascars and Bengal con-
victs.

Description
of Moco-
moco.

Expedition

resumed.

320 -

SUMATRA.

victs, and eleven of the &Mgw-guard. Left the old mortar, and took
with us one of smaller calibre. From the 10th to the 22d occupied in
Account of our march to the Serampei village of Raima Alii. The people of this
comitryand country acknowledge themselves the subjects of the sultan of Jambi,

! t l le‘ who sometimes, but rarely, exacts a tribute from them of a buffalo, a
tail of gold, and an hundred bamboos of rice from each village. They
are accustomed to carry burthens of from sixty to ninety pounds weight,
on journeys that take them twenty or thirty days ; and it astonishes a
low-lander to see with what ease they walk over these hills, generallv
going a shuffling or ambling pace. Their loads are placed in a long,
triangular basket, supported by a fdlet across the forehead, resting
upon the back and back part of the head, the broadest end of the tri-
angle being uppermost, considerably above the head, and the small end
coming down as low as the loins. The Serampei country, comprehend-
ing fifteen fortified and independent dusuns, beside talangs or small open
villages, is bounded on the north and north-west by Kor inchi, on the
east, south-east, and south, by Pakalang-jambu and Suiigei-tenang, and
on the west and south-west by the greater Ayer Dikit river and chain of
high mountains bordering on the Sungei-ipa country. 23d. Reached
Rantau Kramas. Took possession of the batteries, which the enemy
had considerably improved in our absence, collecting large quantities
of stones ; but they were not manned, probably from not expecting
our return so soon. 24th. Arrived at those of Danau-pau, which had
also been strengthened. The roads being dry and weather fine, we are
enabled to make tolerably long marches. Our advanced party nearly
caught one of the enemy planting ranjaus, and in retreating he wounded
himself with them. 25th. Passed many small rivulets discharging them-
selves into the lake at this place. 26th. The officer commanding the
come up advanced party sent word that the enemy were at a short distance
enemy. a-head ; that they had felled a number of trees to obstruct the road, and
had thrown an entrenchment across it, extending from one swamp and
precipice to another; where they waited to receive us. When the
whole of the detachment had come up, we marched on to the attack,
scrambled over the trees, and with great difficulty got the mortar over.
The first onset was not attended with success, and our men were drop-
JS.attack ping fast, not being able to advance on account of the ranjaus, which

almost

SUMATRA.

321

almost pinned their feet to the ground. Seeing that the entrenchments
were not to be carried in front, a subedar, with thirty sepoys, and the
^Mow-guard, were ordered to endeavour to pass the swamp on the right,
find out a path-way, and attack the enemy on the flank and rear, while
the remainder should, on a preconcerted signal, make an attack on the
front at the same time. To prevent the enemy from discovering our
intentions, the drums were kept beating, and a few random shots fired.
Upon the signal being given, a general attack commenced, and our
success was complete. The enemy, of whom there were, as we reckon,
three or four hundred within the entrenchments, were soon put to the
rout, and, after losing great numbers, among whom was the head dupati ,
a principal instigator of the disturbances, fled in all directions. We
lost two sepoys killed and seven wounded, beside several much hurt by
the ranjaus. The mortar played during the time, but is not supposed to
have done much execution, on account of the surrounding trees. The
entrenchments were constructed of large trees laid horizontally between
stakes driven into the ground, about seven feet high, with loop-holes for
firing. Being laid about six feet thick, a cannon-ball could not have
penetrated. They extended eighty or ninety yards. The head-man’s
quarters were a large tree hollowed at the root.

“ As soon as litters could be made for the wounded, and the killed were
buried, we continued our march in an eastern direction, and in about
an hour arrived at another battery, which, however, was not defended.
In front of this the enemy had tied a number of long, sharp stakes to a
stone, which was suspended to the bough of a tree, and by swinging it,
their plan was to wound us. Crossed the Tambesi rivulet, flowing from
south to north, and one of the contributary streams to the Jarnbi river,
which discharges itself into the sea on the eastern side of the island.
Built our huts near a field of maiz and padi. 27th. Marched to Koto
Tuggoh, from whence the inhabitants fled on our throwing one shell and
firing a few muskets, and we took possession of the place. It is situated
on a high hill, nearly perpendicular on three sides, the easiest entrance
being on the west, but it is there defended by a ditch seven fathoms
deep and five wide. The place contains the ballei and about twenty
houses, built in general of plank very neatly put together, and carved •

2 T and

Entrench-
ments car-
ried.

Their con-
struction.

Arrive at a
stream run-
ning into
Jambi river.

Koto Tug-
goh.

322

SUMATRA.

Destroyed.

Enter Koto
Bharu.

Peace con-
cluded.

Mode of
taking an
oath.

and some of them were also roofed with planks or shingles, about two
feet long and one broad. The others, with the leaves of the puar or
cardamum, which are again very thinly covered with iju. This is said
to last long, but harbours vermin, as we experienced. When we entered
the village we met with only one person, who was deformed, dumb, and
had more the appearance of a monkey than a human creature. March
1st. After completely destroying Koto Tuggoh., we marched in a N. and
afterwards an E. direction, and arrived at Koto Bharu. The head dupati
requesting a parley, it was granted, and, on our promising not to injure
his village, he allowed us to take possession of it. We found in the place
a number of Batang Asei and other people, armed with muskets, blunder-
busses, and spears. At our desire, he sent off people to the other Sungei-
tenang villages, to summon their chiefs to meet us, if they chose to shew
themselves friends, or otherwise we should proceed against them as we
had done against Koto Tuggoh . This dupati was a respectable looking
old man, and tears trickled down his cheeks when matters were amica-
bly settled between us : indeed, for some time, he could hardly be con-
vinced of it, and repeatedly asked, “ Are we friends?” 2d. The chiefs
met as desired, and after a short conversation agreed to all that we pro-
posed. Papers were thereupon drawn up, and signed and sworn to under
the British colours. After this, a shell was thrown into the air, at the
request of the chiefs, who were desirous of witnessing the sight.

tf Their method of swearing was as follows : The young shoots of the
anau- tree were made into a kind of rope, with the leaves hanging, and
this was attached to four stakes stuck in the ground, forming an area of
five or six feet square, within which a mat was spread, where those
about to take the oath seated themselves. A small branch of the prickly
bamboo was planted in the area also, and benzoin was kept burning
during the ceremony. The chiefs then laid their hands on the koran,
held to them by a priest, and one of them repeated to the rest the
substance of the oath, who, at the pauses he made, gave a nod of
assent ; after which they severally said, “ may the earth become bar-
ren, the air and water poisonous, and may dreadful calamities fall on
us and our posterity, if we do not fulfil what we now agree to and
promise,”

“ We

SUMATRA.

323

u We met here with little or no fruit, excepting plantains and pine-
apples, and these of an indifferent sort. The general produce of the
country was maiz, padi, potatoes, sweet potatoes, tobacco, and sugar-
canes. The principal part of their clothing was procured from the
eastern side of the island. They appear to have no regular season for
sowing the grain, and we saw plantations where in one part they had
taken in the crop, in another part it was nearly ripe, in a third not above
five inches high, and in a fourth they had but just prepared the ground
for sowing. Upon the whole, there appeared more cultivation than near
the coast. It is a practice with many individuals among these people
(as with mountaineers in some parts of Europe) to leave their country in
order to seek employment where they can find it, and at the end of three
or four years revisit their native soil, bringing with them the produce of
their labours. If they happen to be successful, they become itinerant
merchants, and travel to almost all parts of the island, particularly where
fairs are held, or else purchase a matcb-lock-gun, and become soldiers
of fortune, hiring themselves to whoever will pay them, but always ready
to come forward in defence of their country and families. They are a
thick, stout, dark race of people, something resembling the Achinese ;
and in general they are addicted to smoking opium. We had no oppor-
tunity of seeing the Sungei-tenang women. The men are very fantastical
in their dress. Their bajus have the sleeves blue, perhaps, whilst the
body is white, with stripes of red or any other colour over the shoulders,
and their short breeches are generally one half blue and the other white,
just as fancy leads them. Others again are dressed entirely in blue
cotton cloth, the same as the inhabitants of the west coast. The bag
containing their sirih or betel hangs over the shoulder by a string, if it
may be so termed, of brass-wire. Many of them have also twisted brass-
wire round the waist, in which they stick their krises. They commonly
carry charms about their persons to preserve them from accidents; one
of which was shewn to us, printed (at Batavia or Samarang in Java) in
Dutch, Portuguese, and French. It purported that the writer was ac-
quainted with the occult sciences, and that whoever possessed one of the
papers impressed with his mark (which was the figure of a hand with the
thumb and fingers extended) was invulnerable and free from all kinds of
harm. It desired the people to be very cautious of taking any such, printed

Account of
Sungei-te-
nang coun-
try.

Manners of
people.

Charms.

324

SUMATRA.

Return to
the coast.

in London (where, certainly, none were ever printed), as the English
would endeavour to counterfeit them and to impose on the purchasers,
being all cheats. (Whether we consider this as a political or a mer-
cantile speculation, it is not a little extraordinary and ridiculous). The
houses here, as well as in the Serampei country, are all built on posts
of what they call paku gajah (elephant-fern, chamaerops palma, Lour),
a tree something resembling a fern, and when full-grown, a palm-tree.
It is of a fibrous nature, black, and lasts for a great length of time.
Every dusun has a ballei or town-hall, about an hundred and twenty feet
long and proportionably broad, the wood-work of which is neatly carved.
The dwelling-houses contain five, six, or seven families each, and the
country is populous. The inhabitants both of Sungei-tenang and Seram-
pei are Mahometans, and acknowledge themselves subjects of Jambi.
The former country, so well as we were able to ascertain, is bounded
on the N. and NW. by Korinchi and Serampei, on the W. and SW.
by the Anak-sungei or Moeo-moco and Ipu districts, on the S. by
Laban , and on the E. by Batang Asei and P akalang-jambu. 3d.
Marched on our return to the coast, many of the principal people at-
tending us as far as the last of their plantations. It rained hard almost
the whole of this day. On the 14th arrived at Moco-moco ; on the 22d
proceeded for Bencoolen, and arrived there on the 30th March, 1805,
after one of the most fatiguing and harassing expeditions any detach-
ment of troops ever served upon ; attended with the sickness of the
whole of the party, and the death of many, particularly of Mr. Alex-
ander, the surgeon.” It is almost unnecessary to observe, that these
were the consequences of the extreme impolicy of sending an expedi-
tion up the country in the heart of the rainy season. The public orders
issued on the occasion were highly creditable to Lieutenant Dare.

Malayan

SUMATRA.

325

Malayan States^- Ancient Empire of Menangkabau— Origin of the Malays and
general acceptation of Name — Evidences cf their Migration from Sumatra
— Succession of Malayan Princes — Present State of the Empire — Titles of
the Sultan — Ceremonies — Conversion to Mahometan Religion — Literature
— Arts — Warfare — Government.

I SHALL now take a more particular view of the Malayan states, as Malayan

stat€Si

distinguished from those of the people termed orang ulu or countrymen,
and orang dusun or villagers, who, not being generally converted to the
Mahometan religion, have thereby preserved a more original character.

The principal government, and whose jurisdiction in ancient times is Empire of
understood to have comprehended the whole of Sumatra, is Menangka- bau?angk<
bau* situated under the equinoctial line, beyond the western range of
high mountains, and nearly in the centre of the island ; in which respect
it differs from Malayan establishments in other parts, which are almost
universally near the mouths of large rivers. The appellations, however,
of orang menangkabau and orang malayo are so much identified, that
previously to entering upon an account of the former, it will be useful
to throw as much light as possible upon the latter, and to ascertain to
what description of people the name of Malays, bestowed by Europeans
upon all who resemble them in features and complexion, properly be-
longs.

It has hitherto been considered as an obvious

truth, and admitted 0J!8!n °e

Malays.

without

a The name is said to be derived from the words menanir, signifying “to win,” and karbau,
a buffalo ; from a story, carrying a very fabulous air, of a famous engagement on that spot
between the buffaloes and tigers, in which the former are stated to have acquired a com-
plete victory. Such is the account the natives give; but they are fond of dealing in
fiction, and the etymology has probably no better foundation than a fanciful resemblance
of sound.

326

SUMATRA.

without examination, that wherever they are found upon the numerous
islands forming this archipelago, they, or their ancestors, must have
migrated from the country named by Europeans (and by them alone)
the Malayan peninsula or peninsula of Malacca, of which the indigenous
and proper inhabitants were understood to be Malays ; and accordingly
in the former editions of this work I spoke of the natives of Menangkabau
as having acquired their religion, language, manners, and other national
characteristics, from the settling among them of genuine Malays from
the neighbouring continent. It will, however, appear from the authori-
ties I shall produce, amounting as nearly to positive evidence as the
nature of the subject will admit, that the present possessors of the coasts
of the peninsula were, on the contrary, in the first instance adventurers
from Sumatra, who, in the twelfth century, formed an establishment
there, and that the indigenous inhabitants, gradually driven by them to
the woods and mountains, so far from being the stock from whence the
Malays were propagated, are an entirely different race of men, nearly
approaching in their physical character to the negroes of Africa.

Migration The evidences of this migration from Sumatra are chiefly found in two
tra. " Malayan books well known, by character at least, to those who are
conversant with the written language, the one named Taju assalatin or
Makuta segala raja-raja , The Crown of all Kings, and the other, more
immediately to the purpose, Sulalat assalatin or Penurun-an segala raja-
raja, The Descent of all (Malayan) Kings. Of these it has not been
my good fortune to obtain copies, but the contents, so far as they apply
to the present subject, have been fully detailed by two eminent Dutch
writers, to whom the literature of this part of the East was familiar.
Petrus van der Worm first communicated the knowledge of these
historical treatises in his learned Introduction to the Malayan Vocabulary
of Gueynier, printed at Batavia in the year 1677 ; and extracts to the
same effect were afterwards given by Valentyn in Vol. V. p. 316-20 of his
elaborate work, published at Amsterdam in 1726. The books are like-
wise mentioned in a list of Malayan Authors, by G. H. Werndly, at
the end of his Maleische Spraak-kunst, and by the ingenious Dr. Leyden
in his Paper on the Languages and Literature of the Indo-Chinese
Nations, recently published in Vol. X. of the Asiatic Researches. The

substance

SUMATRA.

327

substance of the information conveyed by them is as follows ; and I trust
it will not be thought that the mixture of a portion of mythological fable
in accounts of this nature, invalidates what might otherwise have credit
as historical fact. The utmost, indeed, we can pretend to ascertain is,
what the natives themselves believe to have been their ancient history ;
and it is proper to remark, that in the present question there can be no
suspicion of bias from national vanity, as we have reason to presume
that the authors of these books were not Sumatrans.

The original countrj' inhabited by the Malayan race (according to
these authorities) was the kingdom of Palembang in the island of Indalus ,
now Sumatra, on the river Malayo, which flows by the mountain named
Maha-meru, and discharges itself into the river Tatang (on which Pa-
lembang stands) before it joins the sea. Having chosen for their king or
leader a prince named Sri Turi Buwana , who boasted his descent from
Iskander the Great, and to whom, on that account, their natural chief
Demang Tebar Daun submitted his authority, they emigrated, under his
command, (about the year 1160) to the south-eastern extremity of the
opposite peninsula, named Ujong Tanah, where they were at first dis-
tinguished by the appellation of orang de-bawah aright or the Leeward
people, but in time the coast became generally known by that of Tanah
malayo or the Malayan land.

In this situation they built their first city, which they called Shiga- Singapura
pura (vulgarly Sincapore), and their rising consequence excited the
jealousy of the kings of Maja-pahit, a powerful state in the island of
Java. To Sri Turi Buwana, who died in 1208, succeeded Paduka
Pikaram IVira, who reigned fifteen years j to him Sri Rama Vikaram,
who reigned thirteen, and to him Sri Maharaja, who reigned twelve.

His successor, Sri Iskander Shah, was the last king of Singa-pur a. Dur-
ing three years he withstood the forces of the king of Maja-pahit , but
in 1252, being hard pressed, he retired first to the northward, and af-
terwards to the western, coast of the peninsula, where, in the following
year, he founded a new city, which under his wise government became
of considerable importance. To this lie gave the name o i Malaka, from Maiaka
a fruit-bearing tree so called (myrabolanum) found in abundance on the bllllt

hill

SUMATRA.

328

hill which gives natural strength to the situation.* Having reigned here
twenty-two years, beloved by his subjects and feared by his neighbours,
Iskander Shah died in 1274, and was succeeded by Sultan Magat , who
reigned only two years. Up to this period the Malayan princes were
pagans. Sultan Muhammed Shah, who ascended the throne in 1276,
was the first Mahometan prince, and by the propagation of this faith
acquired great celebrity during a long reign of fifty-seven years. His
influence appears to have extended over the neighbouring islands of
Lingga and Bintan, together with Johor, Patani, Kedah, and Perak, on
the coasts of the peninsula, and Campar and Aru in Sumatra; all of
which acquired the appellative of Malayo, although it was now more

especially

* The account given by John de Barros of the abandonment of the Malayan city of Singa-
pura and foundation of Malacca, differs materially from the above ; and although the autho-
rity of a writer, who collected his materials in Lisbon, cannot be put in competition with
that of Valentyn, who passed a long and laborious life amongst the people, and quotes the
native historians, I shall give an abstract of his relation, from the sixth book of the second
Decade. “ At the period when Cingapura flourished, its king was named Sangesinga ; and
in the neighbouring island of Java reigned Pardrisd, upon whose death the latter country
became subject to the tyranny of his brother, who put one of his nephews to death, and
forced many of the nobles, who took part against him, to seek refuge abroad. Among these
was one named Paramisora, whom Sangesinga received with hospitality that was badly re-
quited, for the stranger soon found means lo put him to death, and by the assistance of the
Javans who accompanied him in his flight, to take possession of the city. The king of Siam,
whose son-in-law and vassal the deceased was, assembled a large force by sea and land, and
compelled the usurper to evacuate Cingapura with two thousand followers, a part of whom
were Cellates ( orang sellat men of the Straits) accustomed to live by fishing and piracy,
who had assisted him in seizing and keeping the throne during five years. They disem-
barked at a place called Muar, an hundred and fifty leagues from thence, where Paramisora
and his own people fortified themselves. The Cellates, whom he did not chuse to trust,
proceeded five leagues farther, and occupied a bank of the river where the fortress of Ma-
lacca now stands. Here they united with the half-savage natives, who, like themselves,
spoke the Malayan language, and the spot they had chosen becoming too confined for their
increasing numbers, they moved a league higher up, to one more convenient, and were at
length joined by their former chief and his companions. During the government of his son,
named Xaquen Darxa (a strange Portuguese corruption of Iskander or Sekander Shah) they
again descended the river, in order to enjoy the advantages of a sea-port, and built a town,
which, from the fortunes of his father, was named Malacca, signifying an exile.” Every
person conversant with the language must know that the word does not bear that nor any
similar meaning, and an error so palpable throws discredit on the whole narrative.

SUMATRA.

especially applied to the people of Malaka, or, as it is commonly writ-
ten, Malacca. He left the peaceful possession of his dominions to his
son Sultan Abu Shahid , who had reigned only one year and five months,
when he was murdered in 1334 by the king of Arrakan, with whose
family his father had contracted a marriage. His successor was Sultan
Modafar or M izafar Shah, who was distinguished for the wisdom of his
government, of which he left a memorial in a Book of Institutes or Laws
of Malaka, held to this day in high estimation. This city was now
regarded as the third in rank (after Maja-pahit on Java, and Pase on
Sumatra) in that part of the East.

- % \

About the year 1340 the king of Siam being jealous of the growing
power of Malaka, invaded the country, and in a second expedition laid
siege to the capital ; but his armies were defeated by the general of
Modafar, named Sri Nara Dirija. After these events Modafar reigned
some years with much reputation, and died in 1374. His son, originally
named Sultan Abdul , took the title of Sultan Mansur Shah upon his ac-
cession. At the time that the king of Maja-pahit drove the Malays from
Singa-pura, as above related, he likewise subdued the country of Indra-
giri in Sumatra ; but upon the occasion of Mansur Shah’s marriage
(about the year 1380) with the daughter of the then reigning king, a
princess of great celebrity, named Radin Gala Chendra Kir an, it was
assigned to him as her portion, and has since continued (according to
Valentyn) under the dominion of the princes of Malaka. Mansur appears
to have been engaged in continual wars, and to have obtained successes
against Pahang, Pase, and Makasar. His reign extended to the almost
incredible period of seventy-three years, being succeeded in 1447 by his
son Sidtan Ala-wa-eddin. During his reign of thirty years nothing par-
ticular is recorded ; but there is reason to believe that his country during
some part of that time was under the power of the Siamese. Sultan
Mahmud Shah, who succeeded him, was the twelfth Malayan king, and
the seventh and last king of Malaka. In 1509 he repelled the aggression
of the king of Siam ; but in 1511 was conquered by the Portuguese un-
der Alfonso d’ Albuquerque, and forced, with the principal inhabitants,
to fly to the neighbourhood of the first Malayan establishment at the
extremity of the peninsula, where he founded the city of Johor, which Johor

2 U still founded-

330

SUMATRA.

still subsists, but has never attained to any considerable importance,
owing, as it may be presumed, to the European influence that has ever
since, under the Portuguese, Hollanders, and English, predominated in
that quarter.3

Ancient

religion.

With respect to the religion professed by the Malayan princes at the
time of their migration from Sumatra, and for about 116 years after,
little can be known, because the writers, whose works have reached us,
lived since the period of conversion, and as good Mahometans would
have thought it profane to enter into the detail of superstitions, which
they regard with abhorrence ; but, from the internal evidence we can
entertain little doubt of its having been the religion of Brahma , much
corrupted, however, and blended with the antecedent rude idolatry of the
country, such as we now find it amongst the Battas. Their proper names
or titles are obviously Hindu , with occasional mixture of Persian, and
their mountain of Maha-meru , elsewhere so well known as the seat of
Indra and the dewas , sufficiently points out the mythology adopted in the
country. I am not aware that at the present day there is any mountain
in Sumatra called by that name; but it is reasonable to presume that
appellations decidedly connected with Paganism may have been changed
by the zealous propagators of the new faith, and I am much inclined
to believe, that by the Maha-meru of the Malays is to be understood the
mountain of Sungei-pagu in the Menangkabau country, from whence
issue rivers that flow to both sides of the island. In the neighbourhood
of this reside the chiefs of the four great tribes, called ampat suku or four

quarters,

* It was subdued by the Portuguese in 1608. In 1641 Malacca was taken from them by
the Hollanders, who held it till the present war, which has thrown it into the possession of
the English. The interior boundaries of its territory, according to the Transactions of the
Batavian Society, are the mountains of Rombou, inhabited by a Malayan people named
Maning Cabou, and Mount Ophir, called by the natives Gunong-Ledang. These limits, say
they, it is impracticable for an European to pass, the whole coast, for some leagues from
the sea, being either a morass or impenetrable forest; and these natural difficulties are ag-
gravated by the treacherous and blood-thirsty character of the natives. The description,
which will be found in Vol. IV. p. 333-4, is evidently overcharged. In speaking of Johor,
the original emigration of a Malayan colony from Sumatra to the mouth of that river, which
gave its name to the whole coast, is briefly mentioned.

SUMATRA.

331

quarters, one of which is named Malayo, (the others, Kampi , Pani , and
Tiga-lara ) ; and it is probable, that to it belonged the adventurers who
undertook the expedition to Ujong Tanah, and perpetuated the name of
their particular race in the rising fortunes of the new colony. From
what circumstances they were led to collect their vessels for embarkation
at Palembang rather than at Indra-giri or Siak, so much more conveni-
ent in point of local position, cannot now be ascertained.

Having proposed some queries upon this subject to the late Mr.
Francis Light, who first settled the island of Pinang or Prince of Wales
island, in the Straits of Malacca, granted to him by the king of Kedah
as the marriage portion of his daughter, he furnished me, in answer, with
the following notices. “ The origin of the Malays, like that of other
people, is involved in fable ; every raja is descended from some demi-
god, and the people sprung from the ocean. According to their tradi-
tions, however, their first city of Singa-pura, near the present Johor,
was peopled from Palembang, from whence they proceeded to settle at
Malacca (naming their city from the fruit so called), and spread along
the coast. The peninsula is at present inhabited by distinct races of
people. The Siamese possess the northern part to latitude T, extending
from the east to the west side. The Malays possess the whole of the
sea-coast on both sides, from that latitude to Point Romania; being
mixed in some places with the Bugis from Celebes, who have still a small
settlement at Salangor. The inland parts to the northward are inhabited
by the Patani people, who appear to be a mixture of Siamese and Ma-
lays, and occupy independent dusuns or villages. Among the forests
and in the mountains are a race of Caffres, in every respect resembling
those of Africa, excepting in stature, which does not exceed four feet
eight inches. The Menangkabau people of the peninsula are so named
from an inland country in Pido Percha (Sumatra). A distinction is made
between them and the Malays of Johor, but none is perceptible.”

To these authorities I shall add that of Mr. Thomas Raffles, at this
time Secretary to the government of Pulo Pinang, a gentleman whose
intelligence, and zeal in the pursuit of knowledge, give the strongest
hope of his becoming an ornament to oriental literature. To his corres-

2 U 2 pondence

332

SUMATRA,

pondence I am indebted for much useful information in the line of my
researches, and the following passages corroborate the opinions I had
formed. “ With respect to the Menangkabaus, after a good deal of in-
quiry, I have not yet been able decidedly to ascertain the relation be-
tween those of that name in the peninsula, and the Menangkabaus of
Pulo Percha. The Malays affirm without hesitation, that they all came
originally from the latter island.” In a recent communication he adds,
“ I am more confident than ever that the Menangkabaus of the peninsula
derive their origin from the country of that name in Sumatra. Inland
of Malacca about sixty miles is situated the Malay kingdom of Rumbo,
whose sultan and all the principal officers of state hold their authority
immediately from Menangkabau , and have written commissions for
their respective offices. This shews the extent of that ancient power
even now, reduced as it must be, in common with that of the Malay
people in general. I had many opportunities of communicating with
the natives of Rumbo, and they have clearly a peculiar dialect, resem-
bling exactly what you mention of substituting the final o for a, as in
the word ambo for amba. In fact, the dialect is called by the Malacca
people the language of Menangkabau

History of
Menangka-
bau imper-
fectly
known.

Returning from this discussion, I shall resume the consideration of
what is termed the Sumatran empire of Menangkabau, believed by the
natives of all descriptions to have subsisted from the remotest times.
With its annals, either ancient or modern, we are little acquainted, and
the existence of any historical records in the country has generally been
doubted ; yet, as those of Malacca and of Acliin have been preserved,
it is not hastily to be concluded, that these people, who are the equals
of the former, and much superior to the latter, in point of literature,
are destitute of theirs, although they have not reached our hands. It is
known, that they deduce their origin from two brothers, named Pera-
pati-si-batang and Kei Tamanggungan , who are described as being among
the forty companions of Noah in the ark, and whose landing at Palem-
bang, or at a small island near it, named Langka-pura, is attended with
the circumstance of the dry land being first discovered by the resting
upon it of a bird that flew from the vessel. From thence they proceeded
to the mountain named Siguntang-guntang, and afterwards to Priaiigan

SUMATRA.

333

m the neighbourhood of the great volcano, which at this day is spoken
of as the ancient capital of Menangkabau. Unfortunately, I possess
only an imperfect abstract of this narrative, obviously intended for an
introduction to the genealogy of its kings, but, even as a fable, ex-
tremely confused and unsatisfactory; and when the writer brings it
down to what may be considered as the historical period, he abruptly
leaves off, with a declaration, that the offer of a sum of money (which
was unquestionably his object) should not tempt him to proceed.

At a period not very remote its limits were included between the river
of Palembang and that of Siak, on the eastern side of the island, and on
the western side between those of Manjuta (near Indra-pura) and Singkel ,
where (as well as at Siak) it borders on the independent country of the
Baltas. The present seat, or more properly seats of the divided govern-
ment, lie at the back of a mountainous district named the Tiga-blas koto
(signifying the thirteen fortified and confederated towns) inland of the
settlement of Padang. The country is described as a large plain sur-
rounded by hills producing much gold, clear of woods, and comparatively
well cultivated. Although nearer to the western coast, its communica-
tions with the eastern side are much facilitated by water-carriage. Ad-
vantage is taken in the first place of a large lake, called Laut-danau,
situated at the foot of the range of high mountains named gunong Besi>
inland of the country of Priaman , the length of which is described by
some as being equal to a day’s sailing, and by others as no more than
twenty-five or thirty miles, abounding with fish (especially of two spe-
cies, known by the names of sasau and bili ), and free from alligators.
From this, according to the authority of a map drawn by a native, issues
a river called Ayer Ambelan, which afterwards takes the name of Indra-
giri , along which, as well as the two other great rivers of Siak to the
northward, and Iambi to the southward, the navigation is frequent, the
banks of all of them being peopled with Malayan colonies. Between
Menangkabau and Palembang the intercourse must, on account of the
distance, be very rare, and the assertion, that in the intermediate
country there exists another great lake, which sends its streams to both
sides of the island, appears not only to be without foundation in fact,
but also at variance with the usual operations of nature ; as I believe it

may

Limits.

Lake.

Rivers.

334

SUMATRA.

Political

decline.

may be safely maintained, that however numerous the streams which
furnish the water of a lake, it can have only one outlet ; excepting, per-
haps, in flat countries, where the course of the waters has scarcely any
determination, or under such a nice balance of physical circumstances
as is not likely to occur.

When the island was first visited by European navigators, this state
must have been in its decline, as appears from the political importance,
at that period, of the kings of Achin, Pedir, and Pase, who, whilst they
acknowledged their authority to be derived from him as their lord para-
mount, and some of them paid him a trifling complimentary tribute,
acted as independent sovereigns. Subsequently to this an Achinese mo-
narch, under the sanction of a real or pretended grant, obtained from
one of the sultans, who, having married his daughter, treated her with
nuptial slight, and occasioned her to implore her father’s interference,
extended his dominion along the western coast, and established his
panglimas or governors in many places within the territory of Menang -
kabaiiy particularly at Pridman , near the great volcano-mountain. This
grant is said to have been extorted, not by the force of arms, but by an
appeal to the decision of some high court of justice, similar to that of
the imperial chamber in Germany, and to have included all the low or
strand- countries (pasisir barat) as far southward as Bengkaulu or Silebar.
About the year 1613, however, he claimed no farther than Padang , and
his actual possessions reached only to Bams?

* The following instances occur of mention made by writers, at different periods, of the
kingdom of Menang kabau. Odoardus Barbosa, 1519. “ Sumatra, a most large and beautiful
island; Pedir, the principal city on the northern side, where are also Pacem and Achem. Cam-
par is opposite to Malacca. Monancabo, to the southward, is the principal source of gold, as
well from mines as collected in the banks of the rivers.” De Barros, 1553. “ Malacca had the
epithet of aurea given to it on account of the abundance of gold brought from Monancabo
and Barros, countries in the island of C,amatra, where it is procured.” Diogo de Couto,
1600. “ He gives an account of a Portuguese ship wrecked on the coast of Sumatra, near
to the country of Manancabo, in 1560. Six hundred persons got on shore, among whom
were some women, one of them, Dona Fruncisca Sardinha, was of such remarkable beauty,
•hat the people of the country resolved to carry her off for their king; and they effected it,

after

SUM A T R A.

335

In consequence of disturbances that ensued upon the death of a sultan Alif Division 0f

1 A # the govern-

in the year 1680, without direct heirs, the government became divided went,
amongst three chiefs, presumed to have been of the royal family and at the
same time great officers of state, who resided at places named Suruwasat
Pagar-ruyong, and Sungei-trap ; and in that state it continues to the present
time. Upon the capture of Padang by the English in 1781, deputations
arrived from two of these chiefs with congratulations upon the success of
our arms -y which will be repeated with equal sincerity to those who may
chance to succeed us. The influence of the Dutch (and it would have
been the same with any other European power) has certainly contributed
to undermine the political consequence of Menangkabau , by giving coun-
tenance and support to its disobedient vassals ; who in their turn have
often experienced the dangerous effects of receiving favours from too
powerful an ally. Pasama?i, a populous country, and rich in gold,
cassia, and camphor, one of its nearest provinces, and governed by a pang-
lima from thence, now disclaims all manner of dependance. Its so-
vereignty

after a struggle in which sixty of the Europeans iost their lives. At this period there was a
great intercourse between Manancabo and Malacca , many vessels going yearly with gold, to
purchase cotton goods and other merchandise. In ancient times the country was so rich in
this metal, that several hundred weight (seis, sete, e mais candii, de que tree fazem hum moyo)
were exported in one season. Vol. III. p. 178. Linschoien, 1601. “ At Menancabo excel-
lent poniards made, called creeses ; best weapons of all the orient. Islands along the coast of
Sumatra, called islands of Menancabo .” Argensola, 1609. “A vessel loaded with creeses
manufactured at Menancabo and a great quantity of artillery ; a species of warlike machine
known and fabricated in Sumatra many years before they were introduced by Europeans.”
Lancaster, 1602. “ Menangcabo lies eight or ten leagues inland of Priaman Best, 1613.
'• A man arrived from Menangcaboo at Ticoo, and brought news from Jambee.,> Beaulieu,
1622. “ Du cote du ponant apres Padang suit le royaume de Manimcabo ; puis celuy

d’ Andripoura II ya (a Jambi ) grand trafic d’ or, qu’ ils ont avec ceux de Manimcabo.’'

Vies des Gouvemeurs Gen. Hollandois, 1763. II est bon de remarquer ici que presque toute
la cote occidentale avoit ete reduite par la flotte du Sieur Pierre de Bitter en 1664. L’annee
suivante, les habitans de Pauiv massacrerent le Commissaire Gruis, & c. ; mais apres avoir
venge ce meurtre, & dissipe les revokes en 1666, les Hollandois etoient restes les maitres
de toute cette etendue de cotes entre Sillebar & Baros, ou ils etablirent divers comptoirs, dont
celui de Padang est le principal depuis 1667. Le commandant, qui y reside, est en meme
terns Stadhouder (Lieutenant) de 1’ Empereur de Maningcabo, a qui la Compagnie a cede,
sous diverses restrictions & limitations, la souverainete sur tous les peuples qui habitent le
long du rivage.” &c.

336

SUMATRA.

vereignty is divided between the two rajas of Sabluan and Kanali, who,
in imitation of their former masters, boast an origin of high antiquity.
One of them preserves as his sacred relic, the bark of a tree in which his
ancestor was nursed in the woods, before the Pasaman people had
reached their present polished state. The other, to be on a level with
him, possesses the beard of a reverend predecessor (perhaps an anchorite),
which was so bushy, that a large bird had built its nest in it. Raja
Kanali supported a long war with the Hollanders, attended with many
reverses of fortune.

Whether the three sultans maintain a struggle of hostile rivalship, or
act with an appearance of concert, as holding the nominal sovereignty
under a species of joint-regency, T am not informed, but each of them
in the preamble of his letters assumes all the royal titles, without any
allusion to competitors ; and although their power and resources are not
much beyond those of a common raja , they do not fail to assert all the
ancient rights and prerogatives of the empire, which are not disputed
so long as they are not attempted to be carried into force. Pompous
dictatorial edicts are issued, and received by the neighbouring states
(including the European chiefs of Padang ), with demonstration of pro-
found respect, but no farther obeyed than may happen to consist with
the political interests of the parties to whom they are addressed. Their
authority, in short, resembles not a little that of the sovereign pontiffs
of Rome during the latter centuries, founded as it is in the superstition
of remote ages ; holding terrours over the weak, and contemned by the
stronger powers. The district of Suruwasa, containing the site of the
old capital, or Menangkabau proper, seems to have been considered by
the Dutch as entitled to a degree of pre-eminence ■> but I have not been
able to discover any marks of superiority or inferiority amongst them.
In distant parts the schism is either unknown, or the three who exercise
the royal functions are regarded as co-existing members of the same
family, and their government, in the abstract, however insignificant in
itself, is there an object of veneration. Indeed, to such an unaccount-
able excess is this carried, that every relative of the sacred family, and
many who have no pretensions to it assume that character, are treated
wherever they appear, not only with the most profound respect by the

chiefs

SUMATRA.

337

chiefs who go out to meet them, fire salutes on their entering the dusuns,
and allow them to level contributions for their maintenance ; but by the
country people with such a degree of superstitious awe, that they submit
to be insulted, plundered, and even wounded by them, without making
resistance, which they would esteem a dangerous profanation. Their
appropriate title (not uncommon in other Malayan countries) is Iang
de per-tuan, literally signifying “ he who ruleth.”

A person of this description, who called himself Sri Ahmed Shah, heir
to the empire of Menangkahau, in consequence of some differences with
the Dutch, came and settled amongst the English at Bencoolen in the year
1687, on his return from a journey to the southward as far as Lampong,
and being much respected by the people of the country, gained the en-
tire confidence of Mr. Bloom, the governor. He subdued some of the
neighbouring chiefs who were disaffected to the English, particularly
Raja mudo of Sungei-lamo, and also a Jennang or deputy from the king
of Bantam , he coined money, established a market, and wrote a letter
to the East India Company promising to put them in possession of the
trade of the whole island. But shortly afterwards a discovery was made
of his having formed a design to cut off the settlement, and he was in
consequence driven from the place. The records mention at a subse-
quent period, that the sultan of Indrapura was raising troops to oppose
him/

The titles and epithets assumed by the sultans are the most extrava- His titles,
gantly absurd that it is possible to imagine. Many of them descend to

2 X mere

* The following anecdote of one of these personages was communicated to me by my
friend, the late Mr. Crisp. “ Some years ago, when I was resident of Manna , there was a
man who had long worked in the place as a cooley, when some one arrived from the north-
ward, who happened to discover that he was an Iang de per-tuan or relation of the imperial
family. Immediately all the bazar united to raise him to honour and independence ; he was
never suffered to walk without a high umbrella carried over him, was followed by numerous
attendants, and addressed by the title of tuanku, equivalent to your highness. After this he
became an intriguing, troublesome fellow in the Residency, and occasioned much annoy-
ance. The prejudice in favour of these people is said to extend over all the islands to the
eastward where the Malay tongue is spoken.”

338

SUMATRA.

Translation of
a warrant.

mere childishness ; and it is difficult to conceive how any people, so far
advanced in civilization as to be able to write, could display such evi-
dences of barbarism. A specimen of a warrant of recent date, addressed
to TiLanku Sungei-Pagu , a high-priest residing near Bencoolen, is as
follows :

Three circular Seals with inscriptions in Arabic characters.

(Eldest brother)
Sultan of Rum
Key Dummul Alum.
Maharaja Alif.

(Second brother)
Sultan of China
Nour Alum
Maharaja Dempang
or Dipang

(Youngest brother)
Sultan of Menangkabau
Aonr Alum

Maharaja Dirja or Durja

The sultan of Menangkabau whose residence is at Pagar-ruyong, who
is king of kings 5 a descendant of raja, Iskander zu’lkarnaini ; possessed
of the crown brought from heaven by the prophet Adam ; of a third
part of the wood kamat, one extremity of which is in the kingdom of
Rum and another in that of China ; of the lance named lainbing lambura
ornamented with the beard of janggi ; of the palace in the city of Rum,
whose entertainments and diversions are exhibited in the month of
zuVhijdh , and where all alims , fakiahs, and mulanakaris praise and sup-
plicate Allah; possessor of the gold-mine named kudarat-kudarati, which
yields pure gold of twelve carats, and of the gold named jati-jati which
snaps the dalik wood; of the sword named churak-simandang-giri, which
received one hundred and ninety gaps in conflict with the fiend Si Kati-
muno, whom it slew; of the kris formed of the soul of steel, which ex-
presses an unwillingness at being sheathed and shews itself pleased when
drawn ; of a date coeval with the creation ; master of fresh water in the
ocean, to the extent of a day’s sailing ; of a lance formed of a twig of iju ;
the sultan who receives his taxes in gold by the lessong measure ; whose

betel-stand

SUMATRA.

betel-stand is of gold set with diamonds ; who is possessor of the web
named sangsista kala , which weaves itself and adds one thread yearly,
adorned with pearls, and when that web shall be completed the world
will be no more ; of horses of the race of sorirnborani, superior to all
others ; of the mountain Si guntang-guntang , which divides Palembang
and Jambi, and of the burning mountain ; of the elephant named Hasti
Dewah ; who is vicegerent of heaven ; sultan of the golden river ; lord of
the air and clouds ; master of a ballei whose pillars are of the shrub
jalatang ; of gandarangs (drums) made of the hollow stems of the dimi-
nutive plants pidut and sitosuri ; of the anchor named paduka jati em-
ployed to recover the crown which fell into the deep sea of Kidzum ; of
the gong that resounds to the skies ^ of the buffalo named Si Binuwang
Sati, whose horns are ten feet asunder ; of the unconquered cock, Sen -
gunani ; of the coconut-tree which from its amazing height and being
infested with serpents and other noxious reptiles, it is impossible to
climb i of the blue champaka flower, not to be found in any other country
than his (being yellow elsewhere) ; of the flowering shrub named Sri-
menjeri, of ambrosial scent ; of the mountain on which the celestial spi-
rits dwell ; who when he goes to rest wakes not until the gandarang
nobat sounds ; He the sultan Sri Maharaja Durja furthermore declares.

&c.

2X2

Probably

a The following Letter from the sultan of Menanglcabau to the father of the present sul-
tan of Moco-moco, and apparently written about fifty years ago, was communicated to me
by Mr. Alexander Dalrymple, and though it is in part a repetition, I esteem it too curious
to hesitate about inserting it. The style is much more rational than that of the fore-
going.

“ Praised be Almighty God ! Sultan Gagar Alum the great and noble King, whose exten-
sive power reacheth unto the limits of the wide ocean ; unto whom God grants whatever he
desires, and over whom no evil spirit, nor even Satan himself has any influence ; who is
invested with an authority to punish evil-doers ; and has the most tender heart in the sup-
port of the innocent ; has no malice in his mind, but preserveth the righteous with the
greatest reverence, and nourisheth the poor and needy, feeding them daily from his own
table. His authority reacheth over the whole universe, and his candour and goodness is
known to all men. (Mention made of the three brothers.) The ambassador of God and his
prophet Mahomet ; the beloved of mankind ; and ruler of the island called Percho. At the

time

340

S U M A T R A.

Probably no records upon earth can furnish an example of more un-
intelligible jargon ; yet these attributes are believed to be indisputably
true, by the Malays and others residing at a distance from bis immediate

dominions,

time God made the heavens, the earth, the sun, the moon, and even before evil spirits were
created, this sultan Gagar Alum had his residence in the clouds ; but when the world was
habitable, God gave him a bird called Hocinet, that had the gift of speech ; this he sent
down on earth, to look out for a spot where he might establish an inheritance, and the first
place he alighted upon was the fertile island of Lankapura, situated between Palembang and
Jambi, and from thence sprang the famous kingdom of Manancabow, which will be renown-
ed and mighty until the Judgment Day.

“ This Malta Raja Durja is blessed with a long life, and an uninterrupted course of pros-
perity, which he will maintain in the name, and through the grace of the holy prophet,
to the end that God’s divine Will may be fulfilled upon earth. He is endowed with the
highest abilities, and the most profound wisdom and circumspection in governing the many
tributary kings and subjects. He is righteous and charitable, and preserveth the honour and
glory of his ancestors. His justice and clemency are felt in distant regions, and his name
will be revered until the last day. When he openeth his mouth he is full of goodness, and
his words are as grateful as rose water to the thirsty. His breath is like the soft winds of the
heavens, and his lips are the instruments of truth ; sending forth perfumes more delightful
than benjamin or myrrh. His nostrils breathe ambergrease and musk ; and his countenance
has the lustre of diamonds. He is dreadful in battle, and not to be conquered, his courage
and valour being matchless. He, the sultan Mafia Raja Durja, was crowned with a sa-
cred crown from God ; and possesses the wood called Kamat, in conjunction with the em-
perors of Rome and China. (Here follows an account of his possessions nearly corresponding
to those above recited.)

“ After this salutation, and the information I have given of my greatness and power,
which I attribute to the good and holy prophet Mahomet, I am to acquaint you with the
commands of the sultan whose presence bringeth death to all who attempt to approach him
without permission ; and also those of the sultan of Indrapura who has four breasts. This
friendly sheet of paper is brought from the two sultans above named, by their bird anggas,
unto their son, sultan Gandam Shah, to acquaint him with their intention, under this great
seal, which is, that they order their son sultan Gandam Shah to oblige the English Company
to settle in the district called Biangnur, at a place called the " field of sheep,” that they
may not have occasion to be ashamed at their frequent refusal of our goodness, in permit-
ting them to trade with us and with our subjects ; and that in case he cannot succeed in
this affair, we hereby advise him, that the ties of friendship subsisting between us and our
son is broken ; and we direct that he send us an answer immediately, that we may know
the result — for all this island is our own.” It is difficult to determine whether the pream-
ble, or the purport of the letter be the more extraordinary.

dominions, who possess a greater degree of faith than wit ; and with
this addition, that he dwells in a palace without covering, free from in-
convenience. It is at the same time but justice to these people to ob-
serve that, in the ordinary concerns of life, their writings are as sober,
consistent, and rational as those of their neighbours.

The seals prefixed to the warrant are, beside his own and that of the
emperor of China, whose consequence is well known to the inhabitants
of the eastern islands, that of the sultan of Rum, by which is understood
in modern times, Constantinople, the seat of the emperor of the Turks,
who is looked up to by Mahometans, since the ruin of the khalifat, as
the head of their religion ; but I have reason to think that the appella-
tion of Rfimi, was at an earlier period given by oriental writers to the
subjects of the great Turkoman empire of the Seljuks, whose capital
was Iconium or Kuniyah in Asia minor, of which the Ottoman was a
branch. This personage he honours with the title of his eldest brother,
the descendant of Iskander the two-horned, by which epithet the Mace-
donian hero is always distinguished in eastern story, in consequence, as
may be presumed, of the horned figure on his coins,3 which must long
have circulated in Persia and Arabia. Upon the obscure history of these
supposed brothers some light is thrown by the following legend commu-
nicated to me as the belief of the people of Johor. “ It is related that
Iskander dived into the sea, and there married a daughter of the king of
the ocean, by whom he had three sons, who, when they arrived at man-
hood, were sent by their mother to the residence of their father. He
gave them a makuta or crown, and ordered them to find kingdoms
where they should establish themselves. Arriving in the straits of
Singa-pura they determined to try whose head the crown fitted. The
eldest trying first could not lift it to his head. The second the same.
The third had nearly effected it, when it fell from his hand into the sea.
After this the eldest turned to the west and became king of Rome, the
second to the east and became king of China. The third remained at

Johor.

Remarks on
warrant.

4 See a beautiful engraving of one of these coins preserved in the Bodleian collection,
Oxford, prefixed to Dr. Vincent’s Translation of the Voyage of Nearchus, printed in 1809.

342

SUMATRA.

Johor. At this time Palo Perclia (Sumatra) had not risen from the wa-
ters. When it began to appear, this ‘king of Johor, being on a fishing
party, and observing it oppressed by a huge snake named Si Kati-muno,
attacked the monster with his sword called Simandang-giri , and killed it,
but not till the sword had received one hundred and ninety notches in
the encounter. The island being thus allowed to rise, he went and
settled by the burning mountain, and his descendants became kings of
Menangkabau .” This has much the air of a tale invented by the peo-
ple of the peninsula to exalt the idea of their own antiquity at the ex-
pence of their Sumatran neighbours. The blue champaka-fl ower of
which the sultan boasts possession, I conceive to be an imaginary and
not an existent plant. The late respected SirW. Jones, in his Botanical
Observations printed in theAsiat. Res. Vol. IV. suspects that by it must
be meant the Kaempferia Bhuchampac , a plant entirely different from
the michelia ; but as this supposition is built on a mere resemblance of
sounds, it is necessary to state that the Malayan term is champaka biru ,
and that nothing can be inferred from the accidental coincidence of the
Sanskrit word bhu, signifying “ground,” with the English term for the
blue colour.

ceremonies. With the ceremonies of the court we are very imperfectly acquainted.

The royal salute is one gun ; which may be considered as a refinement
in ceremony ; for as no additional number could be supposed to convey
an adequate idea of respect, but must, on the contrary, establish a de-
finite proportion between his dignity and that of his nobles, or of other
princes, the sultan chuses to leave the measure of his importance inde-
finite by this policy and save his gunpowder. It must be observed, that
the Malays are in general extremely fond of the parade of firing guns,
which they never neglect on high days, and on the appearance of the
new moon, particularly that which marks the commencement and the
conclusion of their puasa or annual fast. Yellow being esteemed, as in
China, the royal colour, is said to be constantly, and exclusively worn
by the sultan and his household. His usual present on sending an em-
bassy, (for no Sumatran, or other oriental, has an idea of making a
formal address, on any occasion, without a present in hand, be it never

SUMATRA.

343

so trifling) is a pair of white horses ; being emblematic of the purity
of his character and intentions.

The immediate subjects of this empire, properly denominated Malays,
are all of the Mahometan religion, and in that respect distinguished
from the generality of inland inhabitants. How it has happened that the
most central people of the island should have become the most perfectly
converted, is difficult to account for; unless we suppose that its political
importance, and the richness of its gold trade, might have drawn thither
its pious instructors, from temporal as well as spiritual motives. Be this
as it may, the country of Menaiigkabau is regarded as the supreme seat
of civil and religious authority in this part of the East, an'd next to a
voyage to Mecca, to have visited its metropolis, stamps a man learned,
and confers the character of superior sanctity. Accordingly the most
eminent of those who bear the titles of imam, malana, khatib, and paiu
dita, either proceed from thence, or repair thither for their degree, and
bring away with them a certificate or diploma from the sultan or his
minister.

In attempting to ascertain the period of this conversion, much accu-
racy is not to be expected; the natives are either ignorant on the subject,
or have not communicated their knowledge, and we can only approx-
imate the truth, by comparing the authorities of different old writers.
Marco Polo, the Venetian traveller, who visited Sumatra under the
name of Java minor (see p. 6.) says that the inhabitants of the sea-shore
were addicted to the Mahometan law, which they had learned from Sa-
racon merchants. This must have been about the year 1290, when, in
his voyage from China, he was' detained for several months at a port
in the Straits, waiting the change of the monsoon; and though I am
scrupulous of insisting upon his authority (questioned as it is), yet in a
fact of this nature he could scarcely be mistaken, and the assertion cor-
responds with the annals of the princes of Malacca, which state, as we
have seen above, that sultan Muhammed Shalt, who reigned from 1276 to
1333, was the first royal convert. John De Barros, a Portuguese histo-
rian of great industry, says, that according to the tradition of the inha-
bitants, the city of Malacca was founded about the year 1260, and that

about

Conversion
to Mahome-
tan religion.

344

SUMATRA.

about 1400 the Mahometan faith had spread considerably there, and
extended itself to the neighbouring islands. Diego do Couto, another
celebrated historian, who prosecuted his inquiries in India, mentions the
arrival at Malacca of an Arabian priest, who converted its monarch to
the faith of the khalifs, and gave him the name of Shah Muhammed, in the
year 1384. This date, however, is evidently incorrect, as that king’s reign
was earlier by fifty years. Corneille le Brim was informed by the king
of Bantam, in 1706, that the people of Java were made converts to that
sect about three hundred years before. Valentyn states, that Sheik
Mulana, by whom this conversion was effected in 1406, had already
disseminated his doctrine at Ache, Pase (places in Sumatra) and Johor.
From these'several sources of information, which are sufficiently distinct
from each other, we may draw this conclusion, that the religion, which
sprang up in Arabia in the seventh century, had not made any consi-
derable progress in the interior of Sumatra earlier than the fourteenth,
and that the period of its introduction, considering the vicinity to Ma-
lacca, could not be much later. I have been told, indeed, but cannot
vouch for its authenticity, that in 1782 these people counted 6?0 years
from the first preaching of their religion, which would carry the period
back to 1112. It may be added, that in the island of Ternate, the first
Mahometan prince reigned from 1466 to I486; that Francis Xavier, a
celebrated Jesuit missionary, when he was at Amboina in 1546, observed
the people then beginning to learn to write from the Arabians ; that the
Malays were allowed to build a mosque at Goak in Makasar subsequently
to the arrival of the Portuguese in 1512; and that in 1603 the whole
kingdom had become Mahometan. These islands lying far to the east-
ward, and being of less considerable account in that age than subsequent
transactions have rendered them, the zeal of religious adventurers did
not happen to be directed thither so soon as to the countries bordering
on the sea of India.

By some it has been asserted, that the first sultan of Menangkabau was
a Xerif from Mecca, or descendant of the khalifs, named Paduka Sri
Sultan Ibrahim, who, settling in Sumatra, was received with honour by
the princes of the country, Perapati-si-batang and his brother, and ac-
quired sovereign authority. They add, that the sultans who now reside

SUMATRA.

345

at Pagar-ruyong and at Sarwvasa are lineally descended from that
Xerij \ whilst he who resides at Sungei Trap , styled Datu Bandhara
putih, derives his origin from Perapati. But to this supposition there
are strong objections. The idea so generally entertained by the natives,
and strengthened by the glimmering lights that the old writers afford us,
bespeaks an antiquity to this empire that stretches far beyond the pro-
bable era of the establishment of the Mahometan religion in the island.
Radin Tamanggungy son of a king of Madura , a very intelligent person,
and who as a prince himself was conversant with these topics, positively
asserted to me, that it was an original Sumatran empire, antecedent to
the introduction of the Arabian faith; instructed, but by no means con-
quered, as some had imagined, by people from the peninsula. So me-
morable an event as the elevation of a Xerif to the throne would have
been long preserved by annals or tradition, and the sultan in the list of
his titles would not fail to boast of this sacred extraction from the pro-
phet, to which, however, he does not at all allude ; and to this we may
add, that the superstitious veneration attached to the family extends
itself not only where Mahometanism has made a progress, but also
among the Battas and other people still unconverted to that faith ; with
whom it would not be the case, if the claim to such respect was grounded
on the introduction of a foreign religion which they have refused to
accept.

Perhaps it is less surprising, that this one kingdom should have been
completely converted, than that so many districts of the island should
remain to this day without any religion whatever. It is observable, that
a person of this latter description, coming to reside among the Malays,
soon assimilates to them in manners, and conforms to their religious
practices. The love of novelty, the vanity of learning, the fascination
of ceremony, the contagion of example, veneration for what appears
above his immediate comprehension, and the innate activity of man’s
intellectual faculties, which, spurred by curiosity, prompts him to the
acquisition of knowledge, whether true or false — all conspire to make
him embrace a system of belief, and scheme of instruction, in which
there is nothing that militates against prejudices already imbibed. He

2 Y relinquishes

346

SUMATRA.

relinquishes no favourite ancient worship to adopt a new ; and is mani-
festly a gainer by the exchange, when he barters, for a paradise and
eternal pleasures, so small a consideration as the flesh of his foreskin.

Tolerant prin- The Malays, as far as my observation went, did not appear to possess

cipies.

much of the bigotry so commonly found amongst the western Mahome-
tans, or to shew antipathy to or contempt for unbelievers. To this in-
difference is to be attributed my not having positively ascertained whe-
ther they are followers of the sunni or the shiah sect, although from their
tolerant principles and frequent passages in their writings in praise of
Ali , I conclude them to be the latter. Even in regard to the practice
of ceremonies, they do not imitate the punctuality of the Arabs and
others of the mussulman faith. Excepting such as were in the orders
of the priesthood, I rarely noticed persons in the act of making their
prostrations. Men of rank, I am told, have their religious periods,
during which they scrupulously attend to their duties, and refrain from
gratifications of the appetite, together with gambling and cockfighting ;
but these are not long nor very frequent. Even their great Fast or puasa
(the ramadan of the Turks) is only partially observed. All those who
have a regard for character fast more or less, according to the degree of
their zeal or strength of their constitutions ; some for a week, others for
a fortnight ; but to abstain from food and betel, whilst the sun is above
the horizon, during the whole of a lunar month, is a very rare instance
of devotion.

Literature. Malayan literature consists chiefly of transcripts and versions of the
koran, commentaries on the mussulman law, and historic tales both in
prose and verse, resembling in some respect our old romances. Many
of these are original compositions, and others are translations of the po-
pular tales current in Arabia, Persia, India, and the neighbouring
island of Java, where the Hindu languages and mythology appear to
have made, at a remote period, considerable progress. Among several
works of this description I possess their translation (but much compress-
ed) of the Ramayan, a celebrated Sanskrit poem, and also of some of the
Arabian stories lately published in France as a Continuation of the

“ Thousand

SUMATRA.

347

<c Thousand and one Nights,” first made known to the European world
by M. Gall and. If doubts have been entertained of the authenticity of
these additions to his immortal collection, the circumstance of their be-
ing (however partially) discovered in the Malayan language, will serVe
to' remove them. Beside these they have a variety of poetic works,
abounding rather with moral reflections and complaints of the frowns of
fortune or of ill-requited love, than with flights of fancy. The pantun or
short proverbial stanza has been already described. They are composed
in all parts of the island, and often extempore; but such as proceed
from Menangkabau , the most favoured seat of the Muses, are held in the
first esteem. Their writing is entirely in the modified Arabic charac-
ter, and upon paper previously ruled by means of threads drawn tight
and arranged in a peculiar manner.

The arts in general are carried, among these people, to a greater de- Art».
gree of perfection, than by the other natives of Sumatra. The Malays
are the sole fabricators of tiie exquisite gold and silver filagree, the ma-
nufacture of which has been particularly described : in the country of
Menangkabau they have, from the earliest times, manufactured arms for Fire armi.
their own use and to supply the northern inhabitants of the island, who
are the most warlike ; and which trade they continue to this day, smelt-
ing, forging, and preparing, by a process of their own, the iron and
steel for this purpose ; although much is at the same time purchased
from Europeans.* The use of cannon in this and other parts of India is Cannon,
mentioned by the oldest Portuguese historians, and it must consequently
have been known there before the discovery of the passage by the Cape
of Good Hope. Their guns are those pieces called match-locks, the
improvement of springs and flints not being yet adopted by them ; the
barrels are well tempered, and of the justest bore, as is evident from the
excellence of their aim, which they always take by lowering, instead of
raising the muzzle of the piece to the object. They are wrought by rol-

2 Y 2 ling

a The principal iron mines are at a place called Padang Luar, where the ore is sold
at the rate of half a fanam or forty eighth part of a dollar for a man’s load, and carried to
another place in the Menangkabau country called Sclimpuwong, where it is smelted and
manufactured.

348

SUMATRA.

Side-arms.

Kris-blade.

ling a flatted bar of iron, of proportionate dimensions, spirally round a
circular rod, and beating it till the parts of the former unite; which
method seems preferable, in point of strength, to that of folding an^
soldering the bar longitudinally. The art of boring may well be sup-
posed unknown to these people. Firelocks are called by them snap an g ,
from the Duch name. Gunpowder they make in great quantities, but
either from the injudicious proportion of the ingredients in the compo-
sition, or the imperfect granulation, it is very defective in strength.
The tombak, lambing , and kujur or kunjur are names for weapons of the
lance or spear kind ; the pedang, rudus, pamandap, and kalewang are of
the sword kind, and slung at the side ; the siwar is a small instrument
of the nature of a stiletto, chiefly used for assassination ; and the kris is
a species of dagger of a particular construction, very generally worn,
being stuck in front through the folds of a belt that goes several times
round the body. The blade is about fourteen inches in length, not
straight, nor uniformly curved, but waving in and out, as we see de-
picted the flaming swords that guarded the gates of paradise ; which pro-
bably may render a wound given with it the more fatal. It is not
smooth or polished like those of our weapons, but by a peculiar process
made to resemble a composition, in which veins of a different metal are
apparent. This damasking (as I was informed by the late Mr. Boulton)
is produced by beating together steel and iron wire whilst in a state of
half fusion, and eating them with acids, by which the softest part is the
most corroded ; the edges being of pure steel. Their temper is uncom-
monly hard. The head or haft is either of ivory, the tooth of the
duyong (sea cow), that of the hippopotamus, the snout of the ikan layer
(voilier), of black coral, or of fine grained wood. This is ornamented
with gold or a mixture of that and copper, which they call szuasa, highly
polished and carved into curious figures, some of which have the beak of
a bird, with the arms of a human creature, and bear a resemblance to
the Egyptian Isis. The sheath also is formed of some beautiful species
of wood, hollowed out, with a neat lacing of split rattan, stained red
round the lower parts ; or sometimes it is plated with gold. The value
of a kris, is supposed to be enhanced in proportion to the number of
persons it has slain. One that has been the instrument of much blood-
shed

SUMATRA.

349

shed is regarded with a degree of veneration as something sacred. The
horrour or enthusiasm inspired by the contemplation of such actions, is
transferred to the weapon, which accordingly acquires sanctity from the
principle that leads ignorant men to reverence whatever possesses the
power of effecting mischief. Other circumstances also contribute to
give them celebrity, and they are distinguished by pompous names.

Some have a cushion by their bedside on which is placed their favourite
weapon. I have a manuscript treatise on krises> accompanied with
drawings, describing their imaginary properties and value, estimated at
the price of one or more slaves. The abominable custom of poisoning
them, though much talked of, is rarely practised, I believe, in modern
times. They are frequently seen rubbing the blades with lime-juice,
which has been considered as a precaution against danger of this kind,
but it is rather for the purpose of removing common stains, or of improv-
ing the damasked appearance.

Although much parade attends their preparations for war and their Modesofwar.
marches, displaying colours of scarlet cloth, and beating drums, gongs,
and chennangs, yet their operations are carried on rather in the way of
ambuscade, and surprise of straggling parties, than open combat ; firing
irregularly from behind entrenchments, which the enemy takes care not
to approach too near. They are said to go frequently to war on horse- Horse*,
back, but I shall not venture to give their force the name of cavalry.

The chiefs may probably avail themselves of the service of this useful
animal, from motives of personal indulgence or state, but on account of
the ranjaus or sharp-pointed stakes, so commonly planted in the passes,

(see the preceding journal of Lieut. Dare’s march, where they are par-
ticularly described), it is scarcely possible that horse could be employed
as an effective part of an army. It is also to be observed that neither
the natives, nor even Europeans ever shoe them, the nature of the roads
in general not rendering it necessary. The breed of them is small, but
well made, hardy, and vigorous. The soldiers serve without pay, but
the plunder they obtain is thrown into a common stock, and divided
amongst them. Whatever might formerly have been the degree of their
prowess, they are not now much celebrated for it ; yet the Dutch at Pa-

dang

350

SUMATRA.

dang have often found them troublesome enemies, from their numbers,
and been obliged to secure themselves within their walls. Between the
Menangkabau people, those of Rau or Aru , and the Achinese, settled
at Natal , wars used to be incessant until they were checked by the in-
fluence of our authority at that place. The factory itself was raised upon
one of the breast-works thrown up by them for defence, of which se-
veral are to be met with in walking a few miles into the country, and
some of them very substantial. Their campaigns, in this petty warfare,
were carried on very deliberately. They made a regular practice of
commencing a truce at sunset, when they remained in mutual security,
and sometimes agreed that hostilities should take place only between cer-
tain hours of the day. The English resident, Mr. Carter, was frequently
chosen their umpire, and upon these occasions used to fix in the ground
his golden headed cane, on the spot where the deputies should meet and
concert terms of accommodation ; until at length the parties, grown
weary of their fruitless contests, resolved to place themselves respectively
under the dependance and protection of the company. The fortified
villages, in some parts of the country named dusun, and in others kam-
pong, are here, as on the continent of India, denominated kota or forts,
and the districts are distinguished from each other by the number of
confederated villages they contain.

Government. The government, like that of all Malayan states, is founded on prin-
ciples entirely feudal. The prince is styled raja, maha-raja, iang de
pertuan , or sultan ; the nobles, have the appellation of orang kaya or
datu , which properly belongs to the chiefs of tribes, and implies their
being at the head of a numerous train of immediate dependants or vas-
officers of sa^s> wh°se service they command. The heir-apparent has the title of
state. raja muda. From amongst the orang kayas the sultan appoints the offi-
cers of state, who as members of his council are called mantri, and differ
in number and authority, according to the situation and importance of
the kingdom. Of these the first in rank, or prime minister, has the
appellation of perdana mantri, mangko burni, and not seldom, however
anomalously, maharaja. Next to him, generally, is the bandhara, treasurer
or high steward; then the laksamana and tamanggung, commanders in chief

SUMATRA*

351

by sea and land, and lastly the shahbandara, whose office it is to super-
intend the business of the customs (in sea-port towns) and to manage
the trade for the king. The governors of provinces are named panglima ,
the heads of departments pangulu. The ulubalang are military officers,
forming the body-guard of the sovereign, and prepared on all occasions
to execute his orders. From their fighting singly, when required, in the
cause of the prince or noble who maintains them, the name is commonly
translated “ champion”; but when employed by a weak, but arbitrary
and cruel prince, to remove by stealth, obnoxious persons whom he
dares not to attack openly, they may be compared more properly to the
IsmaeUans or Assassins, so celebrated in the history of the Crusades, as
the devoted subjects of the Sheikh al~jabal or “ Old man of the moun-
tain,” as this chief of Persian Irak is vulgarly termed. I have not rea-
son, however, to believe that such assassinations are by any means fre-
quent. The immediate vassals of the king are called amba rajas and
for the subjects in general the word rayet has been adopted. Beside those
above-named, there is a great variety of officers of government of an
inferior class ; and even among the superior there is not, at every period,
nor in every Malayan state, a consistent uniformity of rank and title.
The smaller Malayan establishments are governed by their datus or heads
of tribes, of whom there are generally four ; as at Bencoolen (properly
Bengkaulu ) near to which the English settlement of Fort Marlborough
is situated, and where Fort York formerly stood. These are under the
protection or dominion of two native chiefs or princes, the pangerans of
Sungei-lamo and Sungei-etam, the origin of whose authority has been
already explained (p. 212). Each of these has possessions on different
parts of the river, the principal sway being in the hands of him of the
two who has most personal ability. They are constant rivals, though
living upon familiar terms, and are only restrained from open war by the
authority of the English. Limun likewise, and the neighbouring places
of Batang-asei and Pak along- jambu, near the sources of Jambi river,
where gold is collected, and carried chiefly to Bencoolen and the settle-
ment of Laye, where I had opportunities of seeing the traders, are each
governed by four datus, who, though not immediately nominated by the
sultan, are confirmed by, and pay tribute to, him. The first of these,
whose situation is most southerly, receive also an investiture (baju, gar-
ment.

Government
by four
datug.

352

SUMATRA.

Hot springs.

Ancient

sculpture.

ment, and destar, turband), from the sultan of Palembang ; being a po-
litic measure adopted by these merchants, for the convenience attending
it in their occasional trading concerns with that place.

At Priangan , near Gunong-berapi, are several hot mineral springs,
called in the Malayan map already mentioned, panchuran tajuh or the
seven conduits, where the natives, from time immemorial, have been in
the practice of bathing; some being appropriated to the men, and others
to the women ; with two of cold water, styled the king’s. It w ill be
recollected, that in ancient times this place was the seat of government.
Near to these springs is a large stone or rock of very hard substance,
one part of which is smoothed to a perpendicular face of about ten or
twelve feet long and four high, on which are engraved characters sup-
posed to be European, the space being entirely filled with them and
certain chaps or marks at the corners. The natives presume them to be
Dutch, but say that the latter do not resemble the present mark of the
Company. There is some appearance of the date 1100. The informant
(named Raja Intan), who had repeatedly seen and examined it, added,
that M. Palm, governor of Padang, once sent Malays, with paper and
paint, to endeavour to take off the inscription, but they did not succeed;
and the Dutch, whose arms never penetrated to that part of the coun-
try, are ignorant of its meaning. It is noticed in the Malayan map.
Should it prove to be a Hindu monument, it will be thought curious.

Kingdoms

SUMATRA.

353

Kingdoms of Indrapura, Anak-Sungei, Passamman , Sink.

AMONG the earliest dismemberments of the Menangkabau empire,
was the establishment of Indrapura as an independent kingdom. Though
now, in its turn, reduced to a state of little importance, it was formerly
powerful, in comparison with its neighbours, and of considerable mag-
nitude, including Anak-Sungei , and extending as far as Kattaun. Some
idea of its antiquity may be formed from an historical account given by
the Sultan of Bantam to the intelligent traveller Corneille le Brun, in
which it is related, that the son of the Arabian prince who first con-
verted the Javans to the religion of the Prophet, about the year 1400,
having obtained for himself the sovereignty of Bantam, under the title
of pangeran, married the daughter of the raja of Indrapura, and received
as her portion the country of the Sillabares, a people of Banca-houlou.
Upon this cession appears to be grounded the modern claim of the sul-
tan to this part of the coast, which, previously to the treaty of Paris in
1763, was often urged by his sovereigns, the Dutch East India Com-
pany. His dominion is said, indeed, to have extended from the south-
ward as far as Urei river, and at an early period, to Retta or Ayer Etam,
between Ipu and Moco-moco', but that the intermediate space was ceded
by him to the raja of Indrapura, in satisfaction for the murder of a
prince, and that a small annual tax was laid by the latter on the Anak-
sungei people, on account of the same murder (being the fourth part of
a dollar, a bamboo of rice, and a fowl, from each village), which is now
paid to the sultan of Moco-moco. In the year 1682 the district of Ayer
Aji threw off its dependance on Indrapura. In 1696 Raja Pasisir Bar at,
under the influence of the Dutch, was placed on the throne, at the age
of six years, and his grandfather appointed guardian; but in 1701, in
consequence of a quarrel with his protectors, the European settlers were
massacred. This was. the occasion of a destructive war, in the event of
which the raja and his mantris were obliged to fly, and the country was
nearly depopulated. In 1705 he was reinstated, and reigned till about

2 Z 1732;

Indrapura.

Claims of the
sultan of
Bantam.

War with
the Dutch.

354

SUMATRA.

Decline
of the
kingdom.

Kingdom
of Anak-
sungei.

1732; but the kingdom never recovered the shock it had received, and
dwindled into obscurity. Its river, which descends from the mountains
of Korinclri, is considered as one of the largest in the southern part of
the west-coast, and is capable of admitting sloops. The country for-
merly produced a large quantity of pepper, and some gold was brought
down from the interior, which now finds another channel. An English
factory was established there about the year 1684, but never became of
any importance.

From the ruins of Indrapura has sprung the kingdom of Anak-sungei,
extending, along the sea-coast, from Manjuta river to that of Urei. Its
chief bears the title of sultan, and his capital, if such places deserve the
appellation, is Moco-moco. A description of it will be found at p. 319.
Although the government is Malayan, and the ministers of the sultan
are termed mantri (a title borrowed from the Hindus) the greatest part
of the country dependant on it is inhabited by the original dusun people,
and accordingly their proper chiefs are styled proattin, who are obliged
to attend their prince at stated periods, and to carry to him their con-
tribution or tax. His power over them, however, is very limited.

The first monarch of this new kingdom was named sultan Gidemat ,
who, in 1695, established himself at Manjuta, by the assistance of the
English, in consequence of a revolution at Indrapura, by which the
prince who had afforded them protection on their first settling, was driven
out through the intrigues, as they are termed, of the Dutch. It was
a struggle, in short, between the rival Companies, whose assistance was
courted by the different factions, as it happened to suit their purpose,
or who, becoming strong enough to consider themselves as principals,
made the native chiefs the tools of their commercial ambition. In
the year 1717 Gidemat was removed from the throne by an assembly
of the chiefs styling themselves the mantris of Lima-kota and proattlns of
Anak-sungei, who set up a person named Raja Kechil-besdr in his room,
appointing, at the same time, as his minister and successor, Raja Gan-
dam Shah, by whom, upon his accession in 1728, the seat of govern-
ment was removed from Manjuta to Moco-moco. He was father of sultan
Pasisir Bar at shah mualim shah, still reigning in the year 1780, but

* harassed

SUMATRA.

355

harassed by the frequent rebellions of his eldest son. The space of time
occupied by the reigns of these two sovereigns is extraordinary, when
we consider that the former must have been at man’s estate when he
became minister or assessor in 1717- Nor is it less remarkable, that the
son of the deposed sultan Gulemat, called sultan Awal ed-din, was also
living, at Tappamdi, about the year 1780, being then supposed ninety
years of age. He was confined as a state prisoner at Madras during
the government of Mr. Morse, and is mentioned by Capt. Forrest (Voy-
age to the Mergui Archipelago, p. 5 7) as uncle to the king of Achin,
who reigned in 1784. The first English settlement at Moco-moco was
formed in 1717.

Passamman was the most northern of the provinces immediately de- Passamman.
pendant on Menangkabau, and afterwards, together with Priaman and
many other places on the coast, fell under the dominion of the kings of
Achin. It is now divided into two petty kingdoms, each of which is
governed by a raja and fourteen pangulus. Formerly it was a place of
considerable trade, and beside a great export of pepper, received much
fine gold, from the mountains of the Rau country, lying about three
days’ journey inland. The inhabitants of these are said to be Battas
converted to Mahometanism, and mixed with Malays. They are go-
verned by datus. The peculiarity of dress remarked of the Korinchi
people is also observable here, the men wearing drawers, that reach just
below the calf, having one leg of red and the other of white or blue cloth,
and the baju or garment also party-coloured. The greater part of the
gold they collect finds its way to Patapahan on the river of Siak , and
from thence to the eastern side of the island and straits of Malacca.

The Again tribe adjoining to the Rau, and connecting to the southward
with Menangkabau , differs little from Malays, and is likewise governed
by datus.

The great river of Siak has its source in the mountains of the Menang- Siak.
kabau country, and empties itself nearly opposite to Malacca, with
which place it formerly carried on a considerable trade. From the
Dutch charts we had a general knowledge of its course as far as a place
called Mandau or MundoL , as they write the name, and where they had

2Z 2 a small

356 SUMATRA.

a small establishment, on account of its abounding with valuable ship-
Survey. timber. A recent survey executed by Mr. Francis Lynch, under the
orders of the government of Pulo Pinang , has made us more particularly
acquainted with its size, its advantages, and defects. From the place
where it discharges itself into the straits of Kampar or Bencalis, to the
town of Siak, is, according to the scale of his chart, about sixty-five
geographical miles, and from thence to a place called Pakan bharu or
New-market, where the survey discontinues, is about one hundred more.
The width of the river is in general from about three quarters to half a
mile, and its depth from fifteen to seven fathoms ; but on the bar, at
low water, spring-tides, there are only fifteen feet, and several shoals
near its mouth. The tides rise about eleven feet at the town, where,
at full and change, it is high water at nine A.M. Not far within the
river is a small island on which the Dutch had formerly a factory. The
shores are flat on both sides to a considerable distance up the country,
and the whole of the soil is probably alluvial ; but about an hundred and
twenty-five or thirty miles up, Mr. Lynch marks the appearance of high
land, giving it the name of Princess Augusta Sophia hill, and points it
out as a commanding situation for a settlement. He speaks in favour-
ship-timber. able terms of the facility with which ship timber of any dimensions or
shape may be procured and loaded. Respecting the size or population
Government. Gf t]ie town, no information is given. The government of it was (in
October, 1808) in the hands of the Tuankn P anger an, brother to the
Baja, who, in consequence of some civil disturbance, had withdrawn
to the entrance of the river. His name is not mentioned ; but from the
Transactions of the Batavian Society we learn that the prince who
reigned about the year 1780, was Raja Ismael, “ one of the greatest
pirates in those seas.” The maritime power of the kingdom of Siak has
always been considerable, and in the history of the Malayan states we
repeatedly read of expeditions fitted out from thence making attacks
upon Johor, Malacca, and various other places on the two coasts of the
peninsula. Most of the neighbouring states (or rivers) on the eastern
coast of Sumatra, from Langat to Jambi, are said to have been brought,
in modern times, under its subjection.

The trade is chiefly carried on by Kling vessels, as they are called,

from

Trade.

SUMATRA.

357

from the coast of Coromandel, which supply cargoes of piece-goods,
and also raw silk, opium, and other articles, which they provide at
Pinang or Malacca; in return for which they receive gold, wax, sago,
salted fish, and fish-roes, elephants’ teeth, gambir, camphor, rattans,
and other canes. According to the information of the natives, the river is
navigable for sloops to a place called Panti Chermin , being eight days’ sail,
with the assistance of the tide, and within half a day’s journey, by land,
of another named Patapahan, which boats also, of ten to twenty tons,
reach in two days. This is a great mart of trade with the Menangkabau
country, whither its merchants resort with their gold. Pakan-bharu,
the limit of Mr. Lynch’s voyage, is much lower down, and the above-
mentioned places are consequently not noticed by him. The Dutch
Company procured annually from Siak, for the use of Batavia, several
rafts of spars for masts, and if the plan of building ships at Pinang should
be encouraged, large supplies of frame-timber for the purpose may be
obtained from this river, provided a sense of interest shall be found
sufficiently strong to correct or restrain the habits of treachery and
desperate enterprise for which these people have in all ages been noto-
rious.

The river Rakan, to the northward of Siak , by much the largest in Rakan.
the island, if it should not rather be considered as an inlet of the sea,
takes its rise in the Rau country, and is navigable for sloops to a great
distance from the sea ; but vessels are deterred from entering it by the
rapidity of the current, or more probably the reflux of the tide, and that
peculiar swell known in the Ganges and elsewhere by the appellation of
the bore. That of Kampar, to the southward, is said by the natives to Kampar.
labour under the same inconvenience, and Mr. Lynch was informed
that the tides there rise from eighteen to twenty-four feet. If these cir-
cumstances render the navigation dangerous, it appears difficult to ac-
count for its having been a place of considerable note at the period of the
Portuguese conquest of Malacca, and repeatedly the scene of naval
actions with the fleets of Achin , whilst Siak, which possesses many
natural advantages, is rarely mentioned. In modern times it has been
scarcely at all known to Europeans, and even its situation is doubtful.

The

358

SUMATRA.

Indragiri.

Jambi.

Palembang.

The river of Indragiri is said by the natives to have its source in a lake
of the Menangkabau country, from whence it issues by the name of Ayer
Ambelan. Sloops tide it up for five or six weeks (as they assert) anchor-
ing as the ebb begins to make. From a place called Lnbok ramo-ramo
they use boats of from five to twenty tons, and the smaller sort can pro-
ceed until they are stopped by a fall or cascade at Seluka, on the borders
of Menangkabau. This extraordinary distance to which the influence of
the tides extend, is a proof of the absolute flatness of the country through
which these rivers take the greater part of their course.

Jambi river has its principal source in the Limun country. Although
of considerable size, it is inferior to Siak and Indragiri. At an early
stage of European commerce in these parts it was of some importance,
and both the English and Dutch had factories there ; the former on a
small island near the mouth, and the latter at some distance up the river.
The town of Jambi is situated at the distance of about sixty miles from
the sea, and we find in the work of the historian, Faria y Sousa, that in
the year 1629, a Portuguese squadron was employed twenty-two days
in ascending the river, in order to destroy some Dutch ships which had
taken shelter near the town. Lionel Wafer, who was there in 1678 (at
which time the river was blockaded by a fleet of praws from Johor ) makes
the distance an hundred miles. The trade consists chiefly in gold-dust,
pepper, and canes, but the most of what is collected of the first article
proceeds across the country to the western coast, and the quality of the
second is not held in esteem. The port is therefore but little frequented
by any other than native merchants. Sometimes, but rarely, a private
trading ship from Bengal endeavours to dispose of a few chests of opium
in this, or one of the other rivers ; but the masters scarcely ever ven-
ture on shore, and deal with such of the Malays as come off to them,
at the sword point; so strong is the idea of their treacherous character.

The kingdom of Palembang is one of considerable importance, and its
river ranks amongst the largest in the island. It takes its rise in the
district of Musi, immediately at the back of the range of hills visible from
Bencoolen, and on that account has the name of Ayer Musi in the early
part of its course, but in the lower, is more properly named the Tatong.

Opposite

SUMATRA.

35 9

Opposite to the city of Palembang and the Dutch Company’s factory it
is upwards of a mile in breadth, and is conveniently navigated by vessels size of river,
whose draft of water does not exceed fourteen feet. Those of a larger
description have been carried thither for military purposes (as in 1660,
when the place was attacked and destroyed by the Hollanders) but the
operation is attended with difficulty on account of numerous shoals.

The port is much frequented by trading vessels, chiefly from Java, Foreign
Madura, Balli, and Celebes, which bring rice, salt, and cloths the
manufacture of those islands. With opium, the piece-goods of the west
of India, and European commodities, it is supplied by the Dutch from
Batavia, or by those who are termed interlopers. These in return re-
ceive pepper and tin, which, by an old agreement made with the sultan,
and formally renewed in 1777, are to be exclusively delivered to the
Company at stipulated prices, and no other Europeans are to be allowed
to trade or navigate within his jurisdiction. In order to enforce these
conditions, the Dutch are permitted to maintain a fort on the river with a Dutch fac-
garrison of fifty or sixty men (which cannot be exceeded without giving t0°
umbrage), and to keep its own cruizers to prevent smuggling. The
quantity of pepper thus furnished was from one to two millions of pounds
per annum. Of tin the quantity was about two millions of pounds, one
third of which was shipped (at Batavia) for Holland, and the remainder
sent to China. It has already been stated, that this tin is the produce
of the island of Bajigka, situated near the mouth of the river, which may
be considered as an entire hill of tin-sand. The works, of which a par-
ticular account is given in Vol. III. of the Batav. Trans, are entirely in
the hands of Chinese settlers. In the year 1778 the Company likewise
received thirty-seven thousand bundles of rattans.

The lower parts of the country of Palembang towards the sea-coast are Low country,
described as being flat marshy land, and, with the exception of some few
tracts, entirely unfit for the purposes of cultivation. It is generally un-
derstood to have been all covered by the sea in former ages ; not only
from its being observed that the strand yearly gains an accession, but
also that upon digging the earth at some distance inland, sea-shells, and
even pieces of boat-timber, are discovered. The interior or upland dis- interior
tricts, on the contrary, are very productive, and there the pepper is <Allll,l>

cultivated,

360

SUMATRA.

Its trade.

Its govern-
ment.

Settlers from
Java.

Royal family.

cultivated, which the king’s agent (for trade in these parts is usually
monopolized by the sovereign power) purchases at a cheap rate. In
return he supplies the country people with opium, salt, and piece-goods,
forming the cargoes of large boats (some of them sixty-six feet in length,
and seven in breadth, from a single tree) which are towed against the
stream. The goods intended for Passummah are conveyed to a place
called Muara Mulang, which is performed in fourteen days, and from
thence, by land, to the borders of that country, is only one day’s jour-
ney. This being situated beyond the district where the pepper flou-
rishes, their returns are chiefly made in pulas twine, raw silk in its
roughest state, and elephants’ teeth. From Musi they send likewise
sulphur, alum, arsenic, and tobacco. Dragons’-blood and gambir are
also the produce of the country.

These interior parts are divided into provinces, each of which is as-
signed as a fief or government to one of the royal family or of the nobles,
who commit the management to deputies, and give themselves little
concern about the treatment of their subjects. The ganger ans, who are
the descendants of the ancient princes of the country, experience much
oppression, and when compelled to make their appearance at court, are
denied every mark of ceremonious distinction. The present rulers of the
kingdom of Palembang, and a great portion of the inhabitants of the
city, originally came from the island of Java, in consequence, as some
suppose, of an early conquest by the sovereigns of Majapahit-, or, accord-
ing to others, by those of Bantam, in more modern times ; and in proof
of its subjection, either real or nominal, to the latter, we find in the
account of the first Dutch voyages, that “ in 1596 a king of Bantam
fell before Palembang , a rebel town of Sumatra, which he was besieging.”
The Dutch claim the honour of having placed on the throne the family
of the reigning sultan (1780), named Ratu Akhmet Bahar ed-din, whose
eldest son bears the title of Pangeran Ratu, answering to the Raja muda
of the Malays. The power of the monarch is unlimited by any legal
restriction ; but not keeping a regular body of troops in pay, his
orders are often disregarded by the nobles. Although without any esta-
blished revenue from taxes or contributions, the profit arising from the
trade of pepper and tin (especially the latter) is so great, and the con-
sequent

SUMATRA.

361

sequent influx of silver, without any apparent outlet, so considerable,
that he must necessarily be possessed of treasure to a large amount.

The customs on merchandize imported remain in the hands of the
shabhandaras , who are required to furnish the king’s household with
provisions and other necessaries. The domestic attendants on the prince
are for the most part females.

The currency of the country and the only money allowed to be received Currency,
at the king’s treasury is Spanish dollars ; but there is also in general circu-
lation a species of small base coin, issued by royal authority, and named
pitis. These are cut out of plates composed of lead and tin, and having
a square hole in the middle (like the Chinese cash), are strung in parcels
of five hundred each, sixteen of which (according to the Batav. Trans.)
are equivalent to the dollar. In weighing gold the tail is considered as
the tenth part of the katti (of a pound and a third), or equal to the
weight of two Spanish dollars and a quarter.

The city is situated in a flat marshy tract, a few miles above the delta City,
of the river, about sixty miles from the sea, and yet so far from the
mountains of the interior that they are not visible. It extends about
eight miles along both banks, and is mostly confined to them and to the
creeks which open into the river. The buildings, with the exception
of the king’s palace and mosque, being all of wood or bamboos, stand-
ing on posts, and mostly covered with thatch of palm-leaves, the ap-
pearance of the place has nothing to recommend it. There are also a
great number of floating habitations, mostly shops, upon bamboo-rafts
moored to piles, and when the owners of these are no longer pleased
with their situation, they remove upwards or downwards, with the tide,
to one more convenient. Indeed, as the nature of the surrounding
country, being overflowed in high tides, scarcely admits of roads, almost
all communication is carried on by means of boats, which accordingly
are seen moving by hundreds in every direction, without intermission.

The dalam or palace being surrounded by a high wall, nothing is known
to Europeans of the interior, but it appears to be large, lofty, and much
ornamented on the outside. Immediately adjoining to this wall, on the
lower side, is a strong, square, roofed battery, commanding the river,

3 A and

362

SUMATRA.

Encourage-
ment to
foreigners.

Religion.

Language.

Character of
inhabitants.

and below it another ; on both of which many heavy cannon are
mounted, and fired on particular occasions. In the interval between the
two batteries is seen the meidan or plain, at the extremity of which ap-
pears the balerong or hall where the sultan gives audience in public.
This is an ordinary building, and serving occasionally for a warehouse,
but ornamented with weapons arranged along the walls. The royal
mosque stands behind the palace, and from the style of architecture
seems to have been constructed by an European. It is an oblong build-
ing, with glazed windows, pilasters, and a cupola. The burial-place of
these sovereigns is at old Palembang, about a league lower down the
river, where the ground appears to be somewhat raised, from having
long been the site of habitations.

The policy of these princes, who were themselves strangers, having
always been to encourage foreign settlers, the city and lower parts of
the river are in a great measure peopled with natives of China, Cochin-
china, Camboja, Siam, Patani on the coast of the peninsula, Java,
Celebes, and other eastern places. In addition to these, the Arabian
priests are described by the Dutch as constituting a very numerous and
pernicious tribe, who, although in the constant practice of imposing
upon and plundering the credulous inhabitants, are held by them in the
utmost reverence. The Mahometan religion prevails throughout all the
dominions of the sultan, with the exception of a district near the sea-
coast, called Salang, where the natives, termed orang kubu, live in the
woods like wild animals. The literature of the country is said to be
confined to the study of the koran , but opinions of this kind I have found
in other instances to be too hastily formed, or by persons not competent
to obtain the necessary information. The language of the king and his
court is the high dialect of the Javan, mixed with some foreign idioms.
In the general intercourse with strangers the conversation is always in
Malayan, with the pronunciation (already noticed) of the final o for a.
Amongst the people of Palembang themselves this language (the cha-
racter of which they employ) is mixed with the common Javan. The
Dutch, on whom we must rely for an account of the manners and dis-
position of these people, and which will be found in VoJ. III. p. 122.
of the Batav. Trans, describe those of the low country as devoid of every

good

SUMATRA.

363

good quality, and imbued with every bad one ; whilst those of the in-
terior are spoken of as a dull, simple people, who shew much forbear-
ance under oppression ;* but it is acknowledged that of these last they
have little knowledge, owing to the extreme suspicion and jealousy of
the government, which takes alarm at any attempt to penetrate into the
country.

This inland district having been visited only by two servants of the English
East India Company who have left any record of their journies, I shall
extract from their narratives such parts as serve to throw a light upon its
geography. The first of these was Mr. Charles Miller, who, on the 19th
of September, 1770, proceeded from Fort Marlborough to Bentiring on
the Bencoolen river, thence to P agar -r addin, Kadras, Gunong Raja,
Gunong Ayu, Kalindang , and Jambu, where he ascended the hills forming
the boundary of the Company’s district, which he found covered with
lofty trees. The first dusun on the other side is named Kalubar, and
situated on the banks of the river Musi. From thence his route lay to
places called Kapiyong and Parahmu, from all of which the natives
carry the produce of their country to Palembang by water. The setting
in of the rains and difficulties raised by the guides prevented him from
proceeding to the country where the Cassia is cut, and occasioned his
return towards the hills, on the 10th of October, stopping at Tabat
Bubut. The land in the neighbourhood of the Musi, he describes as
being level, the soil black and good, and the air temperate. It was his
intention to have crossed the hills to Ranne-lebar, on the 11th, but miss-
ing the road in the woods, reached next day, Beyol Bagus, a dusun in
the Company’s district, and thence proceeded to Gunong Raja, his way
lying partly down a branch of the Reircoolen liver, called Ayer Bagus ,
whose bed is formed of large pebble-stones, and partly through a level

3 A 2 country,

a A ridiculous story is told of a custom amongst the inhabitants of a province named Blida,
which I should not repeat but for its whimsical coincidence with a jeu d’ esprit of our cele-
brated Swift. When a child is born there (say the Palembangers), and the father has any
doubts about the honesty of his wife, he puts it to the proof by tossing the infant into the
air, and catching it on the point of a spear. If no wound is thereby inflicted, he is satisfied
of its legitimacy, but if otherwise, he considers it as spurious.

Interior
country
visited by
English,

364

SUMATRA.

country, entirely covered with lofty bamboos. From Gunong Raja he
returned down Bencoolen river, on a bamboo-raft, to Bentiring , and
reached Fort Marlborough on the 18th of October. The other traveller,
Mr. Charles Campbell, in a private letter, dated March, 1802, (referring
me, for more detailed information, to journals which have not reached
my hand) says, — “ We crossed the hills nearly behind the Sugar-loaf,
and entered the valley of Musi. Words cannot do justice to the pictu-
resque scenery of that romantic and delightful country, locked in on all
sides by lofty mountains, and watered by the noble river here navigable
for very large canoes, which, after receiving the Lamatang and several
other streams, forms the Palembang . Directing our course behind the
great hill of Sungei-lamo, we in three days discovered Labun, and cross-
ed some considerable streams discharging themselves into the river
of Kattaun. Our object there being completed, we returned along the
banks of the Musi nearly to the dusun of Kalubat, at which place we
struck into the woods, and, ascending the mountain, reached towards
evening a village high up on the Bencoolen river. There is but a single
range, and it is a fact, that from the navigable part of the Musi river to
a place on that of Bencoolen where rafts and sampans may be used, is
to the natives a walk of no more than eight hours. Musi is populous,
well cultivated, and the soil exceedingly rich. The people are stout,
healthy-looking, and independent in their carriage and manners, and
were to us courteous and hospitable. They acknowledge no superior
authority, but are often insulted by predatory parties from Palembang.”
These freebooters would perhaps call themselves collectors of tribute. It
is much to be regretted, that little political jealousies and animosities
between the European powers whose influence prevails on each side of
the island, prevent further discoveries of the course of this considerable
river.

The

SUMATRA.

365

The Country of the Battas — Tappanuli-bay — Journey into the Interior —
Cassia-trees — Governments — A rms — Warf 2 re — T rade — Fairs — Food —
Manners — Language — Writing ■ — Religion — Funerals— Crimes — Extra-
ordinary Custom.

ONE of the most considerable distinctions of people in the island, and Battas.
by many regarded as having the strongest claims to originality, is the
nation of the Battas (properly Batak ), whose remarkable dissimilitude
to the other inhabitants, in the genius of their customs and manners,
and especially in some extraordinary usages, renders it necessary that a
particular degree of attention should be paid to their description.

This country is bounded on the north by that of Achin, from which it situation

J J of the

is separated by the mountains of Papa and Deira, and on the south by country,
the independent district of Ran or Raioa j extending along the sea-coast
on the western side, from the river of Singkel to that of Tabuyong, but
inland, to the back of Ayer Baiigis, and generally across the island,
which is narrow in that part, to the eastern coast; but more or less en-
croached upon by the Malayan and Achinese establishments in the most
convenient maritime situations, for the purposes of their commerce. It
is very populous, and chiefly in the central parts, where are extensive,
open or naked plains, on the borders (as it is said) of a great lake ; the
soil fertile, and cultivation so much more prevalent than in the southern
countries, which are mostly covered with woods, that there is scarcely a
tree to be seen excepting those planted by the natives about their villages,
which are not, as elsewhere, on the banks of rivers, but wherever a strong
situation presents itself. Water, indeed, is not so abundant as to the
southward, which may be attributed to the comparatively level surface, the
chain of high mountains which extends northwards from the straits of
Sunda through the interior of the island, in a great measure terminating
with gunong Passummah or Mount Ophir. About the bay of Tappanuli,
however, the land is high and wooded near the coast.

The

366

SUMATRA.

Its divisions.

Ancient

building.

The Batta territory is divided (according to the information obtained
by the English Residents) into the following principal districts ; Ankola ,
Padambola, Mandiling, Toba, Selindong, and Singkel, of which the first
has five, the third three, and the fourth five subordinate tribes. Ac-
cording to the Dutch account published in the Transactions of the Batav.
Society, which is very circumstantial, it is divided into three small
kingdoms. One of these named Simamora is situated far inland, and
contains a number of villages, and among others those named Batong,
Ria, Allas, Batadera, Kapkap (where the district producing benzoin
commences), Batahol , Kotta-tinggi (the place of the king’s residence),
with two places lying on the eastern coast called Suitara-male and
Jambu-ayer. This kingdom is said to yield much fine gold, from the
mines of Batong and Sunayang. Bata-salindong also contains many dis-
tricts, in some of which benzoin, and in others fine gold, is collected.
The residence of the king is at Salindong. Bata-gopit lies at the foot of
a volcano-mountain of that name, from whence, at the time of an erup-
tion, the natives procure sulphur, to be afterwards employed in the
manufacture of gunpowder. The little kingdom of Butar lies north-
eastward of the preceding, and reaches to the eastern coast, where are
the places named Pulo Serony and Batu Bara j the latter enjoying a con-
siderable trade ; also Longtong and Sirigar , at the mouth of a great river
named Assahan. Butar yields neither camphor, benzoin, nor gold, and the
inhabitants support themselves by cultivation. The residence of the king
is at a town of the same name. High up on the river of Batu Bara , which
empties itself into the straits of Malacca, is found a large brick building,
concerning the erection of which no tradition is preserved amongst the
people. It is described as a square, or several squares, and at one corner
is an extremely high pillar, supposed by them to have been designed for
carrying a flag. Images, or reliefs, of human figures are carved in the
walls, which they conceive to be Chinese (perhaps Hindu) idols. The
bricks, of which some were brought to Tappanuli , are of a smaller size
than those used by the English.

Singkel river, by much the largest on the western coast of the island,
has its rise in the distant mountains of Daholi , in the territory of Acliin,
and at the distance of about thirty miles from the sea, receives the waters

Singkel.

SUMATRA.

367

of the Sikere, at a place called Pomoko, running through a great extent
of the Batta country. After this junction it is very broad, and deep
enough for vessels of considerable burden, but the bar is shallow and
dangerous, having no more than six feet at low water spring-tides, and
the rise is also six feet. The breadth here is about three quarters of a
mile. Much of the lower parts of the country through which it has its
course is overflowed during the rainy season, but not at two places, called
by Capt. Forrest Rambong and Jambong, near the mouth. The principal
town lies forty miles up the river, on the northern branch. On the
southern is a town named Kiking, where more trade is carried on by the
Malays and Achinese, than at the former, the Samponan or Papa moun-
tains producing more benzoin than those of Daholi. It is said in a Dutch
manuscript, that in three days’ navigation above the town of Singkel you
come to a great lake, the extent of which is not known.

Barns , the next place of any consequence to the southward, is chiefly
remarkable for having given name throughout the East to the Kapar-
barns or native camphor, as it is often termed, to distinguish it from that
which is imported from Japan and China, as already explained. This
was the situation of the most remote of the Dutch factories, long since
withdrawn. It is properly a Malayan establishment, governed by a
raja, a bandhara, and eight pangulus , and with this peculiarity, that the
rajas and bandharas must be alternately and reciprocally of two great
families, named Dulu and D’ilhir. The assumed jurisdiction is said to
have extended formerly to Natal. The town is situated about a league
from the coast, and two leagues farther inland are eight small villages
inhabited by Battas, the inhabitants of which purchase the camphor
and benzoin from the people of the Diri mountains, extending from the
southward of Singkel to the hill of Lasa, behind Barus , where the Tobat
district commences.

The celebrated bay of Tappanuli stretches into the heart of the Batta
country, and its shores are every-where inhabited by that people, who
barter the produce of their land for the articles they stand in need of from
abroad, but do not themselves make voyages by sea. Navigators assert,
that the natural advantages of this bay are scarcely surpassed in any

other

Tappanuli.

368

SUMATRA.

other part of the globe ; that all the navies of the world might ride there
with perfect security in every weather; and that such is the com-
plication of anchoring-places within each other, that a large ship could
be so hid in them, as not to be found without a tedious search. At the
island of Punchong kechil, on which our settlement stands, it is a com-
mon practice to moor the vessels by a hawser to a tree on shore. Timber
for masts and yards is to be procured in the various creeks with great
facility. Not being favourably situated with respect to the general track
of outward and homeward-bound shipping, and its distance from the
principal seat of our important Indian concerns being considerable, it
has not hitherto been much used for any great naval purposes ; but at
the same time our government should be aware of the danger that might
arise from suffering any other maritime power to get footing in a place
of this description. The natives are in general inoffensive, and have given
little disturbance to our establishments ; but parties of Acliinese traders
(without the concurrence or knowledge, as there is reason to believe, of
their own government), jealous of our commercial influence, long strove
to drive us from the bay, by force of arms, and we were under the ne-
cessity of carrying on a petty warfare for many years, in order to secure
our tranquillity. In the year 1760 Tappanuli was taken by a squadron
of French ships under the command of the Comte d’ Estaing ; and in
October, 1809, being nearly defenceless, it was again taken by the
Creole French frigate, Capt. Ripaud, joined afterwards by the Venus and
La Manche, under the orders of Commodore Hamelin. By the terms of
the surrender private property was to be secured, but in a few days,
after the most friendly assurances had been given to the acting resident,
with whom the French officers were living, this engagement was violated,
under the ill-founded pretence that some gold had been secreted, and
every thing belonging to the English gentlemen and ladies, as well as to
the native settlers, was plundered or destroyed by fire, with circum-
stances of atrocity and brutality that would have disgraced savages. The
garden-house of the chief (Mr. Prince, who happened to be then absent
from Tappanuli ) at Batu-buru on the main was likewise burned, toge-
ther with his horses, and his cattle were shot at and maimed. Even
the books of accounts, containing the statement of outstanding debts
due to the trading-concern of the place were, in spite of every entreaty,

maliciously

SUMATRA.

369

maliciously destroyed or carried off, by which an irreparable loss, from
which the enemy could not derive a benefit, is sustained by the unfor-
tunate sufferers. It cannot be supposed that the government of a great
and proud empire can give its sanction to this disgraceful mode of carry-
ing on war.

In the Phil. Transact, for the year 1778, is a brief account of the Batta
country and the manners of its inhabitants, extracted from the private
letters of Mr. Charles Miller, the Company’s botanist, whose observa-
tions I have had repeated occasion to quote. I shall now communicate
to the reader the substance of a report made by him of a journey per-
formed in company with Mr. Giles Holloway, then resident of Tappanuli ,
through the interior of the country of which we are now speaking, with
a view to explore its productions, particularly the Cassia, which at that
time was thought likely to prove an object of commerce worthy of
attention.

“ Previously,” says Mr. Miller, <c to our setting out on this journey, Mr- Miller’s
we consulted people who had formerly been engaged in the cassia-trade, the country,
with regard to the most proper places to visit. They informed us that
the trees were to be found in two different districts; viz. in the inland
parts to the northward of the old settlement at Tappanuli ; and also in
the country of Padambola, which lies between fifty and sixty miles more
to the southward. They advised us to prefer going into the Padambola
country, although the more distant, on account of the inhabitants of
the Tappanuli country (as they represented) being frequently trouble-
some to strangers. They also told me there were two kinds of the kulit
manis , the one of which, from their account of it, I was in hopes might
prove to be the true cinnamon-tree.

“ June 21st, 1772. We set out from Pulo Punchong, and went in
boats to the quallo (mouth or entrance) of Pinang Suri river, which is
in the bay, about ten or twelve miles south-east of Punchon°\ Next
morning we went up the river in sampans, and in about six hours ar-
rived at a place called quallo Lumut. The whole of the land on both
sides of the river is low, covered with wood, and uninhabited. In these

3 B ' woods

370

S U M A T R A.

woods I observed camphor trees, two species of oak, mar anti, raiigi, and
several other timber-trees. About a quarter of a mile from that place,
on the opposite side of the river, is a Batta kampong, situated on the
summit of a regular and very beautiful little hill, which rises in a pyra-
midical form, in the middle of a small meadow. The raja of this kam-
pong being informed by the Malays that we were at their houses, came
over to see us, and invited us to his house, where we were received with
great ceremony, and saluted with about thirty guns. This kampong
consists of about eight or ten houses, with their respective par/z-houses.
It is strongly fortified with a double fence of strong, rough camphor
planks, driven deep into the earth, and about eight or nine feet high,
so placed, that their points project considerably outward. These fences
are about twelve feet asunder, and in the space between them the buffa-
loes are kept at night. Without-side these fences they plant a row of
a prickly kind of bamboo, which forms an almost impenetrable hedge,
from twelve to twenty feet thick. In the sapiyau or building in which
the raja receives strangers, we saw a man’s skull hanging up, which he
told us was hung there as a trophy, it being the skull of an enemy they
had taken prisoner, whose body (according to the custom of the Battas )
they had eaten about two months before. June 23d. We walked through
a level woody country to the kampong of Lumut, and next day to Sa-
tarong, where I observed several plantations of benzoin trees, some cot-
ton, indigo, turmeric, tobacco, and a few pepper-vines. AVe next
proceeded to Tappolen, to Sikia, and to Sa-pisang. This last is situated
on the banks of Batang-tara river, three or four days’ journey from
the sea; so that our course had hitherto been nearly parallel to the
coast.

11 July 1st. We left Sa-pisang and took a direction towards the hills,
following nearly the course of the Batang-tara. We travelled all this
day through a low, woody, and entirely uncultivated country, which
afforded nothing worthy of observation. Our guide had proposed to
reach a kampong, called Lumbu, but missing the road, we were obliged
to wade up the river between four and five miles, and at length arrived
at a ladang extremely fatigued ; where the badness of the weather ob-
liged us to stop, and take up our quarters in an open padi- shed. The

SUMATRA.

371

next day the river was so swelled by the heavy rain which had fallen the
preceding day, that we could not prosecute our journey, and were ob-
liged to pass it and the remaining night in the same uncomfortable
situation. (This is the middle of the dry season in the southern parts of
the island.) July 3d. We left the ladang, and walked through a very
irregular and uninhabited tract, full of rocks and covered with woods.
We this day crossed a ridge of very steep and high hills, and in the af-
ternoon came to an inhabited and well cultivated country, on the edge
of the plains of Ancola. We slept this night in a small open shed, and
next day proceeded to a kampong , called Koto Lambong. July 5th.
Went through a more open and very pleasant country to Terimbaru, a
large kampong on the southern edge of the plains of Ancola. The land
hereabout is entirely clear of wood, and either ploughed and sown with
padi or jagong (maiz), or used as pasture for their numerous herds of
buffaloes, kine, and horses. The raja being informed of our intentions
to come there, sent his son, and between thirty and forty men, armed
with lances and match-lock guns, to meet us, who escorted us to their
kampong , beating gongs and firing their guns all the way. The raja
received us in great form, and with civility ordered a buffalo to be killed,
detained us a day, and when we proceeded 011 our journey, sent his son
with a party to escort us. I observed that all the unmarried women
wore a great number of tin rings in their ears (some having fifty in each
ear;) which circumstance, together with the appearance of the country,
seemed to indicate its abounding with minerals ; but on making inquiry,
I found that the tin was brought from the straits of Malacca. Having
made the accustomed presents to the raja, we left Terimbaru, July 7th,
and proceeded to Sa-masam, the raja of which place, attended by sixty
or seventy men, well armed, met us and conducted us to his kampong,
where he had prepared a house for our reception, treating us with much
hospitality and respect. The country round Sa-masam is full of small
hills, but clear of wood, and mostly pasture ground for their cattle, of
which they have great abundance. I met with nothing remarkable
here excepting a prickly shrub, called by the natives Andalimon, the
seed-vessels and leaves of which have a very agreeable spicy taste, and
are used by them in their curries.

3 13 2

“ July

372

SUMATRA.

“ July 10th. Proceeded on our journey to Batang Onan , the kampong
■where the Malays used to purchase the cassia from the Battas. After
about three hours walk over an open hilly country, we again came into
thick woods, in which we wrere obliged to pass the night. The next
morning we crossed another ridge of very high hills, covered entirely
with woods. In these we saw the wild benzoin-tree. It grows to a
much larger size than the cultivated kind, and yields a different sort of
resin, called kaminian dulong or sweet-scented benzoin. It differs in
being commonly in more detached pieces, and having a smell resembling
that of almonds when bruised. Arrived at Batang Onan in the after-
noon. This kampong is situated in a very extensive plain, on the banks
of a large river which empties itself into the straits of Malacca, and is said
to be navigable for sloops to within a day’s journey of Batang Onan.
July 11th. Went to Patika-dulut, the raja of which place claims the pro-
Cassia-trees. perty of the cassia-trees, and his people used to cut and cure the bark,
and transport it to the former place. The nearest trees are about two
hours walk from Panka-didut, on a high ridge of mountains. They
grow from forty to sixty feet high, and have large spreading heads. They
are not cultivated, but grow in the woods. The bark is commonly taken
from the bodies of the trees of a foot or foot and half diameter j the bark
being so thin, when the trees are younger, as to lose all its qualities very
soon. I here inquired for the different sorts of cassia-tree of which I
had been told, but was now informed that there was only one sort, and
that the difference they mentioned was occasioned entirely by the soil
and situation in which the trees grow ; that those which grow in a rocky,
dry soil, have red shoots, and their bark is of superior quality to that of
trees which grow in moist clay, whose shoots are green. I also endea-
voured to get some information with regard to their method of curing
and quilling the cassia, and told them my intentions of trying some
experiments towards improving its quality and rendering it more valu-
able. They told me that none had been cut for two years past, on
account of a stop being put to the purchases at Tappanuli; and that if I
was come with authority to open the trade, I should call together the
people of the neighbouring kampongs, kill a buffalo for them, and assure
them publicly that the cassia would be again received •, in which case

they

SUMATRA.

373

they would immediately begin to cut and cure it, and would willingly
follow any instructions I should give them; but that otherwise they
would take no trouble about it. I must observe, that I was prevented
from getting so satisfactory an account of the cassia as I could have
wished, by the ill-behaviour of the person who accompanied us as guide,
from whom, by his thorough knowledge of the country, and of the
cassia-trade, of which he had formerly been the chief manager, we
thought we had reason to expect all requisite assistance and information,
but who not only refused to give it, but prevented as much as possible
our receiving any from the country people. July 14th. We left Batang
Onan in order to return, stopped that night at a kampong called Koto
Moran, and the next evening reached Sa-masavi ; from whence we pro-
ceeded, by a different road from what we had travelled before, to Sa-
pisang, where we procured sampans, and went down the Batang-tara
river to the sea. July 22d we returned to Pnlo Punchong .”

It has since been understood that they were intentionally misled, and
taken by a circuitous route, to prevent their seeing a particular kam-
pong of some consideration, at the back of Tappanuli, or for some other
interested object. Near the latter place, on the main, Mr. John Mars-
den, who went thither to be present at the funeral of one of their chiefs,
observed two old monuments in stone, one the figure of a man, the
other of a man on an elephant ; tolerably well executed, but they know
not by whom, nor is there any among them who could do the same work
now. The features were strongly Batta.

Our settlement at Natal (properly Natar ), some miles to the south of Natal,
the large river of Tabuyong, and on the confines of the Batta country,
which extends at the back of it, is a place of much commerce, but not
from its natural or political circumstances of importance in other re-
spects. It is inhabited by settlers there, for the convenience of trade,
from the countries of Achin, Ran, and Menangkabau, who render it
populous and rich. Gold, of very fine quality, is procured from the
country (some of the mines being said to lie within ten miles of the fac-
tory), and there is a considerable vent for imported goods, the returns
for which are chiefly made in that article and camphor. Like other

Malayan

374

SUMATRA.

Batta go-
vernments.

Malayan towns it is governed by datus, the chief of whom, styled datu
besdr or chief magistrate, has considerable sway ; and although the
influence of the Company is here predominant, its authority is by no
means so firmly established as in the pepper-districts to the southward ;
owing to the number of people, their wealth, and enterprising, inde-
pendent spirit.* It may be said, that they are rather managed and con-
ciliated than ruled. They find the English useful as moderators between
their own contending factions, which often have recourse to arms, even
upon points of ceremonious precedence, and are reasoned into accom-
modation by our resident going among them unattended. At an earlier
period our protection was convenient to them against the usurpation,
as thej' termed it, of the Dutch, of whose attempts and claims they were
particularly jealous. By an article of the treaty of Paris, in 1763, these
pretensions were ascertained as they respected the two European powers,
and the settlements of Natal and Tappanuli w7ere expressly restored to
the English. They had, however, already been re-occupied. Neither,
in fact, have any right but what proceeds from the will and consent of
the native princes.

The government of the Batta country, although nominally in the
hands of three or more sovereign rajas, is effectively (so far as our inter-
course with the people enables us to ascertain) divided into numberless
petty chiefships, the heads of which, also styled rajas , have no appear-
ance

a Upon the re-establishment of the factory in 1762, the resident pointed out to the Dalu
besdr, with a degree of indignation, the number of dead bodies which were frequently seen
floating down the river, and proposed his co-operating to prevent assassinations in the coun-
try; occasioned by the anarchy the place fell into, during the temporary interruption of the
Company’s influence. “ I cannot assent to any measures for that purpose,” replied the
datu : “ I reap from these murders an advantage of twenty dollars a head, when the families
prosecute.” A compensation of thirty dollars per month was oflered him, and to this he
scarcely submitted, observing that he should be a considerable loser, as there fell in this
manner at least three men in the month. At another time, when the resident attempted
to carry some regulation into execution, he said, “ hand tradah suka begito, orang kaya i”
“ We do not chuse to allow it, sir and bared his right arm, as a signal of attack to his
dependants, in case the point had been insisted on. Of late years, habit and a sense of
mutual interest have rendered them more accommodating.

SUMATRA.

375

mice of being dependant upon any superior power, but enter into asso-
ciations with each other, particularly with those belonging to the same
tribe, for mutual defence and security against any distant enemy. They
are at the same time extremely jealous of any increase of their relative
power, and on the slightest pretext a war breaks out between them. The
force of different kampongs is, notwithstanding this, very unequal, and
some rajas possess a much more extensive sway than others ; and
it must needs be so, where every man who can get a dozen followers,
and two or three muskets, sets up for independence. Inland of a place
called Soknm, great respect was paid to a female chief or uti (which word
I conceive to be a liquid pronunciation of patri, a princess), whose ju-
risdiction comprehended many tribes. Her grandson, who was the
reigning prince, had lately been murdered by an invader, and she had
assembled an army of two or three thousand men, to take revenge. An
agent of the Company went up the river about fifteen miles, in hopes of
being able to accommodate a matter that threatened materially the peace
of the country ; but he was told by the uti, that unless he would land
his men, and take a decided part in her favour, he had no business
there, and he was obliged to reimbark without effecting any thing. The
aggressor followed him the same night, and made his escape. It does
not appear likely, from the manners and dispositions of the people,
that the whole of the country was ever united under one supreme
head.

The more powerful rajas assume authority over the lives of their sub-
jects. The dependants are bound to attend their chief in his journies
and in his wars, and when an individual refuses, he is expelled from the
society, without permission to take his property along with him. Thev
are supplied with food for their expeditions, and allowed a reward for
each person they kill. The revenues of the chief arise principally from
fines of cattle adjudged in criminal proceedings, which he always
appropriates to himself ; and from the produce of the camphor and
benzoin trees throughout his district; but this is not rigorously insisted
upon. When he pays his gaming debts, he imposes what arbitrary
value he thinks proper on the horses and buffaloes (no coin being used

Authority
of rajas.

376

SUMATRA.

Succession.

Respect for
the sultan
of Menang-
kabau.

in the country), which he delivers, and his subjects are obliged to ac-
cept them at that rate. They are forced to work in their turns, for a
certain number of days, in his rice plantations. There is, in like man-
ner, a lesser kind of service for land held of any other person; the tenant
being bound to pay his landlord respect wherever he meets him, and to
provide him with entertainment whenever he comes to his house. The
people seem to have a permanent property in their possessions, selling
them to each other as they think fit. If a man plants trees, and leaves
them, no future occupier can sell them, though he may eat the fruit.
Disputes and litigations of any kind that happen between people belong-
ing to the same kampong are settled by a magistrate appointed for that
purpose, and from him, it is said, there is no appeal to the raja : when
they arise between persons of different kampongs, they are adjusted at a
meeting of the respective rajas. When a party is sent down to the Bay,
to purchase salt, or on other business, it is accompanied by an officer,
who takes cognizance of their behaviour, and sometimes punishes on the
spot such as are criminal or refractory. This is productive of much
order and decency.

It is asserted, that the succession to the chiefships does not go, in the
first instance, to the son of the deceased, but to the nephew by a
sister ; and that the same extraordinary rule, with respect to property
in general, prevails also amongst the Malays of that part of the island,
and even in the neighbourhood of Padang. The authorities for this
are various and unconnected with each other, but not sufficiently cir-
cumstantial to induce me to admit it as a generally established prac-
tice.

Notwithstanding the independent spirit of the Battas, and their con-
tempt of all power that would affect a superiority over their little soci-
eties, they have a superstitious veneration for the sultan of Menangkabau,
and shew blind submission to his relations and emissaries, real or pre-
tended, when such appear among them for the purpose of levying con-
tributions : even when insulted and put in fear of their lives, they make
no attempt at resistance : they think that their affairs would never

prosper;

SUMATRA.

377

prosper; that their padi would be blighted, and their buffaloes die;
that they would remain under a kind of spell, for offending those sacred
messengers.

The Battas are in their persons rather below the stature of the Malays, Persons,
and their complexions are fairer; which may, perhaps, be owing to
their distance, for the most part, from the sea, an element they do not
at all frequent. Their dress is commonly of a sort of cotton cloth manu- Dress,
factured by themselves, thick, harsh, and wiry, about four astas or
cubits long, and two in breadth, worn round the middle, with a scarf
over the shoulder. These are of mixed colours, the prevalent being a
brownish red, and a blue approaching to black. They are fond of adorn-
ing them, particularly the scarf, with strings and tassels of beads. The
covering of the head is usually the bark of a tree, but the superior class
wear a strip of foreign blue cloth, in imitation of the Malayan destars ,
and a few have bajus (outer garments) of chintz. The young women,
beside the cloth round the middle, have one over the breasts, and (as
noticed in Mr. Miller’s journal) wear in their ears numerous rings of tin,
as well as several large rings of thick brass wire round their necks. On
festival days, however, they ornament themselves with ear-rings of gold,
hair-pins, of which the heads are fashioned like birds or dragons, a kind
of three-cornered breast-plate, and hollow rings upon the upper arm,
all, in like manner, of gold. The kima shell, which abounds in the bay,
is likewise worked into arm-rings, whiter, and taking a better polish
than ivory.

Their arms are match-lock guns, with which they are expert marks- Arms,
men, bamboo lances or spears with long iron heads, and a side-weapon
called jono, which resembles and is worn as a sword rather than a kris.

The cartridge-boxes are provided with a number of little wooden cases,
each containing a charge for the piece. In these are carried likewise
the match, and the smaller ranjaus , the longer being in a joint of bam-
boo, slung like a quiver over the shoulder. They have machines cu-
riously carved and formed like the beak of a large bird, for holding
bullets, and others of peculiar construction, for a reserve of powder.

These hang in front. On the right side hang the flint and steel, and

S C also

378

SUMATRA.

Warfare.

also the tobacco-pipe. Their guns, the locks of which .(for holding
the match) are of copper, they are supplied with by traders from Me-
nangkabau j the swords are of their own workmanship, and they also
manufacture their own gunpowder, extracting the saltpetre, as it is
said, from the soil taken from under houses that have been long inha-
bited, (which, in consequence of an uncleanly practice, is strongly im-
pregnated with animal salts), together with that collected in places where
goats are kept. Through this earth water is filtered, and being after-
wards suffered to evaporate, the saltpetre is found at the bottom of the
vessel. Their proper standard in war is a horse’s head, from whence
flows a long mane or tail ; beside which they have colours of red or white
cloth. For drums they use gongs, and in action set up a kind of war-
hoop.

The spirit of war is excited among these people by small provocation,
and their resolutions for carrying it into effect are soon taken. TheiF
life appears, in fact, to be a perpetual state of hostility, and they are
always prepared for attack and defence. When they proceed to put
their designs into execution, the first act of defiance is firing, without
ball, into the kampong of their enemies. Three days are then allowed
for the party fired upon to propose terms of accommodation, and if
this is not done, or the terms are such as cannot be agreed to, war is
then fully declared. This ceremony of firing with powder only, is
styled, “ carrying smoke to the adversary.” During the course of their
wars, which sometimes last for two or three years, they seldom meet
openly in the field, or attempt to decide their contest by a general en-
gagement 5 as the mutual loss of a dozen men might go near to ruin
both parties, nor do they ever engage hand to hand, but keep at a pretty
safe distance, seldom nearer than random-shot, excepting in case of
sudden surprise. They march in single files, and usually fire kneeling.
It is not often that they venture a direct attack upon each others works,
but watch opportunities of picking off stragglers passing through the
woods. A party of three or four will conceal themselves near the foot-
ways, and if they see any of their foes, they fire and run away immedi-
ately ; planting ranjaus after them, to prevent pursuit. On these
occasions a man will subsist upon a potatoe a day, in which they have

much

SUMATRA.

379

much the advantage of the Malays, (against whom they are often en-
gaged in warfare) who require to be better fed. : ;

They fortify their kampongs with large ramparts of earth, half way Fortifica-
up which they plant brush-wood. There is a ditch without the rampart,
and on each side of that a tall palisade of camphor timber. Beyond
this is an impenetrable hedge of prickly bamboo, which, when of suf-
ficient growth, acquires an extraordinary density, and perfectly conceals
all appearance of a town. Ravjaus, of a length both for the body and
the feet, are disposed without all these, and render the approaches hazard-
ous to assailants who are almost naked. At each comer of the fortress,
instead of a tower or watch-house, they contrive to have a tall tree, which
they ascend to reconnoitre or fire from. But they are not fond of re-
maining on the defensive in these fortified villages, and therefore, leaving
a few to guard them, usually advance into the plains, and throw up tem-
porary breastworks and entrenchments.

The natives of the sea-coast exchange their benzoin, camphor, and Trade,
cassia (the quantity of gold-dust is very inconsiderable) for iron, steel,
brass-wire, and salt, of which last article an hundred thousand bamboo
measures are annually taken off in the bay of Tappanuli . These they
barter again with the more inland inhabitants, in the mode that shall
presently be described, for the products and manufactures of the coun-
try, particularly the home-made cloth ; a very small quantity of cotton
piece-goods being imported from the eoasi., and disposed of to the na-
tives. What they do take off is chiefly blue-cloth for the head, and
chintz.

Tor the convenience of carrying on the inland-trade, there are esta- Fairs held,
blished at the back of Tappanuli, which is their great mart, four stages,
at which successively they hold public fairs or markets on every fourth
day throughout the year ; each fair, of course, lasting one day. The
people in the district of the fourth stage assemble with their goods at the
appointed place, to which those of the third resort in order to purchase
them. The people of the third, in like manner, supply the wants of
the second, and the second of the first, who dispose, on the day the

3 C c2 market 1

380

SUMATRA.

Estimate by
commodi-
ties instead
of coin.

Food.

market is held, of the merchandise for which they have trafficked with
the Europeans and Malays. On these occasions all hostilities are sus-
pended. Each man who possesses a musket carries it with a green bough
in the muzzle, as a token of peace, and afterwards, when he comes to
the spot, following the example of the director or manager of the party,
discharges the loading into a mound of earth ; in which, before his de-
parture, he searches for his ball. There is but one house at the place
where the market is held, and that is for the purpose of gaming. The
want of booths is supplied by the shade of regular rows of fruit-trees,
mostly durian, of which one avenue is reserved for the women. The
dealings are conducted with order and fairness ; the chief remaining at
a little distance, to be referred to in case of dispute, and a guard is at
hand, armed with lances, to keep the peace ; yet with all this police,
which bespeaks civilization, I have been assured by those who have had
an opportunity of attending their meetings, that in the whole of their
appearance and deportment there is more of savage life than is observed
in the manners of the Rejangs, or inhabitants of Lampong. Traders
from the remoter Batta districts, lying north and south, assemble at
these periodical markets, where all their traffic is carried on, and commo-
dities bartered. They are not, however, peculiar to this country, being
held, among other places, at Batang-kapas and Ipu. By the Malays
they are termed onan.

Having no coin, all value is estimated among them by certain com-
modities. In trade, they calculate by tampangs (cakes) of benzoin ; in
transactions among themselves, more commonly by buffaloes : sometimes
brass wire, and sometimes beads, are used as a medium. A galang ,
or ring of brass wire, represents about the value of a dollar. But for
small payments, salt is the most in use. A measure called a salup ,
weighing about two pounds, is equal to a fanam or twopence-halfpenny :
a balli, another small measure, goes for four keppeng, or three-fifths of
a penny.

The ordinary food of the lower class of people is maiz and sweet po-
tatoes ; the rajas and great men alone indulging themselves with rice.
Some mix them together. It is only on public occasions that they kill

cattle

SUMATRA.

381

cattle for food ; but not being delicate in their appetites, they do not
scruple to eat part of a dead buffalo, hog, rat, alligator, or any wild
animal with which they happen to meet. Their rivers are said not to
abound with fish. Horse-flesh they esteem their most exquisite meat,
and for this purpose feed them upon grain, and pay great attention to
their keep. They are numerous in the country, and the Europeans at
Bencoolen are supplied with many good ones from thence, but not with
the finest, as these are reserved for their festivals. They have also, says
Mr. Miller, great quantities of small black dogs, with erect pointed ears,
which they fatten and eat. Toddy or palm-wine they drink copiously
at their feasts.

The houses are built with frames of wood, with the sides of boards. Buildings,
and roof covered with iju. They usually consist of a single large room,
which is entered by a trap-door in the middle. The number seldom ex-
ceeds twenty in one kampong ; but opposite to each is a kind of open
building, that serves for sitting in during the day, and as a sleeping-
place for the unmarried men at night. These together form a sort of
street. To each kampong there is also a balei, where the inhabitants
assemble for transacting public business, celebrating feasts, and the re-
ception of strangers, whom they entertain with frankness and hospitality.

At the end of this building is a place divided off, from whence the women
see the spectacles of fencing and dancing 5 and below that is a kind of
orchestra for music.

The men are allowed to marry as many wives as they please, or can Domestic
afford, and to have half a dozen is not uncommon. Each of these sits manners’
in a different part of the large room, and sleeps exposed to the others j
not being separated by any partition or distinction of apartments. Yet
the husband finds it necessary to allot to each of them their several
fire-places, and cooking utensils, where they dress their own victuals
separately, and prepare his in turns. How is this domestic sta£e, and
the flimsiness of such an imaginary barrier, to be reconciled with our
ideas of the furious, ungovernable passions of love and jealousy, sup-
posed to prevail in an eastern haram ? or must custom be allowed to
supersede all other influence, both moral and physical ? In other re-
spects

382

SUMATRA.

Condition of
women.

Horse-racing.

Language.

spects they differ little in their customs relating to marriage from the rest
of the island. The parents of the girl always receive a valuable consi-
deration (in buffaloes or horses) from the person to whom she is given
in marriage ; which is returned when a divorce takes place against the
man’s inclination. The daughters, as elsewhere, are looked upon as the
riches of the fathers.

The condition of the women appears to be no other than that of
slaves, the husbands having the power of selling their wives and children.
They alone, beside the domestic duties, work in the rice plantations.
These are prepared in the same mode as in the rest of the island ; except
that in the central parts, the country being clearer, the plough and
harrow, drawn by buffaloes, are more used. The men, when not en-
gaged in war, their favourite occupation, commonly lead an idle, inac-
tive life, passing the day in playing on a kind of flute, crowned with
garlands of flowers ; among which the globe- am aranthus, a native of the
country, mostly prevails. They are said, however, to hunt deer on
horseback, and to be attached to the diversion of horse-racing. They
ride boldly without a saddle or stirrups, frequently throwing their hands
upwards whilst pushing their horse to full speed. The bit of the bridle
is of iron, and has several joints ; the head-stall and reins of rattan : in
some parts the reins, or halter rather, is of iju, and the bit of wood.
They are, like the rest of the Sumatrans, much addicted to gaming, and
the practice is under no kind of restraint, until it destroys itself by the
ruin of one of the parties. When a man loses more money than he is
able to pay, he is confined and sold as a slave ; being the most usual
mode by which they become such. A generous winner will sometimes
release his unfortunate adversary upon condition of his killing a horse,
and making a public entertainment,

They have, as was before observed, a language and written character
peculiar to themselves, and which may be considered, in point of ori-
ginality, as equal at least to any other in the island; and although, like
the languages of Java, Celebes, and the Philippines, it has many terms
in common with the Malayan (being all, in my judgment, from one
common stock), yet, in the way of encroachment, from the influence,

both

SUMATRA.

383

both political and religious, acquired by its immediate neighbours, the
Batta tongue appears to have experienced less change than any other.

For a specimen of its words, its alphabet, and the rules by which the
sound of its letters is modified and governed, the reader is referred to the
Table and Plate at p. 203. It is remarkable, that the proportion of the
people who are able to read and write is much greater than of those who
do not ; a qualification seldom observed in such uncivilized parts of the
world, and not always found in the more polished. Their writing, for Writing,
common purposes, is, like that already described in speaking of the
Rejangs, upon pieces of bamboo. Their books (and such they may with Books,
propriety be termed) are composed of the inner bark of a certain tree,
cut into long slips, and folded in squares, leaving part of the wood at
each extremity, to serve for the outer covering. The bark, for this
purpose, is shaved smooth and thin, and afterwards rubbed over with
rice-water. The pen they use is a twig or the fibre of a leaf, and their ink
is made of the soot of dammar, mixed with the juice of the sugar-cane.

The contents of their books are little known to us. The writing of most
of those in my possession is mixed with uncouth representations of sco-
lopendra and other noxious animals, and frequent diagrams, which
imply their being works of astrology and divination. These they are
known to consult in all the transactions of life, and the event is predicted
by the application of certain characters marked on a slip of bamboo, to
the lines of the sacred book, with which a comparison is made. But
this is not their only mode of divining. Before going to war they kill a
buffalo or a fowl that is perfectly white, and by observing the motion
of the intestines, judge of the good or ill fortune likely to attend them ;
and the priest who performs this ceremony had need to be infallible, for
if he predicts contrary to the event, it is said that he is sometimes pu-
nished with death for his want of skill. Exclusively, however, of these
books of necromancy, there are others containing legendary and my-
thological tales, of which latter a sample will be given under the article
of religion.

Dr. Leyden, in his Dissertation on the Languages and Literature of
the Indo-Chinese nations, says, that the Batta character is written nei-

Remark by
Dr. Leyden.

ther

384

SUMATRA.

Religion.

ther from right to left, nor from left to right, nor from top to bottom,
but in a manner directly opposite to that of the Chinese, from the bot-
tom to the top of the line, and that I have conveyed an erroneous idea
of their natural form, by arranging the characters horizontally, instead
of placing them in a perpendicular line. Not having now the opportu-
nity of verifying, by ocular proof, what I understood to be the practical
order of their writing, namely, from left to right (in the manner of the
Hindus, who, there is reason to believe, were the original instructors of
all these people), I shall only observe, that I have among my papers
three distinct specimens of the Batta alphabet, written by different na-
tives, at different periods, and all of them are horizontal. But I am at
the same time aware that as this was performed in the presence of Eu-
ropeans, and upon our paper, they might have deviated from their
ordinary practice, and that the evidence is therefore not conclusive. It
might be presumed, indeed, that the books themselves wrould be suffi-
cient criterion ; but, according to the position in which they are held, they
may be made to sanction either mode, although it is easy to determine
by simple inspection, the commencement of the lines. In the Batav.
Trans. (Vol. III. p. 23.) already so often quoted, it is expressly said,
that these people write like Europeans from the left hand towards the
right : and, in truth, it is not easy to conceive how persons making use
of ink can conduct the hand from the bottom to the top of a page
without marring their own performance. But still a matter of fact, if
such it be, cannot give way to argument, and I have no object but to
ascertain the truth.

Their religion, like that of all other inhabitants of the island who are
not Mahometans, is so obscure in its principles, as scarcely to afford room
to say that any exists among them. Yet they have rather more of ce-
remony and observance than those of Rejang or Passummah, and there
is an order of persons by them called guru (a well-known Hindu term),
who may be denominated priests, as they are employed in administering
oaths, foretelling lucky and unlucky days, making sacrifices, and the
performance of funeral rites. For a knowledge of their theogony we are
indebted to M. Siberg, governor of the Dutch settlements on the coast

SUMATRA.

385

of Sumatra, by whom the following account was communicated to the
late M. Radermacher, a distinguished member of the Batavian Society,
and by him published in its Transactions.

“ The inhabitants of this country have many fabulous stories, which Mythology,
shall be briefly mentioned. They acknowledge three deities as rulers of
the world, who are respectively named Batara-guru , Sori-pada, and
Mangalla-bulang. The first, say they, bears rule in heaven, is the fa-
ther of all mankind, and partly, under the following circumstances,
creator of the earth, which from the beginning of time had been sup-
ported on the head of Naga-padoha, but growing weary at length, he
shook his head, which occasioned the earth to sink, and nothing re-
mained in the world excepting water. They do not pretend to a know-
ledge of the creation of this original earth and water, but say that at
the period when the latter covered every thing, the chief deity, Batara-
guru, had a daughter named Puti-orla-bulan, who requested permission
to descend to these lower regions, and accordingly came down on a
white owl, accompanied by a dog ; but not being able, by reason of the
waters, to continue there, her father let fall from heaven a lofty moun-
tain, named Bakarra, now situated in the Batta country, as a dwelling
for his child ; and from this mountain all other land gradually proceeded.

The earth was once more supported on the three horns of Naga-padoha,
and that he might never again suffer it to fall off, Batara-guru sent his son,
named Layang-layang-mandi (literally the dipping swallow) to bind him
hand and foot. But to his occasionally shaking his head they ascribe the
effect of earthquakes. Puti-orla-bulan had afterwards, during her resi-
dence on earth, three sons and three daughters, from whom sprang the
whole human race.

“ The second of their deities has the rule of the air, betwixt earth and
heaven, and the third that of the earth ; but these two are considered as
subordinate to the first. Besides these, they have as many inferior
deities as there are sensible objects on earth, or circumstances in human
society ; of which some preside over the sea, others over rivers, over
woods, over war, and the like. They believe, likewise, in four evil
spirits, dwelling in four separate mountains, and whatever ill befals them,

3 D they

386

SUMATRA.

Oatbs.

they attribute to the agency of one of these demons. On such occa-
sions, they apply to one of their cunning men, who has recourse to his
art, and by cutting a lemon ascertains which of these has been the au-
thor of the mischief, and by what means the evil spirit may be propiti-
ated ; which always proves to be the sacrificing a buffalo, hog, goat,
or whatever animal the wizard happens on that day to be most inclined
to eat. When the address is made to any of the superior and beneficent
deities for assistance, and the priest directs an offering of a horse, cow,
do°- ho°' or fowl, care must be taken that the animal to be sacrificed
is entirely white.

« They have also a vague and confused idea of the immortality of the
human soul, and of a future state of happiness or misery. They say,
that the soul of a dying person makes its escape through the nostrils,
and is borne away by the wind ; to heaven, if of a person who has led
a good life ; but if of an evil-doer, to a great cauldron, where it shall be
exposed to fire, until such time as Batara-giiru shall judge it to have
suffered punishment proportioned to its sins, and feeling compassion,
shall take it to himself in heaven : that finally the time shall come when
the chains and bands of Naga-padoha shall be worn away, and he shall
once more allow the earth to sink ; that the sun will be then no more
than a cubit’s distance from it; and that the souls of those who, having
lived well, shall remain alive at the last day, shall in like manner go to
heaven, and those of the wicked, be consigned to the before-mentioned
cauldron, intensely heated by the near approach of the sun’s rays, to
be there tormented by a minister of Batara-gurn, named Suraya-giiru ,
until, having expiated their offences, they shall be thought worthy of
reception into the heavenly regions.” To the Sanskrit scholar who shall
make allowances for corrupt orthography, many of these names will be
familiar. For Batara he will read avatara ; and in Naga-padoha he will
recognise the serpent on whom Vishnu reposes.

Their ceremonies that wear most the appearance of religion are those
practised on taking an oath, and at their funeral obsequies. A person
accused of a crime, and who asserts his innocence, is in some cases
acquitted upon solemnly swearing to it, but in others, is obliged to un-
dergo

SUMATRA.

3S7

dergo a kind of ordeal. A cock’s throat is usually cut on the occasion
by the guru. The accused then puts a little rice into his mouth (pro-
bably dry), and wishes it may become a stone if he be guilty of the crime
with which he stands charged ; or holding up a musket bullet, prays it
may be his fate, in that case, to fall in battle. In more important in-
stances they put a small leaden or tin image into the middle of a dish of
rice, garnished with those bullets ; when the man, kneeling down, prays
that his crop of rice may fail, his cattle die, and that he himself may never
take salt (a luxury as well as necessary of life), if he does not declare
the truth. These tin images may be looked upon as objects of idolatrous
worship ; but I could not learn that any species of adoration was paid
to them on other occasions, any more than to certain stone images which
have been mentioned. Like the relics of saints, they are merely em-
ployed to render the form of the oath more mysterious, and thereby
increase the awe with which it should be regarded.

When a raja or person of consequenee dies, the funeral usually occu-
pies several months; that is, the corpse is kept unburied until the neigh-
bouring and distant chiefs, or, in common cases, the relations and
creditors of the deceased, can be convened, in order to celebrate the
rites with becoming dignity and respect. Perhaps the season of planting
or of harvest intervenes, and these necessary avocations must be attended
to, before the funeral ceremonies can be concluded. The body, how-
ever, is in the mean time deposited in a kind of coffin. To provide this,
they fell a large tree (the anau in preference, because of the softness of
the central part, whilst the outer coat is hard), and having cut a portion
of the stem of sufficient length, they split it in two parts, hollow each part
so as to form a receptacle for the body, and then fit them exactly toge-
ther. The workmen take care to sprinkle the wood with the blood of a
young hog, whose flesh is given to them as a treat. The coffin being
thus prepared and brought into the house, the body is placed in it,
with a mat beneath, and a cloth laid over it. Where the family can
afford the expence, it is strewed over with camphor. Having now
placed the two parts in close contact, they bind them together with
rattans, and cover the whole with a thick coating of dammar or resin.
In some instances, they take the precaution of inserting a bamboo-tube

3 D 2 into

Funeral ce-
remonies.

588

SUMATRA.

into the lower part, which, passing thence through the raised floor into
the ground, serves to carry off the offensive matter ; so that in fact little
more than the bones remain.

When the relations and friends are assembled, each of whom brings
with him a buffalo, hog, goat, dog, fowl, or other article of provision,
according to his ability, and the women, baskets of rice, which are
presented and placed in order, the feasting begins and continues for
nine days and nights, or so long as the provisions hold out. On the last
of these days the coffin is carried out and set in an open space, where
it is surrounded by the female mourners, on their knees, with their heads
covered, and howling (ululantes) in dismal concert, whilst the younger
persons of the family are dancing near it, in solemn movement, to the
sound of gongs, kalintangs, and a kind of flageolet ; at night it is returned
to the house, where the dancing and music continues, with frequent
firing of guns, and on the tenth day the body is carried to the grave,
preceded by the guru or priest, whose limbs are tatt.owed in the shape of
birds and beasts, and painted of different colours,3 with a large wooden
mask on his face. He takes a piece of buffalo-flesh, swings it about,
throwing himself into violent attitudes and strange contorsions, and then
eats the morsel in a voracious manner. He then kills a fowl over the
corpse, letting the blood run down upon the coffin, and just before it
is moved, both he and the female mourners, having each a broom in
their hands, sweep violently about it, as if to chase away the evil spirits
and prevent their joining in the procession ; when suddenly four men,
stationed for the purpose, lift up the coffin, and march quickly off with
it, as if escaping from the fiend ; the priest continuing to sweep after it
for some distance. It is then deposited in the ground, without any
peculiar ceremony, at the depth of three or four feet ; the earth about
the grave is raised, a shed built over it, further feasting takes place on
the spot, for an indefinite time, and the horns and jaw-bones of the

buffaloes

a It is remarkable, that in the Bisayan language of the Philippines, the term for people
so marked, whom the Spaniards call pintados, is batuc. This practice is common in the
islands near the coast of Sumatra, as will hereafter be noticed. It seems to have prevailed in
many parts of the farther East, as Siam, Laos, and several of the islands.

SUMATRA.

389

buffaloes and other cattle devoured on the occasion, are fastened to the
posts. Mr. John and Mr. Frederick Marsden were spectators of the
funeral of a raja at Tappanuli on the main. Mr. Charles Miller men-
tions his having been present at killing the hundred and sixth buffalo
at the grave of a raja, in a part of the country where the ceremony
was sometimes continued even a year after the interment ; and that
they seem to regard their ancestors as a kind of superior beings, attend-
ant always upon them.

The crimes committed here against the order and peace of society are Crime*,
said not to be numerous. Theft amongst themselves is almost unknown,
being strictly honest in their dealings with each other ; but when dis-
covered, the offender is made answerable for double the value of the
goods stolen. Pilfering, indeed, from strangers, when not restrained
by the laws of hospitality, they are expert at, and think no moral of-
fence ; because they do not perceive that any ill results from it. Open
robbery and murder are punishable with death, if the parties are unable
to redeem their lives by a sum of money. A person guilty of man-
slaughter is obliged to bear the expence attending the interment of the
deceased and the funeral-feast given to his friends, or, if too poor to
accomplish this, it is required of his nearest relation, who is empow-
ered to reimburse himself by selling the offender as a slave. In cases
of double adultery, the man, upon detection, is punished with death,
in the manner that shall presently be described ; but the woman is only
disgraced, by having her head shaven, and being sold for a slave;
which in fact she was before. This distribution of justice must proceed
upon the supposition of the females being merely passive subjects, and
of the men alone possessing the faculties of free agents. A single man
concerned in adultery with a married woman is banished or outlawed
by his own family. The lives of culprits are in almost all cases redeem-
able, if they or their connections possess property sufficient ; the quan-
tum being in some measure at the discretion of the injured party. At
the same time it must be observed that Europeans not being settled
amongst these people upon the same footing as in the pepper-districts,
we are not so well acquainted either with the principle or the practice
of their laws.

The

.390

SUMATRA.

Extraordinary The most extraordinary of the Batta customs, though certainly not

custom. . ° J

peculiar to these people, remains now to be described. Many of the
old travellers had furnished the world with accounts of anthropophagi or
man-eaters, whom they met with in all parts of the old and new world,
and their relations, true or false, were in those days, when people were
addicted to the marvellous, universally credited. In the succeeding
ages, when a more sceptical and scrutinizing spirit prevailed, several
of these asserted facts were found upon examination to be false; and
men, from a bias inherent in our nature, ran into the opposite extreme.
It then became established as a philosophical truth, capable almost of
demonstration, that no such race of people ever did or could exist.
But the varieties, inconsistencies, and contradictions of human man-
ners, are so numerous and glaring, that it is scarcely possible to fix any
general principle that will apply to all the incongruous races of man-
kind, or even to conceive an irregularity to which some or other of them
have not been accustomed. The voyages of our late famous circum-
navigators, the veracity of whose assertions is unimpeachable, have
already proved to the world that human flesh is eaten by the savages of
New Zealand; and I can, with equal confidence, from conviction of
the truth, though not with equal weight of authority, assert, that it is
EflatsbUman a^s°5 *n t^iese days> eaten 'n the island of Sumatra by the Batta people,
and by them only. Whether or not the horrible custom prevailed more
extensively in ancient times, I cannot take upon me to ascertain ; but
the same historians who mention it as practised in this island, and
whose accounts were undeservedly looked upon as fabulous, relate it
also of many others of the eastern people, and those of the island of
Java in particular, who, since that period, may have become more
humanized.*

They

* Mention is made of the Battas and their peculiar customs by the following early writ-
ers : Nicolo di Conti, 1449. " In a certain part of this island (Sumatra) called Batcch, the
people eat human flesh. They are continually at war with their neighbours, preserve the
skulls of their enemies as treasure, dispose of them as money, and he is accounted the rich-
est man who has most of them in his house.” Odoardus Barbosa, 1516. “ There is
another kingdom to the southward, which is the principal source of gold ; and another
inland, called Aaru (contiguous to the Batta country) where the inhabitants are pagans.

SUMATRA.

391

They do not eat human flesh as the means of satisfying the cravings
of nature, for there can be no want of sustenance to the inhabitants of
such a country and climate, who reject no animal food of any kind ;
nor is it sought after as a gluttonous delicacy. The Battas eat it as a
species of ceremony; as a mode of shewing their detestation of certain
crimes by an ignominious punishment ; and as a savage display of re-
venge and insult to their unfortunate enemies. The objects of this
barbarous repast are prisoners taken in war, especially if badly wounded,
the bodies of the slain, and offenders condemned for certain capital
crimes, especially for adultery. Prisoners unwounded (but they are not
much disposed to give quarter) may be ransomed or sold as slaves,
where the quarrel is not too inveterate ; and the convicts, there is rea-
son to believe, rarely suffer when their friends are in circumstances to
redeem them by the customary equivalent of twenty binchangs or eighty
dollars. These are tried by the people of the tribe where the offence
was committed, but cannot be executed until their own particular raja
lias been made acquainted with the sentence, who, when he acknow-
ledges the justice of the intended punishment, sends a cloth to cover
the head of the delinquent, together with a large dish of salt and lemons.
The unhappy victim is then delivered into the hands of the injured
party (if it be a private wrong, or in the case of a prisoner, to the
warriors) by whom he is tied to a stake ; lances are thrown at him from
a certain distance by this person, his relations, and friends; and when
mortally wounded, they run up to him, as if in a transport of passion,
cut pieces from the body with their knives, dip them in the dish of salt,
lemon-juice, and red pepper, slightly broil them over a fire prepared
for the purpose, and swallow the morsels with a degree of savage en-
thusiasm. Sometimes (I presume, according to the degree of their

animosity

who eat human flesh, and chiefly of those they have slain in war.” De Barros, 1563.

“ The natives of that part of the island which is opposite to Malacca, who are called Bdtas,
eat human flesh, and are the most savage and warlike of all the land.” Beaulieu, 1622.

“ The inland people are independent, and speak a language different from the Malayan.
Are idolaters, and eat human flesh ; never ransom prisoners, but eat them with pepper
and salt. Have no religion, but some polity.” Ludovico Barthema, in 1505, asserts that
the people of Java were cannibals previously to their traffic with the Chinese.

Motives for
this custom.

392

SUMATRA.

Doubts

obviated.

animosity and resentment) the whole is devoured by the by-standers 5
and instances have been known where, with barbarity still aggravated,
they tear the flesh from the carcase with their teeth. To such a depth
of depravity may man be plunged, when neither religion nor philosophy
enlighten his steps ! All that can be said in extenuation of the horrour
of this diabolical ceremony, is, that no view appears to be entertained
of torturing the sufferers, of increasing or lengthening out the pangs of
death ; the whole fury is directed against the corpse, warm, indeed,
with the remains of life, but past the sensation of pain. A difference
of opinion has existed with respect to the practice of eating the bodies
of their enemies actually slain in war ; but subsequent inquiry has satis-
fied me of its being done, especially in the case of distinguished persons,
or those who have been accessaries to the quarrel. It should be ob-
served, that their campaigns (which may be aptly compared to the
predatory excursions of our Borderers) often terminate with the loss of
not more than half a dozen men on both sides. The skulls of the vic-
tims are hung up as trophies in the open buildings in front of their
houses, and are occasionally ransomed by their surviving relations for a
sum of money.

I have found that some persons (and among them my friend, the late
Mr. Alexander Dalrymple) have entertained doubts of the reality of the
fact, that human flesh is any where eaten by mankind, as a national
practice, and considered the proofs hitherto adduced as insufficient to
establish a point of so much moment in the history of the species. It
is objected to me, that I never was an eye-witness of a Batta-fe ast of
this nature, and that my authority for it is considerably weakened by
coming through a second, or perhaps a third hand. I am sensible of
the weight of this reasoning, and am not anxious to force any man’s
belief, much less to deceive him by pretences to the highest degree of
certainty, when my relation can only lay claim to the next degree 5
but I must at the same time observe, that, according to my apprehen-
sion, the refusing assent to fair, circumstantial evidence, because it
clashes with a systematic opinion, is equally injurious to the cause of
truth, with asserting that as positive, which is only doubtful. My con-
viction of the truth of what I have not personally seen (and we must all

SUMATRA.

393

be convinced of facts to which neither ourselves nor those with whom
we are immediately connected could ever have been witnesses) has
arisen from the following circumstances, some of less and some of greater
authority. It is, in the first place, a matter of general and uncontro-
verted notoriety throughout the island, and I have conversed with many
natives of the Batta country (some of them in my own service), who
acknowledged the practice, and became ashamed of it after residing
amongst more humanized people. It has been my chance to have had
no fewer than three brothers and brothers-in-law, beside several intimate
friends (of whom some are now in England), chiefs of our settlements of
Natal and Tappanuli, of whose information I availed myself, and all
their accounts I have found to agree in every material point. The tes-
timony of Mr. Charles Miller, whose name, as well as that of his father,
is advantageously known to the literary world, should alone be sufficient
for my purpose. In addition to what he has related in his journal, he
has told me, that at one village where he halted, the suspended head of
a man, whose body had been eaten a few days before, was extremely
offensive ; and that in conversation with some people of the Ankola dis-
trict, speaking of their neighbours and occasional enemies of the Pa-
dambola district, they described them as an unprincipled race, saying,
“ We, indeed, eat men as a punishment for their crimes and injuries to
us; but they way-lay and seize travellers, in order to ber-bantei or cut
them up like cattle.” It is here, obviously, the admission and not the
scandal that should have weight. When Mr. Giles Holloway was leaving
Tappanuli and settling his accounts with the natives, he expostulated
with a Batta man who had been dilatory in his payment. “ I would,”
says the man, “ have been here sooner, but my pangulu (superior officer)
was detected in familiarity with my wife. He was condemned, and
I staid to eat share of him ; the ceremony took us up three days, and it
was only last night that we finished him.” Mr. Miller was present at
this conversation, and the man spoke with perfect seriousness. A native
of the island of Nias who had stabbed a Batta man, in a fit of frenzy, at
Batang-tara river, near Tappanuli bay, and endeavoured to make his
escape, was, upon the alarm being given, seized at six in the morning,
and before eleven, without any judicial process, was tied to a stake, cut
in pieces with the utmost eagerness, while yet alive, and eaten upon the

3 E spot.

394

SUMATRA.

spot, partly broiled, but mostly raw. His head was buried under that
of the man whom he had murdered. This happened in December, 1780,
when Mr. William Smith had charge of the settlement. A raja was
fined by Mr. Bradley for having caused a prisoner to be eaten at a place
too close to the Company’s settlement, and it should have been remarked,
that these feasts are never suffered to take place withinside their own
kampongs. Mr. Alexander Hall made a charge in his public accounts of
a sum paid to a raja as an inducement to him to spare a man whom he
had seen preparing for a victim : and it is in fact this commendable dis-
couragement of the practice by our government that occasions its being
so rare a sight to Europeans, in a country where there are no travellers
from curiosity, and where the servants of the Company having appear-
ances to maintain, cannot by their presence, as idle spectators, give a
sanction to proceedings, which it is their duty to discourage, although
their influence is not sufficient to prevent them.

A Batta chief, named raja Niabin, in the year 177 5, surprised a
neighbouring kampong with which he was at enmity, killed the raja *>y
stealth, carried off the body, and eat it. The injured family complained
to Mr. Nairne, the English chief of Natal, and prayed for redress. He
sent a message on the subject to Niabin, who returned an insolent and
threatening answer. Mr. Nairne, influenced by his feelings rather than
his judgment (for these people were quite removed from the Company’s
controul, and our interference in their quarrels was not necessary)
marched with a party of fifty or sixty men, of whom twelve were Eu-
ropeans, to chastise him; but on approaching the village, they found
it so perfectly enclosed with growing bamboos, within which was a
strong paling, that they could not even see the place or an enemy. As
they advanced, however, to examine the defences, a shot from an unseen
Death of Mr. person struck Mr. Nairne in the breast, and he expired immediately. In
him was lost a respectable gentleman, of great scientific acquirements,
and a valuable servant of the Company. It was with much difficulty
that the party was enabled to save the body. A caffree and a Malay
who fell in the struggle, were afterwards eaten. Thus the experience of
later days is found to agree with the uniform testimony of old writers ;
and although I am aware that each and every of these proofs, taken

singly.

SUMATRA.

395

singly, may admit of some cavil, yet in the aggregate they will be
thought to amount to satisfactory evidence, that human flesh is habitu-
ally eaten by a certain class of the inhabitants of Sumatra.

That this extraordinary nation has preserved the rude genuineness of
its character and manners, may be attributed to various causes j as the
want of the precious metals in its country, to excite the rapacity of
invaders or avarice of colonists, the vegetable riches of the soil being
more advantageously obtained in trade, from the unmolested labours of
the natives ; their total unacquaintance with navigation ; the divided
nature of their government, and independence of the petty chieftains,
which are circumstances unfavourable to the propagation of new opinions
and customs, as the contrary state of society may account for the com-
plete conversion of the subjects of Menangkabau to the faith of Ma-
homet ; and lastly, the ideas entertained of the ferociousness of the
people, from the practices above described, which may well be supposed
to have damped the ardour and restrained the zealous attempts of religious
innovators.

Kingdom

3 E 2

396

SUMATRA.

Situation.

Capital.

Kingdom, of Achin — Its Capital — Air— -Inhabitants — Commerce — Manufac-
tures— Navigation — Coin — Government — Revenues — Punis/wients.

Achin (properly Acheli ) is the only kingdom of Sumatra that ever
arrived to such a degree of political consequence in the eyes of the
western people, as to occasion its transactions becoming the subject of
general history. But its present condition is widely different from what
it was, when by its power the Portuguese were prevented from gaining a
footing in the island, and its princes received embassies from all the great
potentates of Europe.

Its situation occupies the north-western extreme of the island, bor-
dering generally on the country of the Battas ; but, strictly speaking, its
extent, inland, reaches no farther than about fifty miles to the south-
east. Along the north and eastern coast its territory was considered,
in 1778, as reaching to a place called Karti, not far distant from Batu-
bara river, including Pidir, Samerlonga, and Pase. On the western
coast, where it formerly boasted a dominion as far down as Indrapura,
and possessed complete jurisdiction at Tiku , it now extends no farther
than Barus ; and even there, or at the intermediate ports, although the
Achinese influence is predominant, and its merchants enjoy the trade,
the royal power seems to be little more than nominal. The interior
inhabitants from Achin to Smgkel are distinguished into those of Allas,
Riah, and Karrau. The Achinese manners prevail among the two
former ; but the last resemble the Battas, from whom they are divided
by a range of mountains.

The capital stands on a river which empties itself, by several channels,
near the north-west point of the island, or Achin-head, about a league
from the sea, where the shipping lies in a road rendered secure by the
shelter of several islands. The depth of water on the bar being no
more than four feet, at low water spring-tides, only the vessels of the

country

SUMATRA.

397

country can venture to pass it ; and in the dry monsoon, not even those
of the larger class. The town is situated on a plain, in a wide valley
formed like an amphitheatre by lofty ranges of hills. It is said to be
extremely populous, containing eight thousand houses, built of bamboos
and rough timbers, standing distinct from each other, and mostly raised
on piles some feet above the ground, in order to guard against the effects
of inundation. The appearance of the place and nature of the buildings
differ little from those of the generality of Malayan bazars, excepting
that its superior wealth has occasioned the erection of a greater number
of public edifices, chiefly mosques, but without the smallest pretension
to magnificence. The country above the town is highly cultivated, and
abounds with small villages, and groups of three or four houses, with
white mosques interspersed.3 The king’s palace, if it deserves the ap-
pellation, is a very rude and uncouth piece of architecture, designed to
resist the attacks of internal enemies, and surrounded for that purpose

with

1 The following'description of the appearance of Achin, by a jesuit missionary who touched
there in his way to China in 169S, is so picturesque, and at the same time so just, that I shall
make no apology for introducing it. “ Imaginez vous une foret de cocotiers, de bambous,
d’ananas, de bagnaniers, au milieu de laquelle passe une assez belle riviere toute couverte de
bateaux ; mettez dans cette foret une nombre incroyable de maisons faites avec de Cannes, de
roseaux, des ecorces, et disposez les de telle maniere qu’ elles forment tantot des rues, et tantot
des quartiers separes : coupez ces divers quartiers de prairies & de bois : repandez par tout dans
cette grande foret, autant d’hommes qu’on en voit dans nos villes, lorsqu’elles sont bien peu-
plees ; vous vous formerez une idee assez juste (V Achen ; et vous conviendrez qu’une ville de
ce gout nouveau peut faire plaisir a des etrangers qui passent. Elle me parut d’abord comme
ces paysages sortis de l’imagination d’un peintre ou d’un poete, qui rassemble sous un coup
d’ceil, tout ce que la campagne a de plus riant. Tout est neglige et naturel, champetre et
meme un peu sauvage. Quand on est dans la rade, on n’appe^oit aucun vestige, ni aucune
apparence de ville, parceque des grands arbres qui bordent le rivage en cachent toutes les
maisons ; mais outre le paysage qui est tres-beau, rien n’est plus agreable que de voir de
matin un infinite de petits bateaux de pecheurs qui sortent de la riviere avec le jour,
et qui ne rentrent que le soir, lorsque le soleil se couche. Vous diriez un essaim d’abeilles
qui reviennent a la cruche chargees du fruit de leur travail.” Lettres Edifiantes, Tom. I.
For a more modern account of this city I beg leave to refer the reader to Capt. Thomas
Forrest’s Voyage to the Mergui Archipelago, p. 38 to 60, where he will find a lively
and natural description of every thing worthy of observation in the place, with a detail
of the circumstances attending his own reception at the court, illustrated with an excellent
plate.

398

SUMATRA.

with a moat and strong walls, but without any regular plan, or view to
the modern system of military defence.*

Air. The air is esteemed comparatively healthy, the country being more

free from woods and stagnant water than most other parts ; and fevers
and dysenteries, to which these local circumstances are supposed to give
occasion, are there said to be uncommon. But this must not be too
readily credited ; for the degree of insalubrity attending situations in that
climate is known so frequently to alter, from inscrutable causes, that a
person who has resided only two or three years on a spot, cannot pre-
tend to form a judgment; and the natives, from a natural partiality, are
always ready to extol the healthiness, as well as other imputed advan-
tages, of their native places.

inhabitants. The Achinese differ much in their persons from the other Sumatrans ,
being in general taller, stouter, and of darker complexions. They
are by no means, in their present state, a genuine people, but thought,
with great appearance of reason, to be a mixture of Battas and Malays,
with chulias, as they term the natives of the west of India, by whom
their ports have in all ages been frequented. In their dispositions they
are more active and industrious than some of their neighbours; they
possess more sagacity, have more knowledge of other countries, and as
merchants they deal upon a more extensive and liberal footing. But
this last observation applies rather to the traders at a distance from the
capital and to their transactions, than to the conduct observed at Achin ,
which, according to the temper and example of the reigning monarch,
is often narrow, extortionary, and oppressive. Their language is one of
the general dialects of the eastern islands, and its affinity to the Batta

may

4 Near the gate of the palace are several pieces of brass ordnance of an extraordinary size ;
of which some are Portuguese ; hut two in particular, of English make, attract curiosity.
They were sent by king James the first to the reigning monarch of Acheen, and have still
the founder’s name, and the date, legible upon them. The diameter of the bore of one is
eighteen inches ; of the other twenty-two or twenty-four. Their strength, however, does
not appear to be in proportion to the calibre, nor do they seem in other respects to be of
adequate dimensions. James, who abhorred bloodshed himself, was resolved that his present
should not be the instrument of it to others.

SUMATRA.

399

may be observed in the comparative table ; but they make use of the Ma-
layan character. In religion they are Mahometans, and having many
priests, and much intercourse with foreigners of the same faith, its forms
and ceremonies are observed with some strictness.

Although no longer the great mart of eastern commodities, Achin still Commerce
carries on a considerable trade, as well with private European merchants,
as with the natives of that part of the coast of India called Telinga,
which is properly the country lying between the Kistna and Godavery
rivers ; but the name, corrupted by the Malays to Kling, is commonly
applied to the whole coast of Coromandel. These supply it with salt,
cotton piece-goods, principally those called long-cloth white and blue,
and chintz with dark grounds ; receiving in return gold-dust, raw-silk
of inferior quality, betel-nut, patch-leaf (melissa lotoria, called dilarn
by the Malays) pepper, sulphur, camphor, and benzoin. The two
latter are carried thither from the river of Singled, where they are pro-
cured from the country of the Battas, and the pepper from Pidir ; but
this article is also exported from Susu, to the amount of about two
thousand tons annually, where it sells at the rate of twelve dollars the
pikul, chiefly for gold and silver. The quality is not esteemed good,
being gathered before it is sufficiently ripe, and it is not cleaned like the
Company’s pepper. The Americans have been of late years the chief
purchasers. The gold collected at Achin comes partly from the moun-
tains in the neighbourhood, but chiefly from Nalabu and Susu. Its
commerce, independently of that of the out-ports, gives employment
to from eight to ten Kling vessels, of an hundred and fifty or two hun-
dred tons burthen, which arrive annually from Porto Novo and Coringa
about the month of August, and sail again in February and March.

These are not permitted to touch at any places under the king’s juris-
diction, on the eastern or western coast, as it would be injurious to the
profits of his trade, as well as to his revenue from the customs and from
the presents exacted on the arrival of vessels, and for which his officers
at those distant places would not account with him. It must be under-
stood that the king of Achin, as is usual with the princes of this part of
the world, is the chief merchant of his capital, and endeavours to be, to
the utmost of his power, the monopolizer of its trade j but this he cannot

400

SUMATRA.

Productions
of the soil.

Manufactures.

Navigation.

at all times effect, and the attempt has been the cause of frequent rebel-
lions. There is likewise a ship or two from Surat every year, the pro-
perty of native merchants there. The country is supplied with opium,
taffetas, and muslins from Bengal, and also with iron, and many other
articles of merchandise, by the European traders.

The soil being light and fertile produces abundance of rice, esculent
vegetables, much cotton, and the finest tropical fruits. Both the mango
and mangustin are said to be of excellent quality. Cattle and other
articles of provision are in plenty, and reasonable in price. The plough
is there drawn by oxen, and the general style of cultivation shews
a skill in agriculture superior to what is seen in other parts of the
island.

Those few arts and manufactures which are known in other parts of
the island prevail likewise here, and some of them are carried to more
perfection. A considerable fabric of a thick species of cotton cloth,
and of striped or chequered stuff for the short drawers worn both by
Malays and Achinese, is established here, and supplies an extensive
foreign demand, particularly in the Rau country, where they form part
of the dress of the women as well as men. They weave also very hand-
some and rich silk pieces, of a particular form, for that part of the body-
dress which the Malays call kain sarong ; but this manufacture had much
decreased at the period when my inquiries were made, owing, as the
people said, to an unavoidable failure in the breed of silk-worms, but
more probably to the decay of industry amongst themselves, proceeding
from their continual civil disturbances.

They are expert and bold navigators, and employ a variety of vessels,
according to the voyages they have occasion to undertake, and the pur-
poses either of commerce or war for which they design them. The river
is covered with a number of small fishing vessels, which go to sea with
the morning breeze, and return in the afternoon, with the sea-wind, full
laden. These are named koleh, are raised about two streaks on a sampan
bottom, have one mast, and an upright or square sail, but long in pro-
portion to its breadth, which rolls up. These sometimes make their

appearance

SUMATRA.

401

appearance so far to the southward as Bencoolen. The banting is a
trading vessel, of a larger class, having two masts, with upright sails
like the former, rising at the stem and stern, and somewhat resembling
a Chinese junk, excepting in its size. They have also very long narrow
boats, with two masts, and double or single out-riggers, called balabang
and jaldr. These are chiefly used as war-boats, mount guns of the size of
swivels, and carry a number of men. For representations of various
kinds of vessels employed by these eastern people, the reader is referred
to the plates in Capt. Forrest’s two voyages.

They have a small, thin, adulterated gold coin, rudely stamped with Coin.
Arabic characters, called mas or massiah. Its current value is said to
be about fifteen, and its intrinsic, about twelve-pence, or five Madras
fanams. Eighty of these are equal to the bangkal , of which twenty make
a katti. The tail, here an imaginary valuation, is one-fifth of the bang-
kal, and equal to sixteen mas. The small leaden money, called pitis or
cash, is likewise struck here for the service of the bazar ; but neither
these nor the former afford any convenience to the foreign trader. Dol-
lars and rupihs pass current, and most other species of coin are taken at
a valuation ; but payments are commonly made in gold dust, and for
that purpose every one is provided with small scales or steelyards, called
daching. They carry their gold about them, wrapped in small pieces
of bladder (or rather the integument of the heart), and often make
purchases to so small an amount, as to employ grains of padi or other
seeds for weights.

The monarchy is hereditary, and is more or less absolute, in pro- Government,
portion to the talents of the reigning prince; no other bounds being
set to his authority, than the counterbalance or check it meets with,
from the power of the great vassals, and disaffection of the commonalty.

But this resistance is exerted in so irregular a manner, and with so little
view to the public good, that nothing like liberty results from it. They
experience only an alternative of tyranny and anarchy, or the former
under different shapes. Many of the other Sumatran people are in the
possession of a very high degree of freedom, founded upon a rigid at-
tachment to their old established customs and laws. The king usually

3 F maintains

402

SUMATRA.

maintains a guard of an hundred sepoys (from the Coromandel coast)
about his palace, but pays them indifferently.

The grand council of the nation consists of the king or Sultan, the maha-
raja, laksamana, paduka tuan, and bandhara. Inferior in rank to these, are
the ulubalangs or military champions, among whom are several grada-
tions of rank, who sit on the king’s right hand, and other officers named
kajuran, who sit on his left. At his feet sits a woman, to whom he
makes known his pleasure : by her it is communicated to an eunuch,
who sits next to her, and by him to an officer, named Kajuran Gondang ,
who then proclaims it aloud to the assembly. There are also present
two other officers, one of whom has the government of the Bazar or
market, and the other, the superintending and carrying into execution
the punishment of criminals. All matters relative to commerce and the
customs of the port come under the jurisdiction of the Shabandar ,
who performs the ceremony of giving the chap or licence for trade ;
which is done by lifting a golden-hafted kris over the head of the mer-
chant who arrives, and without which he dares not to land his goods.
Presents, the value of which are become pretty regularly ascertained,
are then sent to the king and his officers. If the stranger be in the style
of an ambassador, the royal elephants are sent down to carry him and
his letters to the monarch’s presence; these being first delivered into the
hands of an eunuch, who places them in a silver dish, covered with rich
silk, on the back of the largest elephant, which is provided with a ma-
chine ( houdar ) for that purpose. Within about an hundred yards of an
open hall where the king sits, the cavalcade stops, and the ambassador
dismounts, and makes his obeisance by bending his body and lifting his
joined hands to his head. When he enters the palace, if an European,
he is obliged to take off his shoes, and having made a second obeisance,
is seated upon a carpet on the floor, where betel is brought to him. The
throne was some years ago of ivory and tortoise-shell; and when the place
was governed by queens, a curtain of gauze was hung before it, which
did not obstruct the audience, but prevented any perfect view. The
stranger, after some general discourse, is then conducted to a separate
building, where he is entertained with the delicacies of the country, by
the officers of state, and in the evening returns in the manner he came,

surrounded

SUMATRA.

403

surrounded by a prodigious number of lights. On high days ( art raya)
the king goes in great state, mounted on an elephant richly capari-
soned, to the great mosque, preceded by his ulubalangs ; who are armed
nearly in the European manner.

The whole kingdom is divided into certain small districts or commu-
nities, called mukim, which seem to be equivalent to our parishes, and
their number is reckoned at one hundred and ninety, of which seventy-
three are situated in the valley of Achin. Of these last are formed three
larger districts, named Duo-puluh duo (twenty-two), Duo-puluh-limo
(twenty-five), and Duo-puluh-anam (twenty-six), from the number of
mukims they respectively contain ; each of which is governed by a pang-
lima or provincial governor, with an imam and four pangichis for the
service of each mosque. The country is extremely populous ; but the
computations with which I have been furnished exceed so far all pro-
bability, that I do not venture to insert them.

The regular tax or imposition to which the country is subject, for the
use of the crown, is one koyan (about eight hundred gallons) of padi
from each mukim , with a bag of rice, and about the value of one Spanish
dollar and an half in money, from each proprietor of a house, to be
delivered at the king’s store in person ; in return for which homage, he
never fails to receive nearly an equivalent in tobacco or some other
article. On certain great festivals presents of cattle are made to the
king by the orang-kayas or nobles ; but it is from the import and export
customs on merchandise, that the revenue of the crown properly arises,
and which of course fluctuates considerably. What Europeans pay is
between five and six per cent. ; but the Kling merchants are understood
to be charged with much higher duties; in the whole not less than
fifteen, of which twelve in the hundred are taken out of the bales in the
first instance ; a disparity they are enabled to support by the provident
and frugal manner in which they purchase their investments, the cheap
rate at which they navigate their vessels, and the manner of retailing
their goods to the natives. These sources of wealth are independent of
the profit derived from the trade, which is managed for his master by a

3 F CX person

Division
of the
country.

Revenues.

404

SUMATRA.

Administra-
tion of
justice.

Punishments.

person who is stiyed the king’s merchant. The revenues of the nobles
accrue from taxes which they lay, as feudal lords, upon the produce of
the land cultivated by their vassals. At Pidir a measure of rice is paid
for every measure of padi sown, which amounts to about a twentieth part.
At Nalabu there is a capitation tax of a dollar a year ; and at various
places on the inland roads there are tolls collected upon provisions and
goods which pass to the capital.

The kings of Achin possess a grant of territory along the sea-coast, as
far down as Bencoolen, from the sultan of Menangkabau , whose superiority
has always been admitted by them, and will be, perhaps, so long as he
claims no authority over them, and exacts neither tribute nor homage.

Achin has ever been remarkable for the severity with which crimes are
punished by their laws; the same rigour still subsists, and there is no
commutation admitted, as is regularly established in the southern coun-
tries. There is great reason, however, to conclude, that the poor alone
experience the rod of justice; the nobles being secure from retribution
in the number of their dependants. Petty theft is punished by suspend-
ing the criminal from a tree, with a gun or heavy weight tied to his feet ;
or by cutting off a finger, a hand, or leg, according to the nature of the
theft. Many of these mutilated, and wretched objects, are daily to be
seen in the streets. Robbery, on the highway and housebreaking, are
punished by drowning, and afterwards exposing the body on a stake for
a few days. If the robbery is committed upon an imam or priest, the
sacrilege is expiated by burning the criminal alive. A man who is con-
victed of adultery or rape, is seldom attempted to be screened by his
friends, but is delivered up to the friends and relations of the injured
husband or father. These take him to some large plain, and forming
themselves in a circle, place him in the middle. A large weapon, called
a gadubongt is then delivered to him by one of his family, and if he can
force his way through those who surround him, and make his escape,
he is not liable to further prosecution; but it commonly happens that he
is instantly cut to pieces. In this case his relations bury him as they
would a dead buffalo, refusing to admit the corpse into their house, or

SUMATRA.

to perform any funeral rites. Would it not be reasonable to conclude,
that the Achinese, with so much discouragement to vice, both from law
and prejudice, must prove a moral and virtuous people? yet all travellers
agree in representing them as one of the most dishonest and flagitious
nations of the East ; which the history of their government will tend to
corroborate.

History

406

SUMATRA.

History of the Kingdom of Achin, from the period of its being visited by

Europeans.

Pof thePof3 Portuguese, under the conduct of Vasco de Gama, doubled the

tuguese. Cape of Good Hope in the year 1497, and arrived on the coast of Ma-
labar in the following year. These people, whom the spirit of glory,
commerce, and plunder, led to the most magnanimous undertakings,
were not so entirely engaged by their conquests on the continent of India
as to prevent them from extending their views to the discovery of regions
yet more distant. They learned from the merchants of Guzerat some
account of the riches and importance of Malacca, a great trading city in
the farther peninsula of India, supposed by them the Golden Chersonese
of Ptolemy. Intelligence of this was transmitted to their enterprising
sovereign, Emanuel, who became impressed with a strong desire to avail
himself of the flattering advantages which this celebrated country held
out to his ambition. He equipped a fleet of four ships under the com-
mand of Diogo Lopez Sequeira, which sailed from Lisbon on the eighth

1508. day of April, 1508, with orders to explore, and establish connexions in
those eastern parts of Asia. After touching at Madagascar, Sequeira
proceeded to Cochin, where a ship was added to his fleet, and departing

1509. from thence on the eighth of September, 1509, he made sail towards
Malacca ; but having doubled the extreme promontory of Sumatra (then
supposed to be the Taprobane of the ancients) he anchored at Pidir, a
principal port of that island, in which he found vessels from Pegu, Ben-
gal, and other countries. The king of the place, who, like other
Mahometan princes, was styled sultan, sent off a deputation to him,
accompanied with refreshments, excusing himself, on account of illness,
from paying his compliments in person, but assuring him at the same
time that he should derive much pleasure from the friendship and alliance
of the Portuguese, whose fame had reached his ears. Sequeira answered
this message in such terms, that, by consent of the sultan, a monument

SUMATRA.

407

of their amity was erected on the shore ; or more properly, as the token
of discovery and possession usually employed by the European nations.
He was received in the same manner at a place called Pase, lying about
twenty leagues farther to the eastward on the same coast, and there also
erected a monument or cross. Having procured at each of these ports as
much pepper as could be collected in a short time, he hastened to Ma-
lacca, where the news of his appearance in these seas had anticipated his
arrival. Here he was near falling a sacrifice to the insidious policy of
Mahmud, the reigning king, to whom the Portuguese had been represented
by the Arabian and Persian merchants, (and not very unjustly) as lawless
pirates, who, under the pretext of establishing commercial treaties, had,
at first by encroachments, and afterwards with insolent rapacity, ruined
and enslaved the princes who were weak enough to put a confidence in
them, or to allow them a footing in their dominions. He escaped the
snares that were laid for him, but lost many of his people, and leaving
others in captivity, he returned to Europe, and gave an account of his
proceedings to the king.

A fleet was sent out, in the year 1510, under Diogo Mendez, to esta-
blish the Portuguese interests at Malacca ; but Affonso d’Alboquerque,
the governor of their affairs in India, thought proper to detain this
squadron on the coast of Malabar, until he could proceed thither him-
self with a greater force ; and accordingly on the second of May, 1511,
he set sail from Cochin with nineteen ships and fourteen hundred men.
He touched at Pidir, where he found some of his countrymen, who had
made their escape from Malacca in a boat, and sought protection on
the Sumatran shore. They represented, that, arriving off Pase, they
had been ill-treated by the natives, who killed one of their party, and
obliged them to fly to Pidir, where they met with hospitality and kind-
ness from the prince, who seemed desirous to conciliate the regard of
their nation. Alboquerque expressed himself sensible of this instance
of friendship, and renewed with the sultan the alliance that had been
formed by Sequeira. He then proceeded to Pase, whose monarch en-
deavoured to exculpate himself from the outrage committed against the
Portuguese fugitives, and as he could not tarry to take redress, he
concealed his resentment. In crossing over to Malacca, he fell in with

a large

1510.

1511.

408

SUMATRA.

a large junk, or country vessel, which he engaged, and attempted to
board ; but the enemy setting fire to a quantity of inflammable, olea-
ginous matter, he was deterred from his design, with a narrow escape
of the destruction of his own ship. The junk was then battered from
a distance, until forty of her men were killed, when Alboquerque, ad-
miring the bravery of the crew, proposed to them, that if they would
strike, and acknowledge themselves vassals of Portugal, he would treat
them as friends, and take them under his protection. This offer was
accepted, and the valiant defender of the vessel informed the governor,
that his name was Jemal* the lawful heir of the kingdom of Pase i he by
whom it was then ruled being an usurper, who, taking advantage of his
minority, and his own situation as regent, had seized the crown : that
he had made attempts to assert his rights, but had been defeated in two
battles, and was now proceeding with his adherents to Java, some of the
princes of which were his relations, and would, he hoped, enable him to
obtain possession of his throne. Alboquerque promised to effect it for
him, and desired the prince to accompany him to Malacca, where they
1541. arrived the first of July, 1511. In order to save the lives of the Portu-
guese prisoners, and if possible to effect their recovery, he nogotiated
with the king of Malacca before he proceeded to an attack on the place ;
which conduct of his, Jeinal construed into fear, and, forsaking his new
friend, passed over in the night to the Malayan monarch, whose pro-
tection he thought of more consequence to him. When Alboquerque
had subdued the place, which made a vigorous resistance, the prince of
Pase, seeing the errour of his policy, returned, and threw himself at the
governor’s feet, acknowledged his injurious mistrust, and implored his
pardon ; which was not denied him. He doubted, however, it seems,
of a sincere reconciliation and forgiveness, and perceiving that no mea-
sures were taking for restoring him to his kingdom, but, on the con-
trary, that Alboquerque was preparing to leave Malacca with a small
force, and talked of performing his promise when he should return from
Goa, he took the resolution of again attaching himself to the fortunes of
the conquered monarch, and secretly collecting his dependants, fled
once more from the protection of the Portuguese. He probably was not
insensible that the reigning king of Pase, his adversary, had for some
time taken abundant pains to procure the favour of Alboquerque, and

found

SUMATRA.

409

found an occasion of demonstrating his zeal. The governor, on his
return from Malacca, met with a violent storm on the coast of Sumatra,
near the point of Timiang , where his ship was wrecked. Part of the
crew making a raft were driven to Pase, where the king treated them
with kindness, and sent them to the coast of Coromandel by a merchant
ship. Some years after these events, Jeinal was enabled by his friends to
carry a force to Pase , and obtained the ascendency there, but did not
long enjoy his power.

Upon the reduction of Malacca, the governor received messages from
several of the Sumatran princes, and amongst the rest from the king of a
place called Kampar, on the eastern coast, who had married a daughter
of the king of Malacca, but was on ill terms with his father-in-law. Pie
desired to become a vassal of the Portuguese crown, and to have leave
to reside under their jurisdiction. His view was to obtain the impor-
tant office of bandhara, or chief magistrate of the Malays, lately vacant
by the execution of him who possessed it. He sent before him a present
of lignum-aloes and gum-lac, the produce of his country; but Albo-
querque suspecting the honesty of his intentions, and fearing that he
either aspired to the crown of Malacca, or designed to entice the mer-
chants to resort to his own kingdom, refused to permit his coming, and
gave the superintendance of the natives to a person named Nina Chetuan. tsu.
After some years had elapsed, at the time when Jorge Alboquerque
was governor of Malacca, this king [Abdallah 6y name) persisting in
his views, paid him a visit, and was honourably received. At his
departure, he had assurances given him of liberty to establish himself
at Malacca, if he should think proper, and Nina Chetuan was shortly
afterwards removed from his office, though no fault was alledged against
him. He took the disgrace so much to heart, that causing a pile to
be erected before his door, and setting fire to it, he threw himself into
the flames.' The intention of appointing Abdallah to the office of band-
hara was quickly rumoured abroad, and coming to the knowledge of

3 G the

1 This man was not a Mahometan, but one of the unconverted natives of the peninsula,
who are always distinguished from the Moors by the Portuguese writers.

410

SUMATRA.

1515.

1516.

1520.

the king of Bintang, who was driven from Malacca, and now carried
on a vigorous war against the Portuguese, under the command of the
famous Laksamana , he resolved to prevent his arrival there. For this
purpose he leagued himself with the king of Lingga , a neighbouring
island, and sent out a fleet of seventy armed boats to block up the port
of Kampar. By the valour of a small Portuguese armament, this force
was overcome in the river of that name, and the king conducted in tri-
umph to Malacca, where he was invested in form with the important post
he aspired to. But this sacrifice of his independance proved an unfortu-
nate measure to him; for although he conducted himself in such a manner
as should have given the amplest satisfaction, and appears to have been
irreproachable in the execution of his trust, yet in the following year
the king of Bintang found means to inspire the governor with diffi-
dence of his fidelity'", and jealousy of his power. He was cruelly sen-
tenced to death, without the simplest forms of justice, and perished in
the presence of an indignant multitude, whilst he called heaven to wit-
ness his innocence, and direct its vengeance against his interested accu-
sers. This iniquitous and impolitic proceeding had such an effect upon
the minds of the people, that all of any property or repute forsook
the place, execrating the government of the Portuguese. The conse-
quences of this general odium reduced them to extreme difficulties for
provisions, which the neighbouring countries refused to supply them
with, and but for some grain at length procured from Siak , with much
trouble, the event hatf proved fatal to the garrison.

Fernando Perez d’Andrade, in bis way to China, touched at Base,
in order to take in pepper. He found the people of the place, as well
as the merchants from Bengal, Cambay, and other parts of India, much
discontented with the measures then pursuing by the government of
Malacca, which had stationed an armed force to oblige all vessels to re-
sort thither with their merchandise, and take in at that place, as an
emporium, the cargoes they were used to collect in the straits. The
king, notwithstanding, received Andrade well, and consented that the
Portuguese should have liberty to erect a fortress in his kingdom.

Extraordinary accounts having been related of certain islands abound-
ing

SUMATRA.

411

ing in gold, which were reported by the general fame of India, to fie
off the southern coast of Sumatra, a ship and small brigantine, under
the command of Diogo Pacheco, an experienced seaman, were sent in
order to make the discovery of them. Having proceeded as far as
Daya, the brigantine was lost in a gale of wind. Pacheco stood on to
Barns, a place renowned for its gold trade, and for gum benzoin of a
peculiar scent, which the country produced. It was much frequented
by vessels, both from the neighbouring ports in the island, and from
those in the West of India, whence it was supplied with cotton cloths.
The merchants, terrified at the approach of the Portuguese, forsook
their ships, and fled precipitately to the shore. The chiefs of the coun-
try sent to inquire the motives of his visit, which he informed them were
to establish friendly connexions, and to give them assurances of un-
molested freedom of trade at the city of Malacca. Refreshments were
then ordered for his fleet, and upon landing he was treated with respect
by the inhabitants, who brought the articles of their country to ex-
change with him for merchandise. His chief view was to obtain in-
formation respecting the situation and other circumstances of the ilhas
d'Ouro j but they seemed jealous of imparting any. At length, after
giving him a laboured detail of the dangers attending the navigation
of the seas where they were said to lie, they represented their situation
to be distant an hundred leagues, to the south-east of Barus, amidst
labyrinths of shoals and reefs, through which it was impossible to steer
with any but the smallest boats. If these islands, so celebrated about
this time, existed any where but in the regions of fancy,3 they were
probably those of Tiku, to which it is possible that much gold might
be brought from the neighbouring country of Menangkabau. Pacheco
leaving Barus , proceeded to the southward, but did not make the wished
for discovery. He reached the channel that divides Sumatra from Java,
which he called the strait of Polimban, from a city he erroneously sup-
posed to lie on the Javan shore, and passing through this, returned to
Malacca by the east; being the first European who sailed round the

3 G 2 island

a Linschoten makes particular mention of having seen them, and gives practical directions
for the navigation, but the golden dreams of the Portuguese were never realized in them.

412

SUMATRA.

island of Sumatra. In the following year he sailed once more in search
of these islands, which were afterwards the object of many fruitless voy-
ages ; but touching again at Barus , he met with resistance there, and
perished with all his companions.

A little before this time, a ship under the command of Gaspar d’Acosta
was lost on the island of Gamispola (pulo Gomez ) near Achin head, when
the people from Achin attacked and plundered the crew, killing many,
and taking the rest prisoners. A ship also which belonged to Joano de
Lima, was plundered in the road, and the Portuguese which belonged to
her put to death. These insults, and others committed at Pase, in-
duced the governor of Malacca, Garcia de Sa, to dispatch a vessel under
Manuel Pacheco, to take satisfaction ; which he endeavoured to effect
by blocking up the ports, and depriving the towns of all sources of pro-
vision, particularly their fisheries. As he cruised between Achin and
Pase, a boat with five men going to take in fresh water at a river nigh to
the latter, would have been cut off, had not the people, by wonderful efforts
of valour, overcome the numerous party which attacked them. The
sultan, alarmed for the consequences of this affray, sent immediately to
sue for reconciliation, offering to make atonement for the loss of property
the merchants had sustained by the licentiousness of his people, from a
participation in whose crimes he sought to vindicate himself. The ad-
vantage derived from the connexion with this place, induced the govern-
ment of Malacca to be satisfied with his apology, and cargoes of pepper
and raw-silk were shortly after procured there; the former being much
wanted for the ships bound to China.

Jeinal, who had fled to the king of Malacca, as before mentioned,
followed that monarch to the island of Bintang, and received one of his
daughters in marriage. Six or seven years elapsed before the situation
of affairs enabled the king to lend him any effectual assistance, but
at length some advantages gained over the Portuguese afforded a proper
opportunity, and accordingly a fleet was fitted out, with which Jeinal
sailed for Pase. In order to form a judgment of the transactions of this
kingdom, it must be understood, that the people having an idea of
predestination, always conceived present possession to constitute right,

however

SUMATRA.

413

however that possession might have been acquired ; but yet they made
no scruple of deposing and murdering their sovereigns, aud justified
their acts by this argument; that the fate of concerns so important as
the lives of kings, was in the hands of God, whose vicegerents they were,
and that if it was not agreeable to him, and the consequence of his will,
that they should perish by the daggers of their subjects, it could not so
happen. Thus it appears, that their religious ideas were just strong
enough to banish from their minds every moral sentiment. The natural
consequence of these maxims was, that their kings were merely the
tyrants of the day; and it is said, that whilst a certain ship remained
in the port, no less than two were murdered, and a third set up : but
allowance should, perhaps, be made for the medium through which these
accounts have been transmitted to us.

The maternal uncle of Jeinal, who, on account of his father’s in-
firmities, had been some time regent, and had deprived him of the suc-
cession to the throne, was also king of Aru or Rou , a country not far
distant, and thus became monarch of both places. The caprices of the
Rase people, who submitted quietly to his usurpation, rendered them ere
long discontented with his government, and being a stranger, they had
the less compunction in putting him to death. Another king was set
up in his room, who soon fell by the hands of some natives of Am who
resided at Rase, in revenge for the assassination of their countryman.

A fresh monarch was elected by the people, and in his reign it was that 1519.
Jeinal appeared with a force from Bintang , who, carrying every thing
before him, put his rival to death, and took possession of the throne.

The son of the deceased, a youth of about twelve years of age, made
his escape, accompanied by the Mulana or chief priest of the city, and
procured a conveyance to the west of India. There they threw them-
selves at the feet of the Portuguese governor, Lopez Sequeira, then
engaged in an expedition to the Red Sea, imploring his aid to drive the
invader from their country, and to establish the young prince in his
rights, who would thenceforth consider himself as a vassal of the crown
of Portugal. It was urged that Jeinal, as being nearly allied to the king
of Bintang, was an avowed enemy to that nation, which he had mani-
fested in some recent outrages committed against the merchants from

Malacca

414

SUMATRA.

1521.

Malacca who traded at Pase. Sequeira, partly from compassion, and
partly from political motives, resolved to succour this prince, and by
placing him on the throne, establish a firm interest in the affairs of his
kingdom. He accordingly gave orders to Jorge Alboquerque, who was
then proceeding with a strong fleet towards Malacca, to take the youth
with him, whose name was Orfacam ,* and after having expelled Jemal,
to put him in possession of the sovereignty.

When Jeinal entered upon the administration of the political con-
cerns of the kingdom, although he had promised his father-in-law to
carry on the war in concert with him, yet, being apprehensive of the
effects of the Portuguese power, he judged it more for his interest to
seek a reconciliation with them, than to provoke their resentment, and
in pursuance of that system, had so far recommended himself to Garcia
de Sa, the governor of Malacca, that he formed a treaty of alliance with
him. This was, however, soon interrupted, and chiefly by the im-
prudence of a man named Diogo Vaz, who made use of such insulting
language to the king, because he delayed payment of a sum of money
he owed him, that the courtiers, seized with indignation, immediately
stabbed him with their krises, and the alarm running through the city,
others of the Portuguese were likewise murdered. The news of this
affair reaching Goa, was an additional motive for the resolution taken
of dethroning him.

Jorge d’Alboquerque arrived at Pase in 1521, with prince Orfacam,
and the inhabitants, came off in great numbers to welcome his return.
The king of Aru had brought thither a considerable force the preceding
day, designing to take satisfaction for the murder of his relation, the
uncle of Jemal, and now proposed to Alboquerque that they should
make the attack in conjunction, who thought proper to decline it. Jemal,
although he well knew the intention of the enemy, yet sent a friendly
message to Alboquerque, who in answer required him to relinquish

his

1 Evidently corrupted, as are most of the country names and titles ; which shews that the
Portuguese were not at this period much conversant in the Malayan language.

SUMATRA.

415

his crown in favour of him whom he styled the lawful prince. He
then represented to him the injustice of attempting to force him from the
possession of what was his, not only by right of conquest, but of heredi-
tary descent, as was well known to the governor himself; that he was
willing to consider himself as the vassal of the king of Portugal, and to
grant every advantage in point of trade, that they could expect from the
administration of his rival; and that since his obtaining the crown he had
manifested the utmost friendship to the Portuguese, for which he ap-
pealed to the treaty formed with him by the government of Malacca,
which was not disturbed by any fault that could in justice be imputed to
himself. These arguments, like all others that pass between states which
harbour inimical designs, had no effect upon Alboquerque, who, after
reconnoitring the ground, gave orders for the attack. The king was now
sensible that there was nothing left for him but to conquer or die, and re-
solved to defend himself to extremity, in an entrenchment he had formed
at some distance from the town of Base, where he had never yet ventured
to reside, as the people were in general incensed against him on account
of the destruction of the late king of their choice ; for though they were
ever ready to demolish those whom they disliked, yet were they equally
zealous to sacrifice their own lives, in the cause of those to whom
they were attached. The Portuguese force consisted but of three hun-
dred men, yet such was the superiority they possessed in war over the
inhabitants of these countries, that they entirely routed Jemal's army,
which amounted to three thousand, with many elephants, although they
fought bravely. When he fell, they became dispirited, and the people
of Aru joining in the pursuit, a dreadful slaughter succeeded, and up-
wards of two thousand Sumatrans lay dead, with the loss of only five or
six Europeans; but several were wounded, among whom was Alboquer-
que himself.

The next measure was to place the young prince upon the throne*
which was performed with much ceremony. The mulana was appointed
his governor, and Nina Cunapan, w ho in several instances had shewn
a friendship for the Portuguese, was continued in the office of Sha+
bandar. It was stipulated, that the prince should do homage to the
crown of Portugal ; give a grant of the whole produce of pepper of

his

416

SUMATRA.

his country at a certain price; and defray the charges of a fortress
which they then prepared to erect in his kingdom, and of which Mi-
randa d’Azeuedo was appointed captain, with a garrison of an hundred
soldiers. The materials were mostly timber, with which the ruins of
JeinaV s entrenchment supplied them. After Alboquerque’s departure,
the works had nearly fallen into the hands of an enemy, named Melek-
el-adil, who called himself sultan of Pase, and made several desultory
attacks upon them ; but he was at length totally routed, and the for-
tifications were completed without further molestation.

i52i. A fleet which sailed from the west of India a short time after that of

Alboquerque, under the command of Jorge de Brito, anchored in the
road of Achin, in their way to the Molucca islands. There was at this
time at that place a man of the name of Joano Borba, who spoke the
language of the country, having formerly fled thither from Pase, when
Diogo Vaz was assassinated. Being afterwards intrusted with the com-
mand of a trading vessel from Goa, which foundered at sea, he again
reached Achin, with nine men in a small boat, and was hospitably re-
ceived by the king, when he learned that the ship had been destined to
his port. Borba came off to the fleet along with a messenger sent by
the king to welcome the commander, and offer him refreshments for his
fleet, and being a man of extraordinary loquacity, he gave a pompous
description to Brito of a temple in the country in which was deposited
a large quantity of gold : he mentioned likewise that the king was in
possession of the artillery and merchandise of Gaspar d’ Acosta’s vessel,
some time since wrecked there ; and also of the goods saved from a
brigantine driven on shore at Daya, in Pacheco’s expedition ; as well
as of Joano de Lima’s ship, which he had caused to be cut off. Brito
being tempted by the golden prize, which he conceived already in
his power, and inflamed by Borba’s representation of the king’s ini-
quities, sent a message in return, to demand the restitution of the
artillery, ship, and goods, which had been unlawfully seized. The
king replied, that if he wanted those articles to be refunded, he must
make his demand to the sea which had swallowed them up. Brito and
his captains now resolved to proceed to an attack upon the place, and
so secure did they make themselves of their prey, that they refused

permission

SUMATRA.

417

permission to a ship lately arrived, and which did not belong to their
squadron, to join them or participate in the profits of their adventure.
They prepared to land two hundred men in small boats; a larger,
with a more considerable detachment and their artillery, being ordered
to follow. About day break they had proceeded half way up the river,
and came near to a little fort designed to defend the passage, where
Brito thought it advisable to stop till the remainder of their force should
join them ; but being importuned by his people, he advanced to make him-
self master of the fort, which was readily effected. Here ho again resolved
to make his stand, but by the imprudence of his ensign, who had drawn
some of the party into a skirmish with the Achinese, he was forced to
quit that post in order to save his colours, which were in danger. At
this juncture the king appeared at the head of eight hundred or a thou-
sand men, and six elephants. A desperate conflict ensued, in which the
Portuguese received considerable injury. Brito sent orders for the party
he had left to come up, and endeavoured to retreat to the fort, but he
found himself so situated, that it could not be executed without much
loss, and presently after he received a wound from an arrow through
the cheeks. No assistance arriving, it was proposed that they should
retire in the best manner they could to their boats ; but this Brito would
not consent to, preferring death to flight, and immediately a lance
pierced his thighs, and he fell to the ground. The Portuguese, ren-
dered desperate, renewed the combat with redoubled vigour, all crowd-
ing to the spot where their commander lay, but their exertions availed
them nothing against such unequal force, and they only rushed on to
sacrifice. Almost every man was killed, and among these were near
fifty persons of family, who had embarked as volunteers. Those who
escaped belonged chiefly to the corps-de-reserve, who did not, or could
not, come up in time to succour their unfortunate companions. Upon
this merited defeat, the squadron immediately weighed anchor, and after
falling in with two vessels bound on the discovery of the ilhas d'Ouro,
arrived at Pase, where they found Alboquerque employed in the construc-
tion of his fortress, and went with him to make an attack on Bintang.

At the period when Malacca fell into the hands of the Portuguese, state of
Achin and Daya are said by the historians of that nation to have been i$iT'

3 H provinces

418

SUMATRA.

1581.

provinces subject to Pidir, and governed by two slaves belonging to
the sultan of that place, to each of whom he had given a niece in mar-
riage. Slaves, it must be understood, are in that country on a different
footing from those in most other parts of the world, and usually treated
as children of the family. Some of them are natives of the continent of
India, whom their masters employ to trade for them ; allowing them a
certain proportion of the profits, and permission to reside in a separate
quarter of the city. It frequently happened also, that men of good birth,
finding it necessary to obtain the protection of some person in power,
became voluntary slaves for this purpose, and the nobles, being proud
of such dependants, encouraged the practice by treating them with a
degree of respect, and in many instances they made them their heirs.
The slave of this description who held the government of Achin , had two
sons, the elder of whom was named Raja Ibrahim , and the younger Raja
Leila , and were brought up in the house of their master. The father
being old was recalled from his post ; but on account of his faithful ser-
vices, the sultan gave the succession to his eldest son, who appears to
have been a youth of an ambitious and very sanguinary temper. A
jealousy had taken place between him and the chief of Daya, whilst
they were together at Pidir, and as soon as he came into power he
resolved to seek revenge, and with that view entered in a hostile manner
the district of his rival. When the sultan interposed, it not only added
fuel to his resentment, but inspired him with hatred towards his master,
and he shewed his disrespect by refusing to deliver up, on the requisi-
tion of the sultan, 'certain Portuguese prisoners taken from a vessel lost
at Pido Gomez, and which he afterwards complied with, at the interces-
sion of the Shabandar of Pase. This conduct manifesting an intention
of entirely throwing off his allegiance, his father endeavoured to recal
him to a sense of his duty, by representing the obligations in which
the family were indebted to the sultan, and the relationship which so
nearly connected them. But so far was this admonition from pro-
ducing any good effect, that he took offence at his father’s presumption,
and ordered him to be confined in a cage, where he died. Irritated
by these acts, the sultan resolved to proceed to extremities against
him ; but by means of the plunder of some Portuguese vessels, as before
related, and the recent defeat of Brito’s party, he became so strong in

artillery

SUMATRA.

419

artillery and ammunition, and so much elated with success, that he
set his master at defiance, and prepared to defend himself. His force
proved superior to that of Pidir, and in the end he obliged the sultan
to fly for refuge and assistance to the European fortress at Pase, accom-
panied by his nephew, the chief of Daya , who was also forced from his
possessions.

Ibrahim had for some time infested the Portuguese by sending out
parties against them, both by sea and land ; but these being always
baffled in their attempts with much loss, he began to conceive a violent
antipathy against that nation, which he ever after indulged to excess.
He got possession of the city of Pidir by bribing the principal officers ;
a mode of warfare that he often found successful, and seldom neglected to
attempt. These he prevailed upon to write a letter to their master, couched
in artful terms, in which they besought him to come to their assistance
with a body of Portuguese, as the only chance of repelling the enemy by
whom they pretended to be invested. The sultan shewed this letter to
Andre Henriquez, then governor of the fort, who thinking it a good
opportunity to chastise the Achinese, sent by sea a detachment of eighty
Europeans and two hundred Malays, under the command of his brother
Manuel, whilst the sultan marched over land with a thousand men, and
fifteen elephants, to the relief of the place. They arrived at Pidir in the
night, but being secretly informed that the king of Achin was master of
the city, and that the demand for succour was a stratagem, they endea-
voured to make their retreat ; which the land troops effected, but before
the tide could enable the Portuguese to get their boats afloat, they were
attacked by the Achinese, who killed Manuel and thirty-five of his men.

Henriquez perceiving his situation at Pase was becoming critical,
not only from the force of the enemy, but the sickly state of his garrison,
and the want of provisions, which the country people now withheld from
him, discontinuing the fairs that they were used to keep three times in
the week, dispatches advices to the governor of India, demanding im-
mediate succours, and also sent to request assistance of the king of Aru,
who had always proved the stedfast friend of Malacca, and who, though

3 H 2 not

1531.

1522.

420

SUMATRA.

not wealthy, because his country was not a place of trade, was yet one
of the most powerful princes in those parts. The king expressed his
joy in having an opportunity of serving his allies, and promised his
utmost aid; not only from friendship to them, but indignation against
Ibrahim, whom he regarded as a rebellious slave. A supply of stores
l523< at length arrived from India, under the charge of Lopo d’Azuedo, who
had orders to relieve Henriquez in the command ; but disputes having
arisen between them, and chiefly on the subject of certain works which
the shabandar of Pase had been permitted to erect adjoining to the for-
tress, d’Azuedo, to avoid coming to an open rupture, departed for Ma-
lacca. Ibrahim having found means to corrupt the honesty of this
shabandar, who had received his office from Alboquerque, gained intel-
ligence through him of all that passed. This treason, it is supposed, he
would not have yielded to, but for the desperate situation of affairs. The
country of Pase was now entirely in subjection to the Achinese, and
nothing remained unconquered but the capital ; whilst the garrison was
distracted with internal divisions.

After the acquisition of Pidir, the king thought it necessary to re-
main there some time, in order to confirm his authority, and sent his
brother Raja Leila with a large army to reduce the territories of Pase,
which he effected in the course of three months, and with the more
facility, because that all the principal nobility had fallen in the action
with Jeinal. He fixed his camp within half a league of the city, and
gave notice to Ibrahim of the state in which matters were, who speedily
joined him, being anxious to render himself master of the place, before
the promised succours from the king of Aru could arrive. His first step
was to issue a proclamation, giving notice to the people of the town,
that whoever should submit to his authority within six days, should have
their lives, families, and properties secured to them, but that all others
must expect to feel the punishment due to their obstinacy. This had
the effect he looked for, the greater part of the inhabitants coming over
to his camp. He then commenced his military operations, and in the
third attack got possession of the town, after much slaughter ; those
who escaped his fury taking shelter in the neighbouring mountains and

thick

SUMATRA.

421

thick woods. He sent a message to the commander of the fortress, re-
quiring him to abandon it, and to deliver into his hands the kings of
Pidir and Day a, to whom he had given protection. Henriquez re-
turned a spirited answer to this summons, but being sickly at the time,
at best of an unsteady disposition, and too much attached to his trading
concerns, for a soldier, he resolved to relinquish the command to his
relation Aires Coelho, and take passage for the West of India.

He had not advanced farther on his voyage than the point of Pidir ,
when he fell in with two Portuguese ships bound to the Moluccas, the
captains of which he made acquainted with the situation of the garrison,
and they immediately proceeded to its relief. Arriving in the night
they heard great firing of cannon, and learned next morning that the
Achinese had made a furious assault, in hopes of carrying the fortress,
before the ships, which were descried at a distance, could throw succours
into it. They had mastered some of the outworks, and the garrison
represented that it was impossible for them to support such another
shock, without aid from the vessels. T. he captains with as much force
as could be spared, entered the fort, and a sally was shortly afterwards
resolved on and executed, in which the besiegers sustained considerable
damage. Every effort was likewise employed to repair the breaches, and
stop up the mines that had been made by the enemy in order to effect
a passage into the place. Ibrahim now attempted to draw them into a
snare, by removing his camp to a distance, and making a feint of aban-
doning his enterprise; but this stratagem proved ineffectual. Reflecting
then with indignation, that his own force consisted of fifteen thousand
men, whilst that of the Europeans did not exceed three hundred and fifty,
many of whom were sick and wounded, and others worn out with the
fatigue of continual duty, (intelligence whereof was conveyed to him)
he resolved once more to return to the siege,, and make a general assault
upon all parts of the fortification at once. Two hours before day-
break he caused the place to be surrounded with eight thousand men,
who approached in perfect silence. The night time, was preferred by
these people for making their attacks, as being then most secure from
the effect of fire-arms, and they also generally chose a time of rain,
when the powder would not burn. As soon as they found themselves

perceived, .

152 S.

422

SUMATRA.

perceived, they set up a hideous shout, and fixing their scaling ladders,
made of bamboo, and wonderfully light, to the number of six hundred,
they attempted to force their way through the embrasures for the guns ;
but after a strenuous contest they were at length repulsed. Seven ele-
phants were driven with violence against the paling of one of the bastions,
which gave way before them like a hedge, and overset all the men who
were on it. Javelins and pikes these enormous beasts made no account
of, but upon setting fire to powder under their trunks, they drew back
with precipitation, in spite of all the efforts of their drivers ; overthrew
their own people ; and flying to the distance of several miles, could not
again be brought into the lines. The Achinese upon receiving this
check, thought to take revenge by setting fire to some vessels that were
in the dock yard; but this proved an unfortunate measure to them, for
by the light which it occasioned, the garrison were enabled to point their
guns, and did abundant execution.

Henriquez, after beating sometime against a contrary wind, put back
to Pase, and coming on shore the day after this conflict, resumed his
command. A council was soon after held, to determine what measures
were fittest to be pursued in the present situation of affairs, and taking
into their consideration that no further assistance could be expected from
the west of India in less than six months ; that the garrison was sickly,
and provisions short, it was resolved, by a majority of votes, to abandon
the place, and measures were taken accordingly. In order to conceal
their intentions from the enemy, they ordered such of the artillery and
stores as could be removed conveniently, to be packed up in the form
of merchandise, and then shipped off. A party was left to set fire to
the buildings, and trains of powder were so disposed as to lead to the
larger cannon, which they over-charged, that they might burst as soon
as heated. But this was not effectually executed, and the pieces mostly
fell into the hands of the Achinese, who upon the first alarm of the
evacuation rushed in, extinguished the flames, and turned upon the
Portuguese their own artillery, many of whom were killed in the water,
as they hurried to get into their boats. They now lost as much credit
by this ill conducted retreat, as they had acquired by their gallant de-
fence, and were insulted by the reproachful shouts of the enemy; whose

power

SUMATRA.

423

power was greatly increased by this acquisition of military stores, and of
which they often severely experienced the effects. To render their dis-
grace more striking, it happened that as they sailed out of the habour,
they met thirty boats laden with provisions for their use from the king of
Aru , who was himself on his march over-land with four thousand men :
and when they arrived at Malacca they found troops and stores embarked
there for their relief. The unfortunate princes who had sought an
asylum with them, now joined in their flight ; the sultan of Pase pro-
ceeded to Malacca, and the sultan of Pidir and chief of Daya took
refuge with the king of Aru .

Raja Nara, king of Indragiri, in conjunction with a force from Bin-
tang, attacked the king of a neighbouring island, called Lingga , who
was in friendship with the Portuguese. A message which passed on this
occasion gives a just idea of the style and manners of this people. Upon
their acquainting the king of Lingga, in their summons of surrender,
that they had lately overcome the fleet of Malacca, he replied, that his
intelligence informed him of the contrary; that he had just made a
festival and killed fifty goats to celebrate one defeat which they had re-
ceived, and hoped soon to kill an hundred, in order to celebrate a second.
His expectations were fulfilled, or rather anticipated, for the Portuguese
having a knowledge of the king of Indragiri' s design, sent out a small
fleet, which routed the combined force before the king of Lingga was
acquainted with their arrival ; his capital being situated high up on the
river. In the next year, at the conquest of B intang, this king, un-
solicited, sent assistance to his European allies.

However well founded the accounts may have been which the Por-
tuguese have given us of the cruelties committed against their people
by the king of Achin, the barbarity does not appear to have been only
on one side. Francisco de Mello being sent in an armed vessel with
dispatches to Goa, met, near Achin-head, with a ship of that nation
just arrived from Mecca, and supposed to be richly laden. As she had
on board three hundred Achinese and forty Arabs, he dared not venture
to board her, but battered her at a distance ; when suddenly she filled
and sunk, to the extreme disappointment of the Portuguese, who thereby

lost

1535.

1526.

1527.

424

SUMATRA.

£528.

lost their prize ; but they wreaked their vengeance on the unfortunate
crew, as they endeavoured to save themselves by swimming, and boast
that they did not suffer a man to escape. Opportunities of retaliation
soon offered.

Simano de Sousa going with a reinforcement to the Moluccas from
Cochin, was overtaken in the bay by a violent storm, which forced him
to stow many of his guns in the hold ; and having lost several of his men
through fatigue, he made for the nearest port he could take shelter in,
which proved to be Achin. The king having the destruction of the
Portuguese at heart, and resolving, if possible, to seize their vessel, sent off
a message to De Sousa, recommending his standing in closer to the shore,
where he would have more shelter from the gale which still continued, and
lie more conveniently for getting off water and provisions ; at the same
time inviting him to land. This artifice not succeeding, he ordered out
the next morning a thousand men in twenty boats, who at first pretended
they were come to assist in mooring the ship ; but the captain, aware
of their hostile design, fired amongst them ; when a fierce engagement
took place, in which the Achinese were repulsed with great slaughter,
but not until they had destroyed forty of the Portuguese. The king,
enraged at this disappointment, ordered a second attack, threatening to
have his admiral trampled to death by elephants if he failed of success.
A boat was sent a-head of this fleet with a signal of peace, and assurances
to De Sousa, that the king, as soon as he was made acquainted with the
injury that had been committed, had caused the perpetrators of it to be
punished, and now once more requested him to come on shore and trust
to his honour. This proposal some of the crew were inclined that he
should accept, but, being animated by a speech that he made to them,
it was resolved, that they should die with arms in their hands, in pre-
ference to a disgraceful and hazardous submission. The combat was
therefore renewed, with extreme fury on the one side, and uncommon
efforts of courage on the other, and the assailants were a second time
repulsed; but one of those who had boarded the vessel and afterwards
made his escape, represented to the Achinese the reduced and helpless
situation of their enemy, and fresh supplies coming off, they were en-
couraged to return to the attack. De Sousa and his people were at length

almost

SUMATRA.

425

almost all cut to pieces, and those who survived, being desperately
wounded, were overpowered, and led prisoners to the king, who unex-
pectedly treated them with extraordinary kindness, in order to cover
the designs he harboured, and pretended to lament the fate of their
brave commander. He directed them to fix upon one of their compa-
nions, who should go in his name to the governor of Malacca, to desire
he would immediately send to take possession of the ship, which he
meant to restore, as well as to liberate them. He hoped by this artifice
to draw more of the Portuguese into his power, and at the same time
to effect a purpose of a political nature. A war had recently broke out
between him and the king of Aru, the latter of whom had deputed ambas-
sadors to Malacca, to solicit assistance, in return for his former services;
and which was readily promised to him. It was highly the interest of
the king of Achin to prevent this junction, and therefore, though de-
termined to relax nothing in his plans of revenge, he hastened to dis-
patch Antonio Caldeira, one of the captives, with proposals of accom-
modation and alliance, offering to restore not only this vessel, but also
the artillery which he had taken at Pase. These terms appeared to the
governor too advantageous to be rejected. Conceiving a favourable
idea of the king’s intentions, from the confidence which Caldeira, who
was deceived by the humanity shewn to the wounded captives, appeared
to place in his sincerity, he became deaf to the representations that
were made to him by more experienced persons, of his insidious cha-
racter. A message was sent back, agreeing to accept his friendship on
the proposed conditions, and engaging to withhold the promised suc-
cours from the king of Aru. Caldeira, in his way to Achin, touched
at an island, where he was cut off with those who accompanied
him. The ambassadors from Aru being acquainted with this breach of
faith, retired in great disgust, and the king, incensed a£ the ingratitude
shewn him, concluded a peace with Achin ; but not till after an engage-
ment between their fleets had taken place, in which the victory remained
undecided.

In order that he might learn the causes ef the obscurity in which his
negotiations with Malacca rested, Ibrahim dispatched a secret messen-
ger to Senaia Raja , bandhara of that city, with whom he held a corres-

3 I pondence;

426

SUMATRA.

pondence; desiring also to be informed of the strength of the garrison.
Hearing in answer, that the governor newly arrived was inclined to
think favourably of him, he immediately sent an ambassador to wait on
him, with assurances of his pacific and friendly disposition; who returned
in company with persons empowered, on the governor’s part, to negotiate
a treaty of commerce. These, upon their arrival at Achin, were loaded
with favours and costly presents; the news of which quickly flew to
Malacca; and the business they came on being adjusted, they were suf-
fered to depart ; but they had not sailed far before they were overtaken
by boats sent after them, and were stript and murdered. The governor,
who had heard of their setting out, concluded they were lost by accident.
Intelligence of this mistaken opinion was transmitted to the king, who
thereupon had the audacity to request that he might be honoured with
the presence of some Portuguese of rank and consequence in his capital,
to ratify in a becoming manner the articles that had been drawn up; as
he ardently wished to see that nation trafficking freely in his dominions.

1529. The deluded governor, in compliance with this request, adopted the
resolution of sending thither a large ship, under the command of Manuel
Pacheco, with a rich cargo, the property of himself and several mer-
chants of Malacca, who themselves embarked, with the idea of making
extraordinary profits. Senaia conveyed notice of this preparation to
Achin, informing the king at the same time, that if he could make him-
self master of this vessel, Malacca must fall an easy prey to him, as the
place was weakened of half its force for the equipment. When Pacheco
approached the harbour he was surrounded by a great number of boats,
and some of the people began to suspect treachery, but so strongly did
the spirit of delusion prevail in this business, that they could not per-
suade the captain to put himself on his guard. He soon had reason to
repent his credulity. Perceiving an arrow pass close by him, he hast-
ened to put on his coat of mail, when a second pierced his neck, and
he soon expired. The vessel then became an easy prey, and the people
being made prisoners, were shortly afterwards massacred by the king’s
order, along with the unfortunate remnant of De Sousa’s crew, so long
flattered with the hopes of release. By this capture the king was sup-
posed to have remained in possession of more artillery than was left in
Malacca, and he immediately fitted out a fleet to take advantage of its

exposed

SUMATRA.

427

exposed state. The pride of success causing him to imagine it already
in his power, he sent a taunting message to the governor, in which he
thanked him for the late instances of his liberality, and let him know he
should trouble him for the remainder of his naval force.

Senaia had promised to put the citadel into his hands, and this had
certainly been executed but for an accident that discovered his treasonable
designs. The crews of some vessels of the Achinese fleet landed on a
part of the coast not far from the city, where they were well entertained
by the natives, and in the openness of conviviality, related the trans-
actions which had lately passed at Achin, the correspondence of Senaia ,
and the scheme that was laid for rising on the Portuguese when they
should be at church, murdering them, and seizing the fortress. Intel-
ligence of this was reported with speed to the governor, who had Senaia
instantly apprehended and executed. This punishment served to intimi-
date those among the inhabitants who were engaged in the conspiracy,
and disconcerted the plans of the king of Achin.

This appears to be the last transaction of Ibrahim' s reign recorded by
the Portuguese historians. His death is stated by De Barros to have taken
place in the year 1528, in consequence of poison administered to him
by one of his wives, to revenge the injuries her brother, the chief of
Day a, had suffered at his hand. In a Malayan work (lately come into
my possession) containing the annals of the kingdom of Achin, it is
said that a king, whose title was sultan Saleh-eddin-shah, obtained the
sovereignty in a year answering to 1511 of our era, and who, after
reigning about eighteen years, was dethroned by a brother in 1529-
Notwithstanding some apparent discordance between the two accounts,
there can be little doubt of the circumstances applying to the same in-
dividual, as it may well be presumed that, according to the usual prac-
tice in the East, he adopted, upon ascending the throne, a title different
from the name which he had originally borne, although that might
continue to be his more familiar appellation, especially in the mouths of
his enemies. The want of precise coincidence in the dates cannot be
thought an objection, as the event not falling under the immediate ob-
servation of the Portuguese, they cannot pretend to accuracy within a

3 I 2 few

SUMATRA.

few months, and even their account of the subsequent transactions renders
it more probable that it happened in 1529; nor are the facts of his being-
dethroned by the brother, or put to death by the sister, materially at
variance with each other ; and the latter circumstance, whether true
or false, might naturally enough be reported at Malacca.

I529- His successor took the name of Ala-eddin-shah , and afterwards, from

his great enterprises, acquired the additional epithet of keher or the
powerful. By the Portuguese he is said to have styled himself king of
Achin , Barns, Pidir , Pase, Daya , and Batta, prince of the land of the
two seas, and of the mines of Menangkabau . Nothing is recorded of his

1537. reign until the year 1537, in which he twice attacked Malacca. The
first time he sent an army of three thousand men, who landed near the
city by night, unperceived by the garrison, and having committed some
ravages in the suburbs, were advancing to the bridge, when the governor,
Estavano de Gama, sallied out with a party, and obliged them to re-
treat for shelter to the woods. Here they defended themselves during
the next day, but on the following night they re-embarked, with the
loss of five hundred men. A few months afterwards the king had the
place invested with a larger force ; but in the interval the works had
been repaired and strengthened, and after three days ineffectual attempt

1547. the Achinese were again constrained to retire. In the year 1547 he
once more fitted out a fleet against Malacca, where a descent was made •
but contented with some trifling plunder, the army re-embarked, and the
vessels proceeded to the river of Paries on the Malayan coast. Hither
they were followed by a Portuguese squadron, which attacked and de-
feated a division of the fleet, at the mouth of the river. This victory
was rendered famous, not so much by the valour of the combatants,
as by a revelation opportunely made from heaven to the celebrated mis-
sionary Francisco Xavier, of the time and circumstances of it, and
which he announced to the garrison, at a moment when the approach
of a powerful invader from another quarter, had caused much alarm and
apprehension among them.

Many transactions of the reign of this prince, particularly with the
neighbouring states of Batta and Aru (about the years 1539 and 1541)

are

SUMATRA.

429

are mentioned by Ferdinand Mendez Pinto ; but his writings are too
apocryphal to allow of the facts being recorded upon his authority. Yet
there is the strongest internal evidence of his having been more intimately
acquainted with the countries of which we are now speaking, the cha-
racter of the inhabitants, and the political transactions of the period,
than any of his cotemporaries ; and it appears highly probable, that
what he has related is substantially true : but there is also reason to
believe, that he composed his work from recollection, after his return to
Europe, and he may not have been scrupulous in supplying from a
fertile imagination the unavoidable failures of a memory, however richly
stored.

The death of Ala-eddin took place, according to the Annals, in 1556, 1556.
after a reign of twenty-eight years. He was succeeded by sultan Hussein-
shah, who reigned about eight, and dying in 1565, was succeeded by his i565.
son, an infant. This child survived only seven months; and in the same
year the throne was occupied by Raja Firman-shah , who was murdered
soon after. His successor, Raja Janil, experienced a similar fate, when
he had reigned ten months. This event is placed in 156?. Sultan 1 567.
Mansur-shah, from the kingdom of Perak in the peninsula, was the next
who ascended the throne.

The western powers of India having formed a league for the purpose
of extirpating the Portuguese, the king of Aehin was invited to accede
to it, and in conformity with the engagements by which the respec-
tive parties were bound, he prepared to attack them in Malacca, and
carried thither a numerous fleet, in which were fifteen thousand people 1567.
of his own subjects, and four hundred Turks, with two hundred pieces
of artillery of different sizes. In order to amuse the enemy, he gave
out that his force was destined against Java, and sent a letter, accom-
panied with a present of a kris, to the governor, professing strong sen-
timents of friendship. A person whom he turned on shore with marks
of ignominy, being suspected for a spy, was taken up, and being put to.
the torture, confessed that he was employed bj' the Ottoman emperor and
king of Achin, to poison the principal officers of the place, and to set

fire

430

SUMATRA.

1568.

1569.

fire to their magazine. He was put to death, and his mutilated carcase
was sent off to the king. This was the signal for hostilities. He imme-
diately landed with all his men, and commenced a regular siege. Sallies
were made with various success, and very unequal numbers. In one
of these, the chief of Aru, the king’s eldest son, was killed. In another
the Portuguese were defeated and lost many officers. A variety of
stratagems were employed to work upon the fears, and shake the fidelity
of the inhabitants of the town. A general assault was given, in which,
after prodigious efforts of courage, and imminent risk of destruction, the
besieged remained victorious. The king seeing all his attempts fruitless,
at length departed, having lost three thousand men before the walls, be-
side about five hundred who were said to have died of their wounds on
the passage. The king of Ujong-tanah or Johor, who arrived with a fleet
to the assistance of the place, found the sea for a long distance covered
with dead bodies. This was esteemed one of the most desperate and
honourable sieges the Portuguese experienced in India, their whole force
consisting of but fitfeen hundred men, of whom no more than two hun-
dred were Europeans.

In the following year a vessel from Achin bound to Java, with am-
bassadors on board to the queen of Japara , in whom the king wished to
raise up a new enemy against the Portuguese, was met in the straits
by a vessel from Malacca, who took her, and put all the people to the
sword. It appears to have been a maxim in these wars, never to give
quarter to an enemy, whether resisting or submitting. In 1569 a single
ship, commanded by Lopez Carrasco, passing near Achin, fell in with
a fleet coming out of that port, consisting of twenty large gallies, and
an hundred and eighty other vessels, commanded by the king in person,
and supposed to be designed against Malacca. The situation of the Por-
tuguese was desperate. They could not expect to escape, and therefore
resolved to die like men. During three days they sustained a continual
attack, when, after having by incredible exertions destroyed forty of the
enemy’s vessels, and being themselves reduced to the state of a wreck,
a second ship appeared in sight. The king perceiving this, retired into
the harbour with his shattered forces.

SUMATRA.

431

It is difficult to determine which of the two is the more astonishing j
the vigorous stand made by such a handful of men as the whole strength
of Malacca consisted of; or the prodigious resources and perseverance
of the Achinese monarch. In 1573, after forming an alliance with
the queen of Japara, the object of which was the destruction of the
European power, he appeared again before Malacca with ninety vessels,
twenty-five of them large gallies, with seven thousand men, and great
store of artillery. He began his operations by sending a party to set fire
to the suburbs of the town, but a timely shower of rain prevented its
taking effect. He then resolved on a different mode of warfare, and
tried to starve the place to a surrender, by blocking up the harbour,
and cutting off all supplies of provisions. The Portuguese to prevent the
fatal consequences of this measure, collected those few vessels which they
were masters of, and a merchant ship of some force arriving opportunely,
they put to sea, attacked the enemies fleet, killed the principal captain,
and obtained a complete victory. In the year following, Malacca was
invested by an armada from the queen of Japara , of three hundred sail,
eighty of which were junks of four hundred tons burthen. After be-
sieging the place for three months, till the very air became corrupted by
their stay, the fleet retired with little more than five thousand men, of
fifteen that embarked on the expedition.

Scarcely was the Javanese force departed, when the king of Achin once
more appeared with a fleet that is described as covering the straits. He
ordered an attack upon three Portuguese frigates that were in the road
protecting some provision vessels ; which was excuted with such a furi-
ous discharge of artillery, that they were presently destroyed with all
their crews. This was a dreadful blow to Malacca, and lamented, as
the historian relates, with tears of blood by the little garrison, who were
not now above an hundred and fifty men, and of those a great part non-
effective. The king, elated with his success, landed his troops, and laid
siege to the fort, which he battered at intervals during seventeen days.
The fire of the Portuguese became very slack, and after some time to-
tally ceased, as the governor judged it prudent to reserve his small stock
of ammunition for an effort at the last extremity. The king, alarmed at

this

1573.

1574.

1575.

432

SUMATRA.

1582.

1585.

this silence, which he construed into a preparation for some dangerous
stratagem, was seized with a panic, and suddenly raising the siege, em-
barked with the utmost precipitation ; unexpectedly relieving the gar-
rison from the ruin that hung over it, and which seemed inevitable in
the ordinary course of events.

In 1582 we find the king appearing again before Malacca with an
hundred and fifty sail of vessels. After some skirmishes with the Portu-
guese ships, in which the success was nearly equal on both sides, the
Achinese proceeded to attack Johor, the king of which was then in alli-
ance with Malacca. Twelve ships followed them thither, and having
burned some of their gallies, defeated the rest, and obliged them to fly to
Achin. The operations of these campaigns, and particularly the valour
of the commander, named Raja Makuta, are alluded to in Queen Eliza-
beth’s letter to the king, delivered in 1 602 by Sir James Lancaster.

About three or four years after this misfortune Mansur-shah prepared
a fleet of no less than three hundred sail of vessels, and was ready to
embark once more upon his favourite enterprise, when he was murdered,
together with his queen and many of the principal nobility, by the ge-
neral of the forces, who had long formed designs upon the crown. This
was perpetrated in May, 1585, when he had reigned nearly eighteen
years. In his time the consequence of the kingdom of Achin is repre-
sented to have arrived at a considerable height, and its friendship to have
been courted by the most powerful states. No city in India possessed a
more flourishing trade, the port being crowded with merchant vessels,
which were encouraged to resort thither by the moderate rates of the
customs levied ; and although the Portuguese and their ships were con-
tinually plundered, those belonging to every Asiatic power, from Mecca
in the West to Japan in the East, appear to have enjoyed protection and
security. The despotic authority of the monarch was counterpoised by
the influence of the orang-kayas or nobility, who are described as being
possessed of great wealth, living in fortified houses, surrounded by nu-
merous dependants, and feeling themselves above controul, often giving
a licentious range to their proud and impatient tempers.

The

SUMATRA,

433

The late monarch’s daughter and only child was married to the king
of Johor* by whom she had a son, who being regarded as heir to the
crown of Achin, had been brought to the latter place to be educated
under the eye of his grandfather. When the general (whose name is
corruptly written Moratiza) assumed the powers of government, he de-
clared himself the protector of this child, and we find him mentioned in
the Annals by the title of Sultan Buyong (or the Boy), but before he had
completed the third year of his nominal reign, he also was dispatched,
and the usurper took formal possession of the throne in the year 1588,
by the name of Ala-eddin Rayet-shahJ being then at an advanced period
of life.

The Annals say he was the grandson of Sultan Firman-shah ; but the
Europeans who visited Achin during his reign report him to have been
originally a fisherman, who, having afterwards served in the wars against
Malacca, shewed so much courage, prudence, and skill in maritime
affairs, that the late king made him at length the chief commander of
his forces, and gave him one of his nearest kinswomen to wife, in right
of whom he is said to have laid claim to the throne.

The French Commodore Beaulieu relates the circumstances of this
revolution in a very different manner.® He says, that upon the extinc-

3 K tion

1 The king of Acheen sent on this occasion, to Johor, a piece of ordnance, such as for
greatness, length, and workmanship (says Linschoten), could hardly be matched in all
Christendom. It was afterwards taken by the Portuguese, who shipped it for Europe, but
the vessel was lost in her passage.

h Valentyn, by an obvious corruption, names him Sulthan Alciden Ryetza, and this
coincidence is strongly in favour of the authenticity and correctness of the Annals. John
Davis, who will be hereafter mentioned, calls him, with sufficient accuracy, Sultan Aladin.

c The commodore had great opportunity of information, was a man of very superior
ability, and indefatigable in his inquiries upon all subjects, as appears by the excellent ac-
count of his voyage, and of Achin in particular, written by himself, and published in The-
venot’s collection, of which there is an English translation in Harris ; but it is possible lie
may, in this instance, have been amused by a plausible tale from the grandson of this

monarch.

1588.

434

SUMATRA.

tion of the ancient royal line, which happened about forty years before
the period at which he wrote, the orang-kayas met in order to chuse a
king, but every one affecting the dignity for himself, they could not
agree, and resolved to decide it by force. In this ferment the cadi or
chief judge, by his authority and remonstrances persuaded them to offer
the crown to a certain noble, who in all these divisions had taken no
part, but had lived in the reputation of a wise, experienced man, being
then seventy years of age, and descended from one of the most respect-
able families of the country. After several excuses on his side, and
entreaties and even threats on theirs, he at length consented to accept
the dignity thus imposed upon him, provided they should regard him as
a father, and receive correction from him as his children ; but no sooner
was he in possession of the sovereign power than (like Pope Sixtus the
Fifth) he shewed a different face, and the first step after his accession
was to invite the orang-kayas to a feast, where, as they were separately
introduced, he caused them to be seized and murdered in a court behind
the palace. He then proceeded to demolish their fortified houses, and
lodged their cannon, arms, and goods, in the castle, taking measures to
prevent in future the erection of any buildings of substantial materials
that could afford him grounds of jealousy. He raised his own adherents,
from the lower class of people, to the first dignities of the state, and of
those who presumed to express any disapprobation of his conduct, he
made great slaughter, being supposed to have executed not less than
twenty thousand persons in the first year of his reign.

From the silence of the Portuguese writers with respect to the actions
of this king, we have reason to conclude, that he did not make any at-
tempts to disturb their settlement of Malacca ; and it even appears that
some persons in the character of ambassadors or agents from that power
resided at Achin, the principal object of whose policy appears to have

been

monarch, with whom he had much intercourse. John Davis, an intelligent English navi-
gator, whose account I have followed, might have been more likely to hear the truth, as he
was at Achin (though not a frequenter of the court) during Ala-eddin’i reign, whereas Beau-
lieu did not arrive till twenty years after ; and the report of his having been originally a
fisherman, is also mentioned by the Dutch writers.

SUMATRA.

435

been that of inspiring him with jealousy and hatred of the Hollanders,
who in their turn were actively exerting themselves to supplant the
conquerors of India.

Towards the close of the sixteenth century they began to navigate
these seas; and in June, 1600, visited Achin with two ships, but had no
cause to boast of the hospitality of their reception. An attempt was
made to cut them off, and evidently by the orders or connivance of the
king, who had prevailed upon the Dutch admiral to take on board troops
and military stores for an expedition meditated, or pretended, against
the city of Johor, which these ships were to bombard. Several of the
crews were murdered, but after a desperate conflict in both ships, the
treacherous assailants were overcome and driven into the water, “ and
it was some pleasure (says John Davis, an Englishman, who was the
principal pilot of the squadron) to see how the base Indians did fly, how
they were killed, and how well they were drowned.”3 This barbarous
and apparently unprovoked attack was attributed, but perhaps without
any just grounds, to the instigation of the Portuguese.

In November, 1600, Paulus van Caarden having also the command of
two Dutch ships, was received upon his landing with much ceremony ; but
at his first audience the king refused to read a letter from the Prince of
Orange, upon its being suggested to him that (instead of paper) it was
written on the skin of an unclean animal ; and the subsequent treatment
experienced by this officer was uniformly bad. It appears, however*
that in December, 1601, the king was so far reconciled to this new
power as to send two ambassadors to Holland, one of whom died there
in August, 1602, and the other returned to Achin subsequently to the
death of his master.

3 K 2 The

4 All the Dutchmen on shore at the time were made prisoners, and many of them con-
tinued in that state for several years. Among these was Capta n Frederick Houtman, whose
Vocabulary of the Malayan language was printed at Amsterdam in 1604, being the first that,
was published in Europe. My copy has the writer’s autograph.

1600.

436

SUMATRA.

The first English fleet that made its appearance in this part of the world,
and laid the foundation of a commerce which was in time to eclipse that
i6°2. Gf every other European state, arrived at Achin in June, 1602. Sir
James Lancaster, who commanded it, was received by the king with
abundant ceremony and respect, which seem with these monarchs to have
been usually proportioned to the number of vessels and apparent strength
of their foreign guests. The queen of England’s letter was conveyed to
court with great pomp, and the general, after delivering a rich present,
the most admired article of which was a fan of feathers, declared the
purpose of his coming was to establish peace and amity between his
royal mistress, and her loving brother, the great and mighty king of
Achin. He was invited to a banquet prepared for his entertainment, in
which the service was of gold, and the king’s damsels, who were richly
attired and adorned with bracelets and jewels, were ordered to divert
him with dancing and music. Before he retired he was arrayed by the
king in a magnificent habit of the countiy, and armedh wit two /crises.
In the present sent as a return for the queen’s, there was, among other
matters, a valuable ruby set in a ring. Two of the nobles, one of whom
was the chief priest, were appointed to settle with Lancaster the terms
of a commercial treaty, which was accordingly drawn up and executed
in an explicit and regular manner. The Portuguese ambassador, or
more properly the Spanish, as those kingdoms were now united, kept a
watchful and jealous eye upon his proceedings ; but by bribing the spies
who surrounded him, he foiled them at their own arts, and acquired
intelligence that enabled him to take a rich prize in the straits of Ma-
lacca, with which he returned to Achin ; and having loaded what pepper
he could procure there, took his departure in November of the same year.
On this occasion it was requested by the king, that he and his officers
would favour him by singing one of the psalms of David, which was
performed with much solemnity.

Very little is known of the military transactions of this reign, and no
conquest but that of Pase is recorded. He had two sons, the younger
of whom he made king of Pidir, and the elder, styled Sultan Muda, he
kept at Achin, in order to succeed him in the throne. In the year

1603,

SUMATRA.

437

1603, he resolved to divide the charge of government with his intended
heir, as he found his extraordinary age began to render him unequal
to the task, and accordingly invested him with royal dignity ; but the
effect which might have been foreseen quickly followed this measure.
The son, who was already advanced in years, became impatient to
enjoy more complete power, and thinking his father had possessed the
crown sufficiently long, he confined him in a prison, where his days
were soon ended. The exact period at which this event took place is
not known, but calculating from the duration of his reign as stated in the
Annals, it must have been early in the year 1604/ He was then ninety-
five years of age,b and described to be a hale man, but extremely gross
and fat. His constitution must have been uncommonly vigorous, and
his muscular strength is indicated by this ludicrous circumstance, that
when he once condescended to embrace a Dutch admiral, contrary to
the usual manners of his country, the pressure of his arms was so violent
as to cause excessive pain to the person so honoured. He was passion-
ately addicted to women, gaming, and drink, his favourite beverage
being arrack. By the severity of his punishments he kept his subjects
in extreme awe of him ; and the merchants were obliged to submit to
more exactions and oppressions than were felt under the government of
his predecessors. The seizure of certain vessels belonging to the people
of Bantam, and other arbitrary proceedings of that nature, are said to
have deterred the traders of India from entering into his ports.

The new king, who took the name of Ali Maghayat-shali, proved himself,
from indolence or want of capacity, unfit to reign. He was always sur-
rounded by his women, who were not only his attendants but his guards,
and carried arms for that purpose. His occupations were the bath and
the chase, and the affairs of state were neglected ; insomuch that mur-
ders, robberies, oppression, and an infinity of disorders took place in

the

1 The Dutch commander Joris van Spilbergen, took leave of him in April, 1603, and his
ambassador to Holland, who returned in December, 1604, found his son on the throne,
according to Valentyn. Commodore Beaulieu says he died in 1603.

b According to Beaulieu. Davis says he was about an hundred; and the Dutch voyages
mention that his great age prevented his ever appearing out of his palace.

1604.

438

SUMATRA.

1606.

the kingdom for want of a regular and strict administration of justice.
A son of the daughter of Ala-eddin had been a favourite of his grand-
father, at the time of whose death he was twenty-three years of age, and
continued, with his mother, to reside at the court after that event. His
uncle, the king of Achin, having given him a rebuke on some occasion,
he left his palace abruptly, and fled to the king of Pidir , who received
him with affection, and refused to send him back at the desire of the
elder brother, or to offer any violence to a young prince whom their
father loved. This was the occasion of an inveterate war, which cost the
lives of many thousand people. The nephew commanded the forces
of Pidir, and for some time maintained the advantage, but these at
length, seeing themselves much inferior in numbers to the army of
Ali-Maghayat, refused to march, and the king was obliged to give him
up, when he was conveyed to Achin, and put in close confinement.

Not long afterwards a Portuguese squadron, under Martin Alfonso,
going to the relief of Malacca, then besieged by the Dutch, anchored
in Achin road, with the resolution ot taking revenge on the king, for
receiving these their rivals into his ports, contrary to the stipulations of
a treaty that had been entered into between them. The viceroy landed
his men, who were opposed by a strong force on the part of the Achinese ;
but after a stout resistance, they gained the first turf fort with two
pieces of cannon, and commenced an attack upon the second, of ma-
sonry. In this critical juncture, the young prince sent a message to
his uncle, requesting he might be permitted to join the army and
expose himself in the ranks; declaring himself more willing to die in
battle against the Kafers (so they always affected to call the Portu-
guese) than to languish like a slave in chains. The fears which ope-
rated upon the king’s mind, induced him to consent to his release. The
prince shewed so much bravery on this occasion, and conducted two or
three attacks with such success, that Alfonso was obliged to order a
retreat, after wasting two days, and losing three hundred men in this
fruitless attempt. The reputation of the prince was raised by this affair
to a high pitch amongst the people of Achin. His mother, who was
an active, ambitious woman, formed the design of placing him on the
throne, and furnished him with large sums of money, to be distributed

SUMATRA.

439

in gratuities amongst the principal orang cayas. At the same time he
endeavoured to ingratiate himself by his manners, with all classes of peo-
ple. To the rich he was courteous; to the poor he was affable; and he
was the constant companion of those who were in the profession of
arms. When the king had reigned between three and four years he died
suddenly, and at the hour of his death the prince got access to the
castle. He bribed the guards; made liberal promises to the officers;
advanced a large sum of money to the governor ; and sending for the
chief priest, obliged him by threats to crown him. In fine, he ma-
naged the revolution so happily, that he was proclaimed king before
night, to the great joy of the people, who conceived vast hopes from
his liberality, courtesy, and valour. The king of Pidir was speedily
acquainted with the news of his brother’s death, but not of the sub-
sequent transactions, and came the next day to take possession of his
inheritance. As he approached the castle with a small retinue, he was
seized by orders from the reigning prince, who, forgetting the favours
he had received, kept him prisoner for a month, and then sending him
into the country, under the pretence of a commodious retreat, had him
murdered on the way. Those who put the crown on his head were not
better requited ; particularly the Maharaja , or governor of the castle.

In a short time his disappointed subjects found, that instead of being
humane, he was cruel ; instead of being liberal, he displayed extreme
avarice; and instead of being affable, he manifested a temper austere and
inexorable.

This king, whom the Annals name Iskander Mada, was known to our
travellers by the title of sultan Paduka Sri (words equivalent to “ most
gracious”) sovereign of Achin and of the countries of Aru, Dilli , Johor ,
Pahang , Kedah, and Perak, on the one side, and of Barus, Pasaman ,

Tiku, Sileda, and Priaman on the other. Some of these places were con-
quered by him, and others he inherited. He shewed much friendship to
the Hollanders in the early part of his reign ; and in the year 1613 gave i6is.
permission to the English to settle a* factory, granting them many indul-
gences, in consequence of a letter and present from king James the first.

He bestowed on Captain Best, who was the bearer of them, the title of
orang kaya putih, and entertained him with the fighting of elephants, buf-
faloes.

440

SUMATRA.

faloes, rams, and tigers. His answer to king James (a translation of
which is to be found in Purchas) is couched in the most friendly terms,
and he there styles himself king of all Sumatra. He expressed a strong
desire that the king of England should send him one of his countrywomen
to wife, and promised to make her eldest son king of all the pepper
countries, that so the English might be supplied with that commodity
by a monarch of their own nation. But notwithstanding his strong
professions of attachment to us, and his natural connexion with the
Hollanders, arising from their joint enmity to the Portuguese, it was
not many years before he began to oppress both nations, and use his
endeavours to ruin their trade. He became jealous of their growing
power, and particularly in consequence of intelligence that reached
him, concerning the encroachments made by the latter in the island of
Java.

The conquest of Aru seems never to have been thoroughly effected
by the kings of Achin. Paduka Sri carried his arms thither, and boasted
1613. of having obtained some victories. In 1613 he subdued Siak in its
neighbourhood. Early in the same year he sent an expedition against
the kingdom of Johor (which had always maintained a political connexion
with Aru) and reducing the city after a siege of twenty-nine days,
plundered it of every thing moveable, and made slaves of the miserable
inhabitants. The king fled to the island of Bintang ; but his youngest
brother and coadjutor was taken prisoner and carried to Achin. The old
king of Johor , who had so often engaged the Portuguese, left three sons,
the eldest of whom succeeded him by the title of Jang de per-tuan,' the
second was made king of Siak} and the third called Raja Bongsu, reigned
jointly with the first. He it was who assisted the Hollanders in the first
siege of Malacca, and corresponded with Prince Maurice. The king
of Achin was married to their sister ; but this did not prevent a long and
cruel war between them. A Dutch factory at Johor was involved in the
consequences of this war, and several of that nation were among the

prisoners.

1 This is not an individ uatitle or proper name, but signifies the sovereign or reigning
monarch. In like manner Raja Bongsu signifies the king’s youngest brother, as Raja Mtida
does the heir apparent.

SUMATRA.

441

prisoners. In the course of the same year, however, the king of Achin
thought proper to establish Raja Bongsu on the throne of Johor , sending
him back for that purpose with great honours, assisting him to rebuild
the fort and city, and giving him one of his own sisters in marriage.

In 1615 the king of Achin sailed to the attack of Malacca in a fleet ^ts.
which he had been four years employed in preparing. It consisted of
above five hundred sail, of which an hundred were large gallies, greater
than any at that time built in Europe, carrying each from six to eight
hundred men, with three large cannon, and several smaller pieces.
These gallies the orang kayas were obliged to furnish, repair, and man,
at the peril of their lives. The soldiers served without pay, and carried
three months provision at their own charge. In this great fleet there
were computed to be sixty thousand men, whom the king commanded
in person. His wives and household were taken to sea with him. Coming-
in sight of the Portuguese ships in the afternoon, they received many shot
from them, but avoided returning any, as if from contempt. The next
day they got ready for battle, and drew up in form of a half moon.

A desperate engagement took place, and lasted without intermission till
midnight, during which the Portuguese admiral was three times boarded,
and repeatedly on fire. Many vessels on both sides were also in flames,
and afforded light to continue the combat. At length the Achinese
gave way, after losing fifty sail of different sizes, and twenty thousand
men. They retired to Bancalis, on the eastern coast of Sumatra, and
shortly afterwards sailed for Achin, the Portuguese not daring to pursue
their victory, both on account of the damage they had sustained, and
their apprehension of the Hollanders, who were expected at Malacca.

The king proposed that the prisoners taken should be mutually given
up, which was agreed to, and was the first instance of that act of hu-
manity and civilisation between the two powers.

Three years afterwards the king made a conquest of the cities of Kedah 1619.
and Perak, on the Malayan coast, and also of a place called Dilli in Su-
matra. This last had been strongly fortified by the assistance of the
Portuguese, and gave an opportunity of displaying much skill in the
attack. Trenches were regularly opened before it, and a siege carried

3 L on

442

SUMATRA.

1621.

t628.

on for six weeks, ere it fell. In the same year the king of Jorcan (a
place unknown at present by that name) fled for refuge to Malacca,
with eighty sail of boats, having been expelled his dominions by the
king of Achin. The Portuguese were not in a condition to afford
him relief, being themselves surrounded with enemies, and fearful of
an attack from the Achinese more especially ; but the king was then
making preparations against an invasion he heard was meditated by the
viceroy of Goa. Reciprocal apprehensions kept each party on the
defensive.

The French being desirous of participating in the commerce of Achin,
of which all the European nations had formed great ideas, and all found
themselves disappointed in, sent out a squadron commanded by General
Beaulieu, which arrived in January, 1621, and finally left it in December
of the same year. He brought magnificent presents to the king, but
these did not content his insatiable avarice, and he employed a variety
of mean arts to draw from him further gifts. Beaulieu met also with
many difficulties, and was forced to submit to much extortion, in his
endeavours to procure a loading of pepper, of which Achin itself, as has
been observed, produced but little. The king informed him that he had
some time since ordered all the plants to be destroyed, not only because
the cultivation of them proved an injury to more useful agriculture, but
also least their produce might tempt the Europeans to serve him, as they
had served the kings of Jakatra and Bantam. From this apprehension,
he had lately been induced to expel the English and Dutch from their
settlements at Priaman and Tiku, where the principal quantity of pepper
was procured, and of which places he changed the governor every third
year, to prevent any connexions dangerous to his authority, from being
formed. He had likewise driven the Dutch from a factory they were
attempting to settle at Padang ; which place appears to be the most
remote on the western coast of the island, to which the Achinese con-
quests at any time extended.

Still retaining a strong desire to possess himself of Malacca, so many years
the grand object of Achinese ambition, he imprisoned the ambassador then
at his court, and made extraordinary preparations for the siege, which he

designed

SUMATRA.

443

designed to undertake in person. The laksamana or commander in chief
(who had effected all the king’s late conquests) attempted to oppose this
resolution ; but the maharaja, willing to flatter his master’s propensity,
undertook to put him in possession of the city, and had the command of
the fleet given to him, as the other had of the land forces. The king set
out on the expedition with a fleet of two hundred and fifty sail, (forty-
seven of them not less than an hundred feet in the keel) in which were
twenty thousand men well appointed, and a great train of artillery. After
being some time on board, with his family and retinue as usual, he deter-
mined, on account of an ill omen that was observed, to return to the
shore. The generals, proceeding without him, soon arrived before
Malacca. Having landed their men, they made a judicious disposition,
and began the attack with much courage and military skill. The Portu-
guese were obliged to abandon several of their posts, one of which, after
a defence of fifty days, was levelled with the ground, and from its ruins
strong works were raised by the laksamana. The maharaja had seized
another post advantageously situated. From their several camps they had
lines of communication, and the boats on the river were stationed in such
a manner, that the place was completely invested. Matters were in this
posture, when a force of two thousand men came to the assistance of
the besieged, from the king of Pahang, and likewise five sail of Portu-
guese vessels from the coast of Coromandel ; but all was insufficient
to remove so powerful an enemy, although by that time they had lost
four thousand of their troops in the different attacks and skirmishes.
In the latter end of the year a fleet of thirty sail of ships, large and
small, under the command of Nunno Alvarez Botello, having on board
nine hundred European soldiers, appeared off Malacca, and blocked
up the fleet of Achin in a river about three miles from the town.
This entirely altered the complexion of affairs. The besiegers retired
from their advanced works, and hastened to the defence of their gallies ;
erecting batteries by the side of the river. The maharaja being summoned
to surrender, returned a civil, but resolute answer. In the night, endea-
vouring to make his escape with the smaller vessels, through the midst
of the Portuguese, he was repulsed and wounded. Next day the whole
force of the Achinese dropped down the stream, with a design to fight
their way, but after an engagement of two hours, their principal galley,

3 L 2 named

444

SUMATRA.

1635.

1640.

1641.

named the “ Terrour of the world” was boarded and taken, after losing
five hundred men of seven which she carried. Many other vessels were
afterwards captured or sunk. The laksamana hung out a white flag, and
sent to treat with Nunno, but some difficulty arising about the terms,
the engagement was renewed with great warmth. News was brought to
the Portuguese that the maharaja was killed, and that the king of Pahang
was approaching with an hundred sail of vessels to reinforce them. Still
the Achinese kept up a dreadful fire, which seemed to render the final
success doubtful ; but at length they sent proposals, desiring only to be
allowed three gallies of all their fleet to carry away four thousand men
who remained of twenty that came before the town. It was answered,
that they must surrender at discretion ; which the laksamana hesitating
to do, a furious assault took place both by water and land upon his
gallies and works, which were all effectually destroyed or captured j not
a ship, and scarcely a man escaping. He himself in the last extremity
fled to the woods, but was seized ere long by the king of Pahang's scouts.
Being brought before the governor, he said to him, with an undaunted
countenance, “ Behold here the laksamana for the first time overcome !”
He was treated with respect, but kept a prisoner, and sent on his own
famous ship, to Goa, in order to be from thence conveyed to Portugal :
but death deprived his enemies of that distinguished ornament of their
triumph.

This signal defeat proved so important a blow to the power of Achin,
that we read of no further attempts to renew the war, until the year
1635, when the king, encouraged by the feuds which at this time pre-
vailed in Malacca, again violated the law of nations, to him little known,
by imprisoning their ambassador, and caused all the Portuguese about
his court to be murdered. No military operations, however, immediately
took place, in consequence of this barbarous proceeding. In the year
1640, the Dutch, with twelve men of war, and the king of Achin with
twenty- five gallies, appeared before that harassed and devoted city ;
which at length, in the following year, was wrested from the hands of
the Portuguese, who had so long, through such difficulties, maintained
possession of it. This year was also marked by the death of the sultan,
whom the Dutch writers name Padulca Sri, at the age of sixty, after a reign

SUMATRA.

445

of thirty-five years; having just lived to see his hereditary foe subdued;
and as if the opposition of the Portuguese power, which seems first to
have occasioned the rise of that of Achin, was also necessary to its exist-
ence, the splendour and consequence of the kingdom from that period
rapidly declined.

The prodigious wealth and resources of the monarchy during his reign,
are best evinced by the expeditions he was enabled to fit out ; but being
no less covetous than ambitious, he contrived to make the expences fall
upon his subjects, and at the same lime filled his treasury with gold, by
pressing the merchants, and plundering the neighbouring states. An
intelligent person (Gen. Beaulieu) who was for some time at his court,
and had opportunities of information on the subject, uses this strong ex-
pression— that he was infinitely rich. He constantly employed in his
castle three hundred goldsmiths. This would seem an exaggeration, but
that it is well known the Malayan princes have them always about them
in great numbers, at this day, working in the manufacture of filagree,
for which the country is so famous. His naval strength has been already
sufficiently described. He was possessed of two thousand brass guns,
and small arms in proportion. His trained elephants amounted to
some hundreds. His armies were probably raised only upon the occa-
sion which called for their acting, and that in a mode similar to what
was established under the feudal system in Europe. The valley of
Achin alone was said to be able to furnish forty thousand men upon an
emergency. A certain number of warriors, however, were always kept
on foot, for the protection of the king and his capital. Of these the
superior class were called ulubalang, and the inferior amba-raja, who
were entirely devoted to his service, and resembled the janizaries of
Constantinople. Two hundred horsemen nightly patrolled the grounds
about the castle, the inner courts and apartments of which were guarded
by three thousand women. The king’s eunuchs amounted to five hun-
dred.

The disposition of this monarch was cruel and sanguinary. A multi-
tude of instances are recorded of the horrible barbarity of his punish-
ments,

446

SUMATRA.

inents, and for the most trivial offences. He imprisoned his own mother,
and put her to the torture, suspecting her to have been engaged in a
conspiracy against him, with some of the principal nobles, whom he
caused to be executed. He murdered his nephew, the king of Johor's
son, of whose favour with his mother he was jealous. He also put to
death a son of the king of Bantam , and another of the king of Pahang ,
who were both his near relations. None of the royal family survived
in 1622 but his own son, a youth of eighteen, who had been thrice ba-
nished the court, and was thought to owe his continuance in life, only
to his surpassing his father, if possible, in cruelty, and being hated
by all ranks of people. He was at one time made king of Pidir, but
recalled on account; of his excesses, confined in prison, and put to strange
tortures by his father, whom he did not outlive. The whole territory
of Achin was almost depopulated by wars, executions, and oppression.
The king endeavoured to re-people the country by his conquests. Hav-
ing ravaged the kingdoms of Johor , Pahang , Kedah , Perak, and Dilli,
he transported the inhabitants from those places to Achin, to the number
of twenty-two thousand persons. But this barbarous policy did not
produce the effect he hoped; for the unhappy people being brought
naked to his dominions, and not allowed any kind of maintenance on
their arrival, died of hunger in the streets. In the planning his military
enterprises, he was generally guided by the distresses of his neighbours,
for whom, as for his prey, he unceasingly lay in wait; and his prepara-
tory measures were taken with such secrecy, that the execution alone
unravelled them. Insidious political craft, and wanton delight in blood,
united in him to complete the character of a tyrant.

It must here be observed, that with respect to the period of this re-
markable reign, the European and Malayan authorities are considerably
at variance, the latter assigning to it something less than thirty solar
years, and placing the death of Iskander Muda in December, 1636.
The Annals further state, that he was succeeded by sultan Ala-eddin-
Mahayat-shah , who reigned only about four years, and died in February,
1641. That this is the more accurate account I have no hesitation in
believing, although Valentyn, who gives a detail of the king’s magnificent

funeral.

SUMATRA.

447

funeral, was persuaded that the reign which ended in 1641, was the
same that began in 1607. But he collected his information eighty years
after the event, and as it does not appear that any European whose
journal has been given to the world, was on the spot at that period,
the death of an obscure monarch who died after a short reign, may
well have been confounded, by persons at a distance, with that of his
more celebrated predecessor. Both authorities, however, are agreed
in the important fact, that the successor to the throne, in 1641, was
a female. This person is described by Valentyn as being the wife
of the old king, and not his daughter, as by some had been asserted;
but from the Annals it appears that she was his daughter, named Taju
al-alum ; and as it was in her right that Maghayat-shah (certainly her
husband), obtained the crown, so, upon his decease, there being no
male heir, she peaceably succeeded him in the government, and became
the first queen regent of Achin. The succession having thenceforward
continued nearly sixty years in the female line, this may be regarded as
a new era in the history of the country. The nobles finding their power
less restrained, and their individual consequence more felt under an ad-
ministration of this kind, than when ruled by kings (as sometimes they
were with a rod of iron) supported these pageants, whom they governed
as they thought fit, and thereby virtually changed the constitution into
an aristocracy or oligarchy. The business of the state was managed by
twelve orang-kayas , four of whom were superior to the rest, and among
these the maharaja, or governor of the kingdom, was considered as the
chief. It does not appear, nor is it probable, that the queen had the
power of appointing or removing any of these great officers. No appli-
cations were made to the throne but in their presence, nor any public
resolution taken, but as they determined in council. The great object
of their political jealousy seems to have been the pretensions of the king
of Johor to the crown, in virtue of repeated intermarriages between the
royal families of the two countries, and it may be presumed, that the
alarms excited from that quarter materially contributed to reconcile them
to the female domination. They are accordingly said to have formed
an engagement amongst themselves never to pay obedience to a foreign
prince, nor to allow their royal mistress to contract any marriage that

might

448

SUMATRA.

1643.

1660.

1664.

1666.

1669.

might eventually lead to such a consequence.* At the same time, by a
new treaty with Johor, its king was indirectly excused from the homage
to the crown of Achin which had been insisted upon by her predecessors,
and was the occasion of frequent wars.

In proportion as the political consequence of the kingdom declined,
its history, as noticed by foreigners, becomes obscure. Little is recorded
of the transactions of her reign, and it is likely that Achin took no active
part in the concerns of neighbouring powers, but suffered the Hollanders,
who maintained in general a friendly intercourse with her, to remain in
quiet possession of Malacca. In 1643 they sent an ambassador to com-
pliment her upon her accession, and at the same time to solicit payment
for a quantity of valuable jewels ordered by the deceased king, but for
the amount of which she declined so make herself responsible. It is said
(but the fact will admit of much doubt) that in 1660 she was inclined to
marry one of their countrymen, and would have carried her design into
execution, had not the East India Company prevented by their authority
a connexion that might, as they prudently judged, be productive of
embarrassment to their affairs. The Dutch, however, complain that she
gave assistance to their enemies the people of Perak, and in 1664 it was
found necessary to send a squadron under the command of Pieter de
Bitter, to bring her to reason. As it happened that she was at this time
at war with some of her own dependants, he made himself master of
several places on the western coast, that were nominally at least belong-
ing to Achin. About 1666 the English establishments at Achin and
some ports to the southward, appear to have given considerable umbrage
to their rivals. In 1669 the people of Dilli on the north-eastern coast
threw off their allegiance, and the power of the kingdom became gra-
dually

* However fanciful it may be thought, I cannot doubt that the example of our Queen
Elizabeth, whose character and government were highly popular with the Achinese on ac-
count of her triumphant contest with the united powers of Spain and Portugal, had a strong
influence in the establishment of this new species of monarchy, and that the example of her
sister’s marriage with Philip may have contributed to the resolution taken by the nobles.
The actions of our illustrious queen were a common topic of conversation between the old
tyrant and Sir James Lancaster.

SUMATRA.

449

dually more and more circumscribed. This queen died in 167-5, after 1675.
reigning, with a degree of tranquillity little known in these countries,
upwards of thirty-four years.

The people being now accustomed and reconciled to female rule,
which they found more lenient than that of their kings, acquiesced in
general in the established mode of government, and she was immediately
succeeded by another female monarch, named Nur al-alum , who reigned
little more than two years, and died in 1677- 1677.

The queen who succeeded her was named Anayet-shah. In the year
1684 she received an embassy from the English government of Madras, 1684.
and appeared at that time to be about forty years. The persons who
were on this occasion presented to her express their suspicions, which
were suggested to them by a doubt prevailing amongst the inhabitants,
that this sovereign was not a real queen, but an eunuch dressed up in
female apparel, and imposed on the public by the artifices of the orang
kayas. But as such a cheat, though managed with every semblance
of reality (which they observe was the case) could not be carried on
for any number of years without detection, and as the same idea
does not appear to have been entertained at any other period, it is
probable they were mistaken in their surmise. Her person they describe
to have been large, and her voice surprisingly strong, but not manly.*

The purport of the embassy was to obtain liberty to erect a fortifica-
tion in her territory, which she peremptorily refused, being contrary to

3 M the

* The following curious passage is extracted from the journal of these gentlemen’s pro-
ceedings. “ We went to give our attendance at the palace this day as customary. Being-
arrived at the place of audience with the orang cayos, the queen was pleased to order us to
come nearer, when her majesty was very inquisitive into the use of our wearing periwigs,
and what was the convenience of them ; to all which we returned satisfactory answ-ers. After
this, her majesty desired of Mr. Ord, if it were no affront to him, that he would take off
his periwig, that she might see how he appeared without it; which, according to her
majesty’s request, he did. She then told us she had heard of our business, and would give
her answer by the orang cayos ; and so we retired.” I venture, with submission, to observe,
that this anecdote seems to put the question of the sex beyond controversy.

450

SUMATRA.

1684.

the established rules of the kingdom ; adding, that if the governor of
Madras would fill her palace with gold, she could not permit him to
build with brick, either fort or house. To have a factory of timber
and plank, was the utmost indulgence that could be allowed ; and on
that footing, the return of the English, who had not traded there for
many years, should be welcomed with great friendship. The queen her-
self, the orang kayas represented, was not allowed to fortify, lest some
foreign power might avail themselves of it, to enslave the country. In
the course of these negotiations it was mentioned, that the agriculture of
Achin had suffered considerably of late years, by reason of a general
licence given to all the inhabitants to search for gold, in the mountains
and rivers which afforded that article ; whereas the business had formerly
been restricted to certain authorized persons, and the rest obliged to till
the ground. The court feared to give a public sanction for the settle-
ment of the English on any part of the southern coast, lest it should em-
broil them with the other European powers.*

A few

a The design of settliug a factory at this period, in the dominions of Achin, was occasioned
by the recent loss of our establishment at Bantam, which had been originally fixed by Sir
James Lancaster in 1603. The circumstances of this event were as follows. The old sultan
had thought proper to share the regal power with his son, in the year 1677, and this measure
was attended with the obvious effect, of a jealousy between the parent and child, which
soon broke forth into open hostilities. The policy of the Dutch led them to take an active
part in favour of the young sultan, w ho had inclined most to their interests, and now solicited
their aid. The English, on the other hand, discouraged what appeared to them an unnatural
rebellion, but without interfering, as they said, in any other character than that of medi-
ators, or affording military assistance to either party ; and which their extreme weakness,
rather than their assertions, renders probable. On the twenty-eighth of March, 1682, the
Dutch landed a considerable force from Batavia, and soon terminated the war. They placed
the young sultan on the throne, delivering the father into his custody, and obtained from
him in return for these favours an exclusive privilege of trade in his territories ; which was
evidently the sole object they had in view. On the first day of April possession was taken
of the English factory by a party of Dutch and country soldiers, and on the twelfth the
agent and council were obliged to embark with their property on vessels provided for the
purpose, which carried them to Batavia. From thence they proceeded to Surat, on the
twenty-second of August in the following year.

In order to retain a share in the pepper-trade, the English turned their thoughts towards
Achin, and a deputation, consisting of two gentlemen, of the names cf Ord and Cawley,

was

SUMATRA.

451

A few years before these transactions she had invited the king of Siam
to renew the antient connexion between their respective states, and to

3 M 2 unite

was sent thither in 1684 ; the success of which is above related. It happened that at this
time, certain Rajas or chiefs of the country of Priaman, and other places on the west coast
of Sumatra were at Achin also, to solicit aid of that court against the Dutch, who had made
war upon, and otherwise molested them. These immediately applied to Mr. Ord, express-
ing a strong desire that the English should settle in their respective districts, offering ground
for a fort, and the exclusive purchase of their pepper. They consented to embark for
Madras, where an agreement was formed with them by the governor, in the beginning of
the year 1685, on the terms they had proposed. In consequence of this, an expedition was
fitted out, with the design of establishing a settlement at Priaman; but a day or two before
the ships sailed, an invitation, to the like purport, was received from the chiefs of Berig-
kaulu (since corruptly called Bencoolen) ; and as it was known that a considerable propor-
tion of the pepper that used to be exported from Bantam, had been collected from the
neighbourhood of Bencoolen, (at a place called Silebar), it was judged advisable that Mr.
Ord, who was the person entrusted with the management of this business, should first pro-
ceed thither; particularly as at that season of the year it was the windward port. He ar-
rived there on the twenty -fifth day of .Tune, 1685. and after taking possession of the country
assigned to the English Company, and leaving Mr. Broome in charge of the place, he sailed
for the porpose of establishing the other settlements. He stopped first at Indrapura, where
he found three Englishmen who were left of a small factory, that had been some time before
settled there, by a man of the name of Du Jardin. Here he learned that the Dutch, having
obtained a knowledge of the original intention of our fixing at Priaman , had anticipated us
therein, and sent a party to occupy the situation. In the mean time it was understood in
Europe that this place was the chief of our establishments on the coast, and ships were ac-
cordingly consigned thither. The same was supposed at Madras, and troops and stores were
sent to reinforce it, which were afterwards landed at Indrapura. A settlement was then
formed at Manjuta, and another attempted at Batang-kapas, in 1686 ; but here the Dutch,
assisted by a party amongst the natives, assaulted and drove out our people. Every possible
opposition, as it was natural to expect, was givep by these our rivals to the success of our
factories. They fixed themselves in the neighbourhood of them, and endeavoured to ob-
struct the country people from carrying pepper to them, or supplying them with provisions
either by sea or land. Our interests, however, in the end prevailed, and Bencoolen in par-
ticular, to which the other places were rendered subordinate in 1686, began to acquire some
degree of vigour and respectability. In 1689 encouragement was given to Chinese colonists
to settle there, whose number has been continually increasing from that time. In 1691
the Dutch felt the loss of their influence at Silebar and other of the southern countries,
where they attempted to exert authority in the name of the sultan of Bantam, and the
produce of these places was delivered to the English. This revolution proceeded from the
works with which about this time our factory was strengthened. In 1695 a settlement was

. made

452

SUMATRA.

unite in a league against the Dutch, by whose encroachments the com-
merce of her subjects and the extent of her dominions were much cir-
cumscribed.

made at Triamang, and two years after at Kattann and Sablat. The first, in the year 1700,
was removed to Bantal. Various applications were made by the natives in different parts of
the island for the establishment of factories, particularly from Ayer-Bangis to the northward,
Palembang on the eastern side, and the people from the countries south of Tallo, near
Manna. A person W'as sent to survey these last, as far as Pulo Pisang and Kroi, in 1715. In con-
sequence of the inconvenience attending the shipping of goods from Bencoolen river, which
is often impracticable from the surfs, a warehouse was built, in 1701, at a place then called
the cove; which gave the first idea of removing the settlement to the point of land which
forms the bay of Bencoolen. The unhealthiness of the old situation was thought to render
this an expedient step ; and accordingly, about 1714, it w as in great measure relinquished,
and the foundations of Fort Marlborough were laid on a spot two or three miles distant.
Being a high plain it was judged to possess considerable advantages ; many of which, how-
ever, are counterbalanced by its want of the vicinity of a river, so necessary for the ready
and plentiful supply of provisions. Some progress had been made in the erection of this
fort, when an accident happened, that had nearly destroyed the Company’s views. The
natives incensed at ill treatment received from the F.uropeans, who were then hut little versed
in the knowledge of their dispositions, or the art of managing them by conciliating methods,
rose in a body in the year 1719, and forced the garrison, whose ignorant fears rendered them
precipitate, to seek refuge on board their ships. These people began now to feel alarms
lest the Dutch, taking advantage of the absence of the English, should attempt an establish-
ment, and soon permitted some persons from the northern factories to resettle the place ;
and supplies arriving from Madras, things returned to their former course, and the fort was
completed. The Company’s affairs on this coast remained in tranquillity for a number of
years. The important settlement of Natal was established in 1752, and that of Tappanuli a
short time afterwards ; which involved the English in fresh disputes with the Dutch, who set
up a claim to the country in which they are situated. In the year 1760 the French, under
Comte d’Estaing, destroyed all the English settlements on the coast of Sumatra; but they
were soon re-established, and our possession secured by the treaty of Paris in 1763. Fort
Marlborough, which had been hitherto a peculiar subordinate of Fort St. George, w as now
formed into an independent presidency, and was furnished with a charter for erecting a
mayor’s court, but which has never been enforced. In 1781 a detachment of military from
thence embarked upon five East India ships, and took possession of Padang and all other
Dutch factories, in consequence of the war with that nation. In 1782 the magazine of Fort
Marlborough, in which were four hundred barrels of powder, was fired by lightning, and
blew up ; but providentially few lives were lost. In 1802 an act of parliament was passed
“ to authorize the East India Company to make their settlement at Fort Marlborough in the
East Indies, a factory subordinate to the presidency of Fort William in Bengal, and to
transfer the servants who on the reduction of that establishment shall be supernumerary, to
the presidency of Fort St. George.” In 1798, plants of the nutmeg and clove had, for the

first

SUMATRA.

453

cumscribed. It does not appear, however, that this overture was attended
with any effect, nor have the limits of the Achinese jurisdiction since
that period extended beyond Pidir on the northern, and Banis on the
western coast. She died in 1688, having reigned something less than 1668.
eleven years, and was succeeded by a young queen named Kamalat-shah ;
but this did not take place without a strong opposition from a faction
amongst the orang kayas which wanted to set up a king, and a civil war
actually commenced. The two parties drew up their forces on opposite
sides of the river, and for two or three nights continued to fire at each
other, but in the day time followed their ordinary occupations. These
opportunities of intercourse made them sensible of their mutual folly.
They agreed to throw aside their arms; and the crown remained in pos-
session of the newly elected queen. It was said to have been esteemed
essential, that she should be a maiden, advanced in years, and connected
by blood with the ancient royal line. In this reign, an English factory,
which had been long discontinued, was re-established at Achin : but in
the interval some private traders of this nation had always resided on the
spot. These usually endeavoured to persuade the state, that they re-
presented the India Company, and sometimes acquired great influence,
which they are accused of having employed in a manner not only de-
trimental to that body, but to the interests of the merchants of India in
general, by monopolizing the trade of the port, throwing impediments
in the way of all shipping not consigned to their management, and em-
bezzling the cargoes of such as were. An asylum was also afforded,
beyond the reach of law, for all persons whose crimes or debts induced
them to fly from the several European settlements. These considerations
chiefly made the Company resolve to reclaim their ancient privileges in
that kingdom, and a deputation was sent from the presidency of Madras,
in the year 1695, for that purpose, with letters addressed to her illus-
trious majesty the queen of Achin, desiring permission to settle, on the
terms her predecessors had granted to them ; which was readily complied

with,

first time, been procured from the Moluccas; and in 1803 a large importation of these
valuable articles of cultivation took place. As the plantations were, by the last accounts
from thence, in the most flourishing state, very important commercial advantages were
expected to be derived from the culture.

454

SUMATRA.

1699.

1702.

with, and a factory, but on a very limited scale, was established accord-
ingly, but soon declined and disappeared. In 1704, when Charles
Lockyer (whose account of his voyage, containing a particular descrip-
tion of this place, was published in 1711) visited Achin, one of these
independent factors, named Francis Delton, carried on a flourishing
trade. In 1695 the Achinese were alarmed by the arrival of six sail of
Dutch ships of force, with a number of troops on board, in their road ;
not having been visited by any of that nation for fifteen years ; but they
departed without offering any molestation.

This queen was deposed by her subjects (whose grounds of complaint
are not stated) about the latter part of the year 1699, after reigning also
eleven years ; and with her terminated the female dynasty, which,
during its continuance of about fifty-nine years, had attracted much
notice in Europe.

Her successor was named Beder al-alum sherif Hasham, the nature of
whose pretensions to the crown does not positively appear, but there is
reason to believe that he was her brother. When he had reigned a little
more than two years, it pleased God (as the Annals express it) to afflict
him with a distemper which caused his feet and hands to contract (pro-
bably the gout) and disqualified him for the performance of his religious
duties. Under these circumstances he was induced to resign the govern-
ment in 1702, and died about a month after his abdication.

Per fcasa- alum, a priest, found means, by his intrigues, to acquire the
sovereignty, and one of his first acts was to attempt imposing certain
duties on the merchandise imported by English traders, who had been
indulged with an exemption from all port-charges, excepting the esta-
blished complimentary presents upon their arrival and receiving the chap
or licence. This had been stipulated in the treaty made by Sir James
Lancaster, and renewed by Mr. Grey when chief of the Company’s fac-
tory. The innovation excited an alarm and determined opposition on the
part of the masters of ships then at the place, and they proceeded (under
the conduct of Capt. Alexander Hamilton, who published an account of
his voyage in 1727) to the very unwarrantable step of commencing

hostilities,

SUMATRA.

4 55

hostilities, by firing upon the villages situated near the mouth of the
river, and cutting off from the city all supplies of provisions by sea. The
inhabitants feeling severely the effects of these violent measures, grew
clamorous against the government, which was soon obliged to restore to
these insolent traders the privileges for which they contended. Advan-
tage was taken of the public discontents to raise an insurrection in favour
of the nephew of the late queen, or, according to the Annals, the son
of Beder al-alum (who was probably her brother), in the event of which
Perkasa-alum was deposed about the commencement of the year 1?04,
and after an interregnum or anarchy of three months continuance, the
young prince obtained possession of the throne, by the name of Jemal
, al-alum. From this period the native writers furnish very ample details
of the transactions of the Achinese government, as well as of the general
state of the country, whose prosperous circumstances during the early
part of this king’s reign, are strongly contrasted with the misery and in-
significance to which it was reduced by subsequent events. The causes
and progress of this political decline cannot be more satisfactorily set
forth than in a faithful translation of the Malayan narrative which was
drawn up, or extracted from a larger work, for my use, and is distinct
from the Annals already mentioned.

“ When raja Jemal al-alum reigned in Achin, the country was exceed-
ingly populous, the nobles had large possessions, the merchants were
numerous and opulent, the judgments of the king were just, and no man
could experience the severity of punishment but through his own fault.
In those days the king could not trade on his own account, the nobles
having combined to prevent it ; but the accustomed duties of the port
were considered as his revenue, and ten per cent, was levied for this pur-
pose upon all merchandise coming into the country. The city was then
of great extent, the houses were of brick and stone. The most consider-
able merchant was a man named Daniel, a Hollander; but many of dif-
ferent nations were also settled there, some from Surat , some from Kutch,
others from China. When ships arrived in the port, if the merchants
could not take off all the cargoes, the king advanced the funds for pur-
chasing what remained, and divided the goods among them, taking no
profit to himself. After the departure of the vessel, the king was paid in
gold the amount of his principal, without interest. “ His

456

SUMATRA.

“ His daily amusements were in the grounds allotted for the royal sports.
He was attended by an hundred young men, who were obliged to be
constantly near his person, day and night, and who were clothed in a
sumptuous manner at a monthly expense of an hundred dollars for each
man. The government of the different parts of the country was divided,
under his authority, amongst the nobles. When a district appeared to
be disturbed, he took measures for quelling the insurrection ; those who
resisted his orders he caused to be apprehended ; when the roads were
bad, he gave directions for their repair. Such was his conduct in the
government. His subjects all feared him, and none dared to condemn
his actions. At that time the country was in peace.

“ When he had been a few years on the throne, a country lying to the
eastward, named Bat uBara, attempted to throw off its subjection to
Achin. The chiefs were ordered to repair to court, to answer for their
conduct, but they refused to obey. These proceedings raised the king’s
indignation. He assembled the nobles, and required of them that each
should furnish a vessel of war, to be employed on an expedition against
that place, and within two months, thirty large gallies, without counting
vessels of a smaller size, were built and equipped for sea. When the
fleet arrived off Batu Bara (by which must be understood the Malayan
district at the mouth of the river, and not the Batta territory through
, which it takes its course), a letter was sent on shore addressed to the re-
fractory chiefs, summoning them to give proof of their allegiance by
appearing in the king’s presence, or threatening the alternative of an
immediate attack. After much division in their councils, it was at
length agreed to feign submission, and a deputation was sent off to the
royal fleet, carrying presents of fruit and provisions of all kinds. One
of the chiefs carried, as his complimentary offering, some fresh coconuts,
of the delicate species called kalapa-gading, into which a drug had been
secretly introduced. The king observing these, directed that one should
be cut open for him, and having drunk of the juice, became affected
with a giddiness in his head. (This symptom shews the poison to have
been the upas , but too much diluted in the liquor of the nut, to produce
death). Being inclined to repose, the strangers were ordered to return
on shore, and finding his indisposition augment, he gave directions for

being

SUMATRA.

457

being conveyed back to Achin, whither his ship sailed next day. The
remainder of the fleet continued off the coast during five or six days longer,
and then returned likewise without effecting the reduction of the place,
which the chiefs had lost no time in fortifying.

<c About two years after this transaction, the king, under pretence of
amusement, made an excursion to the country lying near the source of
the river Achin, then under the jurisdiction of a panglima or governor,
named Mucla Seti ; for it must be understood that this part of the king-
dom is divided into three districts, known by the appellations of the
Twenty-two, Twenty-six, and Twenty-five Mukims (see p.403), which
were governed respectively by Muda Seti , Imam Mada, and Perbawang-
Shah (or Purba-zvazigsa). These three chiefs had the entire controul of
the country, and when their views were united, they had the power of
deposing and setting up kings. Such was the nature of the government.
The king’s expedition was undertaken with the design of making himself
master of the person of Muda Seti, who had given him umbrage, and
on this occasion his followers, of all ranks, were so numerous, that
wherever they halted for the night, the fruits of the earth were all de-
voured, as well as great multitudes of cattle. Muda Seti, however, being
aware of the designs against him, had withdrawn himself from the place
of his usual residence, and was not to be found when the king arrived
there ; but a report being brought that he had collected five or six hun-
dred followers and was preparing to make resistance, orders were im-
mediately given for burning his house. This being effected, the king
returned immediately to Achin, leaving the forces that had accompanied
him at a place called Pakan Badar, distant about half a day’s journey
from the capital, where they were directed to entrench themselves.
From this post they were driven by the country chief, who advanced
rapidly upon them with several thousand men, and forced them to fall
back to Padang Siring, where the king was collecting an army, and
where a battle was fought soon after, that terminated in the defeat of the
royal party with great slaughter. Those who escaped took refuge in the
castle along with the king.

3 N

“ Under

458

SUMATRA.

u Under these disastrous circumstances he called upon the chiefs who
adhered to him to advise what was best to be done, surrounded as they
were by the country-people, on whom he invoked the curse of God ;
when one of them, named Panglima Maharaja, gave it as his opinion,
that the only effectual measure by which the country could be saved from
ruin, would be the king’s withdrawing himself from the capital so long
as the enemy should continue in its vicinity, appointing a regent from
among the nobles, to govern the country in his absence ; and when sub-
ordination should be restored, he might then return and take again
possession of his throne. To this proposition he signified his assent, on
the condition that Panglima Maharaja should assure him by an oath that
no treachery was intended; which oath was accordingly taken, and the
king having nominated as his substitute Maharaja Lela , one of the least
considerable of the ulubalangs , retired, with his wives and children, to
the country of the Four mukims, situated about three hours journey to
the westward of the city. (The Annals say he tied to Pidir in November,
m3. 1723.) Great ravages was committed by the insurgents, but they did

not attack the palace, and after some days of popular confusion, the
chiefs of the Three districts, who (says the writer) must not be confounded
with the officers about the person of the king, held a consultation
amongst themselves, and exercising an authority of which there had been
frequent examples, set up Panglima Maharaja in the room of the abdi-
cated king, (by the title, say the Annals, of Jnhar al-alum, in December,
1723.) About seven days after his elevation he was seized with a con-
vulsive disorder in his neck and died. A nephew of Jemal al-alum ,
named Undei Tebang, was then placed upon the throne, but notwith-
standing his having bribed the chiefs of the Three districts with thirty
katties of gold, they permitted him to enjoy his dignity only a few days,
and then deposed him. (The same authority states, that he was set up
by the chiefs of the Four mukims, and removed through the influence of
Muda Seti .)

“ The person whom they next combined to raise to the throne was
Maharaja Lela (before-mentioned as the king’s substitute.) It was his
good fortune to govern the country in tranquillity for the space of nearly

twelve

SUMATRA.

459

twelve years, during which period the city of Achin recovered its po-
pulation. (According to the Annals, he began to reign in February,
1724, by the title of Ala ed-din Ahmed shah Juhan , and died in June,
1735.) It happened that the same day on which the event of his death
took place, Jemal al-alum again made his appearance, and advanced to a
mosque near the city. His friends advised him to lose no time in possess-
ing himself of the castle, but for trifling reasons that mark the weakness
of his character, he resolved to defer the measure till the succeeding day;
and the opportunity, as might be expected, was lost. The deceased
king left five sons, the eldest of whom, named Po-chat-au (or Po-wak,
according to another manuscript) exhorted his brothers to unite with him
in the determination of resisting a person whose pretensions were en-
tirely inconsistent with their security. They accordingly sent to demand
assistance of Perbazoang-shah, chief of the district of the Twenty-five
viukims, which lies the nearest to that quarter. He arrived before morn-
ing, embraced the five princes, confirmed them in their resolution, and
authorised the eldest to assume the government; (which he did, say the
Annals, by the title of Ala ed-din Juhan-shah, in September, 1735.)
But to this measure the concurrence of the other chiefs was wanting.
At day-break the guns of the castle began to play upon the mosque, and
some of the shot penetrating its walls, the pusillanimous Jemal al-alum
being alarmed at the danger, judged it advisable to retreat from thence,
and to set up his standard in another quarter, called kampong Jazva ,•
his people at the same time retaining possession of the mosque. A re-
gular warfare now ensued between the two parties, and continued for no
less than ten years (the great chiefs taking different sides); when at
length some kind of compromise was effected, that left Po-chat-au [Juhan-
shah) in the possession of the throne, which he afterwards enjoyed peace-
ably for eight years, and no further mention is made of Jemal al-alum.
About this period the chiefs took umbrage at his interfering in matters
of trade, contrary to what they asserted to be the established custom of
the realm, and assembled their forces in order to intimidate him. (The
history of Achin presents a continual struggle between the monarch and
the aristocracy of the country, which generally made the royal monopoly
of trade the ground of crimination and pretext for their rebellions).
Panglima Muda Seti being considered as the head of the league, came

3 N 2 down

1724.

1735.

460

SUMATRA.

1755.

1760.

1763.

1772.

down with twenty thousand followers, and upon the king’s refusing to
admit into the castle his complimentary present (considering it only as
the prelude to humiliating negotiation) another war commenced that
lasted for two years, and was at length terminated by Muda SetV s with-
drawing from the contest, and returning to his province. About five
years after this event Julian shah died, and his son, Pochat-bangta, suc-
ceeded him, but not (says this writer, who here concludes his abstract)
with the general concurrence of the chiefs, and the country long con-
tinued in a disturbed state.”

The death of Julian shah is stated in the Annals to have taken place in
August, 1760, and the accession of the son, who took the name of Ala
ed-din Muliammed shah, not until November of the same year. Other
authorities place these events in 1761. Before he had completed the
third year of his reign, an insurrection of his subjects obliged him to save
himself by flight on board a ship in the road. This happened in 17 63
or 1764. The throne was seized by the maharaja (first officer of state)
named Sinara, who assumed the title of Beder ed-din Julian shah, and
about the end of 1765, was put to death by the adherents of the fugitive
monarch, Muliammed shah, who thereupon returned to the throne.1
He was exposed, however, to further revolutions. About six years after
his restoration, the palace was attacked in the night by a desperate band
of two hundred men, headed by a man called Raja Udah, and he was
once more obliged to make a precipitate retreat. This usurper took the
title of sultan Suliman shah, but after a short reign of three months, was
driven out in his turn, and forced to fly for refuge to one of the islands
in the eastern sea. The nature of his pretensions, if he had any, have
not been stated, but he never gave any further trouble. From this
period Muliammed maintained possession of his capital, although it was
generally in a state of confusion, “ In the year 1772,” says Captain

Forrest,

a Captain Forrest acquaints us that he visited the court of Mahomed Selim (the latter name
is not given to this prince by any other writer) in the year 1764, at which time he appeared
to be about forty years of age. It is difficult to reconcile this date with the recorded events
of this unfortunate reign, and I have doubts whether it was not the usurper whom the Cap-
tain saw.

SUMATRA.

461

Forrest, “ Mr. Giles Holloway, resident of Tappanooly, was sent to
Achin by the Bencoolen government, with a letter and present, to ask
leave from the king to make a settlement there. I carried him from his
residency. Not being very well on my arrival, I did not accompany Mr.
Holloway (a very sensible and discreet gentleman, and who spoke the
Malay tongue very fluently) on shore at his first audience ; and finding
his commission likely to prove abortive, I did not go to the palace at all.
There was great anarchy and confusion at this time ; and the malecon-
tents came often, as I was informed, near the king’s palace at night.”
The Captain further remarks, that when again there in 177-5, he could
not obtain an audience. The Annals report his death to have happened
on the 2d of June, 1781, and observe, that from the commencement to
the close of his reign the country never enjoyed repose. His brother,
named Ala ed-din (or Uleddin, as commonly pronounced, and which
seems to have been a favourite title with the Achinese princes), was in
exile at Madras during a considerable period, and resided also for some
time at Bencoolen.

The eldest son of the deceased king, then about eighteen years of age,
succeeded him on the 16th of the same month, by the title of Ala ed-din
Mahmud shah Juhan, in spite of an opposition attempted to be raised by
the partisans of another son by a favourite wife. Weapons had been
drawn in the court before the palace, when the tuanku agung or high-
priest, a person of great respectability and influence, by whom'the former
had been educated, came amidst the crowd, bareheaded, and without
attendance, leading his pupil by the hand. Having placed himself be-
tween the contending factions, he addressed them to the following
effect : — that the prince who stood before them had a natural right and
legal claim to the throne of his father ; that he had been educated with
a view to it, and was qualified to adorn it by his disposition and talents;
that he wished, however, to found his pretensions neither upon his birth-
right nor the strength of the party attached to him, but upon the general
voice of his subjects calling him to the sovereignty; that if such was
their sentiment, he was ready to undertake the arduous duties of the
station, in which, he himself, would assist him with the fruits of his
experience; that if, on the contrary, they felt a predilection for his rival.

1775.

1781.

462

SUMATRA.

no blood should be shed on his account, the prince and his tutor being
resolved in that case to yield the point without a struggle, and retire to
some distant island. This impressive appeal had the desired effect, and
the young prince was invited by unanimous acclamation to assume the
reins of government.*

Little is known of the transactions of his reign, but that little is in
favour of his personal character. The Annals (not always unexception-
able evidence when speaking of the living monarch) describe him as
being endowed with every princely virtue, exercising the functions of
government with vigour and rectitude, of undaunted courage, attentive
to the protection of the ministers of religion, munificent to the descend-
ants of the prophet [seiyid, but commonly pronounced sidi) and to men
of learning, prompt at all times to administer justice, and consequently

revered

a Mr. Philip Braham, late chief of the East India Company’s settlement of Fort Marlbo-
rough, by whom the circumstances of this event were related to me, arrived at Achin in
July, 1781, about a fortnight after the transaction. He thus described his audience. The
king was seated in a gallery (to which there were no visible steps), at the extremity of a
spacious hall or court, and a curtain which hung before him was drawn aside when it was
his pleasure to appear. In this court were great numbers of female attendants, but not
armed, as they have been described. Mr. Braham was introduced through a long file of
guards armed with blunderbusses, and then seated on a carpet in front of the gallery. When
a conversation had been carried on for some time through the Shahbandar, who commu-
nicated his answers to an interpreter, by whom they were reporled to the king, the latter
perceiving that he spoke the Malayan language, addressed him directly, and asked several
questions respecting England ; wliat number of wives and children our sovereign had ; how
many ships of war the English kept in India ; what was the French force, and others of that
nature. He expressed himself in friendly terms with regard to our nation, and said he should
always be happy to countenance our traders in his ports. Even at this early period of his
reign he had abolished some vexatious imposts. Mr. Braham had an opportunity of learning
the great degree of power and controul possessed by certain of the orang kayas, who held
their respective districts in actual sovereignty, and kept the city in awe by stopping, when
it suited their purpose, the supplies of provisions. Captain Forrest, who once more visited
Achin, in 1784, and was treated with much distinction (see his Voyage to the Mergui Ar-
chipelago, p. 51), says, he appeared to be twenty -five years of age; but this was a mis-
conception. Mr. Kenneth Mackenzie, who saw him in 1782, judged him to have been
at that time no more than nineteen or twenty, which corresponds with Mr. Braham’*
statement.

SUMATRA.

463

revered and beloved by his people. I have not been enabled to ascertain
the year in which he died. It appears by a Malayan letter from Achin,
that in 1791 the peace of the capital was much disturbed, and the state
of the government, as well as of private property (which induced the
writer to reship his goods) precarious. In 1805 his son, then aged
twenty-one, was on the throne, and had a contention with his paternal
uncle, and at the same time his father-in-law, named Taanku Raja, by
whom he had been compelled to fly (but only for a short time) to Piciir,
the usual asylum of the Achinese monarchs. Their quarrel appears to
have been rather of a family than of a political nature, and to have pro-
ceeded from the irregular conduct of the queen-mother. The low state
of this young king’s finances, impoverished by a fruitless struggle to en-
force, by means of an expensive marine establishment, his right to an
exclusive trade, had induced him to make proposals, for mutual accom-
modation, to the English government of Pido Pinang.3

1 Since the foregoing was printed, the following information respecting the manners of
the Batta people, obtained by Mr. Charles Holloway from Mr. \V. H. Hayes, has reached
my hands. “ In the month of July 1805, an expedition consisting of Sepoys, Malays, and
Battas, was sent from Tupanuli against a chief named Punei Manungiim, residing at Nega-
timbul, about thirty miles inland from Old Tapanuli, in consequence of his having attacked
a kampong under the protection of the company, murdered several of the inhabitants, and
carried others into captivity. After a siege of three days, terms of accommodation being
proposed, a cessation of hostilities took place, when the people of each party having laid
aside their arms, intermixed with the utmost confidence, and conversed together as if in a
state of perfect amity. The terms, however, not proving satisfactory, each again retired to
his arms, and renewed the contest with their former inveteracy. On the second day the place
was evacuated, and upon our people entering it, Mr. Hayes found the bodies of one man
and two women, whom the enemy had put to death before their departure, (being the last
remaining of sixteen prisoners whom they had originally carried off’) and from whose legs
large pieces had been cut out, evidently for the purpose of being eaten. During the pro-
gress of this expedition a small party had been sent to hold in check the chiefs of Lu-
busukum and Singapollum, (inland of Sibogah ) who were confederates of Punei Manungum.
These, however, proved stronger than was expected, and making a sally from their kampongs,
attacked the Serjeant’s party, and killed a sepoy, whom he was obliged to abandon. Mr.
Hayes, on his way from Negatimbul, was ordered to inarch to the support of the retreating
party ; but these having taken a different route, he remained ignorant of the particulars of
their loss. The village of Singapollam being immediately carried by storm, and the enemy
retreating by one gate, as our people entered at the opposite, the accoutrements of the
sepoy, who had been killed the day before, were seen hanging as trophies in the front of
the houses, and in the town-hall, Mr. Hayes saw the head entirely scalped, and one of the
fingers fixed upon a fork or scewer, still warm from the fire. On proceeding to the village
of Lubusucom, situated little more than two hundred yards from the former, he found a large
plantain leaf full of human flesh, mixed with lime-juice and chili pepper, from which lie
inferred that they had been surprised in the very act of feasting on the sepoy, whose body
had been divided between the two kampongs. Upon differences being settled with the
chiefs, they acknowledged with perfect sang-froid that such had been the case, saying at
the same time, “ you know it is our custom ; why should we conceal it r”

1791.

1805.

464

SUMATRA.

Islands ad-
jacent to
Sumatra.

Engano.

Brief Account of the Islands lying off the Western Coast of Sumatra.

The chain of islands which extends itself in a line nearly parallel to
the western coast, at the distance from it of little more than a degree,
being immediately connected with the principal subject of this work,
and being themselves inhabited by a race or races of people apparently
from the same original stock as those of the interior of Sumatra, whose
genuineness of character has been preserved to a remarkable degree,
(whilst the islands on the eastern side are uniformly peopled with Malays),
I have thought it expedient to add such authentic information respecting
them as I have been enabled to obtain -} and this I feel to be the more
necessary from observing, in the maps to which T have had recourse,
so much error and confusion in applying the names, that the iden-
tity, and even the existence of some of them have been considered as
doubtful.

Of these islands the most southern is Ejigano, which is still but very
imperfectly known, all attempts to open a friendly communication with
the natives having hitherto proved fruitless ; and in truth they have had
but too much reason to consider strangers attempting to land on their
coast, as piratical enemies. In the voyage of J. J. Saar, published in
1662, we have an account of an expedition fitted out from Batavia in
1645, for the purpose of examining this island ; which terminated in
entrapping and carrying off with them sixty or seventy of the inhabitants,
male and female. The former died soon after their arrival, refusing to
eat any other food than coconuts, but the women, who were distributed
amongst the principal families qf Batavia, proved extremely tractable
and docile, and acquired the language of the place. It is not stated,
nor does it appear from any subsequent publication, that the opportunity
was taken of forming a collection of their words.

From

SUMATRA.

465

From that period Engano had only been incidentally noticed, until in
March, 1771, Mr. Richard Wyatt, then governor, and the council of
Fort Marlborough, sent Mr. Charles Miller, in a vessel belonging to the
Company, to explore the productions of this island. On approaching it
he observed large plantations of coconut trees, with several spots of
ground cleared for cultivation on the hills, and at night many fires on
the beach. Landing was found to be in most parts extremely difficult
on account of the surf. Many of the natives were seen armed with
lances, and squatting down amongst the coral rocks, as if to conceal
their numbers. Upon rowing into a bay with the ship’s boat, it was
pursued by ten canoes full of men, and obliged to return. Mr. Whalfeldt,
the surveyor, and the second mate, proceeded to make a survey of the
bay, and endeavour to speak with the natives. They were furnished with
articles for presents, and upon seeing a canoe on the beach of a small
island, and several people fishing on the rocks, they rowed to the island,
and sent two caffrees on shore, with some cloth, but the natives would
not come near them. The mate then landed and advanced towards
them, when they immediately came to him. He distributed some pre-
sents among them, and they in return gave him some fish. Several
canoes came off to the ship with coconuts, sugar-cane, toddy, and a
species of yam. The crew of one of them took an opportunity of un-
shipping and carrying away the boat’s rudder, and upon a musket being
fired over their heads, many of them leaped into the sea.

Mr. Miller describes these people as being taller and fairer than the
Malays; their hair black, which the men cut short, and the women wear
long, and neatly turned up. The former go entirely naked, except that
they sometimes throw a piece of bark of tree, or plantain leaf, over their
shoulders, to protect them from the heat of the sun. The latter also are
naked, except a small slip of plantain leaf round the waist ; and some
had on their heads fresh leaves made up nearly in the shape of a bonnet;
with necklaces of small pieces of shell, and a shell hanging by a string,
to be used as a comb. The ears of both men and women have large holes
made in them, an inch or two in diameter, into which they put a ring
made of coconut shell, or a roll of leaves. They do not chew betel.
Their language was not understood by any person on board, although

3 O there

466

SUMATRA.

there were people from most parts adjacent to the coast. Their canoes
are very neat, formed of two thin planks sewn together, sharp-pointed
at each end, and provided with outriggers. In general they contain six
or seven men. They always carry lances, not only as offensive weapons,
but for striking fish. These are about seven feet in length, formed of ni-
bong and other hard woods ; some of them tipped with pieces of bamboo
made very sharp, and the concave part filled with fish-bones (and shark’s
teeth), others armed with pieces of bone made sharp and notched, and
others pointed with bits of iron and copper sharpened. They seemed
not to be unaccustomed to the sight of vessels. (Ships bound from the
ports of India to the straits of Sunda, as well as those from Europe, when
late in the season, frequently make the land of Engano, and many must
doubtless be wrecked on its coast).

Attempts were made to find a river or fresh water, but without suc-
cess, nor even a good place to land. Two of the people from the ship
having pushed in among the rocks and landed, the natives soon came to
them, snatched their handkerchiefs off their heads, and ran away with
them, but dropt them on being pursued. Soon afterwards they sounded
a conch-shell, which brought numbers of them down to the beach. The
bay appeared to be well sheltered, and to afford good anchorage ground.
The soil of the country, for the most part a red clay. The productions
Mr. Miller thought the same as are commonly found on the coast of
Sumatra ; but circumstances did not admit of his penetrating into the
country, which, contrary to expectation, was found to be so full of in-
habitants. In consequence of the loss of anchors and cables, it was
judged necessary that the vessel should return to Fort Marlborough.
Having taken in the necessary supplies, the island was revisited. Find-
ing no landing-place, the boat was run upon the coral rocks. Signs
were made to the natives, who had collected in considerable numbers,
and upon seeing our people land had retreated towards some houses, to
stop, but to no purpose, until Mr. Miller proceeded towards them un-
accompanied, when they approached in great numbers, and accepted
of knives, pieces of cloth, &c. Observing a spot of cultivated ground
surrounded by a sort of fence, he went to it, followed by several of the
natives who made signs to deter him, and as soon as he was out of sight

SUMATRA.

467

of his own people, began to handle his clothes and attempt to pull them
off, when he returned to the beach.

Their houses stand singly in their plantations, are circular, about
eight feet in diameter, raised about six from the ground on slender iron-
wood sticks, floored with planks, and the roof, which is thatched with
long grass, rises from the floor in a conical shape. No rice was seen
among them, nor did they appear to know the use of it when shewn to
them ; nor were cattle nor fowls of any kind observed about their
houses.

Having anchored off a low point of marshy land in the northern part of
the bay, where the natives seemed to be more accustomed to intercourse
with strangers, the party landed, in hopes of finding a path to some
houses about two miles inland. Upon observing signs made to them by
some people on the coral-reef, Mr. Miller and Mr. Whalfeldt went to-
wards them in the sampan , when some among them took an opportunity
of stealing the latter’s hanger and running away with it ; upon which
they were immediately fired at by some of the party, and notwithstand-
ing Mr. Miller’s endeavours to prevent them, both the officer and men
continued to fire upon and pursue the natives through the morass, but
without being able to overtake them. Meeting, however, with some
houses, they set fire to them, and brought off two women and a boy,
whom the caffrees had seized. The officers on board the vessel, alarmed
at the firing, and seeing Mr. Miller alone in the sampan, whilst several
canoes full of people were rowing towards him, sent the pinnace with
some sepoys to his assistance. During the night, conch-shells were
heard to sound almost all over the bay, and in the morning several large
parties were observed on different parts of the beach. All further com-
munication with the inhabitants being interrupted by this imprudent
quarrel, and the purposes of the expedition thereby frustrated, it was not
thought advisable to remain any longer at Engano, and Mr. Miller,
after visiting some parts of the southern coast of Sumatra, returned to
Fort Marlborough.

3 0 2

The

468

SUMATRA.

Po. Mega.

Po. Sanding.

Nassaus or
Po. Pagi.

The next island to the north-west of Engano, but at a considerable
distance, is called by the Malays Pulo Mega (cloud-island), and by
Europeans Triste, or isle de Recif. It is small and uninhabited, and, like
many others in these seas, is nearly surrounded by a coral-reef, with a
lagune in the centre. Coconut trees grow in vast numbers in the sand
near the sea-shore, whose fruit serves for food to rats and squirrels, the
only quadrupeds found there. On the borders of the lagune is a little
vegetable mould, just above the level of high water, where grow some
species of timber-trees.

The name of Pulo Sanding or Sandiang , belongs to two small islands
situated near the south-eastern extremity of the Nassau or Pagi islands,
in which group they are sometimes included. Of these the southernmost
is distinguished in the Dutch charts by the term of Laeg or low, and the
other by that of Bergen or hilly. They are both uninhabited, and the
only productions worth notice is the long nutmeg, which grows wild on
them, and some good timber, particularly of the kind known by the
name of marbau (metrosideros amboinensis.) An idea was entertained
of making a settlement on one of them, and in 1769 an officer with a
few men were stationed there for some months, during which period the
rains were incessant. The scheme was afterwards abandoned as unlikely
to answer any useful purpose.

The two islands separated by a narrow strait, to which the Dutch
navigators have given the name of the Nassaus, are called by the Malays
P°. Pagi or Pagei , and by us commonly the Poggies. The race of peo-
ple by whom these as well as some other islands to the northward of them
are inhabited, having the appellation of orang mantawei, this has been
confounded with the proper names of the islands, and being applied
sometimes to one and sometimes to another, has occasioned much con-
fusion and uncertainty. The earliest accounts we have of them are the
reports of Mr. Randolph Marriot in 1749, and of Mr. John Saul in 1750
and 1751, with Capt. Thomas Forrest’s observations in 1757, preserved
in Mr. Dalrymple’s “ Historical Relation of the several Expeditions from
Fort Marlborough to the Islands adjacent to the West-coast of Sumatra;”

but

SUMATRA,

469

but by much the most satisfactory information is contained in a paper
communicated by Mr. John Crisp to the Asiatic Society of Bengal, in
the sixth volume of whose Transactions it is published, and from these
documents I shall extract such particulars as may best serve to convey a
knowledge of the country and the people.

Mr. Crisp sailed from Fort Marlborough on the 12th of August, 1792,
in a vessel navigated at his own expence, and with no other view than
that of gratifying a liberal curiosity. On the 14th he anchored in the
straits of See Cockup (Si Kakap), which divide the Northern from the
Southern Pagi. These straits are about two miles in length and a quarter
of a mile over, and make safe riding for ships of any size, which lie per-
fectly secure from every wind, the water being literally as smooth as in
a pond. The high land of Sumatra (inland of Moco-moco and Ipu) was
plainly to be distinguished from thence. In the passage are scattered
several small islands, each of which consists of one immense rock, and
which may have been originally connected with the main island. The
face of the country is rough and irregular, consisting of high hills of
sudden and steep ascent, and covered with trees to their summits,
among which the species called bintangur or puhn , fit for the largest
masts, abounds. The sago tree grows in plenty, and constitutes the
chief article of food to the inhabitants, who do not cultivate rice. The
use of betel is unknown to them. Coconut trees, bamboos, and the
common fruits of Sumatra, are found here. The woods are impervious
to man : the species of wild animals that inhabit them, but few ; the
large red deer, hogs, and several kinds of monkey, but neither buffaloes
nor goats ; nor are they infested with tigers or other beasts of prey.
They have the common domestic fowl; but pork and fish are the favourite
animal food of the natives.

When the vessel had been two days at anchor, they began to come
down from their villages in their canoes, bringing fruit of various kinds,
and on invitation they readily came on board, without shewing signs of
apprehension or embarrassment. On presenting to them plates of boiled
rice, they would not touch it until it had been previously tasted by one

470

SUMATRA.

of the ship’s company. They behaved whilst on board with much
decorum, shewed a strong degree of curiosity, but not the least disposi-
tion for pilfering. They appeared to live in great friendship and harmony
with each other, and voluntarily divided amongst their companions what
was given to them. Their stature seldom exceeds five feet and a half.
Their colour is like that of the Malays, a light brown or copper-colour.
Some canoes came alongside the vessel with only women in them, and
upon being encouraged by the men, several ventured on board. When
on the water they use a temporary dress to shield them from the heat of
the sun, made of the leaves of the plantain, of which they form a sort of
conical cap (the same was observed of the women of Engano), and there
is also a broad piece of the leaf fastened round the body over their breasts,
and another round their waist. This leaf readily splits, and has the ap-
pearance of a coarse fringe. When in their villages, the women, like the
men, wear only a small piece of coarse cloth, made of the bark of a tree,
round their middle. Beads and other ornaments are worn about the neck.
Although coconuts are in such plenty, they have not the use of oil, and
their hair, which is black, and naturally long, is, for want of it and
the use of combs, in general matted and full of vermin. They have a
method of filing or grinding their teeth to a point, like the people of
Sumatra.

The number of inhabitants of the two islands is supposed not to exceed
1400 persons. They are divided into small tribes* each occupying a
small river, and living in one village. On the southern island are five
of these villages, and on the northern seven, of which Kakap is accounted
the chief, although Labu-labu is supposed to contain the greater number
of people. Their houses are built of bamboos and raised on posts 5 the
under part is occupied by poultry and hogs, and, as may be supposed,
much filth is collected there. Their arms consist of a bow and arrows.
The former is made of the nibong tree, and the string of the entrails of
some animal. The arrows are of small bamboo, headed with brass or
with a piece of hard wood cut to a point. With these they kill deer,
which are roused by dogs of a mongrel breed, and also monkeys, whose
flesh they eat. Some among them wear krises. It was said, that the

different

SUMATRA.

471

different tribes of orang mantawei who inhabit these islands, never make
war upon each other, but with people of islands to the northward they
are occasionally in a state of hostility. The measurement of one of their
war-canoes, preserved with great care under a shed, was twenty-five
feet in the length of the floor, the prow projecting twenty-two, and the
stern eighteen, making the whole length sixty-five feet. The greatest
breadth was five feet, and the depth three feet eight inches. For na-
vigating in their rivers and the straits of Si Kakap, where the sea is as
smooth as glass, they employ canoes, formed, with great neatness, of a
single tree, and the women and young children are extremely expert in
the management of the paddle. They are strangers to the use of coin
of any kind, and have little knowledge of metals. The iron bill or
chopping-knife, called parting, is in much esteem among them, it serves
as a standard for the value of other commodities, such as articles of
provision.

The religion of these people, if it deserves the name, resembles much
what has been described of the Battas ; but their mode of disposing of
their dead is different, and analogous rather to the practice of the South-
sea islanders ; the corpse being deposited on a sort of stage, in a place
appropriated for the purpose, and with a few leaves strewed over it, is
left to decay. Inheritance is by male descent ; the house or plantation,
the weapons and tools of the father, become the property of the sons.
Their chiefs are but little distinguished from the rest of the community
by authority or possessions, their pre-eminence being chiefly displayed
at public entertainments, of which they do the honours. They have not
even judicial powers, all disputes being settled, and crimes adjudged, by
a meeting of the whole village. Murder is punishable by retaliation,
for which purpose the offender is delivered over to the relations of the
deceased, who may put him to death ; but the crime is rare. Theft,
when to a considerable amount, is also capital. In cases of adultery
the injured husband has a right to seize the effects of the paramour, and
sometimes punishes his wife by cutting off her hair. When the husband
offends, the wife has a right to quit him and to return to her parents’
house. Simple fornication between unmarried persons, is neither con-
sidered

472

SUMATRA.

sidered as a crime nor a disgrace. The state of slavery is unknown
among these people ; and they do not practise circumcision.

The custom of tattooing, or imprinting figures on the skin, is general
among the inhabitants of this group of islands. They call it in their
language teetee or titi. They begin to form these marks on boys at seven
years of age, and fill them up as they advance in years. Mr. Crisp
thinks they were originally intended as marks of military distinction.
The women have a star imprinted on each shoulder, and generally some
small marks on the backs of their hands. These punctures are made
with an instrument consisting of a brass-wire fixed perpendicularly into
a piece of stick about eight inches in length. The pigment made use of
is the smoke collected from dammar, mixed with water (or, according to
another account, with the juice of the sugar-cane). The operator takes
a stalk of dried grass, or a fine piece of stick, and dipping the end in the
pigment, traces on the skin the outline of the figure, and then dipping
the brass point in the same preparation, with very quick and light
strokes of a long, small stick, drives it into the skin, whereby an in-
delible mark is produced. The pattern, when completed, is in all the
individuals nearly the same.

In the year 1783 the son of a raja of one of the Pagi islands came
over to Sumatra, on a visit of curiosity, and being an intelligent man,
much information was obtained from him. He could give some account
of almost every island that lies off the coast, and when a doubt arose
about their position, he ascertained it by taking the rind of a pum-
plenose or shaddock, and breaking it into bits of different sizes, disposing
them on the floor in such a manner as to convey a clear idea of the re-
lative situation. He spoke of Engano (by what name is not mentioned)
and said that their boats were sometimes driven to that island, on which
occasions they generally lost a part, if not the whole, of their crews,
from the savage disposition of the natives. He appeared to be acquainted
with several of the constellations, and gave names for the pleiades, scor-
pion, great bear, and Orion’s belt. He understood the distinction be-
tween the fixed and wandering stars, and particularly noticed Venus,

which

SUMATRA.

473

which he named usutat-si-geb-geb or planet of the evening. To Sumatra
he gave the appellation of Seraihu. As to religion, he said the rajas
alone prayed and sacrificed hogs and fowls. They addressed themselves
in the first place to the Power above the sky ; next, to those in the
moon, who are male and female ; and lastly, to that evil being, whose
residence is beneath the earth, and is the cause of earthquakes. A draw-
ing of this man, representing accurately the figures in which his body
and limbs were tattooed, was made by Colonel Trapaud, and obligingly
given to me. He not only stood patiently during the performance, but
seemed much pleased with the execution, and proposed that the Colonel
should accompany him to his country to have an opportunity of making
a likeness of his father. To our collectors of rare prints it is well known
that there exists an engraving of a man of this description by the title of
the “ painted prince,” brought to England by Capt. Dampier, from one
of the islands of the eastern sea, in the year 1 691, and of whom a par-
ticular account is given in his Voyage. He said that the inhabitants of
the Pagi islands derived their origin from the orang mantawei of the island
called Si Biru.

North-westward of the Pagi islands, and at no great distance, lies
that of Si Porah, commonly denominated Good Fortune island, inha-
bited by the same race as the former, and with the same manners and
language. The principal towns or villages are named Si Porah, con-
taining, when visited by Mr. John Saul in 17-50, three hundred inha-
bitants, Si Labah three hundred, (several of whom were originally from
the neighbouring island of Nias) Si Bagau two hundred, and Si Uban a
smaller number; and when Capt. Forrest made his inquiries in 1757,
there was not any material variation. Since that period, though the
island has been occasionally visited, it does not appear that any report
has been preserved of the state of the population. The country is de-
scribed as being entirely covered with wood. The highest land is in the
vicinity of Si Labah.

Si Porah
or Good
Fortune.

The next island in the same direction is named Si Biru, which al-
though of considerable size, being larger than Si Porah , has commonly

3 P been

Si Bira.

474

SUMATRA.

been omitted in our charts, or denoted to be uncertain. It is inhabited
by the mantazvei race, and the natives both of Si Porah and the Pagi
islands consider it as their parent-country, but notwithstanding this con-
nexion, they are generally in a state of hostility, and in 1783 no inter-
course subsisted between them. The inhabitants are distinguished only
by some small variety of the patterns in which their skins are tattooed,
those of Si Birn having them narrower on the breast and broader on the
shoulders. The island itself is rendered conspicuous by a volcano-
mountain.

Next to this is Pulo Batu, situated immediately to the southward of
the equinoctial line, and, in consequence of an original mistake in Va-
lentyn’s erroneous chart, published in 1726, usually called by navigators,
Mintaon , being a corruption of the word mantazvei, which, as already
explained, is appropriated to a race inhabiting the islands of Si Biru, Si
Porah, and Pagi. Batu, on the contrary, is chiefly peopled by a colony
from Nias. These pay a yearly tax to the raja of Buluaro, a small kam-
pong in the interior part of the island, belonging to a race different from
both, and whose number, it is said, amounts only to one hundred, which
it is not allowed to exceed, so many children being reared as may replace
the deaths. They are reported to bear a resemblance to the people of
Makasar or Bugis, and may have been adventurers from that quarter.
The influence of their raja over the Nias inhabitants, who exceed his
immediate subjects in the proportion of twenty to one, is founded on the
superstitious belief, that the water of the island will become salt when
they neglect to pay the tax. He in his turn, being in danger from the
power of the Malay traders who resort thither from Padang, and are not
affected by the same superstition, is constrained to pay them to the
amount of sixteen ounces of gold as an annual tribute.

The food of the people, as in the other islands, is chiefly sago, and
their exports coconuts, oil in considerable quantities, and szvala or sea-
slugs. No rice is planted there, nor, if we may trust to the Malayan
accounts, suffered to be imported. Upon the same authority also we
are told, that the island derives its name of Batu from a large rock re-
sembling

SUMATRA.

47 5

sembling the hull of a vessel, which tradition states to be a petrifaction
of that in which the Buluaro people arrived. The same fanciful story of
a petrified boat is prevalent in the Serampei country of Sumatra. From
Natal hill P°. Batu is visible. Like the islands already described, it is
entirely covered with wood.

Between Palo Batu and the coast of Sumatra, but much nearer to the p0. Kapini.
latter, is a small uninhabited island, called Palo Kapini (iron-wood island),
but to which our charts (copying from Valentyn) commonly give the
name of Batu , whilst to Batu itself, as above described, is assigned the
name of Mintaon. In confirmation of the distinctions here laid down, it
will be thought sufficient to observe, that when the Company’s packet,
the Greyhound, lay at what was called Lant’s bay in Mintaon , an officer
came to our settlement of Natal (of which Mr. John Marsden at that
time was chief) in a Batu oil-boat ; and that a large trade for oil is car-
ried on from Padang and other places with the island of Batu, whilst
that of Kapini is known to be without inhabitants, and could not supply
the article.

The most productive and important, if not the largest of this chain of p0. Nias,
islands, is Pulo Nias. Its inhabitants are very numerous, and of a race
distinct not only from those on the main (for such we must relatively
consider Sumatra), but also from the people of all the islands to the
southward, with the exception of the last-mentioned. Their complexions,
especially the women, are lighter than those of the Malays ; they are
smaller in their persons and shorter in stature; their mouths are broad,
noses very flat, and their ears are pierced and distended in so extraordinary
a manner as nearly, in many instances, to touch the shoulders, particu-
larly when the flap has, by excessive distension or by accident, been rent
asunder; but these pendulous excrescences are commonly trimmed and
reduced to the ordinary size, when they are brought away from their
own country. Preposterous, however, as this custom may appear, it is
not confined to the Nias people. Some of the womjen of the inland parts
of Sumatra, in the vicinity of the equinoctial line (especially those of
the Rau tribes) increase the perforation of their ears, until they admit
ornaments of two or three inches diameter. There is no circumstance

3 P2 by

476

SUMATRA.

by which the natives of this island are more obviously distinguished than
the prevalence of a leprous scurf, with which the skins of a great pro-
portion of both sexes are affected; in some cases covering the whole of
the body and limbs, and in others resembling rather the effect of the
tetter or ring-worm, running like that partial complaint in waving lines
and concentric curves. It is seldom, if ever, radically cured, although
by external applications (especially in the slighter cases) its symptoms
are moderated, and a temporary smoothness given to the skin ; but it
does not seem in any stage of the disease to have a tendency to shorten
life, or to be inconsistent with perfect health in other respects, nor is
there reason to suppose it infectious ; and it is remarkable, that the in-
habitants of P°. Batu, who are evidently of the same race, are exempt
from this cutaneous malady. The principal food of the common people
is the sweet potatoe, but much pork is also eaten by those who can afford
it, and the chiefs make a practice of ornamenting their houses with the
jaws of the hogs, as well as the skulls of the enemies whom they slay.
The cultivation of rice has become extensive in modern times, but rather
as an article of traffic than of home consumption.

These people are remarkable for their docility and expertness in handy-
craft work, and become excellent house-carpenters and joiners, and as
an instance of their skill in the arts, they practise that of letting blood
by cupping, in a mode nearly similar to ours. Among the Sumatrans
blood is never drawn with so salutary an intent. They are industrious
and frugal, temperate and regular in their habits, but at the same time
avaricious, sullen, obstinate, vindictive, and sanguinary. Although
much employed as domestic slaves (particularly by the Dutch) they are
always esteemed dangerous in that capacity ; a defect in their cha-
racter which philosophers will not hesitate to excuse in an independent
people torn by violence from their country and connexions. They
frequently kill themselves when disgusted with their situation or un-
happy in their families, and often their wives at the same time, who
appeared, from the cjrcumstances under which they were found, to have
been consenting to the desperate act. They were both dressed in their
best apparel (the remainder being previously destroyed), and the female,
in more than one instance that came under notice, had struggled so

little.

SUMATRA.

477

little, as not to discompose her hair, or remove her head from the pillow.
It is said, that in their own country they expose their children, by sus-
pending them, in a bag, from a tree, when they despair of being able to
bring them up. The mode seems to be adopted with the view of pre-
serving them from animals of prey, and giving them a chance of being
saved by persons in more easy circumstances.

The island is divided into about fifty small districts, under chiefs or
rajas, who are independent of, and at perpetual variance with, each
other ; the ultimate object of their wars being to make prisoners, whom
they sell for slaves, as well as all others not immediately connected with
them, whom they can seize by stratagem. These violences are doubt-
less encouraged by the resort of native traders from Padang, Natal , and
Achin, to purchase cargoes of slaves, who are also accused of augment-
ing the profits of their voyage, by occasionally surprising and carrying
off whole families. The number annually exported is reckoned at
four hundred and fifty to Natal, and one hundred and fifty to the
northern ports (where they are said to be employed by the Achinese
in the gold-mines), exclusive of those which go to Padang, for the
supply of Batavia, where the females are highly valued, and taught
music and various accomplishments. In catching these unfortunate
victims of avarice, it is supposed that not fewer than two hundred
are killed ; and if the aggregate be computed at one thousand, it is
a prodigious number to be supplied from the population of so small an
island. .

Beside the article of slaves, there is a considerable export of padi and
rice, the cultivation of which is chiefly carried on at a distance from the
sea-coasts, whither the natives retire, to be secure from piratical depre-
dations, bringing down the produce to the harbours (of which there are
several good ones), to barter with the traders for iron, steel, beads, to-
bacco, and the coarser kinds of Madras and Surat piece-goods. Num-
bers of hogs are reared, and some parts of the main, especially Barns,
are supplied from hence with yams, beans, and poultry. Some of the
rajas are supposed to have amassed a sum equal to ten or twenty thou-
sand dollars, which is kept in ingots of gold and silver, much of the

latter,

478

SUMATRA.

Po. Nako-
uako.

Po. Babi.

Po. Baniak.

latter, consisting of small Dutch money (not the purest coin) melted
down ; and of these they make an ostentatious display at weddings and
other festivals.

The language scarcely differs more from the Batta and the Lampong
than these do from each other, and all evidently belong to the same stock.
The pronunciation is very guttural, and either from habit or peculiar
conformation of organs, these people cannot articulate the letter/;, but
in Malayan words, where the sound occurs, pronounce it as f, (saying,
for example, fulo finang, instead of Pulo Pinang ) ,• whilst, on the con-
trary, the Malays never make use of the f, and pronounce as pikir the
Arabic word jikir. Indeed, the Arabians themselves appear to have the
same organic defect as the people of Nias, and it may likewise be ob-
served in the languages of some of the South-sea islands.

On the western side of Nias, and very near to it, is a cluster of small
islands, called P9. Nako-nako, whose inhabitants (as well as others who
shall presently be noticed) are of a race termed Mar os or orang maruwi,
distinct from those of the former, but equally fair-complexioned. Large
quantities of coconut-oil are prepared here, and exported chiefly to
Padang, the natives having had a quarrel with the Natal traders. The
islands are governed by a single raja , who monopolizes the produce,
his subjects dealing only with him, and he with the praws or country
vessels, who are regularly furnished with cargoes in the order of their
arrival, and never dispatched out of turn.

Pulo Babi or Hog island, called by the natives Si Malu, lies north-
westward from Nias, and, like Na/co-Nako, is inhabited by the Maruwi
race. Buffaloes (and hogs, we may presume) are met with here in great
plenty, and sold cheap.

The name of Pulo Baniak belongs to a cluster of islands (as the terms
imply) situated to the eastward, or in-shore of P°. Babi, and not far
from the entrance of Singled river. It is, however, most commonly
applied to one of them which is considerably larger than the others.
It does not appear to furnish any vegetable produce as an article

SUMATRA.

479

of trade, and the returns from thence are chiefly sea-slug and the
edible bird’s-nest. The inhabitants of these islands also are Maruzcis,
and, as well as the others of the same race, are now Mahometans.
Their language, although considered by the natives of these parts as
distinct and peculiar, (which will naturally be the case where people do
not understand each other’s conversation), has much radical affinity to
the Batta and Nias, and less to the Pagi ; but all belong to the same
class, and may be regarded as dialects of a general language prevailing
amongst the original inhabitants of this eastern archipelago, as far at
least as the Moluccas and Philippines.

THE END.

INDEX.

' ’ H It , It „l

‘

INDEX

Achin or Acheh, kingdom <5f, its boundaries, p.
396. Situation, buildings, and appearance
of the capital, 396. Air esteemed healthy,
396. Inhabitants described, 398. Present
State of commerce, 399. Productions of
soil, manufactures, navigation, 400. Coin,
government, 401. Officers ot state, cere-
monies, 402. Local division, 403. Reve-
nues, duties, 403. Administration of jus-
tice and punishments, 404. History of,
406. State of the kingdom at the time when
Malacca fell into the hands of the Portu-
guese, 417. Circumstances which placed
Ibrahim, a slave of the king of Pidir, on
the throne, 418. Rises to considerable im-
portance during the reign of Mansur-shah,
432. King of, receives a letter from Queen
Elizabeth, 436. Letter from King James
the First, 439. Commencement of female
reigns, 447. Their termination, 454. Sub-
sequent events, 454 to 463.

Achin-head , situation of, 2.

Address, custom of, in the third, instead of
the second person, 287.

Adultery, laws respecting, 229, 262.

Agriculture, 65, 323.

Air, temperature of, 16.

Ala-eddin or Ula-eddin Shah, king of Achin,
lays repeated siege to Malacca, 428. His
death, 429.

Albocjuerrjue (Alfonso d’) touches at Pider and
Pase in his voyage to Malacca, 409.

Aligators, 118. Superstitious dread of, 186.

Amomum, different species of, 90.

Amusements, 267, 276.

Anak-sungei, kingdom of, 354.

Ancestors, veneration for burving-places of,
288, 291.

Animals, account of, 1 12.

Annals, Malayan, of the kingdom of Achin,
427.

Ants, variety and abundance of, 127. White
ant, 127.

Arabian travellers, mention Sumatra by the
name of Ramni, 4.

Arabic character, with modifications, used by
the Malays, 198.

Arithmetic, 192.

Arsenic, yellow, 173.

Arts and manufactures, 178.

Aru, kingdom of, 413, 414, 419, 425.

Astronomy, 1 9.3.

A tap, covering for roofs of houses, 57.

Babi, island of, 478.

Bamboo, principal material for building, 56.
Account of the, 87.

Bangka, island of, its tin-mines, 172.

Baniak, islands of, 478.

Banian tree or jaivi-jawi, its peculiarities,
163.

Bantam, city of, 212, 216, 353. Expulsion of
English from thence, 450.

Barbosa, (Odoardus), his account of Sumatra,

Barthema (Ludovico), his visit to the island,

Barus, a place chiefly remarkable for having
given its name to the most valuable sort of
camphor, 367.

Bats, various species of, 118.

Batta, country of, 365. Its divisions, 366.
Mr. Miller’s journey into it, 369. Govern-
ments, 374. Authority of the rajas, 375.
Succession, 376. Persons, dress, and wea-
pons of the inhabitants, 377. Warfare,
378. Fortified villages or kampongs, 379.
Trade, mode of holding fairs, 379. Food,
380. Buildings, domestic manners, 381.
Horse-racing, 382. Books, 383. Observa-
tions on their mode of writing, 384. Reli-
gion, 384. Mythology, 385. Oaths, 386.
Funeral ceremonies, 387. Crimes and pu-
nishments, 389. Practice of eating human
flesh, 390. Motives for this custom, 391.
Mode of proceeding, 391. Doubts obviated,
392. Testimonies, 393. Death of Mr.
Nairne in the Batta country, 394. Ori-
ginality of manners preserved amongst this
people, and its probable causes, 395.

Batu

INDEX.

Batu ( Pulo ), 474.

Batu Bara river, 366, 456.

Beards, practice of eradicating, 45.

Beasts, 112, 116.

Beaulieu, commander of a French squadron at
Achin, 433, 442.

Bees -wax, 175.

Bencoolen, river and town, 44, 351. Interior
country visited, 363. Account of first Eng-
lish establishment at, 451.

Benzoin or benjamin, mode of procuring, 154.
Nature of the trade, 155. Od distilled from,
184.

Betel, practice of chewing, 281. Preparation
of, 282.

Betel-nut or areca, see Pinang.

Bintang, island of, 410, 440.

Birds, 123, 124. Species which form the
edible nests, 126. Modes of catching, 187.

Birds-nest, edible, account of, 174.

Biru, island of, 473.

Blachang, species of caviare, mode of prepar-
ing, 63.

Blades of krises, mode of damasking, 348.

Boulton (Mr. Matthew), 172, 348.

Bread-fruit or sufcun, 98.

Breezes, land and sea, 22.

Brahain (Mr. Philip), 159, 462.

Broff (Mr. Robert), 146.

Buffalo or karbau, description of the, 112.
Killed at festivals, 266, 288, 313.

Building, modes of, described, 56, 381, 396.

Bukit Lintang, a high range of hills inland of
Moco-moco, 318.

Bukit Pandang, a high mountain inland of
Ipu, 313.

Burying-places, ancient, veneration for, 288,
291.

Cameleon, description of, 119.

Campbell (Mr. Charles), 2, 92, 110, 147, 158,
304, 364.

Camphor or kapur bar us, a valuable drug, 149.
Description of the tree, 149. Mode of pro-
curing it, 150. Its price, 151. Camphor-
oil, 151. Japan camphor, 152.

Cannibalism, 390.

Cannon, use of, previously to Portuguese dis-
coveries, 347.

Carpenters' -work, 181.

Carving, 183.

Cassia, description of the tree, 156. Found
in the Serampei, Musi, and Batta countries,
318, 363, 372.

Cattle, 115. Laws respecting, 232.

Causes or suits, mode of deciding, 217, 219.

Caut-chouc or elastic gum, 92.

Cements, 182.

Champaka flower, 104.

Character, difference in respect of it, between
the Malays and other Sumatrans, 207.

Characters of Rejang, Batta, and Lampong
languages, 201, and plate.

Charms, 189, 323.

Chastity, 261.

Chess, game of, Malayan terms, 273.

Child-bearing, 284.

Children, treatment of, 285.

Chinese colonists, 79.

Circumcision, 287.

Cloth, manufacture of, 52, 183, 379.

Clothing, materials of, 49.

Coal, 28.

Cock-fighting, strong propensity to this sport,
274. Matches, 275.

Coconut-tree, an important object of cultiva-
tion, 81. Does not bear fruit in the hill-
country, 85.

Codes of laws, 218, 230. Remarks on, 238.

Coins, current in Sumatra, 171, 172.

Commerce, 129, 379, 399.

Company (English East India), its influence,
213, 214, 215. Permission given to it to
settle a factory at Achin, 489.

Compass, irregularity of, noticed, 312.

Compensation for murder, termed bangun, 222,
234, 246.

Complexion, fairness of, comparatively with
other Indians, 46. Darkness of, not de-
pendant on climate, 46.

Confinement, modes of, 248.

Contracts made with the chiefs of the country,
for obliging their dependants to plant pep-
per, 129.

Conversion to religion of Mahomet, period of,
343.

Cookery, 62.

Copper, 28. Rich mine of, 172.

Coral rock, 33.

Corallines, collection of, in the possession of
Mr. John Griffiths, 121.

Cosmetic used, and mode of preparing it, 268.

Cotton, two species of, cultivated, 157.

Courtship, 265.

Crisp (Mr. John), 237, 256, 469.

Cultivation of rice, 65, 76.

Curry, dish or mode of cookery so called, 62.

Custard-apple, 100.

Cycas circinalis (a palm-fern confounded with
the sago-tree) described, 89, 324.

Dairy tuple (Mr. Alexander), 3, 392.

Dammar, a species of resin or turpentine, 158.

Dancing, amusement of, 267.

Dare,

INDEX.

Dare (Lieut. Hastings), 2. Journal of his ex-
pedition to the Serainpei and Surigei-tenang
countries, 308 to 324.

Datu, title of, 351.

Debts and debtors, laws respecting, 223, 230,
252.

Deer, diminutive species of, 117.

Deity, name for the, borrowed by the Rejangs
from the Malays, 290.

Dice, 273.

Diseases, modes of curing, 189.

Diversion of tossing a ball, 276.

Divorces, laws respecting, 235, 262.

Dragons’ -blood, a drug, how procured, 159.
Dress, description of man’s and woman’s, 50,
268.

Dupati, nature of title, 210.

Dui 'ian fruit, 98.

Dusuns or villages, description of, 55.

Duyong or sea-cow, 117, 122.

Dye-stuffs, 93 to 96.

Ears, ceremony of boring, 53.

Earthenware, 183.

Earth -oil, 28.

Earthquakes, 30.

Eating, mode of, 59.

Eclipses, notion respecting, 194.

Ed, •isi, his account of Sumatra by the name of
Al-Rami, 4.

Elastic gum, 92.

Elephants, 116, 176.

Elizabeth, queen, addresses a letter to the king
of Achin, 436.

Elopements, laws respecting, 227, 235.
Emblematic presents, 283.

Engano, island of 464.

English, their first visit to Sumatra, 436. Settle
a factory at Achin, 439.

Europeans, influence of, 213.

Evidence, rules of, and mode of giving, 231,
239.

Expedition to Serumpei and Surigei-tenang
countries, 308 to 324.

Fairs, 379, 380.

Fencing, 276.

Fertility of soil, 78.

Festivals, 266, 288, 313.

Feud, account of a remarkable one, 250.
Fevers, how treated by the natives, 189.
Filagree, manufacture of, 178.

Fire, modes of kindling, 60. Necessary for
warmth among the hills, 313.

Fire-arms, manufactured in Mcnangkabau,
347.

Fire-Jly, 126.

Fish, 122. Ikan layer, a remarkable species,
122. Various kinds enumerated, 123.

Fishing, mode of, 186.

Fish-roes, preserved by salting, 64. An article
of trade, 176.

Flowers, description of, 103.

Foersch, (Mr.) his account of the poison-tree,

110.

Fogs, dense among the hills, 17.

Food, 62, 380.

Fortification, mode of, 350, 379.

Fort Marlborough, the chief English settlement
on the coast of Sumatra, 2. Establishment
of, 452. Reduced by Act of Parliament,
452.

French, settlement of Tappanuli taken by the,
in the year 1760, and again in 1809, at-
tended with circumstances of atrocity, 368.
Sent a fleet to Achin, under General Beau-
lieu, 442.

Fruits, description of, 97.

Funerals, ceremonies observed at, 287, 387.

Furniture of houses, 59.

Garnbir, mode of preparing it for eating with
betel, 160.

Gaming, laws respecting, 229. Propensity
for, and modes of, 273.

Geography, limited ideas of, 193.

Goitres, natives of the hills subject to, 48.
Disease not imputable to snow-water, 48.
In the Serampti country, 317.

Gold, island celebrated for its production of,
27. Chiefly found in the Menangkabuu
country, 165. Distinctions of, 165. Mode
of working the mines, 167. Estimation of
quantity procured, 168. Price, 169. Mode
of cleansing, 171. Weights, 171.

Government, Malayan, 350, 351.

Grammar, 199.

Graves, form of, 287.

Griffiths, (Mr. John), 121, 122.

Guana or iguana, animal of the lizard kind,
118.

Guava fruit, 100.

Gum-lac, 175.

Gunpowder, manufacture of, 187.

Hair, modes of dressing the, 51.

Heat, degree of, 16, 314.

Hemp or ganja, its inebriating qualities, 91.

Henna of the Arabians used for tinging tire
nails, 90.

Herbs and shrubs used medicinally, 108.

Hills,

3 Q 2

INDEX.

Hills, inhabitants of, subject to goitres, 48,
317.

Hippopotamus, 116.

History of Malayan kings, 327. Of Achinese,
406.

Hollanders, their first visit to Sumatra, 435.

Holloway, (Mr. Giles), 369, 393.

Horse-racing practised by the Battas, 382.

Horses, small breed of, 115. Occasionally
used in war, 349. Eaten as food by the
Battas, 381.

Hot springs, 28, 309, 317, 352.

Houses, description of, 56.

Human flesh eaten by the Battas, 390.

Iang de per-tuan, title of sovereignty, 337,
440.

Ibrahim (otherwise, Saleh eddin shah) king of
Achin, his origin, 418. Enmity to the Por-
tuguese, 419. Transactions of his reign,
and death, 419 to 427.

Iju, a peculiar vegetable substance used for
cordage, 57.

llhas d’ Ouro, attempts of the Portuguese to
discover them, 411.

Import-trade, 176.

Incest, 261.

Indalas, one of the Malayan names of Su-
matra, 12.

Indigo, 94. Broad leafed or tarum akar, 94.

Indragiri, river of, 13. Has its source in a
lake of the Menangkabciu country, 358.

Indrapura, kingdom of, 353, 451.

Inhabitants, general distinctions of, 40.

Inheritance, rules of, 220, 230, 244.

Ink, manufacture of, 182.

Insanity, 191.

Insects, 126. Various kinds of, enumerated,
127.

Instruments, musical, 195.

Interest of money, 224, 231.

Investiture, 351.

Ipu, river of, 309, 310. Sungei-ipu (a different
river), 318, 319.

Iron, 28. Ore smelted, 173. Manufactures
of, 181. Mines, 347.

Iskander Muda ( Paduka Sri ) king of Achin,
receives a letter from king James the first,
by Captain Best, and gives permission for
establishing an English factory, 439. Con-
quers Johor, 440. Attacks Malacca with
a great fleet, 441. Receives an embassy
from France, 442. Again attacks Malacca,
443. His death, 444. Wealth and power,
445.

Islands near the western coast, account of,
464.

Ivory, 176.

Jack fruit, 98.

Jaggri, imperfect sort of sugar from a species
of palm, 88.

Jambi, river of, 13. Colonies settled on
branches of it, for collecting gold, 165.
Has its source in the Limun country, 358.
Town of, 358.

Jambu fruit, 99.

James the first, king, writes a letter to the
king of Achin, 439.

Jeinal, sultan of Pase, his history, 408, 409,
412, 413, 414, 415.

Johor, kingdom of, 329, 430, 432, 433, 440.

Kampar, river of, 357. King of, negotiates
with Alboquerque, 409.

Kampongs or fortified villages, 379.

Kananga, flowering tree, 103.

Kapini, island of, 475.

Kasumba, name of, given to the carthamus
and the bixa, 95.

Kataun or Cattown, river of, 15, 44.

Kima or gigantic cockle, 15, 121.

Koran, 221, 242, 289.

Korinchi country, 304. Mr. Campbell’s visit
to it, 304. Situation of lake, 304. Inha-
bitants and buildings, 305. Food, articles
of commerce, gold, 306. Account of lepers,
306. Peculiar plants, 307. Character of
the natives, 307.

Koto-tuggoh, a fortified village of the Sungei-
tenang country, 321. Taken and destroyed,
322.

Krises, description of, 348.

Kro'i, district of, 174, 296.

Kulit-kayu or coolicoyr, the bark of certain
trees used in building, and for other pur-
poses, 57.

Kuwau, argus or Sumatran pheasant, 124.

J.ahnn, district of, 44, 364.

Lakes, 14, 295, 304, 316.

Laksamana, a title equivalent to commander
in chief, 350, 410, 443.

Lampong country, limits of, 295. Inhabitants,
language, and governments, 296. Wars,

297. Account of a peculiar people, called
orang abung, 297. Manners and customs,

298. Superstitions, 301.

Land, unevenness of its surface, 26. New-
formed, 31, 259. Rarely considered as the
subject of property, 244.

Land and sea breezes, causes of, 22.

Language,

INDEX.

Language, 197. Nature of the Malayan, 197.
Of others spoken in Sumatra, 200. Court,
202. Specimens of, 203. Batta, 382.
Nias, 478.

Lanseh fruit, 101.

Laws and customs, 217. Compilation of,
218.

Laye, river and district of, 44, 218, 230.

Leeches, a small kind of, very troublesome on
marches, 311.

Lemba district, inhabitants of, similar to the
Rejangs, 44.

Leprosy, account of, 190, 306.

Lignum-aloes or kalambac, 160.

Limun, district of, 165. Gold-traders of, 278,
358.

Literature, 346.

Lizards, 119.

Longitude of Fort Marlborough, determined
by observation, 2.

Looms, description of, 183.

Macdonald, (Lieut. Col. John), 2, 151.

Mackenzie, (Mr. Kenneth), 462.

Madagascar, resemblance in customs of, to
those of Sumatra, 242.

Mahmud shah Juhan ( Ala-eddin ), 461.

Mahometanism, period of conversion to, 343
to 346.

Maiz or jagong, cultivation of, 89.

Malacca or Malaka, city of, when founded,
327. Visited in 1509 by the Portuguese,
407. In 1511, taken by them, 408. Re-
peatedly attacked by the kings of Achin,
428, 441, 443. In 1641, taken by the
Hollanders, 444.

Malays, name of, applied to people of Me-
nangkabuu, 41. Nearly synonymous with
Mahometan, in these parts, 42. Difference
in character between Malays and other Su-
matrans, 207. Guards composed of, 280.
Origin of, 326. Race of kings, 327. Not
strict in matters of religion, 346. Govern-
ments of, 351.

Malayan language, 197.

Malur or Malati flower (nyctanthes), 105.

Mango fruit, described, 99.

Mangustin fruit, described, 97.

Manjuta, river and district of, 354. English
settlement at, 451.

Manna, district of, 30, 76, 230, 237, 243,
250, 265, 337.

Mansalur, island of, 15.

Mansur shah, king of Achin, besieges Malacca,
and is defeated, 430. Renews the attack.

without success, 431. Again appears before
it with a large fleet, and proceeds to the
attack of Johor, 432. Murdered, when pre-
paring to sail with a considerable expedi-
tion, 432.

Mantawei, name of race of people inhabiting
certain islands, 468, 473.

Manufactures, 183, 379.

Marco Polo, his account of Sumatra, by the
name of Java minor, 4. Visited it about
the year 1290, 5.

Marriage, modes of, and laws respecting,
225, 235, 257, 262, 263. Rites of, 265.
Festivals, 266. Consummation of, 269.

Marsden (Mr. John), 161, 230.

Measures, of capacity and length, 192.

Measurement, of time, 193.

Medicinal shrubs and herbs, 108.

Medicine, art of, 189.

Mega, island of, 86, 468.

Menangkahau, kingdom of, 41. History of,
imperfectly known, 332. Limits of, 333.
Rivers proceeding from it, 333. Political
decline, 334. Early mention of it by tra-
vellers, 334. Division of the government,
335. Extraordinary respect paid to reign-
ing family, 337. Titles of the sultan, 337,
338. Remarks on them, 341. Ceremonies,
342. Conversion of people to the Maho-
metan religion, 343. Antiquity of the
empire more remote than that event, 345.
Sultan held in respect by the Battas, 376.

Metempsychosis, ideas of, as entertained by
the Sumatrans, 292.

Miller (Mr. Charles), 93, 158, 363, 369, 393.

Minerals, 27, 172.

Mines, gold, 167. Copper, 172. Iron, 347.

Missionaries, no attempt of, to convert the
Sumatrans to Christianity, upon record,
294.

Moco-moco, in Anac-sungei, account of, 319.

Monkeys, various species of, 117.

Monsoons, causes of their change, 19.

Morinda, wood of, used for dying, 95.

Mountains, chain of, running along the island,
13. Height of Mount Ophir or Gunong
Passamman, 13. High mountain called
Bukit Pundang, 313.

Mucks, practice, nature, and causes of, 279.

Muhammed shah ( Ala-eddin or Ula-eddin ),
succeeds Juhan shah as king of Achin, 460.
His turbulent reign, and death, 461.

Mukim, divisional district of the country of
Achin, 403, 457.

Mulberry, 91.

Murder, compensation for, 222, 234, 246,

Musi, district of, 358, 363, 364.

Music,

index.

Music, 195. Minor key preferred, 196.

Mythology, of the Battas, 385.

Nuko-nako, islands of, 478.

Nalabu, port of, 165, 168.

Na?ne of Sumatra, unknown to the Arabian
geographers, and to Marco Polo, 10. Va-
rious orthography of, 10. Probably of
Hindu origin, 11.

Names, when given to children, 285. Dis-
tinctions of, 285. Father often named
from his child, 286. Hesitate to pro-
nounce their own, 286.

Natal, settlement of, 373. Gold of fine qua-
lity procured in the country of, 373. Go-
verned by datus, 374.

Navigation, 400.

Nias, island of, 475.

Nibong, species of palm, description and uses
of, 89.

Nicolo di Conti, his visit to Sumatra, 8.

Nutmegs and cloves, first introduction of, by
Mr. Robert BrofF, 146. Second importa-
tion, 148. Success of the culture, 148.

Oaths, nature of, in legal proceedings, 239.
Collateral, 241. Mode of administering,
242, 322. Amongst the Battas, 386.

Odoricus, his visit to the island of Sumoltra, 7.

Officers of state, in Malayan governments, 350.
At Achin, 402.

Oil, earth-, 28. Camphor-, 151. Coconut-,
184.

Ophir, name of, not known to the natives, 3.
Height of Mount Ophir or Gunong Passam-
man, 13.

Opium, considerable importation of, from
Bengal, 176. Law respecting, 229. Prac-
tice of smoking, 277. Preparation of, 277.
Effects of, 278.

Oranges, various species of, 100.

Oratory, gift of, natural to the Sumatrans,
283.

Ornaments worn, 50, 298.

Padang, the principal Dutch settlement, 165,
168, 171, 349, 452.

Padang-guchi, river of, 31, 295.

Padi or rice, cultivation of upland, 67. Of
low-land, 73. Transplantation of, 75. Rate
of produce, 77. Threshing, 81. Beating
out, 82.

Paduka Sri, king of Achin, see Iskander Muda.

Pagi (or Nassaus), islands of, 468.

Palembang, river of, 13. Rises in the district
of Musi, near Bencoolen river, 358. Dutch
factory on it, 359. Description of country
on its banks, 359. Government, 360. City
of, 361. Many foreign settlers, 362. Lan-
guage, 362. Interior country visited by
the English, 363.

Palma-christi, 92.

Pandan shrub, its fragrant blossom, 106.

Pangeran, nature of title, 210. Authority
much limited, 211.

Pantun or proverbial song, 197.

Papaw fruit, 101.

Pase, kingdom of, 407, et seq.

Passamman, province of, 355.

Passummah, 215. Legal customs of, 230 to
237.

Pawns or pledges, law respecting, 232.

Pepper, principal object of the Company’s
trade, 129. Cultivation of, 131. Descrip-
tion of the plant, 134. Progress of bearing,
136. Time of gathering, 137. Mode of
drying, 137. White pepper, 138. Sur-
veys of plantations, 139. Transportation
of, 145.

Percha ( Pulo ), one of the Malayan names of
Sumatra, 12.

Perfumes, 184.

Pergularia odoratissima, cultivated in Eng-
land by Sir Joseph Banks, 105.

Persons of the natives, description of, 44.

Pheasant, argus or Sumatran, 124.

Philippine islands, customs and superstitions
of, resembling those of Sumatra, 302.

Pidir, kingdom of, 407, et seq.

Pigafetta (Antonio), in his voyage appears
the earliest specimen of a Malayan vocabu-
lary, 9.

Pikul, weight, 151.

Pinang, areca, or, vulgarly, the betel-nut
tree, and fruit, 87, 157.

Pinang (Pulo), island of, 463.

Pine-apple, 100.

Piratical habits of Malays, 280, 356.

Plantain or pisang, 91. Varieties of the fruit,

100.

Pleading, mode of, 238.

Poetry, fondness of the natives for, 197.

Polishing leaf, 90.

Polygamy, question of, 271. Connexion be-
tween it and the practice of purchasing
wives, 272.

Population, 257, 403.

Porah, island of, 473.

Portuguese, expeditions of, rendered the is-
land of Sumatra well known to Europeans,
9. Their first visit to it, under Diogo

Lopez

INDEX.

Lopez Sequiera,406. Transactions at Pidir
and Pase, 407, 422. Conquer Malacca,
408. Sustain many attacks and sieges from
kings of Achin, 428, et seq.

Potatoes, cultivated in the Korinchi country,
306.

Priaman, river and district of, 442. Invita-
tion to the English to form a settlement
there, 451.

Puhn or Poon, signifying tree in general, ap-
plied by Europeans to a particular species,
161, 469.

Puhn-upas or poison-tree, account of, 110.

Pulas, species of twine from the kaluwi nettle,
91.

Pulse, variety of, 93.

Pulo or island, 12 et passim. Pulo point and
bay, 31.

Punei-jambu, a beautiful species of dove, 125.

Punishments, corporal, 248. Amongst the
Battas, 389. Amongst the Achinese, 404.

Quail -fighting, 276.

Queen, government of Achin devolves to a,
447. Account of embassy from Madras to
the, 449.

Radin, prince of Madura, 269, 290, 345.

Raffles (Mr. Thomas) 331.

Rakan, river or aestuary, 357.

Rambutan fruit, 101.

Ramni, name given to Sumatraby the Arabian
geographers, 4.

Ranjaus, description of, 310.

Rapes, laws respecting, 227.

Rattan-cane, fruit of, 102. Considerable ex-
port trade in, 157.

Rau or Rawa country, 357, 413, 419, 475.

Rayet shah ( Ala-eddin) , said to have been ori-
ginally a fisherman, ascends the throne of
Achin, having murdered the heir, 4 33.
During his reign the Hollanders first visited
Achin, 435. And also the English, under
Captain (Sir James) Lancaster, who carried
letters from Queen Elizabeth, 436. At the
age of ninety-five, confined by his son,
437.

Reaping, mode of, 72.

Rejang, people of, chosen as a standard for
description of manners, 43. Situation of
the country, 44. Divided into tribes, 209.
Their government, 210.

Religion, state of, amongst the Rejang, 288.
No ostensible worship, 289. The word

deiea applied to a class of invisible beings,
290. Veneration for the tombs of their
ancestors, 291. Ancient religion of Malays,
330. Motives for conversion to Mahome-
tanism, 345. Of the Battas, 384.

Reptiles, 118.

Rhinoceros, 116, 318.

Rice, culture of, 65. Distinctions of ladang
or upland, and saivah or low-land, 66.
Sowing, mode of, 71. Reaping, mode of,
72. An article of trade, 82.

Rivers, 15, 16, 295, 355, 357.

Rock, species of soft, 28. Coral, 33.

Rum or Rome, for Constantinople, 338, 341.

Sago-tree or rambiya (confounded with the
cycas circinalis, a different tree), described,
88.

Salt, manufacture of, 188.

Saltpetre, 28. Procured from certain caves,
173.

Sanding islands or Pulo Sandiang, 468.

Sappan wood, 95.

Scorpion flower or anggrek kasturi, 106.

Sculpture, ancient, 352.

Sea, encroachments of, 32.

Sequeira (Diogo Lopez), first Portuguese who
visited Sumatra. 406.

Serampei country^31'7. Villages, government,
features of the women, 317. Peculiar regu-
lation, 318. Further account of, 320.

Sesamum or bijin, oil produced from, 92.

Sexes, mistaken ideas of a considerable ine-
quality in the numbers of the two, 271.

Shell-fish, 121.

Siak, river of, 13, 176, 355. Survey of, 356.
Country on both sides flat and alluvial, 356.
Abundance of ship-timber, 356. Govern-
ment, 356. Trade, 357. Subdued by the
king of Achin, 440.

Si Biru, island of, 473.

Silebar, river, and district of, 31, 212, 451.

Si/eda, attempt to work a gold mine at, 170.

Silk-cotton (bombax), 157.

Siriga-pura, city of, when founded, 327.

Singkel river, 366.

Si Porah or Good Fortune, island of, 473.

Situation of the island, general account of, 2.

Slavery, state of, not common among the Re-
jangs, 253. Condition of negro slaves at
Fort Marlborough, 254.

Small-pox, its ravages, 191.

Snakes, 120.

Soil, described, 25. Unevenness of surface,
26. Fertility of, 78.

Songs,

. INDEX.

Songs, 1S7. Singing, amusement of, 267.

Spices, see Nutmegs.

Sugar, manufacture of, 88, 187. Imperfect
sort, calledjrtggrz, 88.

Sugar-cane, cultivation of, 87.

Suits, see Causes.

Sulphur, 28. Where procured, 173.

Sumatra, name probably of Hindu origin,

11.

Suugei-lamo and Sungei-itam, rivers, 212, 242,
351.

Sungei-tenang country, account of, 323.

Superstitious opinions, 291, 292.

Surf, 34. Considerations respecting, 35. Pro-
bable cause of, 37.

Surreys of pepper plantations, 139.

Swala or sea-slug, an article of trade, 175.

Swasa, a mixture of gold and copper so called,
173.

Tamarind- tree, 101.

Tanjong-dowev, 104.

Tappunuli, celebrated bay of, 367. Settle-
ment on the island of Punchong kechil, 368.
Taken in 1760 by the French, and again in
1809, 368.

Tuprobane, name of, applied to Sumatra in
the middle ages, 3.

Teak timber, its valuable qualities, 161. At-
tempts to cultivate the tree, 161.

Teeth, mode of filing them, 52. Sometimes
plated with gold, 53.

Theft, laws respecting, 221, 233. Proof of,
required, 251.

Thermometer, height of, at Fort Marlborough,
and at Natal, 16. So low as 45°. on a hill
in the Ipu country, 314.

Threshing, mode of, 81.

Thunder and lightning, very frequent, 18. Ef-
fect of, 19.

Tides, 38. At Siak, 356. Flow to a great
distance in rivers on eastern side of the
island, 358.

Tiger, 118. Ravages by this animal, 184.
Traps, 185.

Tiku, river and islands of, 411, 442.

Timber, great variety of, 160. Species enu-
merated, 162.

Time, manner of dividing, 193.

Tin, 28. A considerable export of it to
China, 172.

Titles, 337, 338.

Tobacco, cultivation of, 91.

Toddy or nira, how procured, 88.

Tools, for mining, 167. Carpenters’, 182.
Torches or links, 184.

Trade, 129, 379, 399.

Triste, island of, see Mega.

Tulang-bawang river, 295.

Turmeric, 90.

Upas, vegetable poison, account of, 1 10.

Urei, river of, 44, 354.

Utensils, account of, 59, 61.

Vegetable productions, 97.

Venereal disease, 191.

Villages, description of, 55.

Virgins, their distinguishing ornaments, 52.
Volcanoes, called gunong api, account of,
29.

Warfare, mode of, 349, 378.

Waterfalls, 1 4.

Waterspout, account of, 17.

Wax, a considerable article of trade, 175.
Weapons, 348, 377.

Weaving, 183. ,

Weights, 171.

Wens, 48, 317.

White ants, 127.

White pepper, 138.

Widows, laws respecting, 226, 260.

Wilkins (Mr. Charles), 172.

Winds, 1 9 to 25.

Wires, number of, 270. See Marriage.
Worm-shell or teredo navalis, 122.

Wood, various species of, 162.

Woods, 14, 67. Mode of clearing, 68.
Wounds, laws respecting, 223, 234.

Writing, 198. On bark of tree, and on slips
of bamboo, 201. Specimens of, plate,
202.

Yams, various roots under that denomination,
93.

Year, mode of estimating its length, 193.

J. M'Creery, Printer,
Black-Horse-Court, London.

For use in Library only

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