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THE 

HISTORY,     STEUCTUEE,     ECONOMY 
AND    DISEASES 

OP 

THE    SHEEP 

BY 

W.  C.  SPOONEE,  M.E.Y.C. 

AUTHOR   OP   "treatises   ON   INFLUENZA,"    OF    "tHE    STRUCTUEE,   FUNCTIOXS,    AND 
DISEASES    OF   THE   FOOT   AKD    LEG   OF   THE   HORSE,"   ETC.,   ETC. 

dFiftlj  ersitian 

CAREFULLY    REVISED    AND    CONSIDERABLY    ENLARGED 


ILLUSTEATED    TTITH    FIXE    EXGEAVIXGS    FEOIM    DEAWIXGS 

BY  har^t;y 


{3pi°mt^ 


LONDON 

CEOSBY    LOCKWOOD    AND    SON 

7,  STATIONERS'  HALL  COUET,  LUDGATE  HILL 

1888 


LONDON : 

PRINTED   BY   3.    S.    VIRTUE   AND   CO.,   LIMITED, 

CITY   KOAD. 


ADVEETISEMENT 

TO 

THE    FIFTH    EDITION. 


In  issuing  a  new  edition,  tlie  Publishers  regret  to 
have  to  record  the  death  (in  Ma}^,  1885,  in  his  seventy- 
seventh  year)  of  the  esteemed  Author  of  this  work,  who 
for  many  years  had  enjoyed  a  very  high  reputation  in 
his  profession. 

The  fact  that  the  present  work,  which  is  now  con- 
siderably enlarged  and  extended  from  its  original  form, 
has  for  upwards  of  thirty  years  held  the  highest  place 
as  an  authoritative  exposition  of  its  subject,  is  in  itself 
conclusive  evidence  of  its  value.  The  work  had  the 
advantage  of  full  and  careful  revision  at  the  Author's 
hands  in  the  latter  years  of  his  life ;  and  amongst  the 
testimonies  to  his  professional  distinction  which  appeared 
in  the  press  at  the  time  of  his  decease,  were  included 
several  recognitions  of  the  fact  that  this  work  on  "  The 
Sheep"  had  been  brought  up  by  him  to  the  present 
state  of  scientific  and  practical  knowledge,  entitling  it 
to  retain  its  recognised  status  as  the  best  manual  for 
practitioners  and  for  all  who  are  interested  in  the  sub- 
ject of  which  it  treats. 

It  is  perhaps  needless  to  mention  the  well-known 
fact  that,  besides  the  special  subject  of  this  volume, 
Mr.  Spooner  was  recognised  as  a  leading  authority  upon 
aU  matters  connected  with  live  farm  stock  generally. 

2    A 


PEEFACE 

TO 

THE     THIED     EDITION. 


It  rarely  occurs  that  an  Author  is  called  upon  to  prepare  a  new 
edition  of  a  book  first  published  thirty  years  ago,  and  it  cannot 
be  surprising  that  sucli  a  work  should  demand  considerable 
revision  and  addition.  In  supplying  these  wants,  the  same  purpose 
which  influenced  the  Author  in  the  preparation  of  the  original 
work  obtains  likewise  with  reference  to  this  new  edition  :  that  is, 
to  prepare  a  really  useful  and  reliable  book,  and  yet  to  keep 
within  a  certain  allotted  space. 

Whilst  the  anatomical  and  physiological  portions  have  required 
but  little  alteration,  both  the  historical  and  pathological  divisions 
have  demanded  considerable  additions.  In  the  former,  new  breeds 
have  sprung  into  existence,  or  been  moulded  into  distinct  charac- 
teristics by  intelligent  and  observant  breeders  ;  and  in  the  latter 
the  experience  of  thirty  years  has  brought  new  observations  to  the 
fore,  and  developed  new  ideas  either  controverting  or  supporting 
old  theories,  or  exploding  certain  errors,  and  bringing  to  light 
important  facts. 

Amongst  the  most  laborious  and  the  most  successful  of  the 
explorers  after  truth  in  this  department,  the  post  of  honour  must 
undoubtedly  be  assigned  to  Professor  Simonds,  a  fellow-pupil  of 
the  Author,  and  now  Principal  of  the  Royal  Veterinary  College. 
From  his  numerous  communications  to  the  Council,  or  its  valuable 
publication,  the  "  Journal  of  the  Eoyal  Agricultural  Society  of 
England,"  the  author  has  freely  cjuoted,  using  as  much  as  possible 
the  language  of  the  writers.  On  subjects,  however  useful,  relating 
to  the  diseases  of  a  particular  class  of  animals,  he  has  felt  that 
the  best  compliment  that  could  be  paid  to  the  writers  of  valu- 
able articles  was  to  diffuse,  as  much  as  possible,  their  facts  and 
observations. 


PREFACE 


THE     FIRST     EDITION 


The  following  pages  are  intended  to  furnish  a  manual  of  the 
various  breeds  and  the  structure  and  diseases  of  sheep — easy  of 
reference  and  readily  accessible — for  which  pui-poses  each  portion 
of  the  work  is  separately  arranged.  No  one  can  be  more  sen- 
sible than  the  Author  of  the  defects  with  which,  in  common  with 
the  productions  of  all  preceding  writers  on  the  same  subject,  the 
present  work  may  be  charged — defects  arising  from  the  very  slight 
attention  which  has  been  paid  by  men  of  science  to  the  diseases 
of  the  sheep,  and  the  want  of  correspondence  and  co-operation 
amongst  those  whose  opportunities  have  afforded  them  the  means 
of  practical  information. 

The  information  derived  from  works  of  authority,  and  incor- 
porated in  the  present  work,  require  no  apology,  the  Author's 
object  having  been  to  furnish  on  each  branch  of  his  subject  the 
best  information ;  he  has,  therefore,  taken  advantage  of  all  acces- 
sible and  well-authenticated  facts,  and  in  most  cases  has  employed 
the  language  of  the  writers,  as  well  as  given  their  names.  Justice 
to  them  and  to  the  subject  required  that  this  should  be  done.  The 
diseases  of  sheep  are  so  frequently  of  an  endemical  character,  and 
are  so  modified  and  governed  by  the  influence  of  the  breed,  the 
mode  of  management,  and  the  locality,  that  if  any  writer,  how- 
ever extensive  his  opportunities,  relied  solely  on  his  own  expe- 
rience, his  work  would  possess  at  best  but  local  interest  and  value. 


VI  PIIEFACE    TO    THE    FIRST    EDITION. 

The  book  is  divided  into  three  parts.  The  first,  which  em- 
braces the  history  of  the  breeds  of  sheep,  is  arranged  somewhat 
according  to  the  plan  adopted  by  Professor  Low  in  his  work  on 
the  Breeds  of  Cattle  and  Sheep ;  and  the  Author  has  availed  him- 
self of  this  book  in  the  account  of  the  various  races  of  sheep 
found  in  the  northern  parts  of  the  island;  whilst  he  has  relied 
principally  on  his  own  knowledge  for  the  description  of  the  more 
southern  breeds.  The  most  important  portion  of  the  anatomical 
division  of  the  work  has  been  the  result  of  careful  dissection  ;  and 
for  the  sections  on  feeding,  fattening,  and  breeding,  the  Author 
is  alone  responsible.  In  the  third  part,  on  the  diseases  of  the 
sheep,  free  use  has  been  made  of  the  pages  of  the  'Veterinarian: 
whilst  the  elaborate  treatise  on  sheep  by  its  principal  editor,  Mr. 
Youatt,  has  been  carefully  perused  and  compared. 

The  Author  flatters  himself  that  he  has,  in  a  small  compass, 
brought  the  various  branches  of  his  subject  up  to  the  present 
period,  and  that  it  will  be  found,  by  the  large  and  important  class 
it  concerns,  of  practical  utility. 


CONTENTS. 


PART   I. 

THE  BBEEDS   OF  SHEEP. 

PAGK 

The  Origin  and  Ancient  History  of  the  Sheep      ...  1 

The  Short-tailed  Sheep 10 

The  Sheep  of  Wales 11 

The  Sheep  of  Ireland 13 

The  Forest  and  Mountain  Breeds 14 

The  Exmoor  and  Dartmoor  Sheep 14 

The  Black-faced  Heath  Sheep 15 

The  Cheviot  Sheep 20 

The  Lonk  and  the  Penistone  Breeds        ....         .24 

The  Ancient  Upland  Breeds 25 

The  Old  Norfolk  Breed 25 

The  Dorset  Sheep 26 

The  Somerset  Sheep.     The  Portland 30 

The  Old  Wiltshire  Breed.     The  Old  Hampshire  Sheep         .  31 

The  Old  Berkshire 32 

The  Hampshire  Down  Sheep 32 

The  Wiltshire  Sheep •         .  33 

The  Improved  Hampshire  (Mr.  Eawlence)  .         .         .         .  37 
„                 ,,           (]Mr.  Humphreys)    .         .         .         .38 

Other  Crosses 40  ' 

The  South  Down  or  Sussex  Breed 40 

The  Shropshire  Breed 49 

The  Eyeland  Sheep 50 

The  Long-woolled  Breeds      . ol 

The  Lincoln  Sheep 52 

The  Eomney  Marsh  Sheep 54 

The  Teeswater 56 

The  Bampton  Nott.     The  Devonshire  South  Downs     .         .  57 


VIU  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

The  Cotswold' Breed 57 

The  New  Oxford  Breed 59 

Mr.  C.  Howard's  Sheep 60 

The  Leicester 62 

Tlae  New  Leicester 6^ 

Mr.  Bakewell's  Sales 66 

The  Merino  Beeed 70 

The  Spanish  Merino 72 

The  Saxony  Merino        ........  74 

The  Australian  Merino 77 


PART   II. 

THE  STBUCTUEE  AND  ECONOMY  OF   THE  SHEEP. 

GrENERAX    ViEW    OF    THE    STRUCTURE    OF    THE    ShEEP  .  .  .83 

Skeleton  or  Bony  Structuue  of  the  Sheep.         .         .         .  86 

The  Bones  of  the  Head .         .  87 

The  Bones  of  the  Body 92 

The  Bones  of  the  Fore  Extremities 93 

The  Foot 95 

The  Biflex  or  Interdigital  Canal 96 

The  Hind  Extremities 97 

The  Muscular  and  Nervous  Systems 98 

The  Muscles 98 

The  Brain  and  Nerves    ........     99 

The  Organs  of  JVLlstication  and  Digestion  .         .         .         .102 

Dentition .  102 

The  Organs  of  Digestion 106 

The  Stomachs 108 

Eumination 112 

The  Small  and  Large  Intestines 115 

The  Liver 116 

The  LTrinary  and  Grenerative  Organs 119 

The  Contents  of  the  Chest 121 

The  Diaphragm  and  Lungs 1 24 

The  Blood 125 

The  Heart 127 

The  Circulation  of  the  Blood      ....  .128 


CONTENTS.  IX 

PAGE 

On  Eespiration  and  its  Effects 132 

The  Production  of  Animal  Heat  .         .         .         .136 

The  Pkinciples  and  Practice  of  Breeding        .         ,         .         .137 
Improvement  by  Selection  .         .         .         .         .         .         .138 

First  Cross 1-iO 

Sheep  Management 141 

The  Influence  of  each  Parent l-ii 

Crossing 146 

In-and-in  Breeding 148 

Cross  Breeding .       151 

The  Ixixuexce  of  Eam  Saees 155 

The  Improvement  effected  by  the  Hiring  and  Sales  of  superior 

Earns  . 157 

On  Wool  and  its  IMantjfacttjres 159 

Long  and  Short  "Wool.     Combing  and  Carding    .         .         .       161 

Felting  Properties 162 

The  Wool  Trade 167 

Foreign  Wool 168 

On  Feeding  and  Fatting,  &c 171 

Shape  of  Animals  most  conducive  to  Fatting  .         .         .         .172 

Constituents  of  Food.         .         .         .         .         .         .         .174 

Analysis  of  Articles  used  as  Food  for  Sheep  .         .         .         .177 

On  the  Feeding  of  Animals 179 

Fatting  of  Sheep 184 

Food  and  Increase 186 

The  Proportion  of  Parts 187 


PART   III. 

JHE  DISEASES   OF   THE  SHEEP. 
General  Observations  on  the  Diseases  of  the  Sheep         .       190 


Diseases  of  the  Brain        .... 
Turn-sick,  Giddiness,  &e.    . 
Water  on  the  Brain  (Hydrocephalus) 

Apoplexy 

Inflammation  of  the  Brain  (Phrenitis)  . 

Louping-Ill 

Babies  or  Mi  dness  .... 


194 
194 
197 
197 
198 
199 
202 


CONTENTS. 


Tetanus  (Locked  Jaw) 

Epilepsy         .         ,         .         .         , 

Palsy 

Eheuniatism  ..... 

Diseases  of  the  Digestive  Obgaxs 
Obstructions  in  the  Gullet 
Hoove,  Hoven,  Blasting,  &c. 
Yew  Poisoning.     Soot    . 
Concretions  in  the  Stomachs 

Bezoars 

Diarrhoea,  Dysentery,  Flux,  Scouring 
The  White  Skit      .... 
The  White  Scour  on  Turnip  Lands 
Diseases  of  the  Intestines 
Spasmodic  Colic  .         .         .         . 

Inflammation  of  the  Bowels  . 
Worms        ...... 

Tape-worms 

AVorms  in  the  Intestines 

Pining 

Eedwater 


Diseases  of  the  Chest 

Catarrh  or  Cold 

Bronchitis      ...... 

Worms  in  the  AVindpipe 

Inflammation  of  the  Lungs  (Pneumonia) 

Pleurisy  (Pleuritis)     .... 


Diseases  of  the  Urinary  Organs 
Inflammation  of  the  Bladder 
Calculi  in  the  Urinary  Organs 

Parturition,  and  the  Diseases  connected  with  it 

Parturition 

Abortion 

Dropsy  of  the  Abdomen 
A  Disease  previous  to  Lambing  . 
Inversion  of  the  Uterus 
Heaving,  or  After-pains 
Parturient  Fever    .... 
Garget 

Diseases  of  the  Skin. 

Scab 


CONTEXTS.  XI 

PAGE 

DiPPi>-r;  . 270 

Black  Muzzle 272 

Variola  Ovina,  or  Small-pox 272 

The  Tick,  Fly,  &c 274 

The  Gad-fly  (CEstrus  Oris) 276 

Soreheads 277 

Specific  Diseases 27 S 

The  Eot  or  Cothe 278 

Distoma  hepaticum  or  Fasciola  hepatica  .         .         .         .283 

Alternation  of  Generation 284 

Epizootic  Diseases 287 

Influenza 287 

The  Foot  and  Mouth  Disease 290 

Epidemic  Diseases  in  Australia  ......       294 

Specific  Diseases 297 

Scrofula 297 

Local  Diseases 300 

Injuries  of  the  Feet 300 

The  Foot-rot  .........  301 

Diseases  of  the  Eye 309 

Diseases  of  the  Mouth 310 

Apthge,  or  Thrush 310 

IxjURiES  AND  Operations 311 

Wounds 311 

Bruises,  Abscess,  Strains         .         .         ,         ,         .         .         .312 

Fractures 313 

Castration 313 

Docking 314 

A   List   of   Medicines    employed    in   the   Tbeatment    of   the 

Diseases  of  the  Sheep 315 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTEATIONS. 


PAGE 

A  Soft-woolled  Ewe  from  the  Slate  Mountains  of  Wales         .         .12 

A  Ewe  of  the  Black-faced  Heath  Breed 16 

A  Cheviot  Ewe ,20 

A  Dorset  Ewe 26 

A  Earn  of  the  Old  Wiltshire  Breed 31 

A  Ewe  of  the  Improved  Hampshire  Down  Breed  (Mr.  Eawlence)  37 
A  Earn  of  the  Improved  Hampshire  Down  Breed  (Mr.  Humphreys)     38 

A  South  Down  or  Sussex  Earn 43 

A  Shropshire  Sheep 49 

A  Lincoln  Sheep 52 

A  Eomney  Marsh  Sheep 55 

A  Cotswold  Ewe 58 

An  Improved  Oxford  Earn  (Mr.  C.  Howard)  .         .         .         .60 

An  Improved  Oxford  Ewe  (Mr.  C.  Howard)        .         .         ,         .         61 

A  Leicester  Sheep 63 

A  Eam  of  the  Merino  Breed 71 

Cuts  of  the  lower  Incisor  Teeth,  as  denoting  the  Age     .         .         .104 

Internal  View  of  the  Stomachs 108 

External  View  of  the  Stomachs  and  Intestines  .  .  •  ,114 
<~'uts  of  Leicester,  South  Down,  and  Merino  Wool  .  .  .  163 
The  Fluke  (magnified)  .         ,         .         ,         .         .         .         ,         .281 


THE   HISTORY,   STEUCTURE,   ECONOMY, 
AND   DISEASES   OF   THE 

SHEEP. 


PART  L—THE  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP. 


THE    OEIGIN    AND    ANCIENT    HISTORY    OF   THE   SHEEP. 

The  origin  of  the  Domestic  Sheep  is  involved  in  much  obscurity, 
but  naturalists  find  amongst  the  wilder  races  of  animals  some 
strong  marks  of  affinity ;  and  on  the  same  hypothesis  that  the  wolf 
and  the  jackal,  the  hyaena  and  the  fox,  were  the  ancestors  of  the 
dog,  they  assign  the  progenitorship  of  the  domestic  sheep  to  the 
Argali,  or  Wild  Sheep  of  Asia,  and  the  Musmon  of  the  South  ot 
Europe  and  of  Africa. 

'The  Argali,^  observes  Professor  Low,  'possessing  the  generic 
characters  of  the  sheep,  is  somewhat  less  than  the  size  of  a  stag. 
He  has  enormous  horns,  measuring  more  than  a  foot  in  circumfe- 
rence at  the  base,  and  from  three  to  four  feet  in  length,  triangu- 
larly rising  from  the  summit  of  the  head  so  as  nearly  to  touch  at 
the  root,  ascending,  stretching  out  laterally,  and  bending  forward 
at  the  point.  He  has  a  fur  of  short  hair,  covering  a  coat  of  soft 
white  wool.  The  colour  of  the  fur,  externally,  is  brown,  becom- 
ing brownish  grey  in  winter ;  there  is  a  buff-coloured  streak  along 
the  back,  and  a  large  spot  of  a  lighter  buff"-colour  on  the  haunch, 
surrounding  and  including  the  tail.  The  female  differs  from  the 
male  in  being  smaller,  in  having  the  horns  more  slender  and 
straight,  and  in  the  absence  of  the  disc  on  the  haunch.  In  both 
sexes  the  tail  is  very  short,  the  eyelashes  are  whitish,  and  the 
hair  beneath  the  throat  is  longer  than  on  any  other  parts  of  the 
body. 


2  THE   BKEEDS    OF    SHEEP. 

'  These  creatures  inhabit  the  mountains  and  elevated  plains  of 
Asia,  from  the  Caucasus  northward  and  eastward,  to  Kamtschatka 
and  the  Ocean.  They  are  agile  and  strong,  but  verj  timid,  shun- 
ning the  least  appearance  of  danger ;  their  motion  is  zigzag,  and 
they  stop  in  their  course  to  gaze  upon  their  pursuer,  after  the 
maimer  of  the  domestic  sheep.  They  are  usually  found  in  very 
small  flocks,  and  at  the  rutting  season  the  males  fight  desperately, 
using  their  horns  and  forehead  in  the  manner  of  the  common 
ram.  They  are  hunted  by  the  people  of  the  country  for  their 
fieshj  which  is  esteemed  to  be  savoury,  and  for  their  skins,  which 
are  made  into  clothing.  In  autumn,  after  having  pastured  during 
the  summer  on  the  mountains  and  in  the  secluded  valleys,  they 
are  fat,  and  in  high  request;  but  as  winter  advances,  thjy  are 
forced  to  descend  from  the  mountains  in  search  of  food;  they  then 
lose  their  plumpness,  and  are  sought  after  only  for  their  skins. 
When  taken  young  they  are  easily  tamed^  but  the  old  ones  never 
resign  their  natural  wildness.' 

Allied  to  this  species,  or  identical  with  it,  is  the  Rocky  ]Moun- 
tain  Sheep,  or  Argali  of  America.  This  creature  inhabits  the 
loftiest  mountain  chains  of  North  America.  It  is  described  by 
Spanish  writers  as  the  sheep  of  California,  and  is  familiar  to  the 
Indians  and  fur-traders  of  Canada.  It  surpasses  the  Asiatic 
Argali  in  size,  and  is  consequently  taller  than  the  largest  of  our 
domestic  sheep.  Its  horns  are  very  large,  approaching,  but  not 
touching,  one  another  at  the  base.  The  horns  of  the  female  are 
small,  and  slightly  curved.  The  fur  is  of  a  reddish  brown  colour, 
but  becomes  paler  in  winter,  and  in  spring  the  old  rams  are  nearly 
white.  The  face  and  nose  are  white,  and  the  tail  and  buttocks 
present  the  bufi-coloured  disc  which  distinguishes  the  male  of  the 
Asiatic  species.  They  collect  in  flocks  under  the  guidance  of  a 
leader.  They  pasture  on  the  steepest  parts  of  the  mountains,  and 
on  the  approach  of  winter  descend  into  the  plains.  They  are  wild 
and  timid,  betaking  themselves  on  the  least  alarm  to  the  summits 
of  the  mountains.  They  are  pursued  and  killed  by  the  Indians 
for  their  flesh  and  skins,  and  have  never  been  subjected  to  domes- 
tication. 

The  Musmon  still  inhabits  the  Islands  of  Crete  and  Cyprus, 
and  the  mountains  of  Greece.  It  is  found  in  Corsica  and  Sardinia, 
where  it  is  familiar  to  the  mountaineers  of  the  interior.  It  for- 
merly abounded  in  Spain,  and  even  yet  it  is  said  to  be  seen  in  the 
mountains  of  Miircia. 

The  Musmon  is  smaller  than  the  Argali.  In  the  male  the 
horns  are  two  feet  in  length  ;  in  the  female  they  are  often  want- 
ing.    They  are  very  thick  ;  and  they  turn  inward  at  the  points,  in 


OEIGIX    AND    AXCIEXT   HISTOF.Y.  3 

which  respect  Ihej  differ  from  the  horns  of  the  Argali,  ^vhicll 
bend  outward.  The  fur  consists  of  a  brownish  hair,  concealing  a 
short  fine  grey-coloured  wool,  wbich  covers  all  the  body. 

The  Musmons  resemble  the  Argalis  in  several  cbaracters,  but 
they  are  less  powerful  and  bardy,  and  inhabit  a  lower  range  of 
mountains.  They  are  gregarious,  assembling  in  large  herds  during 
the  summer  months;  but  at  the  rutting  season  fierce  contests  take 
place  between  the  rams,  and  the  herd  divides  into  smaller  bands, 
consisting  of  a  male  and  several  females.  The  Musmon  is  with 
difficulty  domesticated.  Judging  from  the  specimens  which  have 
been  captured  and  retained  in  a  state  of  confinement,  they  are  less 
docile  and  sensible  of  acts  of  kindness  than  the  domestic  sheep. 
The  Musmon  has  been  known  to  breed  with  the  domestic  sheep, 
and  the  offspring  is  fruitful.  Pliny  mentions  such  alliances  as 
common,  and  states  that  the  progeny  were  termed  Umbri. 

Whether  the  hypothesis  be  correct  or  not  that  the  domestic 
sheep  is  descended  from  the  wilder  animals  thus  described,  it  is 
evidently  the  fact  that  if  so,  they  must  have  been  domesticated, 
and  their  habits  materially  changed,  at  a  very  early  period.  For 
my  own  part,  although  ready  to  acknowledge  that  the  Argali,  the 
Musmon,  and  the  Sheep  may  be  descended  from  a  common 
parentage,  it  is  no  more  difficult  to  imagine  that  these  wild 
animals  may  owe  their  origin  to  an  animal  resembling  our  moun- 
tain sheep,  than  that  the  latter  should  be  descended  from  them  ; 
but  it  appears  still  more  reasonable  to  believe  that  both  the 
domestic  sheep  and  the  wild  Argalis,  &;c.,  are  descended  from  an 
animal  of  an  intermediate  state,  neither  so  wild  and  active  as  the 
one,  nor  so  quiet  and  docile  as  the  other;  but  the  nature  and 
habits  of  each  receiving  a  different  direction,  from  the  one  becom- 
ing domesticated,  and  the  other  wild,  until,  in  the  course  of  time, 
from  the  influence  of  the  soil,  the  pasturage,  and  other  local  cir- 
cumstances, the  yery  different  animals  may  be  produced  which 
now  appear.* 

Such  view  is,  I  imagine,  more  in  keeping  with  the  inferences 
to  be  drawn  from  Scripture  history  with  regard  to  the  early 
domestication  of  the  sheep.  Abel,  we  are  told,  was  a  keeper  of 
sheep,  and  it  was  one  of  the  firstlings  of  his  flock  that  he  offered 
unto  the  Lord,  and  which,  proving  a  more  acceptable  sacrifice, 
excited  the  implacable  and  fatal  jealousy  of  his  brother  Cain. 

Ere  the  soil  could  be  cultivated  to  any  great  extent,  or  the 
mechanical     arts     advantageously    practised,    or     the    precious 

*  We  must  refer  those  who  Avish  to  speculate  further  on  the  origin  of 
the  sheep,  to  the  works  of  the  illustuous  Dar^vin,  'Animals  and  Plants,'  and 
the  '  Origin  of  Species.' 

b2 


4  THE    BREEDS    OF    SHEEP. 

metals  became  a  source  of  gain,  whilst  population  was  tliin 
and  laboiu'  necessarily  scarce,  the  cultivation  of  sheep  afforded 
the  ready  means  of  increasing  the  comforts  of  man,  and,  in  many 
communities  and  localities,  laid  the  foundation  of  future  wealth 
and  prosperity.  Endowed  by  nature  with  a  peaceable  and  patient 
disposition,  and  a  constitution  capable  of  enduring  the  extremes 
of  temperature,  adapting  itself  readily  to  diflerent  climates, 
thriving  on  a  variety  of  pastures,  economizing  nutriment  where 
pasturage  is  scarce,  and  advantageously  availing  itself  of  oppor- 
tunities where  food  is  abundant,  this  animal  afforded  one  of  the 
most  profitable  and  pleasing,  as  it  was  evidently  one  of  the  most 
ancient,  pursuits  of  man.  Driven,  or  rather  led  about,  from 
mountain  to  mountain,  and  from  plain  to  plain,  these  ancient 
flocks  of  sheep  supplied  their  possessors  with  both  food  and 
raiment.  In  the  very  earliest  period  the  milk  became  their  first 
and  most  profitable  application,  being  either  used  in  its  natural 
state,  or  converted  into  cheese  ;  the  skins,  too,  were  employed  as 
garments  for  the  body,  as  well  as  coverings  for  the  tents.  The 
fies^h  was  only  occasionally  used  as  food.  These  probably  were 
the  earliest  purposes  to  which  sheep  were  devoted ;  and  at  the 
present  day  they  still  form,  amongst  many  uncivilized  tribes,  the 
only  uses  that  are  known ;  these  tribes  being,  in  fact,  inferior  in 
their  knowledge  of  the  domestic  manufactures  to  that  possessed 
by  most  of  the  Bible  patriarchs,  who  were  acquainted  with  the 
use  of  the  fleece,  independent  of  the  skin,  as  may  be  illustrated 
by  the  coat  of  many  colours,  which  the  paternal  partiality  of 
Jacob  constructed  for  his  favourite  son  Joseph. 

A  pastoral  life  was  one  of  the  most  favourite  employments  of 
the  ancient  patriarchs,  and  it  is  spoken  of  in  the  Scriptures  witb 
the  greatest  respect.  Abraham  was  a  possessor  of  flocks  and 
herds  ;  Isaac  pursued  a  similar  occupation ;  and  Jacob  for  fourteen 
years  tended  the  flocks  of  his  covetous  relative  Laban,  before  he 
was  rewarded  by  the  possession  of  his  beloved  Rachel,  or  became 
the  owner  of  flocks  himself.  The  character  of  Laban  is  drawn 
witb  graphic  force  ;  and  on  reading  an  account  of  this  wealthy  but 
mercenary  man,  the  mind  reverts  to  hundreds  such  as  have  lived 
since  his  time,  and  even  to  the  present  day.  Jacob,  we  have 
said,  made  a  coat  of  many  colours,  and  Labau  went  forth  to  shear 
his  sheep  ;  the  manufacture  of  cloth  must,  therefore,  have  been 
known,  rude  as  it  may  have  been,  and  the  felting  property  of  wool 
could  not  have  been  undiscovered. 

It  is  a  singular,  though  not  an  unpleasing  circumstance,  that 
the  manners  and  customs  of  the  patriarchs  have  become,  as  it 
were,  indigenous  to  the  soil  on  which  they  lived.     In  the  same 


OEIGIN    AND    ANCIENT    HISTORY.  5 

land  where  Laban  sheared  his  sheep,  and  Abraham  sat  at  the 
door  of  his  tent,  viewing  his  flocks  and  his  herds — where  the 
Deauteous  Rebecca  drew  water  for  her  father's  sheep,  and  Jacob 
mourned  for  the  loss  of  his  beloved  son — in  the  same  laud,  the 
wandering  Arab,  or  the  wild  Turcoman,  still  tends,  probably,  the 
very  animals  descended  from  the  patriarchal  flocks  and  droves,  or 
leads  them  from  pasture  to  pasture,  watering  them,  and  tending 
them  in  the  same  manner  as  their  progenitors  were  tended  four 
thousand  years  before.  Proof  of  the  correctness  of  the  descriptions 
in  Scripture — the  best  'evidence  that  they  were  drawn  from  life 
itself — is  indeed  aftorded  by  the  manners  and  customs  of  these 
pastoral  people,  who,  whilst  all  the  world  around  them  have 
changed,  themselves  have  remained  comparatively  the  same. 

Whenever  a  country  possessed  proper  pasturage,  sheep  were 
invariably  introduced  with  civilization  itself;  thus,  though  Asia, 
and  particularly  its  western  part,  was  for  many  years  the  nursery 
of  this  profitable  animal,  it  was  probably  introduced  into  the 
eastern  and  southern  part  of  Europe  with  its  earliest  civilization. 
Greece  alone  for  many  years  possessed  this  valuable  animal,  and 
it  is  accordingly  shown  by  the  writings  of  its  poets  and  historians 
how  highly  it  was  esteemed.  After  the  foundation  of  Rome  it 
was  introduced  into  Italy,  but  it  was  many  years  atlerwards  before 
shearing  was  practised,  though  the  barbarous  practice  of  plucking 
was  often  employed.  With  the  conquests  of  the  Romans  the  use 
of  the  sheep  was  extended  into  the  conquered  countries.  The 
thick  forests  of  Germany  forbade  their  rapid  progress,  but  Spain 
aftorded  an  abundance  of  open  pasture  well  adapted  for  sheep, 
which  probably  were  previously  introduced  into  this  country  from 
Africa ;  thus  Spain  became  celebrated  in  the  time  of  the  Romans 
for  the  quality  of  its  wool,  and  it  has  retained  its  pre-eminence 
in  this  respect  over  all  other  countries  till  the  present  century, 
when  it  has  yielded  the  palm  to  the  wools  of  Germany. 

The  fleece  of  the  sheep  naturally  consists  of  both  hair  and 
wool ;  in  some  hot  countries  the  hair  predominates,  and  in  the 
wilder  races  the  wool  may  be  plucked  off"  annually,  leaving  the 
hair  on  the  skin.  The  colour  of  the  wool  is  supposed  to  have 
been  naturally  of  a  dark  hue  ;  in  wild  races  it  is  presented  of  all 
colours,  and  the  white  hue  of  our  present  flocks  is  owing  to  the 
constant  habit  of  breeding  only  from  white  parents. 

'  The  sheep  of  Europe,'  observes  Professor  Low,  to  whom  we 
are  principally  indebted  for  our  account  of  the  foreign  breeds,  'are 
wonderfully  diversified.  A  remarkable  character  which  distin- 
guishes the  sheep  of  several  regions  is  the  accumulation  of  fatty 
matter  on   particular  parts   of   the   body.     Fat,   we   know,  is  a 


6  THE    BREEDS    OF    SHEEP. 

secreted  tissue,  whicli  intermingles  with  and  surrounds  the  mus- 
cular substance,  and  which  envelopes  the  viscera  within  the  body. 
A  large  part  of  it  is  usually  found  beneath  the  skin,  more  or  less 
thick  on  ditferent  parts  of  the  body,  as  the  rump,  the  Hanks,  and 
the  shoulders  ;  but  in  the  sheep  of  certain  countries  it  accumulates 
greatly  on  the  posterior  parts,  namely,  the  rump,  or  the  tail,  just 
as  in  the  ox  of  certain  countries  it  accumulates  on  the  shoulder. 
In  the  races  of  sheep  which  extend  from  Circassia  and  Georgia, 
over  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  and  Arabia,  the  tail  is  broad  as  well  as 
long,  and  is  covered  with  fat  to  its  extremity,  where  it  terminates 
in  a  point.  The  fat  accumulates  sometimes  on  this  tail  to  such  a 
degree  as  to  form  a  large  part  of  the  weight  of  the  animal.  It  is 
of  a  soft  oily  substance,  and  is  used  in  those  countries  in  place  of 
butter  or  oil.  Some  of  these  sheep  are  brought  to  England  from 
time  to  time  under  the  name  of  Turkish  Sheep.  But  that  mon- 
strous accumulation  of  fat  which  we  see  in  some  of  them  seems 
to  take  place  chiefly  when  they  are  kept  in  yards  or  houses. 
They  then  become  very  large,  and  the  excess  of  fatty  matter 
accumulates  on  the  tail,  where  it  may  be  supposed  to  be  less 
injurious  to  the  animal  in  a  warm  country  than  were  it  extended 
over  the  other  parts  of  the  body.  In  Africa  the  same  character 
prevails,  but  in  races  of  sheep  entirely  distinct  from  the  Syrian. 

'  Northward  of  the  Caucasian  range,  the  sheep  are  to  be  found 
short-tailed,  with  the  fat  accumulated  on  the  haunches,  forming 
two  great  cushions.  This  character  is  the  most  remarkable  in  the 
races  near  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Caspian  -,  but  it  extends  over  a 
part  of  Asiatic  Tartary  and  Russia  in  Europe,  becoming  less  pro- 
minent however  as  we  recede  from  those  seas,  and  ultimately 
disappearing.  Pallas  conjectures  that  this  character  arises  from 
the  sheep  feeding  on  the  bitter  and  saline  plants  found  in  the 
countries  on  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Caspian  ;  and  he  asserts  that, 
when  they  are  removed  from  the  places  where  these  plants  grow, 
the  fatty  excrescence  becomes  less.  It  may  justly  be  assumed, 
indeed,  that  this  character  is  the  result  of  peculiarities  of  food, 
although  we  cannot  determine  physiologically  in  what  manner  the 
effect  is  produced. 

'  A  race  of  sheep  exists  in  Persia,  and  to  the  north  of  it,  which 
deserves  to  be  mentioned,  as  being,  perhaps,  the  nearest  in  its 
character  to  the  wild  species.  There  are,  indeed,  various  races  in 
Persia,  but  this  peculiar  race  is  proper  to  the  northern  parts  of 
the  country  on  the  Caspian,  and  is  greatly  diffused.  It  is  covered 
with  a  very  coarse  hairy  wool  of  a  grey  colour ;  its  horns  are 
bent  outwards  in  the  manner  of  the  Argali,  and,  what  is  worthy 
of  note,  its  head  resembles  the  common  figure  of  the  ram,  as 


ORIGIN    AND    ANCIENT    EISTOET.  7 

depicted  in  Eastern  sculptures.  This  original  race  is  the  most 
diffused  of  any  in  the  world,  extending  across  the  Indus  over  a 
great  part  of  Hindustan.  It  is  to  he  distinguished,  however,  from 
another  veiy  remarkahle  one  found  likewise  in  Persia,  which  is 
destitute  of  tail,  and  has  an  accumulation  of  fat  upon  the  posterior 
parts.  This  breed  is  frequentl}^  termed  the  Persian,  but  its  prin- 
cipal habitat  is  the  shores  of  the  Red  Sea,  and  it  seems  to  be  of 
African  rather  than  Asiatic  origin.  It  is  by  some  termed  the 
Abyssinian  Sheep. 

'  The  Tartar  sheep  have  usually  horns  and  pendent  ears ;  they 
are  strong  and  hardy,  but  they  are  of  bad  form,  and  have  coarse 
wool.  The  finest  wooiled  sheep  of  this  race  are  said  to  be  pro- 
duced in  the  Crimea ;  but  this  is  partly  the  result  of  crossing  with 
the  Spanish  Merinos.  Many  of  the  Tartars  under  the  Russian 
dominion  have  vast  flocks  of  sheep,  amounting  to  many  thousands. 
The  sheep  of  Astracan,  on  the  Caspian  Sea,  are  noted  for  the  fine 
furs  which  they  produce ;  but  these  furs  are  the  skins  of  lambs 
taken  from  the  mother  before  the  natural  birth.' 

Proceeding  northwards  through  the  Russian  dominions  in  Asia 
and  Europe,  the  wool  of  the  race  there  found  is  much  mixed  with 
coarse  hair.  Sometimes,  however,  the  wool  covered  by  this  hair 
is  fine,  as  in  the  sheep  of  the  Feroe  Islands. 

The  sheep  of  Europe  seems  to  be  of  a  more  mixed  descent 
than  those  of  a  great  part  of  Asia.  The  original  Celtic  nations 
had  their  sheep,  though  few  in  numbers,  while  their  conquerors 
may  be  supposed  to  have  brought  with  them  the  sheep  of  the 
countries  from  which  they  emigrated,  and  hence  the  mixture  of 
races.  The  sheep  of  Africa,  too,  have  been  from  time  to  time 
mixed  with  those  of  the  south  of  Europe.  In  European  Turkey 
and  Greece,  the  sheep  do  not  correspond  with  their  ancient  form. 
They  are  of  small  size  and  indifferent  form.  They  are  often  of  the 
flat-tailed  variety,  exhibiting  in  this  respect  an  afiinity  with  the 
sheep  of  Asia  Minor  and  the  adjacent  countries.  In  the  Islands 
of  the  Archipelago  few  sheep  are  reared.  Some  of  them  are  of 
the  Syrian  breed,  having  long  fat  tails.  But  there  is  a  peculiar 
race  existing  in  some  of  the  islands,  which  have  several  horns, 
and  long  hairy  wool. 

Ascending  the  Danube,  the  sheep  are  found  to  be  of  the  long- 
tailed  variety,  although  without  any  tendency  to  a  fatty  enlarge- 
ment of  the  tail.  The  breed  of  Wallachia  may  be  regarded  as 
the  type  of  a  race  which  extends  through  Moldavia,  Transylvania, 
and  westward  to  Vienna.  This  breed  has  black  faces,  and  long 
wiry  wool,  much  mixed  with  hair.  It  resembles  in  certain 
characters  the  Persian  breed;  and  the  Black-faced  Heathy  breed 


8  THE    BEEEDS    OF    SHEEP. 

of  Scotland.  Italy,  once  so  renowned  for  its  sheep,  can  now 
boast  little  of  this  production  of  her  bounteous  clime.  The 
Romans,  whose  dress  was  woollen,  cultivated  in  an  especial  degree 
the  fineness  of  the  fleece ;  and  it  was  not  until  the  days  of  the 
Empire  that  the  silk  and  cotton  of  the  East  began  to  supersede 
the  ancient  raiment  of  the  Roman  people.  The  finest  wools  of 
Ancient  Italy  were  produced  in  Apulia  and  Calabria,  being  the 
eastern  parts  of  the  kingdom  of  Naples.  Pliny  informs  us  that 
the  best  wool  was  that  of  Apulia,  on  the  Adriatic  Sea ;  and  the 
next  best  was  further  to  the  south,  on  the  Gulf  of  Tarentum  ;  and 
the  Milesian  or  Asiatic  sheep  carried  the  third  prize ;  and  that 
for  whiteness,  there  was  none  better  than  that  produced  on  the 
Po.  The  care  of  the  Romans  in  causing  the  wool  to  grow  fine 
exceeded,  in  the  case  of  certain  breeds,  anything  that  is  now 
attempted.  The  sheep  were  kept  in  houses,  and  continually 
clothed,  so  that  the  filaments  of  the  wool  might  become  delicate  ; 
the  skin  was  smeared  with  fine  oil,  and  moistened  with  wine ; 
the  fleece  was  combed  so  that  the  wool  might  not  become  matted, 
and  the  whole  was  washed  several  times  in  the  year. 

This  excess  of  care  proved  rather  injurious  to  the  sheep,  render- 
ing them  tender  and  more  disposed  to  disease.  With  the  fall  of 
the  Empire  these  choice  breeds  were  neglected  and  lost,  and  though 
there  are  still  a  few  fine-woolled  sheep  in  Italy,  they  are  neglected 
and  badly  formed.  This  is  also  the  case  with  regard  to  Sicily, 
which  was  once  celebrated  for  the  fineness  of  its  wool,  and  still 
retains  some  fine-woolled  sheep. 

Of  all  the  countries  in  Europe,  says  Mr.  Low,  Spain  has  been 
the  longest  distinguished  for  the  excellence  of  its  wool.  This  fine 
country,  more  varied  in  its  surface  and  natural  productions  than 
any  other  region  of  the  like  extent  in  Europe,  produces  a  great 
variety  of  breeds  of  sheep,  from  the  larger  animals  of  the  richer 
plains,  to  the  smaller  races  of  the  higher  mountains  and  arid 
country.  Besides  the  difference  produced  in  the  sheep  of  Spain 
by  varieties  of  climate  and  natural  productions,  the  diversity  of 
character  in  the  animals  may  be  supposed  to  have  been  increased 
by  the  different  races  introduced  into  it : — first,  from  Asia,  by  the 
early  Phoenician  colonies  ;  secondly,  from  Africa,  by  the  Cartha- 
ginians, during  their  brief  possession  ;  thirdly,  from  Italy,  by  the 
Romans,  during  their  dominion  of  six  hundred  years  ;  and  fourthly, 
again  from  Africa,  by  the  Moors,  who  maintained  a  footing  in  the 
country  for  nearly  eight  centuries.  The  large  sheep  of  the  plains 
have  long  wool,  often  coloured  brown  or  black.  The  sheep  of  the 
mountains,  downs,  and  arid  plains  have  short  wool,  of  different 
degTees  of  fineness,  and  different  colours.     The  most  important  of 


OEIGIN    AND    ANXIENT    HISTORY.  9 

these  latter  "breeds  is  the  Merino,  now  tlie  most  esteemed  and 
•widely  diffused  of  all  the  fine-wooUed  breeds  of  Europe. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  sheep  naturalized  in  different  parts 
of  Europe,  the  great  portion  of  which  are  of  the  long-tailed  sort  • 
the  short-tailed  kinds,  however,  exist  even  in  the  northern  parts  of 
this  country,  having  been  imported  from  Scandinavia,  and  long  cul- 
tivated by  the  Sclavonic  nations.  These  sheep  are  to  be  distin- 
guished from  those  belonging  to  the  descendants  of  the  Celtic 
tribes,  having,  like  theii'  owners,  altogether  a  distinct  descent. 
They  are  interesting  as  affording  a  strong  contrast  with  our  im- 
proved breeds,  and  serve  to  show  by  comparison  the  superior  points 
of  the  latter;  they  will,  therefore,  first  come  before  our  attention. 

The  history  of  sheep  in  this  country  is  coeval  with  its  earliest 
records.  In  the  times  of  the  Eomans  the  wool  of  Britain  was 
sought  after  as  an  object  of  luxury  in  the  capital  of  the  empire. 
A  manufactory  was  established  at  "Winchester,  and  its  fabrics 
became  a  subject  of  panegyric  to  the  historians  of  Rome.  What 
the  nature  of  the  original  breed  of  Britain  was  it  is  impossible  to 
determine  ;  it  had  no  doubt  become  considerably  modified  by  the 
variety  of  pasturage  this  country  affords  ere  history  first  takes  up 
the  subject,  and  there  was  in  all  probability  then,  as  now,  a  very 
different  class  of  animals  located  on  the  rich  pastures  of  the  mid- 
land counties  to  that  spread  over  the  widely-extended  downs  of 
the  southern  districts,  whose  aspect,  in  all  probability,  was  not 
very  dissimilar  to  that  afforded  at  the  present  time.  It  is,  how- 
ever, extremely  probable  that  it  was  the  long  coarse  wool  that  is 
so  commended  by  the  Roman  writers,  as  at  that  time  Spain 
afforded  a  nearer  market,  and  produced  a  description  of  wool  con- 
siderably finer  and  better  adapted  for  clothing  purposes.  And  it 
must  be  borae  in  mind  that  at  this  period  wool  formed  the  staple 
commodity  for  the  clothing  of  the  rich,  the  cotton  manufactory 
was  then  unborn,  and  the  importation  of  silks  from  the  East  had 
not  been  carried  on  to  any  extent.  At  a  later  period,  however, 
the  eastern  colonies  afforded  a  lighter  and  pleasanter  garment  for 
a  warm  climate,  and  then  fine  wool  became  less  in  demand. 

The  origin,  and  indeed  the  earlier  history,  of  the  different 
breeds  of  sheep  in  this  country  is  altogether  lost  in  obscurity.  We 
know  that  certain  breeds  existed  in  certain  places  at  a  particularly 
early  period,  and  this  is  nearly  all  we  can  obtain  as  to  their  origin. 
From  this  period,  however,  we  are  enabled  to  trace  the  different 
breeds  through  various  countries,  and  to  ascertain  the  sources  of  the 
various  improvements  which  have  been  made  in  the  fiocks  of  this 
and  other  countries.  For  this  purpose  it  will  be  desirable  to 
give  a  brief  history  of  the  principal  and  a  slight  sketch  of  the 

b3 


10  THE   BEEEDS    OF   SHEEP. 

other  breeds  existing  in  this  country ;  and  in  so  doing  we  cannot 
do  better  than  give  priority  to  the  wilder  and  unimproved  breeds, 
in  order  to  illustrate  better,  by  comparison,  the  improvements  that 
have  been  effected  by  systematic  breeding  and  nutritious  food  in  the 
more  favoured  breeds,  whose  history  will  follow.  With  this  view 
we  commence  with  an  account  of  the  breed  of  the  Orkney  and 
Zetland  Islands. 


THE  BEEEDS  OF  SHEEP. 

The  Sbort-tailed  Sheep. — The  short-tailed  sheep  are  little 
wild  animals,  located  in  the  Orkney  and  Zetland  Islands,  and  the 
Hebrides,  and  they  probably  came  from  the  opposite  coast  of 
Norway.  Somewhat  similar  to  the  goat  in  appearance,  they 
resemble  this  animal  likewise  in  their  habits,  in  their  activity,  their 
hardihood,  and  their  partiality  for  mountainous  spots.  The  fleece 
consists  of  both  wool  and  hair,  the  former  not  increasing  in  length 
from  year  to  year,  as  other  sheep,  if  not  sheared,  but  coming  off  as 
the  summer  approaches,  leaving  the  hair  alone  at  this  period  of  the 
year.  The  fleece  therefore  is  not  sheared ;  the  wool  is  plucked 
with  the  hand,  and  thus  readily  separated  from  the  hair.  It  is 
Tery  fine  and  soft,  but  not  adapted  for  felting.  The  fleece  weighs 
only  from  one  to  two  pounds.  The  purest  breeds  are  found  in 
Zetland,  those  of  Orkney  being  more  frequently  mixed  with  other 
breeds,  particularly  with  the  Dutch,  by  which  admixture  the  wool 
is  rendered  less  fine.  The  pure  breeds  are  of  various  colours — 
black,  brown,  grey,  and  white,  and  often  spotted  ',  both  sexes  have 
horns,  but  more  frequently  they  are  absent  in  the  female.  The 
horns  are  short  and  upright,  resembling  those  of  the  goat.  Exposed 
to  every  vicissitude  of  the  weather,  which  in  these  remote  and  sterile 
islands  is  of  the  most  rigorous  kind,  neglected  by  their  owners, 
deriving  their  subsistence  from  the  heath,  the  marine  plants,  or 
what  little  vegetation  can  be  obtained  in  these  barren  spots,  their 
size  is  stunted,  and  the  wethers  when  fat  do  not  exceed  six  or 
seven  pounds  the  quarter.  They  exceed  perhaps  all  other  kinds 
in  their  power  of  enduring  the  rigour  of  the  weather  and  scantiness 
of  food.  They  will  even  subsist  on  animal  food,  such  as  dried  salt 
fish,  when  nothing  else  can  be  obtained.  These  little  animals  are 
rendered  wilder  by  the  neglect  of  their  owners,  and  vast  numbers 
of  them  are  thereby  lost,  and  when  a  sheep  is  wanted  it  is  common 
to  hunt  it  dovm  with  dogs.  The  rams  are  pugnacious,  and  will 
often  attack  and  destroy  the  ewes,  so  that,  all  circumstances  com- 
bined, little  profit  accrues  to  the  owner. 


SHEEP   OF   WALES.  11 

The  spirit  of  improvement  has,  however,  found  its  way  into 
these  remote  islands,  and  with  the  improved  attention  to  the  culti- 
vation of  the  soil,  attempts  have  been  made  to  improve  the  race  of 
sheep.  For  this  purpose,  crosses  of  the  Merino  have  been  tried, 
but  with  little  success,  the  produce  becoming  too  delicate.  Other 
races  have  been  employed,  but  the  Cheviot  only  with  decided 
improvement.  There  has  been  little  or  no  attempt  made  to  im- 
prove the  original  breed  itself  by  the  careful  selection  of  the 
parents ;  and  we  may  expect  that  with  the  improvement  of  hus- 
bandry the  ancient  breed  will  in  a  great  measure  be  supplanted 
by  more  improved  animals. 

Tlie  Sheep  of  "Wales. — Though  in  the  valleys  and  fertile 
pastures  of  Wales  there  are  found  many  of  the  improved  English 
breeds  of  sheep,  the  Leicester  and  the  South  Down,  yet  the  moun- 
tains of  the  Principality  possess  two  distinct  varieties,  which  are 
naturalised  to  the  soil.  Professor  Low  distinguishes  them,  the 
one  as  the  Sheep  of  the  Higher  Muuntains,  and  the  other  as  the 
Soft-ivoolled  Sheep. 

The  former  is  very  small,  seldom  exceeding  five  pounds  the 
quarter,  wdth  horns  in  both  sexes  resembling  the  goat,  whose 
habits  it  otherwise  resembles.  The  tail  is  of  the  usual  length,  and 
there  is  a  ridge  of  hair  on  the  back,  throat,  and  dewlap,  and  the 
fleece  is  of  various  colours,  black,  grey,  and  brown.  These  sheep 
are  extremely  active  and  wild,  and  prefer  the  highest  spots  and 
the  aromatic  plants  found  there  to  richer  herbage.  They  abound 
mostly  in  South  Wales.  Like  those  of  Orkney  and  Zetland,  the 
rams  often  attack  the  ewes  when  in  lamb,  and  thereby  diminish 
their  number,  as  if  for  the  purpose  of  repressing  their  too  great 
increase. 

They  have  black  hair  on  the  face  and  legs,  a  character  which 
continues  even  in  their  improved  state,  as  in  the  Radnor,  a  superior 
variety  of  the  same  race,  enlarged  by  better  pasturage.  These 
sheep  would  be  improved  by  crossing  with  either  the  South  Down 
or  the  Cheviot,  though  the  hardier  characteristics  of  the  latter 
would  probably  render  it  more  suitable  for  the  purpose. 

The  Soft-2voolled  Sheep  may  be  considered  as  the  distinctive 
breed  of  Wales,  and  is  distinguished  from  others  by  the  whiteness 
of  the  nose  as  well  as  the  face.  The  fabric  knowm  as  Welsh  flan- 
nels is  derived  from  the  wool  of  this  breed,  and  the  flesh  is  still 
more  celebrated  under  the  well-known  term  of  Welsh  mutton. 

These  sheep  are  small,  seldom  exceeding  eight  pounds  the 
quarter  when  fat.  They  are  spread  throughout  the  whole  of  Wales, 
but  delight  in  lofty  situations.  Like  all  mountain  breeds,  their 
habits  are  exceedingly  active,  and  when  enclosed,  few  fences  caa 


12  THE    BREEDS    OF    SHEEP. 

confine  tliem ;   even  when  removed  to  distant  spots  they  will  not 
unfrequently  escape  and  regain  their  native  mountains. 

Their  form  corresponds  to  their  habits,  being  slender  through- 
out, and  their  hind-quarters  long,  like  those  of  the  deer.  The 
males  have  their  horns  curved  backwards,  but  the  females  do  not 
possess  any.  The  neck  is  thin,  and  arched  backwards,  like  the 
deer,  in  a  greater  degree  than  any  other  sheep.  They  have  a  mix- 
ture of  hair,  though  less  than  other  mountain  breeds,  and  this  is 
particularly  noticeable  on  the  throat,  where  it  appears  like  a  beard. 
The  fleece  weighs  between  one  and  two  pounds,  partakes  of  the 


l|^iitt1i\\}%«> 


i*^t'fiiH 


THE    SOFT-WOOLLEB    WELSH    SHEEP. 

long-wool  character,  and  is  well  adapted  for  flannels  or  hose,  but 
not  for  cloths,  although  used  for  this  purpose  in  the  domestic 
manufactures,  which,  however,  the  more  advantageous  employment 
of  machinery  is  rapidly  superseding.  It  is  a  frequent  custom  to 
clip  ofi"  the  wool  of  the  neck  and  face  before  the  winter,  as,  if  left, 
it  often  comes  off"  without  assistance. 

These  sheep  are  also  found  in  the  Island  of  Anglesea,  where, 
however,  from  better  pasturage,  they  acquire  a  larger  form. 

The  Radnor  Sheep  found  in  Wales  are  of  two  kinds,  the  Old 
Hadnor,  and  an  improved  sort,  which  are  now  generally  termed  the 


SHEEP    OF    IRELAND.  13 

Radnor.  The  former  possess  some  of  the  characteristics  of  the 
soft-woolled  variety,  but  resemble  still  move  the  higher-mountain 
breed,  but  of  a  larger  size  and  better  form  than  either,  fattening  to 
eight  or  nine  pounds  the  quarter.  The  latter  sort  have  been 
crossed  with  the  Shropshire  and  other  breeds. 

The  Sbeep  of  Ireland,  like  those  of  England,  have  two  dis- 
tinct divisions — those  of  the  mountain,  and  those  of  the  vale — but 
the  subdivisions  are  by  no  means  so  numerous  as  we  find,  in  this 
country.  The  vale  sheep  are  large  long-woolled  animals,  resembling 
those  which  were  spread  through  the  midland  counties  of  England 
before  the  extensive  improvements  by  means  of  the  Dishley  breed 
were  effected.  Even  in  Ireland  they  are  not  found  pure,  having 
been  improved  by  crossing,  though  there  still  remains  much  room 
for  amendment.  There  are  various  breeds  of  mountain  sheep,  the 
principal  of  which  are  the  Wickloiu  and  the  Kerry,  The  Wicklow, 
the  more  valuable  though  less  numerous,  are  mostly  confined  to 
the  Wicklow  mountains  on  the  east  coast  of  Ireland,  an  elevated 
locality,  but  possessing  a  humid  atmosphere. 

These  sheep  resemble  in  many  respects  those  of  the  Welsh 
mountains ;  they  are  wild  little  animals,  without  horns,  and  with 
white  faces  and  legs,  though  there  is  a  tendency  to  become  black, 
which  is  shown  by  the  number  of  black  lambs  that  are  dropped. 
They  are  larger  towards  the  base  of  the  mountains,  where  the 
pasturage  is  better,  and  the  wool  is  tolerably  fine  and.  rather 
long,  though  mixed  with  hair.  Towards  the  summit  of  the 
mountains,  the  ground  being  boggy  and  the  pasturage  scanty,  the 
sheep  are  smaller ;  the  wool  is  less  fine  and  more  mixed  with 
hair,  which  appears  in  ridges  along  the  spine  and  neck,  thus 
causing  the  rain  to  shoot  off  the  back ;  and  this  provision  against 
the  evils  of  their  position  is  still  further  secured  by  the  lambs 
having  a  sort  of  hairy  covering  on  those  parts  which  come  in  con- 
tact with  the  damp  ground. 

The  proximity  of  Dublin  occasions  a  great  demand,  for  early 
lambs,  and  these  sheep  are  made  available  for  this  purpose  to 
a  great  extent.  The  mountain  sheep  are  purchased  by  the  farmers 
of  lower  and  better  situations,  and  the  rams  being  put  to  the  ewes 
in  June,  the  lambs  are  dropped  about  December.  They  are 
generally  brought  up  in  pens,  being  separated  from  the  dams  in 
the  course  of  a  fortnight,  and  are  forced  by  sucking  those  ewes 
whose  lambs  have  died  or  have  been  killed,  as  well  as  their  own 
dams.  To  this  is  afterwards  added  cow's  milk,  so  that  they  are 
fit  for  the  market  in  the  course  of  six  weeks.  The  disposition  to 
take  the  ram  so  early,  the  quality  of  the  mutton,  and  the  fact  of 
the  ewes  being  very  good  nurses,  stamp  intrinsic  value  on  this 


14  THE    BREEDS    OE    SHEEP. 

breed,  and  it  is  to  be  regretted  that  it  has  not  been  improved  by  ju- 
dicious selection.  The  breed  is  preserved  pure  only  in  a  few  places ; 
the  improvements  must  have  been  by  means  of  the  South  Down, 
which  has  produced  certainly  a  superior  race,  though  there  is 
danger  of  some  of  the  intrinsic  quality  of  the  aborigines  being 
lost  by  the  mixture. 

The  Kerry  Breed  may  be  regarded  as  the  type  of  the  various 
mountain  breeds  which  are  found  principally  in  the  West  of 
Ireland.  Somewhat  larger  than  the  sheep  of  the  Wicklow  and 
the  Welsh  mountains,  they  are  nevertheless  though  a  hardy,  yet 
an  unthrifty,  race,  feeding  slowly,  and  arriving  slowly  at  maturity. 
Their  fat,  when  accumulated,  is  found  on  the  inside,  and  they 
never  exhibit  externally  any  rotundity  of  shape.  They  have 
coarse  hairy  wool  on  the  back  and  haunches,  but  it  is  soft  and 
fine  on  the  ribs.  They  have  small  crooked  horns,  which  are 
sometimes  wanting  in  the  female.  Their  habits  restless  and  active, 
they  resemble,  in  their  general  appearance,  the  antelope  races ; 
and  they  pick  up  their  subsistence  amidst  the  bogs  and  peats, 
occasionally  stealing  provender  from  the  neighbouring  farms. 
The  only  good  quality  they  possess  is  the  excellence  of  the 
mutton. 

THE    FOREST    AND    MOUNTAIN    BREEDS. 

Tlie  Sxmoor  and  the  Bartmoor  Sheep  are  the  principal 
forest  breeds  in  the  West  of  England.  Located  in  the  higher 
situations  of  Devonshire  and  Cornwall,  they  are  a  hardy  race, 
adapted  to  the  poverty  of  pasture  which  the  forests  of  Dartmoor 
and  Exmoor  afford.  The  Dartmoor  sheep  are  very  small,  having 
soft  wool,  and  white  faces  and  legs  \  they  thrive  slowly,  averaging 
when  fat,  about  ten  pounds  a  quarter.  Though  bred  on  the  heath, 
they  are  fattened  in  the  plains,  and  their  mutton  is  highly  praised 
for  its  excellence,  and  commands  a  ready  sale,  both  in  the  neigh- 
bouring and  distant  markets.  They  are  wild  and  restless,  and  apt 
to  break  their  pastures  when  removed  to  the  more  enclosed  country. 

The  Exmoor  sheep  are  rather  smaller  than  the  Dartmoor,  and 
the  males  have  a  slight  beard  under  the  chin  somewhat  like  goats, 
and  much  resemble  tliese  animals  in  their  habits  and  activity  and 
boldness.  In  other  respects  they  resemble  the  Dartmoor.  Both 
breeds  take  the  ram  early,  and  when  the  ewes  are  put  to  the 
Leicester  ram,  the  lambs  grow  rapidly  to  a  large  size.  The  cross 
with  the  Leicester  has  indeed  been  found  to  succeed  better  than 
with  the  Down,  but  the  latter  as  pure  sheep  has  advantageously 
supplanted  the  aborigines  in  many  places,  though  in  the  most 


EXMOOR   AND   DAETMOOR   BREEDS.  15 

exposed  situations  the  change  has  altogther  failed  from  the 
Downs  not  being  sufficiently  ha^d^^  The  Exmoor  sheep,  in  the 
hands  of  Mr.  Merson  and  others,  have  been  vastly  improved,  and 
no  mountain  sheep  hold  their  own  so  well  at  the  Smitbfield  and 
other  fat  cattle  shows. 

Tbe  Black-faced  Heatb  Sheep. — This  is  a  very  peculiar 
breed,  habiting  the  lofty  but  barren  and  heathy  hills  which  extend 
from  Derbyshire  on  the  south  to  the  confines  of  Scotland,  through 
the  countries  of  Cumberland,  Lancashire,  Westmoreland,  and 
Yorkshire. 

Thus  situated,  this  tract  of  land  is  much  exposed  to  the  winds 
on  either  side,  and  this,  -^ith  the  poverty  of  the  soil,  permits  only 
a  hardy  race  of  animals  to  thrive.  Though  this  is  its  native 
locality,  the  breed  has  however  considerably  extended  itself 
through  the  Highlands  and  mountains  of  Scotland,  penetrating 
even  to  the  Orkney  and  Zetland  Islands,  where  to  a  certain  extent 
it  has  displaced  the  original  and  more  inferior  breeds. 

'This  breed  of  sheep/  observes  Professor  Low,  'possesses 
characters  which  distinguish  it  from  any  other  in  the  British 
Islands.  It  is  of  the  smaller  races  of  sheep  with  respect  to  the 
weight  at  which  it  arrives,  but  is  larger  and  more  robust  than  the 
Zetland,  the  Welsh,  and  the  ancient  soft-woolled  sheep  which  it 
displaced.  It  somewhat  resembles  the  Wallachian,  and  as  the 
latter  has  an  affinity  with  the  Persian,  it  might  be  conjectured 
that  it  is  derived  from  the  East;  but  it  is  more  natural  to  assume 
that  its  peculiar  characters  have  been  communicated  to  it  by  the 
effects  of  food  and  climate  in  the  rough  and  heathy  district  from 
which  it  is  derived.  The  male  and  the  female  have  horns,  very  large 
and  spirally  twisted  in  the  male,  but  sometimes  disappearing  in 
the  female.  The  limbs  are  lengthy  and  muscular,  and  the  gene- 
ral form  is  robust ;  but  the  shoulders  are  not  so  low  as  in  the 
Welsh  breed,  nor  are  the  posterior  limbs  so  long.  The  face  and 
legs  are  black,  and  there  is  a  tendency  to  this  colour  in  the  fleece ; 
but  there  is  no  tendency  to  the  brown  or  russet  colour',  which 
distinguishes  the  older  fine-woolled  races.  The  fur  is  shaggy,  and 
the  wool  coarse,  in  which  respect  it  differs  from  that  of  all  the 
other  mountain  breeds  of  the  country.  It  is  of  medium  length, 
and  weighs  about  three  pounds  the  fleece,  when  washed.  These 
sheep  are  very  hardy,  and  capable  of  subsisting  on  the  coarsest 
heaths.  They  do  not,  however,  like  the  sheep  of  Wales,  prefer 
the  summits  of  mountains,  but  feed  wherever  pasturage  can  be 
obtained ;  and  they  are  not  so  nice  in  the  choice  of  herbage  as  the 
South  Downs,  Merinos,  and  other  races  derived  from  countries 
yielding  the  finer  grasses.     Although  wild  and  independent  in 


16  THE    KREEDS   OF    SHEEP. 

their  habits,  they  are  not  so  restless  as  the  mountain  sheep  of 
Wales  and  other  parts,  but  can  be  induced  to  remain  in  inclosures 
when  sufficient  food  is  supplied  to  them.  The  ordinary  weight  of 
the  wethers,  when  killed  at  the  age  of  about  four  years,  is  hfteen 
pounds  the  quarter,  but  individuals  are  made  to  exceed  this 
weight  when  properly  treated  and  sufficientl}'^  fed  from  an  early 
age.  The  mutton  is  not  so  delicate  as  that  of  the  sheep  of  Wales 
or  the  South  Downs  of  England,  but  it  is  more  juicy,  has  more 
of  the  venison  Havour,  and  is  preferred  to  every  other  by  those 


THE  BLACK-FACED  HEATH  SHEEP. 


who  are  used  to  it.  It  is  the  mutton  which  is  principally  con- 
sumed in  all  the  larger  towns  of  Scotland,  and  great  numbers  of 
the  sheep,  at  the  age  of  three  years  and  upwards,  are  carried  to 
the  pastures  of  the  south  to  be  fattened  for  the  English  markets.' 
An  important  property  of  this  breed  is  its  adaptation  to  a  country 
of  heaths,  in  which  respect  it  excels  every  other.  It  is  this  pro- 
perty, as  much  as  its  hardiness,  that  has  rendered  it  so  suitable  to 
the  heathy  mountains,  where  it  is  acclimated,  and  where  it  finds 
subsistence  beyond  the  ordinary  range  of  other  sheep.  It  feeds 
on  the  loftiest  mountains,  up  to  the  very  verge  where  the  heaths 


BLACK-FACED  HEATH  SHEEP.  17 

give  place  to  the  miisca  and  other  plants  of  the  higher  latitudes. 
Feeding  much  on  the  shoots  of  heaths,  these  sheep  find  subsistence 
in  the  times  of  snow  and  severe  frosts  better  than  any  other  in  thia 
country.  The  mothers  are  hardy  nurses,  and  are  able  to  bring  up 
their  young  when  they  themselves  have  been  exposed  to  severe 
privations.  A  great  defect  of  this  breed  is  the  character  of  the 
fleece,  which,  besides  being  thin  on  the  body,  yields  wool  fit  only 
for  the  manufacture  of  carpets  and  the  coarser  stufls.  Little 
general  attention  has  been  paid  to  the  quality  of  the  fleece,  al- 
though it  is  susceptible  of  considerable  improvement.  A  defect 
of  the  wool,  very  common  in  this  breed,  is  the  existence  of  what 
are  termed  kemps.  These  consists  of  hard  and  wiry  filaments, 
mixed  with  the  pile.  They  are  deficient  in  the  felting  property, 
and  in  the  oily  secretion  which  moistens  the  true  wool.  The 
removal  of  kemps  is  effected  by  superior  food,  and  by  breeding 
from  parents  free  from  the  defect.  Sometimes  individuals  of  this 
breed  are  born  with  wool,  which  is  fine  and  short.  Were  advan- 
tage taken  of  this  occurrence,  it  might  be  possible  by  means  of 
breeding  to  produce  a  variety  with  fine  in  place  of  coarse  wool. 

In  some  places  this  breed  has  degenerated  from  neglect  and 
insufficient  food.  The  sheep  of  Tweeddale  are  considered  the  best ; 
and  those  of  the  border  counties  are  superior  to  the  other  counties 
of  England.  They  are  rarely  fattened  on  their  native  pastures, 
but  often  pass  through  several  hands  ere  they  reach  their  final 
destination,  and  are  often  fattened  on  artificial  food.  By  means 
of  steam  navigation,  much  of  the  mutton  is  sent  to  the  metropolis, 
where  its  peculiar  flavour  creates  a  demand.  They  are  killed  for 
the  most  part  when  three  or  four  years  old.  The  ewes  receive 
the  rams  about  the  latter  part  of  November,  so  that  the  lambs  are 
not  dropped  till  the  season  is  open  and  mild,  an  essential  point  in 
their  exposed  and  bleak  situation,  where  it  not  unfrequently 
happens  that  many  are  overwhelmed  and  destroyed  by  the  severe 
falls  of  snow.  A  little  coarse  hay  is  the  only  additional  food  these 
hardy  sheep  receive,  and  this  is  supplied  only  in  sparing  quantities, 
when  the  frost  or  snow  altogether  precludes  the  possibility  of 
getting  any  grass.  The  result  of  this  is  that  the  ewes  are  often 
very  weak  and  poor  in  the  lambing  season,  and  yet,  being  excel- 
lent nurses,  they  support  their  lambs  well.  The  lambs  are  weaned 
in  about  three  months  by  being  simply  removed  to  anoth  er  part 
of  the  farm,  and  the  ewes  are  found  to  do  best  if  they  are  not 
milked  afterwards.  In  some  farms  it  is  customary  to  dispose  of 
all  the  young  sheep  while  still  hogs,  except  those  wanted  to 
supply  the  place  of  the  old  ewes.  In  other  farms  they  are  kept 
till  two  or  three  years  old,  and  in  these  latter  cases  there  cannot 


18  THE    BEEEDS    OF    SHEEP. 

of  course  be  kept  so  many  breeding  ewes  as  in  tlie  former.  One 
shepherd  has  usually  about  twenty-five  score  of  ewes  under  his 
care.  The  flock  are  sheared  in  July,  and  a  few  days  previously 
are  made  to  swim  across  a  stream,  which  is  all  the  washing  they 
receive. 

The  practice  of  smearing  the  sheep  in  November  with  tar  and 
butter  boiled  together,  in  the  proportions  of  eight  pounds  of  the 
former  to  six  of  the  latter,  is  generally  pursued,  and  the  benefits 
are  considered  to  outweigh  the  loss  in  the  qjality  of  the  wool. 

'  This  breed,'  observes  Professor  Low,  '  does  not  appear  to 
amalgamate  well  with  other  races,  so  that  crossing  has  not  gene- 
rally been  successful  as  a  means  of  permanent  improvement.  It 
has  been  frequently  crossed  by  the  Cheviot,  but  the  descendants 
have  been  found  inferior  in  weight,  form,  and  quality  of  wool  to 
the  pure  Cheviots,  and  to  the  Black-faced  Heath  breed  in  hardiness 
and  aptitude  to  thrive  in  an  upland  country  of  heaths.  But  as  it 
is  not  always  deemed  safe  to  change  a  stock  of  sheep  habituated 
to  their  locality,  the  practice  of  a  continued  crossing  with  the 
Cheviot  until  the  flock  has  acquired  the  characters  of  the  latter 
has  been  sometimes  adopted,  so  that  the  original  black-faced  stock 
has  become  in  time  almost  Cheviot.'  Another  species  of  crossing 
has  been  remarkably  successful,  namely,  the  employing  of  males 
of  the  Leicester  or  South  Down  for  a  first  cross.  The  lambs,  the 
result  of  this  mixture,  are  excellent,  rising  to  a  much  greater 
weight  than  those  of  the  pure  black-faced  blood.  Great  numbers 
of  this  mixed  race  are  now  produced,  and  an  increased  source  of 
profit  is  thus  opened  to  breeders  by  the  sale  of  their  young  sheep. 
Of  these  crosses,  the  best  has  been  found  to  be  with  the  Leicesters. 
That  with  the  South  Downs  produces  very  handsome  sheep,  having 
perfectly  black  faces  and  legs,  and  a  close  good  fleece ;  but  they 
scarcely  attain  the  size  of  the  Leicester  crosses,  and  the  latter 
accordingly  are  preferred  for  the  special  purpose  for  which  this 
species  of  breeding  is  designed.* 

*  Mr.  Henry  Stephens,  in  his  excellent  work,  '  The  Book  of  the  Farm,' 
thus  gives  the  respective  terms  used  for  sheep,  chiefly  in  Scotland  : — 

'  When  newborn  it  is  called  a  "  lamb  ;  "  if  male,  in  Scotland,  a  "  tup- 
Iamb."  When  castrated,  it  is  called  a  "  hog-lamb  ; "  if  female,  a  "  ewe- 
lamb."  In  England  a  young  sheep  retains  the  name  of  a  "  lamb  "  till  it 
is  eight  months  old.  In  Scotland,  after  the  weaning  and  before  first- 
clipping,  a  "  tup-lamb  "  is  called  a  "  tup-hog."  In  England,  lambs,  after 
they  are  eight  months,  are  called,  till  the  first- shearing, "  ewe  "  and  "  wether- 
tegs,"  according  to  sex.  In  Scotland,  a  "ewe-hog,"  after  the  first  clipping, 
is  called  a  "  gimmer  ;  "  a  "tup- hog,"  a  "shearling-tup;"  and  a  "wether- 
hog,"  a  "  dinmont."  The  animal  corresponding  to  the  name  of  "  gimmer  " 
in  Scotland,  is  called  in  England  a  "  theave,"  until  it  bears  the  first  lamb, 


THE    CHEYIOT    SHEEP.  19 

The  Cheviot  Sheep  is  a  Yaluable  breed,  wliicli  Las  not  only 
maintained  its  way,  but  has  greatly  extended  itself.  It  is  a  native, 
as  its  name  implies,  of  the  Cheviot  Mountains,  which  extend  from 
Northumberland  into  Scotland.  Though  in  many  places  bordering 
on  the  heathy  localities  of  the  black-faced  breed,  and  equally  lofty 
in  situation,  yet  the  pasturage  is  altogether  different,  abounding 
with  fern  and  wild  thyme  as  well  as  grasses,  and  is  locally  denomi- 
nated trap.  These  mountains  reach  to  2,658  leet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea,  and  are  thus  exposed  to  the  severe  effects  of  the  wea- 
ther, and  remain  covered  with  snow  long  after  it  has  disappeared 
from  the  cultivated  plains  below.  This  breed  has  greatly  extended 
itself  throughout  the  mountains  of  Scotland,  and  in  many  instances 
has  supplanted  the  black-faced  sheep ;  but  the  change,  though  in 
many  cases  advantageous,  has  in  some  instances  been  otherwise, 
the  latter  being  somewhat  hardier,  and  more  capable  of  subsisting 
on  heathy  pasturage.  They  are,  however,  a  hardy  race,  well  suited 
for  their  native  pastures,  bearing  with  comparative  impunity  the 
storms  of  winter,  and  thriving  well  on  poor  keep.  Though  less 
hardy  than  the  black-faced  sheep  of  Scotland,  they  are  more  pro- 
fitable as  respects  their  feeding,  making  more  flesh  on  an  equal 
quantity  of  food,  and  making  it  quicker.  They  have  white  faces 
and  legs,  open  countenances,  lively  eyes,  without  horns ;  the  ears 
are  large  and  somewhat  singular,  and  there  is  much  space  between 
the  ears  and  eyes;  the  carcass  is  long;  the  back  straight;  the 
shoulders  rather  light;  the  ribs  circular;  and  the  quarters  good. 
The  legs  are  small  in  the  bone  and  covered  with  wool,  as  well  as 
all  the  body,  with  the  exception  of  the  face.     The  Cheviot  wether 

after  which  it  is  termed  a  "  ewe  of  four  teeth  ;  "  the  year  after,  a  "  ewe  of 
six  teeth;"  and  after  that,  a  "full-mouthed  ewe."  The  "  diumont,"  in 
Scotland,  answers  in  England  to  the  title  of  "  shear-hogs  "  till  they  are 
deprived  of  the  fleece,  after  which  they  are  called  "  two-shear  wethers," 
and  afterwards  "  wethers."  In  Scotland  the  second  shearing  brings  about 
another  change  of  names  ;  thus,  the  "  gimmer,"  if  she  is  in  lamb,  is  called 
a  "  ewe ;  "  if  barren,  a  "  barren  gimmer  ;  "  and  an  "  eild-gimmer,"  if  she 
is  not  put  to  *•'  tup  "  or  "  ram."  A  "  shearling  tup  "  is  changed  to  a  "  two- 
shear  tup,"  a  "dinmont"  becomes  a  "  wether."  When  three  times  shorn, 
a  "ewe"  is  called  a  "  twinter-ewe,"  a  "tup"  a  "three-shear  tup;"  a 
"  wether  "  undergoes  no  change  of  name,  but  still  continues  to  be  called  by 
that  name.  After  the  fourth  shearing,  a  "  ewe  "  is  a  "  three-winter  ewe," 
or  an  "  aged  ewe,"  a  "  tup  "  is  known  as  an  '•  aged  tup."  When  a  "  ewe  " 
fails  to  be  with  lamb  a  second  time,  she  is  called  a  "  tup-ewe,"  or  "  barren 
ewe  ;  "  when  she  ceases  to  give  milk,  a  '*  3'eld-eAve  ;  "  when  removed  from 
the  breeding-flock,  at  whatever  age,  she  is  called  a  "  draft-ewe  ; "  when  put 
aside,  unfit  for  breeding,  a  "gimmer"  is  called  a  "  draft-gimmer;  "  and 
when  drafted  out  of  the  fat  or  young  stock,  lambs,  dinmonts,  or  wethers,  are 
called  "  sheddings,"  "  tails,"  or  "  drafts."  ' 


20 


THE    BREEDS    OF    SHEEP. 


is  fit  for  the  butcher  at  three  years  old,  and  averages  from  twelve 
to  eighteen  pounds  per  quarter;  the  mutton  being  of  a  good 
quality,  though  inferior  to  the  South  Dovs'n,  and  of  less  flavour 
than  the  black-faced.  This  breed  has  been  cultivated  and  im- 
proved with  much  judgment,  as  it  is  capable  of  being  under 
proper  care,  but  considerable  difl^erence  is  perceived  both  in  the 
size  and  qualifications  of  those  sheep  kept  at  the  base  of  the 
mountains  and  allowed  artificial  food,  and  those  located  towards 
the  mountains'  summits.     The  Cheviot^  though  a  mountain  breed, 


^^^ 


THE    CHEVIOT    SHEEP. 

is  quiet  and  docile,  and  easily  managed.  The  wool  is  fine,  closely 
covers  the  body,  assisting  much  in  preserving  it  from  the  efi'ects  of 
wet  and  cold ;  the  fleece  averaging  about  three  and  a  half  pounds. 
Formerly  the  wool  was  extensively  employed  in  making  cloths, 
but  having  given  place  to  the  finer  Saxony  wool,  it  has  sunk  in 
price,  and  been  confined  to  combing  purposes.  It  has  thus  become 
altogether  a  secondary  consideration,  and  though  increased  in 
quantity,  it  is  less  fine  than  it  formerly  was,  though  where  the 
herbage  is  short  and  sweet  it  is  much  finer  than  in  coarse  and 
heathy  pastures.     This  breed  has  extended  itself  into  Wales  and 


THE    CHEVIOT    SHEEP.  21 

the  West  of  England,  and  may  be  justly  considered  as  the  best 
mountain  breed  existing  in  this  country,  and  is  worthy  of  intro- 
duction in  numerous  districts  now  occupied  by  inferior  animals. 

The  food  of  the  Cheviot  sheep  consists  throughout  the  greater 
part  of  the  year  of  the  herbage  of  their  native  hills,  hay  being 
only  allowed  when  the  ground  is  covered  with  snow  or  bound 
with  frost.  Occasionally  turnips  are  supplied,  but  it  is  rarely  that 
the  farm  will  admit  their  production.  The  breeding  farms  are  for 
the  most  part  in  lofty  situations,  and  the  sheep  are  disposed  of  to 
the  farmers  in  lower  and  more  cultivated  places,  in  order  to  be 
fatted,  and  sometimes  the  sheep  pass  into  the  hands  of  several 
graziers  before  this  is  effected.  The  breeder  sometimes  sells  them 
the  first,  but  more  frequently  in  the  second  year,  either  as  hoggets 
or  shearlings,  and  the  wethers  are  usually  fatted  in  the  third  year 
after  the  second  shearing,  whilst  the  ewes  are  generally  kept  till 
they  have  borne  lambs  for  three  years,  by  which  time  they  are  five 
years  old.  The  period  of  lambing  is  necessarily  late,  in  order  that 
there  should  be  a  good  supply  of  food  ;  it  therefore  does  not  com- 
mence till  April,  the  ram  having  been  admitted,  at  the  rate  of  one 
to  fifty  ewes,  the  latter  part  of  November.  During  the  lambing 
season  greater  attention  is  paid,  and  the  best  food  supplied. 
Though  twins  are  frequently  produced,  it  is  rarely  that  the  number 
of  lambs  reared  equals  the  number  of  ewes. 

^  The  time  of  shearing,'  observes  Mr.  Low,  '  is  from  the  middle 
of  June  to  the  beginning  of  July.  The  precise  period  is  denoted 
by  the  wool  being  fully  grown,  and  separating  readily  from  the 
skin  when  pulled.  The  sheep  are  first  to  be  washed,  which  is  done 
by  men  standing  in  a  pool  and  washing  each  sheep  separately,  or 
more  generally,  when  the  flock  is  large,  by  causing  them  to  swim 
two  or  three  times  through  the  water  to  the  opposite  bank.  After 
being  washed  they  are  kept  as  much  as  possible  on  ground  where 
they  can  be  prevented  from  rubbing  on  banks,  or  otherwise  soiling 
their  wool.  In  two  days,  if  there  be  no  rain,  they  may  be  shorn, 
but  it  is  better  to  wait  seven  or  eight  days,  in  which  case  the 
unctuous  secretion,  which  protects  the  wool,  has  again  been  formed. 
As  soon  as  each  sheep  is  shorn,  it  is  usually  marked  with  a  stamp 
dipped  in  boiling  tar  thickened  with  pitch.  The  mark  is  made  on 
difi'erent  parts  of  the  body,  as  the  near-shoulder,  the  far-shoulder, 
the  near-haunch,  the  far-haunch,  so  that  the  different  kinds  and 
ages  of  the  sheep  may  be  known  at  a  glance. 

^  Soon  after  shearing,  the  lambs  are  weaned,  which  is  simply 
effected  by  a  short  separation  of  them  from  the  dams.  The 
lambs  are  now,  in  the  language  of  farmers,  hoggets  or  hogs,  under 
the  respective  denominations  of  tup-hogs,  wether-hogs,  and  ewe- 


22  THE    BEEEDS    OF    SHEEP. 

hogs.  The  tup-hogs  intended  for  use  upon  the  farm  or  sale,  and 
such  of  the  ewe-hogs  as  are  designed  for  receiving  the  male  in  the 
following  year,  are  retained.  The  remainder  of  the  ewe-hogs,  and 
all  the  wether-hogs,  are  either  now  disposed  of,  or  kept  through- 
out the  winter  and  sold  in  the  following  year,  either,  as  has  been 
obseryed,  preyiously  to  the  period  of  shearing,  when  they  are  still 
hogs,  or  after  having  lost  their  fleece,  when  they  are  dinmonts  and 
gimmers.  Sometimes  they  are  kept  until  they  have  yielded  a 
second  fleece.  All  the  old  ewes  which  have  borne  the  required 
number  of  lambs  are  disposed  of  before  winter,  and  not  only  such 
ewes  as  are  old,  but  such  as  are  of  bad  form,  or  which  it  is  wished 
from  any  cause  to  get  rid  of.  The  hogs  which  are  retained  are 
treated  in  the  same  manner  as  the  breeding-ewes,  except  that  it  is 
common  to  put  them  on  some  grassy  and  sheltered  part  of  the 
farm,  where  they  can  be  best  pastured.  They  receive  hay  in  falls 
of  snow,  and,  if  possible,  turnips  are  supplied  to  them  during  the 
whole  w^inter,  which  may  be  done  at  the  rate  of  a  cartload  per 
day  for  every  seven  or  eight  scores.' 

Smearing  is  less  generally  practised  than  with  the  heath  breed, 
and  less  than  formerly,  in  consequence  of  the  injury  inflicted  on 
the  wool  from  the  tar  preventing  it  from  being  dyed  white.  Spirits 
of  tar  and  turpentine,  or  resin,  are  sometimes  substituted  for  the 
tar. 

The  management  of  these  sheep  will  admit  in  many  places  of 
much  improvement,  which  can  be  eflected  by  means  of  draining 
and  providing  more  shelter  and  food  in  the  winter.  Vast  numbers 
of  them  have  sometimes  been  overwhelmed  by  the  snow-storms, 
which,  in  these  lofty  exposed  situations  descend  with  merciless 
severity.  Many  years  ago,  as  tradition  reports,  in  one  winter  alone 
nine-tenths  of  the  Cheviot  sheep  were  entirely  destroyed  by  the 
storms.  A  graphic  and  interesting  description  is  given  by  Hogg, 
the  celebrated  Ettrick  Shepherd,  of  the  snow-storm  of  1794,  in 
which  seventeen  shepherds  lost  their  lives,  and  sheep  were 
destroyed  by  thousands  ;  one  thousand  eight  hundred  bodies  being 
found  on  the  beds  of  Esk  alone  after  the  flood.  The  difficulties 
encountered  and  surmounted  by  our  celebrated  shepherd  are 
described  with  the  greatest  interest,  and  ihe  disastrous  effects  of 
such  storms  are  strikingly  portrayed ;  and  though  they  occur  but 
seldom,  yet  the  losses  are  often  very  severe  from  ordinary  bad  sea- 
sons, and  point  out  the  great  necessity  of  additional  shelter. 

'  The  Cheviot  breed,'  says  Mr.  Low,  ^  amalgamates  with  the 
Leicester,  and  a  system  of  breeding  has  been  extensively  intro- 
duced for  producing  the  first  cross  of  this  descent.  The  rams 
employed  are  of  the  pure  Leicester  breed,  and  the  progeny  is 


HERDWICKS.  23 

superior  in  size,  weight  of  wool,  and  tendency  to  fatten,  to  the 
native  Clieviot.  The  lambs  of  this  descent  are  sometimes  dis- 
posed of  to  the  butcher,  and  sometimes  fed  until  they  are  shear- 
lings, when  they  can  be  rendered  as  fat  as  the  parent  Leicester, 
and  not  much  inferior  in  weight ;  and  further,  they  can  be  raised 
to  maturity  under  less  favourable  conditions  of  soil  and  herbage 
than  the  Leicester.  The  benefit,  however,  may  be  said  to  end  with 
the  first  cross,  and  the  progeny  of  this  mixed  descent  is  greatly  in- 
ferior to  the  pure  Leicester  in  form  and  fattening  properties,  and 
to  the  pure  Cheviot  in  hardiness  of  constitution.  The  system  is 
attended  with  considerable  profit  in  many  cases  •  the  danger  is 
that  it  may  insensibly  produce  a  mixture  of  the  Leicester  blood  on 
the  breeding-farms.  Even  this  may  answer  peculiar  situations; 
but  there  cannot  be  a  question  that,  for  general  cultivation  in  the 
high  and  tempestuous  countries  to  which  the  Cheviot  breed  is 
adapted,  the  race  should  be  preserved  in  its  native  purity.  Every 
mixture  of  stranger  blood  has  been  found  to  lessen  that  hardiness 
which  is  the  distinguishing  character  of  the  race.  The  South 
Downs  would  seem  to  be,  of  ail  others,  that  which  is  best  adapted 
to  improve  the  Cheviot,  and  yet  the  experiments  that  have 
hitherto  been  made  have  shown  that  the  mixed  progeny  is  far  in- 
ferior to  the  native  Cheviot  in  its  adaptation  to  a  country  of  cold 
and  humid  mountains." 

This  cross,  however,  has  been  tried  in  various  situations,  and 
amongst  others  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  where,  at  the  Christmas 
cattle-show  (1843),  a  prize  was  awarded  to  a  cross  between  the 
Down  and  the  Cheviot  as  the  best  fat  wethers.  We  are,  however, 
in  spite  of  this  favourable  testimony,  disposed  to  doubt  the  advan- 
tage of  crossing  the  Sussex  Down  in  a  climate  so  favourable  and 
mild,  where  we  should  imagine  the  pure  Downs  would  be  well 
adapted  and  much  preferable. 

Herdwicks. — This  breed  is  confined  to  the  mountain  districts 
of  Cumberland  and  Westmoreland,  where  it  enjoys  the  reputation 
of  being  a  hardy  and  profitable  animal,  well  adapted  for  the  rough 
and  bleak  country  in  which  it  is  kept.  The  sheep  are  without 
horns,  and  have  generally  speckled  or  mottled  faces  and  legs, 
which  become  gradually  greyish  or  white  as  the  age  of  the  animal 
increases.  The  fleece  weighs  about  three  or  four  pounds.  The  wool 
is  coarse  and  open.  When  left  on  the  hill-pasturage  the  wethers 
generally  remain  until  they  are  four  or  five  years  old  before  they 
are  fit  for  the  butcher :  they  then  average  from  forty  to  fifty  pounds 
each.  The  quality  of  the  meat  is  first-rate.  The  ewes  are  good 
mothers,  and  produce  generally  fine,  strong  lambs.  They  display 
great  sagacity  on  the  approach  of  snow-storms  in  choosing  situa- 


24  THE    BREEDS    OF    SHEEP. 

tions  free  from  the  danger  of  deep  drifts.  When  the  storm  reaches 
them  they  seek  the  most  exposed  part  of  the  mountain,  which  by 
the  violence  of  the  wind  is  usually  swept  clear  of  snow,  and  here 
they  remain  herded  together  until  the  storm  has  passed,  taking 
care  to  keep  up  a  continual  movement,  and  thus  to  trample  down 
the  snow  as  it  falls.  They  possess  also  the  peculiar  feature  for  a 
mountain  breed,  that  they  remain  attached  to  a  particular  spot  or 
locality,  and  rarely  are  met  with  straying  far  away  from  it. 

Tlie  Iionk. — There  is  another  breed  of  mountain  sheep  pos- 
sessing great  merit,  being  the  largest  of  any.  They  are  black- 
faced,  and  are  called  the  Lonk,  and  were  thus  spoken  of  at  the 
Worcester  Royal  Show  in  1863 : — '  Mr.  Peel's  pen  of  Lonk 
shearlings  was  especially  good.  If  the  Lonks  be  as  hardy  as  they 
are  good,  they  must  be  the  most  valuable  sheep  for  the  hills  that 
we  have  at  present.  Sheep  which  at  fourteen  months  will  clip  ten 
pounds  of  wool  and  are  full  of  mutton  must  be  dangerous  ri'vala 
for  other  breeds.  The  average  clip  of  Mr.  Peel's  flock  this  year 
was  six  pounds,  and  sold  at  50s.  the  tod,  and  the  breeding  ewes 
and  shearling  rams  ran  on  the  hillside  pastures  as  they  liked.' 

The  Penistone  is  a  breed  of  sheep  foand  on  the  borders  of 
Yorkshire,  Lancashire,  and  Derbyshire,  on  a  heathy  tract  of  land 
about  twenty-six  miles  in  length  by  twenty  in  breadth,  and  they 
are  called  the  Penistone  from  the  market-town  of  that  name 
where  they  are  sold.  They  are  described  by  Mr.  Low  as  having 
wool  of  a  medium  length,  of  a  silky  appearance,  but  harsh  and 
wiry,  and  weighing  from  four  to  five  pounds  the  fleece.  They 
have  white  faces  and  legs.  The  rams  exceed  the  size  of  the  ewes 
and  wethers  in  an  unusual  degree,  a  peculiarity  which  is  ascribed 
to  their  being  taken  to  the  lower  country  to  be  reared.  The 
rams  alone  have  horns,  which  are  very  large,  lying  close  to  the 
head,  and  projecting  forward.  A  distinguishing  character  of  this 
breed  is  an  extreme  coarseness  of  form,  and  especially  of  the  ex- 
tremities. The  feet  are  large ;  the  limbs  bony ;  the  shoulders 
heavy ;  the  sides  fat ;  but  the  most  singular  characteristic  is  the 
length  and  muscularity  of  the  tail,  in  which  respect  the  Penistone 
sheep  diff'er  from  all  others  in  this  country.  This  enlargement 
of  the  tail  is  merely  muscular  and  bony,  and  not  at  all  analogous 
to  the  growth  of  fat  which  takes  place  in  the  tails  of  certain 
sheep  of  Eastern  countries.  The  mutton  of  these  sheep  is  highly 
valued  for  its  juiciness  and  flavour. 


THE    OLD    NOEFOLK    BREED.  25 


THE    A>TIENT    UPLAND    BREEDS. 

The  Old  UTorfolk  Breed  of  sheep  was  formerly  extensively 
diffused  throughout  the  high  lands  of  Norfolk,  Cambridgeshire, 
and  Suffolk.  They  are  a  wild  hardy  race,  somewhat  resembling 
the  black-faced  heath  breed,  but  differing  from  them  in  having 
longer  bodies  and  finer  wool.  Their  habits  are  active  ;  their 
limbs  long;  and  they  somewhat  resemble  the  deer.  The  hind- 
quarter  is  good,  but  the  fore-quarter  deficient.  They  have  black 
faces,  with  herns  in  both  sexes  ;  their  wool  is  adapted  for  carding, 
and  is  used  for  livery-cloths.  They  were  formerly  esteemed  as  good 
folding  sheep ;  but  with  the  improvement  of  tillage  they  were  put 
m  competition  with  the  South  Downs,  and  proved  less  profitable 
in  every  respect,  the  latter  being  found  to  carry  a  larger  fleece,  to 
fatten  quicker  on  the  same  pasture ;  and  the  ewes  were  more 
prolific,  and  better  nurses.*  In  many  instances  they  have  been 
crossed  with  the  Downs,  and  improved  thereby ;  and  in  others, 
they  have  been  altogether  supplanted  by  them,  with  still  greater 
advantage  to  the  breeder. 

They  have  also  been  crossed  with  the  Leicester,  but  though 
the  lambs  of  the  first  cross  are  very  fine,  they  are  not  found  to 
amalgamate  so  well  with  this  breed  as  with  the  South  Down^ 
with  which  their  nature  and  habits  more  nearly  accord 

*  The  late  Lord  Leicester,  one  of  the  most  successful  agriculturists  this 
coimtry  ever  produced,  first  introduced  the  South  Down  into  Xorfolk  in  the 
room  of  the  Old  Norfolk.  He  effected  this  chanire,  however,  slowly  and 
cautiously.  On  first  commencing  his  agricultural  improvements  he  still 
preserv^ed  the  old  breed,  but,  as  Lord  Spencer  informs  us,  'When,  some  time 
afterwards,  he  found  that  the  Norfolk  sheep  were  a  very  unprofitable  sort, 
the  same  reasons  induced  him  to  try  the  New  Leicester  breed,  a  variety  of 
sheep  probably  as  ill  calculated  to  succeed  on  such  a  soil  as  the  one  he 
occupied  as  any  breed  which  he  could  have  selected.  He  at  last  found  that 
the  best  sort  of  sheep  he  could  adopt  were  the  South  Downs.  In  this,  hov.-- 
ever,  as  in  every  other  of  his  farming  experiments.  Lord  Leicester  acted 
with  great  caution,  and  did  not  make  the  changes  till  thoroughly  convinced 
by  practical  experience  that  they  would  answer.  Accordingly,  for  several 
years,  he  had  upon  his  farm  at  the  same  time,  Norfolk  sheep,  New  Leicester, 
and  South  Downs  ;  he  also  tried  the  Merinos,  but  he  did  not  persevere  long 
with  them.  I  find  that  so  late  as  the  sheep-shearing  of  181'2,  there  Avere  still 
at  Holkham  both  Norfolk  and  Leicester  sheep.  Since  that  time  South  Downs 
have  been  the  only  sort  which  he  has  kept. 

'  The  stock  upon  this  farm,  and,  still  more,  the  annual  exhibitions  of  the 
sheep-shearing,  proved  the  great  superiority  of   the  South  Down  over  the 

C 


26 


THE    BREEDS    OF    SHEEP. 


The  Dorset  is  a  very  ancient  breed,  preserved  unmixed  from 
a  very  remote  period,  and  decidedly  the  best  of  all  the  old  horned 
sheep.  Though  now  found  in  many  parts  of  Britain  in  small 
scattered  flocks,  they  are  principally  met  v^ith  in  the  county  after 
which  they  are  called.  They  do  not,  however,  extend  entirely 
over  the  county,  but  divide  it,  holding  much  the  smaller  half,  with 
the  Downs,  and  are  mostly  found  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Dor- 
chester and  the  western  part  of  the  county. 


'^^^^""';;;|.i''''''^^''' 


DORSET    SHEEP. 


This  sheep  is  somewhat  larger  than  the  South  Down,  longer 
on  the  legs,  with  a  white  face,  and  legs  and  horns  of  moderate 
size  in  both  sexes.  The  wool  is  moderately  fine,  and  somewhat 
longer  than  the  South  Down,  averaging  about  three  and  a  half  or 
four  pounds  the  fleece.  The  hind-quarter  is  good,  but  the  fore- 
quarter   somewhat   deficient,    and   the    wethers    at   three    years 


Norfolk  breed  of  sheep  ;  the  hitter  were  abandoned  rapidly  by  the  neigh- 
bouring farmers,  and  now,  in  the  whole  tract  of  country  between  Lynn  and 
Holkham,  such  an  animal  as  a  Norfolk  sheep  is  not  to  be  seen.  The  Norfolks 
have  been  entirely  superseded  by  the  South  Downs.' 


THE    DORSET    BREED.  27 

average  from  eighteen  to  twenty  pounds  the  quarter,  though  in 
some  this  weight  will  be  greatly  exceeded.  They  are  a  strong, 
hard,  active  sheep,  good  trayellers,  and  well  adapted  for  folding, 
though  somewhat  apt  to  break  their  fences,  and  are  by  no  means 
so  docile  as  their  rivals  the  South  Downs.  Although  some  of 
their  principal  breeders  contend  strongly  for  their  superiority,  or 
at  any  rate  their  equality,  as  regards  the  general  purposes  of 
husbandry,  yet  public  opinion  is  very  justly  opposed  to  these 
claims.  Their  principal  value  consists  in  then*  excellence  as 
nurses,  great  proliiicness,  and  the  early  period  at  which  they  take 
the  ram.  They  very  frequently  have  twins,  and  will  rear  a  greater 
number  of  lambs  than  any  other  description  of  sheep.  They  take 
the  ram  so  early  as  May  and  June,  and  their  Jambs  are  usually 
dropped  in  October  and  November,  so  that  they  are  the  principal 
source  of  the  supply  of  house  and  early  lamb,  which  about 
Christmas  and  the  following  month  commands  a  high  price.  The 
tails  are  usually  allowed  to  remain  at  their  full  length,  and  it  is 
common  to  colour  the  wool  with  the  red  earth  called  ruddle ;  and 
with  these  distinctive  marks  they  are  driven  to  the  Hampshire 
fairs  in  the  fall  of  the  year,  in  great  numbers,  and  at  Appleshaw, 
and  at  Weyhill,  one  of  the  largest  sheep-fairs  in  the  kingdom, 
they  form  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  sheep  offered  for 
sale.  It  is  the  ewes  in  lamb  that  are  thus  driven,  in  the  month 
of  October,  a  distance  frequently  of  fifty  or  sixty  miles,  which 
journey,  occupying  upwards  of  a  week,  they  generally  bear  re- 
markably well.  The  wethers  are  usually  slaughtered  for  local 
consumption,  and  a  sufficient  number  of  ewes  are  of  course  pre- 
served to  perpetuate  the  breed,  and  these  (mostly  young  ewes) 
are  put  to  the  Dorset  ram ;  whilst  the  old  ewes,  or  those  which  it 
is  intended  to  sell,  it  is  customary  to  put  to  the  South  Down 
ram,  by  which  means  the  lambs  are  free  from  horns,  have  dark 
faces,  and  thrive  faster,  and  are  accordingly  greater  favourites  both 
with  the  butcher  and  the  public.  It  is  usual  for  the  farmers 
living  in  the  counties  bordering  on  the  metropolis,  as  well  as  those 
within  a  reasonable  distance  of  it — as,  for  instance,  Hampshire, 
and  particularly  the  Isle  of  Wight — to  purchase,  at  the  fairs 
before  mentioned,  ewes  in  lamb,  of  the  Dorset  and  Somerset 
breeds,  with  the  view  of  fatting  the  lambs  first  and  the  ewes 
afterwards.  The  earliest  lambs  slaughtered  previous  to  Christmas 
are  mostly  bred  up  in  the  bouse,  and  with  much  attention  and 
care.  The  practice  of  rearing  house-lamb  is,  however,  not  so 
much  adopted  as  it  used  to  be,  probably  because  the  demand  for 
it  is  somewhat  fallen  off.  The  system  adopted  in  the  districts 
near  London  was  thus  described  by  Mr.  Middleton.     Although  the 

c  2 


28  THE    BREEDS    OF    SHEEr. 

system  to  a  great  extent  has  been  discontinued,  yet  we  have  given 
tlie  details  in  case  the  practice  should  be  again  revived: — 

^  The  ewes  are  always,  without  exception,  of  the  Dorsetshire 
breed,  and  the  early-lambing  species  are  sought  for  throughout 
the  country  with  great  diligence ;  for  it  is  thought  that  not  more 
than  one  in  three  will  lamb  sufficiently  early  for  the  purpose. 
Those  of  large  size  with  white  noses  are  most  in  esteem,  and 
anything  like  black  on  that  part  would  occasion  their  being  re- 
jected. The  colour  of  the  flesh  of  those  lambs  when  butchered 
is  also  a  matter  which  in  a  great  measure  governs  their  value  ; 
and  therefore  those  which  can  be  warranted  to  die  fair  always 
bear  the  highest  price.  Those  breeders,  with  whom  the  sucklers 
usually  deal,  are  careful  in  the  selection  of  rams,  the  issue  of 
which  is  said  to  be  known  by  certain  marks  in  the  mouth. 

'The  rams  and  ewes  should  be  put  together  so  that  the  lambs 
nia}'  fall  about  Michaelmas.  The  ewes,  previous  and  during  the 
period  of  suckling,  are  kept  in  a  croft  adjoining  the  lamb-house, 
and  fed,  in  addition  to  after-grass,  with  turnips,  cole,  cabbage,  or 
any  succulent  roots  which  may  be  in  season,  together  with 
brewer's  gi-ains,  pollard,  ground  oats  or  barley,  pea-meal,  and 
linseed-cake. 

'  The  lambs  are  separated  from  their  dams  and  put  into  the  house, 
which  should  be  well  littered  with  clean  wheat-straw,  a  little  of 
which  should  also  be  placed  in  racks,  with  the  ears  downwards, 
in  order  to  amuse  the  lambs,  and  prevent  them  from  gnawing 
each  other's  wool.  Some  chalk  baked  in  an  oven  should  like- 
wise be  put  in  the  troughs,  both  in  lumps  and  powder,  in  order  to 
guard  them  as  much  as  possible  against  looseness ;  and  the  most 
scrupulous  attention  should  be  paid  to  cleanliness.  To  ensure 
quiet,  light  is  excluded  until  partially  admitted  when  the  dams  are 
brought  to  suckle  them,  which  is  three  or  even  four  times  in  the 
day ;  but  if  the  house  be  large  enough,  the  ewes  are  allowed  to 
remain  during  the  night. 

'  When  the  ewe  is  not  capable  of  supplying  so  much  milk  as 
the  lamb  will  consume,  those  which  have  lost  their  own,  or  which 
have  been  sold  early,  are  brought  in  and  held  by  the  head,  or  put 
into  a  yoke,  till  the  lambs  by  turns  suck  them  dry ;  they  are  then 
turned  into  the  pasture,  and  at  twelve  o'clock  the  dams  are  driven 
into  the  lamb-house  for  an  hour,  in  the  course  of  which  time  each 
lamb  is  suckled  by  its  mother.  At  four  o'clock  all  the  dam-ewes 
—  as  those  which  have  not  lambs  of  their  own  are  called — are 
again  brought  to  the  lamb-house  and  held  for  the  lambs  to  suck ; 
and  the  mothers  are  afterwards  brought  to  them  for  the  night. 
Lambs  thus  treated  will  in  about  eight  weeks'  time  become  sulfi- 


THE    DORSET    BREED.  29 

ciently  fat,  and  their  flesli  extremely  white  aud  delicate.  The 
price  varies  on-eatly,  according  to  the  season  of  the  year  when 
they  are  ready  for  the  butcher ;  for  they  sometimes  bring  as  higb 
as  5/.  per  head,  and  at  others  not  even  half  that  sum.  When 
many  lambs  are  not  suckled,  an  empty  barn  is  not  uncommonly 
used ;  but  when  the  house  is  built  for  the  purpose,  if  calculated 
to  suckle  fi'om  160  to  180  lambs  at  a  time,  it  should  be  seventy  feet 
long  and  eighteen  wide,  with  three  coops  of  different  sizes  at  each 
end,  so  constructed  as  to  divide  the  lambs  according  to  their  ages. 
Deal  hurdles  are  also  placed  for  this  purpose  about  the  middle  of 
the  house,  in  order  to  enable  the  lambs  to  find  their  mothers 
without  difficulty ;  and  it  is  latticed,  in  this  manner,  in  order  to 
admit  a  free  circulation  of  air. 

*  Grass-lamb,  although  requiring  particular  attention  as  to  the 
season  of  coupling  the  ewes,  and  great  care  in  the  feeding,  so  as 
to  arrive  at  perfection  in  time  to  meet  the  fall  of  Easter,  at 
whatever  period  that  may  occur,  yet  does  not  of  course  fetch  so 
much  at  market  as  house-lamb  ;  but  then  the  trouble  and  expense 
of  raising  it  are  not  nearly  so  great.' 

'  One  hundred  and  fifty  ewes  of  the  Dorset  breed,'  says  Arthur 
Young,  in  his  '  Survey  of  Hertfordshire,'  '  are  said  by  the  lamb- 
breeders  to  produce  them  200  lambs  of  botli  kinds,  on  an  average 
of  years,  exclusively  of  twins,  in  this  manner  : — 100  of  the  old 
stock,  tupped  in  the  month  of  June,  drop  their  lambs  some  time 
before  Christmas,  so  as  to  have  them  gradually  at  market  previous 
to  grass-lamb  coming  into  season ;  tlien  fifty  purchased  in  lamb 
at  Michaelmas  produce  fifty  lambs  in  the  latter  end  of  October, 
and  fifty  more  in  July,  all  of  which  are  sold  within  the  year.' 

It  is  at  the  present  day,  however,  very  rarely,  if  ever,  the  case 
to  raise  so  large  a  proportion  of  lambs  from  such  a  number  of 
ewes.  Whilst  there  is  less  demand  for  house-lamb  there  is  a 
greater  supply  of  grass-lamb,  aud  consequently  the  price  of  the 
former  is  reduced,  and  will  not  repay  so  great  an  expense  as  well 
as  trouble  as  used  to  be  bestowed  on  the  production  of  this 
luxury. 

The  Dorset  horned  sheep  is,  however,  a  much  superior  animal 
to  the  old  Wiltshire  and  Hampshire.  Shorter  on  the  legs,  with 
a  more  compact  frame,  and  a  rounder  barrel,  this  sheep,  besides  its 
peculiar  value  for  the  production  of  early  lamb  and  its  remarkable 
prolific  qualities,  is  by  no  means  to  be  despised  for  its  feeding 
properties.  It  is  not  unusual  for  these  sheep,  as  well  as  the 
kindred  though  somewhat  larger  Somersets,  to  lae  brought  into  the 
market  in  March  and  April,  together  with  their  lambs,  and  some- 
times pairs,  all  fit  for  the  butcher  at  the  same  time. 


30  THE    BREEDS    OF    SHEEP. 

The  Dorsetsliire  and  Somersetshire  sheep  are  raised  on  tolerably 
good  land,  where  they  have  been  preserved  pure  and  improved  by 
selection.  It  is  usual,  however,  to  put  the  ewes  that  are  intended 
to  be  sold  to  the  South  Down  ram,  which  improves  the  quality 
and  fatting-  predisposition  of  the  lamb ;  and  the  ewes  are  usually 
sold  at  the  Hampshire  October  fairs,  by  which  time  they  are  very 
forward  in  lamb.  The  buyers  of  the  ewes,  although  the  usual 
custom  is  to  sell  off  the  ewe  and  lamb  the  following  spring,  some- 
times keep  a  portion  of  the  ewes  another  year,  putting  them  again 
to  a  black-faced  ram.  It  is  remarkable  that  these  ewes  are  not 
only  exceedingly  prolific  and  rarely  have  any  mishap  in  yeaning 
their  lambs,  but  will  carry  on  all  the  functions  of  maternity 
whilst  almost  fat  themselves.  In  South  Hampshire,  which  is 
celebrated  for  the  excellent  quality  of  its  early  lamb,  this  system 
is  carried  out  to  perfection,  particularly  with  the  Somersetshire 
ewe.  The  drawback  to  this  breed  of  sheep,  as  compared  with  the 
Hampshire  and  South  Down,  is  the  longer  period  required  for 
their  maturity,  the  richer  food  required,  and  the  somewhat  inferior 
character  bouh  of  the  mutton  and  the  wool.  There  is  not  so 
much  competition  in  this  and  competing  breeds  at  the  various 
shows  as  with  many  other  sheep  j  still  great  improvement  is 
noticeable,  and  both  the  wool  and  the  carcass  have  participated 
in  the  advance.  Mr.  H.  Mayo,  of  Frome,  near  Dorchester,  has 
latterly  been  one  of  the  most  successful  exhibitors. 

Tlie  Somerset  Sheep  is  a  variety  of  the  Dorset,  possessing 
the  same  peculiarities,  but  differing  from  it  in  being  larger,  and 
in  having  pink  noses  instead  of  black  or  white.  The  wool,  too, 
is  somewhat  longer  and  is  coloured  lighter,  and  the  lambs  are 
larger.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  Southampton,  where  many  lambs 
are  reared  for  the  London  as  well  as  the  local  markets,  preference 
is  generally  given  to  this  breed.  The  observations  we  have  made 
on  the  Dorset  sheep  will  in  a  great  measure  apply  to  this  variet3^ 
They  are  rarely  kept  over  one  year,  and  at  the  Botley  Easter 
Show,  near  Southampton,  it  is  common  to  see  both  the  ewe  and 
her  lamb,  and  sometimes  two  lambs,  fat  and  offered  for  sale  at  the 
same  time.     At  this  time  the  lambs  reach  considerable  weight. 

Tlie  Portland  Sheep  is  a  much  smaller  variety  of  the  Dorset 
breed,  bred  on  the  Island  of  Portland,  which  maintains  about  four 
thousand.  They  have  horns,  white  faces,  and  legs  with  a  tinge  of 
dun.  The  mutton  is  excellent  and  delicate,  and  commands  a  good 
price ;  and  the  wethers,  when  fat  and  about  two  years  and  a  hcilf 
old,  weigh  from  ten  to  twelve  pounds  per  quarter.  The  wool  is 
coarser  than  the  Dorset,  and  the  fleece  is  very  light.  The  sheep 
are  rarely  fatted  on  the  sterile  soil  which  produces  them,  but  are 


THE    OLD   WILTSHIRE    BREED. 


ol 


usually  purchased  by  the  farmers  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Wey- 
mouth. 

Tlie  Old  "Wiltshire  Breed. — This  race  of  sheep,  now  nearly 
extinct,  formerly  extended  over  the  greater  portion  of  Wiltshire. 
Indeed  the  onl}'  place  where  they  were  met  with  some  few  years 


THE    OLD    WILTSHIRE    BREED. 


since  was  on  a  farm  near  Hindon,  bequeathed  on  the  condition 
that  a  flock  of  this  breed  should  be  preserved  pure.  They  are 
large  sheep,  horned  in  both  &exes,  with  large  coarse  heads,  Roman 
noses,  white  legs  and  faces,  flat  sides,  long  thick  limbs,  presenting 
altogether  a  most  unfavourable  specimen  of  sheep  abounding  in 
those  qualities  which  it  is  necessary  to  avoid.  The  wool,  how- 
ever, was  fine,  though  scanty,  the  belly  being  destitute  of  wool, 
and  the  fleece  weighing  only  two-and-a-half-pounds.  They  were 
very  slow  in  getting  fat,  and  we  cannot  be  surprised  that  these 
unprofitable  animals  should  have  given  place  to  a  superior  breed. 
The  Old  Hampshire  Sheep,  nearly  resembling  the  Wilt- 
shire, may  be  considered  as  quite  extinct  as  a  pure  breed,  and 
are  now  only  subjects  of  tradition.     Some  of  the  blood,  however 


32  THE    BREEDS    OF    SHEEP. 

is  Still  preserved  in  sheep  wMch  occupy  mnst  of  the  northern 
part  of  this  county,  and  called  the  Hampshire  Down,  and  which 
sprung  from  crossing  the  Old  Hampshire  with  the  South  Down, 
the  latter  blood  being  allowed  to  predominate  greatly. 

The  Old  Berkshire  Sheep  have  shared  the  same  fate  as  those 
just  mentioned,  having  been  altogether  superseded  or  neutralised 
by  crossing.  There  were,  however,  two  breeds  of  sheep  in  this 
county,  one  horned,  resembling  that  just  described,  and  the  other 
polled,  but  both  large  unthrifty  animals,  with  fine  wool,  but  with 
few  merits  otherwise. 

The  Hampshire  Bown  Sheep,  as  it  is  locally  termed,  is  to 
be  found  pretty  generally  in  the  northern  division  of  Hampshire, 
and  with  a  little  variation  it  extends  into  Berkshire  and  Wilt- 
shire. The  precise  origin  of  this  variety  it  is  somewhat  difficult 
to  discover,  but  it  may  be  considered  nearly  one  hundred  years 
old.  The  original  breed  of  Hampshire  was  a  large  long-horned 
sheep,  with  tolerably  fine  and  short  wool,  hardy  and  a  good  milker, 
resembling  in  many  respects  the  Old  Wiltshire  preserved  in  one 
flock  till  recently,  being  im thrifty  and  coarse  in  the  bone,  and 
particularly  about  the  head.  This  sheep  had  probably  existed  on 
the  downs  of  Hampshire  for  ages,  and  no  doubt  furnished  the 
principal  supply  of  wool  to  the  manufactory  at  Winchester 
established  by  the  Tlomans,  although  the  Sussex  Down  might 
also  have  assisted. 

The  Hampshire  Down  sheep  are  larger  than  the  South  Down, 
with  stouter  and  coarser  bone,  and  longer  on  the  legs.  The  rams, 
particularly,  were  remarkable  for  the  largeness  of  the  bones  of  the 
face  and  the  prominence  of  the  profile.  This  was  considered  a 
good  point,  and  prevails  in  a  lesser  degree  in  their  improved  ofi"- 
spring.  The  quantity  and  quality  of  the  fleece  is  similar,  though 
rather  shorter,  and  there  is  more  wool  about  the  legs.  They  are 
quite  as  hardy  as  the  Sussex,  good  travellers,  well  adapted  for 
folding,  and  their  faces  somewhat  blacker.  Many  North  Hamp- 
shire farmers  contend  that  they  can  keep  quite  as  many  of  these 
larger  sheep,  and  that  therefore  they  are  more  profitable.  This 
is  disputed  by  others,  and  we  think  with  good  reason ;  but  there  is 
no  doubt  they  gain  fie&h  more  rapidly  as  young  sheep,  and  this  is 
the  cause  of  their  rapid  extension. 

The  Old  Berkshire  sheep  had  a  mottled  face,  that  in  most 
other  respects  resembled  the  Old  Hampshire,  with  which  it  was 
frequently  crossed  in  each  county,  and  mingled,  as  before  noticed, 
with  the  Sussex  blood. 

In  our  essay  on  Cross  Breeding  written  for  the  'Journal  of  the 
Royal  Agricultural  Society,'  vol.  xx.,  we  remark  : — '  History  fails 


THE    HAMPSHIEE    DOW.N     BREED.  33 

to  supply  us  with  tlie  origin  of  our  various  breeds  of  slieep  j  but 
we  doubt  not  that,  for  many  centuries  after  the  time  of  the  Romans 
in  this  country,  certain  distinct  breeds  were  perpetuated  with 
little  improvement  and  little  change.  The  progenitors  cf  the 
present  South  Down  or  Sussex  breed,  inferior  as  they  were  to 
their  descendants,  ranged  probably,  in  the  days  of  the  Romans, 
over  the  South  Down  hills :  whilst  another  breed,  now  happily 
extinct,  occupied  for  the  most  part  the  hills  and  downs  of  Wilt- 
shire and  Hampshire.  A  large,  bony,  narrow,  but  active  sheep, 
with  large  heads,  Roman  noses,  and  long  curly  horns,  high  in  the 
withers  and  sharp  in  the  spine,  but  yet  the  largest  short-wooUed 
breed  in  existence,  were  the  denizens  of  these  countries  during  the 
last  century. 

'  In  Wiltshire,  although  they  remained  as  a  pure  breed  much 
longer  than  in  Hampshire,  yet,  as  far  as  can  be  learnt,  they  were 
supplanted  by  the  South  Down,  whose  superior  qualities  displaced 
the  Old  Wiltshire  altogether  ;  and  we  are  not  aware  of  any  in- 
stances in  which  they  were  crossed,  except  for  the  purpose  of 
crossing  them  out  by  using  again  and  again  the  Sussex  ram. 

'  Mr.  James  Rawlence,  of  Bulbridge,  near  Wilton,  whose 
large  practical  experience  as  sheep  breeder  stamps  his  authority 
with  considerable  weight,  observes,  in  reply  to  the  author's  in- 
quiry :_<' The  last  flock  of  this  breed  (Old  Wiltshire)  dis- 
appeared about  the  year  1819,  and  the  substitution  of  the  South 
Down  commenced  late  in  the  last  century.  In  many  cases  South 
Down  ewes  as  well  as  rams  were  brought  out  of  Sussex  to  replace 
the  horned  flocks,  but  in  numerous  instances  the  two  breeds  of 
sheep  were  crossed,  and  by  the  continued  use  of  the  South  Down 
ram  the  chief  characteristics  of  the  horned  breed  were  merged  in 
the  Downs.  The  cause  of  the  very  rapid  substitution  of  the 
Down  for  the  Old  Wiltshire  may  be  found  in  the  fact  of  the  large 
number  of  enclosures  of  common  fields  which  then  took  place. 
The  sturdy  hard  wether  was  thoroughly  competent  to  take  care 
of  himself  when  the  system  of  feeding  in  common  prevailed,  but 
when  each  farmer  could  keep  his  flock  separate,  an  animal  of 
superior  quality  was  preferred.*' 

'  In  Hampshire,  on  the  other  hand,  where  the  same  sheep 
prevailed,  and  were  valued  for  their  hardihood,  and  their  powers 
of  travelling  far,  and  folding  hard — properties  so  valuable  when 
the  fertility  of  the  light  soils  was  mainly  kept  up  by  these  useful 
manure-carriers — these  sheep  were  extensively  crossed.  Previous 
to  the  close  of  the  last  century,  the  South  Down  sheep  had  been 
greatly  improved  by  careful  selection,  and  the  name  of  the  late 
Mr.  Ellman  was  well  known  for  his  eminent  services  in  bringing 

c3 


34  THE    BEEEDS    OF    SHEEP. 

out  and  impro\inor  the  latent  qualities  of  this  yaluable  breed. 
About  the  beginning  of  the  present  century  the  sheep-breedera 
of  ^I'orth  Hampshire  began  tu  bestir  themselves,  and  a  few  enter- 
prising farmers  procured  some  rams  from  Sussex,  of  the  South 
Down  breed.  Finding  the  experiment  successful,  it  was  repeated 
again  and  again,  care  being  taken  to  select  the  largest,  coarsest, 
and  blackest-faced  rams  which  it  was  thought  would  suit  the 
coarse  sheep  with  which  they  had  to  amalgamate. 

'  How  many  crosses  with  the  pure  Sussex  were  used  we  cannot 
ascertain,  but  enough  materially  to  alter  the  character  of  the 
breed,  to  cause  the  horns  to  disappear,  and  to  change  the  colour  of 
the  face  from  white  to  black ;  and,  with  these  changes,  to  impart 
a  more  compact  frame,  a  broader  back,  rounder  barrel,  shorter 
legs,  and  superior  quality  altogether,  and  yet  preserving  the  hardi- 
ness and  the  disposition  to  make  early  growth  which  the  original 
flock  no  doubt  possessed,  and  with  it  the  large  heads  and  Roman 
noses  which  form  so  distinguished  a  characteristic  of  the  Hamp- 
shire Downs,  and  which  are  unquestionably  derived  from  the 
original  breed.  Indeed,  it  is  only  necessary  to  inspect  a  drawing 
of  the  origiaal  Hampshire  or  Wiltshire  sheep  to  become  thoroughly 
satisfied  as  to  the  source  from  whence  is  derived  the  colossal  head 
"which  some  twenty  years  since  was  regarded  as,  I  will  not  say  an 
ornament,  but  an  indispensable  appendage  of  the  breed.  Uni- 
formity of  colom-  is  also  a  great  point  with  most  Hampshire 
breeders,  vdth  what  amount  of  advantage  we  cannot  say ;  but 
black  tips  to  the  ears  as  well  as  black  faces  are  deemed  essential, 
and  any  crossing  with  speckled-faced  sheep,  such  as  the  Shrop- 
shire, is  in  consequence  viewed  with  dislike.  It  was  not  until  the 
Wiltshire  sheep-breeders  began  to  produce  some  large  but  more 
symmetrical  animals  that  the  Hampshire  men  began  to  consider 
whether  it  was  not  possible  to  reduce  the  size  of  the  heads,  with- 
out losing  the  characteristics  of  the  breed.  By  attention  and 
careful  selection  this  has  been  accomplished,  and  we  have  now  a 
breed  of  sheep  which  is  admirably  adapted  to  the  present  system 
of  fatting  off  the  male  part  of  the  flock  at  much  earlier  ages  than 
formerly.  It  is  certainly  not  owing  to  any  aristocratic  patronage 
that  the  Hampshire  sheep  have  forced  their  way  into  public 
estimation.  They  have  neither  been  upheld  by  agricultural 
societies  or  agricultural  writers,  nor  have  they  been  launched  into 
public  favour  as  winners  of  prizes ;  on  the  contrary,  they  have 
been  laughed  at,  criticised,  and  condemned  ;  and  yet  they  have  not 
only  held  their  own,  but  have  spread  far  and  near,  so  that  the 
coimty  in  the  south  or  east  of  England  where  none  are  to  be 
found  is  probably  the  exception  rather  than  the  rule. 


THE    HAMPSHIRE    DOVTS    BEEED.  35 

'The  Hampshire  sheep,  and  the  improved  Hampshire  still 
more  so,  may  therefore  be  instanced  as  an  example  of  successful 
crossing,  and  as  a  proof  of  what  can  be  done  by  the  male  parent, 
in  changing",  in  very  few  generations,  the  character  of  the  original, 
and  yet  retaining  its  good  qualities,  thus  forming  a  breed  more 
intrinsically  valuable  than  either  source  from  whence  it  is  derived. 
It  has  been  truly  said  that  the  public  is  wise  though  composed 
of  fools  ;  and  undoubtedly,  when  the  pocket  is  concerned,  the 
decision  of  the  public  is  for  the  most  part  correct.  Thus  at  the 
various  autumnal  fairs  large  lambs  are  in  the  greatest  request, 
and  command  the  highest  price,  which  in  itself  is  a  sufficient 
proof  that  with  a  given  amount  of  food  they  make  a  greater 
quantity  of  mutton. 

'  It  was  found  indeed  by  Mr.  Lawes,  in  his  elaborate  experi- 
ments, that  the  Hampshire  sheep,  although  they  were  surpassed 
by  the  Cotswold,  yet  exceeded  the  South  Down  in  the  amount  of 
mutton  raised  from  a  given  weight  of  food.  The  greater  economy 
of  fatting  a  young  over  an  old  animal  may  be  readily  explained 
by  the  fact,  that  whilst  the  latter  increases  in  fat  alone,  the 
former  does  so  both  in  flesh,  fat,  and  bone,  and  thus  the  latter 
can  assimilate  a  greater  amount  of  the  nutritious  properties  of 
the  food,  and  is  consequently  a  more  profitable  feeder. 

'  "We  have  no  reason  to  suppose  that  after  a  few  generations 
the  Hampshire  breeders  continued  to  use  the  Sussex  rams ;  as 
soon  as  the  horns  were  gone,  to  which,  perhaps,  the  Berkshire  Notts 
contributed,  and  the  face  had  become  black,  they  employed  tbeir 
own  cross-bred  rams  with  the  cross-bred  ewes.  If,  then,  we  were 
asked  what  original  blood  predominated  in  the  Hampshire  sheep, 
we  should  unquestionably  say  the  Sussex ;  but  if  the  further 
question  were  put.  Is  the  present  breed  derived  from  the  Sussex 
and  the  original  Hampshire  alone  ?  we  should  express  a  doubt 
as  to  such  a  conclusion,  as  there  is  good  reason  to  consider  that 
some  improved  Cotswold  blood  has  been  infused.  Some  thirty 
years  since  a  Hampshire  farmer,  still  living  (Mr.  John  Twynam), 
used  the  improved  Cotswold  ram  with  his  Hampshire  ewes,  and 
the  first  cross  exhibited  a  remarkable  proof  of  the  preponderating 
efiect  of  the  male.  The  produce,  in  size,  general  appearance,  and 
wool,  partook  far  more  of  the  ram  than  of  the  ewe,  and  it  was 
thought  that  a  most  valuable  breed  had  been  obtained,  wliich, 
with  the  increased  size  and  weight  of  fleece  and  disposition  to 
fatten  of  the  Cotswold,  would  combine  the  hardiness  and  folding 
capabilities  of  the  Hampshire.  It  was  found,  however,  no  easy 
task  to  perpetuate  such  a  breed  after  the  first  cross — the  defects 
of  the   one   parent    or   the   other   would   appear   and   re-appear 


36  THE    BREEDS    OF    SHEEP. 

iu  the  second  and  third  generation,  and  it  was  only  by  careful 
weeding  that  anything  like  uniformity  could  be  obtained.  Mr. 
Twynam's  rams  were  distributed  amongst  the  Hampshire  and 
Wiltshire  flocks  for  several  years,  and  they  have  no  doubt  derived 
advantage  from  the  cross.  The  fashion  of  drafting  good  sheep, 
if  they  have  not  black  faces  and  ears,  tends  rather  to  retard  the 
improvement  of  the  carcass.  After  some  few  years  a  change  of 
farm  and  other  causes  led  to  a  discontinuance  of  the  experiment, 
yet  many  of  the  cross-bred  rams  were  sold  and  let  to  sheep- 
breeders  both  in  Hampshire  and  Wiltshire ;  and  although  after 
dipping  once  or  twice  into  this  breed  they  then  ceased  to  do  so, 
yet  they  have  continued  breeding  from  descendants  of  the  cross ; 
and  thus,  in  very  many  of  the  Hampshire  and  Wiltshire  flocks, 
there  is  still  some  improved  Cotswold  and  consequently  Leicester 
blood.  Probably  an  increase  of  wool  has  thus  been  obtained. 
Some  say  that  on  the  borders  of  Berkshire  the  Berkshire  Nott 
was  also  used ;  and  others  contend,  although  without  proof,  that 
a  dip  of  the  Leicester  has  been  directly  infused.  Be  this  as  it  may, 
there  is  no  doubt  that  for  some  years  past  the  Hampshire  sheep 
have,  for  the  most  part,  been  kept  pure.' 

It  is  a  curious  fact,  that  whilst  the  system  we  have  detailed  has 
been  followed  in  Hampshire,  a  very  different  plan  has  been  adopted 
in  the  neighbouring  county  of  Wiltshire.  Here  the  same  large, 
flat-sided,  horned  sheep  ranged  over  the  Wiltshire  Downs.  They 
at  length  succumbed  to  the  superior  qualifications  of  the  Sussex 
Downs,  which  gradually  displaced  them,  not  by  crossing  them  out 
so  much  as  by  being  substituted  in  their  place,  and  thus  the 
imported  Sussex  became  the  West  Country  Down.  At  length  a 
larger  sheep  and  particularly  a  larger  lamb  was  demanded,  and 
then  the  Wiltshire  breeders  procured  rams  from  Plampshire,  and 
greatly  improved  their  flocks  in  size,  and  secured  larger  lambs. 
Beginning  with  Sussex  ewes,  they  have  increased  the  size  of  the 
frame  without  materially  enlarging  the  heads,  and  thus  a  very 
valuable  breed  of  sheep  has  been  formed,  the  Wiltshire  Down, 
whose  more  perfect  symmetry  frequently  enables  their  owners  to 
wrest  the  prizes  from  the  Hampshire  men,  and  to  cause  the  latter, 
by  the  rivalry  thus  induced,  to  improve  the  symmetry  of  their 
sheep  by  careful  selection.  The  *  Wiltshire  Down '  breeders, 
therefore,  began  with  the  Sussex  ewe,  and  crossed  with  the 
Hampshire  ram,  whilst  the  Hampshire  breeders  used  the  original 
horned  ewe  and  the  Sussex  ram.  The  latter,  therefore,  haye  less 
of  the  South  Down  than  the  former,  and,  though  of  greater  size  and 
producing  somewhat  larger  lambs,  have  less  s^'mmetry. 

Mr.  Kawlence  informs  the  author  : — '  The  original  flock  from 


THE    WILTSHIRE    DOWN    BREED. 


37 


which  my  present  sheep  are  chiefly  descended  was  of  the  Sussex 
breed,  and  of  moderate  quality.  I  commenced  by  drafting  all 
the  small  and  delicate  ewes,  and  the  remainder  were  crossed  with 
rams  of  the  Hampshire  breed.  I  bred  from  their  produce  for  two 
or  three  years,  and  then  had  another  cross  with  the  Hampshire, 
still  continuing  to  cull  defective  ewes.  After  I  had  obtained  con- 
siderable size  from  the  infusion  of  the  Hampshire  blood,  I  had 
recourse  to  some  rams  bred  by  Mr.  Humphrey,  of  Chaddle worth, 


:mr.  eawlence  s  ewe.     impeoyed  Hampshire. 


Berks,  which  were  the  produce  of  the  biggest  and  strongest 
Hampshire  ewes  by  a  sheep  of  Mr.  Jonas  Webb's.  I  use  my  own 
rams,  and  I  also  frequently  purchase  a  few  of  the  best  Hamp- 
shire ewes  I  can  get,  put  my  own  sheep  to  them,  and  use  their 
lambs.  I  also  put  a  sheep  of  Mr.  Humphrey's  to  some  of  the  best 
of  my  ewes,  and  select  rams  from  their  produce,  thus  getting 
fresh  blood  without  making  an  entire  cross.' 

Our  account  of  the  Hampshire  sheep  would  be  by  no  means, 
complete  unless  ^e  noticed  the  breed   of  the  late  Mr.  William 


38 


THE   BREEDS   OF   SHEEP. 


Humphrey,  of  Oak  Ash,  near  Wantage,  Berks,  specimens  from 
whose  flocks  have  frequently  been  prize-winners,  and  their  services 
generally  acknowledged  by  other  improvers.  Mr.  Humphrey,  in 
a  communication  to  the  author,  has  furnished  the  following 
interesting  history  of  his  sheep,  which  shows  that,  although  they 
may  be  correctly  designed  the  Improved  Hampshire  Down,  they 
are  yet  sui  generis  and  distinct  from  any  others,  and  may  be  con- 
sidered peculiarly  his    own  : — '  About  twenty-five  years  since/ 


MR.  Humphrey's  ram.     improved  Hampshire. 


writing  in  1858,  ^  in  forming  my  flock,  I  purchased  the  best  Hamp- 
shire Down  ewes  I  could  meet  with,  using  the  best  rams  I  could 
get  of  the  same  kind  until  the  Oxford  show  of  the  Royal  Agricul- 
tural Society.  On  examining  the  different  breeds  exhibited  there, 
I  found  the  Cotswolds  were  beautiful  in  form  and  of  great  size,  and 
I  was  informed  that  a  Leicester  ram  was  coupled  to  some  of  the 
largest  Cotswold  ewes,  and  the  most  robust  of  the  produce  were 
selected  for  use.  The  thought  then  struck  me  to  obtain  a  first-rate 
Sussex  Down  sheep  to  put  to  my  Hampshire  Down  ewes,  and  so  im- 


THE  IMPROVED  HAMPSHIEE  BEEED.  39 

prove  the  quality  and  form  of  my  flock,  still  retaining  the  size  and 
hardihood  so  necessary  for  our  low  lands  and  exposed  hills.  With 
this  object  I  requested  Mr.  Jonas  Webb  to  send  me  one  of  his 
best  sheep,  and  he  sent  me  a  shearling  by  his  favourite  sheep 
Babraham,  which  made  some  good  stock  out  of  my  large  ewes. 
The  next  two  years  I  selected  for  myself,  but  the  stock  did  not 
suit  my  taste  so  well  as  the  one  he  sent  me,  and  I  did  not  use 
them.  I  then  commissioned  him  to  send  me  his  sheep,  which 
obtained  the  first  prize  at  Liverpool ;  and  from  these  two  sheep, 
the  first  and  the  last,  by  marking  the  lambs  of  each  tribe  as  they 
fell,  then  coupling  them  together  at  the  third  and  fourth  genera- 
tions, my  present  stock  was  made.  Not  having  used  any  other 
blood  on  the  male  side  for  more  than  twenty  years,  I  found  some 
difficulty  at  first ;  when  putting  the  first  produce  ewe,  the  lambs 
coming  too  small  to  suit  my  customers.  To  obviate  this  difficulty, 
I  drafted  out  the  smallest  ewes,  replacing  them  with  the  largest 
Hampshire  Down  ewes  I  could  meet  with  that  suited  my  fancy, 
still  continuing  to  use  the  most  masculine  and  robust  of  my  rams 
to  keep  up  my  size.  Some  of  my  friends  advised  me  to  use  a 
large  coarse  sheep  to  these  small  ewes  to  remedy  the  defect,  but 
the  larger  ewes  seemed  to  me  the  better  way,  and  that  course  I 
pursued.  By  using  no  male  animal  but  of  my  own  blood,  the 
pedigree  I  am  now  acquainted  with  for  more  than  twenty  years, 
and  it  has  succeeded  hitherto  beyond  what  I  could  have  expected. 
My  object  has  been  to  produce  a  Down  sheep  of  large  size,  with 
good  quality  of  flesh,  and  possessing  sufficient  strength  and  hardi- 
ness to  retain  its  condition  while  exposed  in  rough  and  bad 
weather  to  consume  the  root-crops  on  our  cold  hills.  Indepen- 
dently of  the  value  of  the  Hampshire  or  West  Country  Down  in 
an  agricultural  point  of  view  for  such  localities  as  ours,  they 
produce,  when  slaughtered,  a  valuable  carcass  of  mutton,  giving 
the  consumer  a  good  proportion  of  flesh  to  the  fat.  A  friend, 
when  residing  in  another  county,  sent  to  his  butcher  for  3  lbs. 
of  mutton.  The  fat  seemed  so  much  out  of  proportion  to  the 
lean,  that  he  had  the  curiosity  to  weigh  the  lean.  After  carefully 
cutting  it  out,  he  found  it  to  weigh  |  lb.,  or  only  one-fourth  of  the 
whole.  This  incident  shows  the  importance  in  breeding  of 
studying  the  flesh-producing  qualities  of  a  new  breed,  and  also  in 
improving  an  old  one.' 

Although  in  the  crossing  of  sheep  for  the  purpose  of  the 
butcher  it  is  generally  advisable  to  use  males  of  a  larger  breed, 
provided  they  possess  a  disposition  to  fatten,  yet  in  such  cases 
it  is  of  importance  that  the  pelvis  of  the  female  should  be  wide 
and  capacious,  so  that  no  injury  should  arise  in  lambing,  in  con- 


4:0  THE    BREEDS    OF    SHEEP. 

sequence  of  tlie  increased  size  of  the  beads  of  the  lambs.  The 
shape  of  the  ram's  head  should  be  studied  for  the  same  reason. 
In  crossing,  however,  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  a  new  breed, 
the  size  of  the  male  must  give  way  to  other  more  important 
considerations,  although  it  will  still  be  desirable  to  use  a  larger 
fesnale  of  the  breed  which  we  seek  to  improve.  Thus  South 
Downs  have  vastly  improved  the  larger  Hampshires,  and  the 
Leicester  the  huge  Lincolns  and  the  Cotswolds. 

In  Dorsetshire  the  same  system  has  been  pursued  as  in  Wilt- 
shire, although  more  recently  and  to  a  much  less  extent. 

In  the  eastern  part  of  the  county  the  Wiltshire  system  of 
crossing  has  been  followed  with  still  greater  latitude.  The  object 
being  to  secure  size  without  coarseness,  the  rams  of  the  Hampshire 
as  well  as  the  Sussex  are  each  used  as  the  fancy  of  the  breeder  may 
direct.  Other  breeders  in  this  county  adhere  firmly  to  the  South 
Down,  which  they  seek  to  improve  by  using  first-class  rams  ;  and 
the  superior  quality  of  the  fleece,  as  compared  with  the  Hamp- 
shire, forms  no  small  part  of  their  motives  for  so  doing.  Some 
years  since  the  South  Down  sheep  in  Dorsetshire,  it  is  said, 
received  a  cross  from  the  Devon  or  Bampton  Nott,  a  large  long- 
woolled  sheep,  but  with  a  good  disposition  to  fatten.  The  cross 
was  approved  of,  and  the  produce  were  used  by  other  flockmasters, 
which  circumstance  has  perhaps  rendered  the  Dorsetshire  South 
Downs  somewhat  larger  than  the  Sussex.  There  are  some 
eminent  breeders  of  the  improved  Hampshire  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Dorchester,  as  Mr.  Saunders  of  Watercombe,  and  Mr.  Fookes  of 
Cerne,  whose  annual  ram  sales  show  the  high  estimation  in  which 
their  sheep  are  held. 

Otlaer  Crosses. — We  have  confined  our  examples  of  cross- 
breeding pretty  much  to  the  breeds  of  our  own  locality,  but  it 
must  not  be  forgotten  that  other  counties  have  also  some  noble 
specimens  of  cross-bred  sheep.  Shropshire  is  celebrated  for  its 
breed  of  sheep,  and  under  the  new  regulations  they  compete  very 
successfully  at  our  annual  shows.  At  the  Chester  meeting  they 
beat  the  Hampshire  Down  as  old  sheep,  but  in  their  turn  were 
conquered  by  the  latter  in  the  younger  classes.  They  present 
themselves  to  our  notice  in  a  more  compact  form  ;  though  shorter, 
they  are  wider,  broader  on  the  back,  and  often  deeper  through  the 
heart. 

Tbe  Soutli  Sown  or  Sussex  Breed. — Whilst  the  Leices- 
ters  cannot  trace  their  origin  more  than  ninety  years,  when  they 
sprung  into  notoriety,  a  dift'erent  animal  altogether  from  their  pre- 
decessors ;  the  South  Down,  on  the  other  hand,  can  trace  a  long 
line  of  pure  descent  from  a  period  antecedent  to  William  the  Con- 


THE    SOUTH    DOWN    OR    SUSSEX    BEEED.  41 

queror.  It  is  unquestionably  one  of  the  purest  and  most  unmixed 
breeds  in  the  kingdom^  as  well  as  one  of  the  most  yaluable.  It 
holds  a  place  in  the  esteem  of  breeders  inferior  to  no  other  ;  and 
though  its  different  qualities  altogether  preclude  any  competition 
with  the  Leicester,  year  after  year  we  find  the  elite  of  this  breed 
carrying  oft'  prizes  of  equal  amount  and  importance.  It  ranks  with 
the  Leicester,  being  first  among  the  short-wools,  as  the  latter  is 
amongst  the  long-wools.  It  is  pleasing  to  find  in  each  of  these  breeds 
the  success  of  different,  though  equally  good,  principles.  Whilst  the 
Leicester  sprang,  as  it  were,  from  a  few  individuals  possessing  the 
qualifications  which  the  breeder  thought  desirable,  the  South 
Downs  haye  reached  their  present  perfection  by  the  constant  and 
unremitting  attention  to  the  purity  and  perfection  of  the  original 
breed ;  added  to  the  fact  that  the  upland  downs  of  Sussex,  the 
native  locality  of  the  breed,  being  though  extensive  yet  narrow, 
were  immediately  connected  with  the  farms  of  which  they  formed 
a  part,  and  thus  permitted  the  extensive  cultivation  of  artificial 
food,  which  tended  greatly  to  increase  the  number  and  improve 
the  quality  of  the  sheep.  The  improvement  of  the  South  Downs 
has  therefore  been  slower  in  its  progress,  but  it  has  been  obtained 
without  any  sacrifice  of  the  intrinsic  qualities  of  the  original  breed. 
We  are,  however,  chiefly  indebted  to  the  late  Mr.  EUman,  of 
Glynd,  in  Sussex,  as  being  the  earliest  and  most  successful  improver 
of  this  breed.  In  1776  Arthur  Young  speaks  of  them  as  having  a 
fine  coat,  but  at  the  expense  of  a  thin  chine,  low  fore-end,  and 
rising  backbone.  The  chief  principle  adopted  in  improving  them 
has  been  to  amend  these  evils,  and  in  so  doing  the  improved  breed 
have  become  smaller  in  bone,  with  greater  disposition  to  fatten,  an 
earlier  muturity,  and  a  heavier  carcass,  whilst  still  retaining  their 
former  hardihood  and  capability  of  doing  well  on  scanty  pasture. 
This  constitutes  the  perfection  of  the  breed ;  they  can  endure  the 
rigour  of  the  weather,  and  preserve  their  flesh  where  a  Leicester 
sheep  would  succumb ;  and  thus  they  are  so  admirably  adapted  for 
the  Downs,  often  travelling  to  and  fro  a  considerable  distance 
every  day,  and  bearing  with  impunity  close  folding,  to  a  degree 
that  few  other  sheep  can  endure,  and  are  so  well  suited  for  the 
system  of  agriculture  practised  on  light  lands. 

The  fineness  and  quality  of  the  fleece  was  no  doubt  one  of  the 
original  recommendations,  but  this  has  become  long  since  a  second- 
ary consideration,  from  the  lower  price  realised,  and  the  altered 
state  of  the  wool  market ;  and  yet  with  the  improvement  of  the 
breed,  the  fleece  has  also  improved  and  become  more  abundant. 

Mr.  Ellman  thus  described  an  improved  sheep  : — '  The  head 


42  THE    BREEDS    OF    SHEEP. 

small  and  hornless;  the  face  speckled  or  grey,*  and  neither  too 
long  nor  too  short.  The  lips  thin,  and  the  space  between  the 
nose  and  eves  narrow.  The  under-jaw  or  chop  fine  and  thin  ; 
the  ears  tolerably  wide,  and  well  covered  with  wool,  and  the 
forehead  also,  and  the  whole  space  between  the  ears  well  pro- 
tected by  it,  as  a  defence  against  the  fly.  The  eye  full  and 
bright,  but  not  prominent.  The  orbit  of  the  eye  (the  eye-cap  or 
bone)  not  too  projecting,  that  it  may  not  form  a  fatal  obstacle 
in  lambing.  The  neck  of  a  medium  length,  thin  towards  the  head, 
but  enlarging  towards  the  shoulders,  where  it  should  be  broad  and 
high,  and  straight  in  its  whole  course  above  and  below.  The 
breast  should  be  wide,  deep,  and  projecting  forwards  between  the 
fore-legs,  indicating  a  good  constitution,  and  a  disposition  to 
thrive.  Corresponding  with  this  the  shoulders  should  be  on  a 
level  with  the  back,  and  not  too  wide  above ;  they  should  bow 
outwards  from  the  top  to  the  breast,  indicating  a  springing  rib 
beneath,  and  leaving  room  for  it.  The  ribs  coming  out  hori- 
zontally from  the  spine  and  extending  far  backward,  and  the  last 
rib  projecting  more  than  the  others;  the  back  flat  from  the 
shoulders  to  the  setting  on  of  the  tail;  the  loin  broad  and  flat;  the 
rump  long  and  broad ;  and  the  tail  set  on  high  and  nearly  on  a 
level  with  the  spine  ;  the  hips  wide  ;  the  space  between  them  and 
the  last  rib  on  either  side  as  narro  w  as  possible,  and  the  ribs, 
generally,  presenting  a  circular  form  like  a  barrel. 

'  The  belly  as  straight  as  the  back.  The  legs  neither  too  long 
nor  too  short.  The  fore-legs  straight  from  the  breast  to  the  foot, 
not  bending  inward  at  the  knee,  and  standing  far  apart  both  before 
and  behind  ;  the  hocks  having  a  direction  rather  outward,  and  the 
twist,  or  the  meeting  of  the  thighs  behind,  being  particularly  full ; 
the  bones  fine,  yet  having  no  appearance  of  weakness,  and  the  legs 
of  a  dark  colour. 

'  The  belly  well  defended  with  wool,  and  the  wool  coming 
down  before  and  behind  to  the  knee  and  to  the  hock ;  the  wool 
short,  close,  curled,and  fine,  and  free  from  spiry  projecting  fibres.' 

A  favourable  specimen  of  a  South  Down  ram  is  exhibited  in 
the  annexed  cut.  The  original  was  bred  by  Mr.  Drake,  then  living 
at  East  Tytherby,  Hants. 

*  Though  at  first  a  speckled  face  might  have  been  permitted,  yet  for  many 
years  past  it  has  not  been  tolerated  by  eminent  breeders,  and  the  late 
Messrs.  Ellman,  it  is  said,  could  not  even  endure  a  spot  in  the  face  or  ears. 
Thus  it  is  probable  that  the  colour  of  the  face  has  become  more  uniform  and 
of  a  darker  shade  in  choice  flocks,  and  the  term  '  brown-grey  '  may  perhaps 
be  a  more  appropriate  description. 


THE    SOUTH    DOWN    OR    SUSSEX    BEEED. 


43 


Nothing  perhaps  can  better  show  the  sterling  qualities  of  this 
breed  than  the  facts,  that  at  one  time  the  wool  ranked  as  fine 
wool,  and  was  generally  adopted  for  carding  purposes,  and  then 
coanmanded  a  high  price,  whilst  now,  in  consequence  of  the  large 
supply  of  superior  foreign  wool,  that  of  the  South  Down  is  no 
longer  considered  fine,  but  is  confined  principally  to  combing,  and 
consequently  the  price  is  considerably  reduced,  being  less  than  half 
what  it  once  realised  ;  yet,  notwithstanding  this  change,  the  South 
Downs  have  not  only  maintained  their  numbers,  but  considerably 


^i^-'^ 


SOUTH    DOWN. 

increased,  and  in  many  districts  have  altogether  supplanted  other 


The  county  in  which  this  breed  was  first  so  much  improved, 
viz,  Sussex,  still  retains  its  pre-eminence  in  this  respect,  and  most 
of  the  modern  breeds  are  founded  on  Ellman's.  The  late  Mr. 
EUman  did  not  exhibit  his  sheep,  but  they  offered  sterling  qualities 
for  the  careful  breeder  to  resort  to  with  safety.  Mr.  Grantham, 
of  Lewes,  for  some  years  carried  off  the  greatest  number  of 
prizes  at  the  Smithfield  Show,  and  he  had  various  breeders  around 


44  THE    BREEDS    OF    SHEEP. 

him  but  little  inferior  to  himself.  He  soon  had  a  formidable 
and  frequently  successful  competitor  in  the  late  Mr.  Jonas  Webb, 
of  Babraham,  Cambridgeshire,  Tvho  possessed  a  flock  of  pure  South 
Downs,  some  wethers  from  which  in  the  year  1841  carried  off  the 
principal  prizes  at  the  Smithfield  Show,  and  their  qualities  were 
so  eminent  in  relation  to  the  carcass,  as  to  occasion  doubts  in  the 
mind  of  an  eminent  agriculturist  whether  there  was  not  in  them  at 
some  period  some  mixture  of  the  Leicester  blood.  This  suspicion 
was  met,  however,  by  the  positive  assurance  of  Mr,  Webb  that  his 
breed  had  been  always  preserved  perfectly  pure.  Mr.  Jonas  Webb 
afterwards  proved  himself  by  far  the  most  successful  breeder  of 
South  Downs.     He  increased  the  size  without  losing'  quality. 

We  have  said  that  an  earlier  maturity  of  this  breed  has  been 
attained,  the  wethers  being-  frequently  fatted  at  twenty-two 
months,  sometimes  as  early  as  fifteen,  and  rarely  exceeding  thirty- 
two  months.  At  the  latter  age  they  have  occasionally,  though 
rarely,  reached  the  weight  of  twenty  stone.  From  eight  to  twelve 
stone  is  usually  about  the  average.  They  make  more  fat  inter- 
nally than  the  Leicester  sheep,  and  thus  are  greater  favourites  with 
the  butchers,  who  usually  display  their  frout  parts  to  the  street  in 
their  shops  when  hung,  whilst  the  Leicesters  are  generally  turned 
the  contrary  way,  each  being  exhibited  thereby  to  the  greatest 
advantage. 

The  South  Down  breed  has  extended  itself  to  all  parts  of 
England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland,  and  where  the  country  is  suitable 
has  not  failed  to  give  satisfaction — it  would  indeed  be  difficult  to 
point  out  a  county  that  does  not  possess  them.  They  have  to  a 
certain  extent  supplanted  the  native  breed  in  Xorfolk,  Cambridge- 
shire, and  many  other  counties ;  and  in  Hampshire,  Wiltshire, 
and  Dorsetshire,  their  influence  has  prevailed  almost  as  much 
by  crossing  with  the  native  breeds.  It  is  a  breed  indeed  well 
adapted  for  hilly  pastures  wherever  the  chalk  prevails ;  but  it  is 
unable  to  withstand  the  severities  of  the  winter  in  some  situations, 
which  the  several  mountain  breeds  bear  with  impunity.  It  cannot 
as  yet  take  the  place  of  the  black-faced  or  the  Cheviots  in  the 
North,  or  those  of  the  Welsh  and  Irish  Mountains  in  the  West, 
and  it  has  been  tried  as  a  substitute  for  those  of  Exmoor,  and  has 
been  found  wanting  in  the  requisite  hardihood.  The  superior 
quality  of  the  mutton,  and  the  due  proportion  of  lean,  render  the 
South  Down  a  greater  favourite  than  the  Leicester  in  the  London 
market,  and  of  late  years  this  preference  has  been  so  marked  as 
to  induce  many  breeders  to  cross  Leicesters  with  the  Down  rams, 
and  the  result  of  the  first  cross  has  been  very  superior  sheep  with 


THE    SOUTH    DOWN    OR  SUSSEX   BREED.  45 

dark  faces,  and  partaking  of  the  mingled  character  of  both  parents. 
They  have  been  much  more  saleable  than  the  pure  Leicesters,  and 
possess  earlier  maturity  and  superior  feeding  qualities  to  the  pure 
Down. 

In  Hampshire  and  other  places  the  Down  ewe  has  been 
crossed  with  the  improved  Cotswold  ram,  and  the  result  has  been 
a  much  larger  sheep,  with  long  wool  and  good  feeding  qualities. 
In  some  flocks,  where  the  object  has  been  principally  to  increase 
the  size  of  the  sheep,  one  cross  of  the  improved  Cotswold  ram  has 
been  employed,  then  returning  to  the  South  Down  ram  again ; 
and  it  is  astonishing  how  long  the  traces  of  the  foreign  blood  are 
seen.  Some  wethers  of  the  fourth  cross  of  this  breed  were  exhi- 
bited at  the  Ronisey  (Christmas  1843)  prize-show,  and  succeeded 
in  gaining  the  prize  for  the  bestfat  wethers,  although  there 
were  some  splendid  pure-bred  Downs  as  competitors.  These 
wethers  averaged  upwards  of  30  lbs.  the  quarter. 

The  system  of  management  of  the  South  Down  sheep  varies 
with  the  nature  of  the  farm  or  district,  and  the  amount  or  quality 
of  sheep  that  can  be  afforded.  On  the  Down  farms,  both  of  Sussex 
and  Hampshire,  as  well  as  Wiltshire  and  Dorsetshire,  the  old  sys- 
tem used  to  be  to  keep  them  almost  entirely  on  the  Downs 
throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  folding  them  on  the 
arable  laud  at  night,  where,  during  the  winter  and  sometimes  most 
of  the  year,  they  were  allowed  hay.  The  object  in  a  great  measure 
was  confined  to  breeding,  and  few  attempts  at  fattening  any  por- 
tion were  made  ;  but  the  cast  ewes,  lambs,  or  young  sheep,  were 
generally  sold  off  to  lowland  farmers. 

With  the  introduction  of  the  turnip-husbandry  during  the  last 
century,  the  system  on  these  farms  has  in  many  respects  altered. 
With  an  increased  quantity  of  winter  food  the  size  of  the  flocks 
was  enlarged,  and  the  turnips  were,  as  they  are  still  on  many 
farms,  devoted  to  the  support  of  the  young  sheep,  which  the  farmer 
was  enabled  to  retain  much  longer,  and  likewise  permitted  him 
to  keep  a  larger  number  of  ewes.  The  chief  difficulty,  how- 
ever, which  arose  with  this  system,  and  which  has  not  even  now 
been  entirely  obviated,  was  the  deficiency  of  food  in  the  spring  for 
the  increased  size  of  the  flocks.  The  turnips  were  to  a  great  ex- 
tent consumed  by  Christmas,  or  soon  after ;  and  if  allowed  to 
remain  during  the  frosts  of  January,  they  often  rotted  on  the 
ground.  Many  were  the  schemes  which  were  attempted  to  relieve 
this  difficulty ;  and  where  there  were  any  pastures  sufficiently  dry 
for  sheep,  the  autumnal  grass  was  carefully  preserved  untouched  ; 
and  though  to  a  great  extent  decayed,  it  yet  afforded  encouragement 


46  THE    BREEDS    OF    SHEEP. 

and  protection  to  a  new  slioot  of  grass,  which  was  thus,  under  the 
denomination  of  fog-grass,  preserved  for  the  sheep  when  the  tur- 
nips were  gone.  The  remedy  was  at  best  partial^  though  expensive, 
and  in  many  farms  altogether  inapplicable  ;  and  it  was  generally 
necessary  for  the  farmer  to  regulate  or  diminish  the  size  of  his 
flock,  according  to  the  prospect  of  feed  which  was  offered  for  the 
spring,  to  supply  which  the  hay-rick  still  continued  to  be  the 
principal  resource.  These  difficulties  were,  however,  to  a  great 
extent  relieved,  though  not  entirely  removed,  by  the  introduction 
into  this  country  of  the  Swedish  turnip,  which  valuable  root 
having  the  property  of  resisting  the  influence  of  the  frost,  occa- 
sioned almost  a  revolution  in  husbandry,  by  supplying  wholesome 
and  nutritious  food  at  that  season  of  the  year,  the  latter  part  of  the 
winter  and  the  early  spring,  when  the  greatest  difficulty  had  pre- 
viously been  experienced.  The  effect  of  this  improvement  may  rea- 
dily be  conceived  :  an  increased  number  of  sheep  were  easily  kept, 
and  the  value  of  light  turnip  land  became  greatly  increased,  and 
has  ever  since  continued  in  demand,  for  not  only  is  there  a  greater 
profit  attending  the  flock  itself,  but  by  its  means  land  can  be  eco- 
nomically manured  that  would  otherwise  have  received  no  dressing ; 
and  with  this  addition  of  valuable  manure  a  very  large  increase  of 
wheat  and  barley,  and  other  corn,  has  followed.  Sheep  can  now 
be  as  readily  kept  and  fatted  through  the  winter  as  the  summer ; 
and  a  remarkable  contrast  is  off'ered  at  the  present  day  to  that 
aff'orded  a  century  or  more  ago,  when  it  was  customary  to  slaugh- 
ter vast  numbers  of  sheep,  and  salt  them  for  the  winter's  provision. 
At  the  present  day  we  know  nothing  of  salt  mutton,  except  as  a 
curious  incident  in  history. 

The  usual  system  still  adopted  on  many  Down  farms  in  the 
South  of  England  is  to  keep  the  stock-ewes  on  the  Downs,  or  on 
what  little  dry  pasture  there  may  be,  giving  them  hay  in  winter 
and  a  few  Swedes  after  they  have  lambed.  They  give  the  bulk  of 
their  turnips  to  their  hogs,  and  they  sell  off"  more  or  less  according 
to  the  quantity  of  turnips  they  may  have  at  their  disposal.  On 
other  Down  farms,  where  the  turnip-husbandry  is  carried  to  a 
greater  extent,  it  is  customary  to  give  the  breeding-ewes  a  por- 
tion, and  where  they  are  judiciously  confined  to  the  leavings  of 
the  young  sheep  (which  have  been  exposed  to  the  air  and  thus 
partly  evaporated,  and  thereby  become  much  drier  than  before), 
the  practice  is  unattended  with  any  injury,  and  indeed  is  produc- 
tive of  benefit  by  keeping  the  ewes  in  better  condition.  On  such 
farms  it  is  often  customary  to  fat  off"  a  number  of  ewes  or  wethers 
evevj  year,  to  the  facility  of  doing  which  nothing  has  tended  so 
much  as,  in  addition  to  the  hay  or  chaff",  the  giving  a  portion  of 


SOUTH    DOWN    MANAGEMENT.  47 

bruised  corn  or  oil-cake,  as  well  as  cutting  the  turnips  themselves 
by  a  machine.  Sheep  husbandry  is,  however,  by  no  means  confined 
to  these  Down  farms,  for  many  farmers  keep  large  breeding  flocks 
without  an  acre  of  down  and  with  a  very  limited  quantity  of  dry 
pastm-age.  They  make  this  pasturage  extensively  available  by 
the  assistance  of  hay  and  turnips,  and  indeed  some  farmers  do  not 
scruple  to  fold  their  heavy  ewes  on  turnips  almost  as  they  would 
young  or  fat  sheep ;  but  although  the  practice  is  often  followed 
with  impunity,  yet  it  is  by  no  means  to  be  recommended,  as  it  is 
often  the  cause  of  abortion  as  well  as  red-water.  It  is  sometimes 
the  custom,  and  a  good  custom  too,  to  divide  the  flock  into  three 
portions — the  fat  sheep,  the  hogs,  and  the  breeding-ewes — and  so 
in  this  order  to  feed  oiF  the  turnips.  On  such  farms  as  those  we 
are  now  speaking  of  there  is  often  a  greater  difficulty  in  finding 
sufficient  food  during  the  summer  than  the  winter,  unless  by 
sacrificing  a  considerable  portion  of  the  anticipated  crop  of  hay. 
It  is  here  that  the  great  benefit  of  the  broad  clover  crop — the  in- 
troduction of  which  was  almost  as  beneficial  to  agriculture  as  that 
of  the  Swedish  turnip — was  experienced,  affording  as  it  does  an 
abundant  feed  even  after  a  crop  of  hay  has  been  cut,  and  being 
often  sown  with  other  seeds,  and  allowed  to  remain  in  pasture  for 
two  or  more  years,  thus  supplying  in  some  measure  the  want  of 
downs.  On  light  chalky  farms  sainfoin  is  also  extensively  culti- 
vated, and  though  it  produces  but  one  crop  of  hay  in  the  year,  it 
also  affords  excellent  pasture,  and  when  the  land  is  carefully  laid 
down  there  will  remain  a  good  plant  for  many  years.  The  after- 
math is  in  high  estimation  for  lambs,  and  by  its  stimulating  or 
aromatic  qualities  counteracts  or  cures  diarrhoea. 

Tares  or  vetches,  too,  of  both  the  winter  and  summer  variety, 
are  also  very  extensively  employed  for  the  purpose  of  affording 
green  food  for  sheep  during  the  summer.  The  former  is  sown 
soon  after  harvest,  and  is  fit  to  feed  generally  about  the  succeeding 
June;  lasting,  however,  till  the  end  of  July,  if  sown  at  intervals 
of  a  fortnight,  till  the  end  of  October.  By  the  time  they  are  con- 
sumed the  spring  tares  sown  in  April  and  May  are  fit,  and  thus  a 
succession  of  wholesome  food  is  afforded  for  several  months  till  the 
clover  leys  are  ready  to  receive  the  flock,  which  is  thus  kept  in  an 
improving  state  without  the  assistance  of  downs  or  natural  pas- 
tures. The  chief  difficulty  experienced  on  these  farms,  and  indeed 
on  most  others,  and  which,  in  fact,  has  been  a  stumbling-block  to 
many  excellent  farmers,  is  the  inability  of  procuring  sufficient  feed 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  spring,  after  the  Swedish  turnips  are  con- 
sumed. To  obviate  this  difficulty  many  attempts  have  been  made  ; 
some  resort  to  fog-grass,  before  noticed ;  others  feed  off"  the  young 


48  IHE    BREEDS    OF    SHEEP. 

wheat,  often  to  tlie  great  injury  of  tlie  crop;  but  one  of  the  best 
methods  is  to  sow  rye  with  a  little  cole-seed  immediately  after 
harvest,  which  may  be  fed  off  early  in  May,  and  once  or  twice 
afterwards,  till  when  Swedish  turnips,  and  particularly  mangel- 
wurzel,  may  be  preserved.  The  extended  growth  of  mangel  and 
the  heavy  crops  raised  have  gone  far  to  obviate  the  difficulties 
complained  of,  for  the  keeping  properties  of  this  root  are  far  greater 
than  that  of  Swedes;  and  by  the  time  the  rye  is  consumed,  the 
winter  tares,  if  sown  early  and  of  an  early  sort,  are  ready,  and  both 
the  tares  and  the  rye  may  be  succeeded  by  turnips,  so  that  another 
crop  is  procured  the  same  year,  the  land  having  been  manured  by 
the  sheep  feeding  thereon.  Another  plan  occasionally  adopted  is  to 
sow  trefoil  and  rye-grass  (sometimes  the  latter  only)  with  the  corn 
crop  of  the  previous  year,  instead  of  a  portion  of  the  broad  clover, 
and  thus  feeding  off  this  in  May,  and  following  it  with  summer 
vetches.  This  plan  is  recommended  as  preventing  the  too  frequent 
repetition  of  clover.  Useful,  however,  as  all  these  plans  unques- 
tionably are,  a  still  better  mode  of  answering  the  purpose  is  yet  a 
desideratum.  Besides  the  methods  of  management  which  we  have 
noticed,  we  have  also  to  observe  that  many  farmers  keep  wether 
flocks  alone,  which  they  buy  in  the  autumn  and  sell  off  fat  in  the 
following  spring,  keeping  them,  of  course,  on  turnips  and  hay,  to 
which  is  added  corn  or  oil- cake.  On  such  farms  there  is  generally 
a  deficiency  of  summer  pasturage.  On  other  small  farms  it  is  also 
customary  to  buy  cast  ewes  in  the  autumn,  and  fat  them  oiF  in  the 
same  manner  as  wethers  during  the  winter. 

Thus  the  system  of  management  of  South  Down  sheep  is  very 
varied,  depending  as  it  does  on  the  nature  and  quality  of  the 
particular  farm  and  the  general  method  adopted  in  its  manage- 
ment. On  some  farms,  too  small  or  otherwise  unsuitable  for 
keeping  a  constant  flock,  it  is  customary  to  take  in  and  keep  the 
sheep  of  other  farmers  at  so  much  a-head,  the  price  varying,  of 
course,  with  the  abundance  of  feed,  being  sometimes  2d  to  4:d. 
per  week,  and  at  other  times,  when  feed  is  very  plentiful,  it  is 
given  for  the  sake  of  the  manure  left  behind.  Some  farmers  will 
put  their  own  heavy  ewes  in  the  winter  to  keep  on  some  park  or 
dry  pasture,  and  take  in  a  wether  flock  to  feed  on  their  own 
turnips.  Sometimes  vetches  or  turnips  are  thus  fed  off  by  the 
acre,  the  price  being  generally  moderate,  such  as  20s.  to  50s.  per 
acre,  in  consideration  of  the  dung  and  urine  left  behind. 

Of  the  various  systems  of  management  which  we  have  noticed, 
that  which  appears  to  be  adopted  by  the  most  eminent  and  suc- 
cessful sheep-owners  is  the  combined  practice  of  breeding  and 
fattening.     By  careful  and  judicious  selection  in  breeding  they 


THE    SHROPSHIRE    BREED. 


49 


possess  themselves  of  the  best  animals,  the  qualities  of  which 
they  are  enabled  to  test  when  preparing  their  wethers  for  the 
market  and  the  prize  shows.  It  is  on  such  farms  the  practice  of 
corn  and  cake  feeding  is  chiefly  followed,  and  which  is  well 
worthy  the  attention  of  all  sheep-owners. 

The  Shropshire  speckle-faced  sheep  is  undoubtedly  a  cross- 
bred animal,  and  indeed  affords  a  striking  example  of  the  perfection 
that  can  be  derived  by  a  judicious  mixture  of  various  breeds. 

At  a  late  meeting  of  a  Farmers'  Club  in  that  county,  Mr.  J 
Meire  observed  : — '  It  is  not  attempted  to  be  denied  that  the  Shrop- 
shire is  a  cross-bred  sheep.    The  original  breed  was  horned,  and 


THE    SHROPSHIRE   BREED. 

the  first  attempt  at  improvement  was  to  get  ria  of  these  incum- 
brances ;  and  there  is  little  doubt  that  this  was  effected  by  a  cross 
of  the  Southdown.  This  sheep  was  well  adapted  for  the  downs, 
but  for  the  enclosures  of  Shropshire  something  more  docile  was 
required  ;  consequently  recourse  was  had  to  the  Leicester.'  This 
crossing  and  recrossing  at  length  gave  place  to  the  practice  of 
careful  selection,  and  thus  uniformity  wns  sought  for  and  attained, 
and  the  present  superior  breed  was  established.  It  is  now  held 
that  no  further  cross  is  required. 

The  Shropshii-e  breed,  which  rivals  the  Southdown  and  tlie 
Hampshire,  is  unquestionably  sprung  from  a  local  breed  of  sheep, 
called  from  their  native  locality  the  Morfe  Common.  They  were 
distinguished  by  the  quality  of  the  wool,  and  is  thus  spoken  of  in 
Professor  Wilson's  Report  of  the  Breeds  of  Sheep  in  the  *  Journal 
of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,'  vol.  xvi. : — 

D 


50  THE    BEEEDS    OF    SHEEP. 

^  On  Morfe  Common,  near  Bridgenorth,  which  contains  about 
600,000  acres,  there  are  about  10,000  sheep  kept  during  the 
summer  months,  which  produce  wool  of  superior  quality.  They 
are  considered  a  native  breed — are  black-faced  or  brown,  or  a 
spotted-faced  horned  sheep,  little  subject  either  to  rot  or  scab — 
weighing,  the  wethers  from  eleven  to  fourteen  pounds  and  the 
ewes  from  nine  to  eleven  pounds  per  quarter,  after  being  fed  with 
clover  and  turnips ;  and  clipping  nearly  two  pounds  per  fleece,  ex- 
clusive of  the  breeching,  which  may  be  taken  at  one-seventh  or 
one-eighth  part  of  the  whole.  The  fine  wool  sells  at  2s.  per  pound 
and  the  breeching  at  Is.  per  pound,  making  the  produce  of  the 
fleece  about  3s.  2cl.     It  is  sold  to  Yorkshire." 

This  appears  to  have  been  the  original  stock  from  which  the 
present  breed  of  Shropshire  Downs  has  sprung.  As  the  country 
advanced,  and  the  breeds  became  valuable  for  their  carcases  as 
well  as  for  their  wool,  the  Morfe  Common  sheep  were  crossed  with 
other  breeds,  but  more  particularly  with  the  long-woolled  Leices- 
ters  and  Cotswolds  or  the  short-woolled  South  Downs.  The  ad- 
mixture of  such  different  blood  has  produced  a  corresponding 
variation  in  the  character  of  the  present  breed  of  Shropshire 
Downs,  and  has  tended  materially  to  sustain  the  hesitation  which 
still  exists  to  allow  them  a  place  as  a  distinct  breed. 

The  Ryeland  Sheep  has  been  preserved  pure  from  the  most 
remote  period  of  our  history  in  the  county  of  Hereford,  from  which 
it  extended  itself  into  the  counties  of  Shropshire,  Monmouthshire, 
Gloucestershire,  and  Warwickshire,  where  it  received  various 
names,  after  the  localities  of  the  district,  such  as  the  Ross  breed 
and  the  Archenfield,  whilst  it  was  termed  the  Ryeland  from  some 
sandy  spots  used  in  the  production  of  rye,  and  in  Hereford  it  is 
frequently  denominated  the  Hereford  breed. 

These  sheep  are  of  small  compact  forms,  without  horns,  quiet  in 
their  habits,  patient,  and  hardy;  the  mutton  is  delicate  and  juicy, 
and  the  carcass  from  twelve  to  fifteen  pounds  per  quarter.  The 
w'ool  is  white,  and  extends  over  the  face  and  forms  a  tuft  on  the 
forehead.  They  are  principally  distinguished  for  the  fineness  of 
the  wool,  which  is  superior,  for  carding  purposes,  to  all  other  of 
J^'iUglish  produce,  the  Merino  alone  excepted.  This  formerly  occa- 
sioned it  to  be  in  great  demand,  and  to  realise  a  good  price ;  but 
since  the  general  importation  of  the  Merino  wool  its  superiority 
has  caused  the  demand  for  the  Ryeland  to  cease,  and  its  price  to 
fall  in  proportion.  Thus  the  fleece  being  light,  averaging  only  two 
pounds,  it  will  not  repay  the  trouble  and  expense  that  used  to  be 
incurred  ir;  keeping  these  sheep  in  large  cots  or  houses,  containing 
from  one  to  two  hundred,  where  they  were  fed  with  pea-straw  and 


THE    LONG-WOOLLED    BREEDS.  51 

dry  forage — a  practice  found  to  conduce  very  much  to  the  fineness 
of  the  fleece,  and  which  was  generally  practised  when  the  Lemster 
wool,  as  it  was  termed  (from  the  city  of  Leominster,  where  it  was 
sold),  was  in  the  zenith  of  its  prosperity. 

The  low  price  of  the  wool,  the  small  size  of  the  sheep,  and  the 
improvement  in  agriculture  enabling  the  land  to  support  a  much 
larger  animal,  have  conspired  to  render  this  breed  less  profitable 
than  others,  and  thus  at  the  present  day  very  few  flocks  are  to  be 
found  in  a  state  of  purity.  This,  however,  was  not  done  uni] 
many  attempts  at  improvement  had  been  made.  It  was  thought 
that  an  infusion  of  Spanish  blood  would  greatly  improve  the  fleece, 
but  it  was  found  that  the  carcass  was  deteriorated  in  a  still  greater 
degree.  Attempts  were  also  made  to  enlarge  the  size  of  the  sheep 
by  crossing  them  with  the  South  Down,  the  Cotswold,  and  the  Lei- 
cester ;  but  though  this  succeeded  to  a  certain  extent,  it  generally 
proved  more  profitable  to  substitute  the  new  breeds  altogether. 
It  was  found  that  this  breed  was  naturally  diminutive,  and  amalga- 
mated less  readily  than  any  with  other  breeds;  and  a  great  portion 
of  the  land  which  formerly  was  comparatively  unproductive,  and 
well  adapted  for  the  small  Ryeland,  is  now  capable  of  supporting 
profitably  the  larger  kinds  of  sheep.  The  cross  with  the  Leicester 
has  been  found  most  successful,  but  the  quality  of  the  fleece  has 
been  altogether  changed,  thereby  becoming  long  and  fit  for  combing 
purposes. 

THE    LONG-WOOLLED    BREEDS. 

The  long-woolled  breeds  of  sheep  are  properly  natives  of  the  rich 
and  marshy  pastures  of  England,  from  whence,  with  the  improve- 
ment of  agriculture,  they  have  extended  to  all  parts  of  Britain, 
encroaching  in  many  places  on  the  land  previously  appropriated  to 
short- woolled  sheep  ;  so  that  for  years  past  they  have  been  gradu- 
ally increasing,  while  their  rivals  have  decreased  or  remained  the 
same.  The  cause  of  this  may  be  found  in  the  fact  that  in  suitable 
land  they  are  undoubtedly  more  profitable  than  the  short-woolled 
varieties  ;  the  much  greater  weight  of  the  fleece,  yielding  as  much 
per  pound,  will  account  for  this,  even  if  the  superior  aptitude  for 
fattening  and  earlier  maturity  of  one  particular  variety  were  not 
also  in  operation.  Yet,  whilst  many  of  the  upland  and  mountain 
breeds  have  been  preserved  unmixed  from  time  immemorial,  most 
of  the  ancient  long-woolled  breeds  have  either  altogether  dis- 
appeared, or  been  preserved  by  the  curious  in  individual  flocks ; 
they  have  either  been  altogether  supplanted  by  the  New  Leiceater, 
or  in  %  great  measure  changed  by  extensive  crossing  with  this  im- 

d2 


52 


THE    BREEDS    OF    SHEEP. 


proved  breed.  Mr.  Low  makes  a  distinction  of  two  classes  of 
long-woolled  sheep,  one  belonging  to  the  marshes  and  fens,  and 
the  other  to  the  inland  plains.  The  former  includes  the  Lincoln 
and  the  Romney  Marsh ;  the  latter,  the  Tees-ivater,  the  Leicester, 
and  other  varieties. 

The  Iiincoln  Sheep. — The  fens  of  Lincolnshire,  extending 
into  Norfolk,  Cambridgeshire,  and  the  adjoining  counties,  are  well 
adapted  for  the  support  of  a  heavy  breed  of  sheep,  and  this  accord- 
ingly is  the  native  district  of  tlie  Old  Lincoln,  a  breed  in  its  pure 
state  almost  extinct  j  but  a  flock  was  long  preserved  by  Mr.  Jex, 


THE   LINCOLN    SHEEP. 

in  Norfolk.  They  are  of  a  large  and  coaise  form,  with  flat  sides 
and  hollow  flanks,  and  large  legs  and  feet.  Their  fleece,  from  ten 
to  twelve  pounds  and  upwards,  almost  touches  the  ground,  and  is 
long  and  oily.  They  fed  slowly,  but  made  much  internal  fat,  a»nd 
were  therefore  approved  of  by  the  butcher.  Such  w-as  the  Old 
Lincoln,  the  progenitors  of  the  present  race,  which  have  been 
gi-catly  modified  by  extensive  crossing  with  the  New  Leicester, 
the  eflect  of  which  has  been  to  diminish  the  size  and  the  weio-ht 
of  the  fleece,  but  greatly  to  improve  the  form,  giving  a  greater 
aptitude  to  fatten,  an  earlier  maturity,  and  a  capability  of  keeping 
a  greater  number  on  the  same  extent  of  land.  Though  for  many 
years  this  innovation  was  violently  opposed  by  the  admirers  of  the 
old  race,  yet  the  alteration  gradually  worked  its  way  in  spite  of  all 
obstacles,  and  the  mixed  breed  now  presents  the  largest  sheep  in 
Europe.     The  wethers^  when  fat  have  been  known  to  reach  the 


THE    LI^X'OLN    SHEEP.  53 

fenormous  weight  of  60  lbs.  per  quarter,  but  the  mutton  is  of  course 
not  so  delicate  as  the  smaller  breeds.  Mr.  Clarke,  of  Canwick, 
in  1827  exhibited  two  wether  sheep  in  Lincoln  market,  the  fleeces 
of  which  had  yielded  24  lbs.  of  wool ;  and,  when  slaughtered, 
one  weighed  261  lbs.  and  the  other  250  lbs.  The  fore-quarters 
of  the  former  were  each  73  lbs.,  and  the  hind  67^  lbs.  This 
of  course  is  an  extraordinary  instance,  and  considerably  above 
the  average,  both  with  regard  to  the  carcass  and  the  wool,  the 
latter  of  which  may  be  considered  to  average  eight  or  nine 
pounds.  It  is  somewhat  coarser  than  the  Leicester,  but  well 
adapted  for  worsted  goods, 

Messrs.  Kennedy  and  Grainger  state  that  the  sheep  bred  in  the 
wolds  are  deeper  crossed  with  the  New  Leicester  than  those  on  the 
marsh  lands,  which  may  account  for  the  fleece  of  the  latter  being 
heavier,  *  The  breed  of  sheep  generally,'  they  observe,  '  has  been 
greatly  increased  since  the  turnip  husbandry  has  been  introduced. 
Those  bred  in  the  wolds,  and  indeed  in  every  part  of  the  district 
where  this  system  is  pursued,  are  reared  chiefly  on  artificial 
grasses.  There  are,  however,  great  numbers  bred  on  old  pastures, 
the  best  of  which  are  kept  for  the  purpose  of  fatting  sheep.  The 
usual  time  for  sheep-shearing  is  about  the  month  of  June,  the 
washing  taking  place  ten  days  previously.  No  ointment  or  grease 
is  used  after  the  shearing.  The  average  weight  of  a  fleece  from 
the  present  sheep  is  about  7  lbs.  (from  the  true  Lincoln  it  would 
not  be  more  than  9  lbs.),  and  the  length  of  the  staple  from 
eight  to  nine  inches.  The  sheep  are  not  kept  in  flocks,  but  in 
separate  pastures,  and  are  classed  according  to  their  different  sorts 
and  the  respective  qualities  of  the  pastures.  They  have  their  first 
lamb  when  about  two  years  old,  in  March  or  April.  Of  the  returns 
from  a  sheep-farm,  the  fleece  is  estimated  at  about  one-fourth,  or 
between  a  third  and  a  fourth  ;  but  this  depends  upon  the  state  of 
the  markets  at  ditferent  periods,  the  prices  both  of  the  wool  and 
the  carcass  greatly  varying ;  but  those  considered  remunerating 
are  30s.  per  tod  for  the  wool,  and  52.5.  for  two-year  old  wethers, 
3os.  for  one-year  old  do.,  27^.  for  ewes,  and  21s.  for  lambs.' 

'  On  account  of  the  high  price  of  long  or  lustre  wool,'  observes 
Mr.  Coleman  at  the  Central  Farmers'  Club,  '  those  breeds  that  pro- 
duce that  quality  demand  precedence  ;  for  it  is  not  only  the  price 
made,  but  the  quantity  grown  on  each  sheep,  that  makes  it  su 
worthy  of  a  farmer's  attention.  The  Lincolns  are  the  great  wool 
producers  ;  and  I  have  heard  of  a  flock  of  sheep,  ewes  and  tegs 
together,  that  this  year  averaged  in  July  1/.  per  head  for  their 
fleeces.  The  Lincoln  requires  a  good  soil,  and  rather  succulent 
herbage,  and  is,  no  doubt,  a  very  fair  consumer.     Notwithstanding 


54  THE    BREEDS    OF    SHEEP. 

what  may  be  said  by  breeders  to  the  contrary,  I  place  tliem  at  the 
head  of  all  our  breeds  of  sheep  for  this  quality,  as  it  is  preposterous 
to  suppose  that  a  sheep  of  such  large  frame,  and  with  such  a 
heavy  fleece,  requires  no  more  to  support  it  than  a  small  South- 
down. Anywhere  in  the  Midland  or  Northern  counties,  if  our 
friend  happens  to  be,  let  him  procure  sheep  with  some  affinity  to 
the  Lincoln — either  Lincoln-Leicesters,  or  Leicester-Lincolns — and 
there  are  flocks  in  this  country  so  convenient  that  they  can  supply 
him  with  both.  I  never  bred  a  long-woolled  sheep  in  my  life,  and 
am  a  lover  of  the  Downs ;  but  if  I  had  to  start  for  myself  now, 
and  in  almost  any  place  in  the  district  I  have  named,  I  should  go 
for  wool.  As  we  cannot  compete  with  the  foreigners  in  wheat,  let 
us  produce  that  article  for  which  he  must  be  content  to  be  our 
customer,  and  leave  the  fine  wools  to  those  who  like  to  grow  them. 
The  pure  Leicester  is  fast  giving  way  to  the  Lincoln  cross,  and 
with  more  wool  and  less  fat  will  be  scarcely  distinguishable  in  a 
few  years  from  the  improved  Lincoln. 

'  Li  the  Eastern  counties  a  short-woolled  ewe  is  kept  and 
crossed  by  a  Tiincoln  or  Cotswold.  This  is  a  good  practice,  as  the 
lambs  are  fed  off"  at  a  year  old,  and  the  first  cross  are  very  fast 
feeders.  In  the  South  and  West  the  Sussex  aud  Hampshire 
Downs  are  the  breeds  most  in  favour ;  and  upon  their  light  soils, 
and  from  the  dry  climate,  they  answer  very  well ;  but  I  know  the 
breeder  of  such  a  class  of  sheep  must  look  with  longing  eyes  to 
the  return  made  for  the  wool  by  the  Lincoln  men.  I  find  it  takes 
a  fair  fleece  of  Southdowns  to  weigh,  as  tegs,  6  lbs.  per  head ; 
this,  at  Is.  9f/.,  its  value  last  August,  gives  10s.  6d. ;  but  a  lot  of 
Lincoln  tegs  will  clip  12  lbs.,  which,  at  2s.,  its  value  at  the  same 
time,  will  be  worth  24s. ;  and  the  carcass  of  the  Lincoln  sheep 
shall  be  worth  as  much  and  more,  at  year  old,  than  the  South- 
down. However,  we  cannot  all  keep  long-woolled  sheep,  but 
many  more  of  us  may  with  more  advantage  than  at  the  present  day.' 

An  instance  is  mentioned  by  Professor  Wilson  of  the  weight  of 
three  liincoln  sheep  of  the  respective  ages  of  3,  2,  and  1  year 
old,  as  being  386  lbs.,  364  lbs.,  and  284  lbs.  This  breed  of  sheep 
has  of  late  years  met  with  still  greater  approval  in  consequence  of 
the  quantity  and  lustre  quality  of  the  fleece.  Preference  is  for 
this  reason  given  to  them  in  our  Australian  colonies  for  crossing 
purposes.  Thus  in  the  last  year  (1873),  amongst  the  largest 
buyers  of  improved  Lincoln  rams,  was  a  gentleman  from  New 
Zealand,  thus  showing  how  well  the  breed  suits  that  rising  colony. 

Romney  IVXarsb  Sheep. — Another  breed  of  sheep  proper 
to  marsh  lands  is  that  which  from  time  immemorial  has  been 
found  in  the  extensive  fens  on  the  southern  coast  of  Kent,  deno- 


THE    ROM>'EY    MARSH    SHEEP. 


50 


minated  tbe  Romney  Marsh.  It  is  nearly  on  a  level  with  the 
sea,  from  which  it  was  reclaimed  many  centuries  ago,  and  from  its 
encroachment  is  preserved  by  means  of  dykes,  similar  to  much  of 
the  land  of  Holland.  It  extends  fourteen  miles  in  length,  and  ten 
in  its  greatest  breadth,  and  for  the  most  part  consists  of  a  rich 
clay  soil,  well  adapted  for  the  production  of  a  large  breed  of  sheep; 
and  consequently  we  find  they  are  more  numerous  than  on  any 
other  space  of  land  of  equal  extent,  it  being  not  uncommon  I'or 
seven  young  sheep  and  as  many  fattening  wethers  to  be  placed  on 
an  acre.     The   native   breed  of  this  district  were  large   coarse 


Kill  vi§^^P^ 


>-^,^. 


THE   ROMXEY   MAESH    SHEEP. 


animals,  though  somewhat  smaller  than  the  Old  Lincoln.  They 
had  coarse  heads  and  limbs,  narrow  chests  and  flat  sides,  but  with 
large  bellies,  fatted  slowly,  not  being  fit  for  the  butcher  till  three 
years  old,  when  the  wethers  averaged  from  35  lbs.  to  40  lbs.  per 
quarter,  and  yielded  much  internal  fat;  the  fleece  averaged  from 
6  lbs.  to  7  lbs.  This  breed  is  rarely  preserved  in  a  pure  state,  and 
then  not  in  the  marshes.  For  the  most  part  they  have  been  ex- 
tensively crossed  with  the  New  Leicester,  and  have  in  consequence 
been  greatly  improved  in  form;  though  the  bulk  is  somewhat 
reduced,  there  is  an  earlie     maturity  and  a  greater  disposition  to 


56  THE    BREEDS    OF    SHEEP. 

fatten  imparted ;  and  tliough  the  pure  Leicester  Ram  is  now  but 
rarely  employed  for  the  purpose,  from  the  fear  of  inducing  a  too 
great  delicacy  in  the  breed,  and  an  inability  to  withstand  the  ex- 
posure to  the  weather,  and  the  absence  of  shelter,  yet  the  present 
race  evidently  shows  the  source  from  whence  it  derived  its  im- 
provement. With  the  improvement  effected  by  the  introduction 
of  the  Leicester  blood  there  also  arose  a  greater  disposition  to 
select  the  most  improved  specimens  for  the  perpetuation  of  the 
race,  and  the  adoption  of  this  principle  has  in  great  measure  pre- 
vented the  necessity  of  returning  to  the  pure  Leicester. 

The  long-established  custom  of  the  Romney  breeders  has  been 
to  send  their  lambs  to  the  farmers  on  the  uplands,  to  be  kept 
during  the  winter  ;  but  they  are  usually  kept  very  hard,  principally 
in  the  stubbles  for  a  long  time,  and  are  often  much  weakened 
before  they  are  put  into  the  pastures.  They  are  seldom  allowed 
hay,  and  this  thriftless  economy  is  often  very  destructive.  This 
want  of  care  is  also  strongly  exhibited  in  the  management  of  the 
ewes  in  the  marshes.  Shelter  is  very  rarely  afforded,  however 
severe  the  weather  may  be  ;  but  where  this  moderate  expense  has 
been  incurred,  the  cost  has  been  amply  repaid,  and  the  lives  of 
many  have  been  saved.  If  a  more  general  system  of  shelter  were 
adopted,  the  breed  would  doubtless  admit  of  much  greater 
improvement,  and  would  therefore  become  still  more  profitable. 

Tbe  Tees-water. — This  is  an  ancient  breed  of  sheep,  called 
after  the  Tees,  a  river  separating  the  counties  of  Durham  and 
Yorkshire,  and  running  through  a  fertile  valley,  from  which  the 
breed  has  extended  both  to  the  north  and  the  south. 

The  Old  Tees-water  was  a  large  tall  sheep,  of  very  uncouth 
form,  having  a  coarse  head,  rounded  haunches,  and  long  and  large 
limbs.  The  fleece  was  very  long,  though  rather  coarse  and  thin. 
These  sheep  fattened  slowly,  requiring  ver^y  good  pasture  ;  but 
they  possessed  the  quality  of  being  very  prolific,  commonly  yield- 
ing twins,  and  supplying  them  with  an  abundance  of  milk.  This 
breed,  in  its  pure  state,  has  become  altogether  obsolete,  having 
either  been  entirely  supplanted  by  the  New  Leicester,  or  exten- 
sively and  repeatedly  crossed  with  it. 

Other  large  breeds  of  sheep  formerly  existed  in  the  midland 
counties,  but  most  of  them  (though  quite  or  nearly  as  ungainly  in 
form)  were  of  smaller  size  than  the  Tees-water.  The  Warwick- 
shire ram  is  described  by  Mr.  Marshall  as  having  a  large  loose 
frame,  heavy  bone,  long  thick  legs,  with  great  splay  feet ;  his 
chine,  as  well  as  his  rump,  sharp  as  a  hatchet,  and  his  skin 
rattling  on  his  ribs.  These,  and  similar  breeds,  have  altogether 
disappeared  in  England. 


THE    DEVO>'Sinr.E    SOUTH    HAM?.  57 

The  Bampton  Nott. — This  is  a  long-woolled  breed  of  sheep 
found  iu  the  fertile  valleys  of  Devonshire  and  Somersetshire,  and 
called  Bampton  from  a  village  of  that  name,  on  the  borders  of  the 
two  counties.  They  had  white  faces,  long  and  heavy  fleeces, 
coarse  forma,  thick  skin.^,  and  weighed  from  30  lbs.  to  35  lbs.  per 
quarter,  at  two  years  old.  A  smaller  variety,  having  brown  faces, 
crooked  legs,  and  flat  sides,  were  denominated  the  Southam  Notts, 
and  they  weighed,  at  thirty  months,  25  lbs.  per  quarter.  The  fleece 
was  long  and  soft,  weighing  9  lbs.  or  10  lbs.  Both  these  breeds 
fattened  slowly,  and  were  long  in  coming  to  maturity  ;  but  being 
extensively,  though  slowly,  crossed  with  the  Xew  Leicester,  their 
defects  have  in  great  measure  been  removed,  and  they  now  form 
a  large  and  valuable  breed  of  sheep  ;  so  much  so,  that  a  wether 
slaughtered  in  1835  weighed  no  less  than  70  lbs.  per  quarter. 

These  sheep,  under  the  general  designation  of  Devon  Sheep, 
are  met  with  in  the  shops  of  butchers  much  further  east  than 
their  native  county.  They  used  to  supply  a  considerable  propor- 
tion of  large  mutton  killed  in  the  southern  part  of  Hampshire,  and 
the  wethers  frequently  average  40  lbs.  per  quarter. 

Sevonsliire  South  Hams. — The  district  in  which  this  breed 
is  met  with  is  somewhat  limited,  being  principally  the  southern 
portion  of  Devonshire,  extending  from  the  Vale  of  Honiton  up  to 
the  borders  of  Dartmoor.  It  has,  however,  since  become  a 
favourite  breed  in  Cornwall.  In  physical  characters  they  more 
resembled  the  Romney  Marsh  than  any  other  breed,  though  they 
difler  from  them  in  having  brown  faces  and  legs.  Latterly,  they 
have  been  improved  by  the  introduction  of  Leicester  blood ;  this 
had  the  effect  of  somewhat  reducing  the  size  of  the  sheep,  and  of 
causing  the  colour  of  their  faces  and  legs  gradually  to  disappear. 
The  points  of  the  animal  have  been  materially  improved,  a  disposi- 
tion to  fatten  at  an  earlier  age  obtained,  and  a  finer  fleece  secured. 
"When  ready  for  market,  at  about  two  years  old,  the  sheep  weigh 
from  100  to  120  lbs.  each.  The  fleece  averages  9  lbs.  in  weight ; 
the  wool  is  long  in  the  staple,  and  of  moderate  quality. 

Tlie  Iiongr-woolled  Sheep  of  Ireland,  though  very  nume- 
rous, and  occupying  a  large  extent  of  level  humid  country  well 
adapted  for  their  support,  were  sad  ungainly  sheep,  inferior  to  the 
worst  of  English  breeds,  being,  as  Mr.  CuUey  observed,  deficient  in 
nearly  all  the  requisites  a  good  sheep  should  possess.  The  intro- 
duction of  the  Leicester  blood  effected,  however,  a  rapid  and 
considerable  improvement ;  and  the  present,  though  still  capable  of 
much  improvement,  are  greath*  superior  to  their  progenitors  in 
every  respect. 

The   Cotswold  Breed. — This  is  an  ancient  and   celebrated 

d3 


58 


THE    BREEDS    OF    SHEEP. 


breed,  its  wool  being  spoken  of  very  favourably  by  many  old 
writers.  Cotswold  signifies  a  sheep-fold  and  a  naked  hill.  The 
Cotswold  hills,  the  native  tract  of  the  breed,  are  of  moderate  ele- 
vation, possess  a  sweet  herbage,  and  though  formerly  consisting 
mostly  of  bleak  wastes,  have  been  latterly  much  improved. 
Camden  speaks  of  the  breed  as  having  fine  and  soft  wool.  Dray- 
ton writes  of  its  fleeces  as  more  abundant  than  those  of  Sarum 
and  Leominster.  Speed,  writing  two  hundred  years  ago,  speaks  of 
the  wool  as  similar  to  the  Ryeland,  and  rivalling  that  of  Spain. 
Indeed  some  imagine  it  was  the  origin  of  the  Merino  sheep,  as  in 
1464  Edward  lY.  permitted  a  number  to  be  exported  to  Spain, 


THE    COTSWOLD    BREED. 

where  they  greatly  increased  and  spread.  Spain,  however,  before 
this  was  celebrated  for  the  fineness  of  its  wool.  Markham,  in  the 
time  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  speaks  of  the  Cotswold  as  having  long 
wool,  and  Mr.  Marshall  and  other  writers  consider  that  they  have 
always  been  a  long-woolled  breed.  Mr.  Low  inclines  to  the  opinion 
that  the  Cotswold  were  short-woolled,  and  supposes  that  the 
present  race  was  introduced  during  the  last  century.  It  is  difficult 
to  reconcile  these  differences  of  opinion ;  for  my  own  part,  I  am 


THE    COTSWOLD    BREED.  59 

disposed  to  thiuk  that  the  present  are  the  descendants  of  the  old 
race ;  be  this  as  it  may,  we  have  no  evidence,  either  oral,  written, 
or  traditional,  of  the  change  having  been  made.  The  Cotswokl 
is  a  large  breed  of  sheep  without  horns,  with  a  long  and  abundant 
fleece,  and  the  ewes  are  very  prolific  and  good  nurses.  Formerly 
they  were  bred  only  on  the  hills,  and  fatted  in  the  valleys  of  the 
Severn  and  the  Thames ;  but  with  the  enclosure  of  the  Cotswold 
hills,  and  the  improvement  of  their  cultivation,  they  have  been 
extensively  crossed  with  the  Leicester  sheep,  by  which  their  size 
and  fleece  have  been  somewhat  diminished,  but  their  carcases  con- 
siderably improved,  and  their  maturity  rendered  earlier.  The 
wethers  are  now  sometimes  fattened  at  14  months,  when  they 
weigh  from  lo  lbs.  to  24  lbs.  per  quarter,  and  at  two  years  old 
increase  to  20  lbs.  or  30  lbs.  The  wool  is  strong,  mellow,  and  o 
good  colour,  though  rather  coarse,  six  to  eight  inches  in  length, 
and  from  7  lbs.  to  8  lbs.  the  fleece.  The  superior  hardihood  of  the 
improved  Cotswold  over  the  Leicester,  and  their  adaptation  to 
common  treatment,  together  with  the  prolific  nature  of  the  ewe, 
and  their  abundance  of  milk,  have  rendered  them  in  many  places 
rivals  of  the  New  Leicester,  and  have  obtained  for  them  of  late 
years  more  attention  to  their  selection  and  general  treatment, 
under  which  management  still  fui'ther  improvement  appears  very 
probable.  They  have  also  been  used  in  crossing  other  breeds, 
and,  as  before  noticed,  have  been  mixed  with  the  Hampshire 
Downs. 

Tlie  New  Oxford  Sreed. — It  is  under  the  term  New  or  Im- 
proved Oxford  that  these  sheep  are  so  frequently  the  successful 
candidates  for  prizes  offered  for  the  best  long-woolled  sheep  at 
some  of  the  principal  agricultural  meetings  or  shows  in  the  king- 
dom. The  quality  of  the  mutton  is  considered  superior  to  that  of 
the  Leicester,  the  tallow  being  less  abundant,  with  a  larger  de- 
velopment of  muscle  or  flesh.  We  may,  therefore,  now  regard 
this  cross  breed  as  one  of  established  reputation,  and  extending  itself 
throughout  every  district  of  the  kingdom.  In  the  neighbourhood  of 
Whitchurch,  in  the  northern  extremity  of  the  county  of  Hants,  the 
system  of  extensive  crossing  was  commenced  about  the  year  1830 
by  Mr.  Twynham,  who  was  the  first  to  commence  a  cross  which 
has  resolved  itself  into  the  New  Oxfordshire.  His  object  was  at 
once  to  hasten  the  maturity,  and  improve  the  carcass  and  the 
fleece,  and  yet  preserve  the  hardihood  possessed  by  the  Hampshire 
Downs.  For  this  purpose  he  sought  for  those  sheep  which  pos- 
sessed these  requisites  in  the  greatest  degree,  and  believing  them 
to  exist  in  the  New  Leicester  and  the  Old  Cotswold,  he  availed 
himself  of  the  ram  produced  by  this  cross,  and  put  it  to  hia 


60 


THE    BREEDS    OF    SHEEP. 


Hampshire  Down  Ewes ;  and  the  produce  approximated  both  to 
the  Cotswold  as  regards  the  fleece,  and  the  Leicester  with  respect 
to  the  carcass,  and  much  exceeded  the  parent  ewes  in  size,  but 
retained  their  hardihood.  He  states,  in  a  letter  to  the  author,  that 
the  produce  was  an  animal  much  improved  in  symmetry,  with  a 
fleece  nothing-  deficient  in  weight  from  the  parent  Cotswold,  but 
much  firmer  and  finer  in  texture,  while  it  retained  a  great  length 
of  staple,  say  from  five  to  seven  inches  on  the  average  in  the 
shearlings.  Having  by  this  means  obtained  the  animal  he  wished, 
he  did  not  pursue  crossing  any  further,  but  afterwards  bred  from 
the  same  atfinity  a  first  cross  ewe  and  a  first  cross  ram,  carefully 


MR.  HOWAED's    OXFORD    DOWN   RAM. 

culling  those  which  were  faulty,  or  exhibited  too  much  of  the  charac- 
ter of  either  parent,  and  studiously  aiming  at  the  required  mixture  of 
character,  which,  he  observes,  may  be  perhaps  properly  described 
as  a  middle-bred  sheep,  possessing  in  combination  the  qualities  of 
Down  and  Cotswold.  Having  first  of  all  selected  for  uniformity 
of  character,  in  course  of  time  he  turned  his  attention  to  pro- 
curing a  uniformity  of  colour  ;  and  he  asserts  that  under  the  im- 
proved system  of  farming  there  is  no  description  of  sheep  which 
will  pay  the  feeder  so  well  for  consuming  the  produce  of  the  farm 


THE    NEW    OXFORD    BREED. 


61 


on  the  laml  producing  it.  They  are  hardy,  make  an  average  of 
ten  or  eleven  stone  (of  eight  pounds),  at  fourteen  months  old, 
when  well  fed  give  at  that  age  eight  or  nine  poimds  of  wool^  of  a 
very  saleable  description,  and,  under  the  future  prospect  of  the 
wool  trade,  likely  to  be  more  in  demand  than  that  from  the  Downs. 
And  though  the  flesh,  he  adds,  as  old  mutton,  is  inferior  to  the 
Downs,  yet,  at  the  age  above  mentioned,  it  is  superior ;  and  having 
earlier  maturity,  his  sheep  will  yield  the  largest  return  for  the 
food  consumed,  and  are,  therefore,  the  most  desirable  for  the 
grazier. 

The  late  Mr.   S.  Druce,  of  Eynsham,  Oxon,  was  one  of   the 
earliest  and  most  successful  breeders  of  the  New  Oxford  Sheep, 


ff0%'%'  \)^:^^^h^^n.<^^ 


nv\^ 


ME.    HOWARD  S    OXFORD    DOWN    SHEEP. 


and  he  has  favoured  the  author  with  the  following  short  com- 
munication on  the  subject: — 'The  foundation  of  this  class  of 
sheep  was  begun  here  about  the  year  1833  (see  vol.  siv.,  p.  211,  of 
the  Journal  of  the  K.  A.  S.  E.),  by  using  a  well-made  and  neat 
Cotswold  ram  with  Hampshire  Down  ewes.  At  the  same  period 
several  breeders  of  sheep  in  this  neighbourhood  also  tried  the  ex- 
periment ;  consequently  there  has  always  been  an  opportunity  of 
getting  fresh  blood  by  selecting  sheep  which  suited  different  flocks, 


62  THE    BREEDS    OF    SHEEP. 

and  thereby  maintaining  the  uniform  character  which  is  now 
established.  As  to  the  result  of  this  crossing,  I  could  refer  you 
to  the  names  of  many  breeders  who  usually  exhibit  at  the  Smith- 
field  Club  Show.'  Mr.  Driice  adds  :  '  With  ordinary  skill  in  sheep 
farming,  I  find  no  difiiculty  in  keeping  the  form  and  size  of  the 
animal  as  it  should  be,  the  wool  of  a  valuable  quality,  and  not 
deficient  in  quality  :  and  I  maintain  that  the  good  qualities  can  be 
better  secured  by  employing  the  cross-bred  animals  on  both  sides 
than  by  confining  the  practice  to  the  first  cross.' 

Further  experience  has  completely  established  the  truth  of  the 
principle  of  which  Mr.  Druce,  as  well  as  ourselves,  was  one  of  the 
earliest  observers.  The  law  of  nature  is  equally  true  with  other 
animals  as  with  sheep,  and  its  disregard  in  the  case  of  horses  has 
almost  ruined  or  extinguished  our  breeds  of  useful  horses. 

Mr.  Charles  Howard,  of  Biddenham,  Bedford,  has  also  been  a 
very  successful  breeder  of  the  same  class  of  sheep,  following  out 
for  some  years  his  own  ideas,  the  success  of  which  has  been  shown 
at  his  ram  sales.  Mr.  Howard  commenced  with  what  were  then 
known  as  half-breds  (the  produce  of  Down  ewes  crossed  by  a 
Leicester  ram)  in  1847,  and  won  a  second  prize  at  Smithtield  in 
1849.  In  1851  he  hired  a  ram  of  Mr.  Gillett,  who  showed  at 
Windsor  the  first  New  Oxfordshire  sheep  exhibited ;  and  thus 
having  a  good  start,  he  has  kept  pretty  much  to  his  own  blood, 
although  occasionally^  resorting  to  another  breeder.  They  have 
shown  their  success  by  taking  forty  prizes  from  Bedfordshire 
Societies,  seven  from  the  Royal,  and  seven  from  the  Smithfield 
Club.  For  some  seasons  Mr.  Howard  sold  his  sheep  by  private 
contract,  but  in  1865  he  commenced  his  annual  sales,  when  fifty 
rams  averaged  12/  each.  His  subsequent  sales  have  been  equally 
successful. 

The  Iieicester. — The  Dishley,  or  New  Leicester,  which  at 
the  present  day  has  altogether  superseded  its  parent  stock  so  as 
to  be  generally  denominated  *  the  Leicester,'  is,  perhaps,  with 
reference  to  its  origin,  the  most  artificial  breed  of  any,  having 
been  moulded,  as  it  were,  by  the  master-hand  of  Bakewell, 
obedient  to  certain  wise  principles  which  he  believed  to  be  correct, 
and  which  the  experience  of  subsequent  years  has  now  fully 
corroborated.  Mr.  Bakewell  considered  that  in  the  productive 
district  in  which  he  resided  the  carcass  of  the  animal  afforded  the 
principal  profit  to  the  breeder,  and  therefore  ought  to  have 
his  principal  attention.  He  therefore  banished  in  great  measure 
other  considerations,  and  applied  himself  to  the  selection  of  sheep, 
for  the  purpose  of  breeding,  having  in  the  greatest  degree  the 
qualities  which  he  approved;  and  it  is  still  a  matter  of  doubt 


THE    LEICESTER    BllEED. 


63 


whetlier  he  confined  his  selections  to  the  native  breed  of  his 
county,  or  chose  them  indiscriminately  wherever  he  could  find  the 
required  qualifications.  The  old  Leicester  breed  was  a  large  coarse 
sheep,  possessing  an  abundant  fleece,  with  a  fair  disposition  to 
fatten.  Mr.  Bakewell  found  that  by  selecting  smaller  and  more 
compact  animals  he  produced  an  earlier  maturity  and  a  greater 
disposition  to  fatten,  which  more  than  compensated  for  the  loss 


THE    NEW    LEICESTER    SHEEP. 

of  weight  in  the  fleece  and  the  diminished  size  ;  and  by  systema- 
tically and  unremittingly  carrying  out  his  principles,  he  at  length 
produced  an  animal  which  surpassed  all  others  in  the  qualities 
above  mentioned  ;  comprising,  as  Mr.  Culley  observes,  in  the  same 
apparent  dimensions,  greater  weight  than  any  other  sheep,  with  an 
earlier  maturity,  and  a  greater  propensity  to  fatten,  a  diminution 
in  the  proportion  of  offal,  and  the  return  of  most  money  for  the 
quantity  of  food  consumed. 

The  actual  sources  from  whence  Mr.  Bakewell  derived  his 
breed  cannot  be  accurately  ascertained.  The  Old  Lincoki,  the 
Tees-water,  and  the  Warwickshire,  have  each  been  named ;  and  it 
has  been  stated  that  crosses  with  the  Kyeland,  the  South  Down, 


64  THE    BKEEDS    OF    SHEEP. 

and  otlier  sliort-woolled  breeds,  have  also  been  employed.  1*  in 
probable  that  Mr.  Bakewell  was  not  particular  as  to  the  source,  so 
that  he  could  obtain  the  desired  qualifications.  He  himself  was 
very  uncommunicative  on  this  point,  and  the  Jmowledge  of  the 
origin  of  the  breed  perished  with  him.  It  is  even  unknown 
whe'^her,  and  to  what  extent,  he  benefited  by  the  previous  im- 
provements of  others,  though  it  is  very  reasonable  to  presume  that 
he  did  so  as  much  as  possible.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  the 
foundation  of  his  breed  was  the  best  existing  specimens  of  the 
Old  Leicester  breed.  This  breed  has  been  still  further  advanced  ; 
some  of  the  evils  which  crept  in  with  the  earlier  improvements, 
such  as  weakness  of  constitution,  sterility,  and  inferiority  of  wool, 
have  been,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  amended ;  and  at  the 
present  day  the  breed  remains  the  most  perfect  of  any  as  respects 
the  carcass ;  and,  in  the  opinion  of  its  advocates,  though  disputed 
by  others,  the  best  adapted  and  most  profitable  for  fertile  pastures. 
And  while  there  is  no  breed  of  long-wools  but  what  has  obtainti^ 
some  improvement  from  a  cross  with  it,  the  Leicester,  as  regards 
its  peculiar  qualities,  has  derived  no  advantage  from  a  cross  wit!/ 
others ;  but  its  unrivalled  qualifications  can  only  be  retained  b/ 
preserving  the  breed  pure  and  untainted. 

The  various  points  of  the  Leicester  sheep  have  been  thus 
correctly  described  : — 

'  The  head  should  be  hornless,  long,  small,  tapering  towards 
the  muzzle,  and  projecting  horizontally  forwards  ;  the  eyes  promi- 
nent, but  with  a  quiet  expression ;  the  ears  thin,  rather  long,  and 
directed  backwards ;  the  neck  full  and  broad  at  its  base  where  it 
proceeds  from  the  chest,  but  gradual!}^  tapering  towards  the  head, 
and  being  particularly  fine  at  the  junction  of  the  head  and  nec-k ; 
the  neck  seeming  to  project  straight  from  the  chest,  so  that  there 
is,  with  the  slightest  possible  deviation,  one  continued  horizontal 
line  from  the  rump  to  the  poll ;  the  breast  broad  and  full  ;  the 
shoulders  also  broad  and  round,  and  no  uneven  or  angular  forma- 
tion where  the  shoulders  join  either  the  neck  or  the  back,  par- 
ticularly no  rising  of  the  withers,  or  hollow  behind  the  situation 
of  these  bones ;  the  arm  fleshy  through  its  whole  extent,  and  even 
down  to  the  knee ;  the  bones  of  the  legs  small,  standing  wide 
apart,  no  looseness  of  skin  about  them,  and  comparatively  bare  of 
wool ;  the  chest  and  barrel  at  once  deep  and  round ;  the  ribs 
forming  a  considerable  arch  from  the  spine,  so  as  in  some  cases, 
and  especially  when  the  animal  is  in  good  condition,  to  make  the 
apparent  width  of  the  chest  even  greater  than  the  depth ;  the 
barrel  ribbed  well  home,  no  irregularity  of  line  on  the  back  or  the 
belly,  but  on  the  sides,  the  carcass  very  gradually  diminishing  in 


THE    LEICESTER    BREED.  6o 

width  towards  the  rump  ;  the  quarters  long  and  full,  and,  as  with 
the  fore-legs,  the  muscles  extending  down  to  the  hock ;  the 
thighs  also  wide  and  full ;  the  legs  of  a  moderate  length  :  the  pelt 
moderately  thin,  but  soft  and  elastic,  and  covered  with  a  good 
quantity  of  white  wool,  not  so  long  as  in  some  breeds,  but 
, considerably  finer.' 

The  various  qualifications  here  mentioned  were  not  obtained 
until  great  and  long-continued  attention  had  been  paid  to  the 
peculiarities  of  individuals,  adapting  the  ram  to  the  ewe  so  as  to 
correct  the  faults  or  deficiencies  either  may  possess ;  and  thus,  by 
carefully  and  progressively  getting  rid  of  faults,  gradually  ap- 
proaching to  perfection,  which,  though  it  may  be  rarely  or  never 
reached,  should  yet  be  the  constant  aim  of  the  breeder. 

It  was  formerly  the  custom,  as  it  is  still  in  many  places,  for  the 
sheep- breeder  to  set  aside  the  most  promising  of  his  pur  or  tup 
lambs  for  the  purpose  of  breeding ;  and  this,  with  the  occasional 
exchange  of  animals  with  other  breeders  (an  exchange  probably 
influenced  and  guided  by  caprice  rather  than  by  discretion),  con- 
stituted the  only  sources  of  improvement  or  preservation  possessed. 
Mr.  Bakewell  introduced  a  novel  plan,  which,  although  at  first 
sight  it  may  appear  selfish,  yet  perhaps  has  served  more  to  the 
improvement  of  stock  than  any  other  system  yet  invented.  After 
he  had  established  his  own  flock,  and  had  fully  tried  and  proved 
its  superior  qualifications,  instead  of  selling  his  rams,  he  offered  to 
let  them  at  a  certain  price  ;  and  although  the  plan  was  much 
opposed  and  discountenanced  at  first,  to  his  great  loss  and  dis- 
appointment, yet  it  gradually  got  into  use,  although  the  prices  he 
at  first  obtained  were  very  insignificant,  and  particularly  so  com- 
pared to  what  he  afterwards  attained.  The  advantages  of  this 
plan  must  be  self-evident.  It  enables  the  breeder  who  wishes  to 
improve  to  do  so  at  a  moderate  price  compared  to  what  it  would 
cost  to  purchase  his  rams,  and  thus  in  the  course  of  a  few  years 
perhaps  to  become  a  ram-breeder  himself,  whilst  at  the  same  time 
the  larger  remuneration  it  aftbrds  is  a  proper  inducement  to  the 
owner  of  the  ram  to  continue  his  plans  of  improvement,  whilst  it 
repays  him  for  the  outlay  of  money,  and  time,  and  trouble  which 
he  has  already  incurred.  The  difficulty  and  opposition  the  plan 
first  met  with,  as  well  as  its  ultimate  success,  is  well  illustrated  by 
contiastiug  the  prices  realized  at  different  periods.  In  the  year 
1760  the  first  Dishley  Eam  was  let  for  sixteen  shillings  the  season, 
and  it  was  not  till  twenty  years  afterwards  that  Bakewell  received 
anything  like  a  remunerating  price.  It  was  then  only  ten  guineas, 
and  it  afterwards  rapidly  increased,  till  in  1786  he  realized  three 
hundred  guineas   for   one   ram,  and   three   years    afterwards  he 


66  THE    BREEDS    OF    SHEEP. 

obtained  no  less  than  six  thousand  two  hundred  guineas,  thua 
handsomely  repaying  and  rewarding  him  for  his  long-continued  and 
untiring  exertions,  under  difficulties  and  opposition  beneath  which 
most  men  would  have  sunk  and  abandoned  their  pursuit  as  hope- 
less. This  system  could  not  be  carried  on  without  rapidly  extending 
the  improved  breed,  and  of  course  amending  the  flocks  of  breeders 
to  a  vast  extent,  and  inducing  others  to  seek  a  participation  in  the 
profits  of  the  system.  Accordingly  its  advocates  and  promoters 
formed  themselves  into  a  club,  denominated  the  Dishley  Society, 
with  the  object  of  extending  their  breed,  preserving  it  pure,  and 
benefiting  and  protecting  themselves.  This  society  was  established 
by  Mr.  Bakewell,  and  the  following  laws  were  adopted,  the  pur- 
pose being  in  the  first  place  to  preserve  the  purity  of  the  breed, 
and  in  the  second  to  benefit  the  members: — 

1st.  No  member  shall  hire  or  use  a  ram  not  belonging  either  to  Mr. 
Bakewell  or  to  one  of  the  members  of  the  society. 

2nd.  No  member  shall  give  his  rams,  at  any  season  of  the  year,  any 
other  food  than  green  vegetables,  hay,  and  straw. 

Srd.  No  member  shall  let  more  than  thirty  rams  in  one  season. 

4th.  No  member  shall  let  a  ram  for  less  than  ten  guineas  to  any  person, 
nor  less  than  forty  guineas  to  any  person  who  lets  rams. 

oth.  No  ram  shall  be  let  to  serve  the  flocks  of  more  than  two  persons, 

6th.  No  member  shall  let  a  ram  to  any  one  who  lets  or  sells  his  rams 
at  fairs  or  markets. 

7th.  No  member  shall  take  in  ewes  to  be  served  by  more  than  one  ram,  at 
his  own  residence,  in  any  one  season,  unless  they  belong  to  members 
of  the  society ;  nor  to  be  served  by  any  ram  he  uses  for  his  own 
flock,  with  the  same  exception. 

8th.  Mr.  Bakewell  engages  not  to  let  any  ram  for  less  than  fifty  guineas 
to  any  person  residing  within  one  hundred  miles  from  Dishley. 

9th.  No  member  shall  let  a  ram  to  any  person  residing  within  thirty 
miles  of  Leicester,  and  not  being  a  member  of  the  society,  who  shall 
have  hired  a  ram  of  Mr.  Bakewell  during  the  preceding  season. 

10th.  No  member  shall  sell  any  ewes  or  rams  of  his  own  breed,  to  breed 
from,  unless  he  sells  his  whole  flock  of  sheep,  except  to  members  of 
the  society. 

11th.  From  the  1st  to  the  8th  of  June  the  members  shall  not  show  their 
rams,  except  to  one  another.  They  shall  begin  their  general  show- 
on  the  8th  of  June,  and  continue  to  show  their  rams  till  the  8th  of 
July.  From  that  day  until  the  8th  of  September  they  shall  not  show 
them  to  any  one,  but  shall  then  open  their  show  again,  and  continue 
it  until  the  end  of  the  season. 

12th.  On  the  8th  and  9th  of  June,  although  the  rams  may  be  shown, 
no  ram  shall  be  let  or  engaged  to  be  let,  nor  shall  the  price  which 
will  be  required  for  him  be  mentioned  by  any  one. 

13th.  Every  member  refusing  or  neglecting  to  abide  by  the  rules  of  the 
society,  or  withdrawing  himself  from  it,  shall  no  longer  be  considered 
a  member.  From  that  time  he  shall  not  be  permitted  to  hire  any 
ram  or  share  of  a  ram  from  any  of  its  members  until  re-admitted 
into  the  society  at  a  general  meeting. 


THE    LEICESTER    BREED.  67 

It  was  by  attention  to  these  rules  and  the  principles  adopted  by 
Mr.  Bakewell  that  the  Leicester  sheep  continued  to  improve,  and 
to  be  introduced  into  one  county  after  another,  until  they  are  now 
adopted  in  every  grazing  district  in  England,  either  as  a  pure  breed 
or  as  a  cross  with  others.  Their  merits  are  sufficiently  tested  by 
the  fact  that  they  almost  invariably  bore  away  the  prizes  when 
competing  with  other  long-woolled  sheep  at  the  shows  of  the 
Smithfield  Club  and  other  Societies.  They  are  unquestionably 
a  more  profitable  sheep  for  rich  pastures,  as  regards  their  feeding 
qualities,  than  any  other ;  they  come  to  maturity  so  much  earlier, 
in  this  respect  excelling  even  the  South  Downs,  the  wethers  of  the 
former  being  fat  at  twenty-two  months,  whilst  the  latter 
were  not  equally  fat  until  a  twelvemonth  older.  Since,  then,  a 
grazier  can  fatten  two  sheep  on  the  same  food  that  one  formerly 
consumed,  and  in  the  same  period  of  time,  it  cannot  be  doubted 
that  such  quick  returns  must  prove  the  most  advantageous  system, 
and  a  preference  will  be  given  to  the  animal  that  possesses  this 
earlier  maturity.  The  dead  weight  of  the  Leicester  sheep  is 
greater  in  proportion  to  the  live  weight  than  in  any  other  breed 
the  flesh  and  fat  being  accumulated  more  externally,  and  acquired 
in  the  greatest  degree  in  the  most  profitable  places,  and  the  least 
in  the  coarse  points. 

The  perfection  to  which  this  breed  has  now  been  brought  is 
owing  to  various  other  breeders  besides  Mr.  Bakewell ;  amongst 
whom  may  be  mentioned  Mr.  Culley,  as  one  of  tlie  first  and  most 
successful. 

The  disadvantages  of  the  Leicester  are,  compared  with  many 
other  breeds,  a  certain  weakness  of  constitution,  an  inability  to 
bear  exposure  to  the  weather,  and  a  greater  predisposition  to  in- 
flammatory disease,  to  which  may  be  added  a  want  of  prolificacy 
in  the  ewes,  and  an  inferiority  as  nurses.  These  points,  however, 
have  been  much  improved  since  the  time  of  Bakewell,  and  where 
the  purity  of  the  breed  is  not  an  object,  they  have  been  altogether 
avoided  by  crossing  with  those  breeds  excellins'  in  the  qualities  in 
which  the  Leicester  is  deficient,  such  particularly  as  the  Cotswold 
and  the  Bampton  Notts. 

The  fleece  of  the  Leicester  averages  about  7|^lbs.  in  sheep 
sixteen  months  old,  is  soft,  but  somewhat  inferior  for  combing 
purposes  to  that  of  the  older  races.  The  carcase,  however,  is  the 
principle  consideration,  and  the  early  maturity  is  such  that  the 
wethers  are  not  unfrequently  fattened  at. fifteen  months,  and  at 
two  years  old  will  often  weigh  from  25  lbs.  to  35  lbs.  per  quarter. 
The  flesh,  too,  is  accumulated  most  where  it  is  most  valuable,  and 
the   fat   is   distributed   for   the   most   part  on  and  amongst  the 


68  THE    BREEDS    OF    SHEEP. 

muscles,  and  less  within  the  body  and  around  the  kidneys  than 
other  breeds.  The  weight  of  the  hind  and  fore  quarters  also 
Approximates  much  nearer  than  most  other  breeds. 

These  various  advantages  in  a  great  measure  counterbalance 
and  indeed  outweigh  the  defects  of  the  breed,  and  sufficiently 
account  for  the  facts  that  in  the  course  of  fifty  years  it  had  either 
supplanted  or  greatly  changed  nearly  every  long-woolled  breed  in 
the  country,  that  it  had  in  numerous  instances  caused  the  substitu- 
tion of  long  for  short-woolled  sheep,  and  that  it  had  added  greatly 
to  the  value  of  the  sheep-stock  of  this  country  both  as  regards  the 
wool  and  the  flesh.  After  producing  these  changes,  intermixing 
with  so  many  other  breeds  in  so  many  various  degrees,  it  still,  in 
most  respects,  maintains  its  ground ;  but  of  late  years  the  opinions 
of  breeders  have  inclined  towards  producing  a  large  animal  as 
being  attended  with  more  profit,  and  thus  the  improved  Lincoln 
and  the  new  Oxfordshire,  and  some  of  the  heavier  Idnds,  are  now 
successful  rivals  of  the  pure  Dishley  breed.  The  improved 
Leicester,  however,  still  commands  a  large  extent  of  the  most 
fertile  districts  of  England,  and  is  also  cultivated  in  Scotland  with 
equal  care  and  success.  It  is  of  course  in  both  countries  princi- 
pally confined  to  the  lowlands  or  land  of  pretty  good  quality;  and 
the  following  account  of  the  modes  of  management  in  Roxburgh- 
shire, on  the  borders  of  the  Teviot  and  the  Tweed,  from  the 
'Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  England,'  vol.  i., 
may  be  taken  as  a  fair  sample  of  the  system  adopted  in  superior 
districts  in  either  country,  and  a  good  example,  as  regards  long- 
woolled  sheep,  to  less  improved  localities. 

After  observing  that  in  the  district  in  question,  amountir.g  to 
about  42,000  acres,  prior  to  the  commencement  of  the  present 
century  the  Cheviot  were  almost  the  only  sheep  found,  whilst  at 
the  present  time  the  Dishley  breed  have  with  little  exception  the 
entire  possession  of  the  country,  greatly  exceeding  their  predeces- 
sors in  numbers,  but  still  more  in  weight,  which  is  no  less  than 
double,  he  goes  on  to  say : — '  On  nearly  all  farms  of  any  con- 
siderable extent  what  is  called  a  breeding-stock  of  these  sheep  is 
kept,  and  the  system  pursued  is  generally  the  following.  From 
the  ewes  three  successions  of  lambs  are  taken,  the  dams  being 
sold  off  at  the  close  of  their  third  breeding  season,  or  when  four- 
and-a-half  years  old.  In  general,  the  whole  produce  of  these 
ewes  is  retained  upon  the  farm  on  which  they  are  bred,  a  propor- 
tion of  the  ewe-lambs,  when  gimmers,  coming  in  to  take  the 
place  of  the  old  ewes  sold  in  each  year.  The  wedder-lambs, 
again,  are  disposed  of  as  fat,  many  of  them  immediately  after 
being  deprived  of  the  first  fleece,  and  the  remainder,  after  being 


THE    LEICESTEK    BREED.  69 

fed  on  turnips,  in  the  winter  or  spring  of  the  second  year.  Not 
unfrequently,  however,  upon  farms  where  a  large  proportion  of 
turnips  can  be  raised,  the  whole  wedder-lambs,  and  sometimes 
part  of  the  ewe-lambs,  are  disposed  of  at  weaning-time ;  and 
those  ewe-lambs  kept  beyond  the  number  required  to  maintain 
the  complement  of  the  year  are  sold  when  gimmers,  generally  at 
about  eighteen  months  old.  These  young  sheep,  being  thus  so 
early  matured  for  the  butcher,  are  maintained  from  their  earliest 
time  on  full  feed,  it  being  a  great  object  to  prevent  them  Icsing 
any  of  the  condition  they  generally  possess  when  taken  from  the 
ewes.  With  this  view,  also,  they  are  early  put  upon  turnips,  as  it 
is  very  desirable  they  should  be  well  acquainted  with  this  their 
essential  means  of  support  previous  to  any  failure  in  the  nutritious 
properties  of  the  grass,  or  the  occurrence  of  severe  weather. 
When  either  of  these  events  takes  place,  the  turnip  forms  the 
chief  or  only  source  of  their  subsistence. 

'  To  the  young  stock  intended  to  be  kept  for  breeding  fewer 
turnips  are  commonly  allowed,  although  they  are  seldom,  during 
any  part  of  the  winter,  entirely  deprived  of  this  useful  assistance. 
The  ewes,  having  at  this  season  the  range  of  the  whole  pastures, 
are  only  allowed  auxiliary  food  during  the  severity  of  a  storm  and 
in  hard  winter  weather,  until  towards  the  approach  of  the  period 
of  lambing,  when  a  proportion  of  turnips  becomes  indispensable 
to  maintain  them  in  sufficient  condition  to  bring  them  well 
through  this  critical  and  interesting  season.  In  general,  more 
sheep  are  fattened  than  are  bred  in  the  district. 

'  Exclusive  of  a  considerable  number  of  sheep  that  are  brought 
into  the  district  to  be  fed  on  turnips  during  the  winter  months, 
the  number  of  Leicesters  we  think  we  may  assume  to  be  main- 
tained now  throughout  the  year  cannot  be  less  than  25,600.  Of 
these  somewhat  more  than  the  half,  or  14,500,  are  disposed  of 
annually,  and  the  quantity  of  wool  produced  has  been  estimated 
at  upwards  of  5,100  stone.  Under  the  former  system  we  may 
conclude  that  not  quite  20,000  smaller  sheep  were  maintained ; 
and,  allowing  for  a  proportion  being  of  a  better  description,  it  may 
fairly  be  estimated  there  would  not  be  greatly  above  a  third  sold 
in  each  year,  or  say  7,000,  of  such  comparative  weight  as  to 
cause  the  produce  in  mutton  certainly  not  to  be  fairly  considered 
more  than  a  fourth  part  of  the  result  of  the  yield  of  the  present 
time.     In  wool  the  deficiency  would  thus  be  equal  to  a  half.' 

The  system  here  detailed  prevails  with  little  difference  through- 
out the  midland  districts  of  England,  modified,  of  course,  by  the 
fact  as  to  whether  pasture  or  arable  land  is  most  abundant  on  any 
particular  farm.     The  Leicester  ewes,  we  have  said,  are  but  indif- 


70  THE    BREEDS    OF    SHEEP. 

ferent  nurses  ;  their  milk  is  not  sufficient  to  fat  their  lambs,  as  in 
the  South  Down  and  most  other  breeds  j  consequently  the  lambs 
are  nearly  always  kept  on  till  of  a  more  mature  age,  and  many 
farmers  throughout  this  district  purchase  Cheviot  ewes  and  put 
them  to  the  Leicester  ram,  and  the  former  being  good  nurses,  the 
lambs  are  very  fine  and  fatten  quickly. 

The  lambs  of  the  pure  Leicester  are  rarely  shorn  until  the 
second  year,  when  the  fleece  often  weighs  8  lbs.,  and  is  very  long 
in  the  staple,  and,  as  teg- wool,  is  more  valuable.  The  ewe 
fleeces  are  about  6  lbs.,  and  those  of  the  fat  wethers,  though  shorn 
in  May,  average  from  7  lbs.  to  9  lbs. 

The  late  Mr.  Valentine  Barford,  till  his  flock  was  distributed 
a  few  years  since,  possessed  a  breed  of  Leicesters  preserved  pure 
from  the  days  of  Bakewell.  They  were  distinguished  by  great 
symmetry  ;  and  although  he  did  not  go  beyond  his  own  flock  for  his 
rams,  neither  the  health  nor  fecundity  of  the  ewes  were  impaired, 
but  there  was  this  drawback,  the  sheep  were  small,  and  thus 
although  his  rams  were  let  annually  they  did  not  yield  the  high 
prices  that  larger  sheep  attained,  and  were  considerably  less  than 
the  sheep  of  Sir  Tatton  Sykes,  Mr.  Buckley,  and  others.  Mr. 
Barford  prided  himself  on  his  sheep  being  fed  on  natural  food 
only,  and  no  doubt  they  were  very  healthy  as  well  as  pure. 

The  sheep  which  prevails  mostly  in  the  lowlands  of  Scotland 
and  the  good  land  of  the  Border  Counties  are  called  the  Border 
Leicesters,  and  the  high  estimation  in  which  they  are  held  is  best 
shown  by  the  large  sums  yielded  by  the  rams  at  the  annual 
lettings.  Though  not  pure  Leicesters,  they  have  considerably 
more  of  this  blood  than  of  any  other,  and  are  well  adapted  for  the 
district. 


THE    MERINO    BREED. 

It  is  doubtful  whether  this  is  the  proper  place  to  notice 
a  foreign  breed,  but  at  one  time  the  Merino  sheep  bid  fair  to 
become  naturalised  in  this  country;  and  although  the  damp- 
ness of  the  climate  and  the  system  of  turnip  husbandry,  together 
with  the  practice  of  folding,  is  not  favourable  to  the  production  and 
maintenance  of  very  fine  wool,  yet  these  drawbacks  would  not  have 
been  sufficient  to  have  caused  the  discontinuance  of  the  breed,  which 
must  rather  be  attributed  to  the  inferiority  of  the  carcass,  its  slow 
maturity,  and  the  greater  profit  to  be  obtained  in  this  meat-con- 
suming country  from  other  breeds.  Like  the  Romans  of  old,  they 
came  and  dwelt  in  the  land,  and  then  left,  or  ceased  to  exist  as  a 
breed,  but  not  without  leaving  their  mark  behind  in  the  improve- 


THE    MERINO    BREED. 


71 


ment  of  the  short-wools  of  the  country  both  in  quantity  and  quality, 
for  it  is  pretty  well  known  that  where  flocks  existed  they  wer 
gradually  crossed  out  by  the  continued  introduction  of  other  rams. 
Mr.  Darwin  states,  in  his  work,  Plants  and  Animals,  page  88 — 'How 
many  generations  are  necessary  for  one  race  to  absorb  another  by 
repeated  crosses  has  often  been  discussed.  Some  maintain  that  a 
dozen  or  a  score  are  necessary,  but  in  the  tenth  generation  there 
will  only  be  l-1024th  part  of  foreign  blood  in  the  offspring. 
Fleischmann  states,  in  reference  to  the  persistent  endurance  of  a 
single  cross,  that  the  original  coarse  German  sheep  have  5,500 


MERIXO    SHEEP. 


fibres  of  wool  on  a  sino-le  inch  ;  grades  of  the  third  or  fourth  Merino 
cross  produced  about  8,000,  the  twentieth  cross  27,000,  whilst  the 
pure  Merino  had  40,000  to  48,000 ;  so  that  twenty  crosses  was  not 
sufficient  to  make  the  race  pure  Merinos.'  This  example  is  very 
suggestive,  although  no  doubt  the  change  is  materially  influenced 
by  the  question  as  to  whether  the  locality  and  climate  suit  the 
old  or  the  new  breed. 

Spain,  the  native  country  of  the  Merino  sheep,  has  for  many 
centuries  been  celebrated  for  the  quality  of  its  wool.  Duiing  tlie 
prosperous  ages  of  Roman  dominion  its  woollen  fabrics  were  the 


72  THE    BREEDS    OF    SHEEP. 

most  eminent  in  Europe,  and  also  in  the  later  times  of  Moorish 
sway  were  the  most  celebrated  in  the  world.  With  the  forced 
departure  of  the  Moors,  after  a  residence  of  nearly  eight  centuries, 
arts  and  manufactures  began  to  decline  -,  and  the  progressive  effect 
of  bad  laws,  tyrannical  governments,  ignorance,  superstition,  and 
priestcraft,  consummated  the  fate  of  one  of  the  richest  and  most 
powerful  kingdoms  in  the  world.  The  soil  retains  its  natural  pro- 
ductiveness, the  sun  continues  his  benignant  influence,  the  hand  of 
Nature  is  as  bountiful  as  ever,  but  the  perversity  of  its  rulers  has 
marred  the  whole.  Its  manufactures  are  gone,  its  wealth  is  con- 
sumed, its  colonies  dissevered ;  nought  remains  but  the  wreck  of 
its  former  greatness,  and  those  perennial  favours  which  Nature 
supplies,  which  man  has  been  unable  altogether  to  destroy.  Spain 
no  longer  manufactures  its  woollen  fabrics  for  other  countries — it 
cannot  clothe,  indeed,  its  own  inhabitants — but  preserves  its  exist- 
ence by  the  export  of  the  productions  of  its  soil,  of  which  its  fine 
wool  has  long  been  greatly  esteemed. 

There  are  various  breeds  of  both  long  and  short-wooUed  sheep  in 
Spain,  but  the  latter  are  the  more  numerous,  and  amongst  them 
the  Merino  is  the  most  esteemed.  The  origin  of  this  breed  it  is 
difiicult  to  ascertain.  The  native  breed  was  probably  improved  by 
the  importation  of  the  best  fine-woolled  rams  from  Italy  and  Africa, 
in  the  period  of  the  Romans,  and  the  improvement  in  the  wool 
was  still  further  carried  on  during  the  time  of  the  Moors.  The  dry 
climate  and  the  pasturage  is  also  well  adapted  for  the  produc- 
tion of  fine  wool,  and  these  various  causes  have  conduced  to  render 
the  Merino  sheep  the  most  celebrated  for  the  quality  of  its  wool  in 
the  whole  world. 

The  Merino  sheep  are  small  in  si/e,  with  flat  sides,  narrow 
chests,  and  long  legs.  The  wool  is  usually  white,  but  darker  on 
the  legs,  face,  and  ears,  and  a  tuft  of  coarse  wool  is  found  on  the 
forehead ;  the  skin  is  of  a  reddish  colour,  and  there  is  a  looseness 
of  the  skin  under  the  throat,  which  is  considered  favourable,  a^ 
indicative  of  a  good  fleece.  The  males  have  large  spiral  horns,  but 
the  females  are  without  any.  With  these  peculiarities  it  must  be 
evident  that,  as  regards  the  carcass,  the  Merino  is  by  no  means  a 
profitable  animal,  and  to  this  must  be  added  that  they  are  bad 
nurses,  so  that  one  hundred  ewes  will  not  bring  up  more  than  fifty 
lambs ;  they  are  also  by  no  means  hardy,  and  the  flesh  is  inferior. 
To  atone  for  these  bad  qualities,  the  wool  is  superior  to  every  other 
kind,  and  forms  indeed  the  principal  source  of  profit;  the  fleece  is 
close,  short,  and  abounding  in  yolk,  weighing  heavy,  and  is  su- 
perior to  all  others  in  its  felting  properties. 

It  is  computed  that  not  less  than  ten  millions,  or  a  moiety  of  the 


THE    MERINO    BREED.  73 

whole  number  of  sheep  kept  in  Spain,  are  migratory,  and  occupy 
no  less  than  a  quarter  of  the  year  in  going  and  returning  to  their 
summer  and  winter  pastures.  These  Transhumantes,  as  they  are 
termed,  leave  their  winter  quarters  in  the  south  about  the  middle 
of  April,  and  proceed  slowly  on  their  six  weeks'  journey.  One 
division  travels  towards  the  east,  and  the  other  in  a  more  westerly 
direction.  During  their  journey  they  are  shorn  in  large  buildings 
built  expressly  for  the  pui-pose,  which  are  divided  into  two  large 
compartments,  with  a  smaller  one  adjoining.  Those  sheep  whicli 
are  to  be  sheared  first  are  driven  into  the  small  hut  as  closely 
as  possible,  and  there  remain  throughout  the  night,  so  as  to 
occasion  a  considerable  sweat,  which  softens  the  unctuous  matter, 
and  renders  the  shearing  easier.  No  previous  washing  is  em- 
ployed, but  in  this  manner  a  thousand  are  shorn  in  a  day,  there 
being  a  sufficient  number  of  shearers  in  attendance  for  the  purpose. 
This  singular  custom,  which  has  existed  for  centuries,  is  protected 
by  certain  laws,  which  give  to  these  sheep  the  right  of  pasturage 
«n  the  common  lands  on  their  passage,  and  regulate  other  matters 
relating  to  them.  It  is  stated  that  there  are  no  less  than  fifty  thou- 
sand shepherds  employed  in  tending  these  sheep,  which  are  gene- 
rally divided  into  flocks  of  a  thousand  each.  These  shepherds  are 
a  singular  race  of  men,  sleeping  on  the  ground  whilst  on  their 
journey,  and  living  in  huts  during  the  rest  of  the  year,  and 
existing  on  a  spare  diet,  varied  occasionally  with  some  mutton 
from  their  flocks,  which  accident  or  disease  may  have  afforded 
them. 

The  sheep  remain  in  their  summer  quarters  till  September, 
when  they  set  out  for  their  return.  The  rams  are  put  to  the  ewes 
in  July,  so  that  the  lambs  are  dropped  soon  after  the  flock  arrives 
at  their  winter  quarters. 

In  these  long  and  tiresome  journeys  it  cannot  be  otherwise 
than  expected  that  great  loss  should  be  experienced  from  casual- 
ties and  disease.  A  great  mortality  takes  place,  and  many  of  the 
lambs  are  destroyed,  in  order  that  the  others  should  have  the 
advantage  of  a  double  number  of  nurses.  The  migratory  system 
is  more  ancient  than  advantageous.  It  would  indeed  be  far  more 
profitable  if  the  sheep  were  stationary,  and  the  breed  varied  so  as 
each  kind  to  be  bred  on  the  most  suitable  pastures. 

The  stationary  sheep  are  termed  Estantes,  and  consist  partly  oi 
large  sheep  and  partly  of  Merinos,  besides  the  mixed  breeds,  and 
it  is  found  that  the  stationary  Merinos  do  better  than  the  migra- 
tory ones  in  every  respect. 

For  many  centuries  the  Merino  sheep  were  confined  to  Spain, 
and  preserved  with  jealous  care.     Sweden  appears  to  have  been 

E 


74  TPIE    BREEDS    OF    SHEEP. 

tlie  first  country  which  succeeded  in  procuring  them,  and  in  1723 
a  small  flock  was  imported  from  Spain  ;  and  there  are  now  about 
seven  hundred  thousand  in  this  country,  but  they  are  somewhat 
inferior  to  the  original  breed.  In  France  many  attempts  have  been 
made  to  cultivate  them  during  the  last  century,  but  altogether 
with  but  little  success.  In  Germany,  however,  the  experiment 
has  been  eminently  successful.  The  Elector  of  Saxony  introduced 
the  first  flock  in  1765,  and  about  ten  years  afterwards  another 
small  flock  was  brought  to  Austria ;  and  in  1786  and  1802  they 
were  introduced  to  the  imperial  domains  of  Holditch  in  Hungary, 
and  Maunersdorf  in  Austria.  Such  is  the  origin  of  the  German 
Merino,  which  has  now  spread  so  extensively  over  these  vast 
countries.  There  appear  to  be  now  two  distinct  breeds,  differing 
from  each  other  both  in  appearance  and  the  quality  of  the  wool. 
First,  the  Infantado  or  Negretti,  having  shorter  legs  and  a  stouter 
body  than  the  others,  and  the  head  and  neck  comparatively  short 
and  broad ;  the  nose  short  and  somewhat  turned  up,  and  the  body 
round.  The  wool,  observes  Mr.  Carr,  is  often  matted  upon  the 
neck,  back,  and  thighs,  and  grows  upon  the  head  to  the  eyes,  and 
upon  the  legs  to  the  very  feet.  The  grease  in  its  fleece  is  almost 
pitch,  so  as  to  render  the  washing  difficult.  This  breed  is  de- 
scended from  the  sheep  imported  directly  from  Spain  into  Austria; 
whilst  the  other  breed,  called  Escurial,  are  those  which  were  first 
imported  into  Saxony.  They  have  longer  legs,  with  a  long  spare 
neck  and  head,  with  very  little  wool  on  the  latter ;  and  a  fiiier, 
shorter,  and  softer  character  in  its  fleece,  but  less  in  quantity  than 
the  other  breed.  The  fleece,  in  the  Escurial,  averages  from  one 
and  a-half  to  two  pounds  in  the  ewes,  and  two  to  three  pounds  in 
rams  and  wethers  ;  whilst  in  the  Infantados  it  is  from  two  and  a 
quarter  to  three  and  a  quarter  in  ewes,  and  from  four  to  six  pounds 
in  rams  and  wethers. 

Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  amalgamate  these  breeds, 
but  without  success;  the  advantages  of  each  can  only  be  retained 
by  preserving  them  pure. 

*  These  sheep,'  observes  Mr.  Carr,  a  large  sheep-owner  in  Ger- 
many, '  cannot  thrive  in  a  damp  climate,  and  it  is  quite  necessary 
that  they  should  have  a  wide  range  of  dry  and  hilly  pasture  of 
short  and  not  over-nutritious  herbage.  If  allowed  to  feed  on 
swampy  or  marshy  ground,  even  once  or  twice,  in  autumn,  they 
are  sure  to  die  of  liver-complaint  in  the  following  spring.  If  they 
are  permitted  to  eat  wet  grass,  or  exposed  frequently  to  rain,  they 
disappear  by  hundreds  with  consumption.  In  these  countries  it  is 
found  that  the  higher  bred  the  sheep  is,  especially  the  Escurial, 
the  more  tender.      They  are  always  housed  at  night,  even  during 


THE    SAXONY    MEEIXO.  75 

summer,  except  in  the  very  jfinest  weather,  when  they  are  some- 
times folded  in  the  distant  fallows,  but  never  taken  to  pasture  till 
the  dew  is  off  the  grass.  In  the  winter  they  are  kept  within  doors 
altogether,  and  are  fed  with  a  small  quantity  of  sound  hay,  and 
every  variety  of  straw,  which  has  not  suffered  from  wet,  and  which 
is  varied  at  each  feed ;  they  pick  it  over  carefully,  eating  the  finer 
parts,  and  any  corn  that  may  have  been  left  by  the  thresheis. 
Abundance  of  good  water  to  drink,  and  rock-salt  in  their  cribs,  are 
indispensables.' 

Baron  Geisler  was  some  years  since  one  of  the  most  successful 
breeders  of  Merino  sheep,  and  for  many  years,  observes  Dr,  Bright, 
'  he  has  exercised  unwearied  assiduity  by  crossing  and  recrossing, 
so  that  by  keeping  the  most  accurate  registers  of  the  pedigree  of 
each  sheep  he  has  been  enabled  to  proceed  with  a  mathematical 
precision  in  the  regular  and  progressive  improvement  of  the  whole 
stock.  Out  of  seventeen  thousand  sheep,  comprising  his  ffock, 
there  is  not  one  whose  whole  family  he  cannot  trace  by  reference 
to  his  books ;  and  he  regulates  his  yearly  sales  by  these  registers.' 
He  considers  the  purity  of  blood  the  first  requisite  towards  per- 
fection in  the  fleece.  He  adopts  pretty  nearly  the  same  system 
mentioned  by  Mr.  Carr,  and  keeps  the  young  and  the  old  separate 
from  each  other;  and  among  his  regulations  we  find  the  fol- 
lowing:— '  For  fourteen  days  before  the  coupling  season  the  rams 
should  be  daily  fed  with  oats,  and  this  food  should  be  continued 
not  only  during  that  period  but  for  fourteen  days,  and  one  ram 
will  thus  be  sufficient  for  eighty  ewes,  provided  great  care  and 
attention  is  paid  to  him  in  every  other  respect  during  the  whole  of 
the  season. 

'During  the  lambing  period  a  shepherd  should  be  constantly 
day  and  night  in  the  cote,  in  order  that  he  may  place  the  lamb,  as 
soon  as  it  is  cleaned,  together  with  its  mother,  in  a  separate  pen, 
which  has  been  before  prepared.  The  ewes  which  have  lambed 
should,  during  a  week,  be  driven  neither  to  water  nor  to  pasture  ; 
but  low  troughs  of  water  for  this  purpose  are  to  be  introduced  into 
each  partition,  in  order  that  they  may  easily  and  at  all  times 
quench  their  thirst. 

'It  is  also  very  useful  to  put  a  small  quantity  of  barley-meal 
into  the  water,  for  by  this  means  the  quantity  of  the  ewes'  milk 
is  much  increased.  When  the  lambs  are  so  strong  that  they  can 
eat,  they  are  to  be  separated  by  degrees  from  their  mothers,  and 
fed  with  the  best  and  finest  oats,  being  suff'ered  at  first  to  go  to 
them  only  three  times  a  day,  early  in  the  morning,  at  mid-day 
and  in  the  evening,  and  so  to  continue  till  they  can  travel  to  pas- 
ture, and  fully  satisfy  themselves.' 


76  THE    BREEDS    OF    SHEEP. 

Although  superior  rams  are  becoming  more  numerous  every 
year,  yet  some  distinguished  rams  have,  within  these  few  years, 
realized  from  one  to  nearly  three  hundred  pounds.  Thus  the 
greatest  care  is  taken,  both  in  the  management  of  the  flock,  and 
the  selection  of  males  for  breeding,  so  as  not  only  to  preserve,  but 
also  to  improve  the  quality  of  the  wool.  So  successful  have  been 
these  endeavours,  particularly  in  Saxony,  that  the  wool  is  supe- 
rior to  that  of  Spain,  commands  a  better  price,  and,  till  the  rapid 
improvement  of  our  colonial  wool,  principally  supplied  the  English 
market,  where  it  stands  unrivalled  for  the  manufacture  of  the 
finest  cloth.  The  sheep  for  the  most  part  are  housed  during  the 
winter,  where  they  are  fed  principally  on  hay,  straw,  and  corn ;  the 
improvement  of  the  carcass  is  altogether  a  secondary  matter,  the 
fleece  being  the  primary  consideration.  The  Merino  sheep  have 
been  mixed  extensively  with  other  breeds,  particularly  in  Prussia 
and  Austria,  and  in  fact  this  breed  has  been  introduced  more  or 
less  in  every  country  in  Europe. 

In  England  it  has  likewise  received  a  fair  trial,  but,  from 
causes  which  can  readily  be  explained,  they  have  not  been  pro- 
fitably cultivated.  The  first  attempt  was  made  by  George  III., 
who  was  a  very  zealous  agriculturist.  A  flock  was  first  procured 
clandestinely  from  Spain,  but  they  were  found  altogether  inferior 
In  1791  a  small  but  very  superior  flock  was  presented  to  'hia 
Majesty,  and  though  at  flrst  they  suSered  much  from  the  rot  and 
the  foot-rot,  yet  the  survivors  became  naturalized  to  the  soil,  and 
remained  healthy,  and  the  wool  maintained  its  quality.  The 
breed  became  fashionable  ;  they  were  crossed  extensively  with  the 
South  Down,  the  Wiltshire,  the  Leicester,  and  the  Ryeland  ewes, 
and  for  some  years  the  rams  were  let  or  sold  at  high  prices.  It 
was  thought  that  by  these  means  the  wool  of  our  breeds  would  be 
greatly  improved,  and  their  other  qualities  retained ;  but  it  was 
found  that,  whilst  the  wool  was  still  greatly  inferior  to  the  pure 
Merino,  the  other  qualities  were  supposed  to  have  deteriorated. 
The  carcass  became  inferior,  the  constitution  less  hardy,  and  the 
experiments  so  unprofitable  that  they  were  almost  universally 
abandoned.  The  impro^  ement  of  the  wool  would  by  no  means 
compensate  for  the  loss  arising  from  a  deficiency  in  the  carcass ; 
for  such  is  the  demand  for  meat  of  the  best  quality  in  this  country, 
and  such  is  the  price  it  accordingly  commands,  that  the  flesh  must 
still  remain  the  principal  source  of  profit,  and  indeed  the  only  one 
that  can  meet  the  heavy  expense  incurred  in  using  artificial  food. 
As  this  cannot  be  retained  in  connection  with  the  finer  description 
of  wool,  we  must  be  content  with  possessing  it  with  wool  of  an 
inferior  description. 


THE    AUSTRALIAN    MERINO.  77 

Very  few,  if  any,  flocks  of  Merino  are  still  preserved  pure  in 
this  country ;  Mr.  Bennett  retained  for  many  years  a  flock  in 
Wiltshire,  it  is  said,  in  a  state  of  purity,  or  nearly  so  ;  but  in  most 
cases  they  were  considerably  crossed  with  other  breeds,  and  in 
many  cases  so  largely  as  to  cause  the  principal  characteristics  of 
the  Merino  to  disappear.  Lord  Western  still  retained  a  flock  of 
Anglo-Merinos,  that  is  the  Merino  crossed  with  the  Leicester  and 
the  mixed  breed,  thus  produced,  afterwards  perpetuated.  A  few 
years  ago  it  is  said  that  these  were  very  fine  sheep,  but  those  ex- 
hibited at  the  Smithfield  show  in  1843  were  very  much  degene- 
rated. 

Although,  however,  the  Merino  is  found  unsuitable  for  this 
country,  it  is  not  so  in  our  colonies.  In  the  extensive  natural 
pastures  of  New  Holland  and  Van  Diemau's  Land,  the  Merino 
sheep  have  been  introduced  and  cultivated  with  great  advantage. 
The  first  sheep,  however,  imported  into  the  colonies  were  those  of 
a  very  inferior  description  from  India.  But,  although  these 
animals  were  half  covered  with  hair,  their  fleece  improved  to  a 
great  extent,  and  they  became  more  prolific,  showing  the  adaptation 
of  the  climate  and  soil  for  the  production  of  wool,  a  fact  which 
has  been  since  satisfactorily  proved.  Soon  afterwards  sheep  from 
the  mother  country  were  imported,  principally  of  the  South  Down 
and  Leicester  breed.  They  likewise  succeeded  well,  and  proved 
highly  serviceable  in  supplying  the  infant  colony  with  meat. 
Being  crossed  with  the  Indian  sheep,  they  greatly  improved  both 
the  fleece  and  the  carcass.  At  length  some  Spanish  sheep  were 
sent  from  England,  and,  being  crossed  with  the  existing  breed,  the 
fleece  so  improved  as  to  rival  the  wool  of  Spain.*  Inconsequence 
of   this  success,  Sheep  were  selected  and  imported  direct  from 

*  Mr.  Hood,  a  writer  on  Australia,  assigns  the  merit  of  the  introcliictinn 
of  the  Merino  sheep  to  Captain  M'Arthur,  who  first  went  to  Xew  South  Wales 
as  an  officer  in  the  102nd  regiment,  in  1791,  but  retired  fi-om  the  ser^^ce  in 
1806,  and  became  a  store-keeper  in  Sydney.  Before  this,  however,  he  be- 
came a  breeder  of  stock,  and  in  1803  returned  to  England  and  presented  an 
addi-ess  to  the  then  Secretary  for  the  Colonies,  Lord  Hobart,  representing 
the  peculiar  fitness  of  New  South  Wales  for  the  growth  of  wooL  He  took 
A\4th  him  some  samples  of  wool  from  sheep  in  the  colony,  originally  sent 
from  Holland  to  the  Cape,  and  taken  thence  to  Port  Jackson  ;  these  sheep 
Avere  of  the  Spanish  breed,  and  the  fleece  was  considered  excellent.  In  1797 
Mr.  M.  procured  three  rams  from  the  flocks  of  George  III.,  at  Windsor,  and 
from  these  and  thirty  ewes  preyiously  purchased  in  1793  out  of  a  ship  from 
India,  and  eight  or  ten  Spanish  and  Irish  sheep,  haye  arisen  the  million 
and  upwards  of  sheep  that  now  cover  the  hills  and  plains  of  Australia. 
This  is  the  part  of  Mr.  M.'s  career  that  is  of  most  interest  to  the  public  ; 
by  this  step  he  became  a  benefactor  to  his  country  and  the  colony  to  an 
incalculable  extent.  In  1791  Mr.  J.  M.  got  his  first  grant  of  land,  IOC 
acres  ;  his  secoiU  was  also  100  ;  next,  from  Lord  Camden,  5,000  ;  and  after- 


78  THE    BEEEDS    OF    SHEEP. 

Saxony,  and  the  result  was  attended  witli  similar  success ;  they 
were  crossed  with  the  native  sheep  and  also  preserved  pure,  and 
the  wool  from  the  latter  was  found  very  superior,  and  commanded 
a  high  price  in  England,  though,  from  the  want  of  that  personal 
attention  which  the  sheep  receive  in  Germany,  the  wool  was  not 
equal  to  that  of  Saxony.  The  greater  scarcity  of  labour  in  these 
colonies,  and  its  abundance  and  consequent  cheapness  in  Saxony, 
will  sufficiently  account  for  this  fact. 

The  cultivation  of  sheep  in  Van  Diemen's  Land  was  later  than 
in  New  Holland,  but  the  same  course  was  pursued.  The  Merinos, 
however,  were  first  supplied  from  Sydney  in  1820,  but  were  after- 
wards imported  from  Saxony.  Such  has  been  the  success  and  the 
increase  of  sheep  in  these  settlements,  that  whilst  in  the  year  1810 
167  lbs.  of  wool  only  were  imported  into  England  from  New 
South  Wales,  in  1832  the  quantity  brought  from  both  colonies  was 
3,516,869  lbs.,  and  it  still  continues  to  increase,  as  well  as  from 
the  other  settlements  on  the  coast  of  New  Holland.* 

'  The  attention,'  observes  Mr.  Low,  '  of  the  Australian  colonists 
has  been  naturally  directed  to  the  cultivation  of  fine  wool :  but  it 
is  evident  that  there  are  limits  to  the  profits  to  be  derived  from 
this  commodity,  both  from  the  increasing  production  of  the 
country,  and  from  the  rivalship  of  the  districts  of  Europe  where 
the  Merino  wool  is  cultivated.  It  is  a  question,  therefore,  whether 
the  colonists  should  not  now  direct  attention  to  the  long  or 
combing  wools  as  well  as  to  the  short  or  felting.  It  is  probable 
that  the  long  wools  of  England  would  acquire  in  these  favoured 
climes  the  very  properties  which  would  benefit  them  the  most, 
and  that  the  heavier  fleeces  of  the  Leicester,  the  Cotswold,  and 
the  Old  Lincoln  sheep,  would  yield  a  larger  profit  to  the  wool- 
grower  than  even  the  higher  priced  Merino.f  But  the  two  classes 
of  sheep  should  be  kept  entirely  distinct. 

wards  700  acres  to  his  excellent  wife  from  Governor  Macquarie.  From  Earl 
Bathurst  the  sons  got  5,000  acres,  and  from  Governor  Macquarie  2,300  ;  in 
all,  their  grants  have  amounted  to  18,000  acres  ;  and  they  have  acquired  by 
purchase  32,000  acres  more,  at  an  average  cost  of  7s.  6d.,  the  highest  price 
paid  being  18s.  In  all,  the  landed  property  obtained  by  grant  and  purchase 
by  Mr.  J.  M.  and  his  sons  amounts  to  50,000  acres  ! !  Mr.  M.  never  keeps 
above  25,000  sheep,  in  consequence  of  the  great  expense  and  difficidty  in 
managing  a  larger  number.  He  has  700  acres  under  the  plough.  Mr.  J.  M. 
purchased,  in  1800,  sixty  acres  of  land  in  the  township  of  Sydney,  for  25/., 
which,  in  1836,  were  valued,  according  to  the  government  land  price,  at 
1,000/.  an  acre! 

*  In  1870  there  were  upwards  of  fifty  million  of  sheep  in  the  Australian 
colonies. 

t  In  New  Zealand  the  production  of  long  lustre  avooI  has  been  very 
successful.  In  the  present  year  (1873)  the  largest  buyers  and  highest 
bidders  for  Lincoln  rams  have  been  gentlemen  from  this  colony. 


THE    AUSTRALIAN    MEEI.\0.  79 

The  vicissitudes  which  the  breeding  and  cultivation  of  sheep 
in  these  colonies  have  undergone  are  so  striking  that  although  a 
great  change  has  now  taken  place,  it  is  useful  to  preserve  a  record 
of  past  disasters. 

•  Sheep,'  observes  Mr.  Hood,  '  that  sold  at  16^.  and  205.,  may 
now  (December  1841)  be  had  for  8s.  and  10s.,  and  cattle  have 
fallen  from  bl.  to  355. ;  while  at  sales  in  Sydney  the  former  fetch 
Is.  Qd.,  and  the  latter  SOs.'  Although  this  certainly  offers  a  very 
favourable  opportunity  to  the  large  capitalist  for  investment,  it  yet 
strikingly  displays  the  fluctuations  to  which  the  value  of  such 
stock  is  exposed,  and  which  must  ever  continue  until  some  better 
method  is  adopted  for  supplying  water,  and  obviating  the  sad 
losses  which  so  frequently  occur  from  the  droughts  to  which  this 
country  is  liable.  '  It  will  scarcely  be  believed  in  England, 
observes  Mr,  Hood,  '  that  the  estimated  number  of  sheep  which 
have  died  within  the  last  twelvemonth  in  the  colony  from  catarrh 
and  drought  is  seventy  thousand  ! !  that  colonists  are  compelled,  in 
order  to  save  the  dam  from  starvation,  to  cut  the  throat  of  her 
lamb ;  that  no  means  are  adopted  for  secunng  a  stock  of  lambs  for 
next  year ;  or  that  a  stockholder  would  offer  eight  thousand  sheep 
to  any  one  that  would  remove  them  from  his  runs,  and  finding 
that  no  one  could  be  prevailed  upon  to  taint  his  own  flocks  by 
accepting  so  dangerous  a  present,  had  recourse  to  consuming  them 
Vy  fire,  and  had  actually  killed  and  burnt  two  thousand.*     Such 

*  The  sad  destruction  of  property  here  described  will,  we  trust,  not 
again  occur,  or  at  any  rate  not  be  attended  by  the  same  pecuniary  loss,  for 
it  appears  that  considerable  attention  has  lately  been  bestowed  in  boiling 
down  the  sheep  for  the  sake  of  the  tallow,  which  is  prepared  for  the  English 
market,  and  thus,  in  such  cases  as  that  described  in  the  text,  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  value  of  the  sheep  may  be  saved.  The  colonist  cannot  be 
otherwise  than  aware  that  the  flesh,  as  well  as  the  bones,  form  the  most 
valuable  of  all  manures,  and  if  well  mixed  with  earth  and  made  into  a 
compost,  its  application  to  the  land  under  cultivation  will  abundantly  repay 
the  cost  of  labour,  dear  as  that  cost  may  be.  It  appears  from  the  following 
advertisement,  extracted  from  a  S3'dney  paper,  that  the  preparation  of 
tallow  is  in  many  cases  the  most  profitable  mode  of  disposing  of  the  car- 
cases of  superfluous  sheep.  An  animal  weighing  about  60  lbs.  will,  we 
understand,  generally  yield  about  25  lbs.  of  tallow. 

*  Sheep-boiling  at  Windermere,  near  Maitland, 

'  Mr.  Wentworth,  having  engaged  a  competent  superintendent  to  boil 
down  his  own  surplus  sheep,  is  willing  to  accommodate  the  settlers  in  the 
districts  of  the  Hunter,  Wellington,  Liverpool  Plains,  and  NeAv  England,  at 
the  following  charges  : — 

'  Slaughtering,  skinning,  cutting  up,  and  boiling  sheep,  rendering  caul 
and  kidney  fat  separately,  packing  the  tallow  and  boiled  fat  in  the  sheep 
skins,  in  suitable  and  secure  parcels  for  exportation,  marking  and  lettering 


80  THE    BREEDS    OF    SHEEP. 

things  are  nevertlieless  perfectly  true.  I  myself  know  the  parties; 
and  it  all  goes  to  prove  that  everything  depends  upon  the  healthi- 
ness and  character  for  feed  and  water  of  the  country  in  which  a 
stockholder  locates,  and  the  freeness  from  disease  of  his  stock,  and 
not  so  much  upon  his  commencing  with  what  is  called  a  great 
bargain.  The  first  object  on  the  arrival  of  every  settler  should  be 
to  procure  a  good  country  for  his  flocks,  and  this,  I  have  elsewhere 
said,  is  his  grand  difficulty.  Let  him  be  wary  upon  this  point. 
Almost  every  desirable  or  habitable  spot  in  the  old  countries,  as 
the  early  settled  districts  are  called,  is  already  occupied ;  but  there 
is  ample  space  in  the  south  or  north,  and  will  be,  I  believe,  for 
years  to  come,  though  enterprise  is  fast  penetrating  into  these 
regions  also  ;  I  have  recommended  a  box  and  apple-tree  district  as 
the  best,  but  in  these  he  may  find  that  there  is  no  water,  or  that 
in  times  of  drought  it  has  been  known  to  fail ;  or  again,  where 
water  is  always  abundant,  the  forests  may  be  of  stringy  bark, 
which  always  denote  a  district  of  inferior  value,  or  even  not  worth 
possessing  at  all.  He  will  be  told  that  Artesian  wells  may  be 
sunk,  by  which  water  may  always  be  obtained ;  but  though  too 
much  cannot  be  said  in  favour  of  Artesian  wells,  they  are  not 
calculated  for  the  purpose  of  washing  sheep.  Troughs  filled  by 
these  wells  may  supply  sheep  with  drink  ;  but  the  grand  object  in 
the  possession  of  flocks  is  their  wool,  and  means  of  duly  pre- 
paring that  must  always  be  kept  in  view.  A  diy  climate  is 
essential  to  the  Merino,  and  one  not  too  cold  in  winter,  and  there- 
fore too  great  an  elevation  above  the  sea  is  objectionable  ;  a  short 
distance  from  some  water-carriage  is  equally  indispensable.' 

What  this  country  appears  to  want  is  a  more  general    and 

those  bags  so  as  to  distinguish  the  quality,  and  putting  the  same  on  board 
the  steamer  at  the  Green  Hills — at  per  sheep,  9c?. 

*  Washing  skins,  taking  off  the  whole  of  the  wool,  drying  and  putting 
into  clean  packs,  and  carrying  those  bales  to  the  steamer — at  per  sheep,  3t/. 

'  The  proprietor  of  the  sheep  will  have  to  pay  the  freight  of  the  wool 
and  tallow  to  Sydney  ;  or  if  he  should  wish  it  to  be  paid  for  him,  he  must, 
before  boiling  the  sheep,  give  notice  of  such  to  the  superintendent  at 
Windermere,  who  will  take  at  his  option,  wool  at  Is.  per  lb.,  or  tallow  at 
1\d.  per  lb.,  in  payment  of  all  charges:  the  freight  of  wool  being  7s.  per 
bale  to  Sydney,  and  of  tallow  Is.  per  cwt.  The  goods  will  be  shipped  on 
board  the  steamer  on  account  and  risk  of  the  proprietor. 

'  Grass  will  be  provided  gratis,  and  shepherds  will  receive  rations  at 
a  moderate  charp-e.  And  if  required  by  the  master,  the  wages  coming  to 
them  will  be  paid,  and  deducted  at  the  above  rates. 

'  The  oflfal  and  refuse  of  the  carcass,  after  extracting  the  tallow,  to 
belong  to  the  establishment. 

'  Such  of  the  hind  legs  as  may  be  required  for  the  use  of  the  establish- 
ment will  be  allowed  for  at  \d.  per  lb.' 


THE    AUSTIIALIAN    MERINO.  81 

systematic  arrangement  in  the  modes  of  management,  and  a 
greater  combination  amongst  those  interested  in  the  same  pursuit. 
'There  is  no  union  or  spirit  of  co-operation/  says  Mr.  Hood, 
'  amongst  the  settlers,  any  more  than  there  is  among  the  store- 
keepers ;  not  so  much  even  as  would  induce  them  to  establish,  what 
is  evidently  for  their  common  interest,  a  public  market,  for  the 
purpose  of  keeping  themselves  out  of  the  power  of  the  Sydney 
butchers,  who  at  present  dictate  both  as  to  time  and  price,  in  all 
the  sales  of  fat  stock.' 

When  we  bear  in  mind  that  in  1840  there  were  no  less  than 
1,334 ,593  sheep,  and  that  the  export  of  wool  from  Australia  in 
1843  was  16,226,400  lbs. — when  we  consider  the  vast  importance 
of  this  growing  trade,  its  actual  amount,  and  its  value  to  the 
mother  country  as  an  outlet  for  her  manufactures — we  feel  a  strong 
conviction  that,  in  spite  of  recent  disasters  and  present  distress,  it 
will  not  be  allowed  to  drop  or  dwindle ;  but  with  the  brighter 
prospect  of  the  general  affairs  of  the  colony,  the  cultivation  of 
wool  will  again  receive  a  stimulus,  and  again  enjoy  a  career  of 
prosperity  which,  though  not  so  rapid  as  before,  will,  we  trust,  be 
more  steady  and  permanent,  and  based  on  surer  foundations.  As 
the  colony  increases  in  population,  and  other  branches  of  agricul- 
ture obtain  attention,  some  regard  will  be  paid  to  the  carcass  of  the 
sheep,  as  well  as  the  wool ;  and  while  the  more  distant  settlements 
will  continue  to  be  the  great  breeding  districts,  those  nearer  the 
ports  will  probably  be  more  devoted  also  to  fattening  those  sheep, 
purchased  from  the  more  distant  flocks,  at  the  most  suitable  age 
for  the  market. 

It  would  greatly  facilitate  the  prosperity  of  these  valuable 
colonies  if  an  Agricultural  Society  were  established,  after  the 
model  of  the  Eoyal  Agricultural  Society  of  England.  The  annual 
journeys  to  the  metropolis  for  the  sale  of  wool,  which  now  too 
frequently  ends  in  the  dissipation  of  a  great  portion  of  the  funds 
of  the  colonist  by  extravagance  and  improvidence,  may  then  be 
made  available  for  the  communication  of  ideas  amongst  the  farmers, 
a  mutual  giving  and  receiving  of  the  knowledge  derived  from 
experience — a  fund  which  all  may  supply,  and  all  receive  in  return 
abundant  interest.  Premiums  maybe  given  for  the  best  wool  and 
the  best  animals  of  all  descriptions ;  the  aids  of  science  may  be 
obtained;  the  results  of  machinery  taken  advantage  of;  and  each 
colonist  return  to  his  station  a  wiser  and  a  better  man. 

It  is  satisfactory  to  find  that  the  favourable  anticipations  in  which 
we  indulged  in  the  text  nearly  thirty  years  ago  have  been  more  than 
realised.  And  although  the  discovery  of  gold  at  first  disturbed 
the  wool  and  sheep  trade,  in  common  with  every  industry,  yet  on 

E  3 


82  THE    BREEDS    OF    SHEEP. 

the  whole  it  has  abundantly  atoned  for  temporary  injury,  and  has 
since  greatly  contributed  to  the  prosperity  of  all  legitimate  trades, 
that  of  sheep  coming  in  perhaps  for  the  largest  share.  The  utili- 
sation of  the  carcass,  which  formerly  was  a  drug,  is  due  to  the 
increased  demand  for  animal  food ;  and  the  various  companies  got 
up  for  its  preparation  have  greatly  contributed  to  supplement  the 
profits  of  wool.  We  have  seen  with  what  small  beginnings  the 
cultivation  of  sheep  commenced,  even  during  the  existence  of  the 
present  work,  and  now  the  number  in  the  Australian  colonies 
greatly  exceeds  those  of  the  mother  country,  and  bids  fair  to  go 
on  increasing. 


83 


PART  IL~THE  STRUCTURE  AND  ECONOMY 
OF  THE  SHEEP. 


GENERAL    VIEW    OF    THE    STRUCTURE    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

The  body  of  the  sheep  resembles,  in  most  respects,  that  of  the 
ox  ;  with  a  somewhat  less  degree  of  nervous  energy,  it  possesses  a 
greater  capability  of  enduring  the  extremes  of  cold  and  heat,  and 
still  stronger  digestive  organs.  Much  of  the  nervous  energy  is, 
indeed,  expended  on  these  parts  ;  and  a  diminished  degree  is  pos- 
sessed by  the  organs  of  locomotion  and  sensation,  in  which  respect 
both  the  ox  and  the  sheep  differ  considerably  from  the  horse. 

The  body  of  the  sheep,  in  common  with  other  animals,  is  com- 
posed of  solids  and  fluids,  the  latter  exceeding  the  former  in 
weight  in  the  proportion  of  six  or  eight  to  one.  To  the  solids, 
however,  is  due  the  organisation  of  the  frame,  for  they  surround 
and  contain  the  fluids.  Late  anatomists  consider  that  animals  are 
composed  of  three  forms  of  tissues,  which  they  have  denominated 
the  fibrous,  the  lamellar,  and  the  globular.  The  two  former  are 
exemplified  in  the  structure  of  the  cellular  substance,  which  com- 
poses the  greatest  proportion  of  the  animal  fabric :  the  fibrous  is 
characteristic  of  the  muscular  and  ligamentous  structures ;  the 
fibrous  united  with  the  granular  is  exhibited  in  the  texture  of  the 
glands,  and  in  the  medullary  substance  of  the  nervous  system ; 
and  the  globular  is  shown  in  the  composition  of  the  chyle,  of  the 
blood,  and  also  other  secretions.  These  several  textures  being 
combined  together  in  diff'ereut  proportions,  constitute  the  various 
organs  of  which  the  body  is  composed. 

To  give  support  to  the  animal,  and  afford  fixed  objects  for  the 
attachment  of  various  parts,  is  the  office  of  the  skeleton,  which  is 
composed  in  the  sheep  of  nearly  two  hundred  bones  of  various 
sizes  and  shapes.  These  bones,  in  order  to  admit  of  motion,  are 
connected  one  to  another  by  means  of  strong  bands  called  liga- 
ments, the  ends  of  the  bones  being  constructed  in  various  ways  so 
as  to  admit  of  motion  ;  in  many  we  have  the  form  of  a  hinge,  ii. 
others  that  of  a  ball  and  socket.     The  motion  of  the  limbs  in 


84  STRUCTURE    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

effected  by  means  of  the  mmdes  or  flesh,  which,  although  to  8 
casual  observer  appealing  as  a  homogeneous  mass,  is  readily  sepa- 
rable into  a  greater  number  of  distinct  bodies  of  various  forms  and 
sizes.  These  muscles  have  commonly  two  separate  attachments, 
which  are  usually  bones,  and  by  contracting  in  length  they  bring 
these  points  of  attachment  nearer  to  each  other.  Muscles  are 
composed  of  a  vast  number  of  fibres,  which,  on  being  acted  on  by 
nervous  influence,  diminish  in  length  and  increase  in  bulk,  and 
thereby  approximate  the  different  objects  to  which  they  are  at- 
tached. They  are  usually  fastened  to  bones  by  means  of  a  strong 
white  substance  called  tendon,  which,  however,  possesses  in  itself 
no  power  of  contraction,  but  merely  communicates  the  contuactile 
force  to  the  object  to  be  acted  on.  Where  the  two  objects  of  at- 
tachment are  distant  from  each  other,  the  greater  portion  of  the 
distance  is  occupied  by  the  tendons,  the  advantage  of  which  is 
owing  to  their  diminished  size  in  proportion  to  their  strength  ; 
thus  we  find  the  legs  of  sheep  below  the  knee  are  light  and  slender, 
from  the  absence  of  muscular  and  the  substitution  of  tendinous 
substance.  The  greater  part  of  the  muscles  are  voluntary,  being 
under  the  control  of  the  mind ;  but  some  are  involuntary,  such  as 
the  heart  and  the  diaphragm.  The  muscles  or  flesh,  with  the  fat 
interspersed,  form  the  most  valuable  and  nutritious  portion  of  food, 
and  thus  those  breeds  are  most  valuable  in  which  the  flesh  abounds 
mostly  in  proportion  to  the  bones  and  sinews. 

Muscles  are  extensively  supplied  with  vessels  of  various  kinds, 
such  as  arteries  for  their  nourishment,  and  veins  for  the  return  of 
the  blood  after  this  purpose  is  effected.  They  have  likewise  nerves, 
which  not  only  furnish  sensation,  but  also  communicate  to  them 
the  mandates  of  the  will. 

These  nerves  proceed  either  from  the  brain  or  spinal  cord, 
which,  therefore,  may  be  considered  as  the  fountain  of  sensation 
and  the  residence  of  the  mind.  And  thus  sensation  is  first  sent 
from  the  extremities  to  the  brain  by  the  nerves,  and  then  by 
another  set  of  nerves  the  will  is  conveyed  to  the  muscles. 

The  brain  is  a  soft  pulpy  substance  contained  within  the  head, 
and  the  spinal  cord  is  somewhat  similar  in  structure,  and  extends 
from  the  brain  to  the  tail,  through  a  hole  in  the  bones  which  form 
the  spinal  column.  The  body  is  divided  into  two  principal  cavi- 
ties, the  chest  and  the  abdomen,  and  separated  by  a  muscular  parti- 
tion called  the  diaphragm.  The  former  contains  the  heart  and 
lungs,  whose  uses  are  principally  to  purify  and  distribute  the  blood 
by  means  of  respiration  and  circidation.  The  latter  contains  the 
stomach  and  boivels,  in  which  the  functions  of  digestion  are  carried 
on,  besides  several  important  glands,  such  as  the  liver,  kidneys  and 


GE.SERAL    YIEW-  85 

pancreas,  together  witn  other  supplementary  parts.  Both  the 
small  and  large  intestines  are  fastened  to  the  spine  by  means  of  a 
strong  membrane  called  the  mesentery,  which,  besides  veins  and 
arteries,  is  furnished  with  a  vast  number  of  small  vessels  called 
lacteah.  These  Tacteals  open  into  the  intestines,  and  there  absorb 
the  nutritious  part  of  the  food,  which  is  a  white  milky  fluid  called 
the  chyle,  and  convey  it  to  a  vessel  running  along  the  course  of  the 
spine,  which  empties  itself  near  the  heart  into  the  circulating 
system.  Thus  by  these  means  the  blood  becomes  enriched  with 
nutriment,  and  is  thereby  enabled  to  supply  the  constant  waste  the 
system  is  continually  undergoing. 

The  hlood  being  furnished  with  nutriment,  requires  to  be  puri- 
fied before  it  is  fit  for  circulation  ;  for  this  purpose  it  passes  into 
the  right  side  of  the  heart,  by  the  muscular  contraction  of  which 
it  is  sent  to  the  lungs,  where  it  becomes  exposed  to  the  action  of 
the  atmosphere,  by  which  it  is  changed  from  a  dark  to  a  light  red 
colour,  and  being  freed  from  impurities,  it  enters  the  left  side  of 
the  heart,  and  from  thence  is  sent,  by  means  of  the  arteries,  to  all 
parts  of  the  body,  supplying  every  part  with  nourishment,  and 
furnishing  the  various  glands  of  the  body,  not  only  with  their  own 
proper  nourishment,  but  with  material  for  the  secretion  of  their 
peculiar  fluids.  Thus  the  salivary  glands  separate  the  saliva  from 
the  blood;  the  pancreas,  a  j  uice  somewhat  similar;  the  testicles, 
the  semen ;  and  the  kidneys,  the  urine.  Each  gland  separates  its 
peculiar  fluid,  and  no  other.  The  urine,  being  secreted  by  the 
kidneys,  is  conveyed  by  means  of  two  small  but  long  tubes  into  the 
bladder,  whence  it  is  excreted  from  the  body. 

The  liver  is  nourished  by  the  arteries,  but  separates  the  bile 
from  the  dark  impure  blood,  which  is  conveyed  to  it  by  a  large 
vein.  The  contents  of  the  bowels  are  passed  onwards  by  the  in- 
fluence of  their  peculiar  action,  and  having  had  the  nutritious 
part  extracted,  are  excreted  from  the  body,  generally  in  a  solid 
form. 

The  cellular  memhrane  is  a  very  elastic  substance,  and  enters 
largely  into  the  composition  of  the  body ;  it  connects  the  various 
glands  together,  forms  frequently  a  covering  for  the  muscles  as 
well  as  for  various  vessels,  and  exists  in  the  form  of  cells,  which 
have  communication  with  each  other. 

The  adipose  tne?nbrane  is  found  in  various  parts  of  the  body, 
and  indeed  secretes  the  fat,  which  is  deposited  in  a  liquid  fojm, 
and  in  small  circumscribed  bags.  The  fat  thus  contained  often 
performs  the  important  office  of  affording  a  cushion  for  parts  that 
would  otherwise  be  exposed  to  injury  ;  thus  we  find  that  the  socket 
of  the  eye  is  abundantly  furnished  with  this  material. 


86  STRUCTUEE    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

There  are  two  other  important  membranes  which  are  exten- 
sively found  in  animal  bodies :  they  are  the  serous  and  the  mucous 
membranes.  Whenever  an  internal  part  has  an  external  opening, 
we  find  that  it  is  furnished  with  a  mucous  membrane  which 
secretes  mucus  for  its  protection  j  but  when  the  cavity  has  no 
external  opening,  then  it  is  lined  with  a  serous  membrane  which 
secretes  a  thin  watery  fluid  to  lubricate  the  parts,  and  preserve 
them  from  injury  by  friction.  Thus  from  the  entrance  of  the 
mouth  and  nostrils  to  the  anus,  throughout  the  whole  internal 
surface  of  the  bowels,  a  mucous  membrane  exists,  by  which  the 
fluid  is  secreted,  the  character  of  which  gives  a  name  to  the  mem- 
brane, and  which  protects  it  from  injury  either  by  the  external 
air  or  by  the  contents  of  the  bowels.  In  like  manner  we  find  the 
bladder  and  urinary  organs  similarly  lined. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  cavity  of  the  chest  and  the  abdomen, 
with  their  contents,  as  well  as  the  internal  surface  of  blood-vessels, 
are  furnished  with  a  serous  membrane,  which  secretes  a  watery 
vapour.  These  different  membranes  are  very  frequently  the  seat 
of  disease,  and  are  subject  to  severe  and  dangerous  inflammation. 
The  admirable  manner  in  which  the  various  organs  are  packed 
away  in  their  proper  cavities  is  worthy  of  particular  notice.  The 
lungs  and  the  heart  are  so  adapted  to  the  shape  of  the  chest,  that 
there  is  at  no  time  any  vacant  spot ;  and  the  more  numerous  con- 
tents of  the  abdomen  are  so  disposed,  that  while  each  has  suificient 
freedom  for  the  proper  performance  of  its  functions,  yet  the  whole 
are  packed  away  with  the  most  economical  care :  there  is  no  void 
whatever  to  be  found. 


SKELETON  OR  BONY  STRUCTUEE  OF  THE  SHEEP. 

The  skeleton  of  animal  bodies  is  formed  of  bone,  a  substance  pos- 
sessing firmness  and  stability  for  the  attachment  of  muscles,  the 
protection  of  the  vital  organs,  and  the  support  of  the  softer  parts. 
It  is  composed  of  animal  matter  and  earthy  salts;  the  former  con- 
sisting of  cartilage,  gelatine,  and  fat  or  marrow,  and  the  latter  of 
phosphate  of  lime  in  considerable  porportion,  a  lesser  quantity  of 
carbonate  of  lime,  and  a  small  portion  of  other  salts.  The  carti- 
lage of  bones  is  formed  before  the  earthy  matter,  and  constitutes, 
in  fact,  the  nidus  in  which  the  latter  is  deposited.  Bones  can  be 
freed  from  their  earthy  portion  by  immersion  in  an  acid,  by  which 
process  the  gelatine  is  also  dissolved,  and  pure  cartilage,  which  is 
elastic,  but  retains  the  original  figure  of  the  bone,  is  left.  On  the 
other  hand,  bones,  by  exposure  to  a  great  heat,  are  deprived  of  the 
animal  substance,  and  the  earthy  part  remains. 


BONES    OF    THE    HEAD.  87 

The  use  of  the  marroiv  is  more  particularly  to  prevent  the  too 
great  dryness  and  brittleness  of  bones.  To  the  animal  portion  of 
their  compostion  they  are  therefore  indebted  lor  their  shape  and 
what  degree  of  elasticity  they  possess,  and  from  the  earthy  portion 
they  derive  the  important  purposes  of  strength  and  stability.  Thus 
are  these  different  elements  combined  together,  and  by  an  union  of 
their  different  principles  form  a  substance  admirably  adapted  for 
affording  full  scope  for  the  play  of  the  various  organs  of  Iffe,  pro- 
tecting at  the  same  time  the  vital  parts  from  external  injury, 
admitting  and  assisting  the  powers  of  locomotion,  and,  in  fiue, 
forming  a  secure  fabric  for  the  beautiful  building  of  animal  frames. 

Every  bone  is  covered  by  a  membrane  called  the  pe7'wsteiWi, 
which  also  lines  the  internal  cavities  and  secretes  the  marrow ;  its 
use  is  to  circumscribe  the  form  of  bones  and  protect  them  by  its 
tenseness,  as  well  as  to  afford  the  medium  whereby  they  are  fur- 
nished with  their  vessels.  The  shape  of  particular  bones  inti- 
mately corresponds  to  the  purpose  for  which  they  are  intended ; 
where  for  the  office  of  protection  we  find  them  flat,  and  where  for 
the  purpose  of  motion,  long  and  cylindrical,  as  in  the  extremities. 
Tlie  Bones  of  tlie  Head. — In  the  construction  of  the  skull  the 
most  perfect  mechanism  is  displayed.  The  first  object  to  be  ob- 
tained is  the  protection  of  the  brain  from  the  accidents  to  which, 
from  the  peculiarities  of  animals,  it  is  mostly  exposed.  For  this 
purpose  the  skull  consists  of  two  tables  or  plates  ;  the  outer  thick 
and  tough,  the  inner  hard  and  brittle ;  the  former,  by  yielding  in 
a  measure  to  resistance,  diminishes  concussion,  whilst  the  latter, 
by  its  hardness,  prevents  sharp  bodies  from  penetrating  to  the 
brain.  Now,  if  these  two  plates  were  reversed,  the  brittle  would 
not  only  be  in  great  danger  of  fracture,  but  would  also  vibrate 
considerably;  and  the  injurious  effect  of  this  vibration  may  well 
be  conceived  when  we  are  told  that,  even  with  the  present  wise 
precaution,  it  often  occasions  in  the  human  subject  greater  mischief 
than  the  most  serious  fractures. 

There  is  a  remarkable  difference  in  the  appearance  of  the  head 
in  the  horned  and  the  polled  sheep  ;  the  former  have  a  more  pug- 
nacious, and  it  may  be  a  more  sensible,  appearance,  owing  to  the 
elevation  and  projection  of  the  upper  part  of  the  head.  This, 
however,  is  in  appearance  only,  for  the  prominence  of  the  head  is 
not  formed  by  any  increase  in  the  brain,  but  is  owing  to  the  con- 
siderable space  which  exists  between  the  two  tables  of  the  skull, 
the  outer  being  half  an  inch  or  upwards  from  the  inner.  This 
separation  accomplishes  two  purposes,  one  being  the  additional 
security  it  affords  to  the  brain  by  the  interposition  of  this  vacant 
space,  and  the  other  the  greater  root  or  basis  it  furnishes  to  the 


88  STEUCTURE    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

horns.  And  wlien  we  consider  that  horned  sheep  are  generally 
more  pugnacious  than  others,  and  that  they  have  not  only  the  will, 
but  the  power  of  butting  each  other  with  great  force,  the  addi- 
tional security  is  not  without  use.  In  fact  the  brain  is  seated  so 
much  beneath  and  behind  the  forehead,  that  very  little  of  the 
shock  can  be  communicated  to  it.  This  circumstance,  too,  operates 
in  affording  protection  to  the  polled  sheep  as  well.  Between  the 
skull  and  the  brain  are  interposed  several  membranes,  which  also 
assist  materially  in  preventing  vibration,  like  a  piece  of  parchment 
on  the  inside  of  a  glass  vessel.  The  skull  in  quadrupeds  is  com- 
posed of  upwards  of  thirty  bones,  which  are  connected  together 
by  dovetailed  sutures.  It  used  to  be  considered  that  the  object 
of  this  extensive  division  of  the  bones  was  the  convenience  of 
ossification,  which  always  commences  at  the  centre  ;  but  a  more 
extended  view  has  discovered  other  wise  pui-poses ;  for  not  only  is 
the  dovetailed  suture  the  strongest  mode  of  union,  but  it  is  also 
the  best  adapted  for  securing  the  brain  from  injury,  as  it  yields 
considerably  to  the  impression  received,  and  thus  wards  oft'  both 
concussion  and  vibration.  There  is  an  exception,  however,  to  this 
usual  connexion  in  the  temporal  bones  which  form  the  sides  of 
the  cranial  cavity,  and  which  are  connected  to  the  other  bones  by 
what  is  termed  the  squamous  suture — one  bone,  in  fact,  simply 
overlaps  another.  This  union  is  inferior  in  strength  to  the  former ; 
but  nature  has  here  another  office  to  perform,  and  the  reason  of 
this  exception  will  at  once  be  comprehended  on  examining  the 
skull.  If  a  considerable  blow  be  received  on  the  upper  portion  of 
the  arch,  its  sides  are  the  parts  most  likely  to  give  way ;  and  to 
i^uard  against  this  consequence  the  under  bone  overlaps  the  upper, 
and  thus  acts  like  the  tie-beam  of  an  arch  in  keeping  the  parts 
together.  This  dovetailed  suture  does  not  connect  the  bones  of 
the  inner  table ;  for,  though  a  carpenter  might  find  this  mode  of 
union  serviceable  in  joining  the  sides  of  a  wooden  box,  it  would 
by  no  means  be  found  applicable  in  connecting  together  brittle 
substances,  as  it  would  be  extremely  liable  to  chip  oft'  at  the 
edges. 

The  cranial  cavity,  or  that  part  which  contains  the  brain,  is 
not  more  than  a  third  the  size  of  the  other  parts  of  the  skull,  the 
remaining  portions  being  devoted  to  mastication  and  smelling. 

There  are  no  less  than  nine  bones  which  enter  into  the  com- 
position of  the  cranium.  The  two  frontal  bones  form  the  anterior 
part  usually  called  the  forehead ;  but  the  internal  plate  of  these 
bones  separates  and  recedes  from  the  external  plate  so  as  to  form 
a  cavity  between  them,  which  is  called  the  frontal  sinus,  and  is 
divided  by  a  septum  or  ridge  of  bone  between  them.   The  internal 


BO>'ES    OF    THE    HEAD.  89 

plate  forms  a  covering  for  the  anterior  lobe  of  the  cerebrum.  In 
horned  sheep  the  separation  of  the  plates  of  the  frontal  bones  is 
considerably  greater  than  in  others.  The  horns  proceed  on  each 
side  from  the  frontal  bone,  and  seem,  as  it  were,  prolongations  of 
the  bone ;  for  although  externally  we  find  the  structure  of  horn, 
internally  we  have  bone,  and  between  this  horn  and  bone  we  find 
the  vascular  structure  by  which  both  are  secreted.  In  many 
animals  the  age  can  be  judged  of  by  the  horn,  which  each  year 
presents  an  additional  ring  round  its  base.  In  the  cow  this  is  not 
an  uncertain  guide,  and  it  is  owing  to  the  irregular  growth  of  the 
horn  at  difterent  periods  of  the  year,  growing  probably  with  greater 
force  in  the  spring  than  in  the  winter ;  but  in  the  sheep,  although 
the  same  causes  obtain,  yet  it  cannot  be  depended  on  with  accu- 
racy. At  the  root  of  the  horn  we  observe  a  cavity  which  com- 
municates with  the  frontal  sinus. 

The  two  parietal  bones  are  proportionately  shorter  than  in  the 
horse,  and  are  situated  at  the  upper  and  middle  parts  of  the 
cranium,  and  cover  the  middle  lobes  of  the  cerebrum,  to  which 
their  internal  part  closely  corresponds. 

The  occipital,  a  single  bone  of  great  strength,  is  found  at  the 
back  and  base  of  the  cranium.  Its  internal  surface  covers  the 
cerebrum,  and  on  a  strong  process  at  the  base  the  medulla  ohlonyata 
rests.  The  external  surface  of  this  bone  is  extremely  irregular.  At 
its  lower  and  back  part  is  the  occipital  hole,  through  which  the 
spinal  cord,  as  well  as  some  nerves  and  an  artery,  make  their  exit 
from  the  brain.  On  each  side  of  this  hole  the  bone  is  smooth  and 
rounded  for  the  purpose  of  articulating  with  the  aHas,  the  first 
bone  of  the  neck  ;  besides  which  there  are  several  curious  processes 
for  the  attachment  of  muscles. 

The  temporal  bones  forming  the  sides  of  the  cranium  are  com- 
posed of  two  parts,  the  squamous  and  the  petrous.  Though  in 
man  these  pieces  are  united,  yet  in  the  sheep  they  are  distinct  from 
each  other.  The  squamous  portion  is  externally  a  convex  plate, 
with  a  hooked  projection  arising  from  it;  this  process  assists  in 
forming  the  zxjgomatic  arch.  The  squamous  portion  affords  at  the 
posterior  part  a  shallow  cavity  for  the  articulation  of  the  lower 
jaw-bone.  This  glenoid  cavity,  as  it  is  termed,  is  much  deeper  in 
carnivorous  animals,  which  require  to  open  their  jaws  more  exten- 
sively ;  and  an  inspection  of  this  portion  of  the  skeleton  alone  will 
enable  the  comparative  anatomist  to  decide  to  what  order  the 
animal  might  have  belonged.  In  herbivorous  races  a  grinding 
lateral  motion  of  the  jaws  only  is  required,  and  accordingly  the 
articulation  is  wide  and  shallow.  The  zygomaiic  arch,  too,  is  much 
more  arched  in  the  carnivora,  in  order  to  afford  more  room  for  the 


90  STRUCTURE    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

development  of  the  temporal  muscle,  which  governs  the  jaw,  than 
is  required  for  the  more  moderate  exertions  of  herbivorous  animals. 
The  petrous  portion  of  the  temporal  bone,  so  called  from  its  rocky 
nature,  is  apparently  a  solid  convex  figure.  It  contains,  however, 
the  organ  of  hearing,  and  has  on  its  internal  surface  orifices  for  the 
pa«!sage  of  the  auditory  nerve,  and  on  the  external  we  find  a  larger 
orilice  for  the  passage  of  sound.  The  internal  structure  of  this 
bone  is  as  beautiful  as  it  is  curious,  possessing  vestibules  and 
canals  for  the  ramification  of  the  nerve,  and  a  singular  cavity 
having  a  communication  with  the  mouth,  in  which  are  discovered 
four  diminutive  bones,  with  their  corresponding  muscles,  which 
serve  the  purpose  of  propagating  and  modifying  the  sound. 

The  inferior  and  middle  parts  of  the  cranium  are  formed  prin- 
cipally by  the  sphenoid,  a  bone  which  somewhat  resembles  a  bird 
iu  flight,  having  a  body  and  four  processes,  two  of  which  are 
called  the  wings  and  two  the  legs.  This  bone  supports  the  middle 
lobes  of  the  cerebrum,  and  presents  holes  and  depressions  for  the 
passage  of  nerves.  The  cranial  cavity  is  separated  from  the  nasal 
by  the  ethmoid  bone,  which  also  somewhat  resembles  a  bird  in 
flight,  but  without  legs,  and  is  situated  in  front  of  the  bone  last 
described.  It  supports  the  anterior  lobes  of  the  cerebrum,  and 
has  holes  for  the  exit  of  the  olfactory  nerves ;  and  on  its  internal 
and  inferior  surface  it  forms  cavities  called  the  ethmoidal  sinuses, 
which  are  separated  by  a  long  septum  from  each  other,  and  are 
perforated  by  a  va«it  number  of  small  holes  for  the  passage  of  the 
olfactory  nerves  to  the  nasal  cavities.  It  is  this  thin  part  of  the  bone 
which  is  penetrated  in  the  operation  of  wiring  giddy  sheep.  Such 
is  a  brief  description  of  the  various  bones  which  form  the  cranium 
and  envelop  the  brain,  and  which  are  connected  together  and  ar- 
ranged on  principles  more  durable  and  economical  than  can  be 
displayed  by  the  noblest  specimens  of  mechanical  skill. 

The  face  occupies  a  larger  portion  of  the  head  than  the  cranium, 
but  is  less  in  proportion  than  the  ox  and  the  horse,  and  particu- 
larly the  latter  animal.  Its  upper  part  is  formed  by  the  lower 
portion  of  the  frontal  bones,  which  are  considerably  longer  in  the 
sheep  than  in  the  horse,  descending  much  lower  down,  and  in  fact 
forming  the  roof  of  a  great  portion  of  the  nasal  cavity.  Another 
peculiarity  in  these  bones  is,  that  whereas  in  the  horse  they  descend 
in  a  straight  direction,  in  the  sheep,  just  above  the  orbit,  they 
form  almost  a  right  angle. 

The  nasal  bones  are  much  less  developed  in  the  sheep  than  in 
the  horse. 

The  superior  maxillary  bones,  though  relatively  smaller  than 
in  the  horse,  yet  form  a  great  portion  of  the  face,  extending  the 


BONES    OF    THE    HEAD.  91 

whole  length  of  the  molar  teeth,  for  which  these  bones  form  suit- 
able sockets,  and  laterally  from  the  molar  teeth  to  the  frontal  and 
nasal  bones.  Within  the  cavity  of  the  mouth  these  bones  form 
the  roof  of  the  palate,  being  united  together  by  a  suture.  This  por- 
tion of  the  bones  is  wider  though  shorter  than  in  the  horse,  so 
that  the  molar  teeth  are  farther  apart,  and  the  mouth  thus  gains  in 
width  what  it  loses  in  length.  Thus  situated,  these  bones  have 
three  surfaces — the  facial,  the  nasal,  and  the  palatine.  At  the  supe- 
rior part  of  their  palatine  surface  we  find  what  are  called  the  palate 
bones,  which,  in  the  horse,  chiefly  consist  of  narrow  curved  bones, 
forming  together  the  semi-oval  border  dividing  the  cavity  of  the 
mouth  from  that  of  the  nostril,  and  serving  for  the  attachment  of 
the  soft  palate.  In  the  sheep,  however,  these  bones  extend  further 
down  into  the  mouth,  and  are  indeed  a  portion  of  the  palate, 
which,  in  the  horse,  is  formed  of  the  maxillary.  The  border,  too, 
instead  of  being  nearly  semi-circular,  is  almost  conical,  from  being 
so  very  narrow.  The  consequence  of  this  structure  is,  that  the 
upper  entrance  to  the  cavity  of  the  nostrils  is  smaller  in  proportion 
than  in  the  horse,  and  the  soft  palate  is  less  developed,  so  as  not  to 
close  the  cavity  of  the  mouth.  The  nature  of  the  sheep  corresponds 
with  this  structure :  not  being  an  animal  of  speed,  it  does  not 
require  to  inhale  so  much  atmospheric  air ;  and  the  purposes  of 
rumination  require  the  food  to  ascend  from  the  stomach  to  the 
mouth,  which  it  could  not  do  if  the  soft  palate  were  constructed 
as  in  the  horse,  where  it  closes  the  back  part  of  the  mouth,  except 
when  food  is  passing  from  the  mouth  towards  the  stomach. 

The  anterior  or  inferior  maxiUary  bones,  which  are  wanting  in 
the  human  subject,  are  attached  above  to  the  superior  maxillary 
bones,  and  thence  descending  and  enlarging,  in  the  horse  form  the 
sockets  of  the  upper  incisor  teeth,  but  in  the  sheep  and  other  rumi- 
nating animals  not  possessing  these  teeth,  they  become  smaller 
instead  of  larger  as  they  descend,  merely  forming  the  basis  of  the 
hard  pad  which  meets  the  under  incisor  teeth. 

The  molar  bones,  irregular  in  shape,  and  comparatively  larger 
iu  the  sheep  than  in  the  horse,  are  situated  on  the  sides  of  the  face 
above  the  large  maxillary,  and  partly  within  and  partly  without 
the  orbit  of  which  they  form  the  lower  part. 

The  lachrymal  bones,  so  called  because  the  lachrymal  duct  for 
the  conveyance  of  the  superfluous  tears  to  the  nostrils  passes 
through  them,  is  situated  about  half  within  and  half  without  the 
orbit,  the  latter  portion  being  between  the  molar  and  frontal  bones 
— a  different  arrangement  from  that  which  obtains  in  the  horse. 
The  orbit  or  bony  socket  which  contains  the  eye  is  thus  composed 
of  a  variety  of  bones. 


92  STRUCTURE    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

There  is  a  long  but  very  thin  bone,  called  the  voyner,  situated 
at  the  floor  of  the  nostrils,  and  running  throughout  their  length, 
and  having  a  groove  into  which  is  embedded  the  cartilaginous  sub- 
stance which  divides  the  nostrils  into  two  equal  cavities. 

The  posterior  maxillary  or  lower  jaw-bone  is  formed  of  two 
halves,  united  at  the  inferior  part  by  cartilage  in  the  young  sub- 
ject and  by  bone  in  the  adult.  This  united  portion  forms  the 
sockets  for  the  eight  incisor  teeth,  which  sockets,  however,  are  by 
no  means  so  deep  or  so  strong  in  proportion  as  in  the  horse,  and 
thus  it  is  common  for  sheep  to  lose  or  break  these  teeth  soon  after 
they  are  fully  developed.  From  the  place  of  junction  the  lower 
jaw-bones  separate  and  gradually  recede  from  each  other,  becoming 
wider  and  deeper,  and  forming  strong  and  secure  sockets  for  the 
molar  teeth,  after  which  the  bones  become  thinner,  turn  upwards, 
and  terminate  in  two  extremities,  one  rounded,  forming,  with  the 
temporal  bone  above,  the  maxillary  joint,  and  is  secured  from  dis- 
placement by  a  hook-like  projection  which  is  the  other  termination 
of  the  lower  jaw-bone. 

The  bones  which  we  have  mentioned  as  composing  the  face  are 
none  of  them  solid  in  their  structure,  but  most  of  them  hollow,  and 
thus  various  cavities  are  formed  which  are  called  after  the  bones 
in  which  they  appear.  Accordingly  we  have  the  frontal,  the 
■maxillary,  the  sphenoidal,  the  ethmoidal,  and  the  ^^a^a^me  sinuses. 
The  frontal  are  the  largest  and  most  important,  particularly  in  the 
horned  sheep,  in  which  they  are  partly  divided  into  cells  and  com- 
municate with  other  sinuses  immediately  surrounding  the  horn. 
These  singular  cavities  are  not  found  in  the  young  subject,  but  are 
gradually  formed  as  the  size  of  the  head  increases.  They  thus 
serve  the  important  purpose  of  increasing  the  size  of  the  head  with- 
out adding  to  its  weight. 

The  Bones  of  tlie  Body. — The  nech  is  formed  by  seven 
bones,  which,  with  the  exception  of  the  two  first,  are  very  much 
alike.  The  first  is  connected  with  the  occipital,  or  bone  of  the 
skull,  with  which  it  forms  a  joint  possessing  much  motion  in  a 
vertical  direction.  In  the  human  subject  it  is  termed  the  atlas, 
from  its  supporting  the  head.  It  forms  a  joint  behind  with  the 
dcntata,  as  the  second  bone  is  termed,  from  its  having  in  the  front 
part  a  process  like  a  tooth,  which,  however,  aff'ords  the  head  con- 
siderable lateral  motion.  All  the  bones  of  the  neck  are  extremely 
irregular  in  shape ;  they  all  possess  a  large  hole  through  the  centre 
for  the  passage  of  the  spinal  marrow,  and  small  ones  at  the  sides 
for  the  exit  of  nerves  and  arteries.  They  have  also  projections  on 
each  side  and  above  for  the  attachment  of  muscles,  and  each  one 


BONES    OF    THE    BODT.  93 

forms  a  joint  both  before  and  behind  which  affords  that  great  flexi- 
bility to  the  neck  which  most  animals  possess. 

The  hack  or  chine  is  composed  of  separate  bones  called  yertebrse, 
of  which  there  are  thirteen  belonging -to  the  back  alone.  They  all 
possess,  like  those  of  the  neck,  a  hole  through  the  centre  for  the 
passage  of  the  spinal  cord,  as  well  as  a  small  one  at  the  side  for 
the  exit  of  the  nerves.  The  superior  projections  or  processes  are 
much  higher  than  those  of  the  neck,  but  considerably  shorter  than 
we  find  in  the  horse  ;  and  thus  we  have  high  withers  in  this  animal 
and  low  ones  in  the  sheep,  and  they  are  also  shorter  in  the  im- 
proved breeds  than  in  the  wilder  races  of  sheep,  a  channel  between 
the  shoulders  and  along  the  back  being  justly  regarded  as  a  sign 
of  a  disposition  to  fatten.  These  processes  serve  for  the  attach- 
ment of  muscles,  as  well  as  of  a  strong  elastic  substance  which  is 
attached  to  all  the  bones  of  the  neck  as  well  as  to  the  occiput,  and 
serves  to  support  the  head,  and  thus  relieves  the  muscles  to  a 
great  extent. 

The  ribs  are  attached  to  the  vertebrae  by  means  of  a  joint — 
one  rib  is  joined  to  two  vertebrae,  and  vice  versa,  thus  permitting 
the  former  a  certain  extent  of  motion.  There  are  thirteen  ribs  on 
each  side,  eight  true  and  five  false ;  the  former  are  attached  to  the 
sternum  or  breast-bone,  and  the  latter  are  merely  joined  to  the 
former  at  their  lower  parts,  which  is  formed  of  cartilage.  The 
ribs  should  spring  from  the  back-bone  as  horizontally  as  possible, 
as  thereby  the  rotundity  of  the  frame  is  increased. 

The  loins  are  formed  by  five  bones,  which  partly  resemble  the 
bones  of  the  back ;  but  instead  of  ribs  springing  from  the  sides 
there  are  fixed  bony  processes,  several  inches  in  length,  which 
afford  a  protection  or  roof  for  the  abdomen.  These  processes,  in  a 
well-formed  sheep,  should  be  long  and  horizontal. 

After  the  loins  the  spine  continues  in  the  sacrimi,  which,  in  the 
lamb,  is  composed  of  separate  pieces,  but  is  consolidated  into  one 
bone  in  the  sheep.  This  bone  is  perforated  for  the  passage  of  the 
spinal  cord,  which,  however,  diminishes  in  size,  and  terminates  at 
the  end  of  the  sacrum  in  several  nerves  which  run  to  the  tail. 
The  bones  of  the  tail  are  numerous,  but  are  not  perforated. 

•me  Bones  of  the  Pore  Extremities.— The  joints  or  arti- 
culations of  the  extremities  are  the  same  in  number  as  those  of 
the  horse ;  but  the  limbs,  on  reaching  the  fetlock  joint,  become 
divided,  and  the  four  bones  situated  below  the  fetlock  are  conse- 
quently double.  The  scapula  or  blade-bone  is  similar  in  shape  to 
that  of  the  horse,  having  a  spine  or  ridge  down  its  middle  for  the 
attachment  of  muscles  j  but  in  sheep  the  bone  is  not  ao  long  in 


94:  STRUCTURE    OF    TKE    SREEP. 

proportion  to  its  width.  It  is  attached  to  the  ribs  by  muscular 
substance,  by  means  of  which  the  body  is  suspended  or  hung  like 
a  carriage  between  the  two  fore-legs,  and  concussion  is  tKereby 
materially  diminished.  From  the  more  circular  shape  of  the  rib.^, 
the  shoulder-blades  are  attached  to  them  with  much  less  mechani- 
cal advantage  so  far  as  speed  is  concerned.  They  are  placed  wider 
apart,  both  above  and  below,  but  particularly  at  their  lower  parts, 
so  that  the  limbs  spread  open,  at  a  greater  angle,  much  more  like 
a  pair  of  compasses  than  do  those  of  the  horse,  and  even  the  ox, 
thus  giving  the  sheep  that  rolling  walk  so  peculiar  to  the  animal 
and  so  disadvantageous  with  regard  to  speed. 

The  humerus,  or  shoulder-bone,  strong  and  cylindrical,  forms 
with  the  blade  above  the  shoulder-joint,  the  action  of  which,  vnth 
til  at  of  the  elbow-joint  below,  is  more  limited  than  that  of  the 
horse. 

The  radius  or  bone  of  the  fore-arm  is  comparatively  shorter 
than  that  of  the  horse,  and  we  find  that  it  is  always  long  in  ani- 
mals of  speed  and  short  where  speed  is  not  required :  this  bone  is 
also  strong  and  cylindrical. 

The  ulna,  or  bone  which  forms  the  elbow,  does  not  support  the 
weight,  but  serves  for  the  attachment  of  the  powerful  muscles  so 
conspicuous  in  a  shoulder  of  mutton,  and  which  are  generally 
divided  by  the  first  cut.  For  this  purpose  it  is  attached  to  the 
radius,  and  rises  above  the  elbow-joint,  the  back  of  which  it  forms, 
but  does  not  reach  the  knee.  This  joint,  the  carpus,  is  composed 
of  seven  bones,  arranged  in  two  rows,  the  upper  of  which  articu- 
lates with  the  radius,  and  the  lower  with  the  cannon  or  meta- 
carpus. 

The  metacarpus  or  shank  much  resembles  that  of  the  horse, 
until  it  reaches  the  fetlock,  where  it  is  to  some  little  extent  cloven, 
so  as  to  articulate  with  the  double  arrangement  of  the  bones  below. 
Insteai  of  the  two  small  metacarpal  or  splent-bones  that  we  find 
in  the  horse,  there  is  merely  one,  and  that  of  small  extent  and 
use. 

The  small  bones  situated  at  the  back  of  the  fetlock,  called  the 
sesamoids,  and  which  serve  as  levers  for  the  attachment  of  liga- 
rae;it3  and  the  action  of  the  sinews,  are  double  those  of  the  horse, 
being  four  in  number. 

The  bones  below  the  fetlock,  vi^;.  the  large  pastern  or  os 
S'ffraffinis,  the  small  pastern  or  05  coroncs,  the  os  pedis  or  coffin- 
bone,  and  the  navicular  bone,  are  all  double  ;  and,  like  the  same 
parts  in  the  ox,  somewhat  resemble  in  shape  the  bones  of  the  horse 
sawn  in  two. 

All  these  joints  have  less  extent  of  motion  than  we  find  in  thb 


BONES  OF  THE  FORE  EXTREMITIES.         9. 5 

horse,  and  the  bones  therefore  present  a  more  tiptiofht  appearance. 
In  the  horse  and  in  the  ox  an  angle  is  formed  at  tlie  fetlock  with 
various  degrees  of  obliquity,  and  the  three  bones  below  pass  down 
in  a  straight  line  though  in  an  oblique  direction.  In  the  sheep, 
however,  there  is  a  different  conformation  ;  the  large  pastern-bone 
passes  down  in  an  oblique  forward  course,  as  in  the  ox,  but  the 
small  pastern  descends  in  a  perpendicular  direction  so  as  to  form 
an  angle  with  the  bone  above  almost  as  great  as,  though  precisely 
opposite  to,  that  of  the  fetlock-joint.  This  it  is  which  gives  the 
more  upright  appearance  to  these  parts  in  sheep,  though  the  cause 
is  not  externally  visible,  and  it  throws  the  centre  of  gravity  on  the 
back  part  of  the  coffin-bone  and  on  the  horny  heels  of  the  foot. 
The  small  pastern  bone  is  relatively  longer  than  in  the  horse,  and 
there  is  more  motion  in  the  pastern-joint,  though  much  less  in  the 
fetlock ;  indeed  the  action  of  the  former  is  quite  as  much  as  the 
latter. 

Though  not  belonging  to  the  skeleton,  this  will  yet  be  the 
most  convenient  situation  for  noticing  the  structure  of  the  other 
parts  of 

The  root. — The  bones  dividing  at  the  fetlock,  the  tendons 
likewise,  both  before  and  behind,  become  divisible,  and  there  are 
consequently  two  flexor  tendons  or  benders  and  two  extensors  to 
each  division.  The  former,  as  in  the  horse,  consists  of  a  perforans 
and  a  perforatus,  the  latter  forming  a  sheath  for  the  perforans  j  ust 
above  the  fetlock,  in  which  it  continues  to  the  small  pastern-bone, 
into  which  the  perforatus  is  inserted.  The  perforans  then  glides 
over  the  back  of  the  navicular  bone,  which  forms  a  sort  of  pulley, 
and  is  inserted  into  the  lower  and  back  part  of  the  cofiin  or  foot- 
bone.  Of  the  extensors  one  is  inserted  into  the  upper  and  front 
part  of  the  small  pastern,  and  the  other  is  continued  to  the  coffin- 
bone.  These  bones  are  connected  together  by  capsular  and  other 
ligaments ;  and  there  is  one  very  strong  one  in  particular,  which 
passes  from  the  lower,  inner,  and  anterior  part  of  the  large  pastern 
in  a  perpendicular  direction  to  the  inner  and  back  part  of  the 
coffin-bone.  To  the  lower  and  back  part  of  the  coffin-bone  is 
attached  an  elastic  pad  of  a  fibrous  and  ligamentous  nature,  which 
receives  the  greater  part  of  the  superincumbent  weight,  and  by 
yielding  to  it  takes  off  the  jar.  It  rests  on  the  horny  heels  of  the 
foot,  which  thus  supports  the  principal  part  of  the  animal's  weight, 
very  little  resting  on  the  anterior  portion  of  the  foot.  It  is  thus 
very  evident  that  there  is  a  considerable  difference,  both  in  the 
structure  and  functions  of  the  various  parts  of  the  foot,  in  the 
sheep  and  in  the  horse.  In  the  latter  we  find  that  the  crust  or 
wall  of  the  foot  is  connected  to  the  coffin-bone  by  means  of  a 


96  STRUCTURE    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

double  arrangement  of  a  vast  number  of  horny  and  fibrous  plates, 
the  former  connected  with  the  inside  of  the  crust,  and  the  latter 
with  the  coffin-bone.  These  laminae,  as  they  are  called,  are  dove- 
tailed together,  and  thus  the  connection  is  rendered  of  great 
strength  ;  and  the  vast  extent  of  surface  thus  afforded,  and  the 
elasticity  of  the  parts,  obviate  concussion,  and  afford  indeed  an 
admirable  spring  and  a  principal  cause  of  the  elastic  tread  of  the 
animal.  In  the  ox  we  observe  an  arrangement  somewhat  similar, 
though  the  laminae  are  much  less  developed ;  but  in  the  sheep,  so 
little  weight  being  supported  by  the  crust  and  front  part  of  the 
foot,  such  a  complicated  structure  is  not  required,  consequently  we 
find  no  laminse,  but  the  crust  is  connected  to  the  bone  by  a  simple 
vascular  structure,  which  secretes  the  principal  part  of  the  crust, 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  side  or  lower  part  of  the  foot  is  iormed. 
The  coronary  substance  which  in  the  horse  secretes  the  greater 
portion  of  the  crust  is  wanting  in  the  sheep.  The  sole  of  the  foot 
is  secreted  as  in  the  horse  by  the  vascular  membrane  above,  and 
there  is  a  greater  thickness  of  this  dense  substance  interposed  be- 
ttie  coffin-bone  and  the  sole  of  the  foot. 

We  can  thus  understand  from  this  description  how  it  is  that 
the  horn  of  the  foot  is  so  speedily  restored  in  sheep  when  the  hoof 
is  lost  in  foot-rot  or  the  epidemic  by  the  matter  insinuating  itself 
between  the  horn  and  the  bone ;  it  has  not,  as  in  the  horse,  to 
wait  for  the  slow  and  tedious  growth  of  the  horn  from  the  coronet 
downwards.  The  inside  of  the  crust  is  considerably  thinner  and 
weaker  than  the  outside,  particularly  towards  the  back  part,  where 
foot-rot  mo3t  frequently  commences. 

The  horny  part  of  the  foot  may  be  considered  to  consist  of  the 
crust,  or  wall,  and  the  sole.  The  former  surrounds  the  outside  of 
the  foot  and  turns  inwards  at  the  toe,  and  passes  in  a  straight 
direction  to  the  heels.  It  is  thickest  at  the  toe  and  thinnest  on 
the  inside.  The  sole  is  situated  at  the  bottom  of  the  foot  between 
the  outer  and  inner  part  of  the  crust,  but  it  is  difficult  to  say 
where  the  crust  ends  or  the  sole  begins,  the  structure  of  each  being 
so  much  alike.  The  heels  are  formed  both  by  the  crust  and  the 
sole,  though  principally  by  the  former,  which  turns  inward  and 
joins  the  inner  crust ;  and  it  here  becomes  more  elastic  and  spongy, 
resembling  very  much  the  frog  of  the  horse.  This  part  supports 
the  principal  part  of  the  weight,  and  suffers  most  when  sheep  are 
driven  much  on  the  hard  road. 

We  have  yet  to  notice  a  very  singular  peculiarity  in  the  foot 
of  the  sheep,  which  is 

The  Biflex  or  Interdigrltal  Canal. — The  large  pastern- 
bones  are  connected  together  by  a  ligamentous  substance,  and  it  is 


THE    HIND    EXTREMITIES.  97 

not  till  the  pastern -joint  is  reached  that  the  foot  becomes  exte- 
riorly disunited.  At  the  situation  of  this  joint  in  front  we  can 
detect  an  opening  sufficiently  large  to  admit  a  small  probe ;  this 
is  the  entrance  of  the  canal  just  spoken  of,  which  presently  enlarges, 
and  passes  first  downwards,  and  then  winds  round  in  a  semicircular 
direction,  ending  in  a  sort  of  cul  de  sac.  On  cutting  into  this  canal 
it  appears  to  be  a  duplication  of  the  skin ;  its  internal  surface  is 
lined  with  hair,  and  there  is  found  a  considerable  quantity  of  de- 
tached hair  mixed  with  a  waxy  secretion  in  the  canal,  secreted  by 
various  glands.  This  hair  is  no  doubt  excreted  from  the  internal 
surface,  and  which,  from  the  smalluess  of  the  opening,  cannot 
escape,  or  rather  is  detained  for  a  useful  purpose.  The  use  of  this 
canal  thus  stuffed  with  hair  is  self-evident.  We  have  mentioned 
the  great  motion  possessed  by  the  pastern-joint,  which  is  so  great 
as  to  threaten  to  chafe  the  skin  by  the  friction  of  one  side  against 
the  other.  It  is  to  prevent  or  ward  off  this  friction  that  this  biflex 
canal,  or  rather  hair-stuffed  cushion,  is  provided ;  and  it  acts,  in- 
deed, precisely  like  the  fenders  which  are  lowered  down  the  side 
of  a  vessel  to  prevent  it  coming  into  contact  with  another.-  The  ox 
possesses  little  or  no  motion  in  this  joint,  and  consequently  requires 
no  such  provision  to  prevent  friction.  The  benevolence  of  Nature 
is  strikingly  exemplified  by  this  simple  structure.  This  part  occa- 
sionally suffers  from  the  insinuation  of  dust  and  sand,  and  is  sub- 
ject to  inflammation  and  ulceration,  which  sometimes  prove  very 
troublesome. 

The  Hind  Extremities. — The  haunch  is  formed  by  three 
bones  in  the  young  subject,  but  these  bones  soon  become  consoli- 
dated into  one,  and  is  called  the  pelvis  or  basin,  within  which  are 
situated  the  bladder  and  part  of  the  organs  of  generation.  View- 
ing this  bone  from  below  it  appears  pretty  nearly  circular  within, 
but  externally  the  circle  is  broken  by  various  irregular  processes, 
two  of  which  project  upwards  on  each  side  the  spine  which  lies 
between  them ;  then  two  others  extend  backwards  below  the  tail, 
and  are  called  the  haunch  bones,  and  two  project  laterally  which 
are  termed  the  hips.  These  bones  project  but  little  in  a  well-formed 
sheep,  being  altogether  clothed  with  flesh  and  fat. 

The  bones  of  the  pelvis  extend  downwards  and  backwards 
from  the  spine,  and  towards  the  inferior  part  form  on  each  side  a 
deep  cap  or  socket,  into  which  fits  the  upper  part  of  the  thiuh 
b'^ue,  which  is  formed  like  a  ball,  so  as  to  tit  into  tlie  socket.  The 
thigh  bone,  oi:  fcemur,  extends  forward,  and  is  relatively  longer  in 
the  sheep  than  in  the  horse.  It  is  the  flesh  surrounding  this  bone 
which  composes  the  bulk  of  a  leg  of  mutton.  Its  lower  pari 
forms,  with  the  tibia  below,  the  stijle  joint,  which  has  two  car 

p 


98  STRUCTURE    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

tilaginous  bodies  within  it,  and  is  protected  in  front  by  a  small 
bone  called  the  patella  or  knee-pan :  this  bone  becomes  a  sort  of 
pulley,  receiving  the  insertions  of  the  powerful  muscles  above, 
and  is  attached  below  to  the  tibia  by  strong  ligaments. 

The  tibia  or  leg  bone  runs  backwards  from  the  stifle,  and  is  not 
so  long  in  proportion  as  in  the  horse ;  it  corresponds  to  the  radius 
in  the  fore  extremity,  and  it  forms  the  upper  part  of  the  hoch 
joint. 

This  joint  is  composed  of  six  bones  arranged  in  rows  so  as  to 
form  three  articulations,  but  motion  is  confined  to  the  upper, 
formed  by  the  astragalus  or  knuckle  bone  and  the  tibia ;  the  other 
bones  serve  as  cushions  to  diminish  concussion,  with  the  exception 
of  the  OS  calcis,  situated  at  the  back,  which  acts  as  a  lever  receiving 
the  insertions  of  the  powerful  muscles  which  straighten  the  hock. 
This  bone  is  much  shorter  than  in  the  horse,  speed  not  being 
required.  The  bones  below  the  hock  correspond  with  those  found 
below  the  knee  in  the  fore  extremity. 


THE    MUSCULAR    AND    NERVOUS    SYSTEMS. 

The  XtXuscles. — Although  the  shape  of  the  body  depends 
materially  on  that  of  the  skeleton,  so  that  if  the  latter  is  faulty 
the  former  will  not  be  perfect,  yet  there  is  a  very  great  contrast 
between  the  appearance  of  the  skeleton  and  that  of  the  body  itself, 
of  which  it  forms  a  part.  Whilst  the  former  is  angular  and  ex- 
tremely irregular,  the  latter  is  round  and  smooth,  so  that  though 
the  good  shape  of  the  animal  depends  on  the  skeleton,  yet  it 
requires  the  eye  of  the  anatomist  to  detect,  in  the  conformation  of 
the  latter,  the  good  points  which  in  the  body  itself  are  readily 
observed. 

The  bulk  of  the  body  is  formed  of  flesh  or  muscles  ;  their  prin- 
cipal use,  when  living,  is  to  effect  the  movement  of  the  limbs ; 
when  dead,  to  afford  nutriment  to  man.  The  motion  of  the  body 
is  occasioned  by  the  contraction  of  the  muscles,  which,  being  fas- 
tened to  different  bones,  draw  these  bones  towards  each  other,  and 
thus  the  limbs  are  bent  whenever  particular  muscles  shorten  or 
contract.  These  muscles,  which  bend  the  limbs,  are  called  the 
flexors,  whilst  an  opposite  set  which  straighten  them  again  are 
denominated  the  extensors;  the  latter,  however,  are  mostly 
smaller  and  weaker  than  the  former.  The  size  and  shape  of 
muscles  are  very  diversified,  some  being  so  minute  as  to  be  scarcely 
visible,  as  those  within  the  ear;  whilst  those  of  the  loins  and 
buttocks  are  large  enough  to  afford  a  feast  for  many  persons  when 


THE    MUSCLES    OR    FLESH.  Vi) 

brought  on  the  table,  either  as  a  saddle,  embracing  the  loins  on 
both  sides,  or  the  haunch,  comprehending  both  loin  and  leg  on  one 
side ;  some  muscles  are  thin  and  spread  out  like  a  fan  ;  others  are 
thick  and  bulky;  and  whilst  some  are  extremely  short,  others  are 
cylindrical  and  of  great  length.  Muscles  are  furnished  with  nerves 
both  of  motion  and  sensation  :  the  former  convey  the  mandates  of 
the  will,  and  are  thus  the  cause  of  motion  ;  the  latter  communicate 
the  sense  of  feeling,  and  are  the  medium  both  of  pleasure  and  pain  : 
but  there  is  a  considerably  less  degree  of  feeling  possessed  by  the 
flesh  than  by  the  skin.  The  muscles  are  composed  of  fibres,  and 
are  bound  together  by  cellular  membrane  ;  and  they  are,  in  sheep, 
mostly  clothed  with  fat,  which  also  is  deposited  amongst  the 
fibres.  It  is  the  capability  of  containing  this  fat,  and  the  abundance 
and  laxity  of  the  adipose  membrane  containing  it,  which  distin- 
guishes a  sheep  of  a  good  from  one  of  a  bad  breed,  and  gives  to  the 
former  that  softness  and  elasticity  or  resiliency  which  is  felt  on 
handling  it,  even  when  poor.  The  former  sheep,  too,  possesses  large 
muscles,  particularly  at  those  parts  where  the  meat  is  most  esteemed. 
Thus  the  loins  of  a  good  sheep  are  broad,  and  abundantly  covered 
with  flesh  and  fat,  and  so  likewise  are  the  buttocks  and  the 
shoulders,  whilst  the  head  and  neck  are  small.  The  muscles  that  are 
in  most  constant  use  are  more  interlaced  with  tendinous  fibre,  and 
consequently  are  much  less  tender,  as  meat,  than  those  which  are 
less  actively  engaged.  The  muscles  of  the  lower  part  of  the  legs 
between  the  knees  and  hocks  and  the  joints  above,  as  well  as  those 
of  the  neck  and  head,  are  instances  of  the  former  kind  ;  whilst  the 
muscles  of  the  loins,  and  more  particularly  those  within  the  pelvis, 
are  examples  of  the  latter,  and  afford  the  most  tender  meat  in  the 
body. 

Tlie  Brain  and  STerves. — The  brain,  the  seat  of  the  mind 
and  the  fountain  of  sensation,  is  a  soft  body  situated  in  a  cavity  of 
the  skull  called  the  cranium.  In  man  it  occupies  by  far  the  greater 
portion  of  the  skull ;  but  in  the  sheep,  from  its  much  smaller  size, 
and  from  the  large  space  devoted  to  the  face,  its  cavity  the 
cranium  is  much  the  smaller  part.  It  is  closely  invested  by  a 
membrane  called  the  pia  mater,  whilst  the  cranium  is  lined  by  a 
firm,  strong  membrane  called  the  dura  mater.  Between  these  there 
is  another  delicate  membrane  called  the  tunica  arachyioides.  The 
dura  mater,  by  its  duplications,  forms  several  processes  and  sinuses  ; 
the  former,  by  descending  between  its  divisions,  serve  to  secure 
the  brain  in  its  position,  and  the  latter  act  as  reservoirs  for  the 
venous  blood,  thus  preventing  the  brain  from  being  injured  by  any 
temporary  impediment  to  its  passage.  The  pia  mater  closely  em- 
braces the  brain,  and  dips  into  its  convolutions. 

y2 


100  STRUCTUEE  OF  THE  SHEEP. 

The  iDrain  consists  of  three  parts — the  cerebrum,  the  cerehellunif 
and  the  7nedulla  oblongata.  The  cereb7'myi  is  considerably  the 
largest,  and  is  divided  into  two  hemispheres,  each  of  which  closely 
corresponds  with  its  fellow.  On  cutting  into  the  cerebrum,  we 
tind  that  it  consists  of  two  portions — the  medullary  or  white,  and 
the  grey  or  cortical  part.  The  latter  is  mostly  situated  towards 
the  surface,  and  the  former  towards  the  centre,  but  both  appear  to 
run  into  each  other.  Within  the  hemispheres  there  appear  to  be 
various  cavities,  canals,  and  membranes,  which,  in  this  work,  it  is 
unnecessary  to  describe. 

The  cerebellum,  or  little  brain,  is  situated  behind  the  cerebrum, 
than  which  it  is  considerably  smaller.  It  appears  to  consist  of 
medullary  and  cortical  substance  mingled  together. 

The  medulla  oblongata,  the  smallest  division,  is  situated  at  the 
base  of  the  brain.  It  is  medullary  in  its  structure,  and  gives  origin 
to  the  greater  part  of  the  cranial  nerves.  It  is  by  far  the  most 
sensible  part  of  the  brain,  for  whilst  portions  of  the  cerebrum  have 
been  cut  away  in  some  animals  without  giving  any  apparent  pain, 
the  least  pressure  on  the  medulla  is  productive  of  injury  or  death. 
The  brain  is  largely  supplied  by  means  of  the  carotid  arteries  with 
blood,  which  is  returned  to  the  heart  by  the  jugular  veins. 

The  spinal  marrow  may  be  considered  as  the  continuation  of 
the  brain,  running  from  the  medulla  oblongata,  throughout  the 
spinal  canal,  to  the  tail.  It  is  enveloped  by  the  same  membranes 
as  the  brain,  and  continues  to  the  sacrum,  where  it  ends  in  several 
nervous  cords.  Its  form  is  cylindrical,  and  it  has  been  found  to 
consist  of  six  bands,  in  the  centre  of  which  there  is  a  sort  of 
canal. 

The  nerves  arising  from  the  brain  and  spinal  cord,  in  sheep,  are 
forty  pair,  ten  of  which  proceed  from  the  brain  and  the  remainder 
from  the  cord,  and  are  therefore  called  the  spinal  nerves.  On 
examining  a  nerve,  we  find  that  it  consists  of  a  vast  number  of 
white  filaments,  each  having  its  particular  covering,  and  yet  com- 
pactly bound  together  and  invested  by  membrane.  Of  the  cranial 
nerves  the  first  pair  is  the  olfactory,  the  nerve  of  smelling,  pulpy  in 
its  structure,  and  the  largest  in  the  body.  It  rises  from  the  cere- 
brum, passes  out  of  the  cranium,  and  is  spread  out  on  the  membrane 
lining  the  nostrils.  The  second  pair,  the  optic,  rise  from  the  cere- 
brum ;  but,  before  they  pass  out  of  the  skull,  join  together  and 
decussate,  the  right  nerve  going  to  the  left  eye,  and  vice  versa. 
Each  takes  an  oblique  course,  pierces  the  outer  coats  of  the  eye, 
and  is  spread  out  in  the  form  of  the  retina,  and  thus  conveys  the 
impressions  of  objects  to  the  brain.  The  sense  of  hearing  is  sup- 
plied by  a  soft  nerve,  the  auditory,  which  enters  an  orifice  in  the 


THE  BRAIN  AND  NERYES  101 

temporal  bone,  where  the  seat  of  hearing  is  contained.  The  sense 
of  taste  is  supplied  by  the  fifth,  which  is  a  compound  nerve, 
conveying  both  sensation  and  motion.  The  other  cranial  nerves 
convey  sensation  and  motion  to  the  various  parts  of  the  head. 
There  is  one  nerve  which  demands  more  particular  notice ;  it  is  the 
par  vagum,  or  pneumo-gastric  of  the  French.  It  rises  from  tlie 
brain,  passes  down  the  neck  close  to  the  carotid  artery,  and  distri- 
butes branches  to  the  pharj-nx,  larynx,  and  oesophagus,  heart, 
lungs,  stomach,  and  liver.  If  divided  on  both  sides  in  the  livirjg 
animal,  death  immediately  ensues.  Its  importance  may  thus  be 
readily  conceived ;  it  is  intimately  connected  with  life  itself,  giving 
to  the  heart  and  stomach  their  power  of  motion  independent  of 
the  will. 

The  spinal  are  compound  nerves ;  having  a  double  function, 
and  a  twofold  origin,  they  convey  both  sensation  and  motion. 
They  arise  by  numerous  filaments  from  both  the  upper  and  under 
surface  of  the  spinal  cord.  The  filaments  coalesce,  and,  before 
they  emerge  from  the  dura  mater,  ^oiu.  together,  previous  to  which 
the  upper  nerve  forms  a  sort  of  knot  called  a  ganglion.  This  latter 
is  the  nerve  of  sensation,  the  other  the  nerve  of  motion ;  and  thus, 
though  united  together,  the  filaments  are  yet  distinct,  and  a  part 
is  endowed  mostly  with  sensation  or  with  motion,  according  as 
the  filaments  of  the  former  or  the  latter  predominate. 

There  is  yet  another  nerve  which  requires  to  be  noticed  as 
being  of  great  importance.  It  has  been  called  the  ganglial,  froni 
the  nature  of  its  apparent  origin,  and  sympatJietic,  from  its  func- 
tions, but  more  properly  the  great  ortjanic  nerve.  It  appears  to 
arise  from  a  small  red  ganglion  or  knot  at  the  base  of  the  brain, 
and  just  previous  to  the  commencement  of  the  spinal  cord.  It 
appears  to  have  intimate  communication  with  all  the  other  nerves, 
and  distributes  branches  to  all  the  glands,  arteries,  and  absorbents 
of  the  system— the  heart,  lungs,  and  digestive  organs;  it  is  the 
soul,  as  it  were  of  the  organic  system,  influencing  the  functions  of 
nutrition  and  secretion. 

We  have  before  observed  that  the  brain  of  the  sheep  is  small 
as  compared  with  the  size  of  the  body.  In  fact,  the  whole  nervous 
system  is,  comparatively,  feebly  developed,  and  this  peculiarity 
has  a  considerable  influence  over  the  diseases  of  the  animal,  and 
accounts  for  the  fact  that  in  the  greater  number  debility  quickly 
supervenes,  and  in  many  the  animal  speedily  sinks. 


102  STRUCTURE    OF    THE    SHEEP. 


THE    ORGANS    OF    MASTICATION    AND    DIGESTION,    &C. 

The  mouth  of  the  sheep  and  its  contents  are  admirably  adapted 
for  their  natural  functions.  The  sheep  is  intended  by  Nature  to 
thrive  on  scanty  pasture  and  to  take  a  considerable  bite,  and  much 
closer  to  the  ground  than  the  ox.  The  lips  are  therefore  protected 
by  hair,  which  defends  them  from  injury  from  the  ground;  they 
approach  somewhat  to  a  point,  and  the  upper  lip  is  cleft,  which 
suits  it  well  for  the  purpose. 

Dentition. — The  incisor  teeth  or  tiippers,  like  those  of  the 
ox,  are  situated  only  on  the  lower  jaw,  the  upper  having  instead 
a  firm  fibrous  pad,  sufficiently  strong  to  retain  the  food  between  it 
and  the  teeth.  The  incisor  teeth  are  eight  in  number  in  a  perfect 
mouth  ;  but  the  lamb,  when  dropped,  has  only  two,  and  some- 
times none  visible,  but  in  a  few  weeks  the  others  make  their 
appearance :  these,  however,  are  but  temporary  teeth,  smaller 
than  the  permanent  ones,  and  adapted  to  the  size  of  the  mouth. 
By  one  year  old  the  central  teeth  drop  out,  and  are  succeeded  by 
two  larger  and  stronger  teeth — the  permanent.  These  teeth  are 
formed  within  the  sockets  in  the  bone  sometime  previous  to  their 
appearance,  and  pressing  against  the  root  of  the  temporary 
incisors,  gradually  induce  their  absorption.  By  two  years  old 
the  two  next  teeth  have  undergone  the  same  change,  and  are 
succeeded  before  the  following  year  by  those  adjoining,  so  that 
by  from  three  to  three-and-a-half  years  the  whole  eight  teeth  are 
thus  renewed,  and  the  sheep  is  then  said  to  be  full-mouthed. 
Although  the  order  and  period  of  these  changes  are  sufficiently 
regular  to  afford  an  adequate  criterion  for  a  general  rule,  yet  it  is 
not  without  exception,  as  sometimes  the  permanent  teeth  appear 
much  earlier,  and  at  others  their  appearance  has  been  protracted 
to  a  later  period. 

After  the  sheep  becomes  full-mouthed,  there  is  no  method  of 
judging  of  the  age  with  accuracy,  but  the  teeth  rarely  remain 
perfect  long,  particularly  if  fed  on  turnips ;  some  of  them  are  lost 
or  become  broken,  and  the  sheep  is  then  said  to  be  broken- 
mouthed. 

The  incisor  teeth  are  somewhat  conical  in  shape,  the  point 
being  inserted  in  deep  sockets  ;  the  portion  visible  is  covered  by 
a  very  hard  transparent  material  called  the  enamel,  and  it  is 
brought  to  a  sharp  edge  at  the  anterior  part,  so  that  it  cuts  very 
much  like  a  chisel.  Compared  with  those  of  the  horse  the  incisor 
teeth  appear  somewhat  loose,  but  this  is  rather  an  advantage 
than  otherwise.     The  food,  being  embraced  between  the  incisor 


OEGANS    OF    MASTICATION.  103 

teeth  and  the  pad  above,  is  torn  asunder  by  the  nodding"  action  of 
the  head,  and  the  food  is  conveyed  by  the  tongue  to  the  molars 
or  jjrinders.  When  turnips,  however,  form  the  diet,  the  food  is 
scooped  out,  as  it  were,  by  the  teeth  alone,  and  they  are  conse- 
quently sooner  worn  out  and  broken ;  but  even  otherwise  this 
effect  generally  follows  a  few  years  after  the  mouth  becomes 
complete.  The  molar  teeth  are  six  in  number,  on  each  side  of  each 
jaw;  they  are  firmly  planted  in  deep  sockets,  and  their  faces  are 
covered  with  enamel.  These  faces  are  very  irregular,  but 
admirably  adapted  for  tearing  and  grinding  the  tough  and  un- 
yielding grass ;  and  they  are  also  secured  in  their  positions  by 
means  of  the  gums,  which,  in  common  with  the  other  parts  of 
the  mouth,  are  covered  with  a  mucous  membrane,  and  in  some  parts 
a  firm  dense  material  is  interposed  between  the  mucous  membrane 
and  the  bone. 

Since  the  former  edition  of  this  work  was  printed,  a  considerable 
amount  of  attention  has  been  paid  to  the  subject  of  dentition, 
particularly  with  reference  to  the  means  thus  afforded  of  judging 
of  the  age,  and  by  no  one  more  than  by  Professor  Simonds  of 
the  Royal  Veterinary  College.  Farmers,  in  classifying  sheep  for 
the  fairs,  usually  distinguish  them  as  two-teeth  or  one-year  old  or 
one  shear-sheep,  and  four  teeth  or  two-year  old  or  two  shear, 
as  they  are  called  in  some  districts.  It  not  unfrequently  happens, 
however,  that,  instead  of  two  central  permanent  nippers,  the 
sheep  has  four  before  he  reaches  eighteen  months,  and  there  is  a 
variation  of  several  months  between  early  and  late  dentition. 
However,  as  an  ordinary  rule,  the  existence  of  two  permanent 
incisors  denotes  the  sheep  to  be  one  year  old,  and  the  existence 
of  four  that  he  is  two  years  old. 

Corresponding  changes  take  place  with  regard  to  the  molar 
teeth ;  but  as,  from  the  difficulty  of  getting  at  them  for  examina- 
tion, they  are  of  less  practical  importance,  we  must  refer  to 
Professor  Simond's  elaborate  article  in  the  '  Journal  of  the  Royal 
Agricultural  Society  '  for  further  information  on  this  subject. 

A  table  of  early  and  late  dentition,  prepared  by  Professor 
Simonds,  is  of  practical  utility ;  we  have,  however,  seen  sheep  at 
sixteen  and  seventeen  months  old  with  four  permanent  incisors. 
With  a  latitude  of  two  to  three  months  on  either  side  for  early  or 
late  dentition,  the  following  will  be  about  the  average  : — 

At  1  year  2  months,  there  are  two  permanent  incisors,  a  a,  fig.  1,  p.  104. 
„  1 "  „    9        „  „       four  „  „    a  a,  b  b,  fig.  2. 

„  2     „     6        „  „        six  „  „     a  a,  b  b,  c  c,  fig.  3. 

„  3     „    3        „  „       eight  „  „    a  a,  b  b,  c  c,  d  d,  fig.  4, 


104 


STRUCTUEE    OF    THE    SHEEP. 


The  sides  of  the  mouth  are  formed  by  the  cheeks,  which  admit 
the  limited  motion  of  the  jaws  and  are  connected  with  the  powerful 
masseter  muscles,  which  form  the  greater  part  of  the  bulk  of  the 


Fig.   1. 


Fig.  2. 


a 

a 

^ 

^Q^ 

\ 

^- 

1 

/ 

^ 

i 

^ 

} 

m 

Fig.  3.  Fpg.  4. 

face,  and  principally  govern  the  grinding  motion  of  the  jaw.  In 
the  skull  we  find  the  lower  jaw  considerably  narrower  than  the 
upper,  but  in  the  living  animal  this  does  not  appear,  the  space  being 
occupied  by  the  masseter  muscles.      The  lips   greatly  assist  in 


ORGANS    OF    MASTICATION.  105 

gathering  together  the  food,  and  are  hirgelv  furnished  with  the 
nerves  of  feeling ;  they  are  composed  of  skin,  muscle,  and  mem- 
brane, and  possess  the  powers  of  motion  and  sensation  in  a  high 
degree. 

The  mouth  is  abundantly  supplied  with  a  watery  fluid  called 
saliva,  particularly  during  mastication,  when  it  is  secreted  and 
poured  in  in  considerable  quantities.  This  fluid  is  principally 
secreted  by  three  pairs  of  glands,  the  largest  of  which  are  the 
parotid,  situated  at  the  root  of  each  ear,  and  from  which  two 
ducts  on  each  side  convey  the  fluid  and  unite  in  one  previous  to 
entering  the  mouth.  The  submaxillary  glands  are  situated  under 
the  jaws,  and  their  ducts  terminate  in  tubular  eminences  near  the 
fraenum  or  bridle  of  the  tongue.  The  other  salivary  glands  are 
the  sublingual,  situated  under  the  tongue  ;  its  ducts  terminate 
rather  higher  up  than  those  last  described.  Besides  these  there 
are  other  small  glands  connected  with  the  cheek  and  the  bottom 
of  the  mouth,  and  one  peculiar  to  sheep  situated  behind  the  lower 
jaw,  and  extending  towards  the  eye,  and  communicating  with  the 
mouth  by  means  of  a  duct  opening  near  the  last  molar  tooth. 
There  is  thus  from  these  Yarious  sources  an  abundant  supply  of 
saliva  more  copious  than  most  animals  possess,  and  w^hich  is 
rendered  necessary  by  the  hard  and  woody  nature  of  the  food  con- 
sumed in  a  natural  stale.  It  has  been  found  that  a  large 
supply  passes  into  the  stomach  independent  of  mastication,  and 
is  there  required  for  softening  and  macerating  the  dry  food ;  for 
deprived  of  this  supply  by  an  experiment,  it  has  been  found  that 
the  contents  of  the  paunch  remained  dry. 

The  mouth  is  principally  filled  with  the  tongue^  w^hich  is 
muscular  in  its  structure  and  very  flexible,  being,  indeed,  a 
principal  agent  in  mastication  and  swallowing.  It  is  larger  at 
the  upper  part  than  towards  its  tip,  and  is  confined  posteriorly  to 
the  muscles  between  the  branches  of  the  lower  jaw,  by  a  sort  ot" 
fleshy  bridle,  and  above  to  a  singularly-shaped  bone  called  the 
OS  hijoides.  It  possesses  both  the  power  of  feeling  and  tasting, 
and  for  this  purpose  is  well  supplied  with  two  classes  of  nerves, 
and  is  covered  by  both  cutis  and  cuticle.  There  is  a  marked 
distinction  in  the  back  part  of  the  mouth  between  the  horse  and 
the  sheep  and  other  ruminating  animals.  In  the  former  the  velum 
palati,  or  soft  palate,  a  fleshy  substance  attached  to  the  semicir- 
cular border  of  the  palatine  bones,  is  sufficiently  long  to  fall  down 
on  the  back  of  the  tongue,  and  thus  eftectually  to  close  the  back 
part  of  the  mouth,  except  when  food  is  passing,  and  prevent 
either  the  air  or  food  returning  through  the  mouth.  Thus  a 
horse  can  breathe  through  his  nostrils  only,  and  whenever  food  is 

f3 


106  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  SHEEP. 

vomited  it  passes  in  the  same  direction.  The  sheep  being  a 
ruminating  animal,  such  a  structure  would  be  inapplicable,  as  it 
would  prevent  the  food  being  returned  to  the  mouth;  'consequently 
the  soft  palate  is  considerably  shorter  and  narrower.  It  does  not 
reach  the  tongue,  and  the  diminished  extent  of  the  palatine  bones, 
to  which  it  is  attached,  as  before  observed,  also  limits  its  action. 

The  larynx,  the  pharynx,  and  the  tongue  are  connected  together 
and  to  the  upper  jaw-bone,  or  rather  to  the  bones  of  the  head, 
by  means  of  a  bone  called  the  os  hyoides,  from  its  resemblance  to 
a  spur.  The  semicircular  part  of  the  spur  embraces,  in  a  manner, 
the  larynx,  whilst  the  shaft  is  intimately  connected  with  the  root 
of  the  tongue.  The  os  hyoides  has  two  long  appendages,  which 
articulate  with  the  temporal  bone.  Thus  situated  and  constituted, 
this  bone  gives  great  support  to  the  soft  parts  connected  with  it, 
whilst,  at  the  same  time,  it  freely  admits  their  extensive  mobility. 
In  the  act  of  swallowing,  therefore,  this  bone  is  greatly  called 
into  action. 

Adjoining  the  pharynx  are  two  large  spaces  called  the  Eus- 
tachian cavities,  situated  one  on  each  side,  and  communicating  by 
means  of  a  tube  with  the  internal  ear. 

The  Org:ans  of  Sigestion. — The  digestive  organs  of  the 
sheep,  like  those  of  graminivorous  animals  in  general,  are  exten- 
sive and  complicated,  having  a  far  more  difficult  and  elaborate 
office  to  perform  than  those  of  carnivorous  animals.  The  food  of 
the  latter  is  taken,  as  it  were,  ready  prepared ;  its  constituents 
closely  resemble  those  of  the  blood  itself,  and  of  course  it  is 
exactly  similar  to  the  flesh  it  is  intended  to  nourish.  A  small 
quantity  of  food  only  is  required  to  be  taken,  and  nearly  the 
whole  of  this  food  is  employed  in  nourishing  the  system  or  sup- 
plying its  waste,  the  faeces  being  exceedingly  scanty.  The  diges- 
tive organs  of  herbivorous  animals  have  a  much  more  onerous 
task  to  accomplish  ;  the  food  is  in  a  more  crude  or  less  prepared 
state  ;  the  nutritious  portions  bear  a  much  smaller  proportion  to 
the  whole  mass,  and,  accordingly,  the  food  taken  is  of  very  con- 
siderable bulk.  To  meet  these  peculiarities  the  digestive  organs 
are  much  more  spacious  and  more  complicated  than  those  of  the 
carnivora ;  means  are  affbrded  for  detaining  the  food  until  the 
nutriment  can  be  properly  extracted,  a  larger  amount  of  chemical 
and  vital  force  is  employed,  and  a  more  abundant  supply  of 
nervous  energy  aftbrded.  The  horse,  in  a  state  of  nature,  is 
almost  continually  feeding ;  he  bites  short  and  well  triturates  his 
food,  and  is  almost  constantly  so  engaged ;  and  though,  in  a 
domesticated  state,  the  food  is  not  so  abundant  nor  so  frequently 
taken,  it  is  in  a  much  more  nutritious  form.    Oorresponding  to  these 


ORGANS    OF    DIGESTION.  107 

natural  habits,  we  find  that,  though  the  alimentary  canal  altogether 
is  of  enormous  bulk,  the  stomach  itself  is  single  and  of  moderate 
size.  Digestion  is  almost  constantly  going  on ;  food  is  passing 
out  of  one  orifice  of  the  stomach  as  it  comes  in  at  the  other,  and 
the  supply  of  bile  is  constant,  there  being  no  reservoir  for  it — 
no  gall-bladder.  The  smallness  of  the  stomach  is  compensated 
by  the  prodigious  bulk  of  the  large  intestines.  Thus  the  horse, 
though  an  animal  that  requries  a  large  quantity  of  food,  is  yet 
able  to  perform  great  physical  exertions,  and  can  make  them  after 
a  full  meal  more  readily  than  any  other  animal. 

The  ox,  the  sheep,  and  other  ruminating  animals,  have,  like 
the  horse,  very  extensive  digestive  organs,  but  very  differently 
arranged.  The  horse,  in  a  state  of  nature,  will  rarely  get  fat ;  the 
ox  and  the  sheep,  in  good  pasture,  will  almost  invariably  do  so, 
and  will  otherwise  greatly  increase  in  size  ;  their  digestive  organs 
are  therefore  more  bulky  than  in  the  horse,  and  much  more  com- 
plicated, and  the  intestines  are  of  greater  length,  though  not  so 
large,  and  instead  of  one  stomach  there  are  no  less  than  four. 

The  natural  food  of  the  sheep  is  embraced  by  the  joint  appo- 
sition of  the  incisor  teeth  of  the  under  jaw  and  the  cartilaginous 
pad  on  the  upper,  and  is  separated  mainly  by  the  action  of  the 
muscles  of  the  head  and  neck,  giving  the  head  an  almost  constant 
jerking  motion,  which  may  be  readily  observed  when  the  animal 
is  feeding  on  pasture.  The  grass  is  torn  off*,  not  bitten;  but  when 
turnips  form  the  food  the  teeth  are  more  actively  employed,  and 
consequently  are  more  worn  and  become  sooner  lost.  The  food 
being  moderately  chewed  by  the  molar  teeth  or  grinders,  to  which 
it  is  conveyed  by  the  tongue,  is  by  the  same  organ  carried  to  the 
back  of  the  mouth,  and  being  softened  by  the  saliva  and  thereby 
mixed  with  atmospheric  air,  enters  a  fleshy  bag  called  the  pharynx 
or  gullet.  This  pharynx  is  lined  by  the  same  membrane  as  the 
mouth,  and  is  surrounded  by,  and  in  fact  composed  of,  various 
muscles,  which,  by  contracting,  force  the  food  forwards  into  a  long 
tube  called  the  cesophagiis,  which  leads  to  the  stomach.  The 
pharynx  is  situated  immediately  above  the  larynx  or  cartilaginous 
box  which  forms  the  entrance  to  the  windpipe,  pnd  the  food  in 
entering  the  gullet  passes  over  the  entrance  to  the  larynx,  which 
it  is  prevented  from  entering  by  a  triangular  lid  termed  the  epi- 
f/lottis,  which  in  the  act  of  swallowing  shuts  down  on  the  larynx^ 
but  otherwise  leaves  it  open  for  the  purpose  of  respiration.  The 
food  after  leaving  the  gullet  enters  the  oesophagus,  a  very  long 
tube  lined  internally  by  a  white  insensible  membrane,  and  exter- 
nally by  muscular  coats,  which,  by  contracting,  force  the  food  on- 
wards to  the  stomach.     The  oesophagus  passes  down  the  neck 


108 


STRUCTURE    OF   THE   SHEEP. 


INTERNAL   TIETV   OF   THE    STOMACHS. 


ORGANS    OF    DIGESTION.  109 


DESCEIPTION   OF   THE   CUT. 

A.  The  lower  part  of  the  oesophagus,  showing  its  external  coat. 

B.  Its  internal  coat  at  its  termination. 

C.  The  upper  compartment  of  the  rumen,  or  first  stomach,  showing  its  internal  coat. 

D.  The  strong  muscular  band  which  divides  the  lower  from  the  upper  compart- 

ment. 

E.  The  lower  compartment  of  the  rumen. 

F.  Another  muscular  band. 

Gr  G.  The  external  coat  of  the  rumen. 

H.  The  entrance  to  the  rumen  cut  open,  and  its  opposite  part  reflected  back,  so  as 

to  exhibit  an  internal  view  of  the  second  stomach. 
I.  The  external  coat  of  the  reticulum,  or  second  stomach. 
J  J  J  J.  The  muscular  pillars  forming  the  floor  of  the  oesophagean  canal  when  close, 

but  now  spread  open  to  show  the  second  stomach. 
K  K.  An  internal  view  of  the  reticulum,  or  second  stomach,  showing  its  pecuhar 

honeycomb  structure. 
L  L.  The  continuation  of    the  oesophagean  canal  at  the  entrance   to  the  third 

stomach. 
M  M,  An  internal  view  of  the  maniplus,  or  third  stomach,  showing  its  peculiar 

folds  or  plaits. 
N  N.  The  fleshy  Lips,  which  act  as  valves  to  guard  the  entrance  betw^een  them  to  the 

fourth  stomach. 
O.  The  termination  of  the  oesophagean  canal. 
P  P.  The  external  coat  of  the  abomasum,  or  fourth  stomach. 
Q  Q.  The  internal  coat  of  the  abomasimi,  or  fourth  stomach,  showing  its  folds. 

Both  these  coats  are  displayed  by  shtting  open  the  stomach  and  then  pinning 
the  duplications  together,  at  its  upper  part. 
R  R.  The  valve  formed  by  puckerings  of  the  mternal  coat,  and  guarding  the  en- 
trance into  the  small  intestines. 
S.  The  internal  coat  of  the  small  intestines. 


towards  its  left  side  and  somewhat  above  the  windpipe,  with 
which  it  enters  the  chest  between  the  two  first  ribs ;  it  then  takes 
an  upward  or  ascending  course  through  the  cavity  of  the  chest 
over  the  base  of  the  heart,  passes  the  midritF  or  diaphragm,  and 
then  descending  soon  afterwards  reaches  the  stomachs.  On  enter- 
ing the  chest  it  somewhat  diminishes  in  size,  but  again  expands  in 
the  abdomen.  It  does  not  actually  terminate  in  either  of  the 
stomachs,  but  in  what  is  called  the  cesophagean  cayial,  which  is 
about  four  inches  and  a  half  in  extent,  and  is  formed  above  by  a 
continuation  of  the  oesophagus,  and  below  by  certain  muscular 
pillars — duplications  of  the  upper  portions  of  the  first  and  second 
stomachs.  Thus  the  oesophagean  canal  is  a  sort  of  lobby  or  passage, 
having  entrances  to  the  different  stomachs,  and  which,  with  the 
exception  of  the  second  and  fourth,  are  the  only  entrances  these 
stomachs  possess.  By  the  annexed  cut  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
food  duct  commences  at  the  entrance  to  the  rumen,  and  for  the 
space  of  three  inches  its  floor  consists  of  muscular  pillars  or  lips, 
formed  by  the  upper  part  of  the  second  stomach,  the  entrance  to 
which  is  between  these  lips.  The  pillars  then  continue  within 
the  cavity  of  the  third  stomach  for  the  space  of  an  inch  and  a  half 
to  the  entrance  of  the  fourth  stomach,  the  cavity  of  the  third 
being  principally  situated  above,  forming  the  roof  of  the  oesopha- 


110  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  SHEEr. 

gean  canal.  The  entrance,  however,  to  the  third  commences 
before  the  opening  into  the  second  stomach  ceases.  The  entrance 
to  the  fourth  stomach  is  two  inches  and  a  half  in  extent,  and  is 
formed  by  duplications  of  the  mucous  and  muscular  coats  of  this 
viscus,  which  meet  so  as  to  close  the  entrance  when  either  the 
will  of  the  animal  or  the  necessity  of  nature  requires. 

The  usual  course  of  the  food  is  into  the  rumen  or  Jii'st  stomach, 
whose  entrance  is  close  to  the  termination  of  the  oesophagus  and 
the  entrance  of  the  canal.  This  stomach  is  of  enormous  extent, 
occupying,  indeed,  when  full,  nearly  three-fourths  of  the  abdomen. 
It  lies  towards  the  left  side  extending  to  the  flank,  and  by  a  sort 
of  muscular  band  it  is  partially  divided  into  two  principal  com- 
partments. It  is  lined  externally  by  the  peritoneal  membrane,  in 
common  with  the  other  contents  of  the  abdomen,  and  internally 
by  an  insensible  membrane,  called  the  cuticular,  between  which 
there  are  two  other  coats — the  mucous,  which  secrete  the  fluid 
found  in  the  stomach,  and  the  muscular,  which  is  formed  of  two 
orders  of  fibres  running  in  opposite  directions.  Its  interior  aspect 
presents  a  number  of  pouches  or  compartments,  which  are  formed 
by  muscular  bands  thrown  across  from  one  part  to  another;  and 
the  surface  presents  an  innumerable  number  of  papillae  or  emi- 
nences, not  sharp,  but  blunt-pointed,  which  are  formed  by  the 
mucous  coat  and  merely  covered  by  the  cuticular.  These  papillae 
are  coarser  in  the  lower  compartment  of  the  viscus  than  in  the 
upper.  AVe  have  said  the  rumen  consists  of  two  compartments, 
but  with  greater  propriety  it  may  be  stated  that  there  are  four  or 
live,  a  smaller  one  being  situated  immediately  below  the  termina- 
tion of  the  oesophagus  and  adjoining  the  second  stomach.  The 
use  of  these  partial  divisions  is  very  evident.  They  relieve  one 
portion  of  the  stomach  from  sustaining  the  whole  of  the  weight 
of  the  food,  and  they  afi^ord  steps  or  resting-places  for  the  food 
that  has  undergone  maceration,  the  upper  and  smaller  compart- 
ment being  that  into  which  the  food  is  raised  just  previous  to 
being  ruminated.  The  rumen  is  partly  attached  to  the  second 
stomach,  but  only  communicates  with  it  through  the  common 
opening  into  the  cesophagean  canal. 

The  second  stomach  is  called  the  reticulum ;  its  size  is  con- 
siderably less  than  the  rumen,  but  it  possesses  much  strength  in 
its  coats,  and  its  muscular  fibres  are  more  developed.  It  is  glo- 
bular in  shape  and  somewhat  larger  than  the  maniplus,  and  is 
familiar  to  us  in  tripe,  not  only  from  its  cellular  structure,  but 
from  its  being  thicker  than  the  others.  Its  internal  aspect  is  very 
singular,  having  a  vast  number,  indeed  several  hundred,  of  shallow 
cells  somewhat  like  a  honeycomb.     These  ceUs  are  much  smaller 


ORGANS    OF    DIGESTION.  Ill 

at  the  part  of  the  viscus  nearest  the  entrance,  and  gradually  in- 
crease in  size  from  this  point.  The  sides  of  these  cells  consist  of 
ridges  formed  by  the  mucous  and  cuticular  coats^  and  smaller 
ridges  are  also  observed  running  across  within  the  cells.  Most  of 
them  are  pentagonal,  but  many  have  six  sides,  and  on  their  surface 
we  observe  an  immense  number  of  sharp-pointed  papillae  much 
smaller  in  size  though  sharper  than  those  of  the  rumen,  and  which 
secrete  a  mucous  fluid.  This  viscus  has  the  same  coats  as  the 
rumen,  but  the  muscular  coat  has  two  layers  of  strong  fibres 
arranged  both  transversely  and  longitudinally.  The  opening  into 
this  stomach  is  of  some  extent,  and  the  duplications  or  lips  which 
form  it  are  indeed  the  floor  of  the  greater  portion  of  the  oesopha- 
gean  canal.  Though  in  the  ordinary  state,  the  roof  or  upper  part 
of  the  reticulum  is  the  floor  of  the  cesophagean  canal,  yet  if  air  is 
pumped  into  the  oesophagus  so  as  to  distend  the  stomachs,  the 
situation  of  the  reticulum  will  become  reversed,  rising  up  towards 
the  oesophagus ;  and  thus  if  this  viscus  is  distended  in  hoove,  as 
from  its  free  communication  with  the  rumen  it  probably  may  be, 
it  must  press  upon  the  diaphragm  with  very  considerable  force, 
greater  in  proportion  even  than  the  rumen  itself.  The  contents 
of  this  stomach  are  more  liquid  than  those  of  the  others. 

Somewhat  before  the  end  of  the  entrance  of  the  second,  the 
canal  terminates,  as  it  were,  in  the  third  stomach,  the  omastim 
or  maniplus,  so  called  from  its  curious  internal  structure,  which 
is  formed  by  a  great  number  of  plaits  or  folds  arranged  longitu- 
dinally in  a  direction  from  the  entrance  of  the  stomach  ;  so  that 
although  it  is  not  large,  externally  not  exceeding  the  reticulum, 
its  internal  surface  is  increased  in  more  than  a  tenfold  degree. 
These  plaits  are  very  curiously  arranged,  being  in  the  form  of 
seven  or  eight  groups  of  six  leaves,  each  leaf  dissimilar  in  length, 
the  longest  extending  almost  from  the  upper  to  the  lower  part  of 
the  stomach.  These  leaves  are  studded  with  numerous  small 
papillae,  much  harder  than  those  of  the  reticulum,  and  some  on 

the  edges  of  the  plaits  of  the  shape  of  a  bent  cone,  thus 

the  point  directed  towards  the  entrance.  It  has  been  found  in 
certain  cows  that  would  never  retain  their  food,  but  were  con- 
tinually scouring,  that  these  plaits  were  unusually  short. 

The  maniplus  has  but  one  opening,  but  this  opening  is  in 
direct  communication  with  both  the  canal  and  the  fourth  stomach, 
as  may  be  seen  in  the  sketch,  page  108.  The  plaits  are  studded 
with  numerous  minute  papillae,  somewhat  similar  to  those  found 
in  the  reticulum.     The  maniplus  possesses  four  coats  like   the 


112  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  SHEEP. 

Others,  and  its  external  appearance  is  globular.  Its  contents  are 
generally  found  of  a  much  harder  consistence  than  those  of  the 
other  stomachs. 

This  stomach,  when  full,  is  found  above  the  oesophagean 
canal,  forming,  indeed,  a  portion  of  its  roof,  and  its  longest  leaves 
fall  down,  as  it  were,  almost  into  that  canal. 

The  abo7na.siim,  as  the  fourth  stomach  is  called,  is,  in  fact,  the  true 
stomach,  being  that  which  secretes  the  gastric  juice  by  which  the 
food  is  converted  into  chyme.  It  is  this  acid  juice  which  gives  it 
the  power  of  coagulating  milk,  and  in  calves  it  is  particularly 
employed  for  this  purpose,  under  the  term  rennet,  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  cheese. 

Externally  this  organ  is  somewhat  conical  in  shape,  its  apex 
being  the  part  which  joins  the  intestines.  It  possesses  three  coats, 
like  the  other  stomachs  ;  but  its  internal  surface  is  very  different, 
being  smooth  and  shining,  and  of  a  pale  red  colour.  Its  mucous 
membrane  is,  indeed,  very  vascular,  and  this  secretes  the  gastric 
juice.  The  internal  surface  is  greatly  increased,  and  exceeds  the 
external,  by  being,  in  the  form  of  plaits,  arranged  longitudinally, 
but  very  diiFerent  from  those  found  in  the  maniplus.  The  entrance 
to  this  stomach  (its  cardiac  opening)  is  close  to  the  entrance  t^ 
the  maniplus;  it  is  arranged  somewhat  in  a  crescentic  form,  and 
is  situated  at  one  extremity  of  the  base,  whilst  the  pyloric  open- 
ing, leading  into  the  small  intestines,  is,  as  before  observed, 
situated  at  the  apex.  Having  thus  described  the  situation  and 
appearance  of  the  stomachs,  an  external  view  of  which  may  be 
seen  at  page  114,  we  must  return  to  the  consideration  of  the 
course  of  the  food  through  them. 

Ruminatioa. — The  situation,  the  structure,  and  the  size  of  the 
rumen,  point  it  out  as  the  first  and  general  receptacle  for  the  food, 
which  receives  in  the  mouth  only  sufficient  mastication  to  enable 
the  animal  to  swallow  it.  It  is  then  received  by  the  rumen,  and 
morsel  after  morsel  is  taken  until  the  viscus  is  comparatively  full. 
The  animal  then  feels  some  repletion,  and  rumination  usually  takes 
place,  the  animal  generally  preferring  a  recumbent  posture.  It  has 
been  shown,  however,  that  it  is  not  the  food  just  taken,  but  that 
which  has  been  swallowed  some  twelve  or  sixteen  hours  pre- 
viously, that  undergoes  the  ruminating  process.  The  food,  indeed, 
is  turned  and  shifted  about  the  stomach  by  its  muscular  action, 
and  well  mixed  with  the  fluid  secreted  by  its  internal  surface  :  it 
of  course  enters  at  first  the  superior  compartment,  from  which  it 
passes  to  the  inferior,  and  again  enters  the  former  division  ere 
rumination  takes  place.  A  tolerably  full  stomach  is  necessary  for 
the  act ;  for  it  has  been  found  in  sheep  that  had  fasted  for  several 


ORGANS    OF    DIGESTION.  113 

days  that  a  tolerable  portion  of  food  still  remained  in  the  rumen. 
Before  rumination  can  take  place  it  is  evident  that  the  food  must 
rise  to  the  upper  part  of  the  viscus  and  enter  the  oesophagean 
canal.  What,  then,  is  its  direction  ?  The  liquid  portion  passes 
on  in  the  course  of  the  canal ;  but  it  is  contended  by  some  physio- 
logists that  the  second  stomach,  the  reticulum,  is  the  active  agent 
in  rumination,  and  that  the  food  enters  it  previous  to  its  being 
returned  to  the  mouth,  and  they  are  supported  in  his  opinionby  the 
muscular  strength  possessed  by  this  viscus.  In  opposition  to  this 
opinion  it  may  be  urged  that  it  requires  but  little  more  force  to 
raise  the  food  to  the  root  of  the  oesophagus  than  to  the  entrance 
of  the  recticulum,  and  also,  that  the  contents  of  the  second  sto- 
mach are  of  a  more  fluid  nature  than  those  of  the  first.  It  is  not 
to  be  supposed  that  all  the  food  taken  is  again  ruminated ;  it  is 
chiefly  the  hard  indigestible  portion  that  undergoes  the  process. 
Rumination  is  assisted  by  the  pressure  of  the  abdominal  muscles 
and  the  diaphragm,  and  the  larger  and  more  distended  the  stomachs 
the  more  likely  they  are  to  receive  assistance  from  these  aids. 
Keeping  these  facts  in  view,  we  are  inclined  to  believe  that  the 
first  stomach  has  the  largest  share  in  the  process  of  rumination. 
In  accordance  with  this  idea  we  may  suppose  that  a  mass  of  food 
is  raised  from  the  rumen  into  the  oesophagean  canal,  that  the 
hardest  and  driest  portion  is  selected  by  the  root  of  the  oesophagus, 
and  that  the  other  part  passes  onwards,  and  whilst  some  portioH 
may  reach  the  third,  the  great  part  will  fall,  as  it  were,  through 
the  trap-door  into  the  second  stomach,  there  to  undergo  a  farther 
macerating  or  digesting  process.  When  this  viscus  is  moderately 
full  it  will  contract  on  its  contents,  and  fir^^t  squeeze  out  the  fluid 
portion,  which  will,  of  course,  pass  onwards  into  the  third  and 
fourth  stomachs,  whilst  the  solid  part  will  be  embraced  by  the 
oesophagus  and  returned  to  the  mouth. 

It  is  evident  that  the  functions  of  the  oesophagus  are  much 
more  onerous  than  in  non-ruminating  animals,  and  accordingly  it 
is  furnished  with  more  muscular  power ;  the  lower  portion  parti- 
cularly is  surrounded  with  spiral  muscles,  by  which  the  selected 
pellet  is  first  sent  upwards. 

It  is  not  unlikely  that  some  portion  of  the  food  may  be  sub- 
mitted two  or  more  times  to  the  process  of  rumination.  It  is 
probable  that  the  most  liquid  portion  of  the  food  at  once  enters  the 
fourth  stomach,  and  that  of  a  harder  nature  the  maniplus.  The 
singular  construction  of  this  viscus  evidently  shows  that  it  must 
effect  an  important  office,  and  it  has  been  found  that  in  animals 
which  through  life  have  never  thriven  well,  notwithstanding  that 
they  have  consumed  a  larger  quantity  of  food  than  other  beasts, 


114 


STRUCTURE    OF   THE   SHEEP. 


EXTERNAL   VIETV   OF   THE    STOMACHS   AND    INTESTINES, 

Spread  apart  and  arranged  according  to  the  following  scale,  so  as  to  show  their 

actual  and  relative  size. 

Scale.  1  foot. 


ORGANS    OF    DIGESTION.  115 


DESCRIPTION   OF   THE   CUT. 

A  A,  The  oesophagus. 

B  B  B  B.  The  i-umen,  or  first  stomach,  shoeing  its  compartments. 

C.  The  7-eticulum,  or  second  stomach. 

D.  The  maniplus,  or  third  st<jmach. 

E.  The  abomasum,  or  fourth  or  true  stomach. 

P.  The  commencement  of  the  small  inttstines  at  the  pyloric  orifice  of  the  stomach. 
G-.  The  situation  where  the  biliary  duct  empties  its  cmtents  into  the  duodenum. 
H  H  H.  The  small  intestines  frt  ed  from  the  mesentery,  and  arranged  evenly,  so  as  to 

show  Iheir  length. 
I.  The  termination  of  the  small  and  beginning  of  the  large  intestines,  guarded  by  a 

valve. 
J  J.  The  colon,  or  first  large  intestine. 

K.  The  blind  extremity  of  the  culon,  by  some  termed  the  caecum. 
L.  The  rectum,  or  straight  gut. 


the  maniplus  has  been  imperfectly  formed,  the  plaits  being  short, 
so  as  to  afford  considerably  less  surface  than  usual.  The  use  of 
this  stomach,  therefore,  is  to  detain  the  food,  to  press  it  between 
its  fifty  folds,  and  to  softt-n  it  by  the  secretion  afforded  by  its 
extensive  surface,  and  thus  to  prepare  it  for  the  action  of  the 
gastric  juice  in  the  fourth  stomach,  to  which  organ  we  now 
trace  it. 

In  the  young  animal  living  entirely  on  its  mother's  milk,  the 
fourth  is  the  only  stomach  employed;  it  is,  therefore,  then  fully 
developed,  whilst  the  others  are  small  and  imperfectly  formed. 
The  milk  contains  the  elements  of  nutrition  in  a  much  more  per- 
fect state  than  it  exists  in  vegetable  food.  It  requires  but  a  little 
separation  in  order  to  fit  it  for  nutrition.  As  the  young  animal 
gradually  becomes  inured  to  other  food,  the  other  stomachs 
become  more  developed.  By  the  time  the  food  reaches  the 
ahoynasum  it  is  in  a  macerated  pulpy  state,  and  fit  to  be  exposed 
to  the  powerful  solvent  action  of  the  gastric  juice.  This  fiuid  is 
secreted  in  abundance  by  the  mucous  coat  of  the  fourth  stomach. 
It  is  a  peculiar  fluid,  acid  in  its  nature,  and  so  powerful  a  solvent 
that  it  has  been  known  after  death  to  dissolve  a  portion  of  the 
coats  of  the  stomach  itself.  It  has  in  its  composition  hydrochloric 
acid  as  well  as  acetic,  and  its  action  on  the  food  is  of  a  chemical 
nature,  converting  it  into  chyme  and  rendering  it  fit  for  the  other 
digestive  processes.  The  food  being  thus  dissolved,  passes  through 
the  pyloric  opening  into  the  small  intestines ;  this  orifice  has  a 
valve-like  construction  (see  p.  108),  admitting  the  food  to  pass  in 
one  direction  only,  and  then  not  until  it  has  been  sufiiciently  acted 
on  by  the  gastric  juice. 

The  small  intestines  are  of  considerable  length  in  the  sheep, 
being  upwards  of  sixty  feet.  In  the  human  subject  it  is  customary 
to  divide  them  into  three  portions,  and  they  are  called  the  duo- 


116  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  SHEEP. 

denum,  the  jejunum,  and  the  ileum.  These  distinctions  are  arbi- 
trary even  in  man,  but  still  more  so  in  the  sheep,  and,  in  fact, 
cannot  be  properly  applied.  The  first  portion  of  these  intestines 
(the  duodenum  in  man)  differs  much  from  the  rest.  It  lies  com- 
paratively loose,  and  on  opening  it  we  observe  a  yellow  substance, 
which  is,  in  fact,  the  bile,  which  enters  by  a  duct  or  very  small 
tube  some  eighteen  inches  from  the  stomach,  and  at  nearly  the 
same  place  another  fluid  flows  in  from  the  pancreas  or  sweetbread. 
These  fluids,  it  may  be  supposed,  exercise  an  important  office  in 
the  process  of  digestion,  and  the  early  portion  of  the  small  guts  is 
the  situation  where  the  admixture  takes  place. 

The  LIVER  is  a  bulky  organ  whose  size,  general  appearance, 
and  shape  must  be  familiar  to  most  people.  Its  weight  in  sheep 
is  about  one-fiftieth  that  of  the  carcass,  and  its  specific  gravity  is 
somewhat  greater  than  water.  It  is  partially  separated  into  divi- 
sions or  lobes,  and  is  principally  situated  towards  the  right  side. 
Its  office  is  to  separate  the  bile  from  the  venous  blood — that  which 
has  circulated  through  a  great  portion  of  the  body  and  is  on  its 
way  to  the  lungs  to  be  re-purified.  It  is  called  a  gland,  and  is,  in 
fact,  a  fine  sieve  or  filter,  having  the  power  of  separating  a  pecu- 
liar substance  from  the  blood  and  no  other.  It  is  supplied  with 
arterial  blood  for  its  own  nourishment,  but  by  means  of  a  large  vein 
called  the  vena  porta  it  is  furnished  with  venous  blood  for  the 
exercise  of  its  functions.  The  bile  being  thus  separated  is  then 
conveyed  into  a  reservoir  attached  to  the  liver  and  called  the  gall- 
bladder, from  which  the  gall-duct  rises,  and  enters  the  intestine 
about  eighteen  inches  from  the  stomach.  Ruminating  animals,  in 
common  with  man  and  the  carnivora,  are  furnished  with  a  gall- 
bladder, whilst  horses  and  the  other  solidungulous  animals  do  not 
possess  them ;  the  reason  being  that  in  the  latter  the  digestive 
process  is  continually  going  on,  and  therefore  a  constant  supply  of 
bile  is  essential,  while  in  the  former  the  food  is  either  taken  in 
distinct  meals,  as  in  man  and  the  carnivora,  or  otherwise  the 
ruminating  process  is  carried  on  and  renewed  at  difi^erent  periods, 
as  in  sheep  and  cattle — in  either  case  requiring  large  and  copious 
supplies  of  bile  to  complete  the  process  of  digestion.  It  must  be 
evident,  from  the  existence  of  the  gall-bladder  in  some  species  of 
animals  and  its  absence  in  others,  that  the  bile  must  perform  an 
important  part  in  the  digestive  process.  One  of  its  functions  is  to 
neutralize  the  acidity  which  the  food  or  chyme  has  acquired  in  the 
stomach  by  means  of  the  gastric  juice,  and  thus  prepare  it  for  the 
separation  of  the  chyle  which  may  be  seen  on  the  surface  of  the 
food.  For  this  purpose  it  is  largely  supplied  with  an  alkaline 
fluid,  which  unites  chemically  with  the  acid  of  the  chyme.     The 


OriGA>'S    OF   DIGESTION.  117 

quantity  of  bile  secreted  by  the  sheep  in  twenty-four  hours  is  very 
considerable,  probably  from  .3  lbs.  to  5  lbs. ;  but  we  are  not  to  suppose 
that  its  sole  use  is  that  above  stated,  for  it  has  been  proved  that 
the  bile  does  not  pass  away  with  the  excrements,  but  is  again 
taken  into  the  system  to  supply  nutriment  to  the  body  and  per- 
form other  important  offices.  Thus  the  liver  separates  thai 
which  would  be  detrimental  to  the  blood,  and  it  supplies  what  is 
wanted  for  digestion  as  well  as  for  another  important  process  in 
respiration. 

It  is  observed  by  Professor  Simonds  that  the  liver  is  an  as- 
sirailatory  and  secretory  organ,  as  well  as  an  excretory  one,  in  all 
of  which  offices  it  plays  an  important  part  in  the  manufacture  and 
purification  of  the  blood.  The  vessel  by  which  it  receives  blood 
for  the  secretion  of  bile— the  portal  vein — takes  its  origin  from 
the  capillaries  of  the  chylo-poietic  viscera ;  and  the  nutritive 
materials  of  the  food,  apart  from  the  chyle,  which  enter  these 
vessels  from  the  intestinal  canal,  are  consequently  not  conveyed  at 
once  into  the  general  circulation,  but  first  subjected  to  the  action 
of  the  liver.  '  The  blood  in  the  portal  vein  differs  materially  from 
venous  blood  in  other  parts  of  the  body.  Among  other  things,  it 
is  deficient  in  fibrine  and  albumen,  but  contains  more  red  corpuscles 
and  about  twice  as  much  fatty  matter ;  and  in  animals  fed  on 
farinaceous  substances,  more  sugar.'  (Kirkes.)  'And  as,  after 
having  passed  through  the  liver,  the  fibrine  is  increased,  and  other 
no  less  important  changes  wrought  in  the  blood,  there  seems  no 
reason  to  doubt  that  this  fluid  has  been  both  deprived  of  mate- 
rials which  would  be  injurious  to  it  and  assimilated  more  to  the 
character  of  ordinary  blood.  Apart  from  this,  fatty  matters  espe- 
cially would  appear  to  be  elaborated  within  the  gland,  either 
from  saccharine  substances  or  from  albuminous  compounds;  for 
even  when  no  fat  can  be  detected  in  the  blood  of  the  vena  portee, 
that  of  the  hepatic  vein  contains  it  in  considerable  amount.'  (Car- 
penter.)  In  the  recent  experiments  also  of  Dr.  Harley  and  Pro- 
fessor Sharpley,  communicated  to  the  Royal  Society,  it  has  been 
shown  that  even  when  the  portal  blood  is  devoid  of  sugar,  as  in  a 
fasting  animal  or  one  fed  solely  on  flesh,  sugar  is  found  in  the 
liver,  having  been  formed  therein.  The  bile,  as  may  be  easily 
supposed  from  the  foregoing  premises,  is  a  very  complex  fluid, 
and  has  a  more  important  office  to  perform  in  the  assimilation  of 
food  than  in  the  carrying  away  of  materials  which  impair  the  blood. 
Entering  the  duodenum  by  means  of  the  main  biliary  duct,  it  com- 
mences with  the  digested  food  as  this  passes  from  the  stomach ; 
and,  assisted  by  the  fluid  secreted  by  the  pancreas,  which  is  also 
present  in  the  intestines,  effects  the  chylification  of  the  chyme.    The 


118  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  SHEEP. 

chyle  thus  formed  is  absorbed  by  the  lacteals,  and  carried  by 
them  into  the  general  circulation.  In  the  process  of  chylification 
a  portion  of  the  bile — the  colouring  matter  in  particular — as  excre- 
mentitious  material  is  moved  onwards  with  the  unassimilated  parts 
of  the  chymous  mass  and  ejected  as  fseculent  matter.  That  por- 
tion of  the  fluid,  however,  which  is  employed  in  eff*ecting  chylifi- 
cation among  other  things,  acts  on  the  starch  of  the  food  and 
converts  it  into  sugar,  ready  to  be  taken  up  by  capillary  blood- 
vessels. 

The  presence  of  bile  in  the  intestines  is  also  said  to  cause  a 
more  free  absorption  in  augmented  quantities  of  the  fatty  matter 
of  the  chyme.  The  liver  may  thus  be  regarded  as  the  great 
regulator  of  the  amount  of  sugar  and  fatty  matter  in  the  blood, 
any  excess  of  which,  not  required  to  support  animal  heat,  accu- 
mulates in  the  various  tissues  of  the  body.  If  this  be  so,  the 
more  active  the  secretory  function  of  the  liver,  the  greater  the 
amount  of  sugar  and  fat  which  will  be  absorbed  from  the  food. 

Besides  the  bile,  the  duodenum  receives  a  copious  supply  of 
fluid  of  a  thin  watery  nature  from  the  pancreas.  This  fluid  closely 
resembles  the  saliva,  and  its  principal  use  appears  to  be  to  liquefy 
the  contents  of  the  intestines. 

The  remaining  part  of  the  small  intestines  understood  under 
the  teims  Jejuniwi  and  ileimi  are  confined  to,  and  connected  with, 
the  spine  by  means  of  a  thin  transparent  membrane  called  the 
mesentery,  which  not  only  supports  the  intestines,  but  prevents 
their  entanglement,  and  serves  as  the  vehicle  by  means  of  which 
the  arteries,  veins,  nerves,  and  absorbent  vessels  are  transmitted  to 
and  from  the  bowels.  Amongst  these  there  are  some  very  minute, 
though  very  numerous  vessels,  called  the  lacteals,  whose  office  it 
is  to  convey  the  chyle,  a  white  milky  liquid  resembling  albumen, 
from  the  intestines  to  a  duct  termed  the  thoracic,  which  passes 
alono-  the  spine  and  terminates  in  a  large  vein  just  previous  to  its 
arrival  at  the  heart. 

The  composition  of  the  chyle  is  very  similar  to  the  blood,  dif- 
fering from  it  in  little  more  than  the  absence  of  its  colouring 
principles.  The  lacteals,  of  course,  open  into  the  inner  coat  of  the 
intestines,  and  the  greater  portion  of  the  chyle  is  taken  from  the 
food  in  the  small  intestines,  and  in  the  earliest  portion  of  them  in 
the  greatest  degree.  The  small  intestines  are  remarkably  long  in 
the  sheep,  exceeding,  indeed,  sixty  feet,  and  this  great  length 
renders  them  capable  of  containing  much  more  than  the  large 
guts. 

In  man,  the  large  intestines  are  distinguished  as  the  ccecum^ 


ORGANS   OF    DIGESTION.  119 

the  colon^  and  the  rectum]  in  the  horse,  these  divisions  likewise 
obtain,  and  with  much  more  propriety  than  the  artificial  distinc- 
tions of  the  small  guts.  The  caecum  and  the  colon  in  the  horse 
commence  almost  close  to  each  other,  but  the  former  is  a  blind 
gut,  having  but  one  entrance.  The  sheep,  however,  can  scarcely 
be  said  to  possess  a  csecum,  unless  we  term  the  blind  portion  of  the 
colon  by  that  name ;  for  the  fact  is,  the  small  intestines  terminate 
in  the  large  at  a  right  angle  with  them  (see  I.  in  cut  p.  114),  and 
the  blind  portion  extends  about  a  foot  in  one  direction  from  this 
angle  and  maintains  its  size  for  the  space  of  two  feet. 

The  termination  of  the  small  intestines  in  the  large  deserves 
particular  notice.  The  internal  membrane  of  the  former  projects 
into  the  latter  so  as  to  form  a  sort  of  valve,  which,  admitting  the 
faeces  to  pass  forwards,  effectually  prevents  their  passing  back- 
wards, and  thus,  too,  prevents  the  eflPects  of  clysters  operating 
beyond  the  large  intestines.  The  diameter  of  the  colon  is  about 
treble  that  of  the  small  intestines,  but  this  increased  size  only 
reaches  the  extent  of  three  feet,  when  the  intestine  gradually 
diminishes  to  about  the  size  of  the  small  guts,  and  so  continues 
for  about  nine  feet,  when  it  enlarges  about  a  foot  prior  to  its  ter- 
mination. This  latter  portion  may  be  termed  the  rectum  without 
impropriety.  Soon  after  the  large  intestines  become  narrow,  the 
faeces  gradually  become  hard,  and  acquire  the  form  of  small  black 
balls,  in  which  state  they  are  dropped. 

The  chyle,  we  have  observed,  is  principally  absorbed  from 
that  portion  of  the  small  intestines  termed  the  ileum  ;  there  is 
little  or  none  remaining  by  the  time  the  faeces  reach  the  large  in- 
testines, but  the  fluid  absorbed  from  these  guts  is  principally  of  a 
watery  nature. 

Tlie  XTrinary  and  Generative  Org^ans. — The  urine  is 
separated  from  the  arterial  blood  by  means  of  the  kidneys,  which 
are  two  large  glands  shaped  like  a  bean,  situated  within  the 
abdomen,  but  attached  firmly  to  the  loins.  These  glands  are 
largely  supplied  with  blood  by  important  arteries ;  and  the  urine 
being  separated  as  by  a  filter,  enters  two  long  white  ducts 
termed  the  ureters,  one  of  which  rises  from  the  pelvis  or  central 
notch  of  each  kidney,  and  passes  on  to  the  bladder,  whose  coats 
are  pierced  in  an  oblique  direction  not  very  far  from  its  extremity 
or   fundus,*  and   forming   a   sort   of    valve,   prevents   the   urine 


*  The  urine  of  the  sheep  is  much  less  copious  than  that  of  the  cow,  i.nd, 
though  less  abounding  in  substances  containing  nitrogen,  possesses  a  larger 


120  STRUCTTTEE    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

The  bladder  is  situated  partly  in  the  pelvis  and  partly  in  the 
abdomen,  the  latter  portion  being  comparatively  free,  vehilst  the 
former  is  closely  attached  to  the  pelvis.  The  shape  of  the  bladder 
is  too  well  known  to  need  description.  It  becomes  smaller  as  it 
approaches  its  posterior  part,  where  it  contracts  and  forms  the  neck 
jiist  prior  to  its  opening  into  a  canal  called  the  urethra.  The 
bladder,  although  apparently  so  thin,  yet  has  three  coats,  the 
middle  one  of  which  is  muscular  and  possesses  the  power  of 
contracting  so  as  to  expel  the  whole  of  its  contents  when  required, 
and  the  opening  is  usually  kept  closed  by  a  sphincter  or  circular 
muscle,  which  relaxes  when  the  bladder  is  being  emptied.  The 
urethra  in  the  ewe  is  very  short,  a  few  inches  only  in  length,  and 
it  is  guarded  by  muscles  which  are  employed  both  in  expelling 
the  urine  and  in  the  act  of  procreation. 

In  the  ram  the  urethra  is  of  considerably  greater  length, 
extending  the  whole  length  of  the  penis ;  it  forms  an  acute  angle 
at  the  perineum,  just  under  the  anus.  The  penis  is  a  muscular 
organ,  having  a  very  curious  structure,  which  enables  it  to  receive 
at  times  an  increased  quantity  of  blood,  which  tits  it  for  its 
purpose.  Its  usual  state,  however,  is  flaccid,  when  its  use  is 
confined  to  the  ejection  of  the  urine. 

The  vagina  and  uterus  or  womb  lies  between  the  rectum  above 
and  the  bladder  below,  and  though  much  within  the  pelvis  in  the 
ordinary  state,  yet  in  pregnancy  the  uterus  rises  into  the  abdomen 
to  a  great  extent.  The  vagina,  which  commences  a  few  inches 
within  the  body,  is  a  cylindrical  cavity  several  inches  in  length, 
and  communicates  with  the  uterus  by  a  round  opening  called  the 
mouth  of  the  womb,  which  is  naturally  open,  but  becomes  closed 
after  impregnation.  The  womb  consists  of  a  body  and  two 
branches  or  horns.  It  has  the  same  number  of  coats  as  the 
bladder,  but  they  are  much  stouter,  and  more  so  than  those  of  the 

proportion   of  salts..     The  following   is   an   analysis   of    100-000    parts   by 

weight : — 

Water  ...  96-000 

Urea,  along  with  some  albumen  and  colounng  matter        2-800 
Salts  of  potash,  soda,  lime  and  magnesia,  vdth  traces 
of  silica,  alumina,  iron,  and  manganese  .         .         .        1*200 

100-000 
This  gives  4  per  cent,  more  water  than  the  urine  of  cows,  than  which  it  is 
less  fertilising  to  the  soil ;  but  the  dung  of  sheep  is  much  more  nutritious 
than  that  of  cows,  and  the  urine  likewise,  when  dropped  on  pasture  land, 
is  more  serNdceable,  in  consequence  of  the  small  quantity  deposited  at  a 
time,  and  the  less  proportion  of  caustic  ammonia  contained,  so  that  it  does 
not  render  the  herbage  rank,  as  is  the  well-known  effect  of  the  fresh  virine 
from  cows. 


UEINAKY    AND    GENEIiATIYE    OKGANS.  121 

vagina.  Attached  to  the  extremity  of  each  horn  by  a  membrane  iis 
substance  are  two  red  bodies  called  the  ovaries,  each  of  which 
consists  of  a  number  of  ova  or  eggs,  the  germs  of  the  offspring, 
one  of  which  bursts  its  envelopment  fi'oni  time  to  time  under  the 
influence  of  the  cestrum,  escapes  into  the  uterus,  and  on  being 
impregnated  by  the  male  in  the  course  of  time  becomes  a  young 
animal ;  sometimes,  indeed,  two  or  even  three  ova  may  be  impreg- 
nated, and  twins  or  triplets  are  produced. 

The  testicles  are  two  oval  glands  contained  in  the  scrotum,  a 
sort  of  bag  formed  by  the  skin  and  two  membranes  within,  which 
are  so  disposed  as  to  form  two  separate  cavities,  each  containing 
a  testicle.  The  testicles  are  first  formed  in  the  abdomen  of  the 
foetus,  and  each  possesses  a  covering  closely  attached  to  the  gland. 
They  escape  from  the  abdomen  through  the  openings  called  the 
abdominal  rings  and  take  with  them  portions  of  the  peritoneum, 
the  membrane  which  lines  the  abdomen  and  its  contents ;  thus 
it  is  that  they  possess  two  coats  besides  the  skin.  The  abdominal 
rings  remain  open  afterwards,  contrary  to  what  takes  place  in  the 
human  subject,  so  that  a  fluid  can  be  injected  from  the  scrotum 
into  the  abdomen,  and  thus  it  is  that  sometimes  after  the  opera- 
tion of  castration  inflammation  takes  place  and  spreads  upwards 
into  the  belly  and  destroys  the  lamb.  In  those  cases  where 
portions  of  the  intestines  are  foimd  in  the  scrotum  they  escape 
from  the  abdomen  together  with  the  testicle,  and  the  case  is 
denominated  congenital  hernia.  The  testicles  are  also  connected 
with  the  belly  by  means  of  the  spermatic  cord,  which  is  com- 
posed of  a  long  slender  muscle  also  nerves,  veins,  arteries,  and  a 
strong  hollow  tube  called  the  spermatic  duct.  It  is  the  latter 
which  conveys  the  seminal  fluid  secreted  by  the  singular 
structure  of  the  testicle  into  the  urethra,  where,  with  other  secre- 
tions from  some  small  glands,  it  is  forcibly  ejected  when  required. 

The  testicles  are  very  large  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the 
animal,  and  are  in  keeping  with  the  powerful  seminal  powers 
possessed  by  the  ram,  and  which  enable  him  when  full  grown  to 
serve  properly  eighty  to  one  hundred  ewes  in  the  course  of  a 
month. 

THE  CONTENTS  OF  THE  CHEST. 

The  mouth  in  the  horse  is  almost  entirely  devoted  to  the  office 
of  mastication.  It  is  separated  from  the  cavity  of  the  nostrils  by 
a  loose  fleshy  membrane  called  the  velutn  palati,  which  is  con- 
fined to  the  bone  above  by  a  semicircular  border,  and  falls  down- 
wards and  backwards  so  as  to  prevent,  in  a  natural  state,  any 


122  STEUCTUEE  OF  THE  SHEEP. 

communication  between  the  windpipe  and  the  mouth.  The 
sheep  likewise  possesses  this  vehmi  imlati,  but  it  is  not  so  long, 
and  therefore  permits  this  animal  to  respire  through  the  mouth  as 
well  as  the  nostrils.  The  importance  of  this  construction  is  seen 
in  the  process  of  rumination,  and  also  accounts  for  the  horse 
vomiting  through  the  nostrils,  on  those  few  occasions  when  this 
animal  has  been  known  to  vomit.  The  nostrils,  however,  are  the 
principal  channel  through  which  the  air  passes  to  and  from  the 
liuigs.  Their  entrance  is  comparatively  small  and  confined ;  the 
sheep  does  not  require  so  extensive  a  supply  of  air  as  other 
animals  that  are  called  upon  to  make  considerable  exertions.  The 
cavity  of  the  nostrils  is  divided  into  two  compartments  by  a  thick 
cartilaginous  substance,  termed  by  anatomists  the  septum  nasi, 
fixed  to  the  nasal  in  front,  and  behind  to  the  maxillary  bones. 
This  cartilage,  as  well  as  the  other  parts  of  the  nostrils,  is  lined  by 
a  fine  delicate  membrane  which  secretes  a  mucus  for  its  protection. 
It  is  indeed  an  inflammation  of  this  membrane  which  constitutes 
a  catarrh  or  cold,  and  an  increase  of  its  natural  mucous  secretion  is 
the  discharge  from  the  nose  which  is  visible  in  this  disease.  This 
membrane  is  called  the  Schneiderian,  from  the  name  of  its  dis- 
coverer, as  well  as  the  pituitary,  and  it  is  endowed  with  a  high 
degree  of  sensibility,  which  it  derives  from  an  abundant  supply 
of  sensitive  nerves ;  it  is  also  the  principal  seat  of  the  sense  of 
smelling,  and  for  this  purpose  the  nerve  devoted  to  this  function 
is  spread  out  on  its  surface.  This  membrane  also  covers  four 
curious  bones,  thin  and  gauze-like  in  their  structure,  and  being 
rolled  up  like  a  turban,  are  termed  turbinated,  and  are  attached 
to  the  chambers  of  the  nostrils.  These  greatly  extend  the  surface 
on  which  the  nerve  of  smell  is  diffused,  and  consequently  increases 
the  function  of  this  sense,  which  sheep  enjoy  in  a  very  high 
degree.  The  nostrils  at  the  upper  and  back  part  terminate  in  a 
cartilaginous  box  called  the  larynx,  which  is  situated  immediately 
beneath  the  pharjmx  or  food-bag ;  so  that  food,  in  passing  into 
the  latter,  traverses  the  entrance  of  the  former,  which,  however,  it 
i^  prevented  from  entering  by  a  triangular  lid  called  the  ejoiglottis  : 
this  lid  in  its  usual  state  is  elevated  from  the  glottis  or  entrance 
of  the  larynx,  so  as  to  admit  the  free  entrance  and  exit  of  the  air, 
but  the  passage  of  food  forces  it  down  so  as  to  close  the  entrance 
of  the  windpipe.  The  larynx  is  formed  by  four  separate  cartilages 
besides  the  epiglottis  just  spoken  of.  One  is  shaped  like  a  shield, 
and  forms  the  front  of  the  larynx  and  a  portion  of  its  sides. 
Another  below  this  is  circular;  and  two  other  smaller  ones,  shaped 
like  an  ewer,  form  the  rims  on  which  the  epiglottis  shuts  down. 
The  larynx  is  lined  throughout  by  a  mucous  membrane,  which  is 


CONTENTS  OF  THE  CHEST.  123 

endowed  with  a  high  degree  of  sensibility,  particularly  at  its 
upper  portion  ;  and  thus  when  any  foreign  body  accidentally  enters, 
or  the  mucus  is  in  undue  quantity,  it  excites  the  membrane, 
and  coughing  is  produced,  by  which  it  is  expelled.  The  windpipe 
consists  of  a  number  of  cartilaginous  rings  connected  together  by 
elastic  membrane  so  as  to  form  a  continuous  tube  passing  down 
the  front  part  of  the  neck  and  entering  the  chest  between  the  two 
first  ribs.  The  rings  are  not  completely  cartilaginous,  but  the 
circle  is  made  up  of  membrane,  the  membranous  part  being  on 
the  upper  portion  of  the  tube.  This  structure  permits  the  wind- 
pipe to  be  bent  in  any  direction  or  compressed  without  injury,  its 
elasticity  quickly  restoring  it  to  its  former  shape  or  position.  The 
windpipe,  on  entering  the  chest,  divides  into  two  portions,  one 
going  to  each  division  of  the  lungs;  and  these  subdivide  into 
others,  which  again  ramify  into  numerous  small  tubes,  which 
ultimately  terminate  in  the  very  minute  air-cells  of  the  lungs. 

The  chest  of  the  sheep,  in  common  with  most  quadrupeds,  is 
unlike  that  of  the  human  body,  becoming  narrow  towards  the 
lower  part  and  terminating  like  the  keel  of  a  ship — a  form  more 
favourable  to  the  flexion  and  extension  of  the  fore-legs,  as  well 
as  of  the  shoulder-blades,  than  any  other.  This  keel-like  form 
is,  however,  much  less  developed  in  the  sheep  than  in  the  horse 
and  many  other  quadrupeds.  The  upper  part  of  the  chest  is 
formed  by  the  spine  or  back-bone,  the  sides  by  the  ribs,  and  the 
front  and  lower  part  by  the  sternum  or  breast-bone.  The  number 
of  ribs  varies  in  different  animals ;  in  man  there  are  twelve,  in 
the  horse  eighteen,  but  in  the  sheep  there  are  only  thirteen  pair. 
Each  rib  possesses  two  heads  or  protuberances,  each  of  which  is 
connected  by  a  joint  with  two  vertebrae  or  bones  of  the  back,  and 
to  the  breast-bone  by  means  of  cartilage.  The  sternum  or  breast- 
bone, in  young  animals,  is  chiefly  cartilaginous,  and  may  be 
separated  into  eight  pieces ;  it  afterwards  becomes  divisible  into 
four  only,  and  with  age  is  consolidated  into  one.  The  ribs  are 
externally  convex,  and  are  divided  into  the  true  and  false  ;  the 
former  being  situated  anterior  to  the  others,  and  immediately 
connected  with  the  sternum,  whilst  the  latter  are  implanted  into 
each  other  at  their  cartilaginous  extremities,  and  are  only  con- 
nected with  the  breast- bone  by  means  of  the  true  ribs.  Their 
connexion  with  the  spine,  by  means  of  a  double  joint,  affords  to 
the  ribs  a  motion  backwards  and  forwards,  by  which  means  the 
cavity  of  the  chest  is  enlarged  or  diminished.  This  motion,  how- 
ever, is  considerably  less  in  quadrupeds  than  in  man,  for  in  the 
latter  the  rising  and  falling  of  the  chest  is  seen  in  common  respi- 
ration, whilst  in  the  former  it  is  not  perceived,  unless  the  breathing 


124  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  SHEEr. 

be  embarrassed.  The  ribs  are  connected  togetber  bj  fleshy 
substance,  termed  tbe  intercostal  muscles,  which  are  disposed  in 
an  oblique  course,  by  which  means  their  length  considerably 
exceeds  that  of  the  space  between  one  rib  and  another,  so  that  a 
contraction  of  one-third  their  length  will  bring  the  ribs  together, 
which  could  not  be  the  case  if  the  muscles  took  the  shortest 
course  from  one  rib  to  another. 

The  chest  is  separated  from  the  abdomen  or  belly  by  a  very 
singular  and  important  muscle,  called  the  diaphragm  or  midriif, 
which  is  convex  towards  the  chest  when  in  a  state  of  rest.  This 
muscle  is  shaped  somewhat  like  a  fan,  and  is  attached  to  the  in- 
ferior extremities  of  the  ribs  and  the  spine,  by  which  means  its 
position  is  rendered  oblique,  its  development  more  extended,  and 
its  action  greater  than  it  would  otherwise  have  been.  The  dia- 
phragm, unlike  every  other  muscle,  is  fleshy  at  its  circumference 
and  tendinous  at  its  centre.  The  reason  for  this  peculiar  construc- 
tion may  be  tbus  explained : — The  central  part  of  the  diaphragm 
is  pierced  with  two  holes  for  the  passage  of  the  oesophagus  (the 
tube  which  conveys  food  to  the  stomach)  and  the  vein  which  con- 
veys the  blood  to  the  liver  for  the  secretion  of  bile.  Now,  if  these 
important  vessels  were  surrounded  with  muscular  substance,  they 
would  be  forcibly  compressed  every  time  the  diaphragm  con- 
tracted, and  would  in  consequence  be  exposed  to  considerable 
injury;  but  being  surrounded  with  tendinous  substance,  which 
possesses  no  such  power  of  contraction,  all  danger  of  compres- 
sion is  at  once  removed,  without  any  sacrifice  of  strength  or 
power  in  the  muscle.  The  diaphragm,  when  in  a  quiescent  state, 
is  convex  towards  the  chest,  and  when  in  action  becomes  flat,  thus 
enlarging  the  cavity  of  the  chest. 

The  thorax  is  everywhere  lined  internally  by  a  thin  serous 
membrane,  which  secretes  a  fluid  by  which  the  surface  of  the 
cavity  is  lubricated,  and  its  contents  are  enabled  to  glide  upon  each 
other  without  occasioning  any  friction  or  inconvenience.  This  mem- 
brane is  called  the  pleura,  and  the  portion  which  lines  the  chest 
itself  is  designated  the  pleura  costalis,  while  that  which  covers  the 
lungs  is  distinguished  as  the  pleura  pulmonalis.  This  membrane 
divides  the  chest  into  three  cavities,  one  on  the  right  containing  the 
right  lung,  and  the  other  two  on  the  left  side,  the  smaller  of  which 
contains  the  heaji;  and  the  larger  the  left  lung. 

The  right  lung  is  thus  the  largest,  and  consists  of  three  lobes  or 
divisions,  whilst  the  left  lung  only  contains  two.  These  divisions 
of  the  chest  do  not  communicate  with  each  other,  so  that  if  one 
cavity  is  injured,  or  air  is  admitted  into  it,  respiration  can  be  car- 
ried on  in  the  other. 


THE    BLOOD    AND    ITS    CIRCULATION.  125 

The  lungs  are  light  spongy  bodies,  their  specific  gravity  being 
one-half  less  than  water.  They  are  composed  of  the  air-cells 
before  spoken  of,  the  bronchial  tubes  connected  with  them,  and  a 
vast  number  of  arteries,  veins,  and  absorbent  vessels,  the  whole 
being  connected  together  by  cellular  substance,  or  'parenchyma^  as 
it  is  termed  :  thus  constituted,  the  lungs  are  closely  packed  away 
in  the  cavity  of  the  chest,  filling  every  part  of  it,  so  as  to  leavo 
no  vacant  space  whatever. 

The  Blood  and  its  Circulation. — The  blood  is  by  far  the 
most  important  fluid  in  the  animal  machine  ;  it  stimulates  the 
heart  to  contract,  secretes  and  nourishes  the  various  organs  of  the 
body,  and  supplies  it  with  heat ;  and  although  it  is  the  source 
whence  other  fluids  are  obtained,  it  is  yet  a  fluid  sui  generis,  difier- 
ing  from  all  others.  Soon  after  it  is  drawn  from  the  body  it  co- 
agulates, and  then  separates  into  two  parts  \  the  serum,  a  watery, 
colourless  fluid,  which  floats  on  the  top,  and  the  ci-assamentum, 
which  appears  of  a  firm  consistency  and  a  red  colour.  The  serum 
is  a  peculiar  fluid,  and  may  be  separated  into  its  constituent  prin- 
ciples. If  subjected  to  a  temperature  of  150°,  a  portion  is  con- 
verted into  a  substance  resembling  albumen  or  the  white  of  an 
e^^ ',  the  other  portion  remains  fluid  and  is  termed  the  serosity  of 
the  blood,  and  is  that  which  consxitutes  the  gravy  in  meat.  The 
serum  contains  several  salts  in  solution,  the  most  abundant  of 
which  is  soda.  The  crassamentum  is  likewise  divisible  into  two 
portions :  the  cruor,  which  gives  to  the  blood  its  purple  hue ;  and 
the  lymph,  which  is  more  solid  in  its  nature,  and  is  considered  the 
basis  of  the  coagulum.  The  latter  can  be  separated  from  the 
former  by  washing,  and  likewise  separates  when  the  blood  is  a 
long  time  coagulating,  in  which  case  the  red  portion  of  the  blood, 
being  the  heaviest,  falls  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  leaving  the 
lymph  on  the  top.  The  cruor,  or  red  portion  of  the  blood,  has 
been  found,  on  being  submitted  to  a  microscope,  to  be  composed  of 
globules,  which  are  supposed  to  be  each  about  the  three  or  four 
thousandth  part  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  It  is  therefore  to  these 
globules  that  the  blood  owes  its  redness ;  but  the  intensity  of  the 
colour  is  subject  to  great  variation,  being  darker  in  animals  that 
are  poorly  fed,  or  when  exposed  to  carbonic  acid,  and  becoming 
more  florid  in  others  that  are  well  fed,  and  also  when  exposed  to 
oxygen,  or  to  atmospheric  air. 

The  other  part  of  the  crassamentum,  the  lymph,  which  from 
its  nature  is  also  called  the^brine,  is,  in  fact,  the  most  important 
of  all ;  for  it  is  that  which  mainly  supplies  the  different  parts  of 
the  body,  particularly  the  muscles,  with  nutriment,  and  repairs 
wounds  and  fractures  in  an  extraordinary  manner.     Unlike  the 


126     STRUCTURE  AND  ECONOMY  OF  THE  SHEEP. 

cruor,  it  exists  in  the  blood  of  all  animals,  and  in  every  part  of  the 
system.  Some  animals  have  entirely  white  blood,  the  cruor  being 
absent ;  and  in  red-blooded  animals  there  are  some  portions  of  the 
body,  such  as  the  white  of  the  eye,  where  the  vessels  are  so  small 
that  they  do  not  admit  the  red  globules.  The  specific  gravity  of 
blood  rather  exceeds  that  of  water ;  but  venous  blood  is  somewhat 
heavier  than  arterial.  The  temperature  of  the  blood  varies  in 
different  animals ;  in  man  it  is  90°,  but  in  the  sheep  nearly  100°. 
It  is  rather  warmer  in  the  arteries  than  in  the  veins,  and  is  liable 
to  variation  from  disease,  it  having  been  found  in  severe  inflam- 
mations to  be  raised  7°  in  man,  and  in  the  cold  fit  of  agues  to  be 
4°  lower  than  in  a  state  of  health.  It  is,  however,  but  slightly 
raised  or  depressed  by  external  temperature.  It  was  not  till  com- 
paratively a  recent  date  that  the  blood  has  been  considered  to 
possess  vitality,  which,  however,  is  now  generally  acknowledged. 
The  vitality  and  fluidity  of  the  blood  are  intimately  associated ; 
in  fact,  its  coagulation,  when  removed  from  the  body,  constitutes 
its  death.  The  time  which  this  is  in  taking  place  is  different  in 
different  animals,  and  is  influenced  by  various  circumstances.  In 
strong  frames,  such  as  the  horse,  it  is  longer  than  in  such  weak 
animals  as  the  sheep ;  in  the  former  it  is  often  as  long  as  fifteen 
minutes ;  and  if  the  body  is  in  a  state  of  plethora,  the  vital 
power  being  too  highly  developed,  the  death  of  the  blood  is  much 
longer  resisted.  In  these  cases  coagulation  is  delayed,  and  in 
consequence  the  red  portion  of  the  blood,  being  the  heaviest,  falls 
to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  and  the  fibrine  remains  at  the  top, 
constituting  the  buffy  coat  of  inflammation.  This  separation, 
when  arising  from  the  above  cause,  takes  place  long  before  the 
serum  is  seen.  The  coagulation  of  the  blood  has  been  endeavoured 
to  be  accounted  for  without  success ;  it  was  held  by  some  that  it 
was  produced  by  the  cessation  of  its  motion ;  but  it  has  been 
found  that  if  stirred  in  a  vessel  it  will  coagulate  quicker  than 
before.  It  was  thought  that  exposure  to  the  atmosphere  was  the 
cause  ;  but  it  has  been  known  to  coagulate  in  a  vacuum,  and  like- 
wise in  the  body  when  a  vein  has  been  tied.  It  was  next  con- 
ceived that  it  was  caused  by  the  low  temperature  to  which  it  is 
exposed  ;  but  it  has  been  ascertained  that  it  will  coagulate  quicker 
if  the  temperature  is  either  higher  or  lower  than  natural ;  but  if 
so  low  as  to  freeze  the  blood,  it  will  not  coagulate  when  afterwards 
thawed.  These  experiments  show  that  the  blood  is  analogous  to 
no  other  fluid,  and  that  coagulation  cannot  be  owing  to  physical 
causes,  but  can  be  explained  only  by  reference  to  its  vitality. 

Although  the  blood  will  coagulate  in  the  body  if  obstructed, 
yet  there  is  a  considerable  difference  between  this  state  and  its 


THE    BLOOD    AND    ITS    CIRCULATION.  127 

coagulation  out  of  the  body.  In  the  former  instance  coagulation 
is  longer  occurring,  new  vessels  are  thrown  into  its  substance,  and 
it  becomes  organised.  So,  likewise,  if  a  part  be  wounded,  the 
divided  vessels  throw  out  clots  of  blood,  which  adhere  to  the  sur- 
face of  the  wound ;  the  red  particles  become  absorbed,  the  glu- 
tinous fibrine  organised,  and  the  breach  is  thus  gradually  restored. 
Thus  we  see  how  important  it  is  that  the  blood  should  possess  its 
peculiar  properties,  its  state  of  fluidity,  and  its  disposition  to 
coagulate  :  it'  the  former  did  not  exist,  the  blood  would  be  ob- 
structed in  the  capillary  vessels,  and  the  vital  functions  could  not 
be  carried  on ;  and  if  deprived  of  its  coagulating  property,  no 
wounds  could  heal,  or  loss  of  substance  be  restored,  but  the  most 
trifling  cut  would  be  the  precursor  of  death. 

The  quantity  of  blood  contained  in  the  body  is  very  difficult 
to  ascertain ;  for  if  an  animal  is  bled  to  death,  a  good  deal  will  still 
remain  in  the  blood-vessels.  It  has,  however,  been  estimated  to 
be  about  one-fifth  the  weight  of  the  body ;  and  of  this,  about 
three- fourths  are  contained  in  the  veins,  and  one-fourth  in  the 
arteries.  In  young  animals  there  is  more  than  in  old  ones,  as  in 
them  the  body  must  not  only  be  sustained,  but  increased  in  size. 
It  is  likewise  more  abundant  in  wild  animals  than  in  tame  ones, 
and  in  proportion  to  the  vigour  of  the  animal. 

The  Heart  is  a  strong  hollow  muscle,  of  a  conical  shape,  with 
its  base  towards  the  spine,  and  its  apex  leaning  to  the  left  side, 
against  which  it  is  thrown  at  every  contraction.  It  is  double, 
having  a  right  and  left  side,  the  former  containing  black,  and  the 
latter  red  blood ;  the  right  side  is  the  thinnest  and  weakest,  being 
devoted  to  the  lesser  office  of  the  circulation  of  the  lungs ;  the 
left  the  stoutest,  having  to  govern  the  general  circulation  of  the 
system.  Each  of  these  halves  consists  of  two  cavities,  an  auricle 
and  a  ventricle  ;  the  former,  which  derives  its  name  from  its  re- 
semblance to  a  dog's  ear,  is  considerably  thinner  than  the  latter, 
and  is  situated  towards  the  base.  The  heart  is  formed  principally 
of  fleshy  fibres,  connected  together  by  cellular  tissue,  whence  it 
obtains  its  elasticity ;  and  its  surfaces,  both  internal  and  external, 
are  lined  by  a  transparent  membrane.  The  blood  is  prevented 
from  moving  in  a  retrograde  course  by  means  of  a  number  of 
valves  ;  there  are  three  in  the  left  ventricle,  the  edges  of  which 
are  connected  by  tendinous  cords  {cordce  tendincB)  to  small  fleshy 
eminences  on  the  inside  of  the  ventricle,  called  carnece  culumnce,  or 
fleshy  columns.  These  tendinous  cords  are  more  numerous  in  the 
valves  of  the  left  ventricle  than  in  the  other  parts,  and  being  sup- 
posed, with  the  valves,  to  resemble  a  mitre,  are  named  mitral 
valves.     There  are  valves  also  in  the  rio-ht  ventricle  for  similar 


128     STRUCTURE  AND  ECONOMY  OF  THE  SHEEP. 

purposes,  which  are  named  tricuspid,  or  three  pointed ;  also  in  the 
great  artery,  or  aorta,  and  in  the  pulmonary  artery,  where,  having 
no  cords,  and  resembling  in  shape  a  half-moon,  they  are  named 
semilunar.  The  heart  is  enclosed  in  a  strong  membranous  bag, 
which  is  named  pericardium,  and  this  encloses  also  the  trunks  of 
the  veins  and  arteries,  as  well  as  the  appendages  or  auricles. 

The  heart  is  a  muscle,  but,  unlike  other  muscles,  it  is  involun- 
tary, being  altogether  independent  of  the  will,  and  is  for  this  pur- 
pose supplied  by  a  peculiar  set  of  nerves.  It  is  also  furnished 
abundantly  with  blood  for  its  support,  by  means  of  arteries  which 
are  the  first  that  are  given  oiF;  and  these  arteries  are  accompanied 
by  veins  for  the  return  of  the  blood  to  its  proper  receptacle. 

The  Circulation  of  the  Blood  is  one  ot  the  most  important 
processes  in  the  animal  economy  j  when  suspended  for  a  few 
moments,  a  state  of  insensibility  is  produced,  and  if  this  suspen- 
sion continues  a  little  longer,  death  quickly  supervenes. 

The  heart,  we  have  seen,  consists  of  two  halves  or  sides,  the 
right  being  devoted  to  the  pulmonary  circulation.  The  7'ight 
auricle  receives  from  a  large  vein,  called  the  vena  cava,  the  blood 
which  has  travelled  throughout  the  system ;  whence  it  passes,  by 
the  action  of  the  heart,  into  the  right  ventricle,  which  by  its  con- 
traction forces  it  into  a  large  vessel  called  the  pulmonary  artery. 
Thence  the  blood  is  sent  into  the  lungs  and  ramifies  throughout 
its  minute  vessels,  where  it  is  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  inspired 
air,  and  becomes,  by  means  we  shall  afterwards  speak  of,  reddened 
and  purified.  This  process  being  accomplished,  the  blood  passes 
into  minute  vessels,  which  coalescing,  become  the  pulmonary 
veins,  and  through  them  the  blood  again  returns  to  the  heart; 
thus  finishing  the  circuit  of  the  pulmonary  circulation. 

The  left  auricle  receives  the  purified  blood  from  the  pulmonary 
veins,  forces  it  into  the  left  ventricle,  which,  contracting,  sends 
the  vital  fluid  into  a  large  strong  vessel  called  the  aorta,  whence 
it  enters  smaller  arteries,  to  be  distributed  throughout  the  whole 
system.  The  remote  divisions  of  the  arteries  are  called  the 
capillary  vessels,  and  in  them  the  blood,  after  having  accomplished 
its  purposes  and  conveyed  nourishment  to  all  parts,  becomes  black 
and  impure,  and  in  this  state  enters  the  capillary  veins,  which, 
conjoining  and  increasing  in  size  and  diminishing  in  number, 
convey  the  blood  again  to  the  right  auricle  of  the  heart.  Just 
before  it  enters  the  heart  it  receives  a  supply  of  chyle,  which,  as 
we  have  before  observed,  is  extracted  from  the  food,  absorbed  by 
certain  small  vessels  called  lacteals,  and  conveyed  by  a  specific 
channel  to  the  heart.     Such^  then,  is  the  circle,  or  rather  the 


THE    BLOOD    A^'D    ITS    CIRCULATION.  129 

double  circle,  whicli  the  blood  takes,  and  by  "which  so  many 
important  purposes  are  beautifully  and  correctly  accomplished. 

The  circulation  of  the  blood  is  accomplished  by  the  joint 
action  of  the  heart  and  arteries,  but  principally  by  that  of  the 
former.  The  contraction  of  the  ventricles  and  of  the  auricles 
immediately  succeed  each  other :  as  the  one  expands  to  receive 
the  blood,  the  other  contracts  to  force  it  forward,  thus  producing 
the  unequal  double  action  of  the  heart  that  we  feel.  These 
actions,  however,  of  the  diiferent  cavities  could  not  be  correctly 
performed  unless  some  provision  were  made  for  preventing  the 
blood,  when  the  ventricles  contract,  from  retrograding  into  the 
auricles.  This,  however,  is  effected  by  means  of  a  valve,  situated 
between  these  cavities,  which  is  formed  by  a  duplication  of  the 
inner  membrane  of  the  heart,  thickened  by  fibrous  substance. 
The  floating  edges  of  this  valve  in  the  right  ventricle  present 
three  points  and  in  the  left  two ;  whence  the  former  is  called  the 
tricuspid,  and  the  latter  the  mitral.  The  edges  of  each  valve  are 
joined  by  numerous  short  tendons  to  the  fleshy  columns  of  the 
heart;  and  whilst  the  blood  is  flowing  into  the  ventricles  the 
fleshy  columns  are  passive ;  but  when  the  ventricles  act,  these 
columns  also  contract  and  draw  the  edges  of  the  valve  together, 
and  thus  close  the  cavity  in  that  direction  and  prevent  the  blood 
re-entering  the  auricle. 

There  are  also  valves  that  guard  the  entrance  of  the  aorta  and 
pulmonary  arteries,  but  they  are  of  a  different  description,  being 
of  less  strength,  because  they  are  not  called  upon  to  oppose  the 
powerful  action  of  the  ventricles.  Accordingly  we  find  they 
consist  of  three  folds  of  membrane,  and  are  called,  from  their 
shape,  semilunar.  They  are  so  situated  that  when  the  blood 
passes  into  the  arteries  they  are  thrown  against  their  sides,  and 
when  the  blood  has  passed  they  are  thrown  up  so  that  their  edges 
meet,  and  thus  prevent  the  blood  returning  to  the  heart. 

In  fishes  the  heart  is  single,  and  only  serves  the  office  of  the 
pulmonary  circulation,  that  of  the  system  being  accomplished  by 
the  arteries  alone.  In  the  sheep,  though  the  heart  is  the  principal 
power,  yet  the  arteries  greatly  assist.  The  aorta,  which  receives 
the  blood  from  the  left  ventricle,  divides  into  two  branches, 
called  the  anterior  and  posterior  aorta  ;  the  former  conveying  the 
blood  to  the  head  and  neck,  and  the  latter  to  the  lower  parts  of 
the  body.  These  arteries  are  strong  and  thick,  and  con.-ist  of 
three  coats ;  the  outer,  the  strongest  and  thickest,  gives  the 
vessels  the  remarkable  elasticity  which  they  possess ;  the  middle 
coat  is  the  fibrous,  which  seems  to  be  a  modification  of  muscular 

g3 


130     STRUCTURE  AND  ECONOMY  OF  THE  SHEEP. 

power,  and  enables  the  arteries  to  contract  on  their  contents ;  the 
third  coat  is  the  serous,  which  lubricates  the  interior  of  the  vessel 
and  facilitates  the  passage  of  the  blood.  Thus  to  these  several 
coats,  but  particularly  to  the  two  former,  do  the  arteries  owe  the 
remarkable  property  they  possess  of  contracting  when  distended 
with  blood,  and  almost  immediately  afterwards  expanding  to 
receive  a  fresh  supply,  and  which,  assisted  by  the  action  of  the 
heart,  constitutes  the  pulse  ;  and  may  be  felt  in  every  part  of  the 
body  where  an  artery  is  sufficiently  near  the  surface  to  be 
perceptible. 

The  arteries,  however,  do  not  all  possess  an  equal  thickness  and 
power ;  for  instance,  the  pulmonary  artery,  though  quite  as  large 
as  the  aorta,  is  neither  so  thick  nor  so  strong  ;  and  the  reason  is, 
that  the  same  power  is  not  required  to  send  the  blood  over  the 
smaller  circuit  of  the  lungs  as  over  the  larger  one  of  the  whole 
system  ;  and,  for  the  same  reason,  the  right  side  of  the  heart  is 
weaker  than  the  left.  The  arteries,  as  they  divide  and  subdivide 
in  their  course,  become  weaker  in  their  coats  in  proportion  to  the 
diminution  of  their  size,  till  at  length  they  terminate  in  the 
minute  branches  called  the  capillary  vessels,  which  do  not  possess 
any  pulsating  power,  and  many  of  which  do  not  contain  red 
blood.  Diminutive,  however,  as  these  branches  may  be,  yet  it  is 
by  them  that  the  most  important  offices  are  performed ;  by  them 
the  different  parts  of  the  body  are  nourished,  whether  bone,  flesh, 
nerve,  or  skin ;  by  them  the  various  fluids  are  secreted,  however 
different  in  appearance  they  may  be  ;  by  them  the  most  ghastly 
wounds  are  healed,  and  often  in  a  remarkably  short  space  of  time ; 
and  all  these  various  offices  are  performed,  not  only  by  the  same 
class  of  vessels,  but  by  the  same  fluid,  the  blood.  Having 
accomplished  these  important  purposes  the  capillary  arteries 
terminate  in  equally  minute  vessels,  called  the  capillary  veins ; 
and  so  abundant  are  these  diminutive  vessels  that  the  finest  point 
of  the  finest  needle  cannot  be  plunged  into  the  body  without 
penetrating  some  of  them.  By  the  time  the  blood  reaches  the 
veins  it  becomes  dark  and  impure,  and  loaded  with  carbon :  the 
office  of  the  veins,  therefore,  is  to  return  it  to  the  heart  to  be 
again  purified.  The  circulation,  however,  becomes  much  slower 
as  it  is  further  removed  from  the  impulsive  power  of  the  heart, 
and  the  veins,  which  are  supposed  to  contain  two-thirds  of  the 
whole  blood  circulating  in  the  system,  are  consequently  much 
more  numerous  than  the  arteries:  they  do  not,  however,  possess 
the  same  strength  in  their  coats  as  the  arteries,  nor  have  they  any 
pulsating  power.  They  have,  however,  the  assistance  of  other 
agents  in  propelling  the  blood  to  its  destination.     The  greater 


THE    BLOOD    AND    ITS    CIRCULATION.  131 

number  of  them  possess  valves,  which  admit  the  blood  to  pass  in 
one  direction,  but  effectually  prevent  its  passing  in  any  other.  It 
was,  indeed,  from  reflecting  on  the  structure  and  necessary  office 
of  these  valves  that  led  the  immortal  Harvey  to  discover  the 
circulation  of  the  blood.  Another  circumstance  peculiar  to  the 
veins  is  their  situation,  being  mostly  near  the  surface  of  the  body, 
whilst  the  arteries  are  generally  deep  seated.  The  wisdom  of  this 
provision  is  evident :  it  is  well  known  that  in  wounds  it  is  readily 
ascertained  if  an  artery  be  wounded  by  the  jet  of  blood  that 
ensues,  and  which  even  from  an  artery  of  small  size  is  very  con- 
siderable, and  the  danger  of  death  from  bleeding  is  often  great  in 
consequence  of  the  force  with  which  the  blood  is  thrown  into 
these  vessels.  Now  such  being  the  danger  attending  the  division 
of  arteries,  it  was  necessary  to  remove  them  as  much  as  possible- 
from  the  risk  of  injury,  and  accordingly  they  are  almost  invariably 
deep  seated,  and  when  they  do  approach  the  surface  it  is  in  parts 
least  likely  to  be  injured.  Thus  round  these  important  vessels 
nature  throws  a  thick  muscular  covering,  and  protects  the  whole 
by  a  mantle  so  sensitive  as  to  give  warning  to  the  least  attack. 
The  veins,  however,  do  not  require  this  care  ;  in  them  the  cir- 
culation is  languid,  and  their  wounds  are  comparatively  unimpor- 
tant and  unattended  with  danger,  for  the  blood  generally  stops, 
without  assistance,  from  its  coagulating  quality.  It  is  also  of 
importance  that  the  greater  portion  of  the  veins  should  be 
situated  near  the  surface,  in  order  to  receive  the  influence  of  the 
atmospheric  pressure,  which  greatly  assists  the  motion  of  the 
blood ;  and  it  has  also  been  found  that  the  veins  possess  a  power 
of  absorption  in  common  with  a  particular  order  of  vessels  called 
the  absorbents ;  thus  these  various  purposes  are  effected  by  the 
relative  position  of  the  veins  and  arteries.  The  structure  of  tiie 
veins  is  very  different  from  that  of  the  arteries;  for,  whilst  the 
latter  are  thick,  elastic,  and  composed  of  three  coats,  the  former 
are  thin,  inelastic,  and  composed  only  of  two  coverings.  But 
although  thin,  they  are  yet  capable  of  aflbrding  great  resistance 
to  pressure. 

We  have  seen  that  the  blood  is  sent  to  all  parts  of  the  body 
by  the  action  of  the  heart  and  arteries,  but  what  is  the  cause  of 
its  return  ?  First  in  importance  is  the  law  of  hydrostatics,  '  that 
all  fluids  support  their  level.'  Thus  the  same  law  by  which 
springs  arise,  and  streams  are  produced,  and  rivers  flow  towards 
the  sea,  is  brought  to  bear  in  the  living  system,  and  enables  the 
blood  in  the  arteries  to  support  that  in  the  veins.  This  effect  is 
greatly  assisted  by  the  action  of  the  valves  in  supporting  the 
column  of  blood.     The  blood  thus  supported  and  propelled  by 


132     STKUCTUHE  AND  ECONOMY  OE  THE  SHEEP. 

the  arteries,  assisted  by  atmosplieric  pressure,  must  go  somewhere, 
as  the  valves  prevent  return  5  it  goes,  therefore,  where  alone  a 
vacancy  is  afforded,  and  that  is  in  the  right  auricle  of  the  heart, 
which  has  just  propelled  its  contents  into  the  ventricle.  To  these 
several  forces  may  be  added  a  power  of  suction  the  heart  possesses 
whenever  the  chest  is  enlarged  in  respiration. 

The  manner  in  which  the  chyle  is  mixed  up  with  the  blood, 
so  that  its  colour  quickly  disappears,  is  worthy  of  particular 
notice.  It  is  owing,  indeed,  to  the  great  agitation  the  blood 
receives,  and  to  the  irregularity  of  the  heart's  internal  surface. 
When  the  auricles  contract,  their  contents  are,  in  a  great 
measure,  discharged  into  the  ventricles,  but  a  portion  is  thrown 
back  into  the  veins,  which  constitutes  what  is  called  the  venous 
pulse,  and  may  sometimes  be  seen  in  the  jugular  veins.  In  like 
manner,  when  the  ventricles  contract,  a  portion  of  their  contents 
is  thrown  back  into  the  auricles,  at  any  rate  that  part  of  it  situated 
behind  the  valves.  By  these  means  an  agitation  is  produced 
which  eifectually  mixes  these  different  fluids  together. 

It  has  been  ascertained  that  the  veins  possess  a  power  of 
absorption  in  common  with  a  numerous  class  of  vessels  called  the 
absorbents,  or  lymphatics.  These  vessels  are  very  minute,  and 
are  distributed  throughout  the  whole  body ;  they  generally  ac- 
company the  veins,  and,  like  them,  are  furnished  with  valves. 

On  Respiration  and  its  Effects. — The  phenomenon  of 
respiration,  which  is  carried  on  from  the  first  minute  after  birth 
to  the  last  of  existence,  consists  of  two  acts,  inspiration  and 
expiration.  The  former,  that  of  inhaling  the  atmosphere,  is 
accomplished  mostly  by  the  diaphragm,  which,  in  its  relaxed 
state,  is  convex  towards  the  chest.  As  its  fibres  contract,  the 
muscle  flattens,  and  thus  enlarges  in  a  considerable  degree  the 
cavity  of  the  thorax.  A  vacuum  is  thus  produced,  or  rather  a 
tendency  towards  it ;  for  the  air  rushes  into  the  lungs,  and  the 
blood  into  the  heart ;  and,  as  the  lungs  are  elastic  and  spongy  in 
their  nature,  they  become  closely  adapted  to  the  enlargement  of 
the  chest,  and  prevent  any  vacuum  from  taking  place  between  them 
and  the  sides  of  the  thorax.  The  diaphragm  is  thus  the  chief 
agent  in  the  act  of  inspiration,  although  in  some  degree  assisted 
by  the  intercostal  muscles,  which  raise  the  chest,  and  also,  when 
the  breathing  is  violently  excited,  by  those  muscles  that  in 
quadrupeds  attach  the  fore  extremities  to  the  body.  The  air 
thus  drawn  into  the  lungs  traverses  throughout  its  internal 
surface,  and,  having  fulfllled  its  office,  is  forced  out  by  the  act  of 
expiration.  This  part  of  the  process  is  effected  chiefly  by  means 
of  the  elasticity  of  the  lungs,  which  acts  as  soon  as  the  diaphragm 


RESPIRATION    AND    ITS    EFFECTS.  133 

becomes  passive,  assisted,  however,  in  some  degree  by  the  elastic 
cartilages  of  the  chest,  and  occasionally  by  the  abdominal 
muscles. 

Atmospheric  air  consists  of  unequal  parts  of  two  aeriform 
fluids,  viz.  four-fifths  of  nitrogen  or  azote,  and  one-fifth  of  oxygen 
in  each  100  parts;  besides  which  it  contains  other  heterogeneous 
matters,  such  as  odorous  effluvia,  aqueous  exhalations,  electric 
matter,  and  carbonic  acid  gas.  It  everywhere  surrounds  and  em- 
braces the  globe,  extending,  in  the  opinion  of  some,  a  distance  of 
forty -five  miles,  and  in  that  of  others  a  much  greater  height.  Its 
gravity  difiers  very  much  at  different  times  and  in  different  places, 
being  heavier  on  a  clear  than  on  a  close  day,  and  also  in  low  than 
in  lofty  places.  The  small  portion  of  carbonic  acid  gas  which  the 
atmosphere  contains  is  not  chemically,  but  mechanically  mixed 
with  it.  This  gas  is  evolved  by  the  fermentation  of  beer,  and  the 
decomposition  of  vegetables,  and  is  often  found  in  wells  and  deep 
places.  It  is  much  heavier  than  the  atmosphere,  and  thus  remains 
in  these  low  places  by  its  gravity.  A  lighted  candle  placed  in  this 
gas  is  immediately  extinguished  ;  so  that  it  is  used  as  a  safeguard 
in  descending  into  low  and  foul  places ;  for  whatever  will  not  sup- 
port combustion  will  not  support  life.  It  is  not  a  simple  gas,  like 
oxygen,  but  is  formed  by  the  union  of  carbon  and  oxygen. 

Nitrogen  or  azote  is  a  simple  gas,  but  its  use  in  the  atmosphere 
seems  to  be  principally  of  a  passive  nature,  being  for  the  purpose 
of  diluting  the  oxygen  and  rendering  it  less  stimulating  ;  it  will 
not  alone  support  life  or  combustion,  but  is  mechanically  mixed 
with  the  oxygen.  Oxygen  is  essential  for  the  support  of  life  and 
combustion  ;  for  if  air  be  deprived  of  it  no  animal  can  live,  nor 
will  a  candle  remain  lighted.  It  is  abundantly  furnished  by  plants 
and  shrubs,  which  thus  restore  the  loss  of  it  occasioned  by  animals. 
When  a  flame  is  exposed  to  this  gas  it  greatly  increases  in  bril- 
liancy ;  and  when  venous  blood  is  submitted  to  it,  it  quickly  be- 
comes florid. 

We  have  before  shown  that  all  the  blood  in  the  body  was  in 
its  turn  carried  from  the  heart  to  the  lungs  by  means  of  the  pul- 
monary artery,  which  divides  and  subdivides  into  the  smallest 
branches,  and  terminates  in  small  capillary  veins,  which,  coalescing, 
become  larger,  and  convey  the  blood  again  to  the  heart  by  the 
pulmonary  veins.  Before  it  reaches  these  veins,  however,  an  im- 
portant change  takes  place ;  the  blood  proceeds  from  the  heart  in 
a  black  and  impure  state  ;  it  returns  reddened  and  purified  ;  it  is 
submitted  in  its  course  to  the  action  of  the  air  in  the  air-cells,  not 
by  actual  contact,  but  through  the  membrane  which  forms  these 
cells ;  and  by  this  means  the  important  change  is  effected.     There 


134     STRUCTURE  AND  ECONOMY  OF  THE  SHEEP. 

is,  we  well  know,  a  considerable  difference  between  the  expired 
and  the  inspired  air ;  the  former  is  hot,  the  latter  cold ;  this  is 
healthy,  that  injurious  ;  one  will  support  combustion  and  life,  the 
other  is  unfit  for  breathing,  and  will  extinguish  a  flame.  There  is 
but  little  difference  in  quantity  between  the  air  in  its  different 
states,  but  the  oxygen  in  expired  air  has  nearly  disappeared  and 
carbonic  acid  gas  is  found  in  its  stead ;  it  also  contains  much 
aqueous  vapour,  which  is  condensed  in  a  visible  form,  at  a  tem- 
perature of  60°.  Thus,  although  the  carbonic  acid  gas  is  much 
heavier  than  common  air,  yet,  partly  from  the  aqueous  vapour 
which  the  expired  air  contains  being  much  lighter,  but  principally 
from  its  own  increased  temperature,  the  expired  air,  notwith- 
standing its  carbonic  acid,  is  yet  specifically  lighter  than  the  atmo- 
sphere ;  and  consequently  rises  upwards,  and  thus,  in  great 
measure,  is  prevented  from  being  respired  a  second  time.  It  has 
been  found  by  experiment  with  a  portion  of  atmospheric  air,  con- 
taining 80  parts  of  nitrogen,  18  of  oxygen,  and  2  of  carbonic  acid, 
that,  on  being  respired,  the  nitrogen  continued  the  same,  but  the 
carbonic  acid  was  increased  to  13  parts,  and  the  oxygen  reduced 
to  5  ;  whence  it  appeared  that  11  parts  of  carbonic  acid  were  sub- 
stituted for  13  of  oxygen,  2  parts  having  entirely  disappeared. 
Thus  the  disappearance  of  the  greater  portion  of  the  oxygen  was 
accounted  for  by  its  being  converted  into  carbonic  acid ;  but  there 
remained  a  small  portion,  whose  absence  could  not  be  thus 
explained,  more  particularly  as  Sir  H.  Davy  calculated  that  about 
32  ounces  of  oxygen  were  necessary  for  24  hours'  expenditure  in 
a  man  ;  but  only  26^  ounces  are  requisite  for  the  formation  of 
even  37  ounces  of  carbonic  acid  gas,  giving  us  an  unexplained 
surplus  of  6|  ounces  of  oxygen  during  the  above  period.  By 
some  it  was  supposed  that  this  surplus  oxygen  united  with  the 
hydrogen  thrown  off  by  the  blood,  and  is  thus  converted  into 
watery  vapour  :  by  others  it  is  held  that  this  oxygen  is  absorbed 
by  the  blood,  and  enters  the  circulation.  Carbonic  acid  gas  is  ex- 
haled from  the  lungs  in  different  quantities  during  different  periods 
of  the  day,  being  generated  in  the  greatest  quantity  about  noon, 
decreasing  in  the  afternoon  and  night,  and  again  increasing  in  the 
morning.     It  also  increases  in  man  by  taking  animal  food. 

Sir  H.  Davy  contended  that  a  small  portion  of  nitrogen  is 
absorbed  by  the  blood  ;  but  this  has  been  denied  by  others.  The 
chief  use  of  nitrogen,  however,  is  to  dilute  the  oxygen ;  for  if  the 
latter  is  inspired  pure  a  sense  of  warmth  is  felt  in  the  chest,  the 
heat  of  the  skin  is  raised,  the  pulse  quickened,  and  other  symptoms 
of  excitement  are  produced.  A  given  quantity  of  oxygen  will, 
however,  support  life  longer  than  the  same  quantity  of  atmospheric 


EESPIKATION    AND    ITS    EFFECTS.  135 

air.  It  has  been  computed  that,  in  the  course  of  24  hours,  about 
2  lbs.  8  ozs.  of  oxygen  is  consumed  by  a  man.  After  an  ordinary 
respiration  a  considerable  quantity  of  air  still  remains — perhaps 
four-fifths,  one-fifth  having  been  expired. 

Having  mentioned  the  changes  that  take  place  in  the  atmo- 
sphere, we  must  next  consider  in  what  manner  the  blood  becomes 
so  altered  by  its  passage  through  the  lungs.  The  blood,  as  it 
traverses  through  the  body,  gradually  becomes  darker ;  it  is  loaded 
with  carbon,  and  is  rendered  unfit  for  the  circulation,  and  in  this 
state  it  is  called  venous  blood.  If  venous  blood,  taken  out  of  the 
body,  be  exposed  to  oxygen,  it  quickly  becomes  red ;  and  so  it 
does  if  exposed  to  the  atmosphere,  but  not  so  rapidly.  So,  like- 
wise, if  arterial  blood  be  exposed  to  carbonic  acid,  it  quickly 
acquires  the  colour  and  character  of  venous  blood.  In  the  same 
manner  is  the  colour  of  the  blood  changed  in  the  hmgs;  thus  the 
principal  use  of  respiration  appears  to  be  to  fi'ee  the  blood  from 
its  impurities ;  and  this  is  eflected  although  the  air  and  the  blood 
do  not  actually  come  in  contact.  It  was  found,  that  if  blood  in  a 
common  bladder  were  exposed  to  the  atmosphere  for  some  time,  it 
acquired  a  coating  of  florid  blood ;  and  thus,  as  the  membrane 
lining  the  air-cells  is  by  no  means  so  thick  as  that  of  the  bladder, 
there  is  no  longer  any  difficulty  in  accounting  for  the  change 
taking  place.  It  has  been  the  subject  of  some  dispute  as  to  when 
the  change,  or  rather  exchange,  takes  place,  some  contending  that 
the  carbon  unites  with  the  oxygen  in  the  air-cells,  whilst  others 
maintain  that  the  oxygen  enters  the  blood,  and  there  unites  with 
the  carbon,  forming  carbonic  acid  gas,  which  is  then  exhaled  into 
the  air-cells.  It  was  found,  however,  that  if  venous  blood  were 
put  within  the  exhausted  receiver  of  an  air-pump,  a  quantity  of 
carbonic  acid  escapes ;  thus  proving  the  presence  of  this  gas  in  the 
blood,  and  supporting  the  second  theory.  And  as  there  appears  to 
be  a  greater  quantity  of  oxygen  abstracted  from  the  atmosphere 
than  can  be  accounted  for  by  the  formation  of  carbonic  acid,  we 
must  conclude  that  a  portion  mingles  with  the  blood  and  enters  the 
circulation;  which  theory  agrees  with  the  fact  that  it  has  recently 
been  discovered,  by  correct  analyses,  that  both  venous  and  arterial 
blood  contains  carbonic  acid,  nitrogen,  and  oxygen ;  but  that  the 
latter  gas  is  most  abundant  in  arterial  and  the  former  in  venous 
blood. 

Although  the  action  of  the  heart  is  much  more  frequent  than 
that  of  the  chest  in  respiration,  yet  there  is  a  most  intimate  con- 
nexion between  the  one  and  the  other ;  for  besides  the  changes 
which  we  have  spoken  of  in  the  blood,  it  rushes  into  the  heart 
when  the  chest  is  expanded,  and  when,  from  any  cause,  respiration 


136  STRUCTURE    AJsD    ECONOMY    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

is  delayed,  the  pulse  becomes  less  frequent  and  more  languid  in 
consequence  of  the  obstruction  in  the  current  of  the  blood.  Thus, 
in  violent  fits  of  coughing,  the  chest  collapses,  the  air  is  expelled, 
and  the  blood  not  being  purified,  is  unfit  for  circulation,  and  the 
consequence  is  the  veins  of  the  head  become  distended,  and,  in 
man,  the  person  becomes  red  or  black  in  the  face,  and  sometimes  a 
blood-vessel  has  ruptured  and  death  supervened. 

Tlie  Production  of  Animal  Heat. — This  important  opera- 
tion is  effected  by  means  of  respiration,  the  chemical  process  car- 
ried on  in  the  lungs.  The  sensation  of  heat  is  derived  from  the 
presence  of  an  extremely  subtle  fluid  called  caloric,  the  particles 
of  which  have  a  tendency  to  repel  each  other  and  unite  with  other 
substances.  Thus,  if  we  touch  a  body  whose  temperature  is  lower 
than  that  of  our  hand,  caloric  passes  from  the  hand  to  this  sub- 
stance, and  the  sensation  of  cold  is  experienced ;  and  if,  on  the 
contrary,  the  temperature  of  the  substance  is  higher,  we  feel  a 
degree  of  heat  from  the  passage  of  caloric  into  the  hand.  It  is  a 
singular  fact,  that  this  caloric  may  exist  in  two  different  states — 
the  one  in  a  free  or  sensible  form,  the  other  in  a  latent  or  combined 
foi-m.  Thus  two  substances  may  appear  to  be  of  the  same  tem- 
perature, and  yet  one  may  contain  a  much  greater  degree  of  caloric 
than  the  other,  but  so  combined  with  the  substance  that  it  is  not 
sensible  to  the  touch.  If,  however,  the  object  be  exposed  to  the 
influence  of  some  chemical  ageut,  its  latent  caloric  may  be  set  free 
or  rendered  sensible.  For  instance,  if  sulphuric  acid  and  water  be 
mixed  together,  although  each  fluid  were  before  cold,  the  mixture 
is  raised  to  a  high  temperature,  and  caloric  is  evolved.  In  the 
fermentation  of  malt  liquors  the  temperature  of  the  liquid  is 
raised  with  the  process,  and  carbonic  acid  is  produced  ;  and  when- 
ever, indeed,  this  material  is  formed,  heat  is  evolved.  Animal  heat 
is  kept  up  and  supported  by  the  chemical  union  of  these  two  sub- 
stances, oxygen  and  carbon — the  same  that  produces  combustion 
in  our  fires  and  candles.  Carbon  may  be  considered  as  the  fuel, 
not  only  in  ordinary  combination,  but  also  in  the  animal  economy, 
whilst  oxygen  may  be  regarded  as  the  fire  ;  and,  in  fact,  this  agent, 
throughout  nature,  is  the  cause  of  what  appears  to  be  destruction, 
but  is,  in  fact,  only  change  of  form ;  such,  indeed,  is  its  tendency 
to  combine  with  other  substances.  Carbon  is  supplied  by  the 
food,  and  it  is  necessary  that  sufficient  should  be  furnished  to 
counteract  the  consuming  tendency  of  oxygen,  which  would  other- 
wise gradually  waste  and  destroy  the  system.  In  cold  weather 
and  cold  climates  more  oxygen  is  taken  into  the  lungs,  the  air 
being  more  condensed,  and  a  greater  waste  of  the  system  would 
be  the  consequence  were  it  not  for  the  fact  that  the  appetite  is 


PKINCIPLES    A^^D    PRACTICE    OF    BEEEDIIvG.  137 

increased,  and  more  food  is  taken,  particularly  tliat  which  contains 
most  carbon.  This  accounts  for  the  fact  of  the  people  in  cold 
countries  having  such  a  great  inclination  for  oily  food,  which  con- 
sists chiefly  of  carbon,  whilst  those  in  hot  climates  dislike  fat  of 
every  description,  and  prefer  a  vegetable  diet ;  thus  the  functions 
of  the  lungs  and  the  stomach  most  intimately  agree.  In  cold 
weather  a  large  fire  must  be  kept  up  to  preserve  the  animal  warmth, 
and  the  digestive  organs  furnish  the  fuel,  or  otherwise  the  tissues 
of  the  body  would  be  wasted  or  consumed. 

THE    PRINCIPLES    AND    PRACTICE    OF    BREEDING. 

The  management  and  selection  of  any  breed  of  sheep  must  after 
all  become  a  matter  of  pounds,  shillings,  and  pence.  The  question 
the  farmer  has  to  consider  is,  what  description  of  sheep  will  in 
the  long  run  return  the  most  profit ;  and  this  question  must  be 
viewed  in  strict  relation  to  the  management  he  will  be  able  to 
adopt  on  the  particular  farm  on  which  he  may  be  located.  It 
is  not  therefore  a  simple,  but  a  compound  question.  It  is 
not  merely  which  breed  will  make  most  flesh  and  fat,  but 
which  will  make  it  in  the  shortest  time  and  on  the  least  food ; 
which  can  bear  the  weather,  or  hard  keep,  or  travelling,  or  a 
particular  mode  of  management,  with  the  greatest  impunity.  All 
these  considerations  must  enter  into  the  farmer's  mind  before  he 
can  come  to  a  sound  conclusion.  From  the  want  of  making  these 
considerations  many  fatal  mistakes  have  been  made,  and  a  flock 
has  been  selected  altogether  unsuitable  to  the  soil,  and  incapable 
of  bearing  the  severity  of  the  weather. 

The  two  breeds  which  used  to  appear  as  rivals  in  their  claims 
on  public  attention  are  the  New  Leicester  and  the  South  Down. 
It  cannot  be  doubted  that,  as  far  as  propensity  to  fatten  and  early 
maturity  is  considered,  the  Leicester  will  not  only  rival,  but 
eclipse  all  others;  for  these  qualities  the  form  may  justly  be  con- 
sidered as  a  model,  and  all  other  breeds  will  possess  these  qualities 
in  a  greater  or  lesser  degree,  in  proportion  as  they  possess  the 
similitude  of  the  form  and  points  of  the  Leicester  sheep.  The  South 
Down  itself  will  not  be  an  exception  to  this  rule;  for  if  the 
improved  and  the  neglected  specimens  be  compared  together,  it 
will  be  found  that  the  excellencies  of  the  former  consist  in  those 
points  which  approximate  most  to  the  Leicester,  The  wool,  too, 
is  also  a  consideration  ;  for  the  fleece,  from  its  greater  length  and 
weight,  will  bring  in  nearly  double  that  of  the  Down.  Where, 
therefore,  the  pasture  is  very  fertile,  and  the  sheep  can  be  tended 
with  much  care  and  without  exposure,  the  Leicester  has  been 


138     STRUCTURE  AND  ECONOMY  OF  THE  SHEEP. 

regarded  as  the  most  profitable  of  the  pure  breeds.  Its  draw- 
backs, however,  are  the  incapability  of  the  animal  for  bearing 
exposure,  or  travelling,  or  living  hard ;  in  fact,  its  weaker  con- 
stitution, and  greater  liability  to  inflammatory  disorders.  It  is 
thus  unfitted  for  the  purposes  of  folding,  or  for  the  exposure  of 
the  North  and  South- Downs,  and  still  more  so  for  contending  with 
the  severities  of  the  Grampian  Hills  or  the  Welsh  Mountains. 
In  such  localities  these  sheep  could  not  endure.  Then  again  the 
mutton  is  by  no  means  so  good  as  the  South  Down,  owing  to 
the  very  large  proportion  of  tallow  in  proportion  to  the  lean. 
Thus  it  is  not  a  favourite  in  the  London  markets,  and  accordingly, 
of  late  years,  the  first  cross  between  the  Leicester  and  the  Down 
has  been  introduced  in  many  instances  instead  of  the  Leicester ; 
and  it  is  contended  that  this  first  cross  is  the  most  profitable  sheep 
that  can  be  fattened,  making  greater  and  more  rapid  progress 
than  the  Down,  and  better  meat  than  the  Leicester,  and  possessing, 
to  some  extent,  the  dark  faces  of  the  Down,  which  sign-manual 
of  their  origin  renders  them  a  greater  favourite  with  the  butcher. 

The  South  Down,  or  rather  the  improyed  South  Down — for 
there  is  a  great  difference  between  the  two — possesses  most 
valuable  qualities  ;  with  a  propensity  to  fatten  inferior  only  to  the 
Leicester,  but  with  later  maturity,  these  sheep  are  excellent 
travellers,  well  adapted  for  folding,  hardy  compared  with  the 
Leicester,  and  capable  of  living  on  short  pasture,  and  well  adapted 
for  the  Down  farms  of  the  south  of  England.  The  mutton,  too, 
is  more  esteemed  than  any  other,  with  the  exception  of  the  small 
mountain  sheep.  Perhaps  there  is  no  ancient  pure  breed  of  sheep 
that  has  undergone  so  much  improvement  as  the  South  Down, 
and  it  affords  the  owners  of  other  breeds  a  proper  example,  show- 
ing what  can  be  done  by  care  and  attention,  and  the  application 
of  proper  principles.  Nothing  can  affbrd  a  better  proof  of  the 
sterling  qualities  of  this  breed  than  the  facts  that  some  forty 
or  fifty  years  since  the  price  of  South  Down  wool  rendered 
the  fleece  a  matter  of  great  importance  ;  and  now,  although  the 
comparative  price  is  reduced,  and  it  is  never  likely  to  realize 
so  much  as  the  long-wooled  fleece,  the  valuable  qualities  of 
the  animal  and  the  improvements  that  have  been  made  have 
enabled  the  breed  still  to  retain  a  foremost  rank  in  public 
favour. 

With  these  two  valuable  breeds,  each  adapted  for  different 
pastures,  it  may,  perhaps,  be  asked,  what  need  is  there  for  any 
other.  It  will,  however,  be  found  that  in  the  marshes  of  Kent 
and  many  other  places,  the  superior  hardihood  of  the  native 
breeds  has  rendered  them   more  profitable   than  the  Leicester, 


PRINCIPLES    AND    PRACTICE    OF    BREEDINa.  139 

though,  unquestionably,  crosses  vrith  the  latter  hare  much  im- 
proved their  value.  But  notwithstanding  the  eminent  qualities 
of  the  South  Down,  they  have  in  numerous  instances  given  way 
to  the  larger  Hampshire  sheep,  and  they  have  been  found  not 
sufficiently  hardy  to  endure  the  severities  of  the  Grampian  Hills 
or  the  Welsh  Mountains.  They  have  been  tried  and  found 
wanting;  vast  numbers  have  been  destroyed  by  tbe  rigours  of 
winter  in  these  bleak  situations,  and  the  losses  that  have  accrued  to 
many  parties  have  deterred  others  from  following  their  example. 

The  Cheiiot  sheep  possess  many  valuable  qualities :  decidedly 
inferior  to  the  South  Downs  in  their  fattening  powers  and  their 
early  maturity,  they  are  superior  in  these  points  to  all  other 
mountain  sheep,  and,  in  hardihood,  even  to  the  South  Down,  and 
are  thus  the  best  adapted  to  their  native  hills,  and  all  other  pastures 
of  a  similar  character.  When  carried,  however,  to  the  extreme 
north  and  the  islands  of  Zetland  and  Orkney,  it  is  said  they  are 
not  sufficiently  hardy  for  these  extra-rigorous  places,  although  it 
is  probable,  with  a  little  increase  of  care,  they  might  be  rendered 
so,  and  they  would  then  be  far  more  profitable  than  the  ungainly 
sheep  of  the  native  breed. 

These  three  breeds — the  Leicester,  the  South  Down,  and  the 
Cheviot — may  be  considered  as  the  principal  pure  breeds  which 
this  country  possesses.  They  are  essential  to  the  variety  of 
pastures  which  obtain,  and  without  them  this  country  could  not 
be  properly  stocked.  Other  breeds,  which  it  may  be  advantageous 
to  adopt,  either  possess  peculiar  qualities  which  render  them 
valuable  or  have  been  crossed  extensively  with  more  improved 
breeds. 

The  Dorset  and  the  Somerset,  for  instance,  are  valuable  on 
account  of  the  ewes  taking  the  ram  so  much  earlier  than  other 
breeds,  so  that  the  lambs  come  into  the  market  when  scarce,  and 
thus  command  a  higher  price.  These  qualities  have  caused  this 
breed  to  be  diffused  to  a  great  extent  within  the  circuit  of  ahundred 
miles  of  London.  It  is  a  common  practice  to  purchase  these 
ewes  in  lamb  at  the  Michaelmas  fairs  in  Wiltshire  and  Hamp- 
shire, and  to  fatten  the  lamb  first  and  then  the  ewe,  renewing 
the  flock  the  following  year.  This  practice  can  be  pursued  most 
advantageously  by  farmers  possessing  farms  with  sufficient  pas- 
turage in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  London  railroads,  and  the 
demand  they  excite  makes  it  answer  the  purpose  of  breeders  in 
the  west  to  supply  them.  The  qualities  of  this  breed,  in  other 
respects,  are  inferior  to  the  Downs ;  the  mutton  is  not  quite  so 
much  esteemed,  the  sheep  are  not  so  hardy,  and  do  not  possess 
equal  fattening  powers. 


140     STRUCTURE  AND  ECONOMY  OF  THE  SHEEP. 

The  ewes,  previously  to  being  sold,  are  usually  put  to  a  South 
Down  ram,  by  which  means  the  lambs  have  a  greater  propensity 
to  fatten,  have  darker  faces,  and  they  exhibit  no  appearance  of 
horns — which  are  features  much  looked  to  in  the  London  markets. 

The  Leicester  have  been  extensively  employed  in  improving 
the  breed  of  other  sheep,  and  so  successful  has  this  practice 
been  in  many  instances  that  the  result  of  the  cross  has  produced  a 
breed  more  profitable  than  the  Leicester  itself,  retaining  the 
fattening  qualities  of  the  sire  with  the  greater  hardihood  and 
adaptation  to  the  soil  possessed  by  the  native  breed. 

The  Momney  Marsh  sheep  have  been  thus  improved.  The 
size  and  strength  of  the  original  breed  were,  to  a  great  extent, 
retained ;  and,  exposed  as  these  sheep  are  to  occasional  floods, 
and  the  deep  dikes  requiring  much  activity,  the  Leicester  blood 
itself  would  not  have  contended  against  these  difficulties;  but, 
mingled  with  the  native  breed,  it  improved  its  fattening  qualities 
and  disposition  to  early  maturity,  and  destroyed  much  of  the  old 
coarseness. 

The  Bampton  sheep,  or  Devon  NottSy  are  also  striking  instances 
of  the  benefits  of  this  cross,  and  are  thus  well  adapted  for  the 
rich  grazing  land  of  Somersetshire  and  Devonshire. 

The  Cotswold  sheep  have  been  similarly  improved ;  the  large 
frame  and  length  of  wool  of  the  Cotswold  have  been  retained, 
together  with  much  of  the  fattening  qualities  of  the  Leicester 
sire.  The  product  of  this  cross  has  also  been  employed  in  Hamp- 
shire in  combination  with  the  native  Hampshire  Downs  ;  and  the 
result  of  this  plan,  carefully  pursued,  has  been  to  unite,  in  a 
striking  degree,  the  peculiarities  of  each  of  the  three  breeds,  the 
fattening  properties  of  the  Leicester,  the  size  and  length  of  wool 
of  the  Cotswold,  and  the  hardihood  and  adaptation  to  the  soil  and 
folding  capabilities  of  the  Down. 

Another  plan,  very  frequently  followed  and  with  much  success, 
is  that  of  being  satisfied  with  the  first  cross  with  the  improved 
Cotswold,  after  which  it  is  contended  they  degenerate.  Others  pre- 
fer a  second,  third,  and  even  a  fourth  cross;  that  is,  they  put  the 
produce  of  the  South  Down  or  Hampshire  Down  and  the  im- 
proved Cotswold  to  the  South  Down  ram,  and  use  the  same  bred 
ram  again  and  again  for  several  generations.  By  this  plan  the 
size  of  the  sheep  is  enlarged,  and  the  fleece  is  much  more 
abundant,  and  it  is  really  astonishing  to  observe,  even  after  the 
Down  ram  has  been  employed  for  several  generations,  how  much 
even  then  of  the  qualities  of  the  Cotswold  and  the  Leicester  is 
still  retained. 

The  South  Down  ram  has  been  employed  extensively  for  the 


PEINCirLES    AND    PRACTICE    OF    BEEEDING.  141 

purpose  of  improving  the  mountain  treeds  both  of  Wales  and 
Ireland,  and  the  result,  when  care  is  taken  to  retain  a  preponder- 
ance of  the  indigenous  breed,  has  been  very  successful. 

The  Cheviots  have  been  employed  for  a  similar  purpose,  and 
the  result  has  been  pretty  generally  attended  with  success. 

Whatever  sheep  may  be  selected  as  most  suitable  to  the  soil, 
it  has  been  fairly  shown — that  the  most  profitable  management  is 
to  bestow  on  them  considerable  care  and  attention.  The  thriftless 
economy  that  would  deny  them  shelter  from  the  pitiless  blast,  or 
expose  them  during  the  lambing  season  to  the  unprotected  rigours 
of  winter,  has  been  proved,  both  by  practice  and  theory,  to  be  as 
unprofitable  as  it  is  cruel. 

It  has  been  clearly  shown,  both  by  theoretical  reasoning  and 
actual  experiment,  that  warmth  and  thriving  are  closely  con- 
nected— that  the  influence  of  cold  is  to  waste  the  body  or  to  render 
more  food  necessary ;  in  fact,  that  to  a  certain  extent  warmth  is  a 
substitute  for  food.  Thus  we  see  the  importance  of  the  fleece 
during  the  winter ;  it  preserves  the  temperature  of  the  sheep  and 
prevents  waste,  and  we  cannot  be  surprised  that  animals  thrive 
more  in  the  summer  than  the  winter,  unless  during  the  very 
hottest  period. 

On  the  majority  of  farms  there  is  much  room  for  improvement 
in  this  respect,  and  in  no  case  will  the  advantage  of  shelter  be 
uselessly  bestowed,  and  the  many  plans  of  afibrding  it  is  a  m.atter 
worthy  of  much  consideration. 

If  the  lambing  season  should  be  early  or  the  weather  severe, 
the  benefit  of  shelter  will  be  doubly  apparent,  and  will  abundantly 
repay  the  expense  bestowed.  It  is  a  pleasing  circumstance  to  find 
that  the  profit  to  the  breeder  and  humanity  to  the  sheep  are  so 
closely  connected  together. 

The  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  folding  have  been  the 
subject  of  discussion,  and  have  given  rise  to  much  difference  of 
opinion.  In  many  farms  the  advantage  of  folding  was  the  prin- 
cipal purpose  for  which  the  flock  was  kept  ;  and,  indeed,  on  many 
light  hilly  farms  at  a  distance  from  a  town  it  would  be  impossible 
to  cultivate  the  land  without  a  flock.  The  custom  used  to  be  to 
fold  the  sheep  on  a  naked  fallow  every  night,  and  to  do  this  it 
was  often  necessary  to  drive  them  a  considerable  distance.  Much 
loss  in  the  carcass  was  the  result  of  this  practice  ;  the  tiresome 
travelling  of  the  flock  and  the  long  deprivation  of  food  materially 
retarded  the  thriving  of  the  sheep. 

The  turnip  system  of  husbandry,  and  particularly  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  Swedish  turnip,  created  a  sort  of  revolution  in  agricul- 
ture.    As  a  substitute  for  a  fallow,  turnips  consumed  on  the  land 


142     STRUCTURE  AT^D  ECONOMY  OF  THE  SHEEP. 

afforded  an  abundant  dressing  for  the  succeeding  crop.  And  the 
Swedish  turnip,  by  affording  a  good  supply  of  food  at  the  most 
difficult  period  of  the  year — viz.,  the  latter  part  of  the  winter  and 
the  early  spring,  when  the  common  turnip,  if  kept,  would  have 
been  rotted  by  the  frost — enabled  a  much  larger  number  of  sheep 
to  be  kept  on  each  farm.  Whatever  doubt,  therefore,  there  may 
be  as  to  the  advantage  of  folding  sheep  on  a  naked  fallow,  there 
can  be  none  as  to  the  benefit  derived  from  folding  them  on  turnips, 
and  thus  consuming  the  greater  portion  of  the  latter  on  the  spot. 
The  expense  both  of  the  carriage  of  the  turnips  and  the  dung  is 
thereby  saved,  and  on  hilly  land  this  is  very  considerable,  and  the 
sheep,  having  abundance  of  food,  do  not  suffer  in  consequence.  It 
is  a  common  and  beneficial  practice  to  let  the  fat  sheep  have  the 
run  of  the  turnips  first,  and  to  follow  them  by  the  ewes  or  the 
poor  sheep.  Hay  is  generally  given  at  the  same  time,  and  is 
extremely  desirable,  as  counteracting  the  effects  of  the  redundant 
moisture  in  the  turnips,  and  thus  preventing  disease.  If  turnips 
unlimited  are  given  to  ewes  in  lamb,  they  are  extremely  apt  to 
produce  abortion,  and  particularly  if  the  season  is  mild  and  vege- 
tation rank  and  forward.  It  will  be  a  more  prudent  plan  to  draw 
a  portion  of  the  turnips,  and  give  it  to  the  ewes  with  hay  on 
some  old  pasture. 

On  some  farms  it  is  customary,  after  a  light  coating  of  dung 
has  been  spread  on  the  land  as  a  preparation  for  wheat,  to  enhance 
its  virtue  by  folding  the  sheep  on  it,  a  plan  desirable  when  manure 
is  scarce  or  weak  in  quality ;  but  though  beneficial  to  the  land,  it 
is  otherwise  to  the  sheep,  unless  some  artificial  food  be  given  at 
the  same  time.  It  is  customary,  however,  to  adopt  this  plan  with 
ewes  in  lamb,  and  it  is  found  to  be  a  safe  practice  ;  that  is,  to  give 
them  hay  in  the  fold  at  night,  and  keep  them  on  the  downs  during 
the  day,  unless  there  is  a  hard  frost  or  snow  on  the  ground. 

The  value  of  folding  has  been  estimated  to  be  about  40s,  per 
acre,  differing,  however,  according  to  the  manner  in  which  the 
sheep  have  been  kept,  as  turnips  and  succulent  food  render  it 
better  than  grass  alone.  Four  hundred  South  Down  sheep  are 
sufficient  to  fold  twenty  perches  per  day,  or  forty-five  acres  per 
year,  the  value  of  which  is,  therefore,  about  90/.  per  year,  or 
4^.  6c?.  per  sheep.  Whether  this  is  sufficient  to  repay  the  loss  iu 
flesh  and  wool  over  that  of  a  different  system  of  management,  has 
been  a  matter  of  dispute  and  a  subject  of  calculation.  Some  have 
advised  a  standing  fold  on  some  dry  and  convenient  spot,  well 
littered  with  straw  or  stubble.  Three  hundred  sheep  have  in  this 
manner  produced  eighty  large  cart-loads  of  dung  between  October 
and  March,  and  in  this  manner    after  the  expenses  have  been 


PRINCIPLES    AND    PRACTICE    OF    BREEDINa.  143 

deducted,  eacli  sheep  has  earned  3c?.  per  week.  This  plan  possesses 
several  advantages,  which  render  it  greatly  superior  to  folding  on 
a  naked  fallow.  The  sheep  are  kept  sheltered  and  dry,  and  the 
sheds  or  yards  in  which  this  plan  is  pursued  will  be  exceedingly 
convenient  at  the  lambing  season.  The  dung,  too,  thus  formed 
can  probably  be  more  evenly  spread  on  the  land  than  would  other- 
wise be  the  case. 

On  heavy  lands  it  is,  indeed,  impossible  to  keep  sheep  in  the 
turnip-field  throughout  the  winter;  the  wet  and  dirt  would  be 
destructive  to  the  sheep,  and  the  treading  of  the  animals  injurious 
to  the  ground.  For  four  or  five  months  it  is,  therefore,  indispen- 
sable that  they  should  be  kept  in  sheds  or  on  grass,  and  the  turnips 
carted  to  them.  It  is  satisfactory,  however,  to  find  that  this 
plan  is  so  little  more  expensive,  on  the  whole,  as  to  be  urged  by  its 
advocates  as  a  superior  method  in  all  cases.  In  practice  it  is  found 
that  on  light  soil  the  convenience  of  consuming  turnips  on  the  land, 
and  the  saving  of  carriage  both  of  turnips  and  manure,  render  it 
the  most  advantageous  plan,  whilst  on  land  inclined  to  be  heavy 
or  wet,  the  use  of  sheds  or  standing  folds  will  be  the  superior 
method. 

Even  on  down  farms  at  a  distance  from  a  town  the  practice  of 
folding  on  naked  fallows  is  susceptible  of  great  improvement,  by 
giving  the  sheep  some  portion  of  artificial  food,  as  corn  or  cake  ;  the 
dung  will  be  thus  considerably  improved,  the  sheep  will  be  stronger 
and  more  healthy  ;  and,  in  fact,  a  greater  number  can  be  kept. 

With  regard  to  the  application  of  the  manure  to  the  land, 
there  cannot  be  a  doubt  that  folding  is  the  more  profitable  method  ; 
for  the  ammonia,  which  is  the  valuable  part  of  the  urine,  is  pre- 
vented from  escaping  by  being  fixed  and  absorbed  by  the  soil. 
This  superior  advantage  and  greater  convenience  will,  no  doubt, 
perpetuate  on  light  soils  the  practice  of  keeping  sheep  in  the  field, 
not  only  with  regard  to  the  breeding  ewes,  but  also  with  the 
fatting  sheep ;  whilst  on  heavy  lands  a  contrary  practice  will  be 
pursued  during  the  winter  months;  and  with  reference  to  the 
sheep  alone  there  is  no  doubt  whatever  that  they  will  thrive  far 
more  rapidly  and  with  less  food  in  an  enclosed  shed  than  in  the 
open  field. 

Folding  is  largely  practised,  more  especially  with  the  South 
Down  breed;  but  Mr.  Wilson,  an  excellent  authority,  states  that 
*  it  is  well  ascertained  that  the  injury  done  to  a  fiopk  by  this  practice 
exceeds  the  benefit  conferred  on  the  crops  ;  and  now  that  portable 
manures  are  so  abundant,  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  this  pernicious 
practice  of  using  sheep  as  mere  muck  machines  will  be  every- 
where abandoned.' 


144     STRUCTURE  AND  ECONOMY  OF  THE  SHEEP. 

Mr.  Ruston  liad  for  five  years  tried  sheep  in  the  yards,  and  at  the 
same  time  had  between  600  and  700  sheep  and  lambs  in  his  ordi- 
nary fold  yards,  which  were  allowed  as  many  mangold  as  their 
bodies  would  bear,  to  which  was  added  cake  or  corn,  along  with  a 
sufficient  supply  of  dry  food  in  the  shape  of  chaff,  hay,  and  straw, 
about  four  yards  square  being  allowed  for  each  sheep,  the  yards 
being  properly  drained,  and  littered  every  day  with  a  light  cover- 
ing of  straw,  and  twice  a  day  in  showery  wet  weather.  Thus  if 
the  sheep  be  free  from  lameness  when  placed  in  the  yards,  and  the 
littering  carefully  attended  to,  there  need  not  be  much  fear  of 
foot-rot ;  their  feet  should  be  pared  at  least  every  three  weeks. 

Mr.  Ruston  considers  that  six  lambs  will  tread  down  as  much 
straw  as  a  121.  or  14:1  bullock,  and  calculates  that  instead  of  100 
bullocks  leaving  150^.  after  paying  for  the  artificial  food,  600  lambs 
did  leave  390^.  for  the  same  quantity  of  food,  the  sheep  thus 
giving  a  profit  of  240/.  in  excess  of  the  bullocks.  The  manure 
may  be  made  in  folds  in  any  field  by  means  of  hurdles,  and  thus 
the  expense  of  carting  may  be  saved.  In  answer  to  an  enquiry 
Mr.  Ruston  states  that  his  opinion  on  the  yarding  of  sheep  is 
unchanged.  He  adds,  as  the  result  of  past  experience  : — '  I  have 
come  to  the  conclusion  that  on  my  farm  lambs  pay  better  for  yard- 
ing and  consuming  mangold  than  sheep,  and  that  either  pays  better 
than  bullocks.' 

The  employment  of  salt  for  sheep  is  too  much  neglected,  par- 
ticularly in  long-continued  wet  weather,  when  it  is  most  needed. 
The  following  are  some  instances  of  its  utility  from  Mr.  Talks' 
essay  on  '  Salt'  '  Doilly,  in  France,  put  up  ten  sheep,  giving  each 
25  grammes,  or  four-fifths  of  an  ounce  of  salt,  and  to  ten  others  he 
gave  no  salt,  all  being  of  the  same  breed  and  age.  After  eighty- 
seven  days  the  ten  with  salt  had  increased  84  kilos  in  weight, 
the  ten  without  only  76  kilos ;  the  difference  of  8  kilos,  or  2  lbs. 
weight  in  each  sheep,  besides  the  condition  of  the  salt  eaters 
being  much  better.  The  Farthman  Agricultural  Society  of 
Silesia  did  the  same ;  put  up  three  lots  of  ten  each,  gave  all 
the  same  food,  hay,  straw,  potatoes,  and  beans ;  and  to  lot  one 
daily,  ^  oz.  of  salt  to  each ;  to  lot  two,  f  oz.  of  salt  to  each ;  and 
to  lot  three  no  salt.  After  124  days  there  was  a  difiereuce  in  the 
increase  of  weight  with  lot  one,  on  each,  of  4|  lbs.,  and  lot  two 
3^  lbs.  on  each  against  lot  three,  which  had  received  no  salt ; 
besides,  which  is  still  more  important  in  a  money  point  of  view, 
of  If  lb.  of  wool  and  a  better  fleece  against  no  salt.' 

The  improvement  of  a  flock  by  means  of  breeding  requires 
very  considerable  and  long-continued  care. 

The  qualities  of  both  parents  must  be  considered  both  with  8 


PRINCIPLES    AND    PRACTICE    OF    BREEDING.  145 

view  of  correcting  bad  as  well  as  perpetuating  good  qualities.  It 
must  be  acknowledged,  however,  that  in  the  majority  of  cases  the 
influence  of  the  male  preponderates  over  the  female,  and  the 
characteristics  of  the  former  are  more  likely  to  be  impressed  on 
the  offspring  than  those  of  the  latter.  This  is  shown  in  most 
animals.  The  mule  partakes  much  more  of  the  nature  and  tlie 
size  of  its  sire,  the  ass,  than  of  its  dam,  the  mare.  A  large  Cots- 
wold  ram  on  a  Down  ewe  produces  an  offspring  much  more 
resembling  the  former  than  the  latter ;  and  a  pony  mare  put  to  a 
full-size  horse  will  produce  an  animal  half  as  large  again  as  the 
dam.  Though  this,  however,  appears  to  be  Nature's  rule,  it  is  not 
one  without  exception,  for  occasionally  we  see  the  very  opposite 
results.  In  breeding  animals  of  a  pure  kind  the  principal  rule  to 
be  observed  is  to  breed  from  the  very  best  of  both  sexes,  to  cull 
the  faulty  ones  every  year,  saving  only  the  female  lambs  for  the 
future  flock  that  are  as  free  from  defects  as  possible.  Of  course 
the  flock  must  be  kept  up  to  its  proper  size,  but  year  by  year  the 
finest  animals  should  be  selected,  until,  in  the  course  of  time,  the 
flock  will  entirely  consist  of  them.  Until  this  is  nearly  accom- 
plished it  will  not  be  prudent  for  a  farmer  to  employ  his  own  tups 
for  the  purpose,  as  he  will  probably  be  able  to  hire  or  purchase 
superior  rams  from  others,  and  it  will  not  do  to  spare  expense  in 
thus  raising  the  character  of  his  sheep.  The  system  of  selling 
and  letting  tups,  which  is  now  becoming  general,  has  led  to  the 
extension  of  improvement  throughout  a  number  of  districts,  has 
increased  the  weight  and  raised  the  quality  of  most  flocks,  and  thus 
materially  added  to  the  supply  of  food  for  the  people. 

There  are  various  points  that  are  sought  after  by  breeders,  not 
because  of  the  particular  value  of  those  points,  but  because  they 
are  evidence  of  other  valuable  qualities,  such  as  aptitude  to  fatten 
and  early  maturity.  Thus,  in  the  South  Down  breed,  small  heads 
and  legs,  and  small  bones,  are  esteemed,  as  they  are  qualiiies  which 
are  found  connected  with  fattening  properties.  Black  muzzles 
and  legs  are  also  valued,  probably  because  they  denote  the  good 
constitution  and  hardihood  of  the  animal.  We  must,  however, 
take  care  lest,  in  carrying  these  points  to  an  extreme,  we  neglect 
other  valuable  qualities.  Straightness  of  the  back,  breadth  ot 
loins,  and  rotundity  of  frame,  are  points  which  cannot  be  disputed, 
and  are  not  merely  signs  of  good  qualities,  but  good  qualities 
themselves.  The  straightness  of  the  back,  so  perfect  in  the 
Leicester,  is  by  no  means  natural  to  the  South  Down  in  an  un- 
improved state,  but  rather  the  contrary.  In  the  improved  breeds, 
however,  it  is  present,  and  is  justly  regarded  as  an  excellent  point, 
giving  a  better  surface  for  the  laying  on  of  flesh,  and  aflordiug 
H 


146     STRUCTURE  AND  ECONOMY  OF  THE  SHEEP. 

larger  scope  for  the  abdominal  organs.  Its  converse,  too — a  round 
or  convex  back — is  produced  or  increased  by  the  effects  of  poverty 
and  cold,  and  is  almost  sure  to  follow  if  the  breed  is  neglected 
and  exposed. 

The  growth  of  bone  of  course  requires  sustenance,  as  well  as 
any  other  part,  though  not  perhaps  in  the  same  degree.  Large 
bone,  therefore,  abstracts  nutriment  which  would  otherwise  be 
more  profitably  employed,  and  thus  is  anything  but  a  desirable 
point  in  sheep.  Horns,  for  the  same  reason,  are  much  better  dis- 
pensed with.  One  point  in  sheep,  which  is  justly  regarded  as 
extremely  favourable,  is  a  soft  mellow  feeling  of  the  skin  and 
parts  beneath.  These  parts  are  the  cellular  or  rather  adipose 
membranes,  which  in  fat  sheep  are  full  of  fat,  and  in  lean  sheep, 
when  possessing  this  mellow  feeling,  denote  the  plentiful  existence 
of  these  membranous  cells  ready  for  the  reception  of  fat,  which  is 
deposited  in  them  almost  in  the  form  of  oil. 

Breadth  of  loin  and  rotundity  of  frame  are  qualities  that 
require  no  observation,  having  been  before  alluded  to.  The  former 
denotes  the  presence  of  a  large  quantity  of  flesh  in  the  spot  where 
it  is  most  valuable,  and  it  also  bespeaks  a  large  and  roomy  abdo- 
men. A.  round  frame  is  also  the  sure  attendant  of  a  large  abdomen, 
and  an  extended  surface  for  the  muscles  of  the  back  and  loins.  A 
general  squareness  of  frame  bespeaks  large  muscles,  particularly 
of  the  quarters. 

What,  indeed,  is  wanted  for  a  well-formed  animal,  is  as  much 
flesh  and  as  little  bone  and  gristle  as  possible,  and  this  flesh  is 
required  where  it  is  most  esteemed  :  for  instance,  it  is  much  more 
valuable  on  the  loins  and  quarters  than  about  the  head  and  upper 
or  scrag  end  of  the  neck.  A  large  development  of  flesh  is  pretty 
sure  to  be  accompanied  by  a  disposition  to  fatten ;  but  for  profit- 
able feeding  it  is  essential  that  these  qualities  should  be  developed 
early — constituting  early  maturity. 

The  attempt  to  improve  the  breed  of  sheep  by  means  of  cross- 
inff  is  a  still  more  difficult  task,  demanding  not  only  the  application 
of  correct  principles,  but  a  great  degree  of  practical  judgment  and 
shrewdness.  Many  have  been  the  fruitless  attempts  that  have 
been  made,  and  in  numerous  cases  a  useful  breed  have  becoiue 
deteriorated  in  consequence,  or  altogether  unsuited  for  the  climate 
or  the  soil.  These  results  have  induced  many  respectable  breeders 
to  condemn  the  practice  of  crossing  altogether,  but  certainly  with- 
out sufiicient  reason ;  for  the  lines  of  demarcation  between  one 
breed  and  another  are  by  no  means  so  strongly  marked  as  to  prevent 
the  union  of  diff'erent  breeds  producing  harmonious  results. 

The  object  of  crossing  is  either  to  increase  the  size  or  improve 


PRINCIPLES    AND    PRACTICE    OF    BREEDING.  MV 

the  shape,  fattening  propensities,  early  maturity,  or  the  quality  or 
length  of  the  ^YOol.  In  producing  any  of  these  improyements  it 
would,  at  first  sight,  appear  that  all  we  have  to  do  is  to  select  a 
ram  of  any  particular  breed  most  famous  for  the  particular  quality 
we  wish  to  produce.  But  this  will  not  always  do  ;  by  so  doing  we 
shall  oftentimes  breed  a  sheep  weak  in  constitution  ;  or,  from  too 
great  a  contrast  between  the  parents,  shapeless  mongrels  may  be 
produced. 

As  a  general  rule  to  render  crossing  successful,  we  should 
endeayour  to  find  some  affinity  of  constitution  between  the  im- 
provers and  those  we  wish  to  improve ;  and  such  is  often  found 
in  the  character  of  the  wool. 

Thus  there  is  scarcely  a  breed  of  long-woolled  sheep  but  what 
has  been  greatly  improved  by  means  of  the  Leicester  ram,  whilst 
it  often  failed  in  efiecting  permanent  improvement  in  short-woolled 
sheep,  amongst  which  the  South  Downs  have  been  far  more  suc- 
cessful. As  a  general  rule,  the  first  cross  between  a  superior  and 
an  inferior  race  is  very  successful,  producing  animals  approxi- 
mating, in  most  respects,  to  their  more  improved  parents  ;  but  after 
the  first  cross  the  breed  often  deteriorates. 

It  must,  therefore,  be  borne  in  mind  that  crossing  is  an  experi- 
ment sometimes  succeeding  and  sometimes  failing  in  producing  a 
proper  combination  of  the  qualities  of  both  parents.  Judgment  is 
shown  in  selecting  the  successful  results  and  rejecting  the  others  ; 
and  thus,  after  a  few  generations,  a  breed  of  sheep  is  sometimes 
produced  which  it  is  desirable  to  perpetuate  without  further  admix- 
ture ;  but  this  selection  must  be  continued  for  many  generations, 
as  the  original  sins,  almost  disappearing  in  the  first  cross,  are  con- 
tinually reappearing  afterwards. 

As  an  instance  of  successful  crossing,  I  may  mention  the  breed 
between  the  improved  Cotswold  and  the  Hampshire  Down.  The 
Cotswold  sheep  is  a  large  animal,  celebrated  for  centuries  for  the 
length  and  weight  of  the  fleece.  As  a  long-woolled  sheep  it  is 
superior  to  most  others,  but  its  carcass  was  very  much  inferior  to 
the  Leicester ;  and  thus,  by  crossing  with  the  latter,  it  has  been 
greatly  improved  in  its  fattening  properties  and  early  maturity, 
whilst  the  quality  of  its  fleece  has  been  retained.  The  Hampshire 
is  a  larger  variety  of  the  South  Down,  derived  originally  in  great 
measure  from  the  flocks  of  Sussex.  Either  from  economy  or 
choice,  the  largest  and  coarsest  animals  were  selected  and  crossed 
with  the  native  horned  sheep,  and  this  breed  has  been  perpetuated 
on  the  farms  of  North  Hampshire  for  the  last  sixty  years.  It  is 
a  strong,  hardy  sheep,  thriving  well  on  the  open  Down  farms,  and 
well  adapted  for  turnip  husbandry.     If  such  sheep  were  crossed 

H  -2 


148     STRrCTURE  A^^D  ECONOMY  OF  THE  SHEEP. 

with  the  pure  Leicester,  in  all  prohability  the  offspring  would  not 
be  sufficiently  hardy  to  endure  the  treatment  the  Downs  receive. 
But  the  old  Cotswold  being-  hardier  than  the  Leicester,  the  im- 
proved Cotswold  is  so  likewise,  and  thus  the  result  of  the  cross 
between  the  latter  and  the  Down  is  sufficiently  hardy  to  undergo 
the  system  of  the  country ;  and  at  the  same  time,  b}^  careful  selec- 
tion, the  peculiar  qualities  of  the  three  breeds  were  to  a  certain 
extent  united  into  one^  and  thus  the  New  Oxfordshire  sheep  has 
been  produced. 

The  subject  of  breeding  in  and  in,  or  from  near  affinities,  ia 
one  which  has  given  rise  to  much  discussion,  and  on  which  there 
still  prevails  much  discordance  of  opinion.  Its  merits,  however, 
can  be  best  understood  by  carefully  examining  into  its  advantages 
and  disadvantages.  In  the  human  subject,  sexual  intercourse 
between  near  relations  is  very  properly  forbidden  by  law,  and 
appears,  indeed,  altogether  foreign  to  our  feelings ;  and  even  mar- 
riage between  relatives  of  the  second  degree,  such  as  cousins,  is 
regarded  by  many  persons  as  subject  to  great  objection,  and  apt 
to  entail  disease  on  the  offspring,  and  particularly  disease  of  a 
mental  character.  Statistical  facts  bearing  on  this  matter  cer- 
tainly support  this  opinion  in  a  marked  degree. 

With  animals  there  is  no  reluctance  to  intercourse  between  the 
nearest  affinities,  and  the  custom  of  breeding  short-horned  cattle 
closely  related  has  been  for  a  long  time  practised  by  breeders  of 
considerable  eminence.  In  the  human  subject  the  objections  to 
tlie  practice  are  at  once  granted,  but  let  us  see  whether  they  like- 
wise obtain  with  animals.  In  the  former,  marriages  are  generally 
entered  into  with  little  if  any  regard  to  the  health  of  the  indivi- 
duals concerned,  the  consequence  of  which  is  that  the  diseases  of 
the  parents,  or  rather  their  predispositions,  are  entailed  on  the  off- 
spring. The  result  of  this  is  that  most  families  have  predisposi- 
tion to  some  particular  complaint ;  and  thus  if  two  members  of 
the  same  family  have  intercourse,  the  probability  is,  that  if  both 
parents  had  predisposition  to  a  particular  disease  in  an  equal 
degree,  this  will  be  increased  in  their  offspring  in  a  double  ratio. 
But  on  the  contrary,  if  a  man  unites  with  a  woman  of  a  different 
family,  and  a  different  predisposition,  the  idiosyncracy  of  the  off- 
spring to  the  diseases  of  either  parent  is  likely  to  be  prevented  or 
retarded. 

With  animals  the  case  is  different.  If  due  attention  be  paid, 
a  principal  object  will  be  to  breed  from  healthy  subjects,  by  which 
means  one  fertile  cause  of  hereditary  predisposition  to  disease  is 
prevented.  A  healthy  form  and  sound  constitution  are  essential 
to  successful  breeding,  and  it  is  the  development  of  those  points 


IN    AND    IN    BEEEDING.  149 

we  seek  to  attain.  Thus  the  principal  objection  to  iDreeding  from 
near  affinitieSj  which  exists  in  the  human  subject,  does  not  obtain 
amongst  animals  ;  and  even  if,  in  the  former,  mental  disease  is  more 
apt  to  occur  when  this  practice  is  pursued,  this  also  is  an  objection 
which  does  not  apply  to  animals,  though  it  has  been  urged  by  some 
that  sheep  bred  in  and  in  are  more  subject  to  diseases  of  the  brain 
— a  conclusion,  however,  which  I  am  much  disposed  to  doubt. 

Thus  the  objections  to  breeding  in  and  in  are  not  insuperable  ; 
what,  however,  are  its  advantages  ?  The  stronger  resemblance 
there  is  in  the  qualities  of  both  parents,  supposing  those  qualites 
are  good,  the  more  likely  is  it  that  the  offspring  will  be  perfect. 
By  breeding  with  a  view  to  improvement,  the  greatest  excellencies 
are  likely  to  be  concentrated  in  one  family  5  if,  therefore,  the 
members  of  this  family  were  not  coupled,  the}^  must  probably  be 
united  to  inferior  animals  of  either  sex,  by  which  practice  improve- 
ment will  be  materially  retarded.  It  is,  therefore,  very  frequently 
the  surest  method  of  arriving  at  the  greatest  degree  of  excellency, 
and  thus  it  is  a  practice  which  has  been  followed  by  the  most 
eminent  breeders  of  sheep  with  the  greatest  success ;  yet  it  does 
not  possess  any  advantages  peculiar  to  itself  and  different  from 
those  we  have  stated  ;  and  if  two  rams  were  obtainable  possessing 
precisely  equal  qualifications,  I  should  not  be  disposed  to  select 
one  because  he  was  a  near  relation  to  the  ewe,  but  the  contrary. 

In  and  in  breeding  may  thus  be  either  productive  of  good  or 
bad  effects,  but  in  neither  case  is  the  result  to  be  attributed  to  the 
close  affinity,  but  rather  to  the  circumstances  connected  with  it. 
If  no  care  is  employed  either  in  selecting  or  culling  the  flock,  un- 
questionably both  disease  and  defect  will  arise ;  and  two  animals^ 
each  predisposed  to  the  same  bad  quality,  being  allowed  to  con- 
nect, the  predisposition  to  such  defect  will  exist  in  their  offspring 
in  a  twofold  degree.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  proper  care  is  employed 
— if  those  animals  only  are  allowed  to  breed  that  possess  good 
forms  and  healthy  constitutions — then  undoubtedly  the  stock  will 
be  preserved  pure,  disease  will  be  warded  oft',  and  the  proper  form 
and  qualifications  will  be  perpetuated. 

It  must,  however,  be  observed,  that  there  are  disadvantageous 
qualities  which  may  become  hereditary,  independent  of  disease ; 
thus  want  of  prolificacy  in  the  ewes,  and  a  tendency  to  diminution 
in  size,  may  be  and  are  often  considered  to  be  the  effect  of  in  and 
in  breeding.  This  fact  (and  its  occurrence  cannot  be  denied)  may 
be  thus  explained :  a  disposition  to  acquire  fat  and  an  early  matu- 
rity do  not  co-exist  with  prolificacy  of  the  ewe  or  her  nursing 
qualities  (the  Dorset  excel  in  the  latter  and  the  Leicester  in  the 
former  peculiarity)  5    now,  in  improving  the   breed   the  former 


150     STRUCTURE  AND  ECONOMY  OF  THE  SHEEP. 

receives  all  the  attention  and  the  latter  none  at  all ;  Itow,  then, 
can  we  wonder  at  the  result? 

Then  again,  with  regard  to  the  size.  Animals  that  grow  most 
in  stature  have  the  greatest  development  of  bone — are,  in  fact,  the 
coarsest.  In  improving  the  flock  such  animals  are  avoided,  not  on 
account  of  their  size,  but  their  coarseness;  and  thus  in  the  course 
of  time,  the  larger  sheep  having  been  drafted^  the  flock  consists  ol 
the  smaller  and  kinder  animals. 

Many  farmers  confine  their  care  and  attention,  as  respects 
breeding,  to  selecting  the  ram  as  distant  as  possible  from  their 
own  flock ;  neglecting  the  proper  consideration  of  various  important 
points,  they  avoid,  as  they  would  a  reptile,  the  practice  of  breeding 
from  near  affinities,  believing  it  the  parent  of  almost  every  evil  hy 
s^hich  sheep  are  aff'ected.  The  folly  of  this  idea  has  been  shown ; 
it  arises  from  not  understanding  the  principles  by  which  breeding 
is  regulated. 

There  are  certain  diseases  by  which  man  and  animals  are 
afflicted,  which  are  far  more  hereditary  than  others ;  that  is,  the 
predisposition  to  them  is  hereditary.  Thus  insanity,  consumption, 
gout,  are  of  this  class  in  man  ;  one  family  may  be  disposed  to  one 
complaint,  one  to  another ;  but  if  two  members  of  the  same  family 
unite,  the  idiosyncracy  is  greatly  increased,  not  only  for  what  we 
can  see,  but  for  what  we  cannot  see. 

Some  farmers  are  great  advocates  for  a  pure  breed  and  a  long 
pedigree,  whilst  others  despise  the  pedigree  and  prefer  gaining 
their  ends  by  means  of  crossing.  Each,  to  a  certain  extent,  is 
right,  and  each  wrong,  A  pure  breed  and  a  good  pedigree  are  valu- 
able, not  simply  on  account  of  the  breed,  but  of  the  circumstances 
with  which  it  is  connected ;  so,  likewise,  crossing  is  often  baneful, 
not  simply  on  account  of  itself,  but  for  the  risks  to  which  it  is 
exposed  and  the  evils  which  it  may  induce.  A  pure  breed  means 
a  breed  which  has  not  been  crossed  with  others,  but  in  this  simple 
view  of  the  case,  we  may  find  it  with  the  native  flocks  of  the 
Kerry  mountains  or  the  Orkney  Islands.  It  supposes,  however,  or 
is  generally  understood  to  denote,  some  uniformity  of  character, 
and  also  the  exercise  of  care  in  preserving  it  from  mixture  with 
other  breeds.  A  long  pedigree,  though  it  may  be  useless,  yet  im- 
plies a  descent  from  well-formed  animals,  and  the  endeavour,  by 
successive  breeding,  to  perpetuate  the  good  points  which  the 
originals  possess.  It  supposes,  also,  a  uniformity  of  character, 
both  with  regard  to  defects  and  excellencies  ;  a  preservation  from 
those  evils  which  the  BMxture  of  a  different  blood  may  have  occa- 
sioned, as  well  as  those  good  qualities  which  it  is  possible  a 
different  race  may  have  imparted.  Pure  breeding  is,  in  fact,  to 
speak  metaphorically,  the  surer  and  safer,  though  it  may  be  the 


CROSS    BEEEDINQ.  151 

longer  and  more  tedious  voyage,  wbicli  leads  to  excellence  ;  whilst 
crossing,  on  the  other  hand,  is  the  shorter  and  more  rapid  course 
to  the  same  port,  but  beset  with  rochs  and  shoals,  through  which 
it  requires  a  more  skilful  hand  than  usual  to  steer  the  vessel.  A 
iiock  of  sheep  may,  by  injudicious  crossing,  lose  all  their  valuable 
points  and  become  a  flock  of  inferior  mongrels,  or  otherwise  so 
weakened  in  consequence  as  to  be  of  much  less  value.  Many  flocks 
of  Ryelands  and  other  sheep,  it  is  said,  still  show  the  evil  effects 
of  a  mixture  of  the  Merino  blood,  and  other  similar  cases  could 
be  mentioned.  Defects,  too,  may  be  engendered,  which,  though 
not  perceptible  in  the  first  cross,  may  break  out  in  the  third  or 
fouvth  generation,  and  the  uniformity  of  character  originally  pos- 
sessed may  be  lost;  and  it  should  here  be  mentioned,  that  it  is  a 
general  opinion,  and  one  founded  on  fact,  that  crossing  succeeds 
best  with  the  first  cross,  the  offspring  of  the  further  cross  being 
generally  inferior  to  their  parents. 

But  though  crossing  is  attended  by  these  dangers,  yet  it  does 
not  follow  that  they  are  without  remedy,  or  that  the  practice 
should  be  abandoned  in  consequence.  Its  advocates  may  justly 
point  to  the  name  of  Bakewell,  and  the  creation  of  his  hand,  the 
New  Leicester  breed.  It  has  been  stated  that  in  forming  his 
breed  he  procured  animals  from  a  great  variety  of  flocks,  both 
short-wools  and  long-wools ;  but,  though  this  is  doubtful  with 
regard  to  the  former,  it  is  unquestionably  the  fact  that  he  selected 
animals  wherever  he  thought  he  could  obtain  the  wished-for 
qualities,  with,  at  any  rate,  no  regard  to  in  and  in  breeding.  And 
though  we  have  no  authentic  information  as  to  the  origin  of  the 
breed,  yet  we  cannot  doubt  that  extensive  crossing  was  employed 
in  its  creation ;  but  it  was  employed  by  a  master-hand,  and  for 
various  generations  watched  over  with  the  most  vigilant  care,  until 
a  uniformity  of  character  was  obtained,  and  the  unrivalled  Lei- 
cester presented  to  the  admiration  of  the  world.  Perfection  now 
being  obtained,  Bakewell  cast  away  the  ladder  by  which  he 
ascended  to  such  excellence,  and  then  advocated  pedigree,  purity, 
and  in  and  in  breeding ;  and  why  did  he  do  so,  but  because  his 
breed  being  superior  to  all  others,  he  of  course  could  not  expect 
improvement  from  other  inferior  animals,  but  could  only  preserve 
his  own  from  degeneracy  by  retaining  them  pure.  Thus  the  Dishly 
breed  affords  an  argument  not  only  for  the  advocates  of  crossing, 
but  also  for  those  of  in  and  in  breeding ;  and  it  also  supplies  a 
caution,  both  to  the  one  and  the  other,  that  either  practice  must 
be  pursued  with  the  utmost  judgment  and  care. 

Neither  practice  is  deserving  of  condemnation  ;  it  is  the  abuse, 
not  the  use,  that  is  to  be  reprobated ;  but  at  the  same  time  it  is  to 


152     STRUCTURE  AND  ECONOMY  OF  THE  SHEEP. 

be  regretted  that  greater  endeavours  have  not  been  made  to  improve 
many  of  our  native  breeds  by  carefully  selecting  the  best  animals 
for  the  purpose. 

If  crossing  is  adopted,  it  is  very  desirable  to  attend  to  certain 
principles  by  which  it  is  influenced.  The  more  closely  the  natures 
of  different  animals  approach  each  other,  the  more  likely  is  the 
offspring  they  produce  to  be  according  to  our  wishes,  for  Nature 
does  not  delight  in  contrasts.  Long-woolled  sheep  are  best  adapted 
to  breed  with  others  having  likewise  long  wool.  If  two  animals 
very  opposite  in  their  qualities  are  put  together,  the  offspring  may 
resemble  either  one  parent  or  the  other,  and  the  faults  of  either,  or 
both,  may  appear  in  the  second  or  third  generation.  It  is  found 
that  the  Leicester  agree  better  with  the  Black-faced  and  other 
heath  breeds  than  does  the  South  Downj  and  the  coarseness  of 
the  wool  of  each  denotes  a  resemblance,  which,  from  their  very 
opposite  natural  pastures,  we  should  scarcely  expect. 

Crossing  should  be  adopted  cautiously,  and  at  first  with  only  a 
portion  of  the  flock,  for  we  should  not  run  the  risk  of  spoiling  the 
whole;  and  the  success  of  the  first  experiment  will  then  regulate 
the  second.  It  is  not  a  bad  practice,  where  it  is  intended  to  sub- 
stitute a  new  for  an  old  breed,  to  do  so  by  using  the  male  animals 
alone  of  the  new  breed  for  successive  generations,  until  the  cha- 
racter of  the  old  breed  is  to  a  great  extent  lost.  Thus,  if  this  plan 
is  pursued  for  several  generations,  the  great  grandson  will  possess 
seven-eighths  of  the  new  blood,  and  one-eighth  only  of  the  old, 
and  in  the  next  generation  one-sixteenth  of  the  latter  only  will  be 
retained.  It  is  in  this  manner,  though  not  effected  with  regularity, 
that  nearly  the  whole  of  the  sheep  of  Australia  have  become 
almost  entirely  Merinos.  It  has  also  been  successfully  employed 
with  other  flocks,  and  may  be  considered  the  cheapest  as  well  as 
the  safest  system  by  which  a  new  improved  breed  can  be  made  to 
supplant  an  old  and  imperfect  one. 

Certain  peculiarities  may  be  imparted  to  a  breed  by  a  single 
cross,  or  a  few  crosses  only,  as  in  the  case  mentioned  by  Darwin, 
where,  quoting  from  Fleischmann,  he  says : — '  The  original  coarse 
German  sheep  have  5,500  fibres  of  wool  on  a  square  inch ;  grades 
of  the  third  or  fourth  Merino  cross  produced  about  8,000,  the 
twentieth  cross  27,000,  the  perfect  Merino  blood  40,000  to  48,000. 
So  that  common  German  sheep  crossed  twenty  times  successively 
with  Merinos  had  not  by  any  means  acquired  as  fine  wool  as  the 
pure  breed.' 

It  is  a  good  rule  in  breeding  for  improvement,  to  breed  from 
the  best  of  the  kind ;  and  if  a  superior  ram  of  the  same  breed  can 
be  procured  from  another  flock,  by  all  means  to  make  use  of  it,  and 


CROSS   BEEEDINa.  153 

eveu  to  give  it  the  preference  if  it  is  equal  to  our  own ;  but  if  our 
own  excel  all  others  that  may  be  available,  then  to  use  it,  but  with 
additional  caution,  taking  care  to  mark  those  ewes  that  are  defi- 
cient in  any  of  the  qualities  we  wish  to  perpetuate. 

And  with  regard  to  crossing,  if  we  do  it  merely  for  the  butcher, 
then  it  is  better  to  be  satisfied  with  the  first  cross  alone ;  but  if  we 
cross  to  correct  a  bad  or  produce  a  favourable  quality,  then  we 
should  immediately  return  to  our  own  breed  as  soon  as  such  effect 
has  been  obtained,  always  bearing  in  mind  that  we  are  treading  on 
soft  and  treacherous  ground,  and  may,  without  caution,  be  plunged 
into  the  mire. 

It  will  not  be  out  of  place  to  close  this  subject  by  reference  to 
the  conclusions  we  arrived  at  in  our  paper  on  Cross  Breeding  pre- 
viously referred  to. 

"VYe  observed  :  '  That  there  is  a  direct  pecuniary  advantage  in 
judicious  cross  breeding;  that  increased  size,  a  disposition  to 
fatten,  and  early  maturity,  are  thereby  induced.' 

That  whilst  this  may  be  caused  for  the  most  part  by  the  very 
fact  of  crossing,  yet  it  is  principally  due  to  the  superior  influence 
of  the  male  over  the  size  and  external  appearance  of  the  offspring ; 
so  that  it  is  desirable,  for  the  purposes  of  the  butcher,  that  the 
male  should  be  of  a  larger  frame  than  the  female,  and  should 
excel  in  those  peculiarities  we  are  desirous  of  reproducing. 

Certain  peculiarities  may  be  imparted  to  a  breed  by  a  single 
cross,  as  we  have  before  observed. 

It  has  been  asserted  by  some  observers,  that  when  a  female 
breeds  successively  from  several  different  males,  the  offspring  often 
bear  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  first  male ;  which  is  supposed 
to  arise  from  certain  impressions  made  on  the  nervous  or  the 
reproductive  system  of  the  female.  Although  this  often  occurs, 
we  doubt  very  much  whether  it  is  so  frequent  as  to  be  considered 
as  a  rule. 

Although  in  the  crossing  of  sheep,  for  the  pm-pose  of  the 
butcher,  it  is  generally  advisable  to  use  males  of  a  larger  breed, 
provided  they  possess  a  disposition  to  fatten,  yet,  in  such  cases,  it 
is  of  importance  that  the  pelvis  of  the  female  should  be  wide  and 
capacious,  so  that  no  injury  should  arise  in  lambing,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  increased  size  of  the  heads  of  the  lambs.  The  shape 
of  the  ram's  head  should  be  studied  for  the  same  reason.  In 
crossing,  however,  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  a  new  breed, 
the  size  of  the  male  must  give  way  to  the  other  more  important  con- 
siderations ;  although  it  will  still  be  desirable  to  use  a  large  female 
of  the  breed  which  we  seek  to  improve.  Thus  the  South  Downs 
have  vastly  improved  the  larger  Hampshires,  and  the  Leicester 


154  STPiUCTUEE    AND    ECONOMY    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

the  huge  Lincolns  and  the  Cotewolds.  Although  the  benefits  are 
most  evident  in  the  first  cross,  after  which,  from  pairing  the  cross- 
bred animals,  the  defects  of  one  breed  or  the  other,  or  the  incon- 
gruities of  both  are  perpetually  breaking  out,  yet,  unless  the  charac- 
teristics and  the  conformation  of  the  two  breeds  are  altogether 
averse  to  each  other,  nature  opposes  no  barrier  to  their  successful 
admixture,  so  that  in  the  course  of  time,  by  the  aid  of  selection 
and  careful  weeding,  it  is  practicable  to  establish  a  new  breed 
altogether.  This,  in  fact,  has  been  the  history  of  our  principal 
breeds.  The  Leicester  was  notoriously  a  cross  of  various  breeds 
in  the  first  instance,  although  the  sources  which  supplied  the 
cross  is  a  secret,  buried  in  the  '  tomb  of  the  Capulets.'  The  Cots- 
wold  has  been  crossed  and  improved  by  the  Leicester ;  the  Lincoln, 
and  indeed  all  the  long-woolled  breed,  have  been  similarly  treated. 
Most  of  the  mountain  breeds  have  received  a  dash  of  better  blood, 
and  the  short- woolled  sheep  have  been  also  generally  so  served. 
The  Hampshire  and  the  present  Wiltshire  Downs  have  been 
extensively  crossed  5  the  friends  of  the  Shropshire  cannot  deny  the 
^  soft  impeachment,'  and  the  old  black-faced  Xorfolks  have  been 
pretty  well  crossed  out  altogether.  The  Dorsets  and  Somersets 
remain  pure  as  a  breed,  although  they  are  continually  crossed  to 
improve  their  lambs.  The  South  Down  is  perhaps  one  of  the 
purest  breeds  we  have.  No  one  asserts  that  the  immense  improve- 
ment of  this  breed  by  EUman  was  due  to  any  crossing ;  whether 
the  increased  size  and  further  improvement  which  it  has  received 
in  other  counties  have  been  efi'ected  in  all  cases  without  a  cross  of 
any  kind,  may  be  in  the  minds  of  some  a  matter  of  doubt ;  yet  it 
is  only  right  to  give  the  arraigned,  in  the  absence  of  any  proof  to 
the  contrary,  the  benefit  of  such  doubt,  and  consider  them  still  as 
pure  as  ever. 

We  confess  tbat  we  cannot  entirely  admit  either  of  the 
antagonistic  doctrines  held  by  the  rival  advocates  of  crossing  and 
pure  breeding.  The  public  have  reason  to  be  grateful  to  the  exer- 
tions of  either  party,  and  still  have  the}^  respectively  reason  to  be 
grateful  to  each  other.  We  have  seen  that  Mr.  Humphrey  cheer- 
fully acknowledges  the  benefit  he  derived  from  Mr.  Jonas  Webb's 
rams.  Had  he  grudged  the  expense  of  seeking  his  improvements 
from  such  a  renowned  flock,  and  been  satisfied  with  inferior  rams, 
]\e  would  not  have  achieved  the  success  which  has  crowned  his 
exertions.  So,  likewise,  with  the  New  Oxfordshire  breed.  What 
matters  it  whether  the  localities  occupied  by  these  sheep  were 
divided  between  their  ancestral  breeds,  or  occupied  as  now,  by  their 
cross-bred  descendants  ?  The  public  is  benefitted  by  having  better 
mutton  than  the  Cotswold  alone  would  furnish,  and  more  valuable 


RAir    SALES.  loo 

wool  than  the  Downs  could  supply ;  whilst  the  breeders,  finding 
their  accounts  in  their  balance-sheet,  have  very  properly  per- 
petuated the  breed  which  has  paid  so  well.  Our  purpose  has  been 
to  hold  the  scales  fairly  between  both  systems,  having  no  pre- 
judices to  serve.  Thus,  in  defending  the  system  of  crossing  from 
some  of  the  objections  that  have  been  urged  against  it,  we  have 
no  wish  to  be  thought  forgetful  of  the  merits  of  a  pure  breed. 

Although  the  term  ^mongrel'  is  probably  correct  as  referring  to 
a  mixed  breed,  yet,  as  it  is  generally  used  as  a  term  of  reproach, 
it  should  not  be  fairly  applied  to  those  recognised  breeds  which, 
however  mixed  or  mongrel  might  have  been  their  origin,  have  yet 
by  vigilance  and  skill  become,  in  the  course  of  years,  almost  as 
marked  and  vigorous  and  distinctive  as  the  Anglo-Saxon  race 
itself,  whose  name  we  are  proud  to  bear,  and  whose  mixed  ancestry 
no  one  is  anxious  to  deny. 

When  equal  advantages  can  be  attained  by  keeping  a  pure  breed, 
such  sheep  should  unquestionably  be  preferred ;  and,  although 
crossing  for  the  purpose  of  the  butcher  may  be  practised  with  im- 
punity, and  even  with  advantage,  yet  no  one  should  do  so  for  the 
purpose  of  establishing  a  new  breed,  unless  he  has  clear  and  well 
defined  views  of  the  object  he  seeks  to  accomplish,  and  has  duly 
studied  the  principles  on  which  it  can  be  carried  out,  and  is  deter- 
mined to  bestow,  for  the  space  of  half  a  lifetime,  his  constant  and 
unremitting  attention  to  the  discovery  and  removal  of  defects. 


THE    INFLUENCE    OF    KA:M    SaLES. 

When  the  first  edition  of  this  work  passed  through  the  press, 
the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  England  had  been  established 
but  a  few  years,  and  it  was  customary  in  the  prize  sheets  to  offer 
prizes  only  to  two  or  three  distinct  breeds,  such  as  the  South 
Downs  and  the  Leicesters,  which  were  alone  thought  worthy  of 
special  recognition  and  encouragement.  The  existence  of  other 
breeds  was  only  acknowleged  by  the  giving  prizes  for  long  wools 
and  short  wools  other  than  Leicester  and  South  Downs,  the 
various  breeds  competing  with  each  other.  In  keeping  with  this, 
at  the  annual  ram  sales  the  great  prices  for  hiring  or  sale  rams  were 
confined  to  the  breeds  we  have  mentioned.  A  change,  however, 
has  gradually  come  over  the  shadow  of  men's  dreams,  although 
it  must  be  acknowledged  that  the  leaders  of  the  Royal  Agricul- 
tural were  the  last  to  awaken  from  such  dreams.  Cross-breeding 
was  successfully  introduced.  Old  breeds  were  greatly  improved, 
and  new  breeds  were  established,  till  it  was  found  that  the  rams 


^56  STRUCTURE  AND  ECONOMY  OF  THE  SHEEP. 

of  these  daring  rivals,  the  new  and  improved  breeds,  actually 
realised  more  than  the  representatives  of  the  old  aristocracy. 
The  Royal  Society  was  at  length  constrained  to  recognise  public 
opinion,  and  reward  the  innovation  it  had  resisted  so  long  by 
giving  liberal  prizes  to  the  new-fangled  breeds,  which  now  make, 
t-o  a  great  extent,  the  pride  and  glory  of  the  annual  shows.  The 
ancient  superstition  abandoned  so  advantageously  with  regard  to 
sheep  has  been  allowed  to  be  retained  in  the  case  of  horses,  and  the 
Society  has  thereby  indirectly  counteracted  and  discouraged  the 
breeding  of  useful  animals  in  this  country.  Whilst  the  Society, 
or  rather  the  few  who  are  allowed  to  govern  in  horse  matters,  have 
seen  that  at  least  four  new  breeds  of  sheep  have  been  produced 
by  means  of  crossing,  and  have  become  more  valuable  than  the 
parent  breeds,  they  have  held,  by  their  practice,  that  no  such 
system  can  be  adopted  with  horses,  and  that  neither  hunters, 
carriage,  or  cavalry  horses,  can  be  bred  except  by  violent  crossing, 
and  the  consequent  extinction  of  one  of  the  parent  breeds. 

To  return  to  our  subject,  the  Ram  Sales,  there  are  very  few 
sheep-breeders  but  what  avail  themselves  of  them  to  improve 
their  stock,  formerly  it  was  customary  to  use  their  own  rams, 
or  those  of  their  neighbours,  scarcely  more  valuable  than  ordinary 
sheep.  Now,  although  it  might  not  answer  the  purpose  of  those 
breeders  who  neither  sell  nor  let  their  rams  to  give  the  very  high 
prices  that  public  breeders  are  willing  to  give,  yet  nearly  all  seek 
tor  improvement,  and  in  the  second  or  third  degree  use  the  ram 
descended  from  the  flock  of  some  celebrated  ram-breeder.  As 
before  stated,  those  public  men  who  make  it  part  of  their  business 
to  breed  rams  for  public  sale,  will  give  the  most  money  for  a 
superior  animal  belonging  to  a  neighbour.  They  know  full  well 
that  it  is  only  by  using  the  best  animals  that  the  best  can  be 
produced,  and  therefore  it  will  not  do  to  hesitate  as  regards  price, 
or  they  will  be  passed  in  the  race  by  others.  Thus  during  the 
past  year,  owing  to  this  healthy  competition,  as  much  as  150 
guineas  has  been  given  for  the  use  of  an  improved  Hampshire 
ram  during  part  of  the  season  only.  At  the  annual  ram  sales 
of  this  breed  that  take  place  at  Salisbury  and  the  immediate 
neighbourhood,  not  less  than  500  rams  pass  through  the  hands  of 
one  auctioneer,  and  probably  an  equal  number  through  that  of 
others,  so  that  this  locality  alone  supplies  a  sufficient  number  to 
serve  100,000  ewes,  or  nearly  so.  During  the  last  three  years 
Mr.  James  Rawlence,  of  Wilton,  has  let  and  sold,  at  his  annual 
ram  sales,  140  lambs  and  sheep,  at  an  average  of  15/.  12s.  per 
head. 

The  following  recent  article,  from  the  '  Journal  of  the  Chamber 


RAM    SALES.  157 

of  Agriculture/  strongly  illustrates  and  enforces  tlie  views  we 
have  long  held.  In  support  of  such  views  we  subjoin  the  ex- 
cellent article  alluded  to  from  the  pages  of  a  recent  number,  and 
which  probably  is  from  the  able  pen  of  a  breeder  of  the  improved 
Lincoln  sheep  : — 

'The  hirings  and  sales  of  rams  of  the  present  season  are 
highly  instructive,  as  they  display  to  what  an  extent  the  revolu- 
tion in  sheep-farming  has  proceeded.  Time  was — and  not  so  long 
since — when  nothing  but  a  Veil-bred  Leicester  or  South  Down 
would  pass  muster  in  the  show-yard  or  the  sale-ring.  The 
Royal  Agricultural  Society,  until  about  fifteen  years  ago,  ignored 
altogether  the  existence  of  those  grand  Lincoln  long-wools  that 
were  over  gi-eat  districts  rapidly  superseding  Leicesters  in  public 
estimation.  The  Shropshire  breed  received  just  as  tardy  a 
recognition.  The  new  Oxfordshire  and  Hampshire  sheep  were 
deemed  mere  cross-breeds,  Dorset  horns  treated  as  a  forest  variety, 
and  Devon  long-wools  passed  by  as  undeserving  the  slightest 
notice.  Only  thirty  years  ago  the  whole  of  these  last-mentioned 
were  deemed  coarse  and  ill-bred,  lacking  both  quality  and  pedi- 
gree, but  their  extreme  usefulness  as  farmers'  rent-paying  sheep 
occasioned  for  them  rapid  and  widespread  propagation.  The 
advancement  of  these  ovian  races,  in  fact,  extirpated  Leicesters 
and  South  Downs  just  as  effectually  as  only  a  little  earlier  those 
highly-favoured  species  had  occupied  and  driven  from  their 
original  feeding-grounds  the  Teeswaters  of  the  north,  the  Norfolk 
heath  sheep  of  the  east,  and  the  Wiltshire  horns  and  Berkshire 
Notts  of  the  south.  Almost  as  completely  as  the  Israelites  drove  out 
the  Canaanites  from  Palestine,  and  the  Saxons  the  Celts  from  the 
greater  part  of  England,  did  the  sheep  originated  by  Bakewell 
expel  from  the  lowland  districts  of  this  country  the  ancient  long- 
woolled  breeds,  while  the  fine-grained  prime  quality  Sussex  race 
made  similar  conquests  on  the  hills  and  throughout  the  breeding 
districts  of  the  south.  These  improved  species  were  raised  to 
a  high  pitch  of  exaltation,  and  it  seemed  probable  that  the 
perpetuity  of  their  dominion  would  be  ensured.  The  aristocracy 
of  breeders  patronised  one  or  the  other,  and  deemed  all  other 
sheep  comparatively  unworthy  of  notice.  Fashion  invested  the 
favourites  with  a  value  that  it  was  thought  could  not  be  too 
highly  appreciated,  and  for  many  years  there  was  no  better  busi- 
ness appertaining  to  agricultural  pursuits  than  to  breed  first-class 
pedigree  Leicester  or  South  Down  rams.  How  does  it  happen, 
then,  that  at  the  present  period  other  varieties  have  so  outstripped 
these  far-famed  tribes,  that  our  "  Herd  and  Flock  "  notices  every 
week  display  a  comparatively  low  average  for  the  best  bred  and 


158     STEUCTDRE  AND  ECONOMY  0¥  THE  SHEEP. 

most  fashionable  pedigree  rams  belonging  to  tbem,  while  farmers 
invest  such  large  sums  in  Lincoln  long-wools,  Shropshire,  Hamp- 
shire, and  Oxfordshire  sheep  ?  At  the  Walderton  sale,  shearlings 
of  the  choicest  South  Down  strains  of  the  Duke  of  Richmond, 
Mr.  T.  Ellman,  and  Mr.  Pinnix,  were  sold  at  11  guineas  and  12 
guineas  each,  and  the  highest  priced  ram,  although  a  grandson 
of  the  famous  Goodwood  No.  10,  only  reached  16^  guineas.  At 
Messrs.  Wyatt's  auction  mart,  Cirencester,  on  the  following  day, 
matters  bore  a  worse  aspect  still.  Messrs.  Heasman  drove  the 
whole  of  their  superior  rams  away  again,  not  a  single  one  hired. 
The  Earl  of  Portsmouth  did  sell  one  at  11^  guineas,  and  another 
at  a  guinea  less,  but  the  others  made  only  from  5  guineas  to  8^ 
guineas.  Compare  this  with  the  almost  universal  high  averages 
obtained  at  auctions  of  Shropshire  and  Hampshire  rams  this 
season.  Taking  the  latter  first,  we  find  that  Mr.  llawlence  let 
two  ram  lambs  for  the  season  at  75  guineas  and  72  guineas 
respectively,  and  obtained  an  average  of  22^  guineas  for  those  let, 
and  16^  guineas  each  for  the  lambs  sold.  Mr.  C.  Dibben,  how- 
ever, appears  to  have  realised  the  highest  sum  for  a  Hampshire 
ram  this  year,  as  he  let  one  at  Salisbury  on  the  5th  inst.  for 
162/.  155.  Shropshires  have  been  letting  and  selling  still  higher 
than  Hampshires.  At  Mr.  Preece's  Shrewsbury  auction,  three 
of  Lord  Chesham's  shearlings  made  105  guineas,  110  guineas,  and 
150  guineas  respectively,  and  one  of  Mr.  Foster's  120  guineas. 
Two  of  Mr.  Coxon's  Freeford  rams  also  realised  a  100  guineas 
and  105  guineas  each.  A  sheep  of  Mr.  Masfen's  at  the  Pendeford 
sale  reached  120  guineas,  and  at  Mr.  C.  Byrd's  sale  jNlr.  W.  O. 
Foster  hired  a  shearling  at  156  guineas.  But  even  this  high 
figure  was  surpassed  at  Mrs.  Beach's  sale,  when  the  second  prize 
Hull  shearling  was  let  for  200  guineas.  Turning  to  the  long- 
wooUed  breeds,  what  a  falling  off  do  we  find  in  the  demand  for 
Leicesters  since  the  time  when  Bakewell  could  let  three  rams  for 
1,200  guineas,  seven  for  2,000  guineas,  and  receive  3,000  guineas 
more  for  the  use  of  the  rest  of  his  flock,  all  in  a  single  season  ! 
Mr.  George  Walmsley's  rams  the  other  day  only  averaged  11 
guineas  each,  and  at  the  great  Givendale  sale  the  general  average 
was  only  10/.  13s.  6d.  But  far  higher  prices  were  obtained  at  the 
auctions  and  private  sales  of  breeders  of  improved  Lincolnshire 
sheep,  although  these  were  only  a  few  years  ago  thought  almost 
a  cross-bred  variety.  Taking  one  of  the  latest,  viz,  the  sale  of 
Scopwick  rams  on  the  19th  ultimo,  we  find  90  guineas  realised 
for  one  and  an  average  of  21/.  10s.  each  obtained  for  fifty  shear- 
lings. On  Wednesday,  at  the  Panton  sale,  eight  rams  were  let 
for   300   guineas,   the   highest   price   being   140   guineas.      The 


TVOOL    A^^T)    ITS    MA^"U^ACTU^xES.  159 

average  for  sixty-one  rams,  including  eight  let  and  fifty-tliree 
sold,  was  29/.  On  Thusdaj,  at  the  sale  of  Mr.  Kiikham's  rams 
at  Biscathrope,  the  competition  was  exceedingly  keen,  the  seventy 
rams  making  an  average  of  So  guineas ;  the  highest  price  realised 
was  120  guineas.  We  find  no  difficulty  in  discovering  a  sufficient 
cause  for  this  revolution  in  the  ram  market.  The  high  ranges 
of  value  both  mutton  and  wool  have  taken  in  recent  years  have 
made  flock-masters  desirous  of  feeding  those  sheep  which  will 
yield  them  the  largest  products  of  both  in  the  quickest  time. 
The  South  Down  may  exhibit  greater  refinement  of  breed  than 
the  Shropshire  and  Hampshire,  and  produce  better  quality  of 
mutton ;  but  breeders  and  graziers  require  to  combine  quantity 
with  quality,  and  to  convert  their  green  crops  into  mutton  and 
wool  by  those  sheep  calculated  to  give  them  heaviest  cash 
returns.  The  Leicester,  too,  is  of  surpassing  excellence  in  perfect 
symmetry  of  shape,  refinement  of  bone,  and  in  afflarding  a 
minimum  of  oflal ',  but  by  the  improved  Lincolnshire  long-wool 
the  flockmaster  obtains  much  greater  weights  of  both  fleece  and 
carcass,  with  a  more  intimate  admixture  in  the  latter  of  lean 
flesh  with  fat  to  render  the  mutton  more  adapted  to  a  refined 
palate.  There  can  be  little  question  that  these  modern  breeds, 
some  of  which  have  been  created  almost  within  the  memory  of 
the  present  generation,  being  so  well  adapted  to  meet  the  wants  of 
the  times,  will  extend  still  further  over  the  land  ;  nor  need  we  be 
ashamed  of  any  one  of  them,  A  gratifying  feature  presents  itself 
in  the  present  phase  of  sheep  development  in  England,  that 
quality  is  so  assiduously  cultivated  in  every  breed  that  grand 
sheep  of  singular  merit  are  annually  turned  out  from  the  leading 
flocks,  whether  they  be  Lincolnshire,  Shropshire,  Cotswold,  Ox- 
fordshire, or  Hampshire,  in  denomination  and  nature.  Probably 
the  South  Down  will  always  find  a  home  on  the  Sussex  hills,  as 
no  other  sheep  will  bite  so  closely  t^e  fine  herbage  of  the  chalk 
downs,  while  the  extensive  demand  for  prime  rams  of  South 
Down  and  pure  Leicester  blood,  for  crossing  purposes  and  to 
refine  other  breeds,  may  be  expected  to  continue  and  ensure 
perpetuity  to  the  best  flocks  of  their  kind.  But,  judging  by  the 
indications  now  furnished  by  sales  and  lettings  of  rams,  we  may 
conclude  that  other  breeds  are  coming,  or  have  come,  into  more 
widespread  adoption  and  general  favour.' 

ON    WOOL    AND    ITS    MANUFACTURES. 

The  woollen  manufacture  is  one  of  the  oldest,  as  well  as  the  most 
valuable,  which  this  country  possesses.     It  has  been  said  that  the 


160     STRUCTURE  AND  ECONOMY  OF  THE  SHEEP. 

Romans  introduced  the  arts  of  spinning  and  weaving,  and  established 
a  manufack)rj  for  the  purpose  in  the  ancient  city  of  Winchester. 
Under  the  Saxon  monarchy  it  was  assiduously  cultivated,  but  in  a 
domestic  form.  The  females  of  the  house  were  usually  employed 
in  the  art,  which  was  esteemed  so  honourable  that  princesses  and 
noble  ladies  did  not  disdain  to  engage  their  hands  in  its  pursuits, 
and  thus  indeed  the  present  term  of  ^spinsters '  for  unmarried  ladies 
had  its  origin.  The  cultivation  of  wool  in  the  feudal  ages  formed 
one  of  the  leading  sources  of  national  wealth,  and  indeed  was 
sometimes  used  to  supply  the  limited  coinage  of  the  country.  Ifc 
often  afforded  to  the  sovereign  a  means  of  waging  a  war  or  paying 
a  ransom.  The  Low  Countries,  however,  took  the  lead  in  the 
manufacture  of  woollen  goods  whilst  attached  to  the  Spanish 
monarchy  ;  but  the  religious  persecutions,  and  the  tyrannical  and 
oppressive  conduct  of  the  government,  crippled  the  industry  of 
the  country,  and  drove  its  industrious  Protestant  artizans  to  other 
lands.  England  afforded  to  them  its  protecting  arm ;  and  from 
this  source  the  prosperity  of  our  woollen  manufactures  may  be 
considered  to  have  arisen,  It  took  the  lead  amongst  the  countries 
of  the  world  ;  and,  in  spite  of  impolitic  laws  at  home  and  oppres- 
sive imposts  abroad,  it  has  hitherto  maintained  its  high  position, 
fluctuating,  however,  according  to  the  degree  in  which  it  has  been 
either  shackled  or  unconfined.  And  notwithstanding  the  sudden 
rise  and  remarkable  progress  which  the  cotton  manufacture  under- 
went during  the  latter  part  of  the  last  century,  the  woollen  trade 
has  continued  its  steady  progress,  apparently  but  little  affected  by 
it ;  and  such  is  the  extent  to  which  it  has  now  reached,  that  it 
amounts  annually  to  thirty  millions  sterling,  and  employs  nearly  a 
million  and  a  quarter  of  artisans. 

In  almost  every  country,  with  the  exception  of  Britain,  the 
fleece  of  the  sheep  forms  the  principal  value  of  the  animal ;  it  is 
therefore  the  chief  object  of  the  breeder's  attention,  and  the  car- 
cass is  comparatively  neglected.  In  this  country,  such  is  the 
demand  for  meat  of  good  quality,  and  the  price  it  realises,  that 
the  wool  becomes  a  secondary  consideration.  That  form  of  animal 
most  productive  of  meat  is  most  sought  after  ;  and  this  will  con- 
tinue to  be  the  case  whilst  wool  of  the  best  and  finest  quality  can 
be  readily  procured  from  other  countries. 

To  this  may  be  added  the  fact  that  the  dam.pness  of  the 
climate  in  this  country  is  unsuitable  for  the  production  of  fine 
wool,  and  the  system  of  management  altogether  is  opposed  to  it. 
A  considerable  quantity  of  straw  and  other  dry  food,  with  nightly 
shelter,  is  the  method  successfully  employed  in  Germany  for  im- 
proving the  fleece  ;  turnips  and  a  moist  diet  are  unfavourable  to 


WOOL    AifD    ITS    MANUFACTURES.  161 

it ;  and  even  on  our  driest  pastures,  the  Downs  of  the  soutb  of 
England,  the  chalky  soil  gives  a  roughness  to  the  wool.  Thus  the 
very  same  system  which  improves  the  carcass  deteriorates  the 
wool,  so  that  fat  mutton  and  fine  wool  cannot  prosper  together. 

Wool  differs  from  hair  principally  by  growing  in  a  spiral  form, 
and  being  more  pliable  and  softer,  and  having  an  unctuous  secretion, 
whilst  it  resembles  it  by  springing  from  small  bags  beneath  the 
skin,  which  it  penetrates.  Like  hair,  each  filament  is  a  minute 
tube  filled  with  pulp,  but  has  a  scaly  external  structure  pointing 
to  the  extremity,  and  to  which  it  owes  its  felting  power  and  its 
adaptation  for  clothing  purposes.  In  many  wild  breeds  hair  is 
greatly  intermixed  with  the  wool,  which  is  thereby  deteriorated, 
but  frequent  shearing  lessens  or  eradicates  it. 

In  this  country  the  fleece  will  generally  come  off  itself  every 
year  in  the  warm  weather — a  period  which  is  anticipated  by  shear- 
ing. Lambs  are  generally  allowed  to  go  unshorn,  which  improves 
the  fleece  of  the  following  year,  and  obtains  for  it,  as  teg  wool,  a 
somewhat  higher  price.  The  wool  of  this  country  has  been  long 
distinguished  as  long  and  short  wool,  to  which  used  to  be  also 
applied  the  terms  comhing  and  carding  wool.  This  latter  distinc- 
tion, however,  no  longer  applies,  for  the  greater  part  of  the  short 
wool  that  was  formerly  used  in  making  cloths  is  now  devoted 
to  combing  purposes.  This  is  owing  to  the  great  supariority  of 
foreign  Merino  wool,  and  to  the  restrictions  which  formerly  pre- 
vented its  introduction  now  being  removed.  This,  of  course,  has 
materially  reduced  the  price  of  British  short  wools,  and  it  would 
have  been  still  further  reduced  had  not  the  improvement  in 
machinery  enabled  the  short  wool  to  be  devoted  to  combing  pur- 
poses. The  same  fleece  aftords  wool  of  various  degrees  of  fineness  ; 
and  it  is  the  business  of  the  woolstapler,  who  purchases  the  fleece 
of  the  grower,  to  sort  these  various  qualities,  and  prepare  them 
for  the  manufacturer.  The  fleece  is  unrolled,  and  the  workman, 
having  a  number  of  baskets  around  him,  selects  the  fine  locks 
from  the  coarse  ones,  and  arranges  them  in  the  baskets  with 
a  degree  of  celerity  surprising  to  the  uninitiated.  He  is  directed 
both  hj  the  sight  and  touch  in  this  operation,  and  is  obliged 
to  serve  a  regular  apprenticeship  before  he  acquires  the  pro- 
per degree  of  skill.  The  finest  wool  is  procured  from  the  neck, 
shoulders,  and  sides ;  the  next  from  the  upper  part  of  the  legs  and 
thighs,  extending  to  the  haunch  and  tail ;  and  the  most  inferior 
is  distributed  on  the  upper  part  of  the  neck,  throat,  belly,  breast, 
and  part  of  the  legs.  The  stapler,  however,  arranges  it  in  six 
different  allotments,  and  the  finest  wool  is  divided  into  no  less 
than  ten ;  and  these  are  termed,  according   to   their  degree   of 


162  STEUCTUIiE    AKD    ECONOMY    OF   THE    SHEEP 

fineness — beginning  witli  the  picklockj  wliich  is  the  best — the 
prime,  the  choice,  the  super,  the  head,  the  downrights,  the 
seconds,  the  abb,  the  livery,  and  lastly  the  breech  wool.  These 
divisions,  which  would  be  much  better  expressed  in  numerical 
order,  denote  the  variety  which  exists  even  in  a  single  iieece. 
(Jarding  is  a  name  given  to  the  process  which  wool  undergoes  in 
being  made  into  cloths  or  woollen  goods,  whilst  combing  is  a  part 
of  the  process  in  making  worsted  goods.  Short  and  fine  wool,  for 
the  most  part,  is  employed  for  the  former,  and  long  and  coarse 
wool  for  the  latter.  The  card  is  an  instrument  which  breaks  and 
divides  the  wool  into  a  multitude  of  fragments,  which,  from  the 
spiral  growth  of  the  wool,  are  necessarily  left  in  a  curved  state ; 
and  from  this  and  another  cause  they  are  disposed  to  lock  together 
and  adhere  on  being  subjected  to  moisture  and  pressure,  as  is 
shown  in  the  felt  of  a  hat,  which  is  thus  made.  This  disposition 
is  called /e/i!«w^.  After  being  broken  into  fragments  which  adhere 
loosely  together,  it  is  spun  and  woven  into  cloth,  being  for  this 
purpose  well  oiled.  It  is  afterwards  fullered  5  that  is,  the  oil  is 
extracted  by  means  of  fullers'-earth,  and  it  is  the  moisture  and 
pressure  of  this  process  which  call  out  the  felting  properties  of  the 
wool,  and  give  it  that  close  and  dense  appearance  which  fine  cloth 
assumes.  Wool  for  worsteds,  on  the  other  hand,  is  combed 
smooth  and  not  broken  into  pieces,  and  is  then  spun,  so  that  it 
retains  a  looser  appearance. 

The  perfection  of  wool-spinning  cannot  be  better  illustrated 
than  by  the  facts  that  in  ordinary  spinning  a  pound  of  wool  is 
made  to  extend  upwards  of  1,300  yards ;  in  superfine  spinning,  a 
distance  of  22  miles ;  and  it  is  an  established  fact  that  this  quan- 
tity has  been  spun  into  a  thread  reaching  the  incredible  distance 
of  upwards  of  95  miles. 

The  felting  property  and  other  qualities  of  different  wools 
have  long  been  made  known  by  practical  experience,  but  we  are 
indebted  to  Mr.  Youatt  for  the  discovery  that  the  felting  property 
depended  in  great  measure  on  the  number  of  serrations  on  its  sur- 
face. This  gentleman,  after  several  laborious  attempts,  at  length 
succeeded,  with  the  assistance  of  a  powerful  achromatic  microscope 
and  its  scientific  maker,  in  developing  the  singular  structure  of 
wool  and  the  difterence  between  wools  of  different  qualities.  Each 
fibre  was  found  to  consist  of  a  number  of  leaves  attached  to  a 
central  stem  or  band,  and  extending  in  one  direction,  viz.  from 
the  root  to  the  point.  This  was  the  result  of  examining  a  filament 
as  an  opaque  object;  but  when  viewed  as  a  transparent  object, 
the  edges  of  the  leaves  were  more  visibly  apparent,  appearing  like 
80  many  teeth   pointing  in  one  direction,  and   thence   properly 


WOOL    AND    ITS    MANUFACTURES.  1G3 

termed  the  serrated  edge.  The  fibre  of  wool  thus  magnified 
appears  somewhat  like  the  common  fir-apple.  On  examining  dif- 
ferent wools,  Mr.  Youatt  found  that  the  number  of  serrations 
corresponded  to  the  felting  qualities  of  the  wool,  being  in  the 
Saxony  no  less  than  2,720  in  the  inch,  in  the  South  Down  2,080, 
and  in  the  Leicester  1,860  alone. 

Thus  fine  wool  differs  from  coarse  in  having  a  greater  number 
of  serrations  and  growing  in  a  more  spiral  form,  which,  of  course, 
increases  the  number  of  curves,  but  to  this  we  must  add  the  fact 
of  its  being  actually  finer  or  smaller  in  its  fibres ;  so  that  whilst  a 
fibre  of  the  coarsest  wool  is  jf  q,  the  finest  is  ^ro'd  ^^  ^^  i^^^  ^'^  ^^^" 
meter.  The  softness  of  fine  wool  is  another  interesting  peculiarity  ; 
but  this  may  be  in  great  measure  owing  both  to  the  minuteness 
of  its  fibres  and  the  number  of  its  serrations. 


^A-^^: 


1.    THE    LEICESTER.  2.    THE    SOUTH    DOWX.  3.    THE    MERINO. 

Fibres  of  three,  different  •^"ools  viewed  through  an  achromatic  microscope  and 
sufficiently  magnified  to  show  the  seirated  structm-e  of  the  wool,  as  well  as  the 
relative  size  and  appearance  of  the  different  kinds. 

It  can  easily  be  conceived  how  this  curious  structure  of  the 
wool,  particularly  its  serrated  edge,  must  conduce  to  its  feltiug 
property.  As  long  as  the  filaments  are  kept  in  the  same  direc- 
tion, these  serrations  are  comparatively  inoperative  -,  but  torn  to 
pieces  by  the  card  and  mixed  in  every  direction,  the  serrated  edge 
must  tend  to  hook  and  entwine  together,  and  this  must  be  pretty 
much  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  serrations  in  a  given  space, 
particularly  when  this  is  added  to  the  fact  that  the  wool  is  more 
curved  as  the  serrations  are  numerous. 

In  preparing  the  wool  for  worsted  goods  the  filaments  are 
arranged  in  a  uniform  direction  by  the  comb,  and  spun.  Thus 
carpets  and  other  worsted  goods  present  a  looser  and  more  open 
texture  than  cloth  or  woollen  goods.  The  felting  property  of  the 
wool  is  not  called  into  operation,  and  is  in  fact  much  impaired  by 
the  necessary  processes.  The  object  is  to  get  as  fine  and  even  a 
thread  as  possible.  There  are  no  less  than  eleven  distinct  opera- 
tions under  which  the  wool  goes  before  the  manufacture  is  com- 
pleted. These  are — sorting,  washing,  drying,  plucking,  combing, 
breaking,  drawing,  roving,  spinnings  reeling,  and  weaving. 


164     STRUCTUEE  AND  ECONOMY  OF  THE  SHEEP. 

A  considerable  quantity  of  British  wool  is  obtained  from  the 
skins  of  slaughtered  animals,  and  the  separation  of  the  wool  and 
preparation  of  the  skiu  is  the  business  of  the  fellmonger.  Mr, 
Southey,  in  his  little  treatise  on  wool,  thus  describes  the  process  : 
*  The  skins  should  be  obtained  as  soon  as  possible  after  the  death 
of  the  animals,  when  this  process  is  usually  adopted  : — The  first 
operation  is  to  place  the  skins,  one  by  one,  on  a  flat  stone,  and  to 
beat  the  parts  round  the  head  with  a  wooden  mallet,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  loosening  any  clots  or  tufts  of  coagulated  blood  adhering 
to  them.  The  skins  thus  prepared  are  then  thrown  into  a  vat  of 
water  to  soak,  in  order  to  soften  any  substance  or  concretion  which 
might  attach  to  the  wool.  After  remaining  immersed  from  ten 
to  twelve  hours,  the  operation  of  washing  commences. 

'When  this  operation  is  concluded,  the  skins  are  placed  one  upon 
another,  to  the  number  of  twenty  or  thirty,  for  the  purpose  of 
draining ;  and  afterwards  they  are  laid  one  by  one  on  a  table, 
with  the  flesh  or  pelt  side  uppermost,  when  a  strong  solution  of 
lime  and  water  should  be  applied  to  the  fleshy  side  of  the  skin ; 
and  when  thus  properly  smeared  over  by  one  person,  another 
should  be  in  attendance  to  fold  the  skins,  one  by  one,  taking  care 
that  the  pelt  sides  are  placed  inwards ;  and  so  soon  as  this  is  done 
they  are  put  on  poles  and  laid  about  six  deep,  one  above  another. 
This  mode  is  adopted  for  the  purpose  of  causing  the  skins  to  heat, 
preparatory  to  the  wool  being  pulled,  as  the  process  operates  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  open  or  loosen  the  pores  of  the  skin,  by  which 
means  the  wool  is  more  readily  drawn  from  it. 

'The  day  after  the  skins  have  undergone  the  operation  of 
liming  and  washing,  they  are  taken  down  from  the  pole  to  shake 
ofi"  any  water  from  the  extremity  or  points  of  the  wool,  which, 
if  suifered  to  remain,  would  tend  to  discolour  it.  The  skins, 
however,  remain  on  the  poles  until  the  pores  are  partially  relaxed, 
which  may  be  ascertained  by  trying  to  separate  the  wool  from 
the  skin,  as  it  will  leave  the  pelt  when  in  a  proper  state  of  pre- 
paration. The  skins  are  then  placed  in  an  inclosed  shed  or  ware- 
house, from  which  the  air  is  excluded,  and  each  skin  suspended 
by  the  nostrils  or  nose  to  aff'ord  greater  facility  in  the  operation 
of  pulling.  Before  this  commences  a  lad  is  usually  employed  to 
cut  off"  the  pitch  or  any  hard  substance  that  may  adhere  to  the  skin, 
taking  care  not  to  shorten  the  wool.  Previous  to  the  operation 
of  pulling  being  commenced,  the  skins  should  be  inspected  and 
assorted  somewhat  after  the  following  method : — Those  which  are 
found  deteriorated  with  kemp,  or  dead  hairs  intermixed  with  the 
wool,  or  marked  with  party  colours,  should  be  laid  aside  by 
themselves  and  kept  separate  from  those  which  are  entirely  white. 


WOOL    AND    ITS   MANUFACTURES.  165 

It  would,  in  fact,  be  advisable,  wbere  the  skins  are  numerous,  to 
separate  those  which  produce  long  wool  from  others  of  a  shorter 
growth,  as  each  class  of  wool  is  by  the  manufiicturer  applied  to 
different  purposes. 

'  There  are  very  few  party-coloured  sheep  in  English  flocks, 
and  not  many  interspersed  with  dead  or  kemp  and  black  hairs. 
When  any  perchance  do  appear,  they  should  be  separated  from 
the  rest,  and  their  wool  kept  distinct,  any  intermixture  being 
extremely  detrimental  to  the  consumer,  who  carefully  avoids 
buying  objectionable  wool,  except  at  low  prices,  and  to  this 
minute  attention  should  be  paid  by  all  those  who  aim  at  producing 
skin  wool  of  an  approved  quality.  The  coarse  hairy  parts  about 
the  legs  should  in  like  manner  be  first  withdrawn  and  thrown 
aside,  being  entirely  useless  to  the  English  manufacturer  and 
injurious  to  his  interest. 

'  When  the  skins  have  been  properly  limed  and  folded,  in  the 
course  of  two  or  three  days,  when  the  weather  is  warm,  they  are 
generally  in  a  fit  state  to  be  pulled,  which  being  done,  the  wool 
should  be  placed  in  a  loft  or  open  warehouse,  and  exposed  to  a 
free  current  of  air  to  dry  and  become  fit  for  packing,  as  otherwise 
it  might  be  discoloured  by  heat,  or  even  ignited,  of  which  I  have 
myself  seen  a  most  remarkable  instance,  by  which  means  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  property  was  destroyed.  During  a  wet 
season,  or  in  the  winter  months,  the  skinner  usually  has  recourse 
to  an  inclosed  warehouse,  heated  by  iron  pipes  raised  perpendicu- 
larly from  the  floor,  in  which  a  large  tire  is  made  of  coke.  These 
pipes  are  passed  through  several  floors  where  wool  is  exposed  for 
drying ;  and  at  periods  when  the  sun  does  not  afford  sufficient 
warmth  to  the  atmosphere,  it  is  customary  to  place  the  skins  in 
an  artificial  heat  of  this  kind,  which  proves  a  substitute  for  the 
sun's  rays,  and  prepares  the  skin  for  the  process  of  being  pulled. 

*  The  English  fellmonger  draws  out  the  wool  from  the  pelt  by 
hand,  the  men  placing  the  skins  before  them  on  an  inclined  board, 
but  has  occasionally  recourse  to  the  aid  of  an  implement  called  a 
pulling-knife,  which  the  operator  uses  in  order  to  assist  him  in 
removing  the  wool  from  those  parts  of  the  skin  which  have  not 
been  sufficiently  decomposed,  owing  to  their  not  being  so  equally 
saturated  as  the  rest. 

'  The  skins,  after  being  divested  of  their  wool,  are  usually 
placed  in  a  pit  or  vat  filled  with  lime-water  of  a  moderate  degree 
of  strength,  compared  with  that  usually  applied  to  skins  with  the 
wool  attached  to  them.  There  they  remain  two  or  three  days, 
for  the  purpose  of  extracting  any  portion  of  the  grease  usually 
found  attached  to  the  pelt.  Thence  they  are  removed  by  long  iron 


166     STRUCTURE  A^^D  ECONOMY  OF  THE  SHEEP. 

tongs  to  a  stronger  solution  of  lime-water,  and  daily  drawn  up 
and  exposed  to  the  air  for  several  hours  during  the  day,  but  out 
of  the  sun's  rays  in  hot  weather.  They  are  then  again  thrown 
into  the  prepared  liquid,  care  being  taken  to  stir  up  the  water 
previous  to  their  immersion.  In  this  state  they  continue  three  or 
lour  weeks,  or  are  disposed  of  in  the  intermediate  time  to  leather- 
sellers,  parchment-maker:^,  or  glue-manufacturers,  according  to 
their  various  sizes  and  their  condition.' 

Formerly,  and  particularly  during  the  old  continental  war, 
which  put  a  stop  to  commercial  intercourse  between  this  and  other 
European  countries,  and  before  we  obtained  any  supply  from  our 
colonies,  the  wool  of  this  country  was  valued  in  proportion  to 
its  fineness  and  its  adaptation  to  felting  purposes :  wool  of  this 
description  realised  such  high  prices  as  induced  the  growers  not 
only  to  cultivate  the  fleece,  but  to  breed  from  those  animals  whose 
fleece  was  the  finest.  It  was  then  that  the  South  Down  wool 
was  entirely  confined  to  carding  purposes,  and  was  highly 
esteemed.  The  old  horned  sheep  of  Hampshire,  Wilts,  and  Berk- 
s'lire  were  devoted  to  a  similar  purpose,  whilst  the  little  Ryeland 
bore  a  striking  pre-eminence  over  all  others.  It  was  under  the 
influence  of  this  artificial  stimulus  that  the  Spanish  sheep  were 
imported  into  this  country,  and  the  most  sanguine  expectations 
were  entertained  as  to  the  result.  It  was  thought  to  combine,  in 
one  animal,  the  advantages  of  the  fleece  and  the  carcass  too  ;  and 
even  after  this  was  found  to  fail,  the  superiority  of  the  Merino 
fleece  was  suflicient  to  induce  many  farmers  to  sacrifice  the  car- 
cass for  its  sake.  Soon  after  the  peace,  however,  the  restrictions  on 
the  importation  of  foreign  fool  were  gradually  lessened  or  removed, 
and  the  Merino  sheep  having  been  largely  and  successfully  cultivated 
throughout  Germany  in  the  meantime,  the  superiority  of  the 
Saxony  over  the  British  wool  was  immediately  apparent ;  and  the 
price  at  which  it  could  be  procured  being  comparatively  low, 
down  fell  the  price  of  wool,  and  with  it  the  hopes  of  the  farmers, 
80  far  as  they  were  built  upon  it.  The  pure  Merino  was  cultivated 
at  too  great  a  sacrifice  of  flesh,  and  the  mixed  breed  proved  to  be 
so  inferior  to  the  foreign  in  quality,  that  neither  were  found  to 
pay,  and  thus  we  cannot  wonder  that  they  have  been  gradually 
discontinued  or  crossed  out;  and  it  has  now  become  a  settled 
point  that  fine  wool  cannot  be  grown  profitably  in  this  country. 
This  is  the  less  to  be  regretted,  inasmuch  as  our  widely-extended 
Australian  possessions  ofi'er  a  vast  field  for  its  successful  cultiva- 
tion, where  the  extent  of  pasturage,  the  cheapness  of  the  land, 
and  the  suitableness  of  the  climate,  altogether  point  towards  this 
peculiar  branch  of  industry.     The  wools  from  these  colonies  have 


WOOL    AND    ITS    MANUFACTURES.  167 

gradually  improved,  and  the  best  qualities  now  rival  that  of 
Saxony,  and  have  increased  in  quantity  to  an  enormous  extent. 

The  British  fine  wool  being  thus,  as  it  were,  driven  out  of  the 
market  by  a  superior  article,  attention  was  very  properly  directed 
to  quantity  rather  than  quality,  and  thus  a  stimulus  was  given  to 
the  long-woolled  breeds.  The  long  and  the  short  wool  of  this 
country  having  nearly,  if  not  quite,  approximated  in  price,  it  was 
found,  of  course,  that  it  was  more  desirable  to  have  a  fleece  of 
six  pounds  and  upwards  than  one  of  three  only;  and  particularly 
as  these  breeds,  having  been  greatly  improved,  could  be  cultivated 
to  greater  advantage  in  suitable  soils,  with  regard  to  the  flesh 
alone.  Thus  we  have  the  reasons  why  the  production  of  long  wool 
has  so  greatly  increased  in  this  country,  that  whilst  in  1800  there 
were  only  131,794  packs,  in  1828  there  were  no  less  than  263,847, 
being  an  increase  of  132,053 ;  whilst  during  the  same  period 
the  packs  of  short  wool  have  decreased  to  the  number  of  72,820. 
The  improvement  in  agriculture  has  enabled  the  farmer  to  keep 
long-woolled  sheep  in  situations  where  the  short-woolled  alone 
could  exist  before. 

During  the  period  of  these  changes  the  consumption  of  worsted 
goods,  both  at  home  and  abroad,  has  greatly  increased,  and  with 
it  the  demand  for  lorg  wool,  so  that  it  would  soon  have  realised 
a  superior  price  to  the  short  wool  of  this  country,  had  not  the 
improvement  of  machinery  enabled  the  manufacturer  to  use  the 
short  wool  of  Britain  likewise  for  combing  purposes,  and  particu- 
larly for  the  production  of  goods  of  a  peculiar  kind,  such  as  the 
Petersham  and  friezed  coatings,  army  and  navy  cloths,  besides 
blankets  and  other  coarse  woollens  ;  so  that  at  the  present  time 
there  is  but  little,  if  any,  difference  in  price  between  the  long  and 
short  wool  of  this  country.  It  appears  from  the  tables  of  Messrs. 
Luccock  and  Hubbard,  that  in  1800  the  number  of  packs  of  short 
wool  produced  in  England  alone  was  193,475,  whilst  in  1828  it 
was  reduced  to  120,655 ;  and  on  the  other  hand,  in  the  former 
year  there  were  only  131,794  packs  of  long  wool,  whilst  in  the 
latter  year  there  were  no  less  than  263,847.  The  total  number 
of  sheep  kept  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  was  estimated  by 
Mr.  M'Culloch  at  32,000,000,  and  the  weight  of  wool  at 
124,800,000  lbs.* 

Though  both  British  long  and  short  wool  are  mostly  used  for 
similar  purposes,  viz.   the   manufacture    of   worsted   goods,  and 

*  The  agricultural  returns  for  1872  show  the  number  of  sheep  to  be 
82,246,642  ;  and  if  the  produce  of  wool  amounts  to  260,000,000  lbs.,  the 
fleeces  must  have  doubled  m  weight,  whilst  the  number  of  sheep  have 
scarcely  increased. 


/- 


168 


STRUCTUKE  AND  ECONOMY  OF  THE  SHEEP. 


carding  wool  is  almost  entirely  of  foreign  growth,  yet  the  amount 
of  wool  grown  at  home  greatly  exceeds  that  imported  ;  for  whilst 
the  latter  is  about  fifty  millions  of  pounds  weight,  the  former  is, 
as  we  have  seen,  nearly  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  millions, 
from  which  may,  however,  be  deducted  about  eight  millions 
exported  to  other  countries,  and  particularly  to  Belgium. 

This  immense  trade  appears  to  have  gone  on,  though  with 
occasional  checks,  yet  on  the  whole  progressively  increasing  up 
to  the  present  time ;  so  that  the  declared  value  of  worsted  and 
woollen  goods  in  the  year  1838  amounted  to  nearly  six  millions 
sterlhig,  of  which  the  United  States,  our  best  customers,  took 
nearly  two  millions.  It  has  not,  however,  increased  by  any  means 
after  the  same  rate  as  our  importation  of  foreign  wool ;  for  whilst 
the  latter  increased  one-fifth  between  the  years  1835  and  1838, 
the  exportations  in  the  latter  year  were  less  than  in  the  former  in 
nearly  the  same  proportion.  The  following  table  will  show  the 
diff'erence  of  the  importation  of  wool  between  these  years,  as  well 
as  the  countries  from  whence  imported  : — 


Country  wlience  imported 

1835 

1838 

lbs. 

lbs. 

Germany      ...                ... 

23,798,186 

27,506,282 

Russia 

4,024,740 

3,769,102 

Rest  of  Northern  Europe      .... 

1,157,345 

1,063,074 

Spain 

1,602,752 

1,814,877 

Italy 

1,051.005 

1,758,894 

Greece 

1,281,839 

848,091 

Rest  of  Southern  Europe     .... 

1,304,416 

1,040,613 

Northern  Africa 

816,625 

511,426 

Southern  Africa 

191,624 

422,506 

Rest  of  Africa 

5,102 

1,867 

Australia 

4,210,301 

7,837,423 

East  Indies 

295,848 

1,897,266 

South  America  and  Mexico 

2.195,400 

4,059,958 

North  America 

All  countries 

239,349 

62,976 

42,194,532 

52,591,355 

From  the  above  table  it  will  be  seen  that  the  total  amount  ot 
foreign  wool  in  1838  exceeded  that  of  1835  by  upwards  of  ten 
million  pounds.  Of  this  the  highest  rate  of  increase  has  been 
from  our  own  colonies  in  Australia,  where  it  amounts  to  nearly 
double,  with  the  exception  of  an  almost  new  trade  wliich  has 
sprung  up  in  the  East  Indies,  where  the  amount  in  the  latter 
year  is  six  times  that  of  the  former.  The  wool  thus  imported  is 
in  great  measure  produced  in  Central  Asia,  as  well  as  the  more 
elevated  regions  of  Hindostan,  and  is  of  a  peculiar  short  and  soft 


THE    WOOL    TRADE. 


169 


quality,  superior  in  this  respect  to  all  others.  This  trade  is  likely 
to  increase  to  a  great  extent,  since  the  Indus  has  been  opened  to 
British  enterprise,  and  the  province  of  Scinde  (which  appears  to 
have  produced  a  very  considerable  amount)  has  come  more  imme- 
diately under  British  sway.  It  appears  from  the  report  on  the 
Commerce  of  Bombay  for  the  year  1838-39,  that  there  was  in 
this  official  year  imported  into  Bombay,  from  the  subordinate 
ports  in  the  Concan  and  Guzerat,  343,981  lbs.  of  wool ;  from  the 
Persian  Gulf,  12,012  lbs. ;  from  Cutch  and  Sdnde,  1,390,043 lbs.; 
and  from  Guzerat,  343,981  lbs.  Of  this,  1,882,285  lbs.  were 
exported  to  Great  Britain,  and  57,713  lbs.  to  France.  There 
appears  likewise  to  have  been  a  considerable  increase  from  South 
America  and  Mexico,  and  also  from  Southern  Africa  and  Italy ; 
an  increase  of  one-sixth  both  from  Germany  and  Spain ;  and  from 
all  other  countries  a  decrease.  It  should,  however,  be  observed 
that  the  importation  from  Germany  in  1825  and  1826  exceeded 
that  above  quoted. 

The  price  of  wool  in  this  country  appears  to  have  varied  very 
much  at  different  times.  The  following  table  will  show  the  value 
of  the  principal  sorts  at  the  end  of  June  1841  : — 


per  lb. 


s.    d. 

s.    d. 

Saxon 

1     9 

to 

5     0 

Austrian,  &c.        .        .        . 

1     4 

„ 

3     6 

Spanish         .... 

1     6 

„ 

2     2 

Australian    .... 

1     2 

M 

2     4 

Van  Diemea's  Land     . 

1     1 

5J 

2     3 

Cape 

1     0 

1     9 

British  Fleeces      . 

1     1 

^^ 

1     5 

South  Down 

0  10 

„ 

0  10* 

Kent  Fleeces 

1     2 

)J 

1     3 

Leicester  Fleeces  . 

0  10 

5» 

0  11 

In  yolk,  Devons    . 

0    7 

» 

0     9 

The  above  are  the  prices  of  wools  usually  found  in  the  market, 
but  particularly  fine  specimens  commanded  higher  prices  than  any 
quoted  above. 

In  addition  to  the  preceding  returns  we  are  enabled  to  give 
the  following  importations  of  Australian  wool  into  London,  Liver- 
pool, Bristol,  Hull,  and  Leith  in  the  following  years  :  — 


1841 
1842 
1843 


Bales 
53,015, 
52,897, 
67,610, 


lbs. 
12,723,600 
12,695,280 
16,226,400 


From  this  return  it  appears  that,  although  the  importation   of 
A-Ustralian  wool  was  less  in  1842  than  in  the  previous  year,  yet 


170     STRUCTURE  AND  ECONOMY  OF  THE  SHEEP. 

in  1843  it  again  revived,  and  exceeded  the  importation  of  the 
previous  year  by  upwards  of  three  and  a  half  millions  of  pounds. 
This  satisfactory  increase  affords  just  reason  to  expect  that  this 
trade,  so  valuable  and  important  both  to  the  mother  country  and 
the  colonies,  will  continue  steadily  and  progressively  to  advance. 

It  is  a  singular  fact  that  in  this  country  the  number  of  sheep 
have  not  increased  for  many  years.  We  find  the  return  given  in 
the  text  some  thirty  years  ago  is  thirty-two  millions,  and  in  the 
Agricultural  Statistics  for  1872  the  sheep  stock  is  returned  as  under 
thirty-three  millions  ;  yet  we  know  as  facts  that  the  consumption 
of  mutton  and  the  production  of  wool  have  been  vastly  increased, 
and  the  artificial  food  consumed  by  our  flocks  has  been  greatly 
extended.  The  cause  of  these  changes  are  no  doubt  twofold. 
The  size  and  weight  of  sheep,  as  well  as  their  wool-bearing 
qualities,  have  been  greatly  increased  by  the  great  attention 
bestowed  on  breeding  ;  and  early  maturity  has  been  so  developed 
that  in  many  instances  fat  sheep  are  heavier  at  one  year  old  than 
they  used  to  be  at  two  and  upwards,  and  thus  the  production  of 
mutton  has  been  doubled  from  the  same  number  of  sheep  as  well 
as  increased  by  the  larger  size  of  the  animals.  There  is  no 
mistake  so  great  as  that  commonly  entertained  that  the  produc- 
tion of  meat  is  diminished  by  the  slaughtering  of  young  animals, 
the  contrary  being  precisely  the  fact.  This  is  even  the  case  with 
lambs,  the  average  weight  of  which  when  killed  is  equivalent  to 
that  of  sheep  in  foriner  years.  The  number  of  sheep  in  this 
country  is  ruled  very  much  by  the  amount  of  natural  food  avail- 
able for  sustaining  them  ;  thus  the  dry  years  of  1868  and  1870 
caused  a  great  diminution  in  the  number,  amounting  to  several 
millions,  which  number  is  only  now  being  gradually  restored. 
Whilst  the  number  of  sheep  in  the  United  Kingdom  has  only 
increased  to  the  extent  of  a  quarter  of  a  million,  the  last  returns 
showing  32,246,642,  the  production  of  wool  has  been  raised 
from  125  millions  to  260  millions  of  pounds,  and  the  increase  in 
our  colonies  has  been  in  a  still  greater  proportion.  Mr,  Finlay 
Dun,  in  an  excellent  essay  on  Sheep  in  the  '  Journal  of  the  Eoyal 
Agricultural  Society,'  written  in  1856,  observes  : — '  The  sheep  of 
the  British  Isles  are  believed  to  number  about  35,000,000; 
England  alone  possessing  about  27,000,000 ;  Scotland,  according 
to  the  Agricultural  Statistics  of  1854,  has  4,787,235  ;  and  Ireland, 
in  1853,  had  3,142,656.  Calculating  the  35,000,000  as  worth  305. 
a  head,  the  sheep  stock  of  Britain  is  worth  52,500,000/.  sterling. 
About  10,000,000  sheep,  weighing  on  an  average  80  lbs.  each, 
are  annually  slaughtered  for  food.  This  furnishes  800,000,000  lbs. 
of  mutton,  or  on  an  average  rather  more  than  half  a  pound  per 


FEEDING    AND  FATTING.  1  7  1 

day  for  each  individual  in  the  three  kingdoms.  The  mutton  at 
6d.  pej'  pound  is  worth  20,000,000i?.  sterling.  Professor  Low 
estimated  that,  allowing  for  the  deficient  weight  of  the  wool  of 
slaughtered  sheep  and  lambs,  each  sheep  averages  4^  lbs.,  and  the 
total  annual  produce  of  wool  will  therefore  be  157,500,000  lbs. 
Fixing  the  value  at  Is.  Sd  per  pound,  the  total  yearly  value  of 
the  wool  of  Great  Britain  is  nearly  10,000,000/.  sterling. 

Since  this  estimation,  although  the  numbers  are  diminished,  the 
weight  of  wool  and  of  mutton  is  increased. 

ON    FEEDING    AND    FATTING,    &C. 

Though  in  many  countries  the  principal  value  of  sheep  is  to  be 
attributed  to  their  woolly  covering,  yet  in  this  country,  for  some 
years  past,  the  flesh  has  been  the  greatest  source  of  profit,  and  the 
carcass  therefore  the  paramount  consideration. 

This  has  naturally  led  the  attention  of  breeders  to  the  con- 
sideration of  what  particular  breed  has  the  most  aptitude  to  make 
flesh  and  fat,  how  these  qualities  can  be  improved,  and  what 
particular  shape  or  form  is  connected  with  this  propensity  to  fat- 
ten ?  But  though  the  above  has  been  perhaps  the  principal  con- 
sideration kept  in  view,  there  are  other  subordinate  ones  springing 
out  of  it  of  scarcely  inferior  importance — such  as  which  breed,  or 
individual  sheep,  will  fatten  soonest  on  good  pasture  ?  Which 
will  do  best  on  indifferent  or  bad  pasture  ?  Which  has  the  earliest 
maturity  ?  Which  can  bear  wet  and  dirt  with  the  greatest  im- 
punity, or  can  best  endure  exposure  to  the  weather  in  a  cold  and 
severe  locality  ? 

These  several  points  must  all  enter  into  the  consideration  of 
the  sheep-owner,  who  must  of  course  pay  the  utmost  attention  to 
the  natm-e  and  quality  of  his  laud  and  its  suitability  for  particular 
sheep  ',  being,  after  all,  governed  by  the  ultimate  calculation  as  to 
•which  brings  in  the  greatest  return  of  profit. 

The  various  points  in  the  form  of  a  sheep,  connected  with  the 
aptitude  to  fatten,  have  received  the  utmost  attention  from  prac- 
tical and  sagacious  breeders,  although  some  of  these  points  are  still 
matters  of  dispute.  The  superiority  of  particular  improved  breeds 
is  now  generally  acknowledged,  and  may  indeed  be  considered  to 
be  established  on  certain  principles,  though  in  arriving  at  these 
principles  it  must  be  confessed  that  we  are  little  indebted  to 
science,  but  rather  to  the  long  and  attentive  observation  and  cor- 
rect reasoning  of  sagacious  and  practical  men.  It  is,  indeed,  only 
very  lately  that  anything  like  a  correct  explanation  could  be  offered 
for  the  various  phenomena  that  attend  the  fattening  of  animals,  or 

I  2 


172     STRUCTURE  AXD  ECONOMY  OF  THE  SHEEP. 

why  one  description  of  food  should  be  more  suitable  for  the  pur- 
pose than  another.  It  used  to  be  supposed  that  a  large  capacious 
chest  and  lungs  were  necessary  for  the  production  of  fat,  and  that 
its  secretion  depended  in  a  great  degree  on  the  quantity  of  air  that 
could  be  respired ;  whilst  the  researches  of  modern  chemists  have 
shown  that  nothing  could  be  further  from  the  truth.  And  now 
that  the  fallacy  has  been  exposed  by  chemistry  it  can  also  be 
readily  shown  by  anatomy,  for  we  find  that  whilst  the  horse  and 
the  camel  have  eighteen  ribs  the  ox  and  the  sheep  have  only 
thirteen.  The  absence  of  these  five  pair  of  ribs  must  of  course 
materially  diminish  the  cavity  of  the  chest,  and  its  greatest  breadth 
(necessary  for  another  purpose)  does  not  by  any  means  compensate 
for  its  diminished  length.  Animals  of  speed  have  rarely  a  propen- 
sity to  fatten;  but  in  greyhounds,  foxes,  hares,  deer,  &c.,  we  find  the 
chest  is  long  and  deep  though  not  wide,  whilst  in  pigs,  sheep,  and 
oxen  we  notice  an  opposite  conformation.  The  fact  is,  in  propor- 
tion to  the  activity  of  the  animal  is  its  respiration  and  its  demand 
for  oxygen,  and  in  proportion  to  the  consumption  of  oxygen  is  the 
wear  and  tear  of  the  system  and  the  consumption  of  the  elements 
of  the  food.  If  the  exertions  are  therefore  excessive,  that  portion 
of  the  food  that  would  have  increased  the  weight  of  the  body  is 
called  for  to  support  respiration. 

In  animals  having  a  propensity  to  fatten,  we  find  the  chest  of 
a  circular  form ;  the  ribs  spring  from  the  spine  more  horizontally 
than  in  others,  almost  at  right  angles  :  this  is  observed  in  the  ox, 
compared  with  the  horse,  and  still  more  so  in  the  sheep.  The 
effect  of  this  conformation  is  certainly  in  one  respect  to  increase 
the  width  of  the  chest,  but  another  important  effect  is  to  increase 
verv  considerably  the  size  of  the  abdomen  ;  for  in  order  to  obtain 
the  greatest  possible  nutriment  from  the  food,  it  is  essential  that 
the  organs  of  digestion  should  be  capacious,  which  cannot  be  the 
case  unless  the  cavity  in  which  they  are  situated  is  large.  The 
abdominal  muscles  and  the  membrane  which  supports  the  bowels 
are  attached  to  the  cartilages  of  the  ribs,  and  the  short  ribs  in 
some  measure  cover  the  abdomen.  It  is,  therefore,  evident  that 
in  proportion  to  the  width  of  and  between  the  posterior  ribs  must, 
in  a  great  measure,  be  the  size  of  the  abdomen  ;  and  this  width 
must  be  in  proportion  to  the  horizontal  direction  in  which  the  ribs 
are  given  off.  The  loins  must  correspond  with  the  ribs ;  the  trans- 
verse processes  are  long  and  horizontal  in  proportion  to  the  hori- 
zontal manner  in  which  the  ribs  spring  from  the  spine ;  for,  in 
fact,  they  are  but  a  continuation  of  the  same  roof,  and  must  pos- 
sess the  same  relative  proportions.  We  may  illustrate  this  point 
by  comparing  it  to  an  umbrella,  which,  when  thoroughly  open,  the 
ribs,  so  to  speak,  coming  off  at  right  angles  may  be  compared  with, 


FEEDING  a:sd  fatting.  173 

the  broad  circular  animal,  and,  when  only  half  extended,  to  the 
narrow-chested  flat-sided  beast.  In  its  former  state  the  umbrella 
forms  the  roof  of  a  much  larger  space  than  it  does  in  its  latter 
state ;  and,  in  the  same  manner,  the  long  transverse  lumbar  pro- 
cesses must  form  the  roof  of  a  larger  abdominal  cavity  than  the 
short  transverse  oblique  processes  found  with  narrow  loins.  The 
same  form  that  extends  the  roof  of  the  abdomen  also  gives  a 
larger  surface  for  the  muscles  of  the  back  and  loins  to  rest  on  ; 
and  thus  we  find  in  sheep  of  this  description  a  very  considerable 
development  of  the  flesh  or  muscles  of  the  loins — the  primest  part  of 
the  carcass.  It  is  a  common  observation  with  judges  of  sheep, 
that  one  of  the  best  points  is  a  channel  between  the  shoulders  and 
along  the  back.  This  is,  indeed,  a  desirable  form,  for  it  is  con- 
nected with  those  necessary  qualifications  for  producing  flesh  and 
fat.  The  channel  along  the  back  is  owing  chiefly  to  the  large 
development  of  the  muscles  of  the  loins  and  back  arising  from  the 
form  we  have  commended,  and  partly  to  the  shortness  of  the  up- 
right or  spinous  processes  of  the  vertebrae  of  the  back.  Now  the 
use  of  these  processes  is  to  afford  leverage  to  the  muscles,  and 
their  length  therefore  enhances  the  activity  of  the  animal.  Sheep, 
however,  do  not  possess  or  require  these  active  powers,  and  they 
would,  in  fact,  be  very  detrimental  to  the  principal  object  of  the 
animal's  existence  :  it  is  a  quiet  state  and  a  quiet  disposition  that 
dispose  an  animal  to  increase  in  flesh  and  fat.  The  shortness  of 
these  processes  is  illustrated  in  the  sheep  as  compared  with  the 
goat,  and  in  the  improved  breeds  of  the  former  as  compared  with 
those  of  the  mountain  and  the  forest. 

It  is  an  ordination  of  nature  that  nothing  is  lost  or  entirely 
destroyed.  If  we  set  fire  to  a  quantity  of  straw,  a  few  ashes  only 
remain ;  but  the  rest  does  not  cease  to  exist,  but  has  merely  assumed 
other  forms — it  has  assumed  a  gaseous  character,  and  passes  into 
the  atmosphere.  A  majestic  tree,  in  the  course  of  years,  is  pro- 
duced from  an  acorn  or  nut.  In  reaching  this  form  and  bulk  it  does 
not  produce  any  new  elements ;  it  merely  has  the  power  of  assi- 
milating or  assuming  to  itself  that  which  before  existed  either  in  the 
atmosphere  or  the  soil.  Vegetables  derive  their  subsistence  chiefly 
from  the  atmosphere  ;  animals,  on  the  other  hand,  entirely  from 
the  food  conveyed  within  the  body.  A  young  animal  increases 
daily  in  size  and  weight;  in  so  doing  it  has  the  power  of  assimilating 
the  nutritious  portion  of  the  food,  and  causing  it  to  assume  the  form 
of  blood  and  flesh,  &c.  The  various  parts  of  the  body  possess, 
therefore,  that  which  previously  existed  in  the  form  of  food.  The 
locomotion  of  animals  requires  a  certain  force  to  produce  which  a 
constant  waste  or  loss  of  substance  is  undergone — living  parts 
become  dead  parts,  and  are  at  length  cast  from  the  system.     To 


174     STRUCTURE  AND  ECONOMY  OF  THE  SHEEP. 

supply  this  waste,  food  is  required  ;  and  when  the  animal  neither 
increases  nor  diminishes  in  weight,  the  waste  of  the  system  and 
supply  of  food  are  equivalent  to  each  other.  When  the  body 
decreases  in  weight,  the  waste  is  greater  than  the  supply ;  and 
when  the  body  increases,  the  supply  is  superior  to  the  waste.  The 
latter  is  the  state  in  which  sheep  usually  exist,  so  as  to  be  profit- 
able to  man.  The  food,  however,  has  two  purposes  to  accomplish  ; 
one  to  support  the  system,  the  other  to  keep  it  warm.  The  body, 
it  is  well  known,  is  considerably  warmer  than  the  surrounding  at- 
mosphere, and  it  preserves  a  pretty  uniform  temperature  through- 
out the  whole  year.  To  create  this  high  temperature,  caloric,  the 
principle  of  heat,  is  required,  to  supply  which  combustion  is  neces- 
sary;  and,  strange  as  it  may  appear,  this  combustion  is  continually 
going  on  in  the  system,  and  is  produced  on  the  one  hand  by  the 
carbon  taken  with  the  food,  and  on  the  other  by  the  oxygen  im- 
bibed from  the  atmosphere.  These  elements  uniting,  the  heat  of 
the  body  is  thereby  maintained  in  much  the  same  manner,  though 
apparently  so  different,  as  a  candle  burns,  the  carbon  being  sup- 
plied by  the  grease,  and  the  oxygen  by  the  air;  deprive  it  of  either, 
and  the  candle  is  extinguished. 

In  carnivorous  animals  the  carbon  required  for  the  warmth  of 
the  system  and  the  respiratory  process  is  supplied  chiefly  by  the 
waste  of  the  tissues  of  the  body,  which  waste  is  considerably 
greater  than  in  herbivorous  animals  ;  but  in  the  latter  the  greater 
part  so  required  is  supplied  by  the  food  itself.  In  the  former,  the 
whole  of  the  food  can  be  converted  into  flesh ;  in  the  latter,  a 
portion  only  is  capable  of  being  thus  assimilated.  Another  con- 
siderable part  is  employed  for  the  production  of  animal  heat,  and 
what  is  not  required  for  this  purpose,  for  the  formation  of  fat. 
This,  however,  can  be  best  shown  by  the  result  of  the  analysis  of 
the  structures  we  are  speaking  of.  Flesh  and  blood  consist  of  the 
following  elements,  subject  of  course  to  some  variation,  and  to 
the  water  being  removed.  By  supposing  the  substance  to  be 
analysed  to  consist  of  10,000  instead  of  100  parts,  we  avoid 
having  recourse  to  decimals,  which  may  not  be  intelligible  to 
everyone  :- 


Flesh 

Blood 

Carbon 

.      5,182       . 

.      5,195 

Hydrogen     . 

757       . 

717 

Nitrogen 

.      1,501       . 

.      1.507 

Oxygen 

.     2,137       . 

.     2,139 

Ashes   . 

423       . 

442 

10,000 

10,000 

By  comparing  together  these  two  analyses,  it  will  be  seen  that 
there  is  but  a  trifling  difierence  between  the  composition  of  either, 


FEEDING    AND    FATTING.  17o 

and  that  the  relative  proportion  of  carbon  and  nitrogen  is  the 
same.  These  are  the  proportions  in  which  these  two  elements 
unite  in  the  tissues  of  the  body ;  and  it  is  found  that  the  charac- 
teristic of  muscle  or  flesh  is  the  possession  of  nitrogen ;  and 
unless  food  possesses  this  element,  it  will  not  noarish  the  body. 
It  will  be  seen  that  the  principal  difference  between  flesh  and  fat 
consists  in  the  absence  of  nitrogen  from  the  latter,  as  the  following 
analysis  of  mutton  fat  will  show: — 

Carbon 7,900 

Hydrogen      .        .        .        .        .        .        .1,170 

Oxygen _930 

10,000" 

Thus  particular  articles  of  food,  such  as  sugar,  starch,  gum, 
oil,  or  butter,  which  possess  no  nitrogen  when  taken  as  food, 
though  they  will  increase  the  development  of  fat,  will  not  nourish 
the  flesh  ;  and  if  animals  are  confined  to  this  diet  alone,  they 
will  surely  die. 

The  analysis  of  hay  is  the  following:  1,162  parts  being  dried 
in  the  air  will  contain  162  parts  of  water,  which,  being  deducted, 
leaves  1,000  parts,  which  are  thus  composed : — 

Carbon 458 

Hydrogen 60 

Oxygen 387 

Nitrogen          .......  15 

Ashes 90 

1,000 
Now  it  is  evident,  on  comparing  this  analysis  with  that  of  the 
blood,  that  an  animal  to  make  10  lbs.  of  the  latter  must  eat  100  lbs. 
of  hay  before  he  acquires  sufficient  nitrogen  to  compose  it,  sup- 
posing that  the  whole  is  so  devoted.  By  consuming  this  100  lbs. 
of  hay,  which  we  will  suppose  divided  into  10,000  parts,  he  will 
take  4,580  parts  of  carbon,  whilst  not  more  than  520  parts  are 
required  by  the  blood,  leaving  4,060  portions  not  required  for 
nutrition ;  there  will  also  be  424  parts  of  hydrogen  unrequired, 
and  3,656  of  oxygen ;  what,  then,  becomes  of  these  superfluous 
elements  ?  Why,  they  are  required  principally  for  the  purpose  of 
sustaining  the  heat  of  the  body ;  the  hydrogen  and  oxygen  unite 
to  form  water,  and  the  carbon  unites  with  the  oxygen  taken  by 
respiration,  producing  heat  by  the  combustion,  and  is  given  off 
by  the  lungs  in  the  form  of  carbonic  acid  gas.  The  nutritious 
portions  of  the  blood  are  fibrine  and  albumen,  whose  elements  are 
almost  exactly  the  same,  and  correspond  also  with  the  fibrine  and 
albumen  found  in  vegetables.  Although  nitrogen  forms  such  an 
essential  part  of  nutritious  food,  yet  it  cannot  in  any  way  enter 


176     STRUCTUEE  AND  ECONOMY  OF  THE  SHEEP. 

the  system  or  afford  nourishment  in  a  simple  or  uncombined  form, 
but  only  in  such  combination  as  we  find  in  albumen.  It  is  evi- 
dent, therefore,  that  to  form  blood  food  must  be  taken  -which 
contains  albumen,  or  substances  analogous  to  it,  in  order  to  be 
nutritious,  and  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  albumen  it  possesses 
will  be  its  nutrient  properties.  Modern  chemists  designate  food 
which  is  thus  capable  of  nourishing  as  nitrogenised  or  azotised, 
from  its  containing  nitrogen  ;  whilst  other  varieties  of  food,  such  as 
starch,  gum,  sugar,  fat,  wine,  beer,  and  spirits,  which  contain  no 
nitrogen,  are  denominated  carbonaceous  or  unazotised. 

Albumen  is  thus  composed — carbon  550,  hydrogen  70,  nitrogen 
159,  and  oxygen  221  in  1,000  parts. 

Fat,  we  have  seen,  differs  from  flesh  in  containing  no  nitrogen, 
and  it  is  formed  therefore  from  the  carbonaceous  portion  of  the 
food,  after  sufficient  for  respiration  and  warmth  has  been  supplied. 
Starch,  and  other  similar  substances,  is  also  converted  into  fat  by 
the  abstraction  of  oxygen.  Some  animals  possess  a  much  greater 
capability  of  acquiring  fat  than  others.  Sheep  possess  this  quality 
in  a  high  degree,  and,  with  their  inactive  habits,  the  formation  of 
fat  undoubtedly  wards  off  disease  by  affording  an  employment  for 
the  large  amount  of  unazotised  food  consumed.  Young  animals 
make  but  little  fat ;  their  digestive  organs,  and  indeed  the  whole 
vital  system,  is  fully  demanded  in  increasing  the  size  of  the  flesh  or 
muscles,  and  consequently  we  find  that  lambs  take  a  much  greater 
amount  of  exercise  than  their  darns.  Their  breathing  being  thus 
increased,  more  oxygen  is  consumed,  more  carbon  given  out ;  and 
their  animal  heat  is  thus  kept  up,  which  in  them  is  doubly 
necessary  from  the  little  protection  the  mothers  aftord,  and  from 
their  being  dropped  at  a  cold  period  of  the  year.  The  milk  of 
sheep  contains  a  much  greater  proportion  of  nitrogenised  matters 
than  does  the  food  partaken,  and  thus  is  so  well  calculated  to 
increase  the  flesh. 

The  following  shows  its  analytical  composition  : — 

Cow  Ass 


Cassein      . 

.       40       . 

19 

Butter 

.       46       . 

13 

Sugar 

.       38       . 

63 

Ashes 

6       . 

Water 

.     890       . 

905 

1,000 

1,00^ 

Cassein  is  here  the  only  nitrogenised  substance  ;  it  is  the 
principle  ingredient  of  cheese,  which  usually  consists  of  that  and 
butter,  and  it  very  nearly  resembles  albumen,  into  which  it  can 
be  readily  converted  in  the  system.     The  butter  and  the  sugar  are 


FEEDING    AND    FATTING. 


i  t 


the  carbonaceous  constituents  required   for  respiration,  and  the 
ashes  contain  phosphate  of  lime  and  common  salt. 

Cassein  is  more  easily  digested  than  any  other  substance,  and 
being,  as  it  were,  ready  formed  albumen,  the  weak  digestive 
power  of  the  young  animal  is  thus  relieved  from  the  necessity  of 
separating  or  forming  it.  We  have  seen  that  the  use  of  the 
carbonaceous  portion  of  the  food  is  to  keep  up  the  temperature  of 
the  body  by  uniting  with  the  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere,  and  also 
to  produce  fat ;  and  we  shall  see  by  the  following  tables  that  the 
usual  food  of  sheep  abounds  very  considerably  with  the  carbonised 
constituents. 


Water 

Organ 

ic  matters    Ash< 

100  lbs.  of  Hay  contain  . 
„          Turnips  . 
„          Swedes  . 

16 

.       89 

85 

76i 

10 

l-i 

7i 

1 
1 

„         White  Carrots 

87 

12 

1 

Peas       . 

Oats       .        .        . 

16 
18 

80i 
79 

3i 
3 

The  organic  matters  thus  separated  are  found  to  consist  of  the 
following  proportions : — 

Albumen      Unazotised  matters 
Hay 8      .        .    68i 


Tui-nips 
Carrots 
Oats 
Peas 


1 

2 

lOi 
29 


9 

10 
68 
51J 


We  subjoin  a  table  showing  the  composition  of  various  foods 
used  for  sheep  at  the  present  time,  and  which  will  serve  as  a 
useful  guide  to  graziers,  enabling  them  to  ascertain  from  time  to 
time  the  best  and  cheapest  combination  for  fatting  purposes : — 


Analysis  of  Articles  Used  as 

Food  for  Sheep. 

Woody- 

starch, 

Albu- 

atty 

1 

Beans         .... 

Water 

fibre 

Sugar 

men 
24-0 

atter 
2-0 

Ash 
3-4 

14-6 

10-0 

46-0 

Peas  . 

14-0 

10-0 

48-0 

23-4 

2-0 

2-0 

Barley 

13-2 

13-7 

66-5 

13-0 

0-3 

3-3 

Wheat 

14-6 

12-4 

670 

12-7 

0-9 

2-4 

Oats  . 

10-8 

20-8 

46-5 

13-6 

5-0 

3-3 

Meadow  hay 

14-0 

30-0 

40-0 

7-1 

2-5 

5-1 

Clover  hay 

14-0 

25-0 

4U0 

9-3 

3-0 

0-9 

Rape  cake  . 

11-4 

17-1 

23-1 

29-0 

11-4 

8-0 

Linseed  cake 

13-4 

14-0 

27-4 

27-3 

11-9 

6-0 

Linseed 

10-0 

10-5 

20-5 

20-5 

34-0 

4-0 

Cotton  cake 

• 

11-3 

21-2 

31-0 

23-7 

6-2 

6-5 

i 

178     STRUCTURE  AND  ECONOMY  OF  THE  SHEEP. 

Ajialysis  of  Articles  used  as  Food  for  Sheep — {continued). 


Woody- 

Starch, 
G-um, 
Sugar 

Albu- 

Fatty 

Decorticated  Cotton  cake  . 

Water 

fibre 

men 

matter 

Ash 

8-3 

9-0 

17-4 

41-0 

16-0 

8-0 

,,        Earth  Nut  cake 

11-0 

4-5 

31-0 

40-0 

7-0 

6-0 

Maize         .... 

14-96 

5-02 

60-98 

11-27 

6-5 

1-24 

Locust  beans 

14-22 

3-88 

71-48 

7-72 

0-96 

1-74 

Mangold.     .... 

86-1 

2-0 

8-9 

1-8 

0-2 

1-0 

Swedes       .... 

89-0 

3-8 

4-7 

1-5 

0-3 

0-7 

Turnips      .... 

90-3 

3-1 

4-5 

1-2 

0-2 

0-7 

CaiTots        .... 

86-2 

30 

8-6 

1-5 

0-4 

0-8 

Kohl  Rabi . 

86-74 

0-77 

8-60 

2-75 

0-2 

1-12 

These  tables  are  very  useful  as  exhibiting  the  amount  o 
azotised  constituents  in  the  food,  and  also  as  regards  the  quantity 
of  non-azotised  matters,  either  employed  in  respiration  or  in 
forming  fat  or  assisting  in  nourishing  the  body.  It  cannot  be 
supposed  that  100  lbs.  of  hay  will  furnish  as  much  carbon  for 
respiration  or  for  fat  as  seven  or  eight  times  this  quantity  of 
turnips ;  undoubtedly  much  of  the  hay  is  excreted  as  vegetable 
fibre  in  the  fseces  in  an  unchanged  state.  These  theoretical  facts, 
therefore,  highly  valuable  as  they  are  and  are  likely  to  be,  must 
be  tested  and  proved  by  practical  experiment  in  order  to  render 
them  useful  in  the  feeding  of  animals.  And  here  it  will  be 
both  proper  and  profitable  to  contrast  the  foregoing  tables  with 
others  deducted  from  the  basis  of  practical  experiment.  The  first 
is  translated  by  the  late  Rev.  W.  Rham,  from  the  French,  and  is 
the  mean  of  the  result  of  the  experiments  made  by  some  of  the 
most  eminent  agriculturists  of  Europe  in  the  actual  feeding  of 
cattle: — 'Allowance  must  be  made,'  observes  Mr.  Rham,  'for  the 
different  qualities  of  the  same  food  on  different  soils  and  in 
different  seasons.  In  very  dry  summers  the  same  weight  of  any 
green  food  will  be  much  more  nourishing  than  in  a  dripping 
season.  So  likewise  any  fodder  raised  on  a  rich  dry  soil  will  be 
more  nourishing  than  on  a  poor  wet  one.  The  standard  of  com- 
parison is  the  best  upland  meadow-hay,  cut  as  the  flower  expands, 
and  properly  made  and  stacked,  without  much  heating  :  in  short, 
hay  of  the  best  quality.  With  respect  to  hay,  such  is  the  difference 
in  value  that  if  100  lbs.  of  the  best  is  used  it  will  require  120  lbs. 
of  a  second  quality  to  keep  up  the  same  stock,  as  well  as  140  lbs. 
of  tbe  third,  and  so  on  till  very  coarse  and  hard  hay,  not  well  made, 
will  only  be  of  half  the  value,  and  not  so  fit  for  cows  or  store 
cattle,  even  when  given  in  double  the  quantity.     While  good  hay 


FEEDING    AND    FATTING. 


179 


alone  will  fatten  cattle,  inferior  hay  ^vill  not  do  so  without  other 
and  richer  food. 

I  shall  give  the  table  as  it  stands  : — 

lbs. 


Good  hay  . 

, 

.     100  is  equal  in  nourishment  to  : — 

Clover  hay 

• 

90  made  when  the  blossom  is  com- 
pletely developed. 

Sainfoin  hay      . 

, 

.      89 

Green  clover 

, 

410 

Vetches  or  tares, 

crreen 

.     457 

Shelter  wheat-straw  . 

.     874 

Oat-straw . 

.     195 

Peas-haulm 

.     153 

Mangold-wurzel 

.     339 

Turnips 

.     504 

Carrots 

.     276 

Swedish  turnips 

.     308 

Wheat       . 

.       45 

Barley 

.       54 

Oats  . 

.       69 

Peas  and  beans 

.      45 

Wheat-bran 

.     105 

On  the  Feeding:  of  Animals. — A  certain  quantity  of  food 
is  required  to  keep  the  animal  alive  and  in  health :  this  is  called 
its  necessary  ration  of  food :  if  it  has  more  it  will  gain  flesh,  or 
give  milk  or  wool. 

An  ox  requires  2  per  cent,  of  his  live  weight  in  hay  per  day ; 
if  he  works,  he  requires  2^  per  cent.  :  a  milch  cow,  -3  per  cent. :  a 
fatting  ox,  5  per  cent,  at  first ;  4^  per  cent,  when  half  fat ;  and 
only  4  per  cent,  when  fat ;  or  4^  on  the  average.  Sheep  grown 
up  take  3^  per  cent,  of  their  weight  in  hay  per  day,  to  keep  in 
store  condition. 

Growing  animals  should  never  be  stinted. 

On  this  subject  there  is  an  excellent  article  by  Mr.  Hyett,  in 
the  fourth  volume  of  the  Journal  of  the  ^  Royal  Agricultural 
Society  of  England.' 

Quietude  and  warmth  greatly  contribute  to  the  fattening  pro- 
cess. This  is  a  fact  which  has  not  only  been  developed  by  science, 
but  proved  by  actual  practice.  The  manner  in  which  these  agents 
operate  are  simple  and  easily  explained : — Motion  increases  respira- 
tion, and  the  excess  of  oxygen  thus  taken  requires  an  increased 
quantity  of  carbon,  which  would  otherwise  be  expended  in  pro- 
ducing fat.  So  likewise  cold  robs  the  system  of  animal  heat,  to 
supply  which  more  oxygen  and  more  carbon  must  be  employed  in 
producing  extra  combustion,  to  restore  the  diminution  of  tempera- 
ture.    Nature  enforces  this  restoration  of  warmth  by  causing  cold 


180    STRUCTURE  AND  ECONOMY  OF  THE  SHEEP. 

to  produce  both  hunger  and  the  disposition  for  motion,  supplying 
carbon  by  the  gratification  of  the  former,  and  oxygen  by  the  indul- 
gence of  the  latter.  The  above  facts  are  illustrated  by  the  follow- 
bg  experiment  of  the  late  Lord  Ducie  : — 

One  hundred  sheep  were  placed  in  a  shed,  and  ate  20  lbs.  of 
Swedes  each  per  day,  whilst  another  hundred,  in  the  open  air,  ate 
25  lbs.,  and  at  the  end  of  a  certain  period  the  former  animals 
weighed  3  lbs.  more  than  the  latter,  plainly  showing  that,  to  a 
certain  extent,  warmth  is  a  substitute  for  food.  This  was  also 
proved  by  the  same  nobleman  in  other  experiments,  which  also 
illustrated  the  effect  of  exercise  : — No.  1.  Five  sheep  were  fed  in 
the  open  air,  between  November  21  and  December  1 ;  they  con- 
lumed  90  lbs.  of  food  per  day,  the  temperature  being  about  44*^  j 
At  the  end  of  this  time  they  weighed  2  lbs.  less  than  when  first  ex- 
posed. No.  2.  Five  sheep  were  placed  under  shelter,  and  allowed 
to  run  at  a  temperature  of  49°  ;  they  consumed  at  first  82  lbs.,  then 
701bs.  per  day,  and  increased  in  weight  23  lbs.  No.  3.  Five  sheep 
were  placed  in  the  same  shed,  but  not  allowed  any  exercise  ;  they 
ate  at  first  64  lbs.,  then  58  lbs.,  and  increased  in  weight  30  lbs. 
No.  4.  Five  sheep  were  kept  in  the  dark,  quiet  and  covered ;  they 
ate  35  lbs,  per  day,  and  increased  in  weight  8  lbs. 

A  similar  experiment  was  tried  by  Mr.  Childers,  M.P.,  and  is 
thus  related  by  that  gentleman  in  the  'Journal  of  the  Royal  Agri- 
cultural Society  of  England.'  He  says  : — '  I  last  winter  enclosed  a 
small  yard  with  posts  and  rails,  and  erected  a  low  thatched  shed, 
just  large  enough  to  allow  a  score  of  sheep  to  lie  down  at  once. 
The  floor  of  this  shed  was  boarded  with  common  rough  slabs,  and 
was  raised  eighteen  inches  above  the  surface  of  the  ground,  the 
boards  being  placed  three-eighths  of  an  inch  apart,  in  order  to 
allow  the  free  passage  of  water  and  to  keep  the  boards  dry,  as  my 
great  fear  was  that  the  sheep  might  get  the  foot-rot. 

'  I  then  proceeded,  on  January  1,  to  draw  forty  wether  hogs  out 
of  my  flock  of  Leicesters,  and  divided  them  into  two  lots,  as  equal 
in  quality  as  I  could  get  them.  On  weighing  each  sheep  separately, 
I  found  the  weight  of  one  score  to  be  183  stone  3  lbs.,  and  that  of 
the  other  184  stone  4  lbs.  I  put  the  flrst  lot  into  the  yard,  and 
placed  the  other  lot  on  turnips.  The  field  was  a  dry  sandy  soil, 
well  sheltered,  and  peculiarly  favourable  and  healthy  for  sheep. 
Each  lot  had  exactly  the  same  quantity  of  food  given  them,  which 
was  as  follows  : — 

'  1st.  As  many  cut  turnips  as  they  could  eat,  which  was  about 
27  stone  per  day  for  each  lot,  or  nearly  19  lbs.  each. 

'  2nd.  Ten  lbs.  of  linseed-cake,  at  the  rate  of  half  a  pound  per 
sheep  per  day. 


FEEDING    AND    FATTING.  181 

'  3rd.  Half  a  pint  of  barley  per  sheep  per  day. 

'  4th.  A  little  hay  and  a  constant  supply  of  salt. 

'  For  the  first  three  weeks  both  lots  consumed  equal  portions  of 
food ;  but  in  the  fourth  week  there  was  a  falling  off  in  the  con- 
sumption of  the  hogs  in  the  shed  of  3  stone  of  turnips  per  day  ; 
and  in  the  ninth  week  there  was  a  falling  off"  of  2  stone  more  ;  of 
linseed-cake  there  was  also  a  falling  oft'  of  3  lbs.  per  day.  The 
hogs  in  the  field  consumed  the  same  quantity  of  food  from  first  to 
last.     The  result  of  the  experiment  is  as  follows  : — 

20  shed  hogs      Increase    20  field  hogs      Increase 
St.    lbs.  St.  lbs.         St.    lbs.  St.  lbs. 


January    1 

.  183     3 

.     184     4 

February  1 

.  205     0 

21  11 

199     9 

15     4 

March      1 

.  215  10 

10  10 

208     2    . 

8     8 

April        1 

.  239     9 

.     23  13 

.     220  12 

12  10 

Total  increase 

. 

56     6 

36     8 

(Or  3  lbs.  each  per  week.)     (Or  under  2  lbs.  per  week.) 

Consequently  the  sheep  in  the  shed,  though  they  consumed  nearly 
one-fifth  less  food,  made  above  one-third  greater  progress.' 

The  result  of  these  important  and  valuable  experiments  is  pre- 
cisely what  we  should  expect  from  theoretical  reasoning  on  the 
principles  of  the  subject.  It  shows  the  pecuniary  advantage  of 
attending  to  the  comforts  of  sheep  and  other  animals,  the  expedi- 
ency of  providing  proper  sheds,  affording  shelter  when  the  weather 
is  severe,  and  lessening  their  exercise. 

The  various  inorganic  constituents  of  food  are  of  much  import- 
ance. The  soda  is  required  to  form  the  bile  ;  iron  is  necessary  for 
the  blood  ;  sulphur  and  phosphorus  for  the  brain  :  thus  the  advan- 
tage of  a  moderate  portion  of  salt  is  shown  ;  for  this  being  the 
chloride  of  sodium,  the  chlorine  is  required  for  the  gastric  juice, 
and  the  soda  for  the  bile. 

A  considerable  quantity  of  air  is  taken  into  the  stomach  with 
the  food,  being  contained  in  the  bubbles  of  the  saliva.  This  ap- 
pears to  be  one  of  the  uses  of  rumination,  viz.  to  supply  a  suffi- 
ciency of  oxygen  for  the  purposes  of  digestion  -,  and  it  shows  the 
importance  of  giving  hay  or  straw  with  turnips,  in  order  to  afford 
sufficient  consistency  to  the  food  to  adapt  it  for  rumination.  Thus 
chaff"  should  not  be  cut  too  short  for  sheep ;  but  it  diminishes  the 
labour  of  mastication  and  rumination  considerably,  and  therefore 
is  preferable  to  hay. 

The  modern  practice  of  feeding  sheep  for  the  butcher  consists 
in  forcing  them  on  with  corn  and  oil-cake  in  addition  to  turnips. 
Now,  when  we  consider  the  high  price  of  the  former  and  the  com- 
parative low  value  of  the  latter,  it  at  first  sight  appears  very 


182     STRUCTURE  AND  ECONOMY  OF  THE  SHEEP. 

doubtful  whetlier  such  a  system  can  be  profitable.  Beans  and  oats, 
which  are  frequently  given,  are  not  less  than  Id.  per  lb.,  and  oil-cake 
about  the  same  price  ;  whilst  turnips,  even  at  10s.  per  ton,  are  but 
Qd.  per  cwt.,  or  upwards  of  18  lbs,  for  Id. ;  and  although  che 
single  pound  of  beans  contains  more  albumen  than  the  18  lbs.  of 
turnips,  and  will  accordingly  make  more  actual  muscle  or  flesh, 
yet  the  turnips  contain  three  times  the  quantity  of  unazotised 
substance,  or  that  which  may  be  converted  into  fat ;  and  the  feed- 
ing properties  of  each  having  been  tested  by  experiment,  an  equa. 
weight  of  beans  is  supposed  to  be  equal  to  twelve  times  the  quan- 
tity of  turnips.  According  to  this  experiment  it  would  appear  that 
12  lbs.  of  turnips  contain  equal  nutriment  to  one  pound  of  beans, 
whilst  the  latter  is  equivalent  in  value  to  18  lbs.  of  the  former. 
How,  then,  can  beans  be  profitable  to  sheep  ?  To  answer  this  ques- 
tion we  must  bear  in  mind  that  every  animal  requires  a  consider- 
able quantity  of  food  to  keep  it  in  the  same  state.  A  sheep 
requires  nearly  three  and  a  half  per  cent,  of  its  weight  in  hay  to 
keep  it  in  store  condition  ;  but  to  become  fat  it  requires  consider- 
ably more,  perhaps  half  as  much  again  if  it  will  take  it.  So  large 
a  quantity  being  required  merely  to  keep  the  animal  in  the  same 
state,  it  follows  that  the  more  rapidly  an  animal  is  fattened,  the 
more  profitable  it  must  be.  For  instance,  let  us  suppose  that  4  cwt. 
of  hay  will  keep  a  sheep  in  the  same  state  for  four  months  ;  now 
if  the  animal  will  consume  this  quantity  in  three  months,  then  the 
extra  hundredweight  will  go  towards  fattening  or  increasing  its 
size.  In  the  same  manner  if,  by  giving  corn  in  addition  to  turnips, 
we  render  the  animal  as  fat  in  three  months  as  it  would  otherwise 
be  in  six,  we  shall  then  save  the  value  of  the  turnips  which  would 
be  consumed  in  the  extra  three  months,  which  will  compensate,  or 
more  than  do  so,  for  the  value  of  the  corn,  to  say  nothing  of  the 
greatly  increased  value  of  the  dung,  which,  in  the  case  of  oil-cake, 
is  reckoned  at  one-third  the  cost.  The  appetite  of  the  sheep  is  of 
course  daily  satisfied  by  means  of  turnips — it  can  take  no  more  of 
this  food;  but  by  giving  another  description,  difi'erent  in  taste, 
more  attractive  to  the  palate,  more  stimulating,  and  considerably 
more  nutritious,  the  animal  is  induced  to  take,  and  enabled  to 
digest  it,  and  thus  can  make  more  blood  and  increase  more  rapidly 
in  fat.  A  variety  of  food  operates  like  cookery  in  the  human  sub- 
ject, enabling  more  sustenance  to  be  taken. 

With  respect  to  the  most  advantageous  food  to  be  given,  there 
is  some  difference  of  opinion,  some  preferring  oil-cake,  some  beans 
or  peas,  and  others  oats  or  barley.  It  must  of  course  depend  in 
some  measure  on  the  nature  of  the  farm,  and  the  respective  cost 


FEEDING    AND    FATTINa.  183 

of  each  arucle  of  food.  Sheep  certainly  prefer  beans  to  oats; 
and  where  the  former  are  grown,  they  can  be  undoubtedly  used  to 
advantage.  They  abound  in  that  principle  in  which  turnips  are 
most  deticient,  and  thus  are  adapted  to  counteract,  in  a  measure, 
the  too  weakening  effect  of  the  turnips;  and  the  latter,  abounding 
more  in  the  elements  of  fat,  probably  prevent  the  beans  from 
hardening  the  flesh  too  much,  which  they  are  otherwise  apt  to  do. 
Oats  and  barley  are  more  fattening  than  beans,  but  contain  less 
albumen ;  and  linseed-cake  is  still  richer  in  albumen,  and  contains 
also  10  per  cent,  or  more  of  ready-formed  fat  or  oil.  Its  cost  is 
rather  more,  but  it  is  more  conducive  to  health  than  other  food, 
and  its  cost  may  be  reduced  by  the  admixture  of  cotton-cake. 
Mr.  Childers  states  that  sheep  fed  with  the  addition  of  half  a  pint 
of  barley  per  sheep  per  day,  half  a  pound  of  linseed-cake,  a  little 
hay,  and  with  a  constant  supply  of  salt,  become  ready  for  the 
butcher  in  ten  weeks,  and  gain  of  flesh  and  tallow  33  lbs.  to  40 lbs. 
per  head  (one  sheep  gained  55  lbs.  in  twelve  weeks) ;  and  that 
with  artificial  food  30  tons  of  turnips  will  feed  sixty  sheep ;  while, 
on  the  common  plan  of  feeding  on  turnips  alone,  out  of  doors,  the 
average  of  the  country  is  that  20  tons  of  turnips  will  feed  in  sixteen 
week  ten  sheep,  with  a  gain  of  only  20  lbs.  of  flesh  and  tallow. 
The  barley  and  cake  cost  6d.  to  10c?.  per  week  for  each  sheep ;  and 
the  turnips,  with  this  addition,  thus  go  eight  times  as  far,  or 
produce  eight  times  the  amount  of  flesh  and  tallow. 

Professor  Coleman,  in  his  lecture  elsewhere  alluded  to,  observes: 
•  An  acre  of  swedes,  20  tons  to  the  acre,  will  keep  a  flock  of 
sheep  from  250  to  400  head  for  a  week,  each  sheep  consuming 
15  lbs.  to  25  lbs.  per  day,  the  small  South  Down  sheep  taking  the 
smallest,  the  large  Cotswold  or  Lincoln  the  largest  weight  above 
named.  A  very  great  economy  is  secured  in  the  feeding  of  sheep 
on  turnips  by  using  the  turnip-slicer.  Some  farmers  give  all  the 
turnips  sliced,  but  it  is  recommended  that  some  roots  should  be 
left  in  the  ground  for  the  sheep  to  nibble  at  when  tired,  or  other- 
wise disposed.  The  sliced  turnips  are  given  to  the  sheep  in 
troughs,  so  arranged  as  to  prevent  the  sheep  from  overturning 
them,  or  from  getting  in  and  dirtying  and  wasting  the  food  with 
their  feet.' 

The  lecturer  then  proceeds  to  point  out  that,  by  altering  the 
system  of  sheep-feeding,  a  larger  produce  per  acre  may  be  ob- 
tained. '  The  point,  then,'  he  says,  '  to  which  I  would  draw  your 
attention  is  to  a  more  economical  system  of  feeding  sheep, 
especially  breeding  sheep,  so  as  to  increase  and  at  the  same  time 
leave  the  land  in  better  condition  for  corn.     This  result  would, 


184     STRUCTURE  AND  ECONOMY  OF  THE  SHEEP. 

I  believe,  be  effected  by  reducing  tbe  quantity  of  roots  and  usinj^ 
more  dry  food,  such  as  straw,  in  combination  with  a  small  quantity 
of  artificial  food,  which  will  act  as  a  stimulus  to  digestion. 

It  is  surprising  what  a  large  quantity  of  straw  may  thus  be 
consumed,  with  what  a  small  quantity  of  turnips  the  ewes  will 
thrive,  and  what  a  rare  manure-heap  results,  which  is  close  at 
hand  to  be  spread  on  the  young  seeds  the  following  autumn,  with 
the  minimum  amount  of  labour.  A  system  of  this  sort  is  well 
suited  to  large-breeding  farmers,  where  the  land  often  lies  remote 
from  the  buildings,  and  the  consumption  of  straw  in  the  home- 
stead would  greatly  increase  the  labour  of  carriage  to  and  from  the 
field. 

Mr.  Scott  Burn,  in  his  very  useful  little  work,  *  Year-Book  of 
Agricultural  Facts,'  gives  an  account  of  an  experiment  on 
feeding  sheep  of  different  breeds  made  by  the  Parlington  Farmers' 
Club,  with  the  view  of  testing  the  feeding  properties  of  different 
breeds.  The  result  was  certainly  in  favour  of  the  Lincolns, 
although  as  a  comparative  trial  it  was  hardly  satisfactory.  How- 
ever the  facts  brought  out,  and  the  total  result,  were  interesting. 
Altogether  there  were  forty-two  sheep,  each  of  which,  on  the 
average,  consumed  160  lbs.  of  roots  per  week,  or  23  lbs.  per  day, 
and  4  lbs.  of  linseed-cake  or  rather  more  than  a  ^  lb.  per  day, 
and  the  average  of  mutton  made  was  21  lbs.  each  sheep,  or  rather 
less  than  1  lb.  10  ounces  per  week.  The  average  dead  weight 
of  each  sheep  when  slaughtered  was  107  lbs.,  the  live  weight 
being  191  lbs.,  or  as  7  is  to  12-2. 

In  a  lecture  given  by  the  Author,  before  a  Farmer's  Club,  on 
the  Fatting  of  Animals,  the  practical  and  scientific  parts  of  the  sub- 
ject are  thus  brought  together: — '  It  has  been  found,  then,  that  it 
takes  something  like  150  lbs.  of  turnips  to  make  1  lb.  of  mutton, 
if  fed  in  the  open  air  ;  but  when  housed  in  sheds,  under  favourable 
conditions,  100  lbs.  have  succeeded  in  making  the  same  quantity 
of  mutton  ;  therefore  100  lbs.  and  150  lbs.  may  be  considered  the 
extremes.  I  do  not  mean  to  say  that  in  all  cases  100  lbs.,  given 
in  sheds,  will  produce  the  same  effect  as  150  lbs.  given  out  of  doors, 
because  sometimes  those  given  out  of  doors  will  produce  a  better 
effect  than  the  others;  but  it  is  well  known  that,  in  a  succession 
of  four  or  five  wet  days,  the  animals  make  little  or  no  increase. 
This  proportion  of  150  lbs.  of  roots  to  1  lb.  of  mutton  is  derived 
from  a  number  of  experiments  made  by  different  people,  and  is  as 
near  the  fact  as  we  can  arrive.  It  is  interesting,  because  it  enables 
us  to  ascertain  what  really  is  the  feeding  value  of  a  given 
quantity  of  roots.  Thus,  you  may  put  what  you  like  as  the  price 
of  mutton — 6f/.,  B>d.,  or  lOd'.  per  pound;  and  if  it  takes  150  lbs.  of 


FEEDING    AND    FATTING.  18o 

roots  to  make  1  lb.  of  mutton,  it  will  take  something  like  1  tou 
or  a  little  less  to  make  14  lbs.  It  has  been  found  by  accurate 
observers  that  sheep  will  economise  food  better  than  the  ox. 
Sheep,  if  fed  on  nutritious  food,  will  make  If  per  cent,  in  live 
weight,  whilst  in  the  ox  not  more  than  1  per  cent,  is  made.  In 
the  pig  a  much  greater  amount  of  food  is  turned  into  flesh  and  fat ; 
but  then  there  is  this  drawback,  that  we  are  obliged  to  keep  the 
pig  on  much  more  expensive  diet,  and  it  brings  the  result  perhaps 
pretty  nearly  the  same. 

'  In  some  other  experiments  it  has  been  proved  that  to  make 
100  lbs.  of  mutton,  170  lbs.  of  oil-cake  and  876  lbs.  of  swedes 
were  used,  and  linseed  was  found  not  to  present  any  more  advant- 
ages than  cake.  In  a  trial  between  barley  and  beans,  it  was  found 
that  1  lb.  of  barley  had  as  much  effect  on  the  animal  as  1  lb.  of 
beans  ;  but  then,  as  we  have  noticed,  barley  contains  a  considerable 
less  quantity  of  nitrogen,  a  less  quantity  of  nitrogenous  matter; 
and  although  it  proved  sufficient  for  the  animal,  yet,  as  nearly  all 
the  value  of  the  manure  resides  in  the  albuminous  matter,  it 
shows  at  once  that  the  value  of  that  from  beans,  or  cake  or  other 
nitrogenous  substances,  will  be  double  that  left  behind  by  barley, 
oats,  or  even  wheat.  It  is  very  important  to  bear  this  in  mind,  be- 
cause, if  as  much  carbonaceous  food  can  be  bought  at  the  same  price 
as  so  much  albuminous  food,  still  it  would  be  more  economical  to 
use  the  nitrogenous  because  the  manure  would  be  more  valuable, 
it  being  richer  in  ammonia,  which  gives  the  high  value  to  guano 
and  other  manures  for  the  corn  crops. 

^In  these  experiments  it  was  sought  to  ascertain  the  quantity 
of  food  required  by  various  kinds  of  sheep,  but  this  might  vary 
according  to  the  diff'erent  circumstances  to  which  they  are  sub- 
jected. It  was  found,  then,that  the  Cotswold  required  least,  next 
the  Leicesters,  next  a  cross-bred,  next  to  them  the  Hampshire 
Downs,  and  then  the  Sussex  Downs,  which  required  the  greater 
quantity  of  food.  The  Cots  wolds  required  802  lbs.  of  dry  sub- 
stance to  make  100  lbs.  of  flesh,  and  the  Sussex  Downs  877  lbs., 
but  the  last  was  the  more  valuable  per  pound.' 

In  the  very  elaborate  experiments  instituted  by  Mr.  Lawes  at 
Rothamstead,  many  interesting  facts  crop  out  with  regard  to  the 
fattening  of  sheep  and  other  animals,  both  with  relation  to  the 
breeds  and  the  result  of  the  food  consumed.  The  following  are 
some  of  the  conclusions  arrived  at,  which  may  probably  be  useful 
to  many  persons  : — 

In  the  carcass  of  even  the  store  or  lean  sheep,  there  was  more 
than  one  and  a  half  times  as  much  fat  as  nitrogenous  substance  ; 
and  in  that  of  the  store  or  lean  pig  there  was  twice  as  much. 


186     STRUCTURE  AND  ECONOMY  OF  THE  SHEEP. 

Of  the  fatter  animals,  the  carcass  of  the  fat  ox  contained  twice 
and  one-third  as  much  dry  fat  as  nitrogenous  substance,  that  of 
the  fat  sheep  four  times,  and  that  of  the  very  fat  sheep  even  six 
times  as  much.  Lastly,  in  the  carcass  of  the  moderately  fat  pig, 
there  was  nearly  five  times  as  much  fatty  matter  as  nitrogenous 
compounds.  In  the  carcass  of  sheep  we  should  include  that  the 
fat  would  generally  amount  to  more  than  three,  and  frequently 
to  four,  or  even  more,  times  as  much  as  the  nitrogenous  matter. 

That  of  the  moderately  fattened  ox  contained  45^,  of  the  fat 
lamb  48|,  of  the  half  fat  sheep  49|,  of  the  fat  sheep  39f,  and  of 
the  very  fat  sheep  only  33  per  cent,  of  water.  Lastly,  in  the 
carcass  of  the  moderately  fattened  pig  there  was  38^  per  cent. 

Between  the  condition  in  which  these  particular  carcasses  were 
taken  for  analysis  and  that  in  which  the  meat  would  be  sold  by 
the  butcher,  from  1  to  2  per  cent.,  or  perhaps  more,  of  water 
would  be  lost  by  evaporation. 

Food  and  Increase. — Fattening  oxen,  fed  liberally  upon 
good  food,  composed  of  a  moderate  proportion  of  cake  or  com, 
some  hay  or  straw-chaff,  with  roots  or  other  succulent  food,  and 
well  managed,  will,  on  the  average,  consume  12  to  13  lbs.  of  the 
dry  substance  of  such  mixed  food  per  100  lbs.  live  weight  per 
week,  and  should  give  1  lb.  of  increase  for  12  to  13  lbs.  dry  sub- 
stance so  consumed.  Sheep  fattening  under  somewhat  similar 
circumstances  (but  with  a  less  proportion  of  hay  or  straw)  will 
consume  about  15  lbs.  of  the  diy  substance  of  the  mixed  food 
per  100  lbs.  live  weight  per  week,  and  should  yield,  over  a  con- 
siderable period  of  time,  one  part  of  increase  in  live  weight  for 
about  nine  parts  of  the  dry  substance  of  their  food.  If  the  food 
be  of  good  quality,  oxen  and  sheep  may  give  a  maximum  amount 
of  increase  for  a  given  amount  of  total  dry  substance  of  food, 
even  provided  the  latter  concain  as  much  as  five  parts  of  total 
non-nitrogenous  to  one  of  nitrogenous  compounds. 

The  cereal  grains  contain  on  the  average  rather  more  than  six 
parts  of  total  non-nitrogenous  to  one  of  nitrogenous  compounds, 
and  the  leguminous  seeds  often  not  much  more  than  two  parts 
to  one. 

Oil-cakes  and  foreign  corn  contain  rather  more  than  six- 
sevenths,  and  home-grown  corn,  hay,  &c.,  rather  less  than  six- 
sevenths,  of  their  weight,  '  of  dry  substance.' 

Common  turnips  generally  contain  about  one-twelfth,  swedes 
about  one-ninth,  mangolds  about  one-eighth,  and  potatoes  about 
one- fourth,  of  their  weight,  '  of  dry  substance.' 

"With  as  much  as  five  or  six  parts  of  total  non  -nitrogenous  to 
one  of  nitrogenous  compounds  in  the  dry  substance  of  the  fatten- 


FEEDING    AND    FATTING.  1&7 

ing-  food  of  oxen,  sheep,  and  pigs,  the  increase  will  probably  be 
very  fat.  In  the  earlier  stages  of  growth  and  feeding,  a  lower 
proportion  of  total  non-nitrogenous  to  nitrogenous  compounds  is 
desirable. 

Taking  into  consideration  the  cost  of  the  foods,  and  the  higher 
value  of  the  manure  made  from  those  which  are  rich  in  nitrogen,  it 
is  frequently  the  most  profitable  for  the  f<irmer  to  employ — even 
up  to  the  end  of  the  feeding  process — a  higher  proportion  of  nitro- 
genous constituents  in  his  stock  foods  than  is  necessary  to  yield 
the  maximum  proportion  of  increase  in  live  weight  for  a  given 
amount  of  dry  substance  of  food. 

Tlie  Proportion  of  Parts. — 1.  In  relation  to  their  weight, 
oxen  contain  considerably  more  of  stomachs  and  contents  than 
sheep,  and  sheep  considerably  more  than  pigs ;  whilst  pigs  have 
more  of  intestines  and  contents  than  sheep,  and  sheep  more  than 
oxen.  Oxen,  sheep,  and  pigs  have  nearly  equal  proportions  of  the 
other  internal  organs  ;  namely,  heart  and  aorta,  lungs  and  windpipe, 
liver,  gall-bladder  and  contents,  and  milt  or  spleen,  taken  together. 
They  have  also  nearly  equal  proportions  of  blood,  but  the  pig 
rather  the  least. 

2.  In  proportion  to  their  weight,  sheep  yield  rather  more 
internal  loose  fat  than  oxen,  and  pigs  very  much  less  than  either. 

3.  As  oxen,  sheep,  and  pigs  mature  and  fatten,  the  internal 
organs  increase  in  actual  weight,  but  they  diminish  in  proportion 
to  the  weight  of  the  animal. 

4.  Of  the  internal  offal  parts,  the  loose  fat  alone  increases  both 
in  actual  weight  and  in  proportion  to  the  weight  of  the  body,  as 
the  animals  mature  and  fatten. 

5.  As  oxen,  sheep,  and  pigs  mature  and  fatten,  the  total  '  offal ' 
increases  in  actual  weight,  but  diminishes  in  proportion  to  the 
weight  of  the  body ;  the  '  carcasses  '  increase  both  in  actual  weight 
and  in  proportion  to  the  weight  of  the  body. 

6.  \Vell-bred  and  moderately-fattened  oxen  should  yield  58  to 
60  per  cent,  carcass  in  fasted  live-weight,  whilst  excessively  fat 
oxen  may  yield  from  65  to  70  per  cent. 

Moderately-fattened  sheep  (shorn)  should  yield  about  58  per 
cent,  carcass  in  fasted  live-weight,  and  excessively  fat  sheep  may 
yield  64  per  cent.,  or  more. 

7.  Of  the  increase  over  the  final  six  months  of  liberal  feeding 
of  moderately  fat  (one  and  a  quarter  to  one  and  a  half  year  old) 
sheep,  55  to  70  per  cent,  may  be  reckoned  as  saleable  carcass. 
Of  the  increase  over  the  final  six  months  of  liberal  feeding  of 
very  fat  sheep  (one  and  three-quarters  to  two  years  old),  75  to  80 
per  cent,  may  be  reckoned  as  saleable  carcass.     Of  the  increase 


188  STRrCTUPvE    A^^D    ECONOMY    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

over  the  final  two  or  three  months  of  liberal  feeding  of  moderately 
fat  pigs,  about  90  per  cent,  (including  head  and  feet)  may  be 
reckoned  as  saleable  carcass. 

8.  When  the  fattening  food  of  oxen,  sheep,  and  pigs  contains 
less  than  about  five  parts  of  non-nitrogenous  to  one  of  nitrogenous 
compounds,  the  proportion  of  gross  increase  for  a  given  amount  of 
dry  substance  of  the  food,  will  not  increase  with  the  increased 
proportion  of  nitrogenous  compounds,  whilst  the  proportion  of 
carcass  to  the  live-weight  will  probably  be  somewhat  less,  and  the 
carcasses  themselves  will  be  somewhat  more  horny  and  fleshy, 
and  less  fat. 

9.  The  increase  of  liberally  fed  sheep,  over  five  or  six  months 
of  the  final  fattening  period,  will  probably  consist  of  75  per  cent., 
or  more,  of  total  dry  substance,  of  which  sixty-five  to  seventy 
parts  will  be  fat,  seven  to  eight  parts  nitrogenous  compounds,  and 
about  one  and  three-quarter  parts  mineral  matter. 

Sheep,  fattening  for  the  butcher  on  a  good  mixed  diet,  will 
seldom  carry  ofi"  more  than  3  per  cent,  of  the  consumed  mineral 
matter.  The  exact  proportion  will  depend  very  much  on  the 
proportion  of  the  mineral  matter  to  the  digestible  organic  con- 
stituents of  the  food.  They  will  probably  carry  off  less  than 
5  per  cent  of  the  consumed  nitrogen,  if  the  food  be  comparatively 
rich,  and  more  than  5  per  cent,  if  it  be  comparatively  poor  in 
nitrogen.  They  should  store  up  about  ten  parts  of  fat  for  every 
100  parts  of  non-nitrogenous  substance  consumed. 

Sheep,  fattening  for  the  butcher  on  a  good  mixed  diet,  should 
give  about  nine  parts  dry  increase — consisting  of  about  eight  parts 
fat,  0-8  to  0-9  part  nitrogenous  substance,  and  about  0*2  part 
mineral  matter — for  100  parts  dry  substance  consumed.  More 
than  ninety  parts  of  the  consumed  dry  substance  are,  therefore, 
expired,  perspired,  or  voided. 

The  proportion  of  the  stomachs  and  their  contents  constitute 
in  the  oxen  about  11^,  in  the  sheep  about  7^,  and  in  the  pig  only 
about  1^  per  cent,  of  the  entire  weight  of  the  body.  The  pro- 
portion of  the  intestines  aad  other  contents  stand  in  the  opposite 
relation. 

Thus,  they  amount  to  about  6^  per  cent,  in  the  pig,  to  about  3|- 
per  cent,  in  the  sheep,  and  to  only  about  2|  per  cent,  in  the  oxen. 

Taking  together  stomachs,  small  intestines,  large  intestines, 
and  their  respective  contents,  the  entire  bodies  of  oxen  yield  an 
average  of  rather  more  than  14  per  cent.,  in  the  sheep  a  little 
more  than  11  per  cent.,  and  in  pigs  about  7^  per  cent. 

With  this  great  variation  in  the  proportion  of  the  receptacles 
and  first  laboratories  of  the  food,  with  their  contents,  the  farther 


FEEDI>'G    AND    FATTING.  189 

elaborating  organs  (if  we  may  so  call  them)  with  their  fluids,  ap- 
pear to  be  much  more  equal  in  their  proportion  in  the  three  cases. 

Thus,  the  average  actual  weights  per  head  of  the  collective 
stomachs  and  intestines,  and  their  contents,  increased  from  about 
13|  lbs.  in  five  store  or  lean  sheep,  to  about  lof  lbs.  in  100  fat 
sheep,  and  to  about  16^  lbs.  among  45  very  fat  ewes.  Again,  the 
heart  and  aorta,  the  lungs  and  windpipe,  the  liver,  the  gall-bladder 
and  contents,  the  pancreas  (sweetbread),  the  railt  or  spleen,  and 
the  blood,  all  taken  together,  give  an  average  actual  weight  per 
head — for  the  five  store  sheep  of  7|  lbs.,  for  the  100  fat  ones  of 
llf  lbs.,  and  for  the  forty-five  very  fat  ones  of  12^  lbs.  The  rate 
of  increase  in  actual  weight  as  the  animals  fatten  is,  therefore, 
rather  greater  for  these  last-mentioned  organs  or  parts  than  for  the 
collective  stomachs  and  intestines  and  contents. 

Still  they  decrease — though  not  so  much  as  the  collective 
stomachs,  &c. — in  percentage  to  the  whole  body  with  the  increase 
in  weight  and  fatness  of  the  animals. 

Thus  the  percentage  of  the  heart  and  other  parts  above  classed 
with  it  is,  for  the  average  of  the  five  store  sheep  8-44,  for  that  of 
the  hundred  fat  ones  7*71,  and  for  that  of  forty-five  very  fat  ones 
6-55. 

Calculations  of  a  similar  kind  in  regard  to  pigs,  show  that  of 
their  increase  during  the  last  two  or  three  months  of  liberal  feed- 
ing, little  less  than  90  per  cent,  (including  head  and  feet)  may  be 
reckoned  as  saleable  carcass. 

Again,  the  mean  percentage  of  loose  fat  (caul,  intestinal,  and 
heart  together)  in  the  fat  sheep,  as  slaughtered,  was  only  603  ;  but 
the  percentage  in  the  increase  from  the  store  to  the  fat  condition 
would  be  8-91.  In  the  same  way,  though  the  average  percentage 
of  loose  fat  in  the  very  fat  sheep  was  only  7-44,  the  percentage  in 
the  increase  from  the  fat  to  the  very  fat  condition  would  be  12-17. 

The  entire  body  of  the  store  sheep  contained  nearly  19  per 
cent,  of  fat,  or  more  than  either  of  solid  matter,  and  that  of  the 
half  fat  old  sheep  about  23^  per  cent,  or  more  than  1^  times  as 
much  as  of  dry  nitrogenous  substance. 

Of  animals  fit  for  the  butcher,  the  entire  body  of  the  fat  ox 
contained  rather  more,  and  that  of  the  fat  lamb  rather  less,  than 
30  per  cent,  of  fat ;  that  of  the  fat  sheep  3o|  per  cent. ;  that  of 
the  very  fat  sheep  4o|  per  cent.,  and  that  of  the  fat  pig  42  per 
cent. 

Of  the  animals  ripe  for  the  butcher  an  ox  contained  rather  more 
than  twice  as  much,  a  moderately  fat  sheep  nearly  three  times  as 
much,  and  a  very  fat  sheep  rather  more  than  four  times  as  much 
dry  fat,  as  dry  nitrogenous  substance. 


FART  IIL—THE  DISEASES  OF  THE 
SHEEP. 


GENERAL    OBSEEYATIONS    ON    THE   DISEASES    OF    SHEEP. 

The  diseases  of  the  sheep,  though  numerous,  and  often  fatal,  are 
powerfully  influenced  by  the  nature,  habits,  and  constitution  of  the 
animal.  If  we  were  to  judge  of  the  symptoms  of  disease  in  the 
sheep,  and  regulate  our  treatment  by  comparing  them  with  the 
maladies  of  such  an  animal  as  the  horse,  our  theory  and  practice 
would  be  alike  erroneous  and  unsuccessful.  The  sheep  has  very 
powerful  digestive  organs,  a  greater  capability  than  any  other 
domestic  animal  of  converting  grass  and  roots  into  flesh  and  fat, 
and  of  extracting  from  coarse  and  comparatively  unnutritious  food 
the  nutriment  which  there  exists  in  a  very  diffused  state.  If  an 
unlimited  quantity  of  turnips  and  hay  were  given  to  a  horse  ex- 
posed to  cold,  he  would  probably  lose  flesh  instead  of  gaining  it  j 
whilst  a  sheep,  on  such  food,  increases  daily  in  bulk.  The  brain 
of  the  sheep  is  small,  its  intellect  weak,  and  its  whole  nervous 
system  feebly  developed,  and  much  of  the  nervous  energy 
actually  possessed  is  devoted  to  the  digestive  organs.  The  mus- 
cular system  is  comparatively  weak,  and  the  sheep  is  unfitted 
for  laborious  exercise  even  in  a  state  of  nature,  and  this  disposi- 
tion is  increased  in  a  tenfold  degree  in  the  domestic  animal,  by  the 
system  of  breeding  adopted,  the  nature  of  the  food  bestowed,  and 
the  habits  of  inactivity  and  quietude  artificially  induced.  With  a 
weak  muscular  development  we  may  anticipate  what  in  reality  we 
find,  that  the  vascular  system  is  more  feeble  than  in  many  ani- 
mals, and  the  blood  circulating  throughout  the  body  is  in  fact  con- 
siderably less  in  proportion  to  the  weight  of  the  body  than  in  the 
horse.  The  latter  is  an  animal  both  able  and  willing  to  perform 
considerable  muscular  exertion,  and  is  often  called  upon  for  it. 
This  exertion  is  never  performed  without  a  waste  of  the  muscular 
tissue,  to  furnish  which  a  constant  and  copious  supply  of  nutritious 
blood  is  requisite.  In  sheep  these  exertions  are  not  called  for,  and 
there  is  comparatively  but  little  waste  of  the  system ;  so  large  a 


GENEEAL    OBSERYATIONS.  191 

supply,  or  rather  reservoir,  of  hlood  is  not  therefore  required  ;  and 
although  a  large  amount  is  actually  made  from  the  great  quantity 
of  food  consumed  by  the  sheep,  yet  this  blood  is  quickly  con- 
verted into  flesh,  and  but  a  comparatively  small  portion  remains 
as  blood  in  the  system.  The  pathological  effect  of  a  weak  vascular 
system,  and  a  freedom  from  the  consequences  of  severe  muscular 
exertion,  is  the  comparative  immunity  of  the  sheep  from  diseases 
of  an  active  inflammatory  nature.  The  character  of  the  greater 
portion  of  its  maladies  is  consequently  that  of  debility.  This  in- 
disposition to  inflammatory  disease  is  likewise  assisted  by  the 
great  powers  of  assimilation  possessed  by  the  sheep,  nutritious 
food  being  so  quickly  and  readily  converted  into  flesh  and  fat.  If 
the  horse  were  fed  with  food  as  nutritious  and  as  copious  as  is 
often  given  to  fattening  sheep,  and  like  it  debarred  from  exercise, 
disease  would  very  soon  be  the  consequence,  whilst  the  sheep  can 
live  on  from  month  to  month  in  confined  sheds,  takiug  as  much  of 
the  most  nutritious  food  as  the  appetite  will  permit.  The  super- 
abundant blood  that  in  the  horse  would  cause  plethora  and  inflam- 
mation, in  the  sheep  is  quickly  converted  into  flesh  and  fat. 

In  the  treatment  of  its  maladies  we  must,  therefore,  bear  in 
mind  the  peculiar  physiology  of  the  animal ;  and  even  if  a  disease 
be  of  an  inflammatory  nature,  we  must  not  forget  that  a  sheep  does 
not  possess  above  four  to  five  pounds  of  blood,  whilst  most  animals 
have  a  considerably  greater  quantity  in  proportion  to  their  bulk. 

The  nervous  system  of  sheep,  we  have  said,  is  comparatively 
feeble,  and  we  find,  that  though  not  exempt  from  diseases  of  the 
brain  and  nerves,  they  are  nearly  always  of  a  debilitatiug  character, 
such  as  palsy  ;  whilst  those  of  irritation,  as  tetanus,  spasm,  &c., 
are  extremely  rare.  Thus  we  find  that  most  of  the  severe  diseases 
of  the  sheep  are  distinguished  by  a  want  of  tone,  and  in  general 
this  animal  quickly  sinks  under  the  attack  of  morbid  agents. 

The  digestive  apparatus  forms  so  very  important  and  pre- 
eminent a  feature  in  the  animal  economy  of  sheep,  consisting  as  it 
does  of  a  variety  of  complex  parts  for  the  elaboration  of  the  food 
which  do  not  exist  in  many  other  animals,  that  we  cannot  be  sur- 
prised that  its  organs  should  be  those  most  susceptible  to  disease. 
Accordingly  we  find  that  such  is  the  case — that  the  diseases  of  the 
digestive  organs  are  frequent,  and  both  of  a  mechanical  and  chemi- 
cal nature.  We  have  those  arising  from  a  superabundance  as  well 
as  a  deficiency  of  aliment,  from  its  too  great  dryness  or  too  great 
moisture,  from  its  being  too  young  and  luxuriant,  or  from  being 
too  old  and  withered,  from  containing  unwholesome  or  poisonous 
principles,  or  the  minute  and  invisible  eggs  of  innumerable 
insects. 


192  DISEASES    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

Thus  we  find  that  diseases  connected  with  the  digestive  organs 
are  more  numerous  or  more  frequent  than  all  the  others  to  which 
sheep  are  liable. 

Sheep  are  exposed  throughout  the  year  to  the  vicissitudes  of 
the  weather,  from  the  effects  of  which  they  are  in  great  measure 
protected  by  their  woolly  coverings  ;  but  standing  sometimes  on  a 
cold  and  wet  soil,  and  anon  on  a  dry  and  warm  surface,  they  are 
subject  to  the  injuries  arising  from  these  alternations,  and  from  the 
effects  of  standing  for  a  long  time  on  a  wet  surface,  and  the  re- 
action which  afterwards  succeeds  from  evaporation  :  diseases  of  the 
feet  are  therefore  not  imfrequent. 

Again,  from  the  same  exposure  they  are  subject  to  the  attack 
of  flies  and  other  vermin,  which,  particularly  in  the  summer 
months,  prove  a  source  of  great  annoyance,  and  require  constant 
supervision  on  the  part  of  the  shepherd. 

To  these  morbid  causes  may  be  added  the  circumstances  of 
sheep  being  kept  together  often  in  large  flocks,  and  thus  more 
exposed  to  the  influence  of  infectious  diseases  than  animals  in  a 
more  isolated  state. 

Such  are  the  principal  circumstances  to  which  sheep  are  sub- 
jected, and  which  furnish  the  causes  of  their  principal  diseases; 
and  it  is  useful  to  keep  in  mind  the  nature  of  these  causes,  aa 
well  as  the  peculiarities  and  constitutional  idiosyncrasies  of  the 
animals,  whilst  proceeding  to  treat  separately  of  their  different 
diseases. 

In  consequence  of  the  weaker  development  of  the  vascular  and 
nervous  systems  of  the  sheep,  blood-letting  is  less  frequently  called 
for,  and  should  be  more  moderately  employed  than  in  the  horse, 
whilst  on  the  other  hand  cordial,  stomachic  and  stimulating  medi- 
cines, are  much  more  frequently  demanded ;  and  from  the  large 
size  of  the  stomach  of  the  sheep,  these  medicines  may  be  adminis- 
tered in  much  stronger  comparative  doses. 

Purgatives  are  a  class  of  medicines  often  called  for  in  the 
treatment  of  the  diseases  of  the  sheep.  Not  only  are  the  stomachs 
vei-y  frequently  diseased  themselves,  but  morbid  action  is  rarely 
set  up  in  the  system  without  disturbing  in  some  degree  the  func- 
tions of  these  organs,  and  rendering  the  employment  of  purgatives 
desirable.  And  from  the  vast  amount  of  surface  occupied  by  the 
stomachs,  and  the  comparative  insensibility  of  a  great  portion  of 
this  surface,  there  is  not  that  danger  in  their  administration  which 
there  is  with  horses  suffering  from  affections  of  the  chest.  In  fact 
purgatives  afford  us  the  best  means  of  reducing  fever,  lowering 
inflammatory  action,  and  restoiingthe  tone  of  the  digestive  organs. 
In  the  horse  it  is  the  usual  custom  to  administer  physic  in  a  solid 


GENERAL    OBSERYATIONS    ON    SHEEP    DISEASES.         193 

form,  "but  in  sheep  it  is  desirable  that  it  should  be  given  as  a  liquid, 
otherwise  it  would  enter  the  rumen  and  there  remain  an  indefinite 
time,  producing  an  uncertain  effect,  or  perhaps  none  at  all.  Given 
as  a  liquid  it  may  either  all,  or  only  in  part,  enter  the  rumen,  or 
the  whole  may  pass  at  once  into  the  fourth  stomach.  But  in  any 
case  it  does  not  very  long  remain  in  the  rumen,  but  is  soon  passed 
onwards.  The  neutral  salts,  particularly  the  sulphate  of  magnesia, 
and  linseed  oil,  form  the  most  suitable  purgatives  for  sheep. 

The  good  efifects  of  purgatives  are  greatly  assisted  by  the  com- 
bination of  stomachics  and  cordials :  they  gently  stimulate  the 
coats  of  the  stomach  and  counteract  that  tendency  which  they  have 
(particularly  the  maniplus)  to  lose  their  tone  and  become  palsied 
when  the  system  is  affected  by  morbid  action.  They  are  rendered 
the  more  necessary  either  alone  or  in  combination,  in  consequence 
of  the  feebleness  of  the  nervous  system. 

Blood-letting  in  the  sheep  would  no  doubt  be  much  abused 
were  it  not  for  the  fact  that  from  the  mode  in  which  it  is  practised 
the  quantity  is  rarely  sufficient  to  do  either  much  good  or  much 
injury.  The  veins  under  the  eye  or  the  ear  are  most  usually  selected, 
and  the  inside  of  the  arm  is  a  convenient  situation ;  but  if  a  large 
quantity  is  really  required,  the  neck  is  the  readiest  and  most  suit- 
able place  for  the  operation.  A  little  wool  should  be  cut  off,  and 
the  jugular  vein  made  to  rise  by  pressure  with  the  finger,  and  the 
vein  opened  either  with  a  lancet  or  fleam.  The  quantity  taken 
must  of  course  be  regulated  by  circumstances,  and  may  range 
from  one  ounce  to  half  a  pound.  It  is  useless  to  take  less  than 
the  former,  and  rarely  prudent  to  abstract  more  than  the  latter 
quantity. 

Since  the  first  edition  of  this  work  was  published  it  has  be- 
come customary  with  pathologists  to  class  certain  maladies,  as 
blood-diseases,  or  blood-poisoning,  and  the  theory  indicated  wil 
certainly  best  explain  the  characteristics  of  some  severe  and  fatal 
diseases,  the  post-mortem  appearances  of  which  scarcely  correspond 
with  the  severity  of  the  symptoms  or  the  fatality  of  the  results. 
Thus  in  that  disease  which  often  attacks  young  sheep  in  the  spring, 
when  allowed  to  feed  on  roots  whilst  there  is  a  hoar  frost  on  the 
leaves,  the  appearance  after  death  showing  an  effusion  of  bloody 
serum  in  the  abdomen,  it  is  considered  as  a  disease  of  the  blood, 
and  the  colour  of  the  effusion  to  be  owing  to  the  red  corpuscules 
.  of  the  blood  having  burst  their  envelopments. 

Then,  again,  there  is  what  has  been  termed  Splenic  Apoplexy, 
from  the  spleen  being  found  after  death  greatly  increased  in  size 
and  engorged  with  blood.  Professor  Simonds  considers  tliis, 
however,  to  be  rather  an  effect  of  the  disease  than  a  cause,  which 

K 


194  DISEASES    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

he  believes  to  be  found  in  the  morbid  state  of  the  blood  itself,  and 
produced  by  deleterious  agents  in  the  water  or  the  plants  growing 
on  certain  soils,  such  as  the  tart  lands  of  Somersetshire. 

Blackleg  and  redwater  in  cattle  are  considered  as  blood  diseases, 
and  so  likewise  is  rheumatism,  in  which  this  fluid  is  principally 
affected ;  and  although  the  symptoms  are  manifested  in  the  loins, 
back,  and  ditfereut  parts  of  the  body,  the  disease  is  owing  to  a 
preponderance  of  acid  matters  in  the  blood. 

It  is  well  to  add  that  since  the  former  editions  of  this  work 
appeared  a  number  of  apparently  obscure  diseases  affecting  sheep 
have  found  their  solution — through  the  aid  of  the  microscope  in  the 
hands  of  foreign  and  English  observers — in  the  existence  of  a  great 
variety  of  parasities  and  entozoa,  whose  natural  history  and  extra- 
ordinary changes  have  been  revealed  by  science.  Amongst  English 
observers  we  may  mention  the  names  of  Professors  Cobbold  and 
Simonds,  and  also  Dr.  E.  Crisp,  the  latter  being  the  author  of 
the  prize  essay  on  the  '  Lamb  Disease  '  ofi*ered  by  the  Bath  and 
West  of  England  Society,  in  the  pages  of  whose  journal  it  appears 
in  1853. 

The  list  of  modern  helminthologists  is  by  no  means  exhausted 
with  the  mention  of  these  names ;  and  their  investigations  have 
been  greatly  aided  by  practical  veterinary  surgeons,  whose  con- 
tributions would  no  doubt  have  been  greater  had  they  received 
some  reward  or  encouragement.  Scientific  men  appear  sometimes 
to  forget  that  other  labourers  may  be  working  on  the  same  field  as 
themselves,  and  that  their  discoveries  might  be  made  and  revealed 
unknown  to  their  fellow- workers. 


DISEASES    OF    THE    BRAIN. 

Turn-sick,  G-iddiness,  &.C. — This  disease  receives  a  variety 
of  denominations  in  different  localities,  such  as  sturdy-gig  giddi- 
ness, goggles,  turn,  hloh-ichirl,  &c.,  most  of  them  derived  from  the 
symptoms  that  are  present ;  but  it  has  been  correctly  ascertained 
that  in  all  cases  it  is  owing  to  one  or  more  hydatids  on  or  in  the 
brain,  the  pressure  of  which  causes  the  strange  symptoms  that  are 
observed.  These  symptoms  are  a  dull,  moping  appearance,  the 
sheep  separating  from  the  flock,  a  wandering  and  blue  appearance 
of  the  eye,  and  sometimes  partial  or  total  blindness ;  the  sheep 
appears  unsteady  in  its  walk,  and  sometimes  stops  suddenly  and 
falls  down,  at  others  gallops  across  the  field,  and  after  the  disease 
has  existed  for  some  time  will  almost  constantly  move  round  in  a 
circle — there  seems,  indeed,  to  be  an  aberration  of  the  intellect  of 
the  animal.     These  symptoms,  though  rarely  all  present  in  the 


DISEASES    OF    THE    BRAIN.  195 

same  subject,  are  yet  sufficiently  marked  to  prevent  the  disease 
being  mistaken  for  any  other.  On  examining  the  brain  of  sturdied 
sheep,  we  find,  as  before  observed,  what  appears  to  be  a  watery 
bladder,  termed  hydatid,  which  may  be  either  small  or  of  the 
size  of  a  hen's  egg.  This  hydatid,  one  of  the  class  of  entozoons, 
has  been  named  by  naturalists  the  Hydatis  poJycephahis  cerehmh's, 
which  signifies  the  7nany -headed  hydatid  of  the  brain  ;  these  heads 
are  irregularly  distributed  on  the  surface  of  the  bladder,  and  on 
the  front  part  of  each  head  there  is  a  mouth  surrounded  by  minute 
sharp  hooks  within  a  ring  of  sucking  discs.  These  discs  serve  as 
the  means  of  attachment  by  forming  a  vacuum,  and  bringing  the 
mouth  in  contact  with  the  surface,  and  thus  by  the  aid  of  the 
hooks  the  parasite  is  nourished.  The  coats  of  the  hydatid  are 
disposed  in  several  layers,  one  of  which  appears  to  possess  a 
muscular  power.  These  facts  are  developed  by  the  microscope, 
which  also  discovers  numerous  little  bodies  adhering  to  the 
internal  membrane.  The  fluid  in  the  bladder  is  usually  clear,  but 
occasionally  turbid,  and  then  it  has  been  found  to  contain  a  num- 
ber of  minute  worms. 

The  manner  in  which  these  hydatids  are  produced  and  become 
present  in  the  brain  is  no  longer  a  matter  of  uncertainty,  since  the  in- 
vestigations of  Professor  Cobbold  and  Simonds.  Sometimes  hydatids 
are  so  numerous  and  extensive  as  to  cause  the  absorption  of  a  great 
portion  of  the  brain.  The  situation  of  the  hydatid  is  not  always 
the  same  ;  sometimes  it  is  found  on  the  surface  immediately  under 
the  membrane  of  the  brain,  at  others  in  one  of  the  hemispheres, 
or  in  the  substance  of  the  brain ;  and  sometimes,  though  rarely,  in 
the  cerebellum.  It  is  stated  that  if  the  animal  moves  in  a  circle 
the  hydatid  will  be  found  on  the  side  towards  which  he  moves, 
and  probably  in  the  ventricle.  If  the  sheep  sometimes  makes  a 
circle  in  one  direction  and  sometimes  in  another,  we  may  conclude 
that  there  is  a  hydatid  in  each  hemisphere  ;  and  when  the  animal 
depresses  the  head  and  moves  straightforward,  stumbling  against 
everything  in  the  way,  it  is  probable  that  the  hydatid  is  about  the 
middle  or  division  of  the  brain  ;  and  if  the  sheep  throws  up  its 
head,  has  a  reeling  motion,  but  yet  moves  onwards,  it  is  supposed 
that  the  hydatid  is  in  the  cerebellum,  or  the  fourth  ventricle. 

The  French  term  the  sheep  either  the  turner^  the  trotter,  or  the 
sailor,  according  to  the  manner  in  which  it  moves. 

In  the  majority  of  cases  there  is  more  than  one  hydatid,  often 
three  or  four,  either  together  or  in  different  portions  of  the  brain, 
thus  accounting  for  the  frequent  failure  which  attends  the  treat- 
ment. This  disease  is  principally  confined  to  young  sheep,  and  to 
the  first  year,  though  existing  not  unfrequently  in  the  second  -,  so 


196  DISEASES    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

that  on  the  Continent  tliey,  in  some  places,  avoid  it,  by  keeping 
the  sheep  in  houses  or  sheds  during  the  first  year,  which  it  is 
stated  prevents  the  disease.  It  is  much  more  common  on  the 
Continent,  and  particularly  in  France,  than  in  England;  and  it 
has  been  supposed  that  in  the  former  country  it  destroys  nearly  a 
million  annually,  and  in  Germany  upwards  of  two  per  cent. 

This  disease  is  considered  to  be  more  prevalent  in  wet  un- 
drained  soils  than  in  high  and  dry  pastures,  and  by  some  it  has 
been  attributed,  though  with  little  justice,  to  the  practice  of 
breeding  in  and  in ;  this  could  only  be  true  when  the  flock  thus 
bred  is  predisposed  to  this  disease,  for  in  sheep  not  so  predisposed 
in-and-in  breeding  would  be  likely  to  keep  them  free  from  it. 

A  further  research  in  natural  history  has  shown  that  the 
hydatid  and  the  tape-worm  is  the  same  creature  in  different  states 
of  development,  and  that  one  will  become  the  other,  and  vice  versd. 

Various  plans  have  been  recommended  for  the  treatment  of 
this  disease,  and  from  the  success  of  each  in  a  few  cases,  it  has  for 
a  time  been  thought  a  certain  cure,  and  has  thus  disappointed  the 
expectations  excited  by  partial  success.  It  has  been  found  that 
when  giddy  sheep  have  been  rallied  by  dogs,  driven  violently,  or 
otherwise  used  with  roughness,  in  a  few  instances  the  symptoms 
have  left  them,  which  has  been  owing  to  the  rupture  of  the  hydatid 
by  this  violence.  In  some  cases  the  ears  have  been  violently 
pulled,  and  then  cut  off;  and  in  a  few  instances  this  has  succeeded. 
A  repetition  of  this  treatment  in  other  cases  has  failed  in  nineteen 
cases  out  of  twenty. 

Mr.  Hogg,  the  Ettrick  Shepherd,  states  that  he  has  cured 
many  by  pushing  a  wire  up  the  nostrils  and  through  the  brain,  so 
as  to  puncture  the  hydatid  ;  and  his  advice  is  to  feel  for  the  soft 
place  in  the  skull,  and  bring  the  point  of  the  wire  just  under  it. 
The  hydatid,  if  thus  penetrated,  will  be  discharged  through  the 
nostrils.  If  the  wire  is  carried  too  low,  it  will  injure  the  sensible 
portion  of  the  brain,  and  the  animal  will  either  die  suddenly,  or 
after  enduring  much  Jigony.  The  operation,  therefore,  is  hazardous, 
uncertain,  and  cruel,  depending  so  much  on  the  situation  and 
number  of  the  hydatids. 

Trephining  has  been  employed  successfully  in  many  instances  j 
and,  amongst  others,  the  late  Sir  Astley  Cooper  kept  a  sheep 
many  years  which  he  had  thus  cured.  A  portion  of  the  skull  is 
separated  by  means  of  a  small  circular  saw,  and  then  raised ;  and 
if  the  hydatid  should  be  under,  and  there  should  be  none  else- 
where, the  operation  will  probably  succeed.  There  is  danger  of 
inflammation  of  the  brain,  and  the  number  of  failures  has  greatly 
preponderated  over  the  cures. 


DISEASES    OF    THE    BEAIN.  197 

Perliaps  the  "best,  as  it  is  certainly  the  simplest,  mode  of  treat- 
ment, consists  in  feeling  for  a  soft  place  ;  and  if  found,  penetrating 
the  hydatid  by  means  of  a  small  awl.  A  small  syringe  may  be 
also  used  to  pump  out  the  contents  of  the  hydatid.  A  very  con- 
venient apparatus  is  now  supplied,  by  which  the  operation  can  be 
readily  performed.  Mr.  Greaves,  of  Bakewell,  Derbyshire,  states, 
in  the  first  volume  of  the  '  Journal  of  the  Eoyal  Agricultural 
Society  of  England  :  ' — '  The  easiest  and  most  effectual  way,  not 
only  to  cure  it,  but  to  prevent  its  progress,  is  to  take  some  common 
tar,  and  place  it  between  the  eyes  of  all  the  sheep,  spreading  it 
down  to  the  nose,  and  it  is  astonishing  to  find  how  soon  they 
recover ;  nor  will  any  of  the  other  sheep,  having  the  tar  applied 
in  this  manner,  be  liable  to  have  the  complaint.' 

We  give  the  above  observation,  in  order  that  any  one  who 
chooses  may  try  this  curious  mode  of  procedure  in  this  desperate 
complaint.  The  natural  history  of  the  hydatid  will  be  given 
more  fully  further  on. 

"Water  on  tlie  Brain  (Hydroceplialus). — Besides  the  disease 
just  spoken  of,  the  lamb  is  subject  to  water  on  the  brain  (hydroce- 
phalus). It  sometimes  exists  before  birth,  and  the  size  of  the 
head  prevents  delivery ;  and  in  order  to  save  the  ewe,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  destroy  the  lamb  by  penetrating  the  skull,  so  as  to  let  the 
accumulated  water  escape.  The  water  may  be  either  in  the 
ventricles  or  under  the  membranes,  and  it  occasions  a  stupid 
appearance  and  staggering  gait,  but  no  circular  motion :  the  head 
is  frequently  enlarged. 

Nothing  can  be  done  in  the  way  of  treatment,  but  it  will  be 
prudent  not  to  breed  again  from  the  ewe  ;  and  if  there  are  many 
such  cases,  the  ram,  too,  may  be  changed  with  advantage ;  for  it  is 
evident  that  the  disease  is  owing  to  some  constitutional  fault  in 
the  parents,  or  mismanagement  during  uterogestation. 

Apoplexy. — The  brain  is  liable  to  two  other  diseases,  apoplexy 
and  inflammation.  Though  the  former  will  often  produce  the 
latter,  yet  it  is  a  different  disease,  as  it  consists  in  determination 
of  blood  to  the  head,  and  distention  of  its  vessels.  Both  diseases 
may  be  attributed  to  the  same  cause — that  is,  a  redundancy  of 
blood  in  the  system,  arising  from  the  forcing  plan  frequently 
adopted,  or  a  sudden  change  from  very  poor  to  very  rich  pastures. 
The  Leicester  sheep,  from  their  propensity  to  make  flesh  and  fat, 
are  more  liable  to  apoplexy  than  others.  The  attack  is  usually 
sudden  :  the  sheep  stands  still  or  moves  forward  unconscious;  its 
eyes  are  dilated  and  prominent,  and  sometimes  it  is  almost  or 
quite  blind.  The  membrane  of  the  nostrils  and  the  eyelids  are  full 
of  blood,  and  of  a  deep  red  or  violet  colour.     If  not  relieved,  the 


198  DISEASE?    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

sheep  will  reel  and  fall,  and  die  in  less  than  half  an  hour,  or  the 
disease  will  terminate  in  inflammation  of  the  brain. 

These  symptoms  are  produced  by  the  pressure  of  the  blood  on 
the  base  of  the  brain.  The  animal  being  in  a  state  of  plethora, 
every  part  of  the  body  abounds  with  blood;  but  the  brain  being 
confined  by  an  unyielding  case,  unlike  other  parts  of  the  body,  re- 
ceives the  injury,  and  sometimes  a  rupture  of  its  vessels  takes  place. 

Inflammation  of  ttie  Brain  i  Phrenitisj. — Inflammation  of 
the  brain  may  be  owing  to  the  same  causes  as  apoplexy,  but  it 
consists  in  a  greater  activity  of  the  vessels  of  the  brain,  and  its 
svmptoms  are  not  so  lethargic,  but  more  violent.  The  animals 
appear  frantic,  throwing  themselves  about  with  great  violence ; 
and  in  lambs  their  motions  are  quite  ridiculous,  and  have  in  con- 
sequence, among  the  ignorant,  given  oiigin  to  the  idea  of  their 
being  bewitched.  The  treatment  in  both  diseases  must  be  very- 
prompt,  and  consists  principally  in  active  bleeding  and  purging. 
A  pound  of  blood,  or  as  much  as  the  sheep  can  bear,  should  be 
abstracted  fi-om  the  jugular  vein,  and  two  or  three  ounces  of  salts 
administered ;  in  the  lamb  half  this  dose  wiU  be  sufficient. 

In  vol.  viii.  of  the  '  Veterinarian '  Mr.  Tait  relates  some 
cases  which  appear  to  be  bordering  between  inflammation  and 
apoplexy.  He  says  : — '  Some  time  ago  I  was  requested  to  look 
at  a  fl'-.ck  of  sheep  belonging  to  a  farmer  in  Forfarshire.  Upon 
inquiry  I  found  that  the  sheep,  owing  to  the  diy  season  (1826j, 
had  been  considerably  stinted  in  theii-  food  in  the  summer-time, 
and  that  they  had  been,  about  a  month  before  I  saw  them,  staked 
in  a  field  of  very  fine  turnips.  The  appearance  of  the  sheep 
was  rather  strange;  for  about  a  minute  they  appeared  quite  dull, 
and  then  all  at  once  became  quite  frantic,  dashing  themselves  on 
the  oTound  and  running  at  every  person  within  their  reach ; 
others  would  all  at  once  spiing  from  the  ground  and  faU  down  and 
die.  I  caught  one  and  bled  her  copiously,  which  seemed  to  relieve 
her  much.  I  then  gave  her  a  dose  of  Epsom  salts,  which  in  a 
few  days  produced  a  cure,  and  by  such  simple  treatment  many  of 
the  sheep  recovered. 

'  On  examining  those  that  died,  they  invariably  presented  the 
following  appearances : — On  opening  the  abdomen  the  peritoneal 
covering  of  the  bowels  appeared  more  vascular  than  in  its  natural 
state,  and  there  were  some  black  spots  on  the  mucous  membrane 
of  the  small  intestines.  The  lungs  were  very  much  congested.  On 
openinsr  the  cranium  I  found  the  vessels  of  the  brain  turgid  and 
almost  in  a  bursting  state :  and,  in  fact,  in  some  cases  rupture  had 
aetuallv  taken  place,  for  there  was  nn  efiusion  of  blood  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  braia. 


DISEASES    0¥    THE    BRAI^.  199 

'The  flock  was  immediately  remov  d  from  the  turnip -field,  and 
turnips  were  given  to  them  more  sparingly,  which  soon  put  a  stop 
to  the  epidemic,  if  I  may  so  term  it.' 

Xiouping--ill. — Analogous  to  the  diseases  just  described,  if  rot 
altogether  the  same,  is  what  has  been  termed  the  Lovping-ill,  of 
which  there  is  a  very  good  description  by  an  intelligent  agricul- 
turist (Mr.  Fair)  in  the  eighth  volume  of  the  'Veterinarian.'  Mr. 
Hogg  also  describes  the  disease  under  the  terms  tlncartil-ill,  ti'em- 
hling  cr  leaimuj-ill.  It  seems  more  peculiar,  as  an  epidemic,  to 
North  Britain  than  to  England,  for  in  the  latter  country  it  has  not 
been  described  by  any  writer. 

We  will  first  give  Mr.  Fair's  account,  which  is  well  worth 
transcription  : — 

'  On  the  animal's  being  slightly  attached  there  is  an  evident 
falling  off"  in  condition,  and  a  dull,  heavy  appearance,  with  dead- 
ness  of  coat.  There  is  a  loss  of  power  in  one  or  more  limbs,  and 
sometimes  of  a  whole  side,  or  even  the  whole  of  the  animal,  as  if 
struck  with  palsy  or  tenanus,  of  both  which  diseases,  as  well  as 
apoplexy,  it  seems  to  participate  in  no  slight  degree  ;  the  head  and 
neck  being  more  or  less  frequently,  according  to  the  violence  of 
the  attack,  convulsively  or  spasmodically  contracted  or  drawn 
towards  the  shoulder  or  back,  with  a  violent  tremor  and  constric- 
tion of  the  oesophagus,  so  as  to  endanger  suttbcation  when  any 
liquid,  however  small  the  quantity,  is  attempted  to  be  conveyed 
into  the  stomach.  This  is  also  much  retarded,  or  prevented  from 
being  accomplished,  by  a  convulsive  and  spasmodic  locking  of  the 
jaw,  a  frothy  saliva  being  at  the  same  time  emitted  from  the 
mouth,  more  especially  when  the  convulsive  fits  have  come  on, 
which,  in  severe  cases,  frequently  takes  place  from  once  to  twice 
every  five  minutes,  accompanied  by  a  very  laborious  and  quick 
respiration.  The  hurried  breathing,  however,  subsides  altogether 
as  soon  as  the  fit  has  terminated. 

'In  this  state  the  animal  will  remain  for  hours  or  days,  and  if 
he  does  not  rally  from  it,  death,  sooner  or  later,  ensues.  When 
sheep  aifected  with  louping-ill  have  once  taken  the  ground,  we 
should  have  recourse  to  the  knife  as  the  only  means  of  putting  au 
end  to  their  suff'erings. 

'  Some  few  instances,  however,  have  occured  among  my  flock, 
when  they  have  most  unexpectedly  recovered ;  and  in  other  cases 
they  have  for  a  length  of  time  dragged  a  seemingly  powerless  hind 
leg  behind  them,  and  the  left  leg  oftener  than  the  right  one.  When 
this,  however,  takes  place,  the  limb  still  remains  cold  and  dead  for 
a  time,  in  despite  of  the  use  of  friction  or  stimulants.  If  it  is  a 
fore  leg  it  is  not  uncommon,  after  the  sheep  gets  on  its  feet  again. 


200  DISEASES    or    THE    SHEEP. 

lor  a,  tumour,  of  the  size  of  a  pigeon  s  or  even  of  a  hen's  egg,  filled 
with  pus  or  ichor,  to  appear.  On  being  punctured  it  presently  sub- 
sides and  is  lost.  These  abscesses  usually  appear  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  joints,  but  sometimes  about  the  arms,  the  brisket, 
or  any  neighbouring  part  of  the  body.  Other  symptoms  of  this 
disease  are  a  wild,  excited  appearance  on  being  approached  by  man, 
dog,  or  any  other  animal,  and  even  by  one  of  their  own  species;  a 
champing  or  gnashing  of  the  teeth,  and  foaming  at  the  mouth  while 
yet  on  their  legs,  accompanied  by  vertigo  and  delirium,  also  the 
assuming  of  a  rotatory  or  sidelong  motion.  When  these  last 
symptoms,  which  are  those  of  apoplexy,  or  determination  of  blood 
to  the  head,  are  seen,  I  have  restored  the  animal  to  perfect  health 
by  opening  the  two  veins  at  the  inner  angles  of  the  eyes,  whence 
a  copious  discharge  of  blood  may  be  effected ;  but  this  can  only 
be  done  with  advantage  when  the  case  is  taken  in  time.  Vene- 
section is  highly  injurious  if  performed  after  the  sheep  has  entered 
into  the  collapsed  state  of  the  disease,  although  shepherds  fre- 
quently bleed  promiscuously,  and  thereby  destroy  their  patient, 
when  tonics  and  suitable  aliment,  as  warm  milk  or  thin  flour  gruel 
in  a  tepid  state,  would  be  dictated  by  common  sense. 

'  In  this  complaint  there  is  not  unfrequently  a  great  appear- 
ance of  sickness,  and  the  animal  exhibits  great  restlessness  and 
anxiety,  mingled  with  debility  ;  he  trembles  and  tosses  his  limbs 
about,  as  if  enduring  great  pain.  At  this  time  there  is  also  less 
of  involuntarily  tremor  and  convulsive  twitchings  than  at  other 
stages  of  the  disease  -,  and  it  seems  as  if  the  seat  of  the  complaint 
was  in  the  thoracic  or  abdominal  viscera.  Medical  men  may  be 
naturally  enough  led  to  conclude  that  the  animal  is  labouring 
under  the  attack  of  some  other  disease  than  louping-ill ;  but  such 
is  not  the  case.  These  are  only  varieties  of  the  same  complaint, 
which  had  previously,  or  will  subsequently  to  these  anomalous 
symptoms,  put  on  its  usual  and  decisive  appearances.  In  fact  the 
disease  does  occasionally  assume  so  many  different  forms,  although 
each  is  more  or  less  connected  and  allied  with  the  other,  that  the 
most  skilful  veterinary  practitioner  may  for  a  while  be  puzzled  to 
,5ay  whether  it  is  most  aLin  to  tetanus,  apoplexy,  or  palsy. 

'The  post-mortem  appearances  are  the  following: — There  is, 
for  the  most  part,  a  quantity  of  thick  and  turbid  fluid,  of  a  greenish 
or  yellowish  colour,  found  collected  in  the  pleural  or  pericardiac 
cavity.  When  the  animal  dies  immediately  on  being  struck,  it 
will  often  exhibit  every  appearance  of  general  infiamniation.  Every 
part  will  be  turgid  with  blood,  but  there  has  not  been  sufficient 
time  for  gangrene  to  follow.  If  the  symptoms  have  not  been 
violent,  but  the  animal  lingers  for  a  considerable  time,  the  blood 


DISEASES    OF    THE    "BRAIN.  201 

will  seem  to  have  been  wasted  or  consumed,  and  the  flesli  white.  A 
considerable  quantity  of  coagulated  or  extravasted  blood  is  often  found 
on  the  brain,  and  also  in  the  cervical  portion  of  the  vertebral  canal. 

'  Louping-ill  is  not  only  endemic,  or  confined  to  particular 
localities  or  districts,  but  often  more  widely  extended,  and  epi- 
demic. Its  contagiousness  is  doubtful,  but  it  is  a  periodical 
disease.  The  usual  time  of  its  appearance  in  hill-sheep  is  from  the 
beginning  of  April  to  the  end  of  May,  during  which  months  it 
commits  great  ravages,  both  among  ewes  and  lambs.  From  20  to 
25  per  cent,  are  often  lost,  and  in  some  seasons  considerably  more. 
This  is,  in  a  great  measure,  regulated  by  the  spring  being  late  or 
early.  When  the  grass  comes  rapidly  to  a  full  bite,  the  apoplectic 
attacks  are  most  frequent  and  fatal.  A  lamb  may  be  eating,  and 
apparently  well,  and  all  at  once  he  springs  from  the  ground,  utters 
a  violent  scream,  and  falls  dead.  When  skinned  the  brain  and  the 
upper  portion  of  the  vertebral  canal  are  found  clogged  with  blood, 
and  the  vessels  of  the  head  and  neck  are  turgid.  At  other  time?', 
if  the  animal  is  not  struck  dead  at  once,  but  lies  stunned  and  un- 
conscious, a  sudden  bleeding  from  the  eyes  or  the  nose  will  give 
relief.  An  artificial  bleeding  from  the  angular  vein,  and  niore 
effectually  from  the  jugular,  would  have  the  same  effect;  but  it 
is  a  chance  whether  they  are  found  in  this  stage,  when  alone 
there  is  the  chance  of  saving  them.  There  is  little  or  no  loupino- 
ill  during  the  autumn  or  winter  months.  The  ewes  and  lambs  in 
the  best  condition  are  the  most  liable  to  be  attacked  by  it,  al- 
though in  the  months  of  April  and  May,  after  a  severe  winter,  they 
rarely  are  so.  It  is  curious  that,  to  the  east  of  the  parish,  with 
the  exception  of  only  two  farms,  nothing  of  this  disease  occurs. 

'  If  the  months  of  April  and  May  are  mild,  less  of  the  disease 
prevails ;  but  if  we  have  cold  and  sleety  easterly  winds,  it  will  be 
more  frequent.  Dry,  easterly,  frosty  winds,  in  April  and  May,  are 
also  productive  of  louping-ill  to  a  considerable  extent.' 

There  appears  to  be  some  diff"erence  between  Mr.  Fair's  and  Mr, 
Hogg's  account,  the  former  stating  that  it  mostly  attacks  sheep  in 
good  condition,  and  the  latter  those  that  are  poor.  If  each  account 
is  correct,  and  the  result  of  personal  observation,  we  ma}'-  conclude 
that  the  disease  is  peculiar  in  its  kind,  and  produced  by  causes 
distinct  from  either  good  or  bad  condition,  though  considerably 
modified  by  these  circumstances. 

Mr.  Hogg  says,  that  '  twenty  years  ago  its  ravages  were  so 
considerable,  that  farmers  believed  the  disease  to  be  infectious.  It 
still  exists  on  some  straggling  dry  farms,  where  the  ground  is 
visibly  overstocked ;  and  in  dry  frosty  seasons  when  the  spring  is 
hard  and  severe.     In  such  places,  if  March  and  April  are  barren, 

k3 


202  DISEASES    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

no  green  thing  is  to  be  attained  by  the  poor  creatures  for  a  long 
space  of  time.  It  is  easy,  then,  to  conceive  the  emaciated  state 
into  which  this  must  throw  them.  If  at  this  time  they  happen  to 
get  an  oversti-etch  in  running,  or  even  a  crush  in  the  fold,  numbers 
fall  a  prey  to  this  disorder.  Some  will  fall  down  and  die  in  two 
or  three  minutes  ;  others  will  lose  the  power  of  one  side,  and  lie 
sprawling  until  they  die  of  hunger ;  others,  again,  will  lie  shiver- 
ing and  sick,  until  death  comes  to  their  relief;  while  a  few 
will  go  a  long  time  quite  lame,  until  they  are  likewise  quite 
exhausted. 

'  When  they  fall  down  and  threaten  instantly  to  expire,  which 
is  certainly  an  apoplectic  shock,  I  have  seen  bleeding  give  imme- 
diate relief.  In  all  the  other  cases,  the  best  method  is  to  take 
them  home  and  feed  them  with  strengthening  food,  until  they 
gradually  recover.  If  once  by  this  strong  feeding  they  are  at- 
tacked by  a  temporary  diarrhoea,  they  will  recover  very  fast. 

'  This  distemper  is  peculiar  to  dry  soils,  and  prevails  in  dry 
barren  springs  when  the  wind  settles  in  the  east.  If  the  sheep 
are  in  good  condition,  they  are  not  nearly  so  apt  to  take  it ;  but  if 
they  are  either  low  in  body,  or  the  wind  has  a  tendency  to  centre 
easterly,  the  greatest  care  must  be  taken  to  use  the  flocks  gently, 
and  it  is  commendable  to  avoid  cutting  off  the  wool  round  the 
udder  in  ewes  that  are  near  the  time  of  yeaning,  as  the  fatigue 
which  they  then  undergo,  and  the  cold  to  the  most  tender  parts, 
are  often  followed  by  fatal  consequences.' 

It  is  very  evident  that  a  disease  that  owes  so  much  to  poverty 
of  blood  should  be  guarded  against  by  the  use  of  oil-cake  in  addi- 
tion to  natural  food. 

Rabies  or  IMEadness. — This  disease  sometimes  makes  its  ap- 
pearance in  a  flock  of  sheep,  and  its  uniform  fatality,  together 
with  the  number  of  its  victims,  renders  it  sometimes  a  source  of 
very  serious  loss  to  the  flock-master.  It  is  invariably  produced  by 
the  bite  of  a  rabid  animal,  usually  a  dog,  the  inoculation  being 
communicated  by  means  of  the  saliva.  An  indefinite  period  may 
elapse  between  the  time  of  the  inoculation  and  the  first  exhibition 
of  the  symptoms,  ranging  from  two  weeks  to  six,  and  this  is  a 
shorter  period  than  usually  supervenes  both  in  the  dog  and  the 
human  being.  Sheep,  we  have  observed,  never  engender  this  dis- 
ease, and  it  is  a  disputed  point  whether  even  in  dogs  it  is  ever  bred 
at  the  present  day.  Many  high  authorities  incline  to  the  opinion 
that  it  is  always  produced  by  the  bite  of  another  rabid  dog ;  and, 
indeed,  it  has  been  proved  by  experiment  that  neither  heat,  hunger, 
nor  thirst,  separate  or  combined,  will  produce  it.  When  a  dog 
becomes  mad,  and  breaks  away  in   his  career,   sheep,  from  their 


DISEASES    OF    THE    BRAIN    AND    NEIITES.  203 

habits  and  disposition,  are  frequently  the  subjects  of  attack,  and 
would  probably  suifer  still  more  were  it  not  for  the  circumstance  of 
the  wool  sometimes  wiping  the  teeth  clean  ere  they  enter  the  flesh. 
As  it  is,  however,  the  greater  number  of  those  bitten  become 
aiFected  with  the  disease.  The  first  symptoms  which  are  observed 
are  a  diminished  appetite,  and  a  disposition  to  ride  each  other,  to 
which  succeeds  a  propensity  for  mischief.  The  sheep  will  often 
butt  each  other  furiously,  but  will  not  bite,  although  they  will 
nibble  at  a  stick  if  presented  to  them.  There  is  considerable 
nervous  irritability  developed,  spasmodic  twitchings  of  the  mus- 
cles, and  quickened  respiration.  They  become  drowsy,  lose  their 
appetite,  and  take  no  notice  of  surrounding  objects.  Saliva  flows 
from  the  mouth,  thirst  is  exhibited,  but  often  without  ability  to 
swallow.  There  is  no  dread  of  water  at  any  period  of  the  disease, 
and  in  some  cases  it  proves  fatal  in  a  couple  of  days,  and  in  others 
continues  upwards  of  a  week. 

Although  there  are  no  instances  on  record  of  the  disease  being 
propagated  from  one  sheep  to  another,  and  although  the  saliva  is 
probably  much  less  infectious  in  the  sheep  than  in  the  dog,  yet  it 
should  be  mentioned  that  in  some  experiments  instituted  by  Mr. 
Simonds,  with  a  view  to  test  the  fact,  it  was  found  that  the  saliva 
from  a  rabid  sheep  produced  the  disease  in  rabbits  by  means  of 
inoculation :  much  care  should,  therefore,  be  exercised  by  the 
attendants,  and  contact  with  the  saliva  carefully  avoided. 

The  post-mortem  appearances  exhibited  are  of  much  importance, 
as,  where  the  symptoms  are  obscure,  they  are  necessary  to  establish 
the  proof  of  the  existence  of  the  disease.  They  are  not  always 
alike,  but  it  is  very  rare  that  some  of  the  following  appearances 
ai*e  not  found,  and  generally  they  are  present  together.  Much 
inflammation  is  found  at  the  back  of  the  tongue,  and  entrance 
to  the  windpipe  and  the  gullet,  and  the  course  of  the  wind- 
pipe often  shows  similar  inflammation.  Sometimes  the  first 
stomach  will  appear  greatly  inflamed,  and  partially  filled  with 
indigestible  heterogeneous  contents;  but  more  frequently  the 
disease  will  be  found  most  extensively  in  the  fourth  stomach, 
which  contains  a  dark  frothy  fluid.  Sometimes  the  brain  and 
spinal  chord  will  exhibit  the  tokens  of  much  inflammation,  but  in 
others  will  appear  pretty  free  from  disease. 

In  the  dog  these  appearances  are  present  in  a  more  marked 
degree.  The  stomach  is  either  full  of  a  dark  chocolate-coloured 
fluid,  or  distended  with  a  mass  of  indigestible  substances,  such  aa 
hay,  straw,  wood,  &c.,  &c.  The  back  of  the  tongue,  and  entrance 
to  the  windpipe,  also  exhibit  a  highly  inflammatory  appearance, 
and  the  brain  is  often  likewise  aftected. 


204  DISEASES    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

With  regard  to  a  remedy,  there  is  none  on  which  the  slightest 
reliance  can  be  placed,  either  in  the  sheep  or  any  other  animal  ; 
and  although  in  the  human  subject  there  is  a  mode  of  prevention 
which  rarely  fails,  yet  from  the  sheep  being  covered  with  wool, 
and  the  uncertainty  as  to  the  parts  that  may  be  bitten,  very  little 
reliance  can  be  placed  on  it.  It  consists  either  in  the  total  removal 
of  the  bitten  parts  by  knife,  or  the  obliteration  of  its  surface  by 
means  of  lunar  caustic,  or  the  application  of  both  knife  and  caustic. 
To  have  a  reasonable  chance  of  succeeding  by  this  method  in  the 
sheep,  it  is  necessary  to  clip  off  closely  the  whole  of  the  wool, 
and  examine  every  part  of  the  body  with  the  greatest  care ;  and 
then  using  the  knife  or  a  stick  of  lunar  caustic,  whichever  is  most 
convenient,  or  a  hot  pointed  iron,  to  apply  it  thoroughly  to  every 
part  which  has  received  the  contact  of  the  teeth,  though  only  the 
slightest  scratch.  If  the  sheep  is  anywise  fit  for  the  butcher,  it 
will  be  proper  by  all  means  to  kill  it,  and,  by  carefully  removing 
any  part  suspected  to  have  been  bitten,  no  danger  whatever  will 
be  incurred. 

As  prevention  must  therefore  be  always  our  foremost  object 
with  regard  to  this  disease,  it  is  very  essential  that  the  sheep- 
owner  and  the  shepherd  should  be  able  to  recognise  the  disease  as 
it  exists  in  the  dog.  If  a  dog  attacks  a  number  of  sheep,  and, 
without  destroying  or  devouring  any,  inflicts  bites  on  a  number  of 
animals,  it  is  at  once  an  object  of  suspicion.  Such  animal  should 
not,  however,  be  hastily  destroyed,  but  closely  and  carefully  con- 
fined. The  symptoms  that  he  will  probably  exhibit  are — a  dis- 
position for  mischief,  which,  however,  is  not  invariable,  but  will 
be  regulated  to  a  certain  extent  by  the  previous  disposition  of  the 
animal;  a  peculiar  glassy  expression  of  the  eye,  twitching  of  the 
muscles,  an  increasing  restlessness,  a  peculiar  and  unnatural  howl, 
a  copious  fiow  of  viscid  saliva  from  the  mouth,  a  want  of  appetite, 
but  a  disposition  to  gnaw,  and  tear,  and  swallow  wood,  straw, 
hay,  or  any  foreign  substance  that  may  be  near.  These  are  the 
leading  symptoms ;  there  are  no  fits,  no  running  round,  no  turning 
or  falling  over.  The  animal  possesses  consciousness  throughout, 
and  the  presence  of  fits  will  be  almost  sufficient  to  decide  alone  that 
the  animal  is  not  rabid.  It  should  be  also  distinctly  observed,  that 
in  the  dog  there  is  no  dread  of  water,  though  often  an  inability 
to  swallow.  The  dog  will  often  thrust  his  nose  in,  and  lap  the 
water,  though  unable  to  swallow  a  drop.  The  author  would 
impress  this  fact  the  more  forcibly,  as  a  few  years  since  a  case 
came  before  his  attention  in  which  a  poor  child  met  with  its 
death  in  consequence  of  the  ignorance  and  obstinacy  of  the 
attending  surgeon,  who,  because  the  dog  had  exhibited  no  dread 


DISEASES    OF    THE    EEAIN    A^'D    NERVES.  205 

of  water,  in  spite  of  the  positive  assurance  of  the  writer  that  no 
such  dread  existed  in  the  dog,  refused  to  adopt  those  precautions 
which  in  other  cases,  bitten  by  the  same  dog,  proved  entirely 
successful. 

The  rabid  dog  invariably  dies  within  a  week,  generally  about 
four  days  from  the  first  exhibition  of  the  symptoms.  This  fact, 
therefore,  affords  an  additional  reason  why  the  suspected  dog 
should  not  be  destroyed,  but  tied  up  securely,  so  as  to  test  by  its 
death,  as  well  as  by  the  symptoms  manifested,  the  existence  of  the 
disease. 

A  much  longer  time  elapses  between  the  period  of  the  bite 
and  the  manifestation  of  the  disease  in  the  dog  than  in  the  sheep. 
The  time,  however,  is  uncertain,  ranging  from  six  weeks  to  six 
months,  but  usually  about  two  or  three  months.  In  the  human 
subject  the  period  is  still  longer. 

It  has  been  very  properly  recommended  by  the  Duke  of 
Richmond,  that  the  sheep-owner  should  never  keep  a  savage 
sheep-dog;  and  although  it  is  not  very  common  for  rabies  to  be 
communicated  by  such  dog,  if  it  should  become  afiected  with  the 
disease,  it  is  more  likely  than  other  dogs  to  attack  sheep,  and  this 
danger  is  greatly  increased  if  the  animal  is  of  a  savage  nature. 

When  sheep  have  been  attacked  by  a  strange  dog,  it  will  be 
the  most  prudent  plan  to  examine  them  carefully ;  and  if  any 
bites  are  discovered,  to  apply  the  lunar  caustic  as  before  advised. 

Tetanus  (Ziocked  Jaw). — This  disease,  which  is  more  usually 
understood  under  the  term  of  Locked  Jaw  (this  being  a  principal 
and  common  symptom),  consists  of  a  violent  irritation  of  the 
nervous  system,  occasioning  the  spasmodic  and  violent  contraction 
of  the  voluntary  muscles  of  the  body,  particularly  those  of  the 
neck,  jaw,  and  back.  It  usually  commences  with  a  peculiar 
motion  of  the  head,  and  sometimes  of  the  limbs,  the  jaw  be- 
comes fixed,  and  there  is  a  grinding  of  the  teeth.  These  ap- 
pearances, which  are  involuntary,  increase  ;  and  the  head  is  bent 
round,  the  neck  twisted,  and  one  of  the  limbs  fixed.  The  muscles 
feel  very  hard,  being  in  a  violent  state  of  action ;  and  sometimes 
they  become  less  rigid,  and  convulsions  take  place.  These  symp- 
toms are  often  fatal  in  the  course  of  twelve  hours ;  but  if  the 
sheep  survives  more  than  two  days,  it  is  likely  to  recover. 

This  disease  is  more  common  with  lambs  than  with  sheep,  and 
is  not  unfrequently  the  effect  of  castration,  particularly  when  the 
operation  is  performed  with  unusual  violence,  and  by  means  of 
twisting.  Exposure  to  wet  and  cold  is  also  a  frequent  cause, 
and  death  arises  from  this  neglect  more  so  than  farmers  are 
aware  of. 


206  DISEASES    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

The  treatment  should  consist  in  remoTing  the  animal  to  a 
comfortable  but  quiet  place,  where  no  disturbance  can  possibly 
arise.  The  body  should  be  kept  comfortably  warm ;  and  if  the 
subject  is  a  lamb,  a  warm  bath  may  be  used.  An  active  dose  of 
aperient  medicine  should  be  given,  followed  by  a  dose  of  laudanum, 
two  or  four  drams,  with  the  same  quantity  of  ginger  in  thick 
gruel,  twice  a  day.  The  animal  should  be  disturbed  as  little  as 
possible,  for  it  has  been  found  in  this  disease  that  quietude  is 
one  of  the  most  important  agents  in  establishing  a  cure. 

Epilepsy. — This  disease  is  somewhat  similar  to  tetanus,  being 
an  inordinate  action  of  the  voluntary  nervous  system ;  but  it 
differs  from  that  disease  in  being  sudden,  irregular,  and  of  shorter 
duration.  The  sheep  when  attacked  becomes  unconscious,  will 
run  round,  stagger,  and  fall ;  and  after  a  while  the  fit  will  cease, 
and  the  animal  will  in  a  measure  recover.  It  appears  to  be  more 
prevalent  on  the  Continent  than  in  this  country.  Gasparin  states 
that  it  is  very  prevalent  in  Germany,  and  is  there  attributed  by  the 
shepherds  to  feeding  on  dock  and  garlic  in  the  winter,  and  on  the 
young  sprouts  of  the  pine  in  the  summer.  Tessier  speaks  of  it  as 
being  so  frequent  and  fatal  in  the  district  of  Beauce,  in  France, 
though  of  late  introduction  there,  as  to  induce  many  farmers  to 
give  up  sheep  husbandry  altogether.  He  attributes  it  to  some 
peculiarity  in  the  pasturage.  Mr.  Youatt  states,  that  having 
occasion  to  travel  over  the  downs  of  Wiltshire  some  years  since, 
about  two  hours  after  daybreak,  he  saw  at  least  a  dozen  sheep 
and  lambs  with  the  convulsions  of  epilepsy  strong  upon  them. 
The  coachman  told  him  that  upon  every  fine  cold  morning  he 
saw  nearly  or  quite  as  many.  He  had  also  an  illustration  of  the 
favourite  method  of  cure  among  some  of  the  shepherds  :  it  was, 
to  destroy  one  morbid  derangement  of  the  nervous  system  by 
setting  up  another.  The  dog  was  turned  upon  these  poor  animals, 
who  were  speedily  frightened,  not  out  of  their  senses,  but  into 
them  again.  He  saw  this  succeed  in  various  instances,  but  he 
thought  it  was  a  dangerous  and  a  brutal  mode  of  cure.  This 
disease  is  most  frequent  with  young  sheep  in  good  condition,  in 
the  spring  of  the  year  and  the  early  part  of  the  autumn ;  and  it 
is  supposed  to  be  occasioned  by  feeding  whilst  the  hoar-frost  is 
thick  on  the  ground.  The  extremely  cold  food  thus  swallowed 
chills  the  rumen,  and  determines  blood  to  other  parts,  and  parti- 
cularly to  the  head.  It  can  only  be  avoided  by  taking  care  not  to 
expose  the  sheep  to  the  danger,  by  giving  them  a  little  dry  hay 
on  such  mornings,  and  not  permitting  them  to  feed  on  the  grass 
till  the  frost  has  disappeared. 

Palsy. — Whilst  the  disease  just  described  is  an  inordinate 


DISEASES    OF    TKE    BEAIN    A^'D    IsEKYES.  207 

action  of  the  nervous  system,  this  consists  in  a  suspension  of  its 
powers,  either  wholly  or  in  part.  Sometimes  the  animal  is  totally 
helpless,  every  limb  being  affected  5  at  other  times  the  palsy  is 
principally  confined  to  the  loins. 

The  cause  of  this  disease  is  generally  cold  combined  with 
moisture  ;  the  animal  becomes  chilled,  and  is  found,  perhaps  after 
a  snowy  night,  in  the  helpless  state  before  mentioned.  Though 
more  frequently  affecting  lambs,  it  may  also  attack  sheep  of  all 
ages,  and  particularly  the  ewe  that  has  aborted  or  produced  her 
lamb  with  difficulty  and  after  a  tedious  labour  in  cold  weather. 
It  often  attacks  the  newly-dropped  lamb,  and  sometimes  proves 
fatal  during  the  night.  When  less  severe,  the  lamb  is  found 
stationary,  and  with  its  hind  limbs  powerless  5  and  when  this 
is  the  case  it  rarely  becomes  otherwise  than  stunted  in  its 
growth,  though  after  a  time  it  may  get  rid  of  the  paralysis.  This 
disease  is  often  confounded,  and  not  unfrequently  connected, 
with  rheumatism  5  but  the  former  has  its  origin  in  the  nerves, 
whilst  the  latter,  though  the  more  painful,  is  an  affection  of  the 
muscles.  This  disease  is  sometimes  produced  by  an  excess  of  nu- 
triment or  other  variety  in  the  food.  Mr.  H.  Cleeve,  in  vol,  i.  of 
the  ^Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  England,' 
relates  the  following  facts : — '  I  had  been  giving  two  cart-loads 
of  mangel-wurzel  daily  to  about  150  couples.  Finding  the 
pasture  get  short,  I  one  day  ordered  an  extra  load,  and  the  follow- 
ing day  I  found  that  thirteen  of  the  ewes  had  nearly  lost  the  use 
of  their  limbs.  On  another  occasion,  having  some  hoggets  that 
would  not  eat  the  roots,  I  enclosed  them  in  a  pen  in  order  to 
starve  them  to  it,  but  as  soon  as  they  began  to  feed  heartily  they 
also  were  similarly  affected.  If  I  rightly  attribute  the  complaint 
to  this  cause — and,  indeed,  I  have  no  doubt  on  the  subject — the 
treatment  is  to  withhold  the  mangel-wurzel  for  a  short  time, 
and  only  to  return  to  the  use  of  it  gradually  and  in  small 
quantities.' 

The  treatment  of  the  disease  consists  in  the  application  of 
warmth  externally,  but  moderate  at  first,  and  gradually  increased. 
A  stimulant  should  be  given  internally  in  warm  gruel  or  ale.  A 
dram  each  of  powdered  ginger  and  gentian,  with  two  drams 
of  spirit  of  nitrous  ether,  is  a  dose  for  a  sheep,  and  may  be  given 
once  or  twice  a  day;  and  from  one-quarter  to  one-half  the  above 
will  be  sufficient  for  a  lamb.  If  symptoms  of  purging  should 
appear,  the  treatment  recommended  under  the  head  of  Diarrhoea 
may  be  employed. 

If  the  palsy  continue  obstinate,  a  minute  dose  of  strychnia  may 
be  tried,  which  is  one  of  the  most  powerful  of  stimulants  to  the 


208  DISEASES    OF    THE    SKEEP. 

nervous  system  ,•  a  quarter  of  a  grain  diffused  in  gruel  will  be 
sufficient  for  a  sheep  at  first,  but  it  may  be  afterwards  slightly 
increased.  It  has  been  administered  successfully  to  other  animals 
in  this  disease,  but  should  be  employed  with  great  caution,  being 
remarkably  potent. 

Mr.  Cleeve,  in  the  cases  above  mentioned,  bled  and  gave  each 
an  ounce  and  a  half  of  Epsom  salts,  under  which  treatment  they 
all  recovered,  with  one  exception. 

Rheumatism. — We  notice  this  disease  in  this  place,  though 
of  a  different  class  from  the  foregoing,  because  it  very  much 
resembles,  and  is  in  fact  closely  connected  with,  that  last  de- 
scribed. It  is,  however,  an  affection  of  the  blood,  and  attacks  the 
muscles,  the  joints,  and  the  fibrous  parts  of  the  system,  and  con- 
sists in  a  peculiar  inflammation  of  those  parts,  very  frequently 
causing  considerable  pain  when  they  are  called  into  action.  It  is 
usually  caused  by  exposure  to  cold,  and  sometimes  shifts  from  one 
part  to  another,  occasionally  degenerating  into  a  slow  or  chronic 
form,  and  attacking  the  sinews,  ligaments,  and  joints,  as  well  as 
the  muscles.  It  is  attended  by  considerable  fever  and  an  accumu- 
lation of  acid  matters  in  the  blood.  The  neck  and  the  loins  are 
the  parts  most  frequently  attacked,  either  separately  or  combined. 
The  former  affection  causes  the  head  to  be  carried  in  a  bent  posi- 
tion, and  the  latter  produces  considerable  stiffness  and  weakness 
of  the  loins. 

The  treatment  should  consist  in  removing  the  animal  to  a  com- 
fortable shed,  giving  an  active  purgative,  such  as  two  ounces  of 
Epsom  salts  dissolved  in  warm  water  with  a  dram  of  ginger  and 
half  an  ounce  of  spirit  of  nitrous  ether.  A  stimulant,  such  as 
hartshorn  and  oil,  or  opodeldoc,  should  be  well  rubbed  over  the 
affected  part ;  and  if  the  disease  assumes  a  chronic  form,  a  seton 
should  be  inserted  near  the  part. 

DISEASES    OF   THE   DIGESTIVE    ORGANS. 

The  most  numerous  and  most  frequent  diseases  to  which  sheep 
are  liable  are  those  affecting  the  organs  of  digestion,  and  more 
losses  occur  from  these  than  perhaps  from  all  others  besides.  This 
might  not  always  have  been  the  case,  and  perhaps  is  not  so  at  the 
present  time  in  all  countries.  The  active  Scandinavian  sheep  of  the 
Zetland  Islands,  or  the  hardy  breed  of  the  Welsh  mountains,  living 
on  a  scanty  pasture,  are  rarely,  if  ever,  exposed  to  the  mechanical 
and  other  diseases  of  the  digestive  organs  to  which  other  sheep 
located  in  richer  pastures  are  so  frequently  liable.  But  when  we 
consider  the  nature  and  effects  of  those  improvements  which  have 


DISEASES   OF   THE   DIGESTIYE    ORGANS.  209 

been  introduced  in  the  breed  of  sheep — the  object  sought  to  be 
accomplished  being  to  produce  an  animal  that  will  convert  vege- 
table food  into  flesh  and  fat  with  the  greatest  speed  and  at  the 
earliest  period  j  that  to  do  this  it  must  be  constantly  feeding, 
taking  a  large  quantity  of  focd,  and  at  the  same  time  converting 
as  much  as  possible  into  mutton — we  cannot  be  surprised  that  the 
organs  thus  severely  tasked  should  be  first  and  most  frequently 
morbidly  affected.  Delicacy  of  constitution  is,  no  doubt,  produced 
by  the  present  system  of  breeding,  and  the  reason  why  disease 
does  not  more  frequently  occur  is  owing  to  the  much  shorter  life 
which  the  modern  system  entails  on  the  animal;  the  knife  of  the 
butcher  supervenes  ere  the  softness  of  the  constitution  has  induced 
disease,  and  the  animal  is  converted  into  mutton  long  before  the 
period  which  nature  has  assigned  for  its  term  of  life  has  arrived. 

Obstruction  in  the  Gullet  is  much  less  frequent  in  the  sheep 
than  in  the  ox,  but  it  does  sometimes  occur,  and  gives  ri?e  to  the 
same  symptoms  as  are  present  in  the  latter  animal,  which  are 
difficulty  of  breathing,  threatened  sulFoeation,  blasting,  or  hoven, 
and  too  frequently  death.  The  food  most  likely  to  produce  this 
is  turnips — too  large  a  quantity  being  swallowed,  or  attempted  to 
be  swallowed,  at  the  same  time,  or  a  smaller  portion  not  properly 
masticated. 

When  these  symptoms  are  observed,  the  sheep  should  have  its 
head  elevated  and  held  firmly  between  one  man's  legs  whilst 
another  passes  the  end  of  a  flexible  probang  carefully  over  the 
root  of  the  tongue  into  the  pharynx  and  thence  down  the  oeso- 
phagus, forcing  the  obstructing  morsel  with  it.  Much  care  must 
be  exercised  in  this  operation ;  the  probang  should  be  oiled  and 
forced  onwards  with  gentle  firmness,  otherwise  there  will  be 
much  danger  of  lacerating  the  coats  of  the  oesophagus.  Prohangs 
suitable  for  sheep  are  manufactured,  being  elastic  and  hollow, 
and  admitting  a  whalebone  stilette  through  it.  In  the  absence  of 
this  useful  article,  a  cane  or  any  flexible  rod  may  be  used ;  one 
end,  having  a  bulb  formed  of  tow  and  being  well  oiled,  may  be 
employed.  If  these  means  should  fail,  it  may  be  necessary  to 
extract  the  obstructing  body  by  cutting  down  carefully  on  the 
substance  through  the  skin  and  the  oesophagus,  carefully  closing 
the  wound  both  of  the  latter  and  the  former  by  separate  stitches. 
Much  care  should  be  taken  in  throwing  down  and  securing  the 
sheep  for  this  operation,  as  there  is  danger  of  rupturing  important 
parts.  If  suffocation  is  threatened,  it  is  often  prudent  to  relieve 
the  hoove  by  means  of  the  trochar  before  the  operation  is  attempted. 
It  often  happens  that  the  membrane  lining  the  oesophagus  is 
lacerated  in  the  attempts  to  force  onwards  the  obstructing  body, 


210  DISEASES    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

and  the  animal  refuses  to  feed  or  to  ruminate,  and  dies  in  the 
course  of  some  days.  This  circumstance  induces  the  farmer  fre- 
quently to  kill  the  animal  after  being  relieved,  and  if  it  be  fat 
this  may  be  a  good  plan,  and  particularly  if  the  above  symptoms 
are  present.  But  the  sheep  may  be  poor,  or  perhaps  a  ram  of 
much  value.  In  either  case,  but  particularly  in  the  latter,  treat- 
ment should  be  adopted.  Two  or  four  ounces  of  linseed  oil  should 
be  given  as  a  laxative,  and  all  solid  food  for  a  time  prohibited, 
linseed  gruel  being  substituted  for  the  space  of  two  days,  ard 
afterwards  followed  with  good  oatmeal  gruel  carefully  strained ; 
water  may  also  be  allowed. 

If  any  external  swelling  is  perceptible,  it  should  be  fomented 
and  poulticed  j  but  this  symptom  greatly  increases  the  danger,  as 
it  denptes  an  extension  of  the  laceration  through  the  other  coats, 
and  if  it  is  evident  that  the  passage  of  the  oesophagus  is  stopped, 
the  danger  will  be  still  more  imminent ;  but  if  the  animal  is  very 
valuable,  the  swelling  should  be  cut  down  upon  and  the  oeso- 
phagus opened,  and  afterwards  treated  as  another  wound. 

Hoove,  Hoven,  Blasting,  &,c. — Sheep  as  well  as  oxen  are 
liable  to  this  disease,  and  in  them  it  is  generally  produced  by 
being  turned  into,  or  more  frequently  escaping  into,  young  clover. 
The  fatal  effects  of  this,  when  not  early  discovered,  have  been 
very  considerable,  numbers  having  died  before  assistance  could  be 
rendered.  The  immediate  cause  of  the  distressing  symptoms  is 
the  formation  of  gas  in  the  rumen,  or  first  stomach,  which  dis- 
teniiS  it  to  an  enormous  size.  The  food  being  of  a  veiy  succulent 
nature,  the  heat  and  moisture  of  the  stomach  cause  it  to  undergo 
fermentation  and  decomposition.  The  gases  thus  formed  have 
been  found  to  contain  in  all  cases  carbonic  acid,  mixed  occasionally 
with  inflammable  gas,  and  at  other  times  with  sulphuretted 
hydrogen,  and  sometimes  with  atmospheric  air.  The  frequently 
fatal  result  is  caused  by  the  enormously  distended  rumen  pressing 
on  the  diaphragm,  and  thus  preventing  the  chest  expanding  so  as 
to  admit  air,  thereby  producing  suffocation.  The  reason  why 
cattle  and  sheep  are  so  much  more  subject  to  this  disease  than  the 
horse  is  the  very  limited  mastication,  and  therefore  the  imperfect 
mixture  with  the  saliva,  which  the  food  undergoes.  If,  then,  it  is 
of  a  very  succulent  nature,  and  is  taken  very  rapidly,  fermentation 
commences,  and  the  gases  are  given  off.  It  is  more  likely  to  occur 
when  the  functions  of  the  stomachs  are  anywise  impaired,  and  it 
may  also  be  produced  by  the  obstruction  of  some  foreign  body  in 
the  oesophagus.  It  is  a  frequent  attendant  of  other  diseases,  par- 
ticularly those  of  the  digestive  organs,  and  it  then  denotes  an 


DISEASES    OF    THE    DIGESTITE    ORGA>'S.  211 

imperfect  performance  of  the  functions  of  the  rumen,  probably  a 
diminution  of  its  alkaline  secretion  or  an  alteration  in  its  quality. 

It  is  customary  when  sheep  are  first  turned  upon  clover,  or 
trefoil,  or  other  very  succulent  food,  to  keep  driving  them  about 
for  a  considerable  time,  the  effect  of  which  is  to  prevent  their  eat- 
inp:  so  much  or  so  rapidly  as  they  otherwise  would,  and  also  to 
favour  the  escape  of  any  gas  that  is  formed,  by  means  of  motion. 
There  is  more  danger  of  its  occurring  when  the  dew  or  hoar- 
frost is  on  the  ground,  and  it  is  liable  to  happen  if  the  sheep 
should  accidentally  partake  of  any  food  in  a  state  of  fermentation. 

The  remedy  must  be  prompt  in  order  to  be  successful,  and  it 
may  either  be  mechanical  or  chemical.  The  hollow  flexible  pro- 
bang  is  at  once  the  safest  and  easiest  mode  of  relief.  The  probang 
should  be  introduced  in  the  manner  before  advised,  and  on  its 
entering  the  rumen  the  stilette  should  be  withdrawn  and  the  gases 
will  be  liberated. 

Much  care  and  some  skill  are  required  in  this  operation,  be- 
cause if  the  probang  is  thrust  forward  with  violence  there  will  be 
danger  of  rupturing  the  sides  of  the  oesophagus.  The  mouth 
should  be  kept  open  by  means  of  a  gag,  formed  by  a  round  stick 
having  a  hole  through  its  middle  for  the  passage  of  the  trochar. 

Sheep  will  sometimes  die  when  hoven  in  the  course  of  ten 
minutes,  affording  even  no  time  for  the  employment  of  the  pro- 
bang.  In  such  very  emergent  cases,  the  course  to  pursue  is  at 
once  to  plunge  the  trochar  with  its  canula  into  the  left  flank,  then 
withdrawing  the  former,  so  as  to  allow  the  gas  to  escape  through 
the  latter ;  and  if  it  does  not  at  once  freely  and  rapidly  escape, 
the  sides  of  the  belly  should  be  moderately  pressed  so  as  to  force 
it  out. 

It  is  often  necessary  to  retain  the  trochar  in  the  woimd  a  con- 
siderable time,  so  as  to  allow  the  exit  of  all  the  gas  that  may  have 
formed  or  be  still  forming.  If  the  trochar  is  not  at  hand,  a  penknife 
may  be  used  instead,  though  the  former  is  much  preferable,  inas- 
much as  the  canula  can  be  retained  until  all  the  gas  appears  to 
have  escaped,  whereas  when  the  knife  is  employed  the  openings 
in  the  flank  and  the  rumen  may  cease  to  remain  opposite  each 
other,  and  much  of  the  gas,  and  with  it  some  of  the  food,  may 
escape  into  the  cavity  of  the  abdomen,  and  there  produce  irrita- 
tion and  inflammation.  This,  indeed,  accounts  for  the  many  cases 
of  sheep  not  doing  well  after  the  operation. 

The  modes  of  relief  which  offer  themselves  in  the  way  of 
medicine,  and  which  indeed  may  be  first  tried,  if  the  case  is  not 
too  emergent,  are  those  of  a  nature  calculated  to  condense  the 


212  DISEASES   OF   THE    SHEEP. 

gases  or  decompose  them.  Those  most  likely  to  conduce  to  this 
purpose  will  depend  on  the  nature  of  the  gases,  and  this  will  be 
regulated  by  the  stage  of  fermentation  that  is  going  on.  K  the 
early  stage,  it  will  be  the  vinous  fermentation ;  and  if  later,  the 
putrefactive.  In  the  former  carbonic  acid  will  chiefly  predomi- 
nate, and  in  the  latter  hydrogen.  For  the  former  the  preparations 
of  ammonia  will  be  most  available,  and  for  the  latter  those  of 
chlorine.  If  relief  can  be  given  in  the  early  stage,  two  to  four 
drams  of  hartshorn  in  half  a  pint  of  warm  water  will  probably 
effect  the  purpose ;  but  if  the  putrefactive  process  is  going  on,  a 
dram  or  two  of  chloride  of  lime  dissolved  in  water  will  best 
accomplish  the  purpose.  The  chlorine  will  leave  the  lime  and 
combine  with  the  hydrogen,  for  which  it  has  a  much  stronger 
affinity,  and  the  muriatic  acid  thus  formed  will  be  prevented  from 
doing  injury  by  means  of  the  disengaged  lime  by  which  it  will  be 
neutralised. 

A  mode  of  relief  combining  the  mechanical  with  the  chemical 
is  deserving  of  consideration,  and,  indeed,  should  be  employed 
where  the  probang  or  the  canula  is  not  at  hand,  or  where,  from 
the  number  of  cases,  they  cannot  be  in  all  available  ;  and  that  is, 
forming  a  number  of  boluses  of  flour,  lard,  and  salt,  and  com- 
bining with  them,  if  possible,  chloride  of  lime  and  carbonate  of 
ammonia,  half  a  dram  of  each  for  a  sheep,  and  forcing  down 
three  or  four  boluses  thus  formed  over  the  root  of  the  tongue  into 
the  gullet  with  the  fore  finger,  the  mouth  being  held  open  with 
the  left  hand  or  by  an  assistant. 

The  advantages  of  this  plan  are  apparent ;  the  balls  are  sure 
to  enter  the  rumen,  whilst  with  fluids  it  is  uncertain,  and  thus  by 
breaking  through  the  floor  of  the  oesophagean  canal,  which  in 
hoove  is  closed,  exit  will  be  given  to  a  good  portion  of  the  gas, 
whilst  the  chemical  agents  will  condense  the  rest.  The  medicine 
therefore  must  be  modified  or  combined  according  to  the  time  the 
sheep  has  been  sufiering. 

Sulphuric  ether  will  also  be  found  valuable,  in  doses  of  two 
drams,  having  the  property  of  condensing  the  gases  in  a  high 
degree. 

It  will  be  prudent  to  administer  some  of  the  above-mentioned 
medicines  with  an  active  purge,  even  in  those  cases  where  relief 
has  been  obtained,  either  by  the  probang  or  the  puncture,  as  there 
is  much  danger  of  more  gas  being  formed.  The  most  certain  way 
of  doing  this  is  by  means  of  the  probang  and  the  stomach-pump, 
as  then  it  is  sure  to  enter  the  rumen,  whereas  if  given  as  a 
draught  it  is  uncertain  what  proportion  may  enter  the  rumen.  In 
the  latter  case,  however,  a  larger  dose  should  be  administered 


DISEASES    OF    THE    DIGESTIVE    ORGANS.  213 

Care  should  also  be  afterwards  exercised  -with  regard  to  the  diet, 
and  the  sheep  for  some  little  time  should  be  turned  into  poor 
pasturage.  A  more  simple  plan,  perhaps,  will  be  to  give  the 
medicine  in  a  solid  form  combined  with  vegetable  tonics. 

Hoove  may  thus  occur  either  in  an  acute  or  sub-acute  state. 
In  the  former  no  time  must  be  lost,  but  the  probang  or  the  trochar 
should  be  at  once  adopted,  preference  being  given  to  the  former. 
In  desperate  cases  the  knife  may  be  used  :  but  from  the  very  great 
after-danger  attending  this  plan,  it  is  worthy  of  consideration 
whether,  if  the  animal  is  tolerable  meat,  it  will  not  be  most  pru- 
dent to  kill  it. 

In  sub-acute  cases  the  boluses  may  be  employed ;  and  if  they 
do  not  succeed,  the  probang  should  then  be  used. 

"When  hoove  occurs  from  choking,  and  suffocation  is  threatened, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  employ  the  trochar  to  relieve  the  distension, 
before  the  probang  can  be  employed  to  force  down  the  obstructing 
body. 

In  all  cases  it  will  be  essential  to  employ  after-treatment,  as 
sub-acute  hoove  is  likely  to  succeed  the  acute,  as  well  as  indi- 
gestion ;  in  both,  the  following  will  be  a  draught  proper  to  be 
given: — 

Sulphate  of  magnesia  .        .        .2  ounces. 

Guiuer 1  dram. 

Gentian 2  drams. 

Chloride  of  Lime         .        .        .        .    ^  dram. 

To  be  dissolved  in  a  pint  of  warm  water  or  gruel. 

The  three  last  ingredients  may,  if  necessary,  be  repeated  in  the 
form  of  boluses. 

In  order  to  prevent  this  disease,  it  will  be  a  prudent  method  to 
give  the  sheep  a  little  old  hay  in  the  morning  previous  to  their 
being  turned  on  turnips,  clover,  or  other  succulent  food.  Mr. 
Humfrey  observes,  in  the  '  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural 
Society  of  England,'  vol.  i. :  'It  is  an  excellent  plan  to  sow  common 
salt  over  the  fold  which  contains  their  food  early  in  the  morning 
while  the  dew  is  on  it.  In  the  year  1836  I  experienced  its  good 
etiects  while  feeding  off  a  piece  of  rape,  having  lost  several  lambs 
by  their  being  blown.  I  bought  a  sack  of  salt,  and  had  it  sown 
over  the  fold  every  morning  before  the  dew  was  off;  and  the 
consequence  was  that  I  only  lost  one  sheep  afterwards,  and  this 
occurred  by  accident,  the  shepherd,  through  neglect,  allowing  it 
to  run  into  the  rape  which  had  not  been  salted.  There  are  two 
advantages  to  be  derived  from  this  simple  remedy :  it  not  only 
directly  benefits  the  general  health  of  the  sheep,  but  all  that  falls 
on  the  ground  acts  as  manure,  so  that  nothing  is  wasted.' 


214  DISEASES    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

IVIeclianical  distention  of  the  Rumen. — Distention  of  the 
stomach  with  food  is  much  rarer  in  the  sheep  than  in  the  ox,  and 
when  it  occurs  it  is  to  be  attributed  to  the  sudden  and  rapid  con- 
sumption of  turnips  and  other  roots.  It  may  be  distinguished 
from  hoove  by  the  lesser  violence  of  the  symptoms ;  but  greater  de- 
pression and  heaviness  are  present,  and  the  abdomen,  though  less 
distended,  feels  hard  and  firm,  and  not  elastic,  as  in  hoove.  This 
is  a  very  dangerous  complaint  when  it  does  occur,  and  requires 
immediate  assistance.  The  animal  may  be  first  bled  so  as  to 
relax  the  muscular  contractions  of  the  rumen,  and  then  the  pro- 
bang  and  the  pump  should  be  had  recourse  to,  so  as  to  force  liquids 
into  the  rumen  to  soften  and  dilute  its  contents,  and  produce  their 
discharge  into  the  cesophagean  canal.  With  this  liquid  should  be 
combined  stimulants,  such  as  hartshorn,  or  carbonate  of  ammonia, 
to  excite  the  inner  coat  of  the  rumen,  together  with  some  alkali 
to  assist  its  natural  function,  such  as  a  few  drams  of  carbonate 
of  soda  5  with  this  a  purgative,  such  us  from  two  to  four  ounces  of 
Epsom  salts,  may  be  properly  combined. 

If  these  means  should  fail  and  the  case  become  desperate,  re- 
course must  then  be  had  to  an  operation  which,  though  for- 
midable, has  yet  been  performed  with  success.  An  opening  must 
be  made  into  the  rumen  at  the  left  flank,  midway  between  the  hip 
and  the  last  rib,  and  a  little  below  the  lumbar  processes.  The 
opening  must  be  sufficiently  large  to  enable  the  contents  of  the 
rumen  to  be  taken  away ;  and  in  order  to  prevent  their  escaping 
into  the  abdomen,  the  sides  of  the  wound  in  the  rumen  should  be 
confined  to  that  of  the  flank  by  means  of  stitches  during  the  opera- 
tion, or  the  end  of  a  clean  towel  may  be  passed  through  the  wound 
into  the  rumen  for  the  same  purpose,  or  a  leather  tube  sufficiently 
large  for  the  contents  of  the  rumen  to  be  brought  through  it. 

The  food  being  thus  removed,  the  wound  should  be  united  by 
stitches,  taking  care  that  the  orifice  in  the  rumen  be  also  thus 
united  and  the  ends  of  the  stitches  left  through  the  external  open- 
ing, which  should  then  be  united  by  separate  stitches.  The  food 
must  be  moderate  and  easy  of  digestion  for  some  time,  gruel  being 
frequently  administered.  The  bowels  should  be  relaxed  with 
saline  purgatives,  and  if  fever  is  present  the  animal  should  be  bled. 
In  the  course  of  seven  or  eight  days  the  stitches,  if  they  have 
broken,  may  be  taken  away.  It  generally  follows  that  the  rumen 
remains  united  to  the  abdomen  after  the  operation. 

Although  such  treatment  is  demanded  in  the  case  of  a  valuable 
ram  or  ewe,  yet,  with  ordinary  sheep,  if  in  fair  condition  for  the 
butcher,  the  knife  will  be  the  safest  remedy. 

New  wheat  has  been  known  to  produce  very  fatal  effects  on 


DISEASES    OF    THE    DIGESTIVE    ORGANS.  215 

sheep  when  largely  partaken,  as  the  following  cases,  related  by 
Mr.  John  Hawes,  in  the  '  Veterinarian '  for  1840,  will  show : — 

'  In  the  month  of  September,  in  the  last  year,  a  flock  of  sheep, 
more  than  two  hundred  in  number,  strayed  into  a  tield  where  there 
was  a  quantity  of  wheat  which  had  not  been  carried  in  consequence 
of  the  unfavourable  state  of  the  weather.  They  fed  rather  boun- 
tifully on  it  before  they  were  discovered  by  the  shepherd,  when 
they  were  immediately  removed  to  the  pasture  on  which  they 
had  previously  been  grazing,  and  no  further  notice  was  taken  of 
them  until  the  following  day,  when  four  of  them  were  found  dead 
and  several  others  were  evidently  ill.  To  all  that  evinced  any 
symptoms  of  disease  Epsom  salts  and  castor  oil  were  immediately 
given  ;  but,  on  the  following  morning,  finding  that  twenty-eight 
had  already  died  and  nearly  as  many  more  were  almost  dead,  the 
owner  sent  for  me,  as  is  too  frequently  the  case,  when  it  was  too 
late  to  be  of  much  service.  The  first  thing  that  I  did  was  to 
examine  some  of  those  that  had  died,  and  I  found  the  rumen  in 
every  instance  filled  with  wheat,  barley,  and  straw ;  the  aboma- 
sum  highly  inflamed,  as  well  as  the  bowels ;  the  spleen  had  the 
appearance  of  a  mass  of  coagulated  blood,  its  structure  being 
entirely  destroyed  ;  the  lungs,  in  most  of  the  cases,  presented  a 
healthy  appearance,  as  did  also  the  liver  Fifty-eight  died  in  the 
course  of  five  days  after  eating  the  wheat ;  the  others  were  bled, 
and  half  a  pint  of  linseed  oil  was  given  to  each,  and  they  recovered, 
but  many  of  them  have  since  thrown  their  lambs. 

Yew  Poisoning-. — In  general,  the  acute  sense  of  smell  which 
sheep  possess  enables  them  to  avoid  deleterious  or  poisonous 
plants;  but,  occasionally,  when  these  plants  become  dry  and 
deprived  of  odour,  sheep  will  partake  of  them  with  fatal  avidity. 
The  dried  branches  of  the  yew-tree  have  thus  destroyed  hundreds 
of  sheep,  and  farmers  cannot  be  too  careful  in  not  allowing  any  to 
be  placed  within  reach  of  the  sheep,  and  more  particularly  in  not 
using  these  dead  branches  for  making  fences.  From  the  fact  of 
sheep  grazing  with  impunity  on  pastures  where  yew-trees  are  met 
with,  it  is  thought  that  green  yew  is  not  poisonous  ;  but  though  le^^s 
so  than  dead  yew,  yet  impunity  cannot  be  relied  on,  as  we  have 
known  various  instances  to  the  contrary.  We  have  also  known 
Bheep  die  from  getting  access  to  pleasure-grounds,  and  partaking 
largely  of  rhododendrons. 

The  only  plan  of  treatment  that  can  be  adopted  is  to  adminis- 
ter large  quantities  of  liquid  by  means  of  the  stomach-pump,  and 
then  removing  as  much  as  possible  of  these  contents  by  the  same 
apparatus.     Purgatives  may  also  be  given. 

Soot,  when  taken  internally — as  it  has  been  when  used  as  a 


216  DISEASES    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

top-dressing  on  wheat  in  tlie  spring,  and  sheep  have  been  turned 
on  soon  afterwards — acts  as  a  poison,  producing  palsy  of  the 
limbs  and  death.  The  following  instance  of  the  kind  is  commu- 
nicated to  the  '  Veterinarian,'  vol.  xvi.,  by  Mr.  Coates,  of  Gains- 
borough : — '  Some  little  time  ago  I  was  sent  for  to  make  a  post- 
moriem  examination  of  some  sheep.  They  were  hogs  in  fair 
condition,  and  I  was  informed  that  they  had  been  taken  off 
turnips,  and  turned  on  a  field  of  luxuriant  spring  wheat.  Ten 
were  down,  three  dead,  and  seven  paralyzed.  The  respiration 
was  hurried,  the  ears  and  extremities  cold,  the  pulse  almost 
imperceptible,  the  bowels  constipated,  the  faeces  hard  and  dark 
coloured,  occasional  struggling  of  the  limbs,  but  no  very  evident 
pain. 

'  Sectio  Cadaveris. — The  intestines  were  free  from  disease, 
and  rather  flaccid ;  the  aliment  dark  coloured,  and  covered  with 
mucus.  On  examining  the  stomachs,  the  rumen  was  found  to  be 
half  full  of  dry,  impacted,  dark-green  food,  studded  over  with 
small  black  specks,  which  on  further  examiniation  proved  to  be 
soot.  The  reticulum  contained  but  little  food :  its  surface  and 
papillae  were  covered  with  black  specks,  and  what  food  it  contained 
was  very  dry.  The  abomasum  and  its  ingesta  were  much  darker 
than  is  natural.  Its  villous  coat  had  a  slisfht  inflammatory  blush, 
and  the  mucous  secretion  was  quite  black.  The  other  viscera 
were  apparently  healthy.     I  did  not  examine  the  brain  or  spine. 

'  On  inquiry,  I  found  that  these  sheep  had  been  turned  on  a 
field  of  spring  wheat,  which  only  a  short  time  before  had  been 
manured  with  soot ;  and  no  rain  having  fallen,  or  dew  sufficient 
to  enable  the  land  or  the  vegetation  to  absorb  this  carbon,  it  had 
been  taken  up  and  swallowed  by  the  sheep  along  with  their  food. 
The  remainder  of  those  that  were  paralyzed  were  destroyed ;  but 
all  the  others,  to  the  number  of  three  or  four  score,  had  cathartic 
medicine  given  to  them,  until  their  bowels  were  well  acted  upon. 
They  were  then  fed  on  linseed-cake,  and  ultimately  did  well.' 

Concretions  in  tlie  Stomaclis. — Sheep  have  sometimes  died 
from  the  effects  of  sand  and  earths  taken  into  the  stomachs,  pro- 
ducing there,  and  particularly  in  the  abomasum,  considerable 
irritation  and  inflammation.  That  these  foreign  bodies  should 
produce  this  injury  cannot  be  a  matter  of  surprise,  though  it  is 
much  less  clear  what  should  induce  the  sheep  to  take  them.  There 
is,  however,  no  doubt  that  a  considerable  portion  of  earth  is  taken 
with  the  natural  food,  whether  grass  or  roots;  and  in  tearing 
asunder  the  blades  of  the  former,  some  must  be  torn  up  by  the 
roots.  The  effect  of  this  is,  doubtless,  beneficial;  the  alkaline 
earths  neutralizes  much  of  the  acid  developed  in  the  rumen,  and 


DISEASES    OF    THE    DIGESTIVE    ORGANS.  217 

SO  prevents  the  animal  from  being  hoven.  In  the  following  cases 
Mr.  Youatt  suggests  that  the  presence  of  acids  in  the  stomach 
must  have  induced  the  sheep  to  swallow  the  large  quantities  of 
sandy  earth  that  were  afterwards  found  in  their  stomachs.  The 
Distances  referred  to  are  related  by  Mr.  Gutteridge,  in  the  twelfth 
volume  of  the  '  Veterinarian.'  He  says  : — '  The  flock  was  turned 
into  a  field  of  turnips,  but  had  not  been  there  more  than  a  few 
days  before  the  shepherd  fancied  that  some  sheep  were  not  doing 
well.  They  were  dull,  and  lagging  behind  the  others,  and 
altogether  indisposed  to  move  :  the  appetite  was  gone,  and  there 
was  heaving  of  the  flanks.  He  drew  twenty-five  of  the  worst, 
and  put  them  by  themselves ;  and  on  the  following  day  three 
were  dead.  He  gave  an  active  purge  to  the  rest,  but  in  the  course 
of  four  days  six  more  of  them  had  died. 

'  I  was  called  in,  and,  of  course,  availed  myself  of  the  oppor- 
tunity of  examining  some  of  the  dead  sheep.  I  found  the  rumen 
and  abomasum,  and  nearly  the  whole  of  the  intestinal  canal, 
loaded  with  sand,  and  portions  of  undigested  food  in  various  parts 
of  the  intestinal  canal.  I  ordered  the  remainder  of  the  flock  to 
be  immediately  brought  into  the  fold-yard.  Although  several  of 
them  were  purging  very  much,  I  gave  to  every  one  of  them  a  brisk 
dose  of  Epsom  salts  with  ginger,  and  I  kept  them  in  the  yard  all 
night.  The  next  morning  I  found  that  the  salts  had  taken  effect. 
On  the  third  day  a  second  dose  was  given,  and  they  were  turned 
into  another  field.  Only  one  died  afterwards.  In  him  I  found 
very  little  sand,  but  great  inflammation  of  the  intestinal  canal, 
and  this  was  the  cause  of  death.' 

Mr.  Gutteridge  afterwards  adds : — '  Since  my  first  letter  was 
written,  I  have  had  sixty  yearlings  labouring  under  a  similar 
disease.  I  gave  to  each  an  active  purge  of  salts,  with  gentian  and 
camomile,  and  afterwards  a  dose  of  stomachic  medicine  daily  for 
ten  days.  Their  food,  while  under  treatment,  consisted  only  of 
dry  meat,  as  cut  hay,  and  a  few  oats.  I  saw  the  shepherd,  and 
he  informed  me  that  they  were  all  going  on  well.' 

Bezoars. — In  the  months  of  September  and  October,  and 
seldom  at  any  other  period  of  the  year,  it  is  very  common  to  find, 
sometimes  in  sheep,  but  generally  in  lambs,  a  number  of  small 
balls,  often  of  the  shape  of  an  almond,  or  resembling  that  of  the 
stomach  itself.  They  are  usually  of  a  brown  colour,  but  some- 
times inclining  to  a  yellow.  On  cutting  them  with  a  knife  they 
appear  to  be  composed  of  layers  consisting  of  wool  intermixed 
■with  earthy  substance  and  mucus.  They  can  be  dissolved  by 
means  of  boiling  water,  and  in  all  probability  by  the  gastric  juice 
of  the  stomach,  as,  though  they  are  common  in  the  autumn,  they 

L 


218  DISEASES    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

i^vG  rarely  found  a  few  months  later.  These  hezoars,  as  they  have 
been  termed,  are  found  as  frequently  in  fat  as  lean  animals ;  and 
this  being  the  case,  we  are  not  warranted  in  supposing  that  they 
are  injurious  to  the  health  of  the  sheep.  They  are  probably 
formed  by  the  animal  licking  itself,  or  its  dam,  or  other  sheep, 
and  thus  gradually  swallowing  fibres  of  the  wool,  which  entwines 
round  some  hard  portion  of  the  food,  and  is  consolidated  by  the 
mucus  it  meets  with. 

Biarrlioea, Dysentery, Flux,  Scouring-. — Under  these  various 
terms  are  comprehended  two  diseases  to  which  sheep  are  not  un- 
frequently  subject,  viz.  diarrhoea  and  dysentery.  The  former 
appears  to  be  simply  a  relaxed  state  of  the  mucous  membrane  of 
the  bowels,  producing  liquid  fteces,  whilst  the  latter  is  an  in- 
flammation of  this  membrane,  producing  not  only  an  increased 
secretion,  but  a  morbid  alteration  in  its  character.  Dysentery 
therefore  is  a  more  dangerous  disease  than  diarrhoea,  and  whilst 
the  latter  is  mostly  confined  to  the  small,  the  former  attacks 
principally  the  large  intestines. 

The  symptoms  of  dysentery,  which  in  some  places  is  called 
braxv,  are  those  of  much  constitutional  disturbance  and  fever. 
The  sheep  is  dull  and  uneasy,  frequently  lying  down  and  soon 
rising  again.  The  breathing  soon  becomes  disturbed,  the  pulse 
wirv  and  quick,  the  mouth  and  nostrils  hot  and  dry,  and  the 
membrane  lining  the  eyelids  red,  and  it  has  been  stated  that  the 
wool  feels  drier  and  is  more  easily  removed.  The  faeces  are 
scanty  in  quantity  and  hard,  though  frequently  discharged,  and 
attended  with  blood  and  mucus,  having  an  ofi'ensive  smell.  This 
fetor  increases  and  the  faeces  are  discharged  with  pain,  and  in 
some  cases  the  animal  dies  in  a  few  days,  and  in  others  the  disease 
takes  a  chronic  form  and  lingers  on  for  weeks. 

Diarrhoea  may  be  known  from  the  absence  of  these  severe 
svmptoms ;  and  it  is  important  to  observe  the  distinction,  as  the 
same  treatment  will  not  be  proper  for  both  diseases. 

The  causes  of  dysentery  are  principally  sudden  changes  of 
pasturage  or  situation.  The  most  frequent  of  these  is  the  removal 
from  succulent  to  dry  pastures  in  a  high  situation.  In  these  cases 
diarrhoea  was  the  first  disease,  which,  however,  soon  went  on  to 
dysentery  ;  and  if,  when  the  former  appeared,  the  sheep  were  early 
removed  to  the  low  pastures,  they  soon  recovered.  Lambs  are 
most  frequently  aff'ected,  but  older  sheep  are  also  attaclted.  It  is 
also  produced  by  exposure  to  cold  and  wet  after  travelling,  and 
bv  anything  that  can  directly  or  indirectly  derange  the  digestive 
origans.  In  sheep  that  have  died  of  dysentery,  the  mucous  coat 
of" the  intestines,  particularly  the  large,  has  been  found  in  a  state 


DISEASES    OF    THE    I^y'TESTINES.  219 

of  high  inflammation,  and  even  ulceration,  with  hard  offensive 
fseces,  the  maniplus  also  containing  hard  and  indigestible  food. 

As  it  is  a  matter  of  much  importance  to  distinguish  this 
disease  from  diarrhoea,  it  will  be  well  to  direct  attention  to  the 
following  distinctive  characteristics  of  the  two  diseases  from  the 
pen  of  Sir  G.  Mackenzie,  as  they  are  worthy  of  attention  : — 

'  1st.  Diarrhoea  attacks  chiefly  hogs  and  weak  two-year  old 
sheep,  whereas  dysentery  is  frequent  among  such  as  are  older. 

'  2nd.  Diarrhoea  almost  always  occurs  in  the  spring  and  ceasts 
about  June,  when  dysentery  only  commences. 

'  3rd.  In  diarrhoea  there  is  no  fever  or  pain  before  the  stools, 
as  in  dysentery. 

'  4th.  In  diarrhoea  the  fseces  are  loose,  but  in  other  respects 
natural,  without  any  blood  or  slime ;  whereas  in  dysentery  the 
faeces  consist  of  hard  lumps  passed  occasionally,  the  rest  being 
blood  and  slime. 

'  5th.  There  is  not  that  degree  of  bad  smell  in  the  excrement, 
in  diarrhoea,  which  takes  place  in  dysentery. 

'  6th.  In  dysentery  the  appetite  is  totally  gone ;  in  diarrhoea  it 
is  rather  sharper  than  usual. 

*7th.  Diarrhoea  is  not  contagious  j  dysentery  is  highly  so. 

'  8th.  In  dysentery,  the  animal  wastes  rapidly,  but  in  diarrhoea 
only  a  temporary  stop  is  put  to  its  thriving ;  after  which  it  makes 
rapid  advances  to  strength  and  vigour. 

'  9th.  Dysentery  is  commonly  fatal ;  diarrhoea  rarely,  unless 
the  animal  has  been  previously  much  debilitated.' 

In  some  cases  related  by  Mr.  Stevenson,  a  surgeon  who  devoted 
much  attention  to  the  disease,  the  symptoms  of  dysentery  were 
frequent  stools,  slimy  and  mixed  with  blood,  having  little  feculent 
matter  in  them  ;  the  wool  was  clapped ;  the  mouth  and  skin  dry, 
the  eyes  languid  and  red,  constant  rumbling  in  the  belly,  and  the 
animal  could  with  difficulty  stand.  On  lying  the  hand  on  the 
belly,  it  could  be  felt  in  some  parts  as  it  were  drawn  together,  and 
lumps  in  parts  of  it. 

The  treatment  of  these  diseases  must  of  course  depend  on  the 
stage  in  which  they  exist,  but  it  is  desirable  to  attend  to  it  as 
early  as  possible,  and  when  diarrhoea  only  is  present,  A  natural 
cure,  which  is  sometimes  practised  in  Cumberland,  is  to  turn  th^m 
into  pasture  where  common  tormentil  or  septfoil  abounds,  and 
this  is  frequently  sufficient  to  effect  a  cure,  the  properties  of  this 
plant  being  highly  astringent. 

If  the  cases  are  not  severe,  and  entirely  confined  to  diarrhoea 
astringents  alone  may  be  given  ;  but  if  any  mucus  is  perceived,  i 
will  be  proper  to  administer  a  laxative  in  the  first  instance.     Th 


220  DISEASES    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

following  treatment  is  related  by  Mr.  Saver,  in  a  useful  essay  on 
the  disease,  read  to  the  Veterinarian  Medical  Association : — 

Linseed  oil 2  ounees, 

Powdered  opium  .        .        .        .     2  grains, 

were  given  to  each  sheep  in  an  infusion  of  linseed,  the  gruel  being 
repeated  several  times,  and  on  the  following  day  the  opium  was 
again  administered,  with  half  a  dram  of  powdered  ginger  and 
the  same  quantity  of  gentian,  which  was  given  several  times,  and 
sometimes  combined  with  linseed  oil. 

This  treatment  proved  successful,  and  is  indeed  as  good  as 
can  be  advised,  the  food  being  also  attended  to,  and  proper  caro 
bestowed. 

The  treatment  adopted  by  Mr.  Stevenson  with  success  was  the 
following : — In  a  case  where  the  habit  of  body  was  good,  he  bled 
in  one  of  the  veins  in  the  fore-leg,  and  about  two  ounces  of  blood 
of  a  dark  colour  were  taken  from  it.  A  dose  of  an  ounce  of  salts 
was  then  administered,  which  in  eight  hours  produced  several 
passages,  and  the  pain  in  the  bowels  seemed  in  some  measure  to 
be  abated.  Next  day  five  grains  of  ipecacuanha  were  given  every 
two  hours  for  five  hours,  which  still  kept  up  the  purging ;  and 
considerable  sickness  was  apparent.  In  two  hours  after  the  opera- 
tion of  the  ipecacuanha  it  began  to  eat  a  little,  and  the  skin  was 
somewhat  moist.  The  frequent  stools  now  abated,  and  there  was 
no  more  purging,  nor  was  any  more  blood  passed.  In  six  days  it 
was  so  far  recovered  as  to  be  able  to  join  the  flock. 

In  cases  of  simple  diarrhoea,  the  following  astringent  medicine 
will  be  found  very  useful : — 

Powdered  chalk 1  ounce. 

„         catechu        ....  4  drams. 

„         ginger  .        .         .         .  2       „ 

„         opium  .         .        .        .  \  dram. 

To  be  mixed  carefully  with  half  a  pint  of  peppermint-water,  and 
two  or  three  table-spoonfuls  given  morning  and  night  to  a  sheep, 
and  half  this  quantity  to  a  lamb. 

Since  our  text  was  first  written,  cotton-seed  cake,  a  new  article 
of  ood  for  sheep  and  cattle,  has  been  introduced,  and  is  not  only 
highly  nutritious  as  an  article  of  food,  but  it  has  a  specific  eff*ect 
in  preventing  or  removing  diarrhoea.  About  half  a  pound  a  day 
is  sufficient  for  a  sheep. 

Lambs  are,  probably,  more  subject  to  diarrhoea  than  sheep. 
This  is  owing,  in  a  great  measure,  to  the  change  of  diet  which 
takes  place  at  weaning,  and  to  the  functions  of  the  stomach 
being  called  into  greater  action.     It  often  occurs  when  they  are 


DISEASES    OF    THE    INTESTINES.  221 

turned  with  the  ewes  into  rich  pastures,  the  new  stimulus  which 
the  food  possesses  exciting  too  much  the  digestive  organs.  If  the 
looseness  is  moderate,  it  may  pass  off  without  injury;  but  if  it 
continue,  recourse  should  be  had  to  treatment.  The  danger  will 
depend  on  the  appearance  of  the  little  animal,  which,  if  lively  and 
cheerful,  will  probably  do  well ;  but  if  moping  and  dull,  a  fatal 
result  may  be  anticipated.  It  is  often  called  the  green  skit  from 
the  colour  of  the  faeces,  and  as  a  distinction  from  another  disease 
called  the  zvhite  skit,  which  is  of  a  very  different  nature.  It  will 
sometimes  be  prudent  to  administer  a  little  opening  medicine,  such 
as  two  drams  of  Epsom  salts,  to  clear  out  the  intestines  pre- 
vious to  the  cordial  medicine  above  mentioned,  which  will  gene- 
rally succeed. 

The  ichite  skit,  so  called  from  the  pale  colour  of  the  faeces,  is  a 
more  dangerous  disease  ;  and  its  danger  does  not  arise  from  loose- 
ness, but  rather  from  constipation,  being  in  fact  owing  to  coagu- 
lation of  the  milk  in  the  fourth  stomach,  where  it  often  increases 
to  the  amount  of  several  pounds,  whilst  the  whey  passes  off  by 
the  bowels,  and  gives  this  deceptive  appearance  to  the  dung.  It 
is  a  natural  function  of  the  fourth  stomach  to  cause  this  separation 
in  the  elements  of  milk ;  and  indeed  the  dead  stomach  will  pro- 
duce the  same,  as  is  shown  by  the  employment  of  the  rennet,  or 
calves'  stomach,  in  the  manufacture  of  cheese.  This  property  is 
owing  to  the  gastric  juice,  secreted  by  the  internal  membrane  of 
this  stomach,  which  abounds  indeed  with  muriatic  acid.  The 
disease  is,  therefore,  an  excess  of  the  natural  functions  of  the 
stomach.  The  milk  is  either  too  rich  or  taken  too  largely,  or  co- 
agulated too  quickly  from  the  increased  powers  of  the  gastric  juice, 
which  it  acquires  when  the  lamb  begins  to  take  other  food. 

The  sym2}toms  are,  in  addition  to  the  colour  of  the  faeces,  dull- 
ness, heaving  of  the  flanks,  hardness  and  distention  of  the  abdomen, 
and  sometimes  costiveness. 

The  treatment  must  consist  in  the  administration  of  alkalis, 
their  property  being  to  dissolve  the  hardened  mass.  Half  an 
ounce  of  magnesia  dissolved  in  water,  or  both  these  medicines 
combined  in  less  quantities,  should  be  given  and  repeated,  and 
followed  with  Epsom  salts;  after  which  a  little  of  the  cordial 
medicine  may  be  given.  It  will  be  desirable  to  give  the  above 
medicines  in  a  large  quantity  of  water,  in  order  to  ensure  a 
sufficient  part  entering  the  abomasum ;  as  otherwise,  rumina- 
tion having  ceased,  a  large  portion  may  remain  inactive  in  the 
rumen. 

It  is  well  pointed  out  by  Professor  Simonds  that  diarrhoea  is 
usually  a  symptom  of  indigestion.     When,  from  any  cause,  the 


222  DISEASES    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

course  of  nature  is  interniputed,  purging  is  a  common  result : 
therefore  in  seeking  a  remedy  it  is  most  desirable  to  remove  the 
cause.  Thus  scouring  is  frequently  due  to  the  presence  of  worms 
in  the  windpipe,  and  can  only  be  relieved  by  their  removal  or 
destruction. 

We  quote  him  on  the  subject  more  at  large  under  the  head  of 
'  Bronchitis.' 

The  "White  Scour  on  Turnip  Iiands  is  often  considered  to  be 
due  to  a  too  rich  diet  of  corn  and  cake  with  turnips  causing  a 
disarrangement  of  the  lacteal  organs,  and  inducing  an  excess  of 
colostrmn  in  the  milk,  which  has  a  purgative  effect  on  the  lamb, 
and  also  of  lactic  acid.  The  curd  or  caseine  is  thereby  separated 
in  an  undue  degree,  and  the  whey  passes  ofi  as  a  white  fluid.  We 
are  inclined  to  doubt  the  fact  of  its  being  produced  by  too  rich 
feeding,  and  particularly  by  artificial  food,  inasmuch  as  it  is  rarely 
mot  with  in  the  Dorset  and  Somerset  ewes,  even  when  they  are 
supplied  with  sufficient  not  only  to  fat  their  lambs,  but  themselves 
at  the  same  time.  No  food  can  be  more  healthy  than  good  linseed 
cake,  which  has  the  effect  of  neutralising  the  consequence  of  an 
excess  of  watery  food,  and  of  preventing  so  much  being  consumed 
as  would  otherwise  be  the  case.  We  are  rather  disposed  to  trace 
the  mischief  to  an  excess  of  turnips  or  watery  food,  the  presence  of 
too  much  acidity,  and  an  insufficiency  of  alkaline  and  saline  matters. 
The  remedy  should  be  temporary  separation  from  the  ewe  ;  oat- 
meal gruel  being  substituted  for  the  milk,  and  some  bicarbonate  of 
potash,  such  as  half  a  dram  with  ten  grains  of  rhubarb,  and  some 
nutmeg  or  other  spice,  given  twice  a  day. 

Diseases  of  the  Intestines. — Diseases  of  the  intestines  are 
much  less  frequent  than  those  of  the  stomachs,  and,  compared  with 
many  other  animals,  the  functions  of  the  bowels  are  less  im- 
portant. The  food  has  undergone  a  considerable  elaboration  before 
it  reaches  them,  and  unless  the  functions  of  the  stomachs  are  im- 
paired, the  bowels  are  rarely  deranged  by  the  action  of  the  food. 
Both  in  constipation  and  in  diarrhoea  the  stomachs  are  affected  as 
well  as  the  intestines,  and  when  the  latter  are  inflamed  the  former 
generally  participate  in  the  inflammation.  Sheep  are  rarely  sub- 
ject to 

Spasmodic  Colic,  but  lambs  may  be,  perhaps,  somewhat 
oftener.  The  symptoms  are  those  of  severe  pain,  not  constant, 
but  in  paroxysms. 

The  treatment  should  consist  of  the  administration  of  half  an 
ounce  of  Epsom  salts,  dissolved  in  warm  gruel  or  water,  with 
a  dram  or  two  of  powdered  ginger,  according  to  the  size  of  the 
animal,  and  a  tea-spoonful  of  the  essence  of  peppermint.  It  should 


DISEASES    OF    THE    INTESTINES.  223 

be  given  slowly  and   carefulljj  so  as    if   possible   to   enter   the 
abomasum. 

Though  the  intestines  may  sometimes  be  twisted  and  strangu- 
lated, there  are  no  cases  on  record  of  either  intus-susception  or 
strangulation,  diseases  frequent  in  the  horse,  and  occasionally 
found  in  cattle. 

Inflammation  of  the  Bowels. — Acute  inflammation  of  the 
bowels  is  also  of  unfrequent  occurrence,  but  it  occasionally  appears, 
and  sometimes  involves  disease  of  all  the  neighbouring  viscera. 
Mr.  Tochenlin,  a  veterinary  surgeon  in  the  grand  duchy  of  Baden, 
gives  an  account  of  a  formidable  disease  of  this  nature.  He  says :  '  It 
prevails  mostly  in  July,  August,  and  September,  before  the  heat  of 
the  summer  has  passed  over,  and  when  the  animals  are  beginning 
to  moult.  The  first  symptoms  are  those  of  influenza;  the  gait 
becomes  uncertain  and  staggering,  the  eyes  are  half  closed,  red, 
and  weeping ;  the  appetite  fails,  and  rumination  ceases ;  the 
bowels  are  constipated,  the  flauks  are  swelled,  the  breathing  is 
laborious,  the  emaciation  rapid  and  extreme,  and  the  animal  often 
dies  in  the  course  of  a  few  days.  Sometimes  the  sheep  perishes 
suddenly,  with  scarcely  any  symptom  of  previous  disease.' 

After  death,  the  paunch  is  found  distended  with  gas  and  with 
food — the  latter  in  a  state  of  putrid  fermentation,  and  necessarily 
producing  the  former.  The  small  intestines  are  in  a  grangrenoas 
state,  the  liver  is  partly  decomposed,  and  filled  with  vitiated  bilt ; 
but,  most  of  all,  the  spleen  is  gorged  with  blood,  softened,  en- 
larged, not  unfrequently  ruptured,  and  filled  with  tubercles  and 
ulcers,  with,  in  short,  various  appearances  of  disease,  but  all  of 
them  the  consequence  of  inflammation  principally  belonging  to 
this  gland,  and  of  the  most  serious  character. 

This  severe  and  complicated  disease  is,  fortunately,  rarely  met 
met  with  in  this  country.  If  it  should  occur,  it  should  be  met 
with  active  treatment.  Bleeding  from  the  neck  in  the  early  stage, 
mild  aperients,  setons,  and  blisters,  appear  to  be  called  for :  but 
depletion  should  not  be  persisted  in  long,  and  should  be  followed 
with  plenty  of  gruel,  vegetable  tonics,  and  good  nursing. 

"Worms. — Sheep  are  subject  to  injury  from  the  presence  of 
worms  in  the  intestines ;  and,  as  in  the  human  subject,  young 
animals  are  more  susceptible  than  older  ones.  The  following 
accoimt,  in  vol.  xv.  of  the  '  Veterinarian,'  furnished  by  Mr. 
Copeman,  of  Walpole,  Suffolk,  is  both  singular  and  interesting : 
— '  September  6,  1841. — I  was  requested  to  look  at  a  flock  of 
lambs,  about  fifty  of  which  appeared  to  suffer  from  violent  diar- 
rhoea. Two  of  the  same  flock  having  already  died,  I  proceeded  to 
examine  them. 


224  DISEASES    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

'  The  first  stomach  contained  only  a  small  quantity  of  imper- 
fectly masticated  food  ;  the  second  and  third  were  contracted  and 
empty ;  the  fourth^  or  true  stomach,  contained  only  a  small  quan- 
tity of  mucus  and  sand,  but  there  were  several  larger  patches  of 
inflammation  on  its  villous  membrane.  The  small  intestines  con- 
tained thousandsof  the  folded  t&ipe--worm  (Tcenia plicata) , and  about 
twenty-five  of  the  large  worms  [Ascaris  lu/nhricoides) ,  with  a  large 
quantity — several  ounces  —  of  sand.  I  regret  much  not  having 
weighed  it.  The  villous  membrane  was  in  a  stage  approaching  to 
sphacelus  (mortification),  probably  produced  as  follows.  The  ver- 
mis causing  irritation  of  the  stomach  and  intestines,  induced  by 
sympathy  a  depraved  appetite,  so  that  sand  is  licked  up,  and  the 
effect  of  this  foreign  body  on  the  intestines  is  inflammation  and 
its  sequelae.  This,  however,  is  but  conjecture.  The  rectum  con- 
tained chyme  and  mucus  of  a  grassy  green  hue.  The  other  con- 
tents of  the  abdomen  and  pelvis  were  perfectly  healthy,  as  were 
those  of  the  thoracic  cavity.  I  next  examined  the  living  animals, 
and  found  about  fifty  of  them  in  a  sad  pickle  about  and  under  the 
tails,  from  frequently  passing  mucous  faeces.  The  fseces  were  of  a 
grass-green  colour,  and  not  in  the  least  fetid  or  bloody.  The 
animals  ate  but  little  food,  and  were  usually  found  lying,  evidently 
suffering  much  abdominal  pain,  and  all  of  them  reduced  to  mere 
skin  and  bone. 

*  My  first  advice  was  to  make  a  total  change  in  the  diet.  The 
following  medicine  was  tried :  Castor  oil,  1  oz. ;  powdered  opium, 
?>  grs. ;  starch,  1  oz. ;  boiling  water  sufficient  to  make  a  draught. 
Thin  starch,  night  and  morning,  was  also  ordered  to  be  given. 

*  7th.  The  lambs  are  certainly  better  :  continue  the  medicine. 
'11th.  The  irritation  of  the  stomach  and  intestines  being  to  a 

certain  extent  removed,  I  ventured  to  give  the  following  stimulant, 
for  the  purpose  of  destroying,  if  possible,  some  of  the  parasites : — 
I.inseed  oil,  2  ozs. ;  oil  of  turpentine,  4  drs.  One  dose  only  was 
given  to  some  of  them  5  others  required  two  ;  and  a  few  had  three 
or  four  in  the  course  of  the  following  month,  and  then  all  were 
well.' 

The  sheep,  before  Mr.  Copeman  saw  them,  were  pastured  on 
salt-marshes  by  the  sea-shore.  Might  not  the  sand  have  been 
washed  or  blown  up  from  the  sea-shore,  and  deposited  on  the 
grass,  and  thus  have  been  taken  with  the  food  ? 

Tape-worms — Since  the  first  edition  of  this  work  was  pub- 
lished, Tape-ivorm  has  become  a  much  more  frequent  visitation 
and  its  character  and  natural  history  is  now  better  understood  than 
formerly.  It  is  most  frequent  with  lambs,  in  whose  intestines 
the  entozoa  have  been  found  of  enormous  length.     They  are  now 


TAPE    WORMS.  220 

known  to  be  developments  of  hydatids,  which  have  been  given 
to  dogs  and  cats,  and  have  produced  tape- worms  in  their  intestines. 
Tui-pentine  is  the  best  remedy,  and  may  be  given  with  linseed-oil 
to  the  extent  of  four  drams  to  an  ounce  of  spirits  of  turpentine, 
combined  with  two  ounces  of  linseed-oil,  and  mixed  with  gruei, 
and  repeated  twice  or  thrice,  if  required. 

Professor  Simonds  has  given  the  subject  of  worms  in  sheep 
considerable  attention,  and  he  thus  speaks  when  addressing  the 
Council  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  on  the  subject  of 
Tape-ioorms : — 

'  Their  natural  history  is  pretty  well  made  out ;  they  are, 
in  fact,  the  perfect  entozoa  arising  out  of  hydatids,  those  peculiar 
bladder-like  bodies  which  are  met  with  in  different  parts  of  the 
organism  of  various  animals,  and  which  are  nothing  more  nor  less 
than  the  scolices  of  tape-worms. 

*  It  is  not  many  years  since  that  scientific  men  were  astonished 
by  the  discovery  of  Von  Siebold,  that  the  Cyticercus  fasciolaris — 
the  hydatid  met  with  in  the  liver  of  rats  and  mice — was  only  a 
"  stray  tape-worm  which  had  become  vesicular,  and  was,  in  fact, 
the  Tcenia  crassicolis  of  the  cat."  Shortly  after  this,  even  greater 
surprise  was  produced  when  the  same  distinguished  naturalist 
affirmed  that  the  hydatid  of  the  brain  of  the  sheep,  Ccenurus 
cerehralis — the  cause  of  the  disease  termed  "gid" — was  only  the 
scolex  of  the  Taenia  serrata  of  the  dog;  and  that  the  detached 
segments  of  this  worm,  in  which  its  ova  were  alone  perfected, 
would,  if  given  to  sheep,  produce  hydatids  in  the  brain,  and  that 
tape-worms  were  quickly  developed  in  the  intestines  of  the  dog- 
by  giving  this  animal  the  so-called  heads  of  the  coeniirus.  A 
number  of  other  experimenters  confirmed  the  conclusions  arrived 
at  by  Siebold,  thus  proving  that  some  of  the  entozoa  underwent 
regular  metamorphoses,  and  that  hydatids  and  tape-worms  had  a 
necessary  and  mutual  dependence  on  each  other.  It  has  since 
been  shown  that  many  entozoa  pass  through  more  complex 
changes  than  the  tape-worm ;  and  they  often  exist  out  of  the 
bodies  of  the  animals  which  they  ultimately  inhabit  in  such 
peculiar  forms  and  for  so  long  a  time  as  almost  to  set  at  nought 
the  efforts  of  the  helminthologist  to  unravel  their  several  trans- 
formations. 

'  The  dog  is  infested  with  something  like  seven  or  eight 
varieties  of  tape- worm ;  and,  with  one  exception,  I  believe  the 
whole  history  of  the  tape- worm  is  known.  In  common  with  Dr. 
Cobbold,  I  have  for  some  time  been  engaged  in  investigating  the 
development  of  this  class  of  entozoa,  and  I  have  by  me  tape-worms 
of  different  ages  produced  from  hydatids  which  have  been  given 


226  DISEASES    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

to  dogs,  cats,  and  other  carnivorous  animals.  "We  gave  the 
hydatids  to  the  dog,  and  killed  him  within  a  certain  number  of 
da,ys,  and  found  the  product  of  the  hydatids  present.  And  so  we 
followed  the  development  of  these  creatures  from  time  to  time.'* 

"Worms  in  the  Intestines. — Professor  Simonds  states  that 
there  are  two  forms  of  worms  which  inhabit  the  intestinal  canal, 
and  lay  the  foundation  for  diarrhoea.  One  of  them  is  a  worm 
called,  from  the  peculiarity  of  its  formation,  the  Trichocephalus,  or 
hair-headed  worm.  Though  common  in  many  animals,  it  exists  to 
a  greater  extent  in  sheep  than  other  domesticated  animals.  These 
trichocephali  are  very  often  a  great  source  of  mischief.  They 
burrow  their  heads  into  the  mucous  membrane,  and  exist  more 
particularly  in  the  csecum  and  colon,  and  but  very  rarely  in  the 
smaller  intestines;  dwelling  there,  and  producing  an  irritation 
of  the  intestinal  canal  and  diarrhoea,  and,  looking  at  the  sheep,  we 
cannot  at  first  say  whether  the  worms  are  or  are  not  the  cause  of 
diarrhoea.  If,  however,  a  large  number  of  sheep  are  affected,  and 
a  good  deal  of  mucus  is  discharged  with  the  alvine  evacuation ; 
if  all  ordinary  means  of  arresting  the  diarrhoea  fail ;  and  if  the 
animals,  although  wasting,  nevertheless  have  a  tolerably  good 
appetite,  we  may  conclude  that  the  diarrhoea  is  due  to  worms ; 
for,  as  a  general  rule,  when  worms  exist  in  the  intestines,  there  is 
rather  an  increase  than  a  diminution  of  the  appetite.  Generally 
speaking,  when  we  effect  the  expulsion  of  the  trichocephali,  they 
come  away  in  a  mass ;  and  no  sooner  do  they  quit  their  hold  of 
the  mucous  membrane  than  they  run  together,  thus  producing  a 
large  lump  or  mass.  In  this  way  they  are  usually  expelled ;  and 
it  is  with  difficulty  that  you  can  separate  one  of  these  long- 
necked  worms  without  breaking  it,  in  consequence  of  its  neck 
being  twisted  in  all  possible  directions  with  that  of  others. 

They  exist  as  perfect  males  and  females,  and  in  about  equal 
proportions.  The  young  trichocephali  may  be  hatched  within  the 
intestinal  canal,  or  the  ova  may  be  cast  out  with  the  faeculent 
matter,  and  lie  in  the  pastures,  where  thousands  perish ;  but  if 
only  two  eggs  enter  the  organism  and  attain  perfection  as  male 

*  Dr.  Cobbold,  speaking  of  the  tape-worm,  terms  it  a  chain  of  zoids, 
or  individualised  creatures  linked  together  in  single  file.  He  gives  an 
engraving  of  a  beef  tape- worm,  thirteen  feet  in  length,  having  1,200  joints 
of  segments,  each  capable  of  developing  30,000  eggs.  The  small  cysts  often 
found  in  pork  (constituting  measly  pork)  is  rare  in  cattle  in  this  country, 
but  very  common  in  Indi;i,  where  too  it  occasionally  affects  sheep,  and  is  then 
termed  mutton-measles.  It  is,  hoAvever,  but  a  link  in  the  cham  of  the  tape- 
worm, and,  like  the  hydatid,  may  become  either  cause  or  effect.  In  India 
the  dirty  hal>its  of  the  natives  greatly  conduce  to  this  f'lisease. 


WORMS.  227 

and  female,  a  great  deal  of  injury  will  be  sure  to  follow.  The  ova 
are,  indeed,  frequently  received  into  the  digestive  system  of  sheep, 
through  their  food  and  drink ;  and  there  finding  warmth  and 
moisture,  the  young  worms  quickly  escape,  and  begin  to  develop 
within  the  intestinal  canal. 

The  trichocephali  are  so  productive  of  mischief  from  the  cir- 
cumstance that  they  insert  their  heads  into  the  mucous  membrane, 
and  draw  their  nutriment,  if  not  directly  from  the  blood,  yet  from 
its  immediate  pabulum.  When  worms  like  these  exist  in  large 
numbers  they  produce  immense  irritation,  which  leads  to  diarrhoea; 
and  as  this  form  of  diarrhoea  will  not  yield  to  ordinary  treatment, 
a  great  number  of  sheep  are  necessarily  lost.  These  tricocephali 
appear  to  be  as  common  as  they  are  mischievous.  Everybody 
knows  that  vicissitudes  in  the  weather,  a  luxuriant  growth  of 
grass,  too  large  a  quantity  of  green  food,  turnips,  and  so  on,  will 
produce  'scour; '  but  if  no  such  causes  as  these  are  in  operation, 
we  may  begin  to  suspect  that  any  existing  diarrhoea  is  attributable 
to  trichocephali.  Again,  if  upon  a  post-mortem  examination  of 
these  wasted  animals  no  filariae  are  detected  in  the  bronchial 
tubes,  it  may  readily  be  inferred  that  the  worms  may  be  found 
in  the  intestines. 

The  means  of  getting  rid  of  them  are,  in  principle,  the  same  as 
those  already  mentioned.  A  fair  and  free  use  of  common  salt  will 
be  effectual,  and  can  be  brought  to  bear  directly  upon  them,  as 
well  as  sulphate  of  iron.  Some  persons  attribute  the  efficacy  of 
sulphate  of  iron  to  the  circumstance  that  these  creatures  have  no 
iron  in  their  blood  or  circulating  fluids.  Whether  this  be  the 
correct  explanation  he  could  not  sa^.  Sulphate  of  iron,  however, 
should  not  be  administered  to  the  animals  on  the  same  day  as  the 
salt.  The  salt  may  be  given  to  thfi  extent  of  a  quarter  or  half  an 
ounce  at  a  time,  but  not  beyond  on  its  continuous  use.  Salt  and 
sulphate  of  iron  may  be  given  with  the  food  on  alternate  days. 
Half  a  dram  of  the  latter  is  a  full  dose,  even  for  a  large  sheep. 
This  treatment  will  be  found  to  be  a  most  efficient  means  of  getting 
rid  of  the  tricocephali.  These  are  the  means  we  possess  of  giving 
relief  in  cases  of  this  particular  eutozoic  disease. 

He  would  next  notice  another  parasite  which  does  great 
mischief  to  lambs,  and  sheep  especially,  owing  to  its  producing 
diarrhoea.  There  is  one  form  of  '  scour '  that  is  absolutely  and 
directly  due  to  the  presence  of  entozoa.  These  entozoa,  however, 
are  totally  different  from  those  we  have  been  considering,  and, 
strictly  speaking,  they  are  not  filarise.  The  technical  name  it 
bears  is  Trichocephahis  affinis,  which  signifies  a  hair-headed  worm, 
allied  to  the  one  met  with  in  man.     The  worm,  as  a  rule,  inhabits 


228  DISEASES  or  the  sheep. 

the  larger  intestines  of  the  sheep,  and  is  oviparous.  The  young 
are  hatched  directly  from  the  ova,  and  consequently  there  are  no 
transformations  through  which  the  worm  passes.  If  the  faeculent 
matter  of  a  sheep  is  watched,  these  worms  will  then  be  seen  to 
come  away  rolled  up  in  little  masses.  As  soon  as  they  get  notice  to 
quit  they  congregate  together,  twist  themselves  up  into  balls,  and 
in  that  form  are  expelled  from  the  system. 

The  Sclerostoma. — Another  kind  of  worm,  not  so  well  known 
us  the  tricocephalus,  but  also  the  cause  of  diarrhoea  in  sheep,  is  the 
one  designated  sclerostoma — hard-lipped  or  hard-mouthed  worm. 
This  also  exists  in  the  large  intestines,  attaches  itself  by  its  suck- 
ing disc  or  mouth  to  them,  feeds  on  the  juices  of  the  intestines, 
and  lays  the  foundation  for  diarrhoea  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
trichocephali  do.  Very  frequently  these  two  kinds  of  worms  co- 
exist in  immense  numbers,  and  I  myself  have  taken  many  of  both 
from  the  same  animal. 

Pining-. — Although  a  dry  state  of  the  faeces  is  natural  to  sheep, 
and  they  are  enabled  by  nature  to  subsist  on  arid  and  com- 
paratively indigestible  food,  yet  in  some  localities  they  suffer 
much  from  an  excess  of  dryness  in  the  pasture,  and  many  die  in 
consequence.  In  the  southern  districts  of  England  the  disease  is 
not  much  known ;  but  in  North  Britain,  and  particularly  in  the 
Cheviot  Mountains,  it  is  very  prevalent;  and  it  is  a  curious  fact 
that  the  very  land  which  formerly  produced  the  rot,  on  being 
drained  now  produces  this  disease,  which  is  there  termed  pining. 
It  would  be  well  if  some  botanist  were  to  examine  thoroughly 
the  various  grasses  that  are  found  in  these  disease-producing 
spots. 

Dr.  Playfair  relates,  that  on  a  recent  visit  into  Somersetshire 
with  Dr.  Daubeny,  they  were  told  by  a  farmer  that  he  had  two 
tields,  one  of  which  invariably  purged  his  cattle,  and  the  other 
bound  them.  On  examining  the  pastures,  Dr.  Daubeny  soon  dis- 
covered that  the  former  abounded  in  purging  flax  (Limim  Cathar- 
ticum),  and  the  latter  with  the  common  tormentil  or  septfoil 
(Potentilla  tovmentilla),  a  very  astringent  plant. 

The  disease  is  thus  described  by  a  recent  writer : — '  In  certain 
parts  of  Scotland  there  is  a  most  destructive  and  ruinous  disease 
among  sheep,  called  Pining,  a  very  descriptive  word,  derived  from 
the  verb  to  pine,  or  languish  ;  ''  for  no  creature,"  says  the  Ettrick 
Shepherd,  ''can  have  a  more  languishing  look  than  a  sheep  so 
affected."  In  the  course  of  nine  years  Mr.  Hogg  lost  upwards  of 
900  sheep  by  its  ravages. 

'  The  principal  districts  of  this  disease  are  the  green  pastures 
of  the  Cheviot  Mountains,  the  chains  of  hills  running  through  the 


DISEASES    OF    THE    1:;TESTINES.  229 

south-west  parts  of  Roxburghshire,  the  pastoral  districts  of  Selkirk 
and  Peebles-shire,  Galloway,  and  some  other  districts  in  Scotland. 
Mr.  Hogg  says  that  pining  is  quite  a  new  disease  on  the  border, 
but  that  in  some  of  the  districts  just  enumerated  it  has  been  known 
for  ages  under  the  name  of  the  Vmquisk. 

'■  The  distemper  is  a  strange  one ;  it  may  affect  a  whole  flock 
at  once.  The  first  symptoms  to  a  practised  eye  are  lassitude  of 
motion,  and  a  heaviness  of  the  eye.  On  attempting  to  bleed,  the 
blood  is  thick  and  dark  coloured,  and  cannot  be  made  to  spring ; 
when  dead,  there  is  found  but  little  blood  in  the  carcass,  and  even 
the  ventricles  of  the  heart  become  as  dry  and  pale  as  its  skin.  On 
the  genuine  pining  farms,  the  disease  is  more  fatal  in  dry  than  in 
wet  seasons ;  and  most  so  at  that  season  when,  by  the  influence  of 
the  sun,  the  plants  are  less  juicy,  or  early  in  autumn,  when  the 
grasses  which  have  pushed  to  seed  become  less  succulent.  Conse- 
quently, June  and  September  are  the  most  deadly  months.  If  ever 
a  farmer  perceives  a  flock  on  such  a  farm,  having  a  flushed  appear- 
ance of  more  than  ordinarily  rapid  thriving,  he  is  gone.  By  that 
day  eight  days,  when  he  goes  out  to  look  at  them  again,  he  will 
find  them  all  lying,  hanging  their  ears,  running  at  the  eyes,  and 
looking  at  him  like  so  many  condemned  criminals.  As  the  disease 
proceeds,  the  hair  on  the  animal's  face  becomes  dry,  the  wool  as- 
sumes a  bluish  cast ;  and  if  the  pasture  is  not  changed,  all  those 
affected  will  fall  in  the  course  of  a  month.  But  even  this  remedy 
is  not  always  successful ;  for  on  one  occasion,  on  the  first  symptoms 
of  the  disease,  Mr.  Hogg  changed  the  pasture  of  the  hills  for  two 
fields  of  young  clover,  and  changed  the  stock  on  these  every  fort- 
night. This  probably  saved  a  portion  of  the  sheep,  but,  in  spite 
of  all  efforts,  fourteen  score  died.  Pining  proceeds  from  an  ener- 
vated and  costive  habit,  producible  by  want  of  proper  exercise 
and  eating  astringent  food.  The  only  effective  cure,  therefore, 
seems  to  be  a  change  of  pasture  to  one  of  more  succulent  herbage. 
Mr.  Hogg  mentions  this  as  a  certain  remedy,  when  resorted  to  in 
time  ;  and  if  the  sheep  are  laid  on  clover,  the  cure  is  quicker.  The 
shepherd  will  notice  whether  the  change  of  food  has  the  usual 
effects  of  medicine  on  the  sheep.  When  such  is  the  case,  the 
animal  is  safe.  Nevertheless,  these  sheep  will  always  be  liable  to 
take  the  disease  again,  either  that  year  or  the  next,  so  that  a  farm 
cannot  be  subject  to  a  more  ruinous  distemper.  The  farms  most 
liable  are  those  dry  farms,  abounding  in  flats  and  ridges  of  white 
and  flying  bent.  These  are  the  bane  of  the  flocks,  especially  when 
the  surrounding  bogs  do  not  yield  herbage  sufficiently  rich  and 
succulent  to  counteract  the  astringent  effects  of  the  former ;  for  it 
is  found  that  exactly  in  proportion  as  the  succulent  and  laxative 


230  DISEASES    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

herbage  prevails  over  the  dry  and  benty,  the  effects  of  pining  are 
less  felt.  On  steep  and  rocky  lands,  where  the  herbage  is  sweet 
and  short,  the  disease  does  not  exist ;  and  on  hard  heathy  lands, 
which  are  generally  intermixed  with  little  green  stripes  called 
gairs,  it  is  scarcely  known.  But  there  are  few  of  those  strong, 
deep,  grassy  farms,  which  prevail  so  generally  over  the  southern 
districts  of  Scotland,  on  which  there  are  not  some  parts  which  require 
to  be  constantly  watched,  and  the  sheep  driven  from  thence  once  or 
twice  a  day,  otherwise  the  pining  is  sure  to  appear.  Thus,  in 
dripping  seasons,  shepherds,  by  strict  attention  in  changing  the 
sheep's  pasture  every  day,  may  in  great  measure  prevent  its 
ravages  -,  but  in  a  dry  season,  without  in-field  land  sown  with  suc- 
culent grasses  or  limed,  it  is  impossible  to  prevent  it. 

Although  the  amazing  rapidity  with  which  this  disease  be- 
comes diffused  might  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  it  is  as  contagious 
as  fire,  yet  such  does  not  seem  to  be  the  case.  It  proceeds  wholly 
from  the  nature  of  the  food,  as  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  on  in- 
lands where  it  is  but  partially  known  and  little  regarded,  a  strag- 
gling sheep  will  take  it,  and  cling  to  its  dry  spot  of  astringent 
herbage  till  it  dies,  and  yet  none  of  the  rest  be  affected  by  it. 

The  lands  which  are  now  most  subject  to  this  disease  were 
once,  in  the  same  manner,  liable  to  the  rot.  As  the  di-aining  of 
the  sheep  pastures  proceeded,  the  rot  gradually  became  extinct, 
and  was  ultimately  superseded  by  the  pining.  In  the  one  case  the 
land  was  too  wet,  and  in  the  other  too  dry.  An  intermediate  state 
is  required,  to  attain  which,  as  soon  as  the  land  has  been  fairly 
drained,  a  little  subterranean  agriculturist  industriously  plies  his 
trade.  This  subsoil  ploughman  is  the  mole.  According  to  Mr. 
Laidlaw,  before  draining  was  begun  in  his  district  moles  were 
seldom  to  be  found  except  in  dry  loamy  soils,  the  finer  parts  of 
which  were  termed  green  gairs,  from  the  darker  shades  they  as- 
sumed in  consequence  of  their  superior  fertility.  The  boggy  soils 
were  too  wet  and  adhesive  to  suit  the  subterranean  habits  of  the 
mole ;  but  these  being  drained,  were  immediately  frequented  by 
the  animal,  which  was  supposed  to  do  considerable  damage  by 
letting  out  the  water  with  its  cross-roads ;  spoiling  the  sides  and 
filling  up  the  drains.  The  moles  were  therefore  diligently  pur- 
sued and  exterminated.  But  with  what  result  ?  The  green  gairs 
disappeared,  soft  succulent  plants  were  found  to  languish  and  die ; 
herbage  became  coarse,  harsh,  unpalatable.  Mr.  Laidlaw  says  : — 
'  In  the  place  of  the  mountain-daisy,  the  sweet-scented  vernal 
grass,  the  healthy  sheep's  fescue,  the  rich  native  clovers,  the  aro- 
matic yarrow,  the  spreading  rib-grass,  which  with  their  kindred 
plants  delighted  the  sight,  a  quite  different  and  inferior  set  of  plants 


DISEASES    OF    THE    ABDOMEN.  231 

frequently  possessed  the  soil,  such  as  moss  and  lichens,  tufty  hair- 
grass  and  the  like.  This  had  been  produced  by  want  of  that  con- 
stant supply  of  fresh  earth  which  the  mole  brings  to  the  surface, 
and  which,  whether  spread  regularly  by  the  farmer,  or  casually  by 
the  sheep  and  lambs  in  the  active  exercise  of  playful  instinct,  or 
even  allowed  to  remain  as  thrown  up,  covers  annually  a  consider- 
able portion  of  the  surface  of  such  farms,  and  must  tend  to  produce 
greater  variety  and  better  herbage,'  The  farmer  will  therefore  do 
well  to  consider  whether  in  destroying  the  moles  he  is  not  depriving 
himself  of  a  set  of  most  useful  labourers.  In  his  search  after  food 
the  mole  turns  up,  and  brings  into  activity,  those  portions  of  the  soil 
beneath,  which  but  for  his  labours  would  have  remained  useless. 
Mr.  Hogg  is  of  opinion  that  the  extirpation  of  moles  is  the  primary 
cause  of  the  pining  of  sheep  5  and  Mr.  Laidlaw  gives  a  number  of 
cases  in  support  of  the  fact,  and  mentions  that  of  a  farm  on  which 
during  ten  years  there  was  little  draining  and  no  mole-catching, 
and  the  sheep  were  free  from  the  disease,  which  however  appeared 
during  the  ensuing  ten  years,  when  the  land  was  drained  and  the 
moles  partially  destroyed,  and  greatly  increased  afterwards  when 
the  moles  were  nearly  eradicated ;  but  afterwards  gradually  lessened 
when  the  moles  were  suffered  to  increase  and  extend  their  labours 
unobserved.  But  although  moles  may  not  be  injurious  to  sheep 
pastures,  they  are  very  objectionable  on  arable  lands. 

It  cannot  be  doubted  that  the  effects  of  this  severe  disease  can 
be  best  counteracted  by  taking  care  to  change  the  sheep  from  time 
to  time  to  more  succulent  pasture,  which  should  therefore  be  culti- 
vated assiduously,  and  employed  as  it  were  medicinally  ;  and  it  is 
worthy  of  suggestion  whether  the  culture  of  plants  having  laxative 
qualities,  such  as  the  purging  flax,  would  not  be  highly  useful  in 
the  w^ay  of  prevention. 

With  regard  to  medicine,  the  Epsom  and  Glauber  salts  otfer 
themselves  as  the  most  suitable,  and  the  employment  of  common 
salt  wdll  also  be  found  of  much  service. 

Redwater. — The  disease  understood  by  this  term  consists  of 
an  effusion  of  reddish-coloured  serum  or  water  in  the  abdomen, 
outside  the  bowels,  and  is  the  effect  of  increased  action  of  the  mem- 
brane called  the  peritoneum,  which  forms  the  outer  coat  of  the 
bowels,  and  also  lines  the  abdominal  cavity.  It  is  the  natural 
office  of  this  membrane  to  secrete  a  watery  fluid,  in  order  that  the 
bowels  should  glide  readily  on  each  other;  but  when  diseased  action 
is  set  up  in  this  membrane,  its  secretion  becomes  excessive,  and  the 
serous  portion  of  the  blood,  mingled  with  some  of  the  red  portion, 
becomes  effused  in  this  cavity,  where  it  cannot  escape. 


232  DISEASES    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

The  disease  is  extremely  common  to  lambs,  both  dm-ing  the 
time  they  are  with  their  dams,  and  after  they  have  been  weaned  ; 
and  in  them,  as  well  as  in  sheep,  it  is  very  fatal,  destroying  the 
latter  in  twenty-four  hours,  and  the  former  in  less  time. 

The  nature  of  the  fluid  effused  is  similar  to  the  serum  or  watery 
portion  of  the  blood,  and  as  there  is  no  active  pain  manifested,  we 
are  not  justified  in  considering  that  it  is  the  effect  of  inflammation, 
but  one  rather  of  debility  of  the  vessels,  and  the  existence  of  too 
much  moisture  in  the  system.  It  usually  attacks  both  sheep  and 
lambs  when  feeding  on  turnips,  and  particularly  when  there  is  a 
hoar-frost,  and  the  sheep  are  folded  on  them  during  the  night. 
From  this  circumstance  it  has  been  attributed  to  the  effect  of  lying 
on  the  cold  damp  ground,  thus  chilling  the  system,  and  particularly 
the  abdomen.  But  the  sheep  is  an  animal  covered  with  wool, 
which  can  readily  bear  this  exposure,  and  it  is  more  likely  to  be 
produced  by  an  excess  of  this  cold  watery  food  taken  into  the 
system,  though  perhaps  assisted  by  cold  lair.  The  use  of  salt  is 
to  be  recommended  whenever  there  is  reason  to  fear  an  excess  of 
water  in  the  food.  It  may  often  be  sown  over  the  turnips  and  rape 
with  advantage. 

This  view  of  the  matter,  too,  is  borne  out  by  the  fact,  that 
where  ewes  in  lamb  are  kept  too  much  or  too  long  on  turnips,  they 
often  cast-  their  lambs,  which  are  found  dead  and  ivatei--helUed,  as 
it  is  termed ;  that  is,  the  abdomen  is  found  distended  with  the 
same  description  of  watery  fluid  as  we  find  in  redwater.  Now  in 
this  case  the  ewe  generally  escapes  disease,  therefore  it  cannot  be 
from  external  cold,  but  from  the  nature  of  the  food  ;  so  likewise 
it  is  most  probable  that  such  is  the  case  with  redwater. 

The  symptoms  usually  observed  in  sheep  are  refusal  to  feed  or 
ruminate,  a  dull  heavy  appearance,  often  attended  with  giddiness, 
a  staring  eye,  obstinate  costiveness,  and  sometimes  the  head  is  car- 
ried oii  one  side.  In  lambs  these  symptoms  are  less  decidedly 
marked,  but  the  little  animal  lags  behind  its  fellows,  is  unwilling 
to  move,  and  is  very  dull,  and  dies  in  a  shorter  time  than  the 
sheep.  Acute  pain  is  rarely  manifested  in  either  sheep  or  lamb, 
but  they  are  generally  carried  off"  in  a  short  time.  It  is  not  at  all 
uncommon  for  the  shepherd  to  leave  them  apparently  well  over- 
night, and  to  find  one  or  more  dead  in  the  morning. 

The  treatment  of  the  cases  where  the  symptoms  have  fully 
manifested  themselves  will  generally  be  unsuccessful ;  but  in  the 
earliest  stage,  and  before  the  disease  has  actually  been  developed, 
much  can  be  done.  The  sheep  should  be  removed  to  a  drier  situa- 
tion, and  pasture  or  seeds  or  stubble  should  be  substituted  for  the 
turnips,  and  the  following  medicine  administered  : — 


DISEASES   OF    THE    CHEST.  233 

Sulphate  of  magnesia         .         .         .         .     1  lb. 

Gentian,  powdered 1  oz. 

Ginger,  dissolved  in  warm  water       .        •     1   „ 

This  is  sufficient  for  eight  or  ten  sheep,  or  double  or  treble  the 
number  of  lambs. 

Above  all,  it  is  desirable,  by  way  of  prevention,  to  remove  the 
healthy  sheep  to  some  dry  pasture,  giving  them  good  sound  hay,  a 
little  corn,  and  turnips  only  in  moderation.  Such,  however,  is  the 
fatality  of  the  disease,  that  it  is  a  question  whether  it  will  not  be 
more  prudent  to  kill  the  sheep  or  lambs  affected  -,  that  is,  if  they 
are  in  any  condition  for  the  table,  or  unless  from  any  particular 
reason,  such  as  remarkable  value,  it  is  very  desirable  to  preserve 
them.  Bleeding  in  these  cases  will  not  be  prudent  unless  we  are 
sure  that  inflammation  is  present,  which  we  may  expect  if  active 
pain  is  manifested. 

Mr.  W.  Greaves  advises  the  employment  of  tar  as  a  preventative, 
and  adduces  the  following  instance  of  its  successful  employment. 
He  says :  '  This  disease  is  very  prevalent  in  this  part  of  Derbyshire, 
and  a  friend  of  mine,  Mr.  Cooper,  of  Ashford,  for  many  years  lost 
one-fifth  of  his  hoggets  from  redwater.  Three  or  four  years  ago 
he  was  advised  to  bring  them  into  a  yard,  and  give  each  hogget  a 
table-spoonful  of  common  tar  every  fortnight,  and  the  consequence 
has  been,  that  although  they  are  kept  in  every  respect  in  the  same 
way  as  before,  and  on  the  same  ground,  he  has  not  lost  one  sheep 
since  the  adoption  of  this  treatment.' 

We  give  the  above  on  the  responsibility  of  the  adviser,  in  case 
any  farmer  may  be  desirous  of  trying  it,  but  we  can  give  no 
opinion  as  to  its  efficacy. 

DISEASES    OF    THE    CHEST. 

Though  diseases  of  the  organs  of  respiration  are  less  frequent 
than  those  of  digestion,  yet  they  often  occur  either  in  the  milder 
forms  of  catarrh  and  influenza,  or  the  more  severe  visitations 
of  inflammation  of  the  chest,  or  substance  of  the  lungs  j  and, 
indeed,  many  sheep  are  annually  lost  by  these  diseases. 

Catarrb,  or  Cold,  is  very  common  at  the  fall  of  the  year,  and 
particularly  if  the  season  is  unduly  wet,  or  the  flock  has  been 
much  exposed,  or  driven  about  from  place  to  place.  It  is  very 
common  at  the  autumnal  fairs  to  find  great  numbers  of  sheep 
coughing  continually,  and  having  a  considerable  discharge  of 
mucus  from  the  nostrils.  The  disease  consists  of  inflammation  of 
the  membrane  lining  the  chest,  nostrils,  and  throat  and  windpipe. 
From  the  changes  of  the  weather,  and  exposure  to  wet,  particularly 


234  DISEASES    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

after  being  heated  by  travelling,  and  often  before  the  fleece  has 
grown  sufficiently  after  shearing  to  afford  proper  protection,  the 
membrane  before  spoken  of  becomes  inflamed,  a  considerable 
increase  of  its  natural  discharge  takes  place,  and  a  cough  is  pro- 
duced, either  as  a  consequence  of  the  inflammation  of  the  mem- 
brane at  its  most  irritable  part,  or  from  the  irritation  excited  by 
the  presence  of  mucus.  The  disease  will  sometimes  continue  in 
this  state  for  several  weeks,  and  nature  will  efiiect  a  cure ;  but  it 
is  well  if  it  does  not  lead  to  anything  worse,  for  sometimes  the 
inflammation  will  extend  itself  to  the  lungs,  and  prove  fatal.  The 
effect  of  a  cold  is,  at  least,  to  retard  the  improvement  of  the 
animal,  and  every  severe  case  should  be  met  with  attention,  and, 
if  possible,  more  shelter  and  good  nursing.  This  alone,  in  mild 
cases,  with  the  assistance  of  a  little  gruel,  will  effect  a  cure ;  but 
if  the  faeces  are  unhealthy,  and  if  the  symptoms  require  it,  half 
an  ounce  of  Epsom  salts,  a  dram  each  of  nitre  and  of  ginger, 
and  half  a  dram  of  tartarised  antimony,  may  be  given,  dissolved 
in  gruel. 

Broncbitis  is  often  the  sequel  of  catarrh,  or  it  may  co-exist 
with  it,  or  be  produced  by  the  same  causes.  It  is,  in  fact,  an 
inflammation  of  the  mucous  membrane  lining  the  air-passages  of 
the  lungs,  and  is  much  more  dangerous  than  catarrh. 

The  symptoms  are,  besides  those  of  catarrh,  such  as  cough  and 
discharge  from  the  nostrils,  a  greater  diminution  of  appetite,  and 
accelerated  pulse  and  respiration.  Sometimes  it  is  produced  by 
the  presence  of  small  worms  in  the  windpipe,  and  then  the  cough 
is  more  frequent  and  distressing.  This  form  of  bronchitis  is  more 
common  with  calves  and  young  cattle,  probably  from  their  being 
more  exposed  to  wet  and  woody  pastures ;  and  when  sheep  are 
affected,  it  is  mostly  confined  to  young  animals. 

Treatment. — Bleeding  may  be  employed  in  the  early  stages 
with  advantage,  but  with  some  degree  of  moderation ;  and  if  the 
weakness  is  great,  and  the  discharge  from  the  nose  considerable, 
it  had  better  be  avoided.  The  same  dose  may  be  administered  as 
advised  for  catarrh,  and  should  be  repeated  the  second  day;  and, 
with  the  exception  of  the  salts,  it  may  be  continued  several  times, 
diminishing,  however,  the  quantity  of  nitre,  and  adding  a  dram 
of  gentian.  It  is  not  desirable  to  purge  in  this  disease,  nor  to 
diminish  the  strength  much,  but  only  to  relax  the  bowels  mildly : 
good  nursing,  shelter,  and  care,  are  particularly  called  for. 

IVorms  in  thie  "Windpipe  and  liung-s. — Bronchitis,  when 
produced  by  the  presence  of  small  worms  in  the  windpipe,  requires 
a  somewhat  diff'erent  treatment,  the  object  being  to  destroy  these 
irritating   parasites.      The  same  means   should  therefore  be  re- 


BEO^X'HIAL    WOEMS.  235 

sorted  to  as  are  employed  witli  success  in  young  cattle,  and  for 
the  following  treatment  we  are  indebted  to  Mr.  Mayer,  of 
Newcastle-under-Lyne,  Lime-water — half  a  pint  for  a  sheep,  and 
a  quarter  for  a  lamb — should  be  given  in  the  morning ;  and  in  the 
evening  one  or  two  large  tea- spoonfuls  of  salt,  dissolved  in  a 
quarter  to  half  a  pint  of  water.  This  treatment  should  be  con- 
tinued for  the  space  of  a  week,  or  until  the  improvement  becomes 
very  decided. 

Sheep  are  very  subject  to  inflammation  of  the  bronchial  tubes 
produced  by  the  presence  of  small  worms  as  with  the  hoove  in 
calves  and  the  gapes  in  fowls,  which  diseases  used  to  be  mistaken 
for  bronchitis.  Professor  Simonds  considers  that  '  these  worms, 
denominated  the  i^i7«na  bronchitis,  stre  somewhat  on  the  increase, 
and  are  found  in  colts,  calves,  sheep,  pigs,  and  even  in  dogs.  Yet 
it  is  in  the  herbivorous  animals  that  the  worm  produces  the  greatest 
tmiount  of  mischief,  and  particularly  with  calves  and  lambs,  fur 
young  animals  are  far  more  predisposed  to  the  attacks  of  parasites 
than  the  old.  He  exhibited  one  example  taken  from  a  calf  and 
another  from  a  pig,  in  which  the  worms  were  crowded  together 
in  countless  numbers  in  the  ramifications  of  the  bronchial  tubes. 
Of  late  years  this  worm  has  excited  a  great  notice  on  the  part  of 
the  pathologist  as  well  as  of  the  practical  farmer,  in  consequence 
of  the  sad  losses  which  have  resulted  from  its  presence  amongst 
flocks  of  lambs.  At  present  numbers  of  lambs  are  affected  with 
it ;  and  within  the  last  twelve  years  the  losses  have  been  very 
serious.  There  has  been  of  late  an  increase  of  entozoic  diseases. 
Whether  it  has  arisen  from  some  condition  of  the  atmosphere 
favourable  to  their  propagation,  he  could  not  say ;  but  the  fact  is 
well  established.  The  natural  history  of  these  filari^e  is  well 
understood.  They  exist  in  the  form  of  perfect  males  and  females, 
but  the  females  being  as  fifty  or  sixty  to  one.  They  may  be 
called  ovoviparous  ;  for  occasionally  it  will  happen  that  the  young 
worm  is  so  perfected  while  the  ovum  is  within  the  body  of  the 
female  that  it  escapes  from  the  egg,  and  exists  as  a  living  worm 
before  passing  through  the  so-called  ova-duct.' 

'  The  chief  reason  why  the  worm  is  so  destructive  to  sheep  and 
other  animals,  is  the  fact  that  the  young  worms  are  perfected 
within  the  part  where  the  ova  is  deposited;  and  if  one  impregnated 
female  only  inhabits  a  bronchial  tube,  that  female  would  in  process 
of  time  produce  such  myriads  of  worms  that  the  animal  must 
inevitably  fall  a  sacrifice  ',  although  the  worms  are  ovoviparous, 
and  find  their  proper  mucus  that  may  be  coughed  up — and  cough  is 
a  leading  symptom  of  this  disease — they  might  remain  as  ova  fcr 
an  indefinite  length  of  time  upon  pasture-land  without  losing  their 


236  DISEASES   OF   THE   SHEEP. 

vital  properties  or  power  of  development ;  and  animals  feeding 
upon  the  ground  may  receive  the  eggs  whilst  gathering  their  food, 
from  which  the  young  worms  would  be  quickly  produced.  If  an 
animal  takes  anything  into  its  mouth  with  which  there  are  d 
certain  number  of  ova,  imperceptible  to  the  naked  eye,  these  ova 
may  be  retained  about  the  mouth  with  the  mucus  or  saliva  long 
enough  for  some  of  them  to  be  hatched.  Such  worms  would  then 
find  their  way  into  the  bronchial  tubes ;  the  females  would  soon 
eject  eggs,  and  the  result  would  be  a  considerable  brood  of  these 
creatures.  Take  the  minutest  portion  of  the  ova-sac  of  a  parent 
worm,  examine  it  through  a  good  microscope,  and  myriads  of  eggs 
will  be  seen.  So  that  one  worm  literally  produces  thousands. 
These,  getting  into  ramifications  of  the  bronchial  tubes,  pass  even 
to  the  air-cells  of  the  lungs,  where,  by  the  irritation  they  create, 
they  lead  to  condensation  of  the  lung  structure,  and  destroy  it  as 
an  aerifying  organ.  The  affected  lambs  fall  off  in  condition,  have 
a  constant  cough,  and,  gradually  wasting  away,  ultimately  become 
affected  by  diarrhoea,  which  usually  carries  them  off.  It  is  not  at 
all  an  uncommon  thing  for  50,  60,  or  70  per  cent,  of  a  flock  of 
lambs  to  be  destroyed  from  this  cause.'  * 

'  The  remedies,'  continues  Professor  Simonds,  *  consists  in 
resisting  the  attacks,  and  in  expelling  the  cause,  although,  when 
they  exist  to  such  an  extent  as  to  produce  organic  change,  no 
treatment  will  avail.  To  strengthen  the  constitution,  the  animals 
should  be  supplied  with  the  most  generous  food  in  a  concentrated 
form.  Instead  of  keeping  them  simply  upon  grass,  artificial  or 
natural,  during  the  summer  months — for  it  is  in  the  summer,  or  in 
the  approach  of  autumn,  that  they  are  generally  affected — or 
feeding  them  upon  turnips  alone  in  winter,  it  is  necessary  to  throw 
into  their  system  as  much  nitrogenous  food  as  possible.  Cake, 
corn,  or  pidse  should  be  used  unsparingly,  and  given  early,  be- 
cause when  diarrhoea  has  once  set-in  the  system  is  in  such  a 
weakened  condition  that  it  will  then  be  of  little  or  no  use. 

'  The  cause  of  diarrhoea  appears  to  depend  not  so  much  upon 
the  mere  prostration  of  the  vital  powers  of  the  animal  as  a  whole, 

*  Dr.  Crisp  has  written  an  elaborate  essay  on  this  subject,  which  appears 
as  a  Prize  Essay  in  the  pages  of  the  '  Journal  of  the  Bath  and  West  of 
England  Society,'  1853,  and  is  well  worthy  of  perusal.  He  claims  the 
discovery  of  a  new  worm,  which  he  terms  the  Gordius.  Dr.  Cobbold,  how- 
eyer,  rather  disputes  the  point.  Be  that  as  it  may,  Dr.  Crisp  has  bestowed 
great  attention  to  the  subject,  and  has  added  to  the  facts  preyiously  known, 
and  we  must  refer  to  his  Prize  Essay  and  his  communication  in  1873, 
accompanied  by  engravings,  of  the  worms  found  by  him. 


BRO>'CHIAL    WORMS.  237 

as  upon  the  weakened  condition  of  tlie  powers  of  digestion  and 
assimilation. 

'  Nothing,  indeed,  is  so  common  as  to  have  an  ordinary  attack 
of  diarrhoea  just  simply  depending  upon  indigestible  matter  taken 
into  the  system,  from  which  nature  frees  herself  as  quickly  as  she 
can. 

'  When  the  powers  of  digestion  and  assimilation  have  become 
exceedingly  weak,  the  food,  instead  of  being  digested  and  appro- 
priated to  the  requirements  of  the  system,  acts  as  an  irritant  to 
the  stomach  and  bowels,  and  passes  off  undigested  and  unappro- 
priated through  the  intestinal  canal.  What  then,  under  such 
circumstances,  would  be  the  use  of  giving  cake,  corn,  &c.  ? 

'  But  while  the  digestive  organs  are  not  affected  to  any  con- 
siderable extent,  we  may  strengthen  the  constitution  of  the  animal 
by  giving  it  highly-nutritious  food.  Of  the  anthelmintic  agents 
given  as  remedies,  some  are  good  and  powerful,  and  some  of  no 
use  at  all.  Practice  has  shown  that  turpentine,  in  conjunction 
with  a  little  oil  and  tincture  of  assafoetida,  is  about  as  nice  a 
compound  as  can  be  given. 

'  Turpentine,  although  a  very  old  remedy,  is  particularly 
serviceable  and  valuable,  because  it  is  eliminated  from  the  system 
through  the  medium  of  the  respiratory  organs. 

*  We  want  to  bring  something  to  bear  as  directly  as  possible 
upon  the  parasites  in  the  situation  which  they  occupy  in  the 
ramifications  of  the  bronchial  tubes ;  but  if  any  medicinal  agent 
directly  descends  the  windpipe,  it  would  only  produce  more  and 
perhaps  fatal  mischief. 

'The  alternative  is  to  impregnate  the  system  with  an  agent 
which  may  be  afterwards  carried  off  through  the  medium  of  the 
respiratory  organs,  and  thus  assail  the  habitat  of  the  worm. 
Turpentine,  which,  when  given  to  an  animal,  is  eliminated  from 
the  system  partly  by  respiration,  partly  by  the  urinary  secretions, 
and  partly  by  the  intestinal  canal,  is  such  an  agent  as  we  require. 
This  is  shown  by  the  smell  of  the  breath  of  calves  several  davs 
after  they  have  taken  turpentine.  Assafoetida  is  also  eliminated 
in  a  similar  manner,  and  is  a  useful  addition. 

'  From  half  an  ounce  to  an  ounce  of  turpentine  would  be  the 
proper  dose  for  a  calf,  according  to  its  age  ,•  half  or  two-thirds  this 
to  a  sheep,  and  one-fourth  to  a  lamb. 

'  Or  you  may  take  three  ounces  of  oil,  add  to  it  two  ounces  of 
tincture  of  assafoetida,  and  one  of  turpentine,  and  administer  this 
compound  three  or  four  days  in  succession,  when  it  should  be  dis- 
continued for  the  same  space  of  time,  and  then  given  again,  or 


238  DISEASES    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

alternating,  with  the  anthelmintic,  ordinary  tonic  agents,  such  as 
sulphate  of  iron  and  ginger  in  combination,  to  give  tone  and 
vigour  to  the  digestive  organs.  Sulphate  of  iron  enters  into  com- 
bination with  one  main  constituent  of  the  blood — the  red  cells. 
There  is  yet  another  course  at  our  command — that  of  making  the 
affected  animals  breathe  a  medicated  air,  by  driving  sheep  into  a 
close  shed,  and  there  to  burn  something  which  will  disengage 
gaseous  matter,  which  the  animal  will  be  compelled  to  inhale. 

'  The  most  efficient  agent  for  this  purpose  is  chlorine  gas ;  but 
then  it  is  very  destructive  to  life.  The  modus  operandi  is  to 
decompose  common  salt,  or  oxide  of  manganese,  with  sulphuric 
acid,  by  the  application  of  a  little  heat,  the  person  holding  the 
apparatus  in  the  shed  until  the  air  is  sufficiently  impregnated  to 
render  it  unpleasant  to  himself.  If  carried  beyond  this,  great 
mischief  might  result.  Another  simple  and  safer  plan  is  to 
impregnate  the  atmosphere  with  fumes  of  sulphur,  which  may  be 
dons  by  igniting  a  little  tar,  pitch,  resin,  or  anything  of  that  kind, 
and  then  throwing  upon  the  burning  mass  a  small  quantity  of 
sulphur  from  time  to  time.  The  fumes  of  sulphur  so  thrown  off 
will  pervade  the  place  in  which  the  sheep  are,  and  will  conse- 
quently be  inhaled  by  them.  No  harm  ensues  where  ordinary 
care  is  used.' 

Inflammation  of  ttie  Iiungrs  (Pneumonia). — This  disease, 
though  we  cannot  consider  it  very  common,  yet  occurs  more 
frequently  than  sheepmasters  imagine.  It  consists  of  inflamma- 
tion of  the  substance  of  the  lungs,  and  thus  differs  from  two  other 
diseases  of  the  chest,  for  which  it  may  be  mistaken,  and  with 
which,  indeed,  it  may  co-exist — that  is,  pleurisy  and  bronchitis ; 
the  former  being  inflammation  of  the  membrane  covering  the 
lungs  and  lining  the  chest,  and  the  latter  inflammation  of  the 
membrane  lining  the  bronchial  tubes.  Pleurisy  is  a  disease  of  a 
serous  membrane,  and  will  be  benefited  by  bleeding-,  and 
bronchitis  that  of  mucous  membrane,  in  which  bleeding  can 
scarcely  be  endured. 

Injiammation  of  the  Lungs,  or  Pneumonia,  may  either  exist 
together  with  one  or  the  other  of  these  diseases,  or  without 
them.  It  may  be  produced  by  a  common  catarrh,  or  the  same 
cause  that  produces  it,  such  as  undue  exposure  to  wet  and  cold ; 
and  thus  it  is  apt  to  occur  after  sheep-washing. 

The  symptoms  are  those  of  fever,  with  quickened  and  laborious 
breathing,  and  hard  and  quick  pulse.  High-bred  animals  are 
more  liable  to  this,  as  well  as  to  other  inflammatory  diseases ;  and 
the  Leicester  breed  is  probably  more  disposed  to  it  than  any  others ; 
and    imparts,   together  with   its   superior  fattening   qualities,   a 


I^'FLAMMAT10N    OF    THE    LUNGS.  239 

greater  liability  to  inflammatory  disease  to  those  breeds  with 
which  it  may  be  crossed.  To  illustrate  this,  we  may  subjoin  the 
following  caseS;  related  by  Mr.  Gutteridge  in  the  'Veterinarian,' 
vol.  xiii. 

'Jan.  21st,  1840. — I  was  requested  to  see  a  very  valuable 
two-year-old  tup  of  the  Leicester  and  Cotswold  breed,  which 
I  found  standing  leaning  against  the  wall,  his  pulse  hard  and 
quick,  refusing  his  food,  rumination  ceased,  heaving  of  the  flanks, 
painful  cough,  an  insatiable  thirst,  grinding  of  the  teeth,  and 
constipation  of  the  bowels.  1  bled  him  freely  and  gave  a 
brisk  purge,  and  administered  injections  of  thin  gruel  every 
two  hours,  and  also  a  small  quantity  by  the  mouth.  22nd. 
The  cough  less  violent,  but  the  medicine  has  not  acted ; 
respiration  more  disturbed,  mouth  hot,  and  total  disgust  of 
food :  determined  to  abstract  more  blood,  but  before  we  could 
take  two  ounces  he  suddenly  fell.  Two  hours  afterwards  I 
gave  him  more  salts,  with  a  little  powdered  digitalis  in  some 
gruel.  In  three  hours  after  this  I  found  him  much  relieved, 
the  pulse  not  so  quick,  respiration  less  disturbed,  and  the 
bowels  acted  on.  I  ordered  gruel  every  three  hours,  and  injec- 
tions as  before.  23rd.  Better,  but  no  appetite :  not  so  much  un- 
willingness to  move ;  has  laid  down  in  the  night  and  in  the  morn- 
ing for  some  time.  Treatment  as  before.  24th.  The  medicine 
has  taken  efl'ect  j  pulse  more  regular j  moves  about  more;  a  little 
discharge  from  the  nose  ;  rumination  returned ;  lies  down  com- 
posedly. Medicine  as  before.  2oth.  Much  better;  feeds;  rumi- 
nates ;  lies  down ;  walks  about,  but  very  weak.  I  ordered  small 
doses  of  gentian  and  ginger  in  camomile  tea,  every  morning  and 
evening. 

'  I  did  not  hear  of  him  for  three  weeks  after  this,  when  I  was 
informed  that  he  had  perfectly  recovered,  and  that  Mr.  Powell 
would  not  sell  him  for  a  hundred  pounds.  I  saw  him  a  few  weeks 
ago  in  perfect  health,  and  in  most  beautiful  condition.' 

Mr.  Gutteridge  relates  a  second  case,  in  which,  though  to  a 
certain  extent  successful,  yet,  in  consequence  of  organic  disease,  it 
was  found  desirable  to  kill  the  animal.  '  The  lungs  were  in  a  mo.^t 
diseased  state ;  full  of  tubercles,  and  great  adhesion  of  the  left 
lung  to  the  pleura ;  the  liver  was  very  soft,  and  much  enlarged. 
The  kidneys,  and  the  whole  of  the  intestinal  canal,  were  perfectly 
healthy.' 

This  case  was  undoubtedly  complicated  with  pleurisy,  which 
would  account  not  only  for  the  greater  severity  of  the  symptoms, 
but  the  degree  of  pain  manifested.  It  must  be  evident,  in  acute 
inflammation  of  the  lungs,  that  the  sheet  anchor  in  our  treatment 


240  DISEASES    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

must  be  early  and  copious  bleeding,  repeated  if  necessary  in  a  few 
hours.  To  this  must  follow  aperient  medicine,  such  as  two  ounces 
of  Epsom  salts,  which  may  be  repeated  in  smaller  doses  if  the 
bowels  are  not  sufficiently  relaxed.  Although  it  is  not  desirable 
to  produce  very  active  purging,  there  is  not  that  danger  of  doing 
so  that  there  is  in  the  horse.  The  following  sedative  may  also  be 
given  with  gruel  twice  a  day : — 

Nitrate  of  potash 1  dram. 

Digitalis,  powdered       ....     1  scruple. 
Tartarised  antimony     .        .        .        .     1      „ 

And  so  continued  for  several  days. 

Setons  in  the  brisket  will  also  be  useful,  not  perhaps  as  a 
relief  for  the  acute  attack,  but  to  counteract  the  chronic  symptoms 
so  frequently  left  behind. 

If  the  disease  is  of  a  sub-acute  character  the  bleeding  must  be 
less  active,  but  the  other  treatment  the  same. 

Inflammation  of  the  lungs  will  sometimes  appear  almost  as  an 
epidemic,  attacking  great  numbers  at  the  same  time ;  or  it  may 
with  greater  propriety  be  termed  endemic,  being  more  frequently 
confined  to  particular  localities.  In  France  it  appears  to  have 
prevailed  more  extensively,  and  with  greater  fatality,  than  in  this 
country,  and  it  is  in  gTeat  measure  attributed  to  the  custom  of 
keeping  sheep  in  close  unventilated  sheds.  There  is  an  account  of 
this  disease  by  M.  Roche  Lubin,  which  destroyed  a  great  many 
sheep  in  the  winter  of  1836,  in  Saint  Afrique.  '  This  malady  ia 
produced  by  the  long  continuance  of  the  sheep,  during  the  winter, 
in  small  and  ill-ventilated  sheep-houses,  where  the  floor  is 
covered  by  a  thick  dung-heap,  seldom  removed,  and  highly  in- 
fectious, and  also  by  a  sudden  change  from  the  heated  air  of  these 
sheep-houses  to  the  cold  air  without,  in  order  to  drink  of  the 
half-frozen  water,  which  the  thirst  under  which  they  labour 
induces  them  to  take  with  avidity,  and  in  great  quantity.  Too 
many  sheep  become  diseased  from  this  cause. 

'Out  of  1,100  sheep  submitted  to  an  anti-inflammatory,  and 
yet  slightly  tonic,  mode  of  treatment,  a  third  only  were  saved;  and 
they  were  animals  that  were  attended  to  at  the  very  commencement 
of  the  disease.  The  others  were  speedily  carried  off",  exhibiting 
after  death  hepatization  (cotidensatimi)  of  the  lungs,  with  a  com- 
plication of  hydro-pericarditis  (drojjsy  of  the  heart-bag)  and 
diarrhoea.' 

The  following  is  also  an  account  of  its  appearance  in  France, 
and  is  written  by  M.  Seron,  a  French  veterinary  surgeon.  He 
says : — 


DISEASES    OF    THE    CHEST.  241 

'I  was  called  on  the  30th  of  January,  1836,  to  a  sheep-fold  on 
which  some  unknown  disease  had  been  committing  dreadful 
ravages.  On  my  arrival,  one  of  the  sheep  was  dying.  I  stayed 
and  opened  him,  and  thought  that  I  perceived  the  cause  of  death. 
Of  all  the  maladies  of  the  sheep,  inflammation  of  the  lungs  is  least 
understood,  and  yet  very  common.  It  usually  appears  in  the 
months  of  January  and  February.  The  proprietors  and  cultivators 
of  this  country  buy  in  lean  sheep,  in  October,  November,  and 
December,  in  order  to  fatten  and  resell  them  in  the  course  of  the 
succeeding  year.  They  had  previously  been  much  neglected  and 
badly  fed,  and  they  had  been  driven  from  market  to  market, 
exposed  to  the  intemperature  of  the  weather.  They  are  now 
suddenly  placed  in  comfortable  sheep-cotes,  and  have  as  much  as 
they  will  eat,  and  that  of  stimulating  food.  Is  it  astonishing  that 
inflammatory  complaints  should  break  out  among  them  ? 

'  The  cause  of  the  complaint,  then,  is  the  state  of  poverty 
in  which  they  are  bought,  and  the  improvement  of  condition, 
rapidly,  and  to  a  great  extent,  acquired  by  means  of  food  too 
abundant  and  too  succulent,  and  administered  without  discern- 
ment, their  confinement  in  sheep-cotes  hot  and  ill-ventilated,  and 
the  emanations  from  the  dung  and  urine  too  long  left  in  them. 

'The  symptoms  are  red  and  injected  conjunctiva,  hot  mouth, 
accelerated  pulse,  and  laborious  breathing  ;  the  muzzle  of  the  sheep 
rests  on  the  side,  and  the  animal  makes  frequent  attempts  to  get 
rid  of  a  yellow  mucus  with  which  the  nostrils  are  clogged.  One 
symptom  is  remarkable  and  always  present,  namely,  great  tender- 
ness of  the  loins.  If  the  animal  is  pressed  on  that  part,  he  will 
often  fall  suddenly  to  the  ground.  The  duration  of  the  malady  is 
from  twenty-four  to  thirty  hours,  and  its  termination  is  always 
fatal,  if  medical  assistance  is  not  had  recourse  to  without  delay. 

'  The  lungs  are  the  chief  or  only  seat  of  disease.  The  exterior 
lobes  are  those  which  are  ordinarily  or  alone  afiected.  If  they 
are  cut  into  they  are  found  to  be  hard,  and  the  knife  creaks  as  it 
passes  through  them;  and  if  they  are  thrown  into  water  they 
sink  immediately  to  the  bottom.  Sometimes  it  is  found  in  the 
left  lobe  alone,  but  then  the  whole  extent  of  that  lobe  is  diseased, 
and  the  other  lobe  is  perfectly  sound.* 

*  Treatment. — This  must  be  of  an  antiphlogistic  character. 
Venesection  should  be  immediately  resorted  to,  and  repeated  two 
or  three  times,  if  necessary,  in  the  course  of  twenty-four  houi'S.  I 
have  bled  as  often  as  three  times,  and  in  neither  instance  did  I 

*  Th.Q  post-mortem  appearances  here  described  very  closely  resemble  those 
of  pleuro-pneumouia  in  cattle. — Author. 


242  DISEASES    OF    THE    SHEER 

stop  tlie  bleeding  until  the  animal  began  to  stagger.  I  have  always 
succeeded  when  I  have  been  consulted  in  an  earlj  stage  of  the 
disease,  and  adopted  this  course.  To  this  were  added,  after  the 
bleedings  were  ended,  warm  drinks  in  which  a  little  nitre,  honey, 
and  gum  arable  were  dissolved — acidulated  injections  into  the 
nose,  in  order  to  get  rid  of  the  adhesive  mucus — emollient  injec- 
tions, and  the  sparest  diet. 

'  The  emetic  tartar  was  given  in  doses  of  a  dram,  in  the 
second  stage,  and  I  had  always  reason  to  be  satisfied  with  it,  if  I 
abstained  from  bleeding  afterwards/ 

Pleurisy,  Pleuritis. — This  disease  consists  of  inflammation  of 
the  pleura,  or  membrane  lining  the  chest.  It  is  produced  by  the 
same  causes  as  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  with  which  it  may  be 
accompanied,  and  particularly  by  any  sudden  changes  that  may 
chill  the  whole  system.  It  often  occurs  from  this  cause  after 
sheep-washing,  when  it  is  very  common  to  find  a  few  sheep  failing, 
and  in  proportion  to  the  want  of  care  exercised.  It  is  not  unusual, 
in  examining  the  bodies  of  sheep,  to  find  the  lungs  in  part  ad- 
hering to  the  sides  of  the  chest,  and  the  animal  thus  affected 
generally  loses  flesh.  This  adhesion  is  the  effect  of  pleurisy,  and 
another  and  still  more  dangerous  result  is  water  in  the  chest. 

The  symptoms  of  this  disease  are  in  many  respects  like  those  of 
inflammation  of  the  lungs,  but  it  is  attended  occasionally  by  severe 
pain,  and  by  a  variation  of  the  symptoms  generally,  such  as  a 
harder  and  more  defined  pulse  and  more  warmth  of  the  body. 

The  treatment  must  consist  of  active  bleeding  in  the  first 
instance ;  and  in  this  disease  the  sheep  can  bear  blood-letting  to 
a  greater  extent  than  in  most  diseases.  The  bleeding  nay  be  re- 
peated if  necessary,  setons  may  be  inserted  in  tlie  brisket,  the 
bowels  moderately  relaxed,  and  in  other  respects  the  same  treat- 
ment observed  as  advised  for  inflamed  lungs. 

The  pure  Leicesters  are  more  subject  to  this  disease  than 
other  breeds,  as  the  following  communication  in  vol.  x.  of  the 
'  Veterinarian,'  will  show : — 

'A  very  extensive  farmer  and  grazier,  residing  on  the  banks  of 
the  Ouse,  a  low  and  marshy  district,  has  had  the  misfortune  to 
lose  many  of  his  sheep  for  some  years  past,  in  the  spring  and 
autumn,  from  some  fatal  disease.  By  examining  two  or  three  after 
death,  I  found  it  to  be  pleuritis.  There  was  nearly  a  quarter  of 
an  inch  thickness  of  coagulable  lymph  on  the  whole  surface  of  the 
pleura,  and  between  its  layers  more  or  less  serous  fluid.  The  sub- 
stance of  the  lungs  was  free  from  disease,  as  were  all  the  other 
viscera.  This  disease  has  been  confined  to  the  well-bred  animals, 
the  owner  never  having  found  it  in  his  coarse- skinned  sheep.      So 


DISEASES    OF    THE    URINARY    ORGANS.  243 

fatal,  however,  has  it  been  in  the  pure  Leicester,  that  he  no  longer 
breeds  them  pure,  but  mixes  them  with  half  Lincoln.    These  do  not 

all  escape,  for  within  the  past  week  many  have  died.     Mr. has 

observed  that  the  malady  has  been  more  prevalent  when  the  sheep 
have  been  placed  on  cabbages  and  turnips  :  it  is  seldom  seen  when 
they  are  kept  on  grass  or  dry  food.  The  treatment  that  has  been 
adopted  from  time  to  time  has  been  attended  with  no  good 
effect ;  in  fact,  it  has  been  directed  by  no  very  defined  indication, 
except  that  of  bleeding  the  whole  flock  when  any  case  has  been 
suspected ;  and  when  the  animal  is  actually  seized,  bleeding 
again.  Only  one  sheep  ever  recovered,  and  that  was  kept  in 
an  almost  constant  state  of  faintness  for  two  or  three  days  by  re- 
peated bleedings.  The  symptoms  observed  were  very  quick  and 
hard  pulse;  breathing  difficult;  countenance  dull:  the  head  in  a 
declining  position,  with  the  nose  forced  against  the  ground; 
bowels  more  than  usually  constipated;  the  membranes  of  the  eyes 
and  nose  red ;  low  and  short  cough ;  the  animal  almost  always 
lying  down,  and  when  moved  indicating  much  pain,  and  making  a 
grunting  noise.  In  one  of  the  sheep  there  was  a  discharge  streaked 
with  blood  from  the  nose.' 

The  attack  is  so  rapid  and  sudden  that  treatment  will  probably 
be  rarely  successful.  The  same  means,  however,  should  be 
adopted  as  advised  for  inflamed  lungs,  the  first  bleeding,  if 
possible,  being  still  more  copious.  As  soon  as  the  disease  appears 
the  whole  of  the  flock  should  be  removed  to  poorer  pasture,  for 
some  time  only  allowing  the  rich  food  for  a  short  p3riod  of  the 
day.  It  may  be  observed,  as  a  general  rule,  that  when  a  par- 
ticular disease  makes  its  appearance  regularly  amongst  a  flock 
of  sheep,  it  is  to  be  attributed  to  some  faults  in  the  feeding  or 
management,  which  should  be  carefully  searched  into  and  dis- 
covered, as  a  preventive  is  of  more  importance  than  a  remedy.  A 
change  of  diet  and  situation  is  at  all  times  desirable  in  such  cases. 


DISEASES    OF    THE    URINARY    ORGANS. 

Xnflamxaation  of  the  Bladder  (Cystitis). — Inflammation 
of  the  bladder,  sometimes  called  watery  hrcixy,  is  a  rather  rare 
disease  with  sheep,  and  is  chiefly  confined  to  such  as  are  kept  on 
artificial  food,  such  as  oil-cake,  beans,  kc,  though  clover  that  has 
been  mown,  it  is  said,  will  produce  it.  There  are  more  losses 
from  these  causes  than  farmers  are  aware  of,  it  being  generally  this 
disease  when  a  sheep  is  said  to  drop  with  water.  It  is  mostly 
Ciinfiued  to  the  male  sex,  and  principally  to  rams,  and  such  as  are 


244  DISEASES    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

highly  fed.  The  state  of  the  bladder  appears  to  be  that  of  ful- 
ness, which  shows  that  its  neck  is  involved  in  inflammation,  and 
thus  becomes  contracted,  and  closes  the  cavity.  In  horses  cystitis 
is  generally  attended  with  constant  staling,  the  bladder  being  so 
irritable  as  scarcely  to  retain  a  drop  of  urine.  In  sheep  there  is 
the  same  disposition  to  stale,  but  an  incapability  of  performing 
the  act.  Two  cases  are  related  in  vol.  xv.  of  the  '  Veterinarian/ 
by  Mr.  Tindal,  which  proved  fatal,  and  on  examination  the 
bladder  was  found  not  only  highly  inflamed,  but  also  ruptured  in 
both  instances ;  the  penis  was  also  both  inflamed  and  ulcerated. 
The  symptoms  were  uneasiness,  constantly  shifting  the  hind  legs, 
and  frequently  straining,  as  if  to  void  the  urine.  The  sheep  was 
stiff"  and  unwilling  to  move,  and  appeared  to  breathe  with 
difficulty,  and  the  action  of  the  heart  was  quick  and  faltering. 
The  abdomen  was  enlarged  and  tender,  and  there  was  costiveness. 

Mr.  Dickens,  in  the  same  volume,  also  relates  two  interesting 
cases,  closely  resembling  the  former  in  the  symptoms.  The  first 
sheep  was  slaughtered,  and  the  bladder  was  found  full  and  highly 
inflamed,  and  there  was  also  a  lesser  degree  of  inflammation  of  the 
kidneys  and  intestines.  The  other  case  exhibited  the  same  symp- 
toms, and  the  sheep  being  a  tup,  and  highly  fed,  Mr.  Dickens  at 
once  abstracted  three  pints  of  blood  from  the  neck,  which  pro- 
duced fainting ;  he  soon  rallied,  and  an  oleaginous  draught,  accom- 
panied by  an  opiate,  was  given  twice  during  the  day.  Towards 
night  he  appeared  much  better,  ate  a  little,  and  was  seen  to  void 
some  very  highly-coloured  urine.  His  medicine  acted  well  during 
the  night,  but  on  the  next  day  the  straining  came  on  at  times.  He 
again  bled  him  from  the  other  side  of  his  neck  to  the  amount  of 
two  pints.  From  this  time  he  c:ntinued  mending,  and  Mr.  D. 
had  the  pleasure  of  seeing  his  patient  obtain  a  prize  as  extra  stock 
from  the  Huntingdonshire  Agricultural  Society  in  October. 

These  sheep  had  been  highly  fed  on  peas,  cabbages,  and  oil- 
cake, and  Mr.  Dickens  is  inclined  to  attribute  the  disease  to  the 
grit  or  extraneous  matter  with  which  the  food  too  frequently 
abounds.  However  prejudicial  this  dross  may  be,  yet  we  must 
not  forget  the  fact  that,  when  an  animal  is  very  highly  fed,  his 
urine  becomes  far  more  stimulating,  and  more  abounding  in  nitro- 
genized  elements,  to  the  excess  of  which  we  should  rather  refer 
the  disease. 

Calculi  in  the  Urinary  Organs*— Stones  are  very  seldom 
found  in  the  urinary  organs  of  sheep,  unless  they  have  been  kept 
on  dry  food,  and  then  they  are  generally  found  in  the  urethra  of 
rams,  where  they  sometimes  cause  fatal  obstruction  and  inflamma- 
tion, unless   relieved    by   operation.     The  following  instructive 


DISEASES    OF    THE    URINAUT    ORGANS.  24  5 

cases   are  related  by  Mr.  Stevens   of  Newmarket^   in  vol.  xiii. 
of  the  '  Veterinarian.' 

*  Case  I./  he  says,  '  was  a  fifteen  months'  ram  of  the  pure 
Down  breed,  preparing  for  the  agricultural  show  at  Cambridge. 
I  met  the  shepherd  on  his  road  to  ask  my  assistance.  He  informed 
me  that  he  had  a  sheep  with  a  stoppage  in  the  water,  that  the 
present  case  was  the  fifteenth  animal  that  had  laboured  under 
apparently  the  same  disease,  and  all  of  whcm  had  either  died  or 
been  destroyed. 

'I  found  the  animal  down,  and  on  his  getting  up  observed  a 
great  anxiety  of  countenance,  and  a  peculiarly  sudden  curvature 
of  the  spinal  column ;  after  which  he  passed  a  drop  ^r  two  of 
urine.  These  symptoms  had  been  observed  continually  for  six 
hours,  whenever  he  stood  up  ;  his  respiration  was  also  hurried. 

'On  casting  him,  and  drawing  out  the  penis,  I  found  a  small 
calculus  forced  a  short  distance  into  the  appendix  vermiformis,  by 
the  pressure  of  the  urine  from  behind.  I  cut  down  on  and  re- 
moved the  calculus,  when  the  animal  immediately  voided  the 
urine  more  freely  than  he  was  accustomed  to  do  (as  it  fiowed 
through  the  incision  which  I  had  made).  I  next  administered,  in 
the  course  of  twenty-four  hours,  five  ounces  of  sulphate  of  soda 
and  a  pint  of  castor-oil  (the  animal  weighed  about  125  lbs.),  by 
which  means  his  bowels  were  freely  acted  upon.  In  a  week  he 
went  back  to  his  pen  perfectly  recovered  in  health,  and  afterwards 
did  quite  as  well  as  the  others.  On  turning  him  up,  however,  on 
the  following  week,  I  found  that  the  appendix  had  rotted  off. 
Indeed,  this  vermiform  process  appears  to  be  of  so  delicate  a 
texture  that  it  will  scarcely  bear  touching. 

'  Case  II.  This  was  of  a  similar  character.  It  occurred  to  a 
fellow-sheep,  also  fifteen  months  old,  but  a  much  finer  animal.  I 
found  the  symptoms  exactly  the  same,  and  the  obstructions  in 
much  the  same  situation.  The  shepherd  had  removed  the  stone 
before  I  arrived  ;  but,  much  to  his  own  disappointment,  the  urine 
fiowed  but  a  drop  at  a  time,  and  these  drops  very  slowly  after 
each  other.  The  same  remedial  means  were  had  recourse  to,  but 
without  success  :  for  the  animal  became  gradually  worse,  and  it 
was  thought  advisable  to  kill  him. 

*  Post-Mortem  E.vaminatio7i. — The  whole  extent  of  the  urethral 
canal  was  in  a  state  of  excessive  inflammation,  and  the  lining 
membrane  so  much  thickened  as  to  prevent  the  passing  of  the 
urine;  the  bladder  was  much  distended,  and  it  is  very  probable,  if 
the  animal  had  been  suffered  to  live,  that  the  disease  would  have 
terminated  in  rupture  of  that  organ.  The  bladder  was  also  nearly 
covered  internally   with  patches  of  vivid  inflammation,  but  no 


246  DISEASES    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

earthy  matter  was  observed.  On  slitting  the  ureters  two  or  three 
small  calculi  were  found  in  each,  not  much  larger  than  a  pin's 
point.  I  had  no  oppoilunity  of  examining  the  kidneys.  I  am  of 
opinion  that  if  this  last  case  had  been  subjected  to  earlier  treat- 
ment, the  life  of  the  animal  might  have  been  saved.  I  should 
have  observed  that  in  every  case  that  has  occurred,  concretions 
were  found  adhering  to  the  hairs  round  the  prepuce,  like  small 
beads,  of  the  same  character  as  the  calculi  taken  from  the  urethra. 

'  On  analysing  the  stone  and  the  concretions,  they  were  found 
to  consist  chiefly  of  phosphate  of  lime.  Sheep  at  grass  do  not 
appear  to  be  subject  to  this  complaint.' 

This  subject  is  treated  more  at  large  in  a  very  useful  Prize 
Essay  which  anpeared  in  the  '  Journal  of  the  Eoyal  Agricultural 
Society  of  England/  in  1867,  by  Mr.  W.  E.  Litt,  M.R.C.V.S., 
who  thus  writes  : — '  I  have  had  considerable  experience  in  the 
diseases  of  sheep,  and  many  opportunities  of  observation,  and 
I  know  only  one  aifection  of  the  bladder  peculiar  to  fattening 
sheep  and  lambs.  It  may  be  that  other  parts  of  the  country 
furnish  a  different  class  of  maladies  to  that  over  which  my  own 
practice  has  ranged.  The  particular  disease  to  which  I  allude  is  of 
sufficient  importance  to  demand  the  most  earnest  attention  of  all 
who  are  interested.  If  the  urine  of  sheep  duiing  the  process  of 
fattening  be  subjected  to  the  ordinary  simple  test  of  litmus  paper, 
it  will  generally  be  found  to  afford  some  indications  of  the  presence 
of  an  acid.  This  must  be  lookod  upon  as  altogether  an  abnormal 
condition  of  things,  as,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  the  urine 
of  herbivorous  animals  will  exhibit  an  alkaline  reaction.  The 
effect  of  high  feeding,  therefore,  appears  to  be  to  assimilate,  in 
some  measure,  this  particular  secretion  to  that  of  the  carnivora. 
The  "  exact "  nature  and  character  of  the  acid  in  question  demands 
a  greater  amount  of  consideration  than  it  has  hitherto  received  ; 
but,  though  differing  somewhat  in  composition,  it  appears  to  bear 
a  considerable  analogy  to  "  uric  "  or  "  lithic  "  acid  ;  and  when  it 
is  present  in  excess  the  urine,  generally  scanty  under  these  cir- 
cumstances, will  always  be  found  to  deposit  a  sediment  more  or 
less  abundant,  and  differing  somewhat  in  character  and  appearance 
according  to  the  exact  nature  of  its  base.  For  the  most  part, 
however,  it  may  be  said  to  consist  of  certain  of  the  salts  of  soda, 
potass,  or  lime,  with  a  greater  or  less  admixture  of  what  is  known 
as  the  ammonia-magnesium  phosphate,  or  triple  salt.  This  morbid 
condition  of  the  system  is  one  to  which  all  domestic  animals  are 
liable;  but  it  is  exceedingly  common  in  fattening  sheep  and 
lambs. 

'  The  reasons  why  these  sandy  or  gravelly  deposits  of  the  urine 


DISEASES    OF    THE    URINARY    ORGANS.  2-47 

are  more  common  in  sheep  than  in  other  animals  is  due  to  the 
circumstances  in  which  fattening  sheep  and  lambs  are  placed. 
A  high  and  stimulating  system  of  feeding  with  an  abundance  of 
saccharine  roots,  want  of  exercise,  and  often  a  total  abstinence  from 
water,  are  exactly  the  conditions  likely  to  produce  this  tendency 
to  lithic  sediments  in  the  urine ;  and  the  peculiar  construction  of 
the  urethra  is  such  that  deposits  which  would  pass  away  readily 
enough  in  other  animals  soon  begin  to  produce  the  most  serious 
mischief  in  sheep.  At  the  extreme  point  of  the  penis  is  a  singular 
structure  known  as  the  "  vermiform  appendage,"  so  called  on 
account  of  its  worm-like  appearance  ;  and  the  urethral  outlet  is 
here  so  extremely  small,  that  the  slightest  calcareous  deposit  can 
with  difficulty  pass  through  it.  "VVlien  this  lithic  acid  diathesis, 
so  to  speak,  is  present,  the  urethra  readily  becomes  choked  up 
with  the  sediment,  the  urine  is  filtered  through  it  only  with 
the  greatest  difficulty,  coming  away  merely  drop  by  drop,  accom- 
panied with  much  straining  and  other  manifestations  of  pain  and 
sufFeriug.  If  the  obstruction  is  not  speedily  got  rid  of,  these 
symptoms  rapidly  increase  in  severity,  the  bladder  becomes  in- 
ordinately distended,  its  membrances  are  inflamed,  and  great 
constitutional  disturbance  necessarily  follows.  The  kidneys,  in 
turn,  participate  in  the  inflammation;  the  blood  becomes  thoroughly 
saturated  and  poisoned  with  urine,  which  may  be  smelt  in  all  the 
secretions  and  tissues  of  the  body,  and  the  animal  soon  sinks 
under  so  serious  a  complication  of  diseases.  Occasionally,  also, 
rupture  of  the  bladder  may  be  added  to  the  list  of  evils,  though  this 
result  is  rare,  and  of  course  fatal.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  what 
are  commonly  spoken  of  as  "affections  of  the  bladder  in  fattening 
sheep  and  lambs  "  are  confined  almost  exclusively  to  male  animals 
— that  is,  to  wethers  and  rams,  and  in  reality  are  not  in  the  first 
instance  affections  of  the  bladder  at  all;  the  bladder  is  only 
affected  by  the  mechanical  impediment  offered  to  the  evacu- 
tion  of  its  contents  through  the  natural  channel.  When  the 
disease  is  found  to  prevail  to  any  extent  amongst  a  particular 
flock,  attention  must  be  immediately  directed  to  the  exciting 
causes. 

'  It  is  not  easy  to  specify  at  all  times  the  exact  article  of  diet 
iiiost  in  fault.  Often,  doubtless,  it  is  rather  a  combination  of 
several  ingredients  than  any  one  in  particular  to  which  the  mischief 
is  attributable;  but,  as  far  as  my  own  observation  goes,  I  am 
inclined  to  think  that  the  saccharine  roots,  and  particularly 
mangold  wurtzel,  are  especially  injurious,  although  it  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  those  articles  of  food  in  which  starch  is 
abundantly  found — such,  for  example,  as  barley,  wheat,  and   the 


248  DISEASES    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

like — are  equally  productive,  under  particular  circumstances,  ol 
these  sabulous  deposits. 

'  So  far  as  is  practicable,  therefore,  the  preventive  treatment 
must  always  be  initiated  by  such  an  alteration  of  the  diet  as  w^ill 
exclude  those  articles  which  abound  largely  in  saccharine  and 
starchy  matters,  and  an  allowance  of  moderate  exercise  and  free 
access  to  water  will  do  the  rest.  The  eifect  of  a  regimen  like  this 
is  most  marked,  and  I  have  had  many  opportunities  of  observing 
and  approving  its  beneficial  results.  The  curative  treatment  of 
the  disease  is  a  difficult  matter.  When  dealing  with  wethers 
alone,  the  most  economical  plan  is  to  hand  over  the  affected 
animals  to  the  butcher  at  once,  and  to  arrest  the  further  extension 
of  the  malady  by  preventive  means ;  but  in  the  case  of  highly- 
bred  rams,  which  often  possess  a  value  beyond  what  the  butcher 
would  give  for  them,  their  treatment  is  a  matter  of  interest  and 
consideration. 

'  Tlie  following  are  the  symptoms  observed  : — The  animal  is 
dull  and  more  or  less  off  his  feed,  holding  himself  aloof  from  his 
fellows,  and  generally  lying  down.  When  roused  or  lifted  up, 
the  peculiar  nature  of  his  malady  will  become  manifest  at  once 
by  the  painful  efforts  made  to  pass  his  urine.  His  breathing  his 
quickened,  and  he  strains  almost  constantly,  whilst  only  a  few 
drops  are  observed  to  come  away.  If  the  patient  be  now  turned 
up  on  his  rump,  and  the  penis  dravm  out,  it  will  generally  be 
found  that  the  urethra,  or  at  least  that  portion  of  it  denominated 
the  vermiform  appendage,  is  choked  up  with  sediment.  This 
sediment  differs  considerably,  varying  from  the  appearance  of  fine 
gravel  to  that  of  the  finest  sand.  Until  this  is  removed  there  is 
little  to  be  done  in  the  way  of  remedy  ;  and  the  urethral  termina- 
tion is  so  very  small  that  to  remove  it  is  often  a  matter  of  much 
difficulty.  When  of  the  consistence  of  fine  sand,  however,  a  little 
patient  manipulation  will  often  be  crowned  with  success.  As 
there  is  commonly  some  local  inflammation  of  the  neighbouring 
parts,  it  is  always  advisable  to  commence  proceedings  by  fomenta- 
tion with  warm  water,  after  gently  pressing  the  urethra  so  as  to 
force  out  the  accumulated  deposit.  Having  succeeded  either 
wholly  or  partially,  a  little  sweet  oil  may  then  be  applied  to  the 
parts,  and  a  dose  of  opening  medicine  administered.  Either 
castor- oil  or  fine  linseed-oil,  in  doses  of  two  to  six  ounces,  ac- 
cording to  the  size  and  strength  of  the  patient,  are  preferable  to 
the  ordinary  saline  aperients ;  and  where  much  constitutional 
disturbance  is  present,  I  always  add  to  this  dose  from  eight  to 
sixteen  grains  of  the  extract  of  belladonna.  On  the  following 
dayj  if  really   necessary,  the  proceeding  may  be  repeated  ',  the 


DISEASES    OF    THE    URIN.ArvY    ORGANS.  249 

medicinal  treatment  should  now  consist  of  the  free  exhibition 
of  some  of  the  alkaline  carbonates ;  and  the  best  is  unquestionably 
the  carbonate  of  potass,  as  the  salts  of  potass  are,  for  the  most 
part,  perfectly  soluble,  and  will  readily  pass  off  dissolved  in  the 
urine.  Carbonate  of  potassa  may  then  be  given  in  doses  of  half 
a  dram  to  a  dram,  two  or  three  times  a  day,  dissolved  in 
water,  either  alone  or  in  combination  with  belladonna  or  other 
febrifuge  medicines.  Air,  exercise,  proper  diet,  and  the  free  use 
of  water,  are  of  the  utmost  importance.  Physicians  tell  us  that 
the  lithates  are  sometimes  thrown  down,  not  from  undue  acidity 
of  the  urine,  but  simply  from  that  fluid  not  containing  the  due 
quantity  of  water  to  hold  them  in  solution  ;  and  that  in  such  cases 
a  tumbler  of  cold  spring-water,  taken  night  and  morning,  will  at 
once  cause  the  cessation  of  this  morbid  symptom.  This  fact  is 
important ;  and  I  am  satisfied  that  water  is  a  most  valuable  adjunct 
to  other  treatment  in  the  removal  of  the  disease  in  question,  and 
where  sheep  refuse  to  drink  it  voluntarily  their  medicine  should 
always  be  largely  diluted  with  it.  It  is  not  always,  however, 
that  the  removal  of  the  sediment  from  the  urethra  can  be  so 
easily  effected.  On  the  contrary,  it  will  frequently  be  found  of 
such  a  character  (gritty,  and  of  the  size  of  small  seeds)  that  it 
cannot  be  passed  through  the  external  opening.  In  such  cases 
I  have  never  hesitated  to  make  an  incision  on  the  under  surface 
of  the  urethra,  as  near  the  extremity  as  possible — generally,  indeed, 
in  the  vermiform  appendage  itself — large  enough  to  allow  this 
gravel  to  be  pressed  out.  Sometimes,  indeed,  the  simplest  and 
most  desirable  mode  of  proceeding  is  to  remove  this  structure 
altogether.  In  wethers  there  cannot  be  the  slightest  objection  to 
so  simple  an  operation  at  any  time,  but  in  rams  the  case  is  some- 
what different.  I  am  assured,  by  a  distiuguished  sheep-breeder 
in  this  district,  that  the  commonly  received  opinion  on  this  subject 
is  an  erroneous  one,  and  that  he  has  had  many  lambs  got  by 
rams  which  had  undergone  the  mutilation  in  question. 

'I  am  satisfied  that  a  longitudinal  incision,  such  as  I  have  just 
described,  may  be  made  into  the  organ  without  in  any  way 
impairing  its  supposed  functions ;  and  there  need  not,  therefore, 
be  any  reason  to  hesitate  in  such  a  course  of  proceeding  when  the 
circumstances  of  the  case  appear  to  render  it  necessary.  By  such 
means,  with  frequent  fomentations  and  careful  manipulation,  the 
obstruction  may  often  be  removed,  and  the  medicinal  treatment 
already  pointed  out  will  complete  the  cure.  It  is  only  just  to 
add,  also,  that  cases  will  occasionally  be  met  with  in  which  the 
accumulations  are  so  abundant,  occupying  not  only  the  urethra, 
but  also  the  bladder,  ureters,  and  even  the  kidney  itself,  that  no 


250  DISEASES    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

treatment  can  be  of  any  service.  Such  cases  may  always  be 
distinguished  by  observing  that  little  or  no  relief  follows  the 
removal  of  the  deposit  from  the  penal  portion  of  the  urethra,  and 
from  the  greater  amount  of  constitutional  disturbance  which 
marks  their  progress.  Once  satisfied  that  the  extent  of  the 
mischief  is  such  as  to  preclude  all  hope  of  remedy,  the  flockmaster 
must  have  recourse  to  the  butcher's  knife  as  soon  as  possible,  as 
the  whole  system  now  rapidly  becomes  so  thoroughly  impregnated 
with  urine  that  the  meat  is  no  longer  wholesome  as  food.' 


PAKTURITION,    AND    THE    DISEASES    CONNECTED    WITH    IT. 

Parturition. — The  usual  period  for  lambing  with  the  greater 
number  of  sheep  in  this  country  is  the  months  of  March  and 
April :  sometimes  an  earlier  period  is  attained,  in  order  that  the 
lambs  should  be  sooner  fatted  for  the  market ;  and  with  the 
Dorset  and  Somersetshire  sheep,  the  lambs  are  generally  dropped 
before  Christmas.  It  often  happens  that  during  the  lambing 
season  we  have  cold  inclement  weather ;  either  the  rain  or  snow  of 
February,  or  the  bleak  winds  of  March  prevail,  and  both  ewes 
and  lambs  suff"er  much  in  consequence,  and  many  are  destroyed. 
There  is  no  economy  so  thriftless  in  the  whole  range  of  agriculture 
as  that  which  denies  the  ewes  proper  shelter  at  this  period.  They 
should  either  be  driven  nightly  into  yards  or  cots  properly  pro- 
tected, or  this  protection  should  be  afforded  in  the  field  by  means 
of  double  rows  of  hurdles  lined  with  straw,  with  a  still  more 
protected  pound  or  inclosure.  The  shepherd  or  lamber  should  be 
perpetually  on  the  watch,  and  the  eye  of  the  master  should 
superintend  the  whole.  A  little  manual  assistance  opportunely 
afforded,  the  extrication  of  an  ewe  from  a  dangerous  position  or 
very  exposed  situation,  these  and  similar  means  will  save  a  great 
number ;  and  it  is  well  observed  by  Mr.  Price,  in  his  work  on 
sheep,  that  '  many  lambs  may  be  lost  without  it  being  possible  to 
charge  the  lamber  with  neglect  or  ignorance,  although  greater 
attention  on  his  part  might  save  many  that  otherwise  perish. 
The  practice  of  lambing  is  at  times  very  intricate,  and  is  apt 
to  exhaust  the  patience  of  a  lamber.  Sheep  are  obstinate,  and 
lambing  presents  a  scene  of  confusion,  disorder,  and  trouble 
which  it  is  the  lamber's  business  to  rectify,  and  for  which  he 
ought  always  to  be  prepared.  Some  of  the  ewes  perhaps  leave 
their  lambs,  or  the  lambs  get  intermixed ;  and  the  ewes  that  have 
lost  their  lambs  run  about  bleating,  while  others  want  assistance. 
These  are  only  a  few  of  the  various  occurrences  which  call  for  the 


PARTURITION.  251 

immediate  attention  of  the  lamber,  and  which  render  it  necessary 
that  the  owner  of  the  sheep  should  be  on  the  spot,  and  should 
superintend  the  whole  concern.  In  the  year  1805  I  mentioned 
this  to  one  of  the  greatest  sheep-owners  on  the  Eomney  Marsh, 
who  said  that  he  would  watch  the  lamber  more  attentively  than 
ever :  and  the  consequence  was,  that  in  the  following  spring  he 
was  more  successful  than  he  had  been  in  any  one  of  the  preceding 
twenty-five  years.  Another  master,  pursuing  the  same  plan^ 
saved  200  pairs  of  twins  out  of  800  ewes,  whereas  he  had  never 
before  saved  more  than  100,  and  in  some  years  not  more  than  one 
lamb  to  each  ewe.' 

When  ewes  are  heavy  in  lamb,  they  should  by  all  means  be 
kept  quiet  and  undisturbed  by  dogs.  The  fences,  too,  should  be 
kept  in  good  order;  for  if  cliased  with  dogs,  or  from  any  other 
cause  they  break  their  pasture,  there  is  very  great  danger  of 
abortion  taking  place;  and  this  evil  once  commenced  in  a  flock 
of  sheep,  it  is  difficult  to  say  where  it  will  stop.  At  the  same 
time  they  should  not  be  too  closely  confined,  for  exercise  is  very 
essential  to  breeding  ewes.  They  should  be  in  fair  condition,  but 
not  too  fat ;  and  their  best  place  will  be  some  good  sound  pasture, 
on  which  they  may  have  a  moderate  proportion  of  turnips.  If, 
however,  the  farm  will  not  admit  of  this,  and  other  feed  is  so 
short  that  turnips  must  form  a  main  portion  of  their  food,  they 
should  then  be  folded  on  them  after  the  fat  and  young  sheep,  so 
that  the  greens  and  most  succulent  part  of  the  turnips  may  have 
been  already  eaten,  leaving  only  the  driest  but  most  wholesome  part. 
It  is  preferable  that  the  ewes  should  be  somewhat  deficient  in 
condition,  rather  than  this  condition  should  be  procured  by  means 
of  turnips.  It  is  a  very  useful  plan  (adopted  by  many  breeders) 
to  drive  the  ewes  into  a  straw-yard  every  night,  which,  if  it  is  at 
some  distance  from  the  turnip-field,  will  be  of  no  consequence  if 
they  are  not  driven  hastily.  Where  sheep-breeding  is  syste- 
matically and  judiciously  followed,  the  owner  or  the  shepherd  will 
be  able  to  tell,  with  a  tolerable  degree  of  correctness,  which  ewes 
first  took  the  ram,  and  consequently  which  may  be  expected  to 
yean  first.  This  will  save  trouble,  and  in  many  cases  prevent  loss, 
by  selecting  these  ewes,  and  separating  them  from  the  others. 
When  the  important  and  anxious  time  of  lambing  commences, 
the  utmost  vigilance  should  be  exercised ;  but,  at  the  same  time, 
the  operations  of  nature  must  not  be  hastily  interfered  with. 

The  following  very  useful  observations,  from  an  essay  by 
Mr.  Cleeve,  in  vol.  i.  of  the  '  Journal  of  the  R.  A.  S.  E.,'  are 
worthy  of  much  consideration  : — '  The  shepherd  must  not  be  led, 
by  the  appearance  of  uneasiness  and  pain,  to  interfere  prematurelv: 


2o2  DISEASES    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

jie  must  watcii  the  evre  closely,  and  so  long  as  she  rises  at  his 
approach,  he  may  be  assured  that,  whatever  uneasiness  she  may 
exhibit,  all  is  well.  Much  uneasiness  is  generally  apparent ;  she 
will  repeatedly  lie  down,  and  rise  again  with  seeming  distress.  If 
this  occurs  when  driving  her  to  fold,  he  must  be  very  cautious 
and  gentle  in  urging  her.  These  symptoms  ought  to  be  continued 
for  two  or  three  hours,  or  even  more,  before  he  feels  imperatively 
called  on  to  interfere,  except  the  lamb  is  in  such  a  position  as  to 
warrant  fears  of  losing  it.  In  cold  weather,  particularly,  the 
labour  is  likely  to  be  protracted.  Should  the  ewe  appear  ex- 
hausted, and  gradually  sinking  under  her  labour,  it  will  be  right 
to  give  her  some  oatmeal  gruel,  with  a  little  linseed,  in  the  pro- 
portion of  a  spoonful  of  the  latter  to  two  of  the  former.  When 
the  ewe  feels  that  she  is  unable  of  herself  to  expel  the  lamb,  she 
will  quietly  submit  to  the  shepherd's  assistance.  In  giving  her 
this  assistance,  his  first  duty  is  to  ascertain  whether  the  presenta- 
tion is  natural.  The  natural  presentation  is  with  the  muzzle  fore- 
most, and  a  foot  on  each  side  of  it.  Should  all  be  right  in  this 
respect,  he  must  proceed  to  disengage  the  lamb,  first  very  gently 
drawing  down  the  legs,  and  with  all  possible  tenderness  smoothing 
and  facilitating  the  passing  of  the  head  with  his  fingers,  rather 
than  forcibly  extricating  it,  the  particular  attention  of  the  shep- 
herd being  given  to  these  points.  This  may  be  eftected  by  passing 
the  finger  up  the  rectum  until  he  feels  the  back  of  the  lamb's 
head,  and  then  urging  it  forwards  at  the  same  time  that  he  gently 
pulls  the  legs.  Sometimes  the  head  is  sufficiently  advanced,  but 
the  legs  are  too  backward.  In  this  case  the  head  must  be  gently 
pushed  back,  and  the  hand  being  well  oiled  must  be  introduced 
into  the  vagina,  and  applied  to  the  legs  so  as  to  place  them  in 
their  natural  position,  equal  with  the  head.  Should  the  fore-feet, 
on  the  other  hand,  protrude,  they  must  in  like  manner  be  re- 
turned, and  the  same  assistance  given  to  advance  the  head.  If  the 
hinder  quarters  present  themselves  first,  the  hand  must  be  applied 
to  get  hold  of  both  the  hind  legs  together,  and  draw  them  gently 
but  firmly ;  the  lamb  may  often  be  easily  removed  in  this  posi- 
tion. It  is  no  uncommon  occurrence  to  find  the  head  of  the  lamb 
protruding  and  much  swollen ;  but  still,  by  patience  and  gentle 
manipulation,  it  may  often  be  gradually  brought  forward ;  or  even 
nature,  not  unduly  interfered  with,  will  complete  her  work  if  the 
pelvis  is  not  very  much  deformed.  Should,  however,  the  strength 
of  the  mother  be  rapidly  wasting,  the  head  may  be  taken  away, 
and  then,  the  operator  pushing  back  the  lamb,  may  introduce  his 
hand,  and  laying  hold  of  the  fore  legs,  eff'ect  the  delivery.  It  al>o 
often  happens  that  the  legs  are  thrust  out  to  the  shoulder,  and 


PARTUrJTION.  253 

from  the  throes  of  the  ewe  it  is  not  possible  to  replace  them  so  as 
to  get  up  the  head  of  the  lamb.  By  partially  skinning  the  legs 
you  may  disunite  them  from  the  shoulder-joint;  there  will  then 
be  room  for  the  introduction  of  the  hand,  and  by  laying  hold  ot 
the  head  you  can  deliver  the  ewe.  A  single  season  of  practice 
will  do  more  than  volumes  of  writing,  to  prepare  the  farmer  for 
the  preceding  and  some  other  cases  of  difficult  labour.  But  let 
him  bear  in  mind  that,  as  a  general  rule,  the  foetus  should,  if 
possible,  be  placed  in  its  natural  position  previously  to  any  attempt 
to  extricate  it  by  force.  "When  force  must  be  used,  it  should  be 
as  gentle  as  is  consistent  with  the  object  of  delivery.  I  need 
scarcely  observe  that  the  ewe  must  be  the  object  of  careful  nursing 
and  care  until  she  is  completely  restored. 

In  an  excellent  Prize  Essay  contained  in  vol.  xii.  of  the 
'  Journal  of  the  E.  A.  S.  E.,'  Mr.  Sibbald  makes  the  following 
remarks : — 

^Almost  every  shepherd  considers  himself  an  adept  at  lambing 
his  ewes ;  and  when,  from  a  false  presentation,  or  twins,  or  an 
unusually  large-sized  foetus,  causing  protracted  parturition,  he 
thinks  himself  called  upon  to  interfere,  he  proceeds  to  extract  the 
Ictmb  at  once,  without  regarding  the  violence  used,  and  the  manner 
in  which  he  accomplishes  his  object — his  object  being,  at  all 
hazards,  to  bring  the  foetus  away  from  the  mother.  The  symptoms 
after  these  operations  are  usually  great  prostration  of  strength ; 
the  animal  is  unwilling  to  rise ;  in  a  few  hours  she  begins  to 
breathe  quickly  ;  the  ears,nose,  udder,  and  legs  are  cold ;  the  ex- 
ternal genitals  are  swollen  and  intensely  red,  and  there  is  a  bloody 
serous  discharge  from  the  vagina.  As  the  disease  progresses  the 
breathing  becomes  panting ;  the  ewe  throws  herself  prostrate  on 
her  side ;  her  paunch  is  filled  with  gas ;  the  extremities  and  udder 
are  deathly  cold,  and  the  blood-vessels  on  the  latter  are  filled  with 
congested  blood,  causing  a  dark  blue  colour ;  the  genitals  have  now 
also  become  cold,  and  the  colour  is  changed  to  a  pui-ple,  the  head 
is  drawn  back  to  the  spine,  and,  after  a  few  convulsive  struggles, 
she  expires.  When  an  ewe  separates  herself  from  the  others, 
and  is  evidently  about  to  lamb,  no  long  time  should  elapse  before 
the  shepherd  satisfies  himself  if  this  act  has  been  accomplished ; 
and  if  it  has  not,  he  should  gently  ascertain  if  there  be  any  pre- 
sentation ;  that  is,  if  any  portion  of  the  lamb  has  advanced  into  the 
vaginal  passage;  if  it  has,  he  should  further  ascertain  if  it  is 
coming  in  a  natural  position,  with  the  head  and  fore-feet  first ;  if 
so,  he  may  leave  her  to  herself,  and  no  harm  will  accrue.  If  the 
presentation  be  a  false  one,  he  should  at  once  proceed  to  facilitate 
delivery,  and  the  assistance  of  an  experienced  operator  should  be 


254  DISEASES    OF    THE    SHEEP 

immediately  obtained.  After  delivery,  a  small  quantity  ot  diges- 
tive ointment  or  liniment  should  be  introduced  into  the  cavity  of 
the  vagina,  with  a  view  to  counteract  a  typhoid  or  gangrenous 
tendency.  If  great  force  has  been  used,  or  the  labour  has  been 
protracted,  with  much  consequent  exhaustion,  half-a-pint  of  oat- 
meal gruel  with  a  gill  of  sound  beer,  warmed,  and  from  two  to 
four  drams  of  laudanum,  should  be  administered,  and  repeated 
at  intervals  of  three  or  four  hours,  the  same  quantities  of  nitric 
ether  being  substituted  for  the  laudanum  if  the  pain  is  not  so 
violent,  and  the  animal  seems  to  rally  a  little.  But  if  the  ewe  is 
not  much  distressed  at  the  onset,  two  ounces  of  Epsom  salts,  with 
two  drams  of  laudanum,  will  form  the  proper  medicine,  gruel 
being  supplied  to  her  occasionally.  When  the  ewe  appears  to  be 
recovering  she  should  be  shut  up  in  a  house  for  several  days,  and 
if  her  lamb  be  alive,  it  should  be  returned  to  her ;  but  if  it  be 
dead,  and  there  is  no  substitute  lamb  for  her,  the  udder  should  be 
drawn  with  the  hand  for  a  few  days.  The  parts  may  be  dressed 
occasionally  with  the  digestive,  or,  if  much  fetor  is  present  with 
sloughing,  the  solution  of  chlorinated  lime  may  be  used.  Any 
lesions  of  the  labia  had  better  be  drawn  together  by  suture  ; 
although,  if  slight,  they  usually  heal  readily.  The  placenta  is 
sometimes  retained  in  old  and  weakly  ewes,  or  after  manual 
assistance  has  been  afforded  in  the  extraction  of  the  foetus,  and  its 
decomposition  goes  on  rapidly.  Some  tonic  medicine,  composed 
of  a  gill  of  warm  beer,  with  from  two  to  four  drams  of  nitre, 
two  drams  of  powdered  gentian,  and  a  little  ginger,  will  form 
the  best  cleansing  drench ;  and  if  the  membranes  have  not  come 
away  on  the  following  day,  they  should  be  gently  pulled  with  the 
hand,  and  often  in  a  few  hours  they  will  be  expelled. 

The  last  subject  to  be  noticed  is  retention  of  the  foetus  in  the 
uterus  ;  and  this  occasionally  occurs  in  the  ewe.  Sometimes  even 
no  parturient  pains  at  all  will  be  observed,  but  the  foetus  can  be 
felt  with  the  laand  through  the  walls  of  the  abdomen ;  in  other 
cases  the  throes  will  come  on  about  the  usual  period  of  parturi- 
tion, but  the  fcetus  will  not  advance  from  the  womb,  and  no 
assistance  can  be  rendered  until  there  is  a  presentation.  These 
pains  gradually  abate,  and  in  the  majority  of  cases  the  ewe  will 
fatten  rapidly,  the  foetus  being  found  after  she  is  slaughtered, 
generally  in  an  almost  natural  state,  although,  if  much  time  has 
elapsed,  the  process  of  absorption  will,  to  a  certain  extent,  have 
taken  place.  The  intrinsic  value  of  the  ewe  will  rarely  balance 
against  the  risk  of  future  loss.  A  word  or  two  may  be  said  as  to 
the  condition  of  ewes  at  the  lambing  season;  and  observation  has 
confirmed  the  opinion  that,  however  much  a  plethoric  condition 


ABOETION.  255 

conduces  to  disease  in  wethers  and  stores  of  all  kinds,  yet  the 
reverse  obtains  with  the  pregnant  ewe.  The  flock  that  has  been 
badly  kept,  the  animals  being  poor  and  lean  at  the  time  of  par- 
turition, will  be  the  flock  in  which  the  greatest  losses  both  of 
ewes  and  lambs  take  place. 

The  increased  value  of  sheep  renders  it  more  important  than 
ever  to  bestow  great  attention  at  the  period  of  lambing,  so  as  to 
save  as  many  lives  as  possible. 

The  following  useful  hints  on  the  subj  ect  are  given  by  Professor 
Tanner : — 

*The  fold  enclosed  by  the  double  row  of  hurdles  is  divided 
into  two  generally  equal  portions  from  east  to  west,  and  on  the 
north  side  of  the  fold  a  series  of  little  pens  are  made,  each  being 
about  one  hurdle  square,  and  these  are  also  separated  by  straw 
and  double  hurdles,  and  enclosed  in  front  by  an  ordinary  hurdle. 
If  the  ewes  were  going  to  lamb  at  the  rate  of  fifty  a  week,  I  would 
have  twenty  of  such  pens  made ;  and  if  the  room  on  the  north 
side  of  the  fold  is  not  sufficient,  then  use  the  east  side  in  the  same 
way;  thus  a  favourable  aspect  is  secured,  and,  by  the  temporary 
roof  thrown  over,  the  sheep  have  thus  an  excellent  shelter  pre- 
pared for  them.  The  whole  is  well  littered  with  straw.'  In 
view,  however,  of  the  facility  with  which  shedding  can  be  erected, 
and  its  comparative  cheapness,  it  is  questionable  whether  it  would 
not  be  the  better  plan  to  have  regular  sheep-sheds  constructed  in 
which  the  lambing  could  be  carried  on. 

Shelter  could  be  also  provided  for  the  shepherd,  and  every 
accommodation  afforded  him  in  case  of  sickness  of  the  ewes  or  of 
the  lambs.  In  the  shepherd's  shed  a  fire  should  be  able  to  be 
made;  for,  as  Professor  Tanner  well  remarks,  many  a  lamb  has 
been  saved  by  being  brought  to  a  fire  when  it  has  been  dropped  in 
rough  weather,  and  has  got  chilled.  The  same  authority  recom- 
mends that  the  shepherd  should  be  supplied  with  a  stock  of  milk 
for  weakly  lambs,  and  also  with  gin  and  peppermint,  to  be  used 
as  cordials  where  required. 

Abortion. — Though  not  so  common  as  in  cows,  this  disease, 
as  it  may  be  termed,  sometimes  occurs  very  extensively,  and 
becomes  of  serious  consequence  to  the  sheep-owner,  disarranging 
all  his  plans,  as  well  as  occasioning  a  severe  pecuniary  loss.  It 
may  occur  at  all  periods  of  pregnancy,  but  is  most  frequent  when 
the  ewe  is  about  half  gone.  The  causes  of  abortion  are  various — 
sudden  fright,  jumping  over  hedges  or  ditches,  being  worried  with 
dogs,  and  the  two  free  use  of  salt,  have  all  been  known  to  produce 
it;  but  that  which  causes  it  more  than  anything  else  is  the 
unlimited  use  of  turnips  and  succulent  food.  Many  farniers 
may  have  doubtless  been  in  the  habit  of  permitting  this  with 


256  DISEASES    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

impunity,  and  would  therefore  be  disposed  to  doubt  tlie  evil 
consequences  of  tbe  practice ;  but  it  is  not  in  every  season  that 
it  is  attended  with  danger  :  but  when  vegetation  has  been  abun- 
dant in  the  autumn,  and  the  winter  has  been  unusually  wet,  there 
is  considerable  probability  of  the  ewes  casting  their  lambs.  Such 
has  been  the  case  after  a  wet  autumn  in  numerous  instances  in 
this  county  (Hants),  which  have  come  under  my  own  particular 
attention.  One  farmer  had  nearly  a  hundred  aborted,  and  lost  a 
good  many  of  the  ewes.  They  had  been  turned  on  a  fine  field  of 
turnips,  and  subsisted  entirely  on  them  and  water-meadow  hay  for 
some  time  previous  to  the  commencement  of  the  mischief,  which 
began  soon  after  Christmas  and  continued  for  several  weeks. 
Though  the  greater  number  of  ewes  recovered_,  yet  they  suffered 
much,  and  some  died  from  inflammation  of  the  womb,  and  others 
became  paralysed. 

The  symijtoms  first  manifested  are  dulness  and  refusal  to  feed  : 
the  ewe  will  be  seen  moping  at  a  corner  of  the  fold,  and  will  be 
heard  to  bleat  more  than  usual.  To  these  succeed  restlessness, 
and  often  trembling,  with  slight  labour  pains  ;  and  in  the  course 
of  twelve  hours  abortion  will  have  taken  place.  Sometimes  the 
parts  will  be  so  relaxed,  that  the  uterus  or  vagina  will  become 
inverted,  and  the  expulsion  of  the  placenta  will  precede  that  of  the 
foetus.  In  the  flock  before  alluded  to  the  lamb  was  almost  univer- 
sally dead,  and  often  exceedingly  oflensive,  and  the  abdomen  was 
distended  with  a  bloody,  watery  fluid,  pointing  out  pretty  clearly 
the  nature  and  source  of  the  disease. 

The  treatment  to  be  adopted  is  of  two  kinds,  preventive  and 
curative ;  the  former,  however,  is  the  most  important.  In  the  first 
place  it  is  imprudent  to  turn  ewes  in  lamb  into  turnips  j  they 
should  have  instead  some  dry  pasture,  and  be  well  supplied  with 
hay.  If  feed  is  short,  the  turnips  may  be  drawn  and  given  them 
on  the  ground  in  moderate  quantities  ;  or  what  is  better,  cut  up  and 
mixed  with  chafl"  or  bruised  corn  in  troughs.  It  is  better  that  the 
condition  of  the  ewes  be  in  some  degree  impaired,  than  that  so 
great  a  danger  as  abortion  should  be  incurred.  If  this  precaution 
has  not  been  observed,  and  abortion  should  appear,  what  then  is  to 
be  done  ?  The  flock  should  be  removed  from  the  turnips  to  a  dry 
pasture,  and  supplied  with  the  best  hay  on  the  farm ;  the  aborted 
parts  should  be  carefully  buried,  and  the  ewe  removed  from  the 
rest ;  and,  if  possible,  the  same  man  that  attends  the  flock  should 
not  touch  or  go  near  the  abortion,  for  there  is  very  considerable 
danger  from  infection.  The  ewe  should  be  placed  in  a  sheltered 
situation,  but  allowed  plenty  of  fresh  air,  and  the  following 
medicine  may  be  given  with  some  nourishing  gruel: — 


DISEASES    CONNECTED    WITH    PARTURITION.  257 

Epsom  salts J  ounce. 

Tincture  of  opium         ....     1  dram. 
Powdered  camphor       .        .        .        -    h     }> 

Tlie  two  latter  medicines  may  he  repeated  the  following  day,  but 
not  the  salts,  unless  the  bowels  are  confined. 

The  immediate  cause  of  death  in  fatal  cases  is  inflammation  of 
the  uterus  or  womb. 

Dropsy  of  tbe  Abdomen. — Another  bad  effect  arising-  from 
the  too  free  use  of  turnips  and  succulent  food  is  dropsy  of  the  ab- 
domen of  the  ewe,  which  gradually  increases  in  size,  and  at  length, 
abouta  few  weeks  before  parturition,  produces  death  from  weakness 
and  exhaustion. 

In  other  cases  the  lamb  is  born  alive,  but  soon  pines  away, 
refuses  to  suck,  and  dies  in  a  few  days  with  the  abdomen  distended 
with  serum — xvater-helUed,  as  it  is  commonly  termed. 

The  only  thing  that  can  be  advised  in  the  latter  case  is  preven- 
tion, by  the  avoidance  of  the  exciting  causes ;  but  dropsy  in  the 
ewe  has  been  relieved  by  the  operation  of  tapping,  and  though  in 
such  cases  our  prognosis  must  be  extremely  doubtful,  yet  the  fol- 
lowing case  appears  to  sanction  favourable  hopes : — 

This  singular  and,  we  believe,  original  operatioa  was  performed 
at  Laxton,  by  Mr.  Esam,  of  that  village.  'A  ewe  sheep  was 
almost  dying  from  the  effects  of  dropsy,  when  Mr.  Esam  proposed 
that  he  should  be  permitted  to  try  the  effects  of  tapping.  His 
suggestion  being  approved  of,  he  made  an  incision  in  the  side  of 
the  animal,  into  which  he  introduced  a  piece  of  elder  as  a  tube, 
and  took  from  the  sheep  not  less  than  eight  gallons  of  water.  It 
soon  began  to  revive,  and  soon  regained  perfect  health.  The 
ewe  was  four  years  old ;  the  pasturage  on  which  she  had  been 
fed  consisted  of  low  ground.  The  incision  was  made  on  the  right 
side,  about  four  inches  down  the  flank.  The  ewe  has  done  well 
since  the  operation,  and  there  does  not  appear  to  be  any  return  of 
the  disease.' 

A  Disease  previous  to  Xiaxnbing'. — Although  the  ewe 
throughout  the  greater  portion  of  the  period  during  which  she  is  with 
lamb  is  in  a  good  state  of  health,  and  often  enjoys  an  immunity  from 
diseases,  such  as  the  rot,  &c.,  to  which  other  sheep  are  liable,  yet 
as  the  period  draws  near  she  becomes  susceptible  to  various  dis- 
eases, some  anterior,  though  more  subsequent  to  parturition.  Of 
the  former,  the  following  communication  to  vol.  xiv.  of  the 
'  Veterinarian  '  affords  rather  a  singular  instance  : — 

^  A  nobleman,  a  very  extensive  agriculturist  and  grazier,  has 
within  a  few  days  lost  several  of  his  best  true  Down  ewes  just 
ready  to  drop  their  lambs.     There  are  several  hundreds  of  the  true 


258  DISEASES    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

Leicester  and  Down  Leicester  breeds  in  the  same  flock,  but  they  are 
all  doing  well  at  present.  They  are  pastured  on  a  fine  rich  elevated 
park,  the  feed  short,  folded  at  night,  and  allowed  good  hay.  The 
best  of  them  are  generally  the  first  and  the  most  severely  attacked. 

'  Symptoms. — They  stray  from  the  rest  of  the  flock,  lie  down, 
toss  their  heads,  and  grind  their  teeth.  If  suddenly  disturbed, 
they  jump  up,  and  then  frequently  topple  heels  over  head.  They 
at  length,  however,  rise,  or  lie  and  look  dull,  sleepy,  and  stupid. 
They  walk  stifily,  and  with  their  bellies  tucked  up ;  and  after  going 
a  little  way  they  lie  down  and  are  unable  to  rise.  The  appetite  is 
lost,  and  rumination  ceases.  The  pulse  and  respiration  are  little 
afiected,  except  when  the  animals  are  excited.  The  legs  and  ears 
are  generally  warm,  and  the  mucous  membranes  are  of  their  natural 
colour.  The  disease  generally  terminates  fatally  about  the  fifth 
day  from  the  first  attack.  A  few  that  have  been  bled  seem  to  rally 
a  little,  and  are  certainly  better.  They  were  all  bled  when  the 
disease  first  appeared. 

'  Post-mortem  Examination. — The  liver  very  pale,  of  a  light 
yellow  clay  colour,  and  containing  but  little  blood.  The  Lungs. — 
The  parenchymatous  substance  tilled  with  thousands  of  minute, 
round,  red,  or  yellow  spots,  from  the  size  of  a  pin's  point  to  that 
of  a  pin's  head.  When  cut  into,  they  contain  either  blood  or 
yellow  serum,  in  some  few  pus :  but  from  their  minute  size  it  is 
difficult  for  me  to  describe  them.  The  Brain. — In  that  part  of  the 
dura  mater  opposite  to  and  just  below  the  frontal  sinuses,  there 
was  a  black  and  soft  effusion,  easily  wiped  off.  The  substance  of 
the  brain  was  a  little  softened,  but  otherwise  healthy.  Every 
other  part  of  the  animal  was  minutely  examined,  and  was  per- 
fectly healthy.  The  sheep  were  rather  fat  for  breeding  sheep,  and 
two  fine  lambs  were  in  each.  The  stomachs  and  intestines  were 
healthy  and  contained  but  little  food.' 

The  most  singular  part  of  this  account  is  that  the  disease  was 
confined  to  the  true  Downs,  whilst  the  Leicesters  and  the  half- 
breds  escaped.  Now  this  is  precisely  a  difterent  result  from  what 
we  should  expect  with  regard  to  inflammatory  diseases,  the  Lei- 
cesters being  more  disposed  to  disease  of  this  nature.  The  Downs 
are  also  considered  to  be  better  mothers  and  nurses.  We  can 
scarcely  suppose  that  the  richness  of  the  feed  could  have  been  the 
cause,  as  the  sheep  were  folded  at  night  (unless  they  were  allowed 
the  hay  then  as  well  as  by  day,  which  the  writer  does  not  men- 
tion), and  the  herbage  in  the  month  of  March  is  not  particularly 
nutritious. 

The  symptoms  denote  cerebral  disease,  or  affection  of  the  brain 
from  sympathy  with  the  digestive  organs,  and  the  examination 


DISEASES    CONNECTED    WITH    rARTURITION.  259 

after  deatli  supports  the  former  supposition.  The  true  Downs 
being  alone  affected  might  be  an  accidental  circumstance,  and 
possibly  they  might  have  had  previously  chronic  disease  of  the 
luDgs  and  liver.  In  the  absence  of  a  favourable  solution  of  the 
cause  of  this  disease,  we  should  recommend  a  change  of  pasture, 
less  hay  and  a  few  turnips  instead,  as  precautionary  measures,  if  a 
similar  disease  should  make  its  appearance ;  and  with  regard  to 
remedial  treatment,  blood-letting,  and  a  dose  of  salts,  with  a  seton 
at  the  back  of  the  head. 

Inversion  of  the  Uterus. — Though  this  occasionally  takes 
place  in  the  ewe  at  any  period,  from  sudden  severe  exertion  or 
straining  hard,  yet  it  is  most  frequent  immediately  or  very  shortly 
after  parturition.  In  this  case  it  arises  from  the  violent  spasmodic 
action  of  the  womb,  which  turns  inside  out,  and  protrudes  out  of 
the  sheep. 

No  time  should  be  lost  in  replacing  it.  The  ewe  must  be 
placed  on  her  back,  with  her  hind  parts  somewhat  elevated  ;  and 
the  hands  being  lubricated  with  oil  or  lard,  the  uterus  should  be 
gently  forced  back  into  its  natural  situation.  A  stick  of  metallic 
wire  or  leather  should  then  be  passed  through  the  bearing,  so  as  to 
prevent  a  second  protrusion,  and  yet  to  admit  the  urine  coming 
away.  Twenty  to  thirty  drops  of  the  tincture  of  opium  should  be 
given  in  a  pint  of  gruel,  and  the  ewe  kept  perfectly  quiet  for 
several  days. 

Heaving-,  or  After-pains. — This  disease  is  often  a  severe  loss 
to  sheep-breeders,  not  unfrequently  carrying  off  the  pride  of  their 
flocks,  even  when  the  labour  has  been  natural,  and  the  lamb 
yeaned  without  difficulty.  Lord  Braybrooke  states,  that  on  some 
farms  near  Saffron  Walden  the  mortality  from  this  disease  is  4^ 
per  cent.  The  spasmodic  pains  arise  from  the  violent  contraction 
of  the  womb,  and  the  effort  of  nature  to  restore  it  to  its  natural 
size.  It  is  much  more  severe  with  the  second  or  third  lamb  than 
the  first,  because  each  time  the  womb  becomes  more  dilated,  and 
requires  more  contraction  ;  and  though,  to  a  certain  extent,  it  is  a 
healthy  operation  of  nature,  it  often  passes  beyond  the  bounds  of 
health  and  becomes  disease.  It  usually  appears  about  the  third 
day  after  parturition,  and  the  first  symptom  is  generally  a  frequent 
and  painful  disposition  to  expel  her  urine,  which  is  high  coloured 
or  bloody.  She  breathes  quick,  lies  down,  and  appears  to  have 
spasmodic  pains ;  her  ears  droop,  and  she  takes  no  notice  of  her 
lamb.  On  pressing  her  hind  parts  she  yields^  and  almost  sinks 
to  the  ground ;  and  if  she  moves,  it  is  with  pain  and  difficulty. 
The  hind  parts  often  swell,  and  mortification  follows,  when  the 
pain  in  a  great  measure  ceases,  but  is  soon  followed  by  death. 


260  DISEASES    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

When  the  pains  are  not  inordinate,  it  is  better  not  to  interfere 
with  nature ;  but  when  otherwise,  the  treatment  must  consist 
principally  in  the  administration  of  sedative  medicine,  the  best 
combination  of  which  will  be  the  following  : — Take 

Camphor \  dram. 

Tinctux-e  of  opium        ...  ^  ounce. 

Mix.  To  be  given  with  gruel ;  repeating  the  dose,  somewhat 
diminished,  in  a  few  hours. 

The  spasm  often  continues  in  spite  of  treatment,  and  inflam- 
mation of  the  womb  supervenes ;  and  it  occasionally  prevails 
almost  as  an  epidemic,  destroying  sometimes  a  good  portion  of 
the  flock,  as  the  following  communication  to  vol.  xii.  of  the 
'  Veterinarian '  will  show.  The  writer,  after  stating  that  he  had 
tried  bleeding  and  Epsom  salts  inefl'ectually,  observes  : — ^  We  are 
losing  at  this  time  20  per  cent.  The  attack  commences  from  six 
to  thirty  hours  after  parturition,  and  includes  those  who  have 
experienced  a  difficult  labour,  and  others  who  have  given  birth  to 
their  lambs  without  any  assistance. 

'The  symptoms,  when  first  noticed,  are,  continual  shifting  of 
their  posture,  lying  down  and  getting  up  again  immediately,  the 
ears  hanging  down,  and  the  eyes  looking  dull.  Sometimes  partial  or 
almost  universal  palsy  ensues,  and  mortification  of  the  womb  ter- 
minates the  poor  animal's  sufferings.  I  have  tried  bleeding  a  few 
days  previous  to  their  lambing,  and  immediately  after  parturition, 
but  neither  did  any  good.  The  sheep  are  not  in  high  or  low  con- 
dition ;  some  of  them  have  been  living  on  Swedes,  and  some  on 
white  turnips,  but  they  have  never  had  a  great  quantity.  The 
turnips  are  very  good  for  the  season,  without  much  green  top. 
They  have  also  at  times  had  salted  hay.  When  we  first  began  to 
lose  them,  we  attributed  it  to  the  north-east  winds,  and  the  quan- 
tity of  snow  that  fell  at  the  time  ;  but  we  were  wrong  in  this,  for 
we  are  losing  them  now  that  the  wind  is  south-west.' 

A  similar  mortality  has  prevailed  with  many  other  flocks,  and 
mostly  on  farms  where  it  is  customary  to  keep  the  ewes  pretty 
much  upon  turnips.  In  the  above  instance  we  are  inclined  to 
think  that  the  disease  must  be  connected  with  the  turnip  diet, 
assisted  perhaps  by  the  salted  hay.  Though  both  are  excellent  for 
fattening  sheep,  they  are  neither  to  be  recommended  for  ewes  in 
lamb  :  to  them  hay  should  be  given  without  salt,  and  a  dry  pas- 
ture is  more  suitable  than  the  turnip-field,  where  a  moderate 
quantity  of  turnips  may  be  given  that  have  been  drawn  a  day  or 
two,  by  which  means  much  of  the  watery  portion  will  have  been 


PAETUEIE>-T    FEVER.  261 

evaporated.  If  no  pasture  of  this  sort  is  available,  tlie  ewes  in 
lamb  should  follow  after  the  fatting  sheep  have  been  folded  on  the 
turnips,  so  as  to  have  the  driest  portion  of  the  roots. 

Parturient  Fever  in  Ewes. — Under  this  term  Mr.  Isaac 
Seamen,  in  a  Prize  Essay  contained  in  vol.  xv.  of  the  '  Journal 
of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  England,'  relates  his  ex- 
perience with  various  flocks  of  sheep,  and  thus  describes  the 
symptoms.  The  earliest  symptoms  that  mark  the  commencement  of" 
this  disease  are — first,  the  ewe  suddenly  leaves  her  food,  twitches 
both  hind  legs  and  ears,  and  returns  again  to  her  food ;  during  the 
next  two  or  three  days  she  eats  but  little,  appears  dull  and  stupid  ; 
after  this  time  there  is  a  degree  of  general  weakness,  loss  of  appetite, 
and  giddiness,  and  a  discharge  of  a  dark  colour  from  the  vagina; 
whilst  the  flock  is  driven  from  fold  to  fold,  the  affected  sheep  loiters 
behind  and  staggers  in  her  gait,  the  head  is  carried  downward, 
and  the  eyelids  partly  closed.  If  parturition  takes  place  during 
this  stage  of  the  disease,  and  the  animal  is  kept  warm  and  care- 
fully nursed,  recovery  will  frequently  take  place  in  two  or  three 
days;  if,  on  the  contrary,  no  relief  is  afforded,  symptoms  of  a  typhoid 
character  present  themselves ;  the  animal  is  found  in  one  corner 
of  the  fold,  the  head  down,  and  extremely  uneasy  ;  the  body  is  fre- 
quently struck  with  the  hind  feet,  a  dark  coloured  foetid  discharges 
continue  to  flow  from  the  vagina,  and  there  is  great  prostration 
of  strength.  A  pair  of  lambs  are  now  often  expelled  in  a  high 
state  of  putrefaction,  and  the  ewe  down  and  unable  to  rise  ;  the 
head  is  crouching  upon  the  ground,  and  there  is  extreme  insensi- 
bility ;  the  skin  may  be  punctured,  and  the  finger  placed  under  the 
eyelids,  without  giving  any  evidence  of  pain  ;  the  animal  now 
rapidly  sinks  and  dies,  often  in  three  or  four  days  from  the  com- 
mencement of  the  attack.  Ewes  that  recover  sufi'er  afterwards  for 
some  time  great  weakness,  and  many  parts  of  th6  body  become 
denuded  of  wool. 

Treatment. — The  ewe  immediately  noticed  ill  should  be  re- 
moved from  the  flock  to  a  warm  fold  apart  from  all  other  sheep, 
and  be  fed  with  oatmeal  gruel,  bruised  oats,  and  cut  hay,  with  a 
little  linseed  cake.  If  in  two  or  three  days  the  patient  continues 
ill,  is  dull  and  weak,  with  a  dark-coloured  fetid  discharge  from  the 
vagina,  and  apparently  uneasy,  an  attempt  to  remove  the  lambs 
should  be  made.  The  lamb  in  many  cases  at  this  period  is  dead, 
and  its  decomposition  is  a  frequent  cause  of  giddiness  and  stupor  in 
the  ewe.  If  the  os  uteri  is  not  sufficiently  dilated,  it  and  the  vaginal 
cavity  should  be  smeared  every  three  hours  with  the  extract  of 
belladonna,  and  the  following  medicine  should  be  given  : — 


262  DISEASES    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

Calomel 8  grains 

Extract  hyoscyamus    ....     1  dram. 
Oatmeal  gruel S  ounces. 

Mix,  and  give  two  table-spoonfuls  twice  a  day, 

Epsom  salts 8  ounces. 

Nitre ^  ounce. 

Carbonate  of  soda        ....     2  ounces. 
Water 1  pint. 

Mix,  and  give  two  wine-glasses  fall  at  the  same  time  the  former 
mixture  is  given.  Let  both  mixtures  be  kept  in  separate  bottles, 
and  well  shaken  before  given.  The  bowels  hemg  operated  upon, 
omit  both  former  prescriptions,  and  give  the  following : — 

Nitre ^  ounce. 

Carbonate  of  soda        ....     1  ounce. 

Champhor 1  dram. 

Water 8  ounces. 

A  wine-glass  to  be  given  twice  a  day.  Feed  the  ewe  principally 
upon  gruel  and  milk,  or  linseed  porridge.  Parturition  having 
taken  place,  the  uterus  should  be  injected  with  a  solution  of 
chloride  of  lime,  in  the  proportion  of  a  dram  to  a  pint  of  warm 
water,  and  repeated  twice  a  day  whilst  any  fetid  discharge  from 
the  vagina  remains. 

Garget. — This  disease,  which  is  an  inflammatory  affection  of  the 
udder,  is  less  frequent  in  the  sheep  than  in  the  cow.  It  maybe  pro- 
duced by  lying  in  the  cold  and  wet ;  and  it  is  stated  also  by  the 
hardness  of  the  ground,  or  from  constitutional  derangement.  It  will 
first  be  denoted  by  disinclination  or  refusal  to  allow  the  lamb  to 
suck,  and  one  or  more  of  the  teats  will  be  found  red  and  tender 
and  swollen,  and  sometimes  the  udder  itself  will,  even  at  this 
stage,  be  found  wholly  or  partially  enlarged,  and  hard  knots  or 
tumors  will  be  felt. 

An  ounce  or  two  of  Epsom  salts,  with  a  dram  of  ginger,  should 
be  given  the  ewe,  dissolved  in  warm  gruel  or  water,  and  the  udder 
should  then  be  fomented  with  water  as  hot  as  she  can  well  bear  it 
for  some  time  together,  and  the  lamb  may  afterwards  be  allowed 
to  suck  her.  The  fomentation,  if  necessary,  should  be  repeated, 
and  then  the  camphor  ointment  may  be  rubbed  in  twice  a  day.  If 
the  swelling  continues,  and  matter  forms,  it  should  at  once  be 
opened  by  a  free  incision,  and  the  escape  of  the  pus  assisted  by  pres- 
sure and  renewed  fomentation.  If  the  wound  smells  in  the  least 
degree  unpleasant,  it  should  be  syringed  with  a  weak  solution  of 
chloride  of  lime  for  several  days. 

The  garget  sometimes  makes  its  appearance  suddenly,  and  in 
80  formidable  a  manner,  that  it  becomes  fatal  in  the  course  of 


GARGET.  263 

twenty-four  hours  from  the  supervention  of  mortification.  It 
should  be  met  by  the  most  active  treatment,  and  the  constant  ap- 
plication of  a  hot  fomentation.  A  not  unfrequent  cause  of  inflam- 
mation of  the  udder  is  from  a  ewe  having  t-^ins,  and  one  of  them 
having  been  taken  from  her,  and  the  other  lamb  allowed  to  suck 
from  the  same  side  as  before,  as  it  generally  will ;  the  consequence 
of  which  is,  the  milk  accumulates  on  one  side,  and  inflammation 
follows.  This  effect  can  of  course  be  obviated  by  the  shepherd 
obliging  the  remaining  lamb  to  suck  from  both  teats.  The  udder 
of  every  ewe  should  be  examined  by  the  shepherd  immediately 
after  yeaning,  in  order  to  ascertain  whether  milk  can  be  drawn 
readily  from  both  teats.  It  should  also  be  observed  afterwards 
from  time  to  time,  as  early  attention  will  in  many  cases  save  the 
ewe  from  this  troublesome  and  dangerous  disease. 

Sometimes,  from  the  efi'ects  of  garget,  some  portion  of  the 
udder  becomes  hard — schirrous,  as  it  is  termed — and  of  course  no 
longer  secretes  milk.  Such  a  ewe  should  invariably  be  drafted 
and  fatted.  In  more  favourable  cases,  or  perhaps  simply  from  sore- 
ness of  the  teats,  their  openings  become  closed,  and  the  passages 
impervious ;  and  this  is  only  discovered  after  the  ewe  has  had 
another  lamb,  and  it  attempts  to  suck.  An  endeavour  should  first 
be  made  to  insinuate  a  small  probe  into  the  entrance,  but  if  this 
fails,  a  knitting-needle  should  be  made  red-hot,  and  with  this  an 
opening  should  be  made,  taking  care  not  to  carry  it  deeper  than 
necessary,  nor  to  deviate  from  a  straight  line.  After  this  the  lamb, 
by  frequent  sucking,  will  keep  the  passage  clear. 

Garget,  or  inflammation  of  the  udder,  observes  Mr.  Sibbald  in 
his  prize  essay  elsewhere  quoted,  is  of  frequent  occurrence  in  the 
ewe,  but  its  effects  are  not  so  serious  as  in  the  cow,  for  the  ewe  is 
only  wanted  to  supply  sufficient  milk  for  her  lamb,  and  it  is  seldom 
that  the  animal  with  twins  is  effected.  The  only  primary  source 
of  this  complaint  is  the  liability  before  noticed  of  the  fever  always 
attendant  upon  parturition  becoming  localised,  or  determined  to 
some  particular  organ.  The  proximate  or  determining  causes  are, 
lying  on  wet  lairs  or  pastures,  or  when  the  early  spring  nights  are 
frosty.  Mechanical  injuries  are  but  very  rarely  the  cause  of  the 
affection.  It  is  injurious  to  force  the  teats  much,  as,  when  the 
disease  is  fully  established,  the  secretion  from  the  gland  is  nearly 
suspended.  A  dose  of  physic — from  two  to  three  ounces  of  Epsom 
salts — with  two  drams  of  ginger  to  insure  its  purgative  action, 
should  be  administered.  Bleeding  will  hardly  be  called  for.  There 
is  less  ability  to  bear  disease  in  the  ewe  than  in  the  cow,  and  it  will 
be  unable  to  bear  the  adoption  of  debilitating  remedial  measures. 
Fomentations  should  be  applied  to  the  udder  twice  daily  5  the 


264  DISEASES    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

wool  should  be  clipped  away,  and  goulard- water  applied.  The 
ewe  must  be  housed  and  supplied  with  some  clean  soft  litter.  In 
many  cases  the  animals  are  all  folded  at  nighty  but  the  shelter  of 
the  ailing  one  should  extend  even  to  the  day.  The  diet  may  con- 
sist of  turnips,  hay,  and  a  few  bruised  oats.  After  the  operation 
of  the  physic,  provided  the  disease  be  not  checked,  some  medicine 
of  a  diuretic  and  febrifuge  nature  will  be  desirable.  From  two  to 
four  drams  of  nitre,  with  two  of  cream  of  tartar,  may  be  given 
once  each  day,  dissolved  in  a  few  ounces  of  chilled  water.  If  the 
swelling  of  the  gland  is  stayed,  and  there  is  less  heat,  the  teats 
should  be  drawn  twice  or  thrice  in  the  day  provided  there  be  a 
secretion  of  milk ;  but  the  lamb  should  not  be  too  soon  returned 
to  her.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  heat  is  very  great,  some  portion 
of  the  gland  will  soon  be  found  to  soften;  pus  is  forming  here ; 
and  as  soon  as  a  fluid  can  be  distinctly  felt,  the  part  should  be 
well  laid  open  ;  but  in  the  meantime  the  soap  liniment,  or  what  is 
better,  some  black  oils,  may  be  diligently  rubbed  in  twice  in  the 
day,  after  fomenting.  If  the  pus  evacuated  is  of  a  white  colour,  it 
should  be  well  squeezed  out,  and  the  wound  dressed  with  the 
digestive  ;  but  if  a  fluid  or  thick  grumous  matter  is  discharged, 
and  the  wound  appears  of  a  livid  hue  with  fetor,  gangrene  has 
probably  commenced.  The  wound  may  be  washed  out  with  the 
chloride  of  lime,  and  afterwards  dressed  with  the  compound  tinc- 
ture of  myrrh  ;  the  contiguous  portions,  which  may  rot  or  become 
a  dead  stinking  mass,  may  without  fear  be  removed  with  the 
knife,  stimulants  afterwards  being  freely  applied.  These  wounds 
will  often  heal  with  great  rapidity.  If  the  whole  of  the  udder  be  a 
mass  of  disease,  it  may  be  removed  by  tying  a  sufficiently  stout 
ligature  tightly  round  its  base,  close  to  the  surface  of  the  bell3\ 
If  the  constitution  suff'er,  as  evidenced  by  loss  of  appetite  and 
rumination,  with  quickened  breathing,  it  is  to  be  feared  that  the 
gangrene  is  extending  to  the  system,  and  the  restorative  plan  of 
treatment,  under  the  head  of  Gangrene  of  the  Womb,  should  be 
resorted  to.  The  ewe  that  has  suffered  from  any  disease  of  the 
udder  should  be  fed  for  the  butcher,  unless  the  recovery  is  perfect 
and  the  ewe  of  peculiar  value.  Inflammation  of  the  udder  from 
retention  of  the  milk,  and  an  inefficient  supply  of  nutriment  to 
the  lamb  ;  in  these  cases  the  lamb  had  better  be  taken  away  for  a 
day  or  two,  and  suckled  from  the  can  ;  the  ewe  will  not  secrete  so 
much  milk  when  the  lamb  is  absent,  and  the  teats  may  be  drawn 
twice  in  the  day  by  the  hand. 

The  following  account  of  a  disease  occurring  amongst  ewes  is 
rather  of  an  unusual  kind.     It  appears  in  a  communication  from 


DISEASES    CONNECTED    WITH    PARTURITION.  265 

the  owner,  Mr.  Buckley,  in  the  'Journal  of  the  R.  A.  S.  E.'  He 
says : — '  Several  ewes  have  been  attacked  with  a  disease  which 
turns  out,  after  death,  to  be  an  affection  of  the  liver.  This  organ 
appears  as  if  it  had  been  parboiled,  and  is  in  the  first  stage  of  de- 
composition ;  the  gall-bladder  is  unnaturally  full ;  but  the  rest  of 
the  intestines  are  in  an  apparently  healthy  state.  Sometimes  a 
violent  purging  comes  on,  and  the  complaint  throughout  is  accom- 
panied with  gi-eat  debility.  Condition  seems  to  have  nothing  to 
do  with  it,  as  those  in  high,  as  well  those  in  low,  have  alike  been 
attacked  with  it;  it  is  confined  entirely  to  ewes  at  different  periods 
after  parturition,  varying  from  fourteen  days  to  a  month,  or  longer. 
Not  a  fluke  has  been  discovered  in  their  livers,  or  any  other  symp- 
tom of  "rot"  whatsoever.  I  think  in  some  cases  the  disease  fixed 
itself  on  the  udder,  with  less  affection  of  the  liver ;  but  it  has 
terminated  fatally  in  every  instance  :  some  have  died  in  forty-eight 
hours,  others  have  lingered  a  fortnight.  Calomel  and  other  purga- 
tives have  been  tried ;  in  cases  where  great  debility  existed,  stimu- 
lants of  different  kinds  have  been  tried;  but  all  to  no  purpose.' 
The  above  account  having  been  submitted  to  Professor  Sewell,  he 
obsei-ved : — '  It  appears  to  be  a  chronic  disease  of  the  liver,  pro- 
duced by  continued  wet  weather,  and  leaving  the  constitution  so 
much  debilitated,  that  the  secretion  of  milk  required  to  nourish 
the  lamb  as  its  growth  advances  increases  the  debility,  imtil 
exhaustion  ensues,  under  which  the  animal  sinks.  Both  the 
depleting  and  stimulating  treatment  having  failed,  1  think  mild 
tonics  should  have  a  trial.  Dissolve  half  an  ounce  of  sulphate  of 
iron  in  a  quart  of  hot  water,  and  give-half  a  pint  twice  a  day.  To 
check  purging,  give  one  ounce  of  finely-powdered  common  chalk 
in  half  a  pint  of  water  daily,  if  required.  Keep  under  shelter, 
and  give  dry  food,  and  a  lump  of  rock-salt  to  lick.' 

Mr.  Sibbold  observes : — 

'A  form  of  hysteritis  sometimes  makes  its  appearance  in  two 
or  three  days  after  parturition.  The  ewe  is  attacked  with  aftet'- 
imins  and  straming,  consequent  either  upon  exposure  to  inclement 
weather,  or  from  the  determination  of  the  accompanying  fever  of 
parturition  to  the  uterus.  In  the  first  stages  of  this  complaint 
the  nose  is  hot  and  dry,  the  breathing  but  little  accelerated,  the 
udder  hot,  swollen,  and  tender ;  the  labia  are  everted  and  of  a 
scarlet  hue;  the  ewe  moves  restlessly  about  and  ceases  to  graze ;  she 
is  annoyed  by  the  attempts  of  her  lamb  to  suck,  and  kicks  it  away. 

*  The  symptoms  enumerated  in  the  other  variety  of  the  disease 
now  rapidly  set  in ;  or,  from  contiguity,  the  peritoneum,  or  mem- 
brane lining  the  cavity  of  the  belly  and  clothing  the  womb,  be- 
comes inflated ;  fluid  is  effused  into  the  cavity  of  the  belly;  the  ewe 

N 


or.a 


DISEASES    OF    THE    SHEEP. 


seldom  rises  unless  disturbed ;  her  breathing  is  heavy,  and  she 
appears  dull  and  depressed^  death  ensuing  in  two  or  three  days. 
Jn  many  parts  of  the  country  this  affection  is  known  by  the  name 
of  Redwater,  from  the  colour  of  the  fluid  found  upon  opening  the 
body.  The  treatment  at  the  commencement  of  this  complaint 
must  be  blood-letting— from  four  to  eight  ounces,  if  so  much  can 
be  obtained,  should  be  abstracted  from  the  facial  vein.  There 
are  few  shepherds  but  can  perform  this  operation,  but  there  are 
still  fewer  who  take  any  care  as  to  the  quantity  of  blood  ab- 
stracted. This  should  not  be  the  case.  When  the  vein  is  made 
visible  by  pressure  over  the  angle  of  the  lower  jaw-bone,  the  open- 
ing should  be  made  with  a  lancet  in  an  oblique  direction  into  the 
vein,  the  blade  of  the  lancet  being  of  tolerable  size.  This  will 
allow  the  blood  to  flow  more  freely  than  if  the  opening  be  made 
longitudinally,  in  a  direction  with  the  course  of  the  vein.  The 
sheep  should  be  held,  pressure  being  still  applied  to  the  jaw  until 
such  time  as  the  operator  considers  enough  blood  has  been 
evacuated,  the  blood  being  caught  in  some  suitable  vessel.  Should 
the  blood  continue  flowing  after  the  pressure  has  been  abandoned, 
the  edges  of  the  wound  may  be  pinched  together  with  the  fingers 
and  a  strip  of  adhesive  plaister  laid  on.  The  professional  attend- 
ant will  alone  be  competent  to  bleed  from  the  jugular,  and  he 
will  rarely  find  it  necessary  to  open  this  vein  in  preference  to  that 
of  the  face.  After  bleeding,  the  saline  purgative,  with  laudanum, 
as  before  noticed,  should  be  administered ;  or,  if  the  bowels  be 
relaxed,  two  ounces  of  linseed-oil  with  the  laudanum  should  be 
substituted,  the  udder  and  shape  being  well  fomented.  If  there 
is  frequent  straining,  a  dram  of  the  extract  of  belladonna  rubbed 
down  with  an  ounce  of  warm  water  may  be  injected  into  the 
vagina  with  a  suitable  syringe.  If  the  sheep  obstinately  persist  in 
lying  down,  and  the  breathing  is  much  hurried,  the  wool  should 
be  clipped  from  the  lower  surface  of  the  belly  and  the  flanks  up  to 
the  udder,  and  a  sufficient  quantity  of  mustard,  mixed  with  spirits 
of  turpentine  to  a  thin  consistence,  should  be  rubbed  in.  The  ewe 
must  be  placed  in  a  comfortable  house,  and,  if  food  is  refused, 
small  quantities  of  thin  oatmeal  gruel  should  be  occasionally 
administered ;  but  a  few  slices  of  turnips  or  mangold  wurzel  may 
be  allowed,  if  she  will  eat  them,  and  a  little  barley-flour  with  cut 
hay.  She  should  yet  be  carefully  nursed  and  sheltered  for  a  few 
days ;  but  if  symptoms  of  gangrene  appear,  the  restorative  plan 
of  treatment  before  recommended  must  bb  adopted.  Any  inordi- 
nate flux  from  the  bowels  should  be  corrected  by  the  administra- 
tion of  chalk  in  half-ounce  doses  with  the  other  medicines,  always 
retainins:  the  full  doses  of  laudanum.' 


PARASITES.  26' 


DISEASES    OF    THE    SKIN. 

The  parasites  which  infest  sheep  are  numerous,  and  are  thus 
classified: — The  Epizoa,  which  live  on  the  skin;  the  Entozoa, 
which  infest  the  internal  structures;  and  the  Ectozoa,  which 
inhabit  both  internal  and  external  parts  for  a  time  only,  whilst 
undergoing-  certain  changes  through  which  they  pass. 

Lice,  ticks  and  mites,  are  examples  of  the  former,  the  most  for- 
midable of  which  is  the  Acanis  ovis — the  cause  of  scab. 

Hydatids  are,  perhaps,  the  lowest  forms  of  animal  life.  One 
called  the  hydatis  ceUulosce,  because  it  infests  the  cellular  tissues, 
is  that  which  is  foimd  in  the  pig,  causing  measly  pork,  which, 
when  partaken  of  by  human  beings,  and  particularly  if  insufficiently 
cooked,  produces  tape-worm  in  the  intestines.  That  which  infests 
the  brain  of  sheep  is  called  the  ccsmirus  cerebralis,  thus  called  from 
having  a  number  of  sucking  discs. 

The  solid  worms  are  called  sterehninthce^  and  consist  of  many 
varieties,  including  both  the  tape-worm  of  the  sheep  and  other 
animals,  and  also  the  distoma  hepatieiim,  the  cause  of  the  rot. 

Scab. — This  troublesome  and  loathsome  disease  is  analogous 
to  the  mange  in  horses,  and  the  itch  in  man.  It  is  decidedly  con- 
tagious, and  when  it  extends  considerably  amongst  a  flock,  it  is 
occasioned  by  infection,  although  filth  and  poverty  will  also  pro- 
duce it.  It  is  not  so  much,  however,  the  actual  contact  of  the 
sheep,  as  the  rubbing  on  the  same  post,  or  other  object,  which 
produces  it,  and  thus  it  has  been  communicated  to  a  sound  flock 
after  the  affected  sheep  had  been  all  removed. 

The  first  symptom  which  calls  attention  to  an  affected  sheep  is 
the  itching,  the  animal  rubbing  itself  against  any  object;  and  it 
has  been  ascertained  that  the  sheep  begins  to  rub  about  twelve 
days  after  ha^^ng  received  the  affection.  It  will  then  be  found 
that  on  the  part  affected  pustules  will  be  visible,  and  the  skin  will 
feel  rough  and  the  pimples  hard.  In  a  few  days  the  pustules  are 
broken  by  the  rubbing,  and  a  fluid  escapes,  which  soon  becomes 
dry,  and  forms  the  scab,  which  gives  the  designation  to  the 
disease.  This  scab,  if  rubbed  off',  exposes  a  sore  which  may  thus 
increase,  and  spread  over  a  good  portion  of  the  body,  the  wool 
being  denuded ;  and  in  the  summer  the  fly  will  attack  the  sore, 
and  the  maggots  eat  into  the  flesh,  and  form  deep  sinuses,  which 
bid  defiance  to  every  remedy. 

It  has  now  been  pretty  clearly  shown  that  the  scab,  like  the  itch 
in  man,  and  the  mange  in  horses,  is  caused  and  propagated  by  means 
of  minute  insects  called  acaii.     These  insects  are  of  both  sexsa, 


263  DISEASES    OF   THE    SHEEP. 

and  no  larger  than  the  hole  formed  by  a  pin  or  needle  of  medium 
size  ;  they  burrow  under  the  skin,  producing  great  irritation  :  and 
•when  the  pustule  dries  they  leave  it  for  another  part,  and  thus 
extend  the  disease  over  the  body,  or  propagate  it  by  contact  with 
an3ther  animal.  The  mode  in  which  this  is  accomplished  has 
been  pointed  out  by  M.  Walz,  a  German,  who  observes :  '  If  one 
or  more  female  acari  are  placed  on  the  wool  of  a  sound  sheep, 
they  quickly  travel  to  the  root  of  it,  and  bury  themselves  in  the 
skin,  the  place  at  which  they  penetrated  being  scarcely  visible,  or 
only  distinguished  by  a  minute  red  point.  On  the  tenth  or  twelfth 
day  a  little  swelling  may  be  detected  with  the  finger,  and  the  skin 
changes  its  colour,  and  has  a  greenish  blue  tint.  The  pustule  is 
now  rapidly  formed,  and  about  the  sixteenth  day  breaks,  and  the 
mothers  again  appear,  with  their  little  ones  attached  to  their  feet, 
and  covered  by  a  portion  of  the  shell  of  the  egg  from  which  they 
have  just  escaped.  These  little  ones  immediately  set  to  work  and 
penetrate  the  neighboming  skin,  and  bury  themselves  beneath  it, 
there  finding  their  proper  nourishment,  and  grow  and  propagate, 
until  the  poor  animal  has  myriads  of  them  to  prey  on  him  and  to 
torment  him,  and  it  is  not  wonderful  that  he  should  speedily  sink. 
Some  of  the  male  acari  were  placed  on  the  sound  skin  of  a  sheep, 
and  they,  too.  burrowed  their  way,  and  disappeared  for  a  while, 
and  the  pustule  in  due  time  arose ;  but  the  itching  and  the  scab 
soon  disappeared  without  the  employment  of  any  remedy.'  It 
therefore  appears  necessary  that  both  sexes  of  the  acari  should  be 
present  in  order  to  propagate  the  disease  to  any  extent,  and  then 
such  are  the  prolific  qualities  of  the  female  (from  eight  to  fifteen 
being  produced  in  a  litter),  that  we  cannot  wonder  that  the 
disease  should  spread  so  extensiyely.  It  is  stated  by  M.  Walz 
that  the  insect  will  even  retain  its  life  throughout  the  winter, 
although  the  greater  number  perish  previously :  and  this  agrees 
with  the  fact  which  we  occasionally  find  that  the  disease  breaks 
out  in  the  spring  in  animals  that  were  thought  to  be  cured.  We 
also  find  that  the  disease  is  generally  more  rife  at  this  period  of 
the  year,  and  the  irritation  produced  is  greater  than  in  cold 
weather. 

The  theory  which  the  German  writer  unfolds  explains  readily 
one  of  the  fertile  causes  of  this  disease,  but  there  is  greater 
difficulty  in  accounting  for  the  manner  in  which  it  is  frequently 
engendered.  We  well  know  that  poverty  is  a  most  fertile  pre- 
disposing cause,  whether  the  disease  be  engendered  or  taken  by 
contagion.  But  in  the  former  instance  this  appears  to  be  in 
obedience  to  a  law  which  obtains  throughout  nature,  that  when 


DISEASES    OF    THE    SKIX.  269 

the  powers  of  vitality  in  an  animal  are  materially  diminished,  it 
becomes  the  habitation  of  other  beings  possessing  life ;  thus  we 
find  flukes  in  rotten  sheep,  worms  in  the  intestines  and  windpipe, 
and  the  acaii  in  the  itch  and  mange.  We  can  ascertain  these 
facts,  but  are  still  in  the  dark  as  to  the  real  origin  of  this  and 
similar  diseases. 

The  treatment  of  this  disease  consists  in  destroying  the  obnoxious 
insects,  and  therefore  requires  a  local  application.  There  are  many 
that  have  been  found  successful,  but  all  demand  much  trouble  in 
their  employment.  Perhaps  one  of  the  most  simple,  as  well  as 
the  most  effectual,  is  that  of  dipping  the  sheep  in  an  infusion  of 
arsenic,  half  a  pound  of  which  will  be  sufficient  for  twelve  gallons 
of  water.  The  infusion  must  be  thoroughly  applied  to  the  skin, 
which  it  should  reach,  as  well  as  saturating  the  wool ;  and  this 
will  be  greatly  facilitated  if  the  sheep  is  previously  washed  with 
soap  and  water.  Care  must,  however,  be  taken  that  the  head  is 
not  dipped,  otherwise  great  danger  will  be  incurred  from  the 
mixture  entering  the  lungs.  Convenient  apparatus  is  now  sold 
for  the  purpose,  together  with  a  prepared  mixture  for  a  solution, 
and  it  has  met  with  the  approbation  of  many  agriculturists,  and 
been  exhibited  at  agiicultural  societies. 

Another  mode  of  cure,  but  attended  with  more  trouble,  is  the 
application  of  mercurial  ointment.  One  part  of  strong  mercurial 
ointment  being  mixed  with  from  three  to  five  parts  of  lard,  should 
be  applied  by  parting  the  wool  and  rubbing  it  into  the  furrows 
from  the  head  to  the  tail,  and  about  four  inches  apart 

The  following  ointment,  applied  in  the  same  manner,  wiU 
generally  be  effectual.     Take 

Lard,  or  palm  oil         ....     2  lbs. 

OU  of  tar i  lb. 

Sulphur       ....  •     1  •, 

The  two  latter  ingredients  being  gradually  mixed  together,  the 
former  should  then  be  rubbed  down  with  it. 

The  following  has  also  been  successfully  employed,  but  being 
very  powerful,  should  not  be  applied  too  freely  : — 

Corrosive  sublimate,  powdered    .        .     i  lb. 

White  hellebore,  powdered  .         .         .     I  ,; 

Whale,  or  other  oil      .        .        .        .6  gallons. 

Resin 2  lbs. 

Tallow 2  „ 

The  two  first  ingredients  to  be  mixed  with  a  little  of  the  oil,  and 
the  rest  being  melted  together,  the  whole  to  be  gradually  mixed. 
Tobacco-water  is    another    remedy   which    has    been    found 


270  DISEASES    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

effectual,  but  tlie  Ligli  duty  it  is  subject  to  limits  its  application. 
A  pound  of  common  tobacco  may  be  infused  or  boiled  in  about 
eight  gallons  of  water,  and  thoroughly  applied,  the  skin  being 
first  well  cleansed  with  soap  and  water. 

Dipping. — Great  care  should  be  exercised  in  the  dipping  of 
sheep :  we  have  known  many  deaths  occur  indirectly  fi-om  the 
employment  of  arsenical  compositions,  sometimes  from  the  sheep 
being  turned  on  pastures  when  wet  from  the  dipping,  and  so  poison- 
ing the  grass  :  at  other  times  deaths  have  occurred  from  other 
animals  and  poultry  getting  access  to  the  mixture  after  it  has  been 
used :  great  care  should,  therefore,  be  exercised  as  to  its  disposal. 
Sulphur  alone,  although  useful  as  an  addition,  is  not  strong 
enough  to  be  relied  on  alone.  In  Australia,  where,  fi'om  the 
great  number  of  sheep  and  dearness  of  labour,  the  subject  has 
been  well  studied,  tobacco,  which  is  there  cheap,  is  combined 
with  advantage.  Mr.  J.  Armand  thus  speaks  of  it  in  the 
'  Veterinarian,'  June  1862  : — 

'  A  bath  is  made  which  contains  1  lb.  of  tobacco  and  1  lb.  of 
sulphur  to  every  5  gallons  of  water,  and  into  this  the  animals  are 
plunged.  The  mixture  is  always  kept  as  warm  as  the  animals  can 
bear  it,  avoiding,  of  course,  extremes.  Coppers  are  erected  to 
boil  the  tobacco,  after  which  the  decoction  is  placed  in  a  large 
dip  or  receptacle,  and  the  sulphur  is  then  added.  These  dips  are 
constructed  of  various  sizes,  and  sunk  in  the  ground.  The  heat 
of  the  mixture  is  kept  up  by  the  addition  of  hot  liqour,  and 
partly  by  the  bodies  of  the  sheep  themselves.  The  dips  should 
not  be  too  large,  as  there  is  then  a  great  difficulty  in  keeping  up 
the  temperature  of  the  fluid.  If  too  small,  however,  there  is  a 
danger  of  the  sheep  striking  on  the  bottom,  when  precipitated 
into  the  receptacle  from  the  pen  above.  A  good  size  is  that 
which  will  hold  ten  or  a  dozen  comfortably  at  one  time. 

'  Having  filled  the  bath,  the  first  lot  of  sheep  are  sometimes 
thrown  in  one  by  one  until  it  is  full ;  but  mostly  they  are  preci- 
pitated from  the  pen,  situated  above  it,  by  tipping  the  floor.  Men 
are  placed  around  the  bath,  who  keep  the  sheep  moving  about, 
and  occasionally,  by  means  of  crutches  with  which  they  are 
furnished,  they  push  the  heads  of  the  sheep  under  the  water. 
The  sheep  are  thoroughly  soaked  in  three  or  four  minutes.  The 
door  communicating  with  the  ''  run  ''  is  then  lifted  up,  and  the 
sheep  pushed  through  it  into  this  passage.  On  the  door  being 
again  let  down,  the  dip  is  ready  for  another  lot.  They  find  their 
way  fi'om  the  "run  "into  the  draining-yards,  which  are  paA'ed 
and  slightly  inclined.  These  yards  being  two,  the  upper  one 
is  first  filled,  and  the  gate  then  shut.     The  lower  one  is  next 


DISEASES    OF    THE    SKIN.  271 

filled ;  and  when  this  is  done,  the  sheep  in  the  upper  yard  are 
allowed  to  go  away,  those  in  the  lower  one  taking  their  place. 
By  this  plan  we  ensure  the  sheep  being  thoroughly  di'ained,  and 
also  save  a  good  deal  of  the  dipping  mixture. 

'  It  is  necessary  to  add  fresh  liquor  from  time  to  time,  to  keep 
up  both  the  heat  and  proper  strength,  and  also  to  supply  the 
place  of  that  which  has  been  used.  The  amount  required  will 
depend  very  much  upon  the  length  of  the  animal's  wool.  The 
sulphur  is  kept  floating  in  the  bath  by  the  agitation  of  the  fluid, 
by  which  means  it  settles  in  the  wool,  acting,  I  have  no  doubt,  as 
the  chief  preventive  of  scab.  When  this  disease  exists  it  is  usual 
to  dip  the  sheep  again  at  the  end  of  a  fortnight ;  but,  in  my 
opinion,  one  thorough  soaking  is  suificient,  if  done  in  hot  liquor. 
The  tobacco  is  best  boiled  in  bags,  as  it  is  then  easily  removed 
from  the  copper  when  its  strength  has  been  extracted.  Leaf 
tobacco  is,  1  think,  the  best;  but  all  the  common  sorts  are  used. 
Many  of  the  settlers  grow  their  own  tobacco ;  but  rather  more  of 
this  is  required,  it  not  being  very  strong.  The  strength  recom- 
mended is  rather  considerable,  if  the  tobacco  is  good.  It  would 
be  more  prudent  to  prepare  with  double  the  quantity  of  water.' 

Professor  Simonds  gives  the  following  as  an  useful  formula 
for  an  arsenical  bath  : — 

Take  of  arsenic  ^  lb.,  soft  soap  ^  lb.,  carbonate  of  potash  4  ozs., 
and  water  20  gals. ;  boil  the  arsenic  and  the  potash  together  in  one 
half  of  the  water,  diss-olve  the  soap  in  the  other  half;  afterwards 
mix  together  for  use.  This  will  make  a  bath  sufficient  for  twenty 
sheep.  It  should  be  used  moderately  warm,  as  it  will  then  be 
found  to  be  more  efficacious  in  the  destruction  of  parasites,  and 
less  hm-tful  to  the  sheep  than  plunging  them  into  the  fluid  when 
cold. 

A  common  sulphur  bath  may  be  prepared  with  soft  soap 
H  lb.,  carbonate  of  potash  ^  lb.,  sulphur  2^  lbs.,  boiled  for  half 
an  hour  in  20  gals,  of  water,  which  will  be  sufficient  for  twenty 
sheep,  and  they  should  be  kept  in  for  some  minutes. 

There  are  many  useful  and  harmless  preparations  sold  by 
chemists  and  others  that  may  be  used  with  advantage  for  dipping 
sheep.  Although  sulphur  is  useful  as  an  addition,  particularly 
where  the  scab  is  feared,  yet  from  its  very  slight  solubility  it  is  for 
the  most  part  merely  suspended  in  watery  decoctions  or  infusions. 
The  different  forms  of  carbolic  acid  have  been  employed  with  great 
success,  and  are  very  harmless  and  safe.  The  Messrs.  MacDougall 
have  given  the  subject  much  attention,  and  their  preparations  are 
highly  recommended. 

Sheep  are  liable  to  another  disease   of  the  skin,  which  oft<?n 


27?  DISEASES    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

puts  on  an  erysipelatous  character.  It  is  attended  Tvith  mucli 
itching,  but  occurs  more  suddenly,  and  consists  of  an  inflammatory 
affection  of  the  skin,  which  causes  small  blisters  full  of  red  and 
"vratery  fluid.  These  of  course  break,  and  a  scab  forms  of  a  black 
colour.  This  disease  has  in  some  places  received  the  term  Ked- 
water,  which  is  very  objectionable,  inasmuch  as  two  other  diseases 
have  received  the  same  designation. 

The  treatment  consists  in  a  cooling  purgative,  and,  if  necessary, 
fome  blood  may  be  also  taken,  and  a  little  oil  or  lard  applied  to 
the  scabs. 

Cutaneous  inflammation  is  occasionally  more  severe  than  that 
above  described,  or  appears  in  other  forms,  and  even  as  an 
epidemic  :  it  has  been  denominated  the  Wild  Fire  (Ignis  sacer). 

Black  IVIuzzle  is  a  local  term  given  to  a  cutaneous  eruption 
of  the  nose,  which  extends  up  the  face.  It  is  probably  produced 
by  the  acrid  nature  of  some  of  the  plants  which  form  the  pasture  in 
particular  localities.  It  may  be  cured  by  means  of  mild  mercurial 
ointment,  or  the  following : — Take 

Sulphate  of  zinc,  finely  poTvdered        .     1  ounce. 
Hog's  lard  .        .       '.        .        .        .    lib. 

To  be  rubbed  up  together. 

The  Variola  Ovina,  or  Small-pox  in  sheep  is,  unquestion- 
ably one  of  the  most  formidable  and  fatal  diseases  which  has  ever 
visited  the  flocks  of  this  country.  Though  new  to  Britain,  it  has 
long  been  known  on  the  Continent,  where  its  ravages  at  times  have 
been  very  extensive.  Our  freedom  from  it  is  due,  perhaps,  to  our 
insular  position,  and  the  non-importation  of  sheep  for  a  long 
course  of  years.  It  has,  however,  visited  us  in  a  severe  form. 
Its  first  appearance  in  this  country  can  be  readily  traced  to  certain 
Merino  sheep  imported  in  July  1847,  in  several  vessels,  and  sold 
at  Smithfleld,  where  they  were  first  seen  by  the  unfortunate 
buyers.  One  of  these  vessels,  the  '  Trident,'  came  from  a  port  on 
the  coast  of  Denmark;  and  a  few  days  afterwards  the  'Moun- 
taineer' and  the  '  Princess  Eoyal '  landed  a  number  of  sheep  from 
Hamburg.  The  greater  portion  of  these  sheep  were  poor  and 
apparently  adapted  for  stock-sheep,  for  which  purpose  they  were 
purchased  in  various  lots  by  different  agriculturists  in  various 
parts  of  the  country.  This  appears  to  be  the  earliest  introduction 
of  the  disease  into  any  part  of  this  country.  But  it  is  very  prob- 
able that,  in  the  course  of  the  following  month,  other  diseased 
cargoes  were  imported,  and  the  infection  still  further  spread.  The 
disease  appears  to  have  raged  mostly  in  the  eastern  coimties  of 
England,   and    those    in  the    vicinity  of   the    metropolis.     The 


DISEASES    OF    THE    SKIN.  2  <  o 

symptoms  were  a  dull  and  moping  appearance,  dulness  of  eyes 
and  swelling  of  eyelids,  succeeded  by  reddish  spots  in  the  naked 
places.  In  a  few  days,  what  was  called  the  papular  stage  com- 
menced; swellings  resembling  flea-bites  appeared,  vaiTing  in  size 
fi'om  one-fourth  to  an  inch  in  diameter ;  in  mild  cases  moderately 
red  and  circumscribed ;  in  severe  cases,  of  a  purple  hue,  and 
sometimes  running  into  each  other.  There  are  thus  two  kinds  of 
the  disease — the  distinct  and  the  confluent ;  the  latter  being  always 
the  most  severe.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  nearly  150,000 
sheep  were  imported  into  this  country  in  1847.  The  disease  ap- 
peared about  ten  days  after  the  animals  were  purchased.  In  an 
inoculated  case  it  took  from  ten  to  eleven  days  to  show  the 
papillge ;  the  same  in  a  case  of  exposure ;  this  papulation  lasted 
to  the  sixteenth  day  ;  vesication  to  the  nineteenth ;  suppuration 
(which,  in  a  majority  of  cases,  did  not  take  place  m  sheep)  to  the 
twenty-second  day  ;  and  desiccation  to  the  twenty-eighth.  The 
disease  was  certainly  both  contagious  and  infectious.  Its  con- 
tagious character  was  shown  by  the  facility  with  which  it  spread 
by  inoculation  ;  and  its  infectious  nature  by  the  fact  that  other 
sheep  had  been  attacked  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  diseased 
ones  ;  and  also  when,  some  little  time  afterwards,  they  had  been 
placed  in  pens  where  the  aflected  ones  had  previously  been  put. 
What,  then,  it  might  be  asked,  was  the  nature  of  the  disease  : 
It  was  an  animal  poison,  that  produced  great  fever  and  destroyed  all 
the  functions  of  the  system.  At  present  they  could  lay  down  no 
laws  for  its  treatment.  If  a  child  were  inoculated  with  the  matter 
of  this  small-pox,  as  it  is  called  in  sheep,  it  had  this  singularity 
— it  produced  a  disorder  exactly  corresponding  with  the  cow-pox. 
The  trial  had  been  made,  and  duly  recorded.  In  Lincolnshire  and 
Norfolk  the  disease  had  been  very  fatal ;  the  mortality  had  been 
dreadful.  The  destruction  in  some  cases  had  amounted  to  95  per 
cent.  A  German  agriculturist  (Captain  Carr)  had  published  a 
statement  to  the  effect  that  the  disease  had  swept  off"  every  sheep 
in  a  village  near  which  he  resided.  Xo  one,  in  certain  districts, 
seemed  to  have  any  immunity  from  it.  The  greater  number  of 
deaths  occurred  in  the  early  stage  of  the  disease ;  and  when  it 
was  very  rife  in  a  flock,  the  sheep  died  ofi"  without  any  external 
manifestations,  as  if  they  were  poisoned.  If  they  lived  over  this 
stage,  they  are  still  in  great  danger  of  dying  in  the  third  stage. 
The  disease  is  greatly  increased  by  exposure  to  wet. 

When  the  first  edition  of  this  work  was  printed,  in  1844,  this 
disease  had  not  appeared  in  this  country  ;  but  as  it  had  often  prevailed 
in  France,  we  felt  it  necessary  to  call  attention  to  it,  and  describe 
its  symptoms  and  character.    That  this  was  necessary  or  desirable, 

X3 


274  DISEASES    OF    TEE    SHEEP. 

the  fact  of  its  breaking  out  extensively  a  few  years  subsequently 
is  a  sufficient  proof.  We  then  called  attention  to  the  failure  of 
vaccination  as  a  preventive,  and  to  the  much  greater  success  of 
inoculation  when  the  disease  made  its  appearance  in  a  district, 
and  sufficiently  mild  cases  could  be  selected  from  which  to  procure 
the  necessary  lymph. 

The  disease  is  by  no  means  an  unmanageable  one  ;  for  it  does 
not  appear  to  be  infectious  until  it  can  be  readily  detected  by 
examination  of  the  skin  where  it  is  denuded  of  wool.  If,  there- 
fore, this  examination  is  carefully  adopted,  it  may  be  detected  and 
extinguished.  This  daily  examination  is,  however,  very  trouble- 
some, and  there  is  'danger  of  the  infection  being  propagated  by 
the  attendant.  When  the  disease  broke  out  in  this  country  in 
1848,  there  was  no  system  of  inspection  or  means  for  preventing 
the  spread  of  the  disease,  and  consequently  its  ravages  were  very 
extensive.  On  its  more  recent  introduction  a  close  and  almost 
daily  inspection  soon  stopped  the  progress  of  the  disease,  by 
slaughtering  the  affected  animals.  In  the  earlier  outbreak,  inocu- 
lation was  adopted  in  many  instances  when  the  cases  were  getting 
numerous.  In  other  instances  a  daily  examination  and  separation 
was  sufficient  to  stay  its  progress.  The  benefit  of  the  former 
proceeding  was  that  the  duration  of  the  disease  in  a  flock  was 
limited  to  a  certain  time  ;  and  by  selecting  mild  specimens  for  the 
matter  the  per  centage  of  deaths  might  be  reduced  very  much. 
On  the  other  hand,  by  turning  and  inspection  daily,  and  resorting 
to  this  at  the  earliest  period,  the  mortality  might  be  rendered  still 
less ;  but  there  is  greater  danger  of  keeping  up  the  disease,  and  often 
a  longer  time  in  getting  quit  of  it.  There  cannot  be  a  doubt,  how- 
ever, that  the  plan  now  adopted  is  the  best — that  of  not  only 
turning  and  inspecting  the  flock  daily,  but  also  destroying  every 
aff'ected  sheep,  and  so  stamping  out  the  disease.  The  inspection 
requires  to  be  repeated,  but  there  is  no  justification  for  slaughtering 
the  remainder  of  the  sheep  merely  because  they  had  been  in  con- 
tact with  the  diseased,  which  would  be  the  case  with  cattle-plague, 
as  the  danger  of  infection  is  by  no  means  so  great. 

Tbe  Tick,  Tly,  &c. — Sheep  are  much  exposed  to  the  attack, 
and  suffer  much  from  the  effects,  of  various  insects  and  vermin. 
One  of  the  most  common  is  the  Tick,  which,  though  commonly 
about  the  size  of  a  pea,  is  sometimes  much  larger.  This  is  a  very 
active  insect,  possessing  six  legs,  and  running  with  much  speed 
it  attaches  itself  to  the  skin  by  means  of  sharp  claws  at  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  legs,  and  pierces  the  skin  with  sharp  instruments 
attached  to  the  head.  The  tick  propagates  rapidly,  and  is  often 
found  in  great  numbers  on  a  single  sheep,  selecting  the  neck  and 
shoulders  in  preference  to  other  parts. 


DISEASES    OF    THE    SKIN.  275 

In  the  'Journal  of  the  R.AS./  vol.  i.,  second  series,  p.  43, 
Professor  Simonds  gives  an  elaborate  account  of  the  sheep  tick 
and  other  parasites  affecting  the  skin,  to  which  we  must  refer  our 
readers.  The  former  is  thus  described  in  the  '  Micrographic  Dic- 
tionary ' : — 

'  MeJophagus  oris :  antennae  small,  sunk  in  an  eye-like  cavity 
of  the  head  j  eyes  small,  oval ;  setas  three,  enclosed  in  two  sheath- 
like, hairy,  unjointed  organs  (labial  paljn),  resembling  otherwise 
those  of  pulex,  and  arising  from  the  sides  of  a  triangular  labium. 
Legs  robust ;  tarsi  with  two  stout  serrated  claws,  each  having  at 
its  base  a  blunt  process ;  accompanying  the  claws  is  an  elegant 
feathery  tarsal  brush,  and  on  the  under  side  of  the  last  tarsal  joint 
is  a  bilobed  pectinate  organ.' 

It  may  be  destroyed  by  the  application  of  turpentine,  linseed- 
oil,  or  mercurial  ointment,  or  dipping  in  a  solution  of  arsenic. 
Lice  are  sometimes  a  source  of  much  annoyance,  but  may  be 
destroyed  by  mercurial  ointment,  solution  of  arsenic,  or  tobacco- 
water. 

The  Fli/  is  a  still  more  formidable  enemy,  causing  more  irrita- 
tion, and  leaving  behind  more  severe  effects.  It  abounds  mostly 
in  woody  localities,  and  in  the  month  of  May  deposits  its  eggs  on 
the  sheep,  selecting  a  sore,  if  there  is  any  to  be  found,  which  is 
often  the  case,  particularly  about  the  head.  The  maggots  being 
hatched,  burrow  under  the  skin,  causing  severe  irritation,  and  pro- 
ducing frequently  extensive  and  troublesome  wounds.  The  sheep 
exhibits  much  uneasiness  soon  after  being  struck,  often  stamping, 
biting  themselves,  and  running  about  the  field  with  much  violence. 
The  wounds,  if  neglected,  soon  spread,  and  I  have  known  the 
most  severe  and  complicated  fistulous  wounds  produced  thereby, 
extending  between  the  shoulders  and  becoming  incurable. 

The  most  simple  preventive  to  the  attack  of  the  fly  is  the 
application  of  coarse  whale-oil  to  the  parts  most  likely  to  be 
attacked.  The  fly  has  such  dislike  to  even  the  strong  smell  of  the 
oil,  that  it  acts  as  a  safe  protection,  and  is  much  more  simple  than 
the  application  of  a  plaster,  as  sometimes  practised.  A  striking 
instance  of  the  effect  of  the  oil  is  mentioned  by  Mr.  Hogg  in  his 
'  Shepherd's  Guide.'  As  a  local  application,  immediately  after 
the  sheep  have  been  struck  by  the  fly,  white  lead  is  one  of  the 
best,  and  it  will  also  act  as  a  preventive.  It  is  rendered  still  more 
effectual  when  mixed,  as  in  the  following  recipe,  and  on  being 
scattered  over  the  parts  will  speedily  destroy  the  maggots : — 

White  lead  ......  4  ounces. 

White  arsenic 1  ounce. 

Sulphur  6  ounces. 

Cinnabar  of  antimony .        .        .        .  2      „ 


276  DISEASES    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

Each  to  be  finely  powdered,  and  the  whole  then  well  mixed.  It 
may  be  rendered  weaker,  and  perhaps  more  suitable,  when  em- 
ployed as  a  preventive,  by  diminishing  considerably  the  proportion 
of  arsenic. 

The  following  is  the  application  formerly  used  at  Holkham 
successfully  in  the  flocks  of  the  Earl  of  Leicester: — 

White  arsenic  .         .         •     IJ  ounces  to  1  gallon  of  water. 

Soap         ....     8         „ 

Tobacco   ....    2        „  „ 

The  arsenic  is  boiled  in  a  bag,  and  kept  stirred  at  the  time  of 
boiling.  The  tobacco  is  also  boiled  in  the  same  manner,  and  put 
into  the  water  when  cold.  The  soap  is  cut  in  thin  slices,  and  the 
whole  of  the  mixture  boiled  for  half  an  hour.  One  pint  and  a 
half  to  be  applied  to  each  sheep. 

Earl  Spencer  observes :  ^  It  is  better  to  dip  the  lambs  imme- 
diately after  the  ewes  are  shorn  than  after  weaning.  The  shear- 
ing the  ewes  destroys  or  removes  the  ticks  which  were  upon 
them,  and  the  dipping  destroys  those  which  were  upon  the  lambs  ; 
whereas,  if  it  is  postponed  till  the  lambs  are  weaned,  the  wool  on 
the  ewes  will  have  then  grown  long  enough  to  shelter  ticks,  which 
have  come  upon  them  from  the  lambs  after  the  time  of  shearing.' 

If  the  sore,  from  inattention  or  neglect,  has  spread,  the  appli- 
cation of  the  following  astringent  powder  will  be  desirable : — 


Prepared  chalk     . 

.     6  ounces 

Alum 

.     1  ounce. 

Armenian  bole     . 

•     1      „ 

White  lead  .... 

•        .     1      „ 

Chlorine  of  lime  . 

.     1  dram. 

Each  to   be   finely  powdered,  and   the   whole   well   mixed   to- 
gether. 

The  Gad-fly  (Olstrus  ovis). — One  of  the  most  annoying 
insects  (at  least  temporarily  so)  by  which  sheep  ai-o  attacked  is 
the  oestrus  ovis,  or  gad-fly,  which  in  the  summer  months  abounds 
in  woody  places.  These  insects  have  two  wings,  and  somewhat 
exceed  half  an  inch  in  length  and  near  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in 
width  when  full  grown.  They  deposit  their  eggs  on  the  inside  of 
the  nostrils,  which  the  sheep  endeavour  to  prevent  by  holding 
down  their  heads  and  flocking  together.  When  the  fly  succeeds, 
the  sheep  becomes  half  frantic,  and  often  races  about  the  field 
with  extreme  violence.  The  eggs  thus  deposited  are  soon  hatched, 
and  the  little  maggots  crawl  up  the  nostrils,  in  doing  which  they 
produce  great  irritation  to  the  poor  sheep,  and  enter  the  frontal  or 
other  sinuses,  where  they  remain  increasing  in  size  until  the  fol- 


DISEASES    OF    THE    SKIN.  277 

lowing  sprinpf.  They  are  supposed  to  live  on  the  mucus  secreted 
by  the  membrane  which  lines  these  cavities ;  and  whilst  in  these 
abodes  they  do  not  appear  to  give  any  inconvenience ;  but  after 
remaining  till  the  following  April  they  make  their  exit  from  these 
sinuses,  and  crawl  down  the  nostrils,  in  doing  which  they  again 
prove  a  source  of  great  irritation,  causing  the  sheep  to  sneeze,  toss 
their  heads,  and  stamp  with  their  feet.  The  insect  then  burrows 
in  the  ground,  and  its  skin  becoming  hard  and  of  a  dark  brown 
colour,  it  appears  as  a  chrysalis.  In  from  six  to  nine  weeks  it 
again  assumes  the  form  of  a  fly,  and  has  sexual  connection  with  a 
fly  of  the  opposite  sex.  The  male  soon  afterwards  dies,  some- 
times, however,  impregnating  several  females ;  and  these,  after 
depositing  their  eggs  in  the  manner  before  described,  soon  ter- 
minate their  existence. 

Little  can  be  recommended  either  as  a  preventive  or  a  remedy. 
Some  whale-oil  smeared  on  and  round  the  nostrils  is,  however, 
the  most  likely  method  of  keeping  off"  the  attack  of  the  fly. 

So7-e  heads  is  a  term  used  to  express  the  injury  inflicted  in  part 
by  the  irritation  of  the  fly  causing  the  sheep  to  scratch  its  head 
with  the  hind  feet,  and  in  part  by  the  fly  itself  afterwards  attack- 
ing the  wound  and  causing  it  to  spread  sometimes  to  a  great  ex- 
tent. The  fly  is  of  a  diSerent  species,  and  smaller  than  that  we 
have  before  spoken  of,  but  may  be  also  kept  off"  by  means  of  the 
whale-oil.  When,  however,  the  sore  is  very  extensive,  the  best 
plan  is  to  apply  some  common  sticking-plaster  to  the  wound,  and 
cover  the  whole  with  a  canvas  cap,  having  loops  to  admit  the 
ears,  and  tape  to  tie  under  the  chin  and  throat. 

The  Louse  of  the  sheep  is  denominated  Trichodectes  oris.  Pro- 
fessor Simonds  thus  speaks  of  it : — 

'  Li  some  cases  which  have  come  under  our  observation  these 
lice  have  been  present  in  very  large  numbers.  They  appear  to 
show  a  preference  for  the  inner  part  of  the  thighs,  and  arms,  and 
sides  of  the  neck  of  the  sheep.  Their  location  in  the  latter  situa- 
tion often  induces  the  animal  to  thrust  its  head  between  the  bar 
of  gates  and  horizontal  rails  to  seek  relief  from  the  irritation  by 
rubbing — a  circumstance  which  occasionally  has  led  to  its  be- 
coming fixed  and  strangled.  If  the  wool  be  broken,  or  short,  and 
detached  in  places,  and  if  the  sheep  nibble  its  flanks  and  other 
parts  of  its  body,  and  scratches  its  elbows  with  the  hind  feet,  as 
in  scab,  an  examination  should  be  made,  which  will  often  be  re- 
warded by  a  discovery  of  the  parasites.  Sulphuretted  oil  will  be 
found  efiicacious  in  destroying  these  lice,  besides  which  the  use 
of  an  agent  of  this  kind  during  the  winter  months  is  more  pru- 
dent, as  sheep  cannot  now  be  safely  dipped.     In-lamb  ewes  must 


278  DISEASES    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

also  be  freed  from  the  parasites  in  the  same  manner.  Some  per- 
sons add  an  eighth,  or  even  a  sixth,  part  of  mercurial  ointment  to 
the  oil,  which  is,  however,  objectionable  when  much  of  the  sur- 
face of  the  body  has  to  be  dressed  over.  The  increased  efficacy  of 
the  mixture  does  not  compensate  for  the  risk  which  is  incurred. 
Many  other  agents  might  be  named  for  the  destruction  of  these 
lice,  but  it  is  not  necessary  to  do  so,  the  utility  of  sulphuretted 
oil  being  so  well  established. 


SPECIFIC   DISEASES. 

The  Rot. — This  disease  is  one  of  the  most  ancient,  as  well  as 
one  of  the  most  destructive,  with  which  sheep  are  attacked.  For 
centuries  past  we  have  accounts  of  its  formidable  ravages,  arising 
unquestionably  in  all  ages  from  keeping  these  animals  on  soils  not 
intended  for  them  by  nature,  unless  improved  by  means  of  drain- 
age. The  sheep,  for  the  most  part,  is  naturally  an  inhabitant  of 
high  and  dry  situations,  and  it  is  only  by  art,  and  attention,  and 
skill,  that  he  has  been  made  to  thrive  and  increase  in  rich  and 
lowland  pastures.  For  the  last  few  years,  however,  our  flocks 
have  been  in  gi-eat  measure  exempt  from  the  visitations  of  this 
disease;  it  has,  as  it  were,  given  place  to  other  epidemics  still 
more  extensive,  though  less  fatal. 

Though  a  million  of  sheep  or  lambs  have  frequently  been  de- 
stroyed annually  by  this  disease,  in  the  winter  of  1830-31  this 
number,  it  is  supposed,  was  more  than  doubled — some  farmers 
lost  their  whole  flocks,  others  a  moiety,  and  many  were  ruined  in 
consequence.  These  facts  were  proved  before  a  committee  of  the 
House  of  Lords  in  1833,  and  it  was  there  stated  by  one  farmer 
that  he  lost  3,000/.  worth  of  sheep  on  his  farm,  in  Kent,  in  the 
course  of  three  months.  Even  at  this  time  there  were  5,000  less 
sheep  taken  to  Smithfield  every  market-day  in  consequence  of  the 
mortality  two  years  previously,  so  extensive  and  general  had  it 
been.  On  the  Continent,  and  in  America,  the  mortality  has  been 
as  great  in  proportion  as  in  Britain,  and  even  in  the  settlements 
of  Australia  its  ravages  have  been  felt.  In  Egypt,  on  the  bor- 
ders of  the  iSile,  it  rages  with  a  degree  of  virulence  to  which 
Europe  aff'ords  no  parallel.  MM.  Hamont  and  Fischer,  in  an 
essay  on  the  subject,  ti-anslated  in  vol.  vii.  of  the  'Veterinarian,' 
informs  us  that  '  It  assumes  its  most  serious  character  after  heavy 
rains  and  extensive  floods,  and  in  wet  countries  covered  with 
aquatic  plants.  It  aff'ects  animals  of  different  ages,  and  in  all 
seasons.     It  appears  every  year  in  Egypt  after  the  fall  of  the 


THE    EOT.  2t\) 

Nile,  and  it  follows  and  keeps  pace  Tvith  the  subsidence  of  the 
waters.  In  the  superior  parts  of  Upper  Egypt  it  commences  about 
the  end  of  July;  near  Cairo,  in  August 5  in  the  environs  of  the 
capital,  in  October  and  November 5  and  during  the  months  of 
December,  January,  and  February,  in  the  Delta.  It  is  most 
obstinate,  and  continues  longest,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  con- 
fluence of  the  waters  ;  in  Lower  Egypt  it  lasts  about  120  or  130 
days,  and  it  disappears  soonest,  and  is  least  fatal,  when  the  rise  of 
the  Nile  has  not  been  considerable.  Desolation  and  death  accom- 
pany it  wherever  it  passes.  The  Ai-abs  say  that  this  pest  annually 
destroys  16,000  sheep  in  Egypt.  Its  victims  usually  perish  on 
the  twenty-fifth,  thirtieth,  thirty-fifth^  or  fortieth  day  after  the 
apparent  attack.' 

The  first  syinptoms  attending  this  disease  are  by  no  means 
strongly  marked ;  there  is  no  loss  of  condition,  but  rather  ap- 
parently the  contrary ;  indeed,  sheep  intended  for  the  butcher 
have  been  purposely  cothed  or  rotted  in  order  to  increase  their 
fattening  properties  for  a  few  weeks — a  practice  which  was  adopted 
by  the  celebrated  Bakeley.  A  want  of  liveliness  and  a  paleness 
of  the  membranes  generally  may  be  considered  as  the  first  symp- 
toms of  the  disease,  to  which  may  be  added  a  yellowness  of  the 
caruncle  at  the  corner  of  the  eye.  Dr.  Harrison  observes,  '  When, 
in  warm  sultry  and  rainy  weather,  sheep  that  are  grazing  on  low 
and  moist  lands  feed  rapidly,  and  some  of  them  die  suddenly, 
there  is  fear  that  they  have  contracted  the  rot.'  This  suspicion 
will  be  further  increased  if  a  few  weeks  afterwards  the  sheep 
begin  to  shrink,  and  become  flaccid  about  the  loins.  By  pressure 
about  the  hips  at  this  time  a  crackling  is  perceptible  now  or  soon 
afterwards,  the  countenance  looks  pale,  and  upon  parting  the  fleece 
the  skin  is  found  to  have  changed  its  vermilion  tint  for  a  pale 
red,  and  the  wool  is  easily  separated  from  the  pelt :  and  as  the 
disorder  advances  the  skin  becomes  dappled  with  yellow  or  black 
spots.  To  these  symptoms  succeed  increased  dulness,  loss  of  con- 
dition, greater  paleness  of  the  mucous  membrane,  the  eyelids 
becoming  almost  white,  and  afterwards  yellow.  This  yellowne&s 
extends  to  other  parts  of  the  body,  and  a  watery  fluid  appears 
under  the  skin,  which  becomes  loose  and  flabby,  the  wool  coming 
off  readily.  The  symptoms  of  dropsy  often  extend  over  the  body, 
and  sometimes  the  sheep  becomes  chochered,  as  it  is  termed — a 
large  swelling  forms  under  the  jaw — which,  from  the  appearance 
of  the  fluid  it  contains,  is  iii  some  places  called  the  wateiy  poke. 
The  duration  of  the  disease  is  uncertain  ;  the  animal  occasionally 
dies  shortly  after  becoming  affected,  but  more  frequently  it  ex- 
tends to  from  three  to  six  months,  the  sheep  gradually  losing  fl&ik 


280  DISEASES    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

and  pining  away,  particularly  if,  as  is  frequently  the  case,  an 
obstinate  purging  supervenes.  In  Egypt,  where  the  disease  is 
more  virulent  and  rapid,  the  symptoms  are  more  marked,  and 
the  swelling  under  the  throat  is  more  uniformly  present.  '  If  an 
Arab  shepherd,'  observes  M.  Hamont,  '  is  asked  how  he  distin- 
guished this  disease  from  all  others,  he  replies  that  they  have 
under  the  jaw  a  bag  full  of  water ;  they  walk  with  difficulty ; 
have  diarrhoea;  their  wool  falls  off;  they  are  dull,  disinclined  to 
move,  and  almost  constantly  lying  down;  sometimes  a  fetid 
matter  of  a  variable  colour,  yellow,  grey,  or  green-,  runs  from  the 
nose.  The  head,  and  neck,  and  belly,  and  limbs,  swell ;  the  eyes 
are  red ;  they  become  thin ;  they  eat  and  drink  little  when  the 
disease  is  in  an  advanced  state,  but  rumination  continues  for  a 
considerable  period.' 

The  appearance  after  death  depends  much  on  the  stage  in 
which  the  sheep  is  destroyed.  In  five  or  six  days  after  contracting 
the  rot,  the  thin  edge  of  the  small  lobe  of  the  liver  becomes  of  a 
transparent  white,  or  bluish  colour,  and  this  spreads  along  the 
upper  and  lower  sides,  accordmg  to  the  severity  of  the  complaint ; 
sometimes  it  does  not  extend  more  than  an  inch  above  the  margin. 
If  not  in  an  early  period  of  the  disease  the  flesh  is  found  very 
pale,  and  a  yellow  serous  fluid  infiltrated  in  various  parts  of  the 
body,  and  the  abdomen  often  contains  a  similar  fluid.  In  the 
latter  stages  there  are  few  parts  of  the  body  free  from  disease ; 
the  lungs  are  often  studded  with  tubercles,  and  the  heart  is  soft 
and  pale ;  but  in  all  cases  we  find  the  liver  extensively  affected, 
sometimes  pale  and  easily  broken  down,  in  others  mottled  like  the 
back  of  a  toad,  containing  hard  scirrhous  spots,  and  sometimes  a 
fluid-like  jelly  is  deposited  in  different  parts  of  its  surface,  but 
particularly  round  the  bile-duct  and  hepatic  vessels ;  and  upon 
boiling  the  liver  loses  its  firmness,  and  separates  into  pieces,  and 
continues  soft  and  flaccid. 

These  are  appearances  that  may  vary  in  different  subjects,  and 
many  of  them  may  be  considered  to  be  owing  to  the  progress  of 
the  disease  itself;  but  the  appearance  which  we  find,  either  more 
or  less,  is  the  presence  oi  Jlukes  in  the  ducts  of  the  liver.  These 
flukes  have  been  considered  to  constitute  the  essence  of  the 
disease,  although  it  must  be  observed  that  there  are  some  re- 
spectable writers  who  consider  them  to  be  an  effect  and  not  a 
cause,  and  this  doctrine  would  seem  to  be  borne  out  by  the 
opinions  and  observation  of  MM.  Hamont  and  Fischer,  who,  in 
their  jjost-mortem  examinations,  do  not  mention  the  presence  of 
flukes,  and  who  believe  the  disease  to  be  owing  to  the  super- 
abundance of  water  taken  into  the  system  with  the  food.     The 


THE    EOT. 


281 


liver  appears  to  be  the  only,  or  the  principal  locality,  for  these 
parasites,  and  sometimes  its  ducts  are  entirely  full  of  them,  up- 
wards of  700  haying  been  counted,  whilst  in  other  livers  a  few 
only  could  be  found.  They  resemble  in  shape  the  fish  called 
plaice,  or  sole,  and  are  from  half  an  inch  to  upwards  of  an  inch 
in  length,  and  rather  less  than  half  this  in  breadth  in  the  middle, 
from  which  they  taper  to  the  head  and  the  tail.  The  following 
description,  with  the  engraving,  was  supplied  by  the  late  Pro- 
fessor Morton  to  the  'Veterinarian,'  vol.  xii.,  and  kindly  offered 
for  use  in  the  present  work  : — 


At  the  extremity  of  the  head  will  be  perceived  an  orbicular 
opening,  which  I  suppose  must  be  designattd  the  mouth  of  the 
fluke.  This  Mr.  Sowerby,  however,  has  not  been  able  to  trace' 
beyond  the  representation  here  given  of  the  animal,  nor  have  I 
been  more  successful.  It  is  possible  that  the  parasite  possesses 
the  power  of  projecting  this  tube-like  body,  which  now  is  in  a 
state  of  retraction.  In  a  dried  specimen  it  resembles  a  small  slit. 
It  is  certainly  a  circular  opening,  inclining  somewhat  to  the' 
inferior  surface,  both  in  the  recent  animal  and  in  those  preserved 
in  spiritSL  Just  below  this  is  seen  a  small  projection.  In  some 
flukes  this  is  very  indistinct,  and  at  first  induced  me  to  think  it 
marked  the  difference  of  the  sexes;  farther  investigation  con- 
vinced me  of  my  error,  for  it  may  be  found  in  all  in  a  greater  or 
less  degree  of  development.  Sometimes  it  is  coiled  upon  itself; 
and  within  its  opening  two  minute  globular  bodies  may  be  seen, 
seemingly  attached  by  filaments.  Is  this  the  ova-duct?  There- 
can  be  no  doubt  of  its  connexion  with  the  ovaria ;  and  it  seems  to 
make  up  part  of  the  complex  genital  organs  which  render  the 
animal  hermaphroditic.  The  eggs  themselves,  whether  within  or 
without  the  animal,  are  interesting  microscopic  objects.     As>  the 


282  DISEASES    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

latter,  they  may  be  obtained  in  abundance  from  the  liver  of  a 
rotten  sheep,  by  diluting  the  bile  with  water,  and  then  separating 
them  by  means  of  a  filter.  Tliere  can  therefore  be  no  doubt  of 
the  truth  of  your  (the  editor's)  statement  that  the  eggs  are  fre- 
quently received  in  the  food.  Having  been  discharged  with  the 
dung,  they  remain  on  the  grass  or  damp  spot  on  which  they  may 
fall,  retaining  their  vital  principle  for  an  indefinite  period  of 
time. 

^Immediately  beyond  this  prolongation  may  be  observed 
another  opening,  called  by  some  the  ventral  02)ening,  but  which,  in 
reality,  is  a  sucking  disc ;  and  consequently  some  entomologists 
have  given  the  name  of  Distoma  hepaticum  to  the  parasite.  It  is 
coniposed  of  strong  muscular  fibres,  and  is  imperforate,  or,  at 
least,  it  has  no  traceable  communication  with  the  internal  parts 
uf  the  animal.  The  question  naturally  arises.  Does  this  parasite 
receiving  this  aliment  by  one  tube,  after  having  absorbed  the 
nutritious  particles  from  it,  return  it  by  the  same,  as  do  the 
polypi,  and  other  animals  even  still  lower  in  the  scale  of  organiza- 
tion, even  the  nomads  ?  ' 

Mr.  Morton  was  unable  to  discover  any  traces  of  eyes ;  and  it 
is  not  at  all  probable  that  these  residents  of  a  locality  never  pene- 
trated by  light  actually  possess  any. 

It  is  important  to  ascertain  to  what  these  parasites  owe  their 
origin,  and  in  what  manner  they  enter  the  liver,  where  they  are 
almost  invariably  found. 

There  were  several  theories  on  the  subject,  some  attributing 
them  to  the  miasma  of  marshy  situations,  believing  that  the 
mischief  is  inhaled  by  the  lungs ;  others  considered  that  the  eggs 
are  taken  with  the  food  alone,  and  that  these  eggs  are  only  found 
on  the  dung  of  rotten  sheep,  the  combined  action  of  the  sun  and 
moisture  preserving  their  vitality,  and  in  which  state  they  are 
swallowed  with  the  grass  by  other  sheep,  and  being  hatched  in 
the  stomachs  and  intestines,  crawl  up  the  ducts  of  the  liver.  It 
is  unquestionably  the  fact  that  the  rot  is  produced  where  water  is 
exposed  to  the  influence  of  the  sun ;  and  that  neither  a  running 
stream,  nor  land  entirely  under  water,  or  quite  dry,  will  produce 
it.  It  is  equally  true  that  the  eggs  in  countless  numbers  may  be 
found  in  the  dung  of  rotten  sheep.  Thus  though  all  agree  as  to 
the  agency  of  moisture  in  producing  the  disease,  there  is  much 
difference  of  opinion  as  to  its  modus  operandi. 

Some  consider  that  it  is  produced  by  marsh  miasma— by  eman- 
tions  proceeding  from  the  soil  and  entering  the  system  by  means 
of  the  lungs. 

Then  there  is  the  theory  of  the  eggs  of  the  fluke  being  deposited 


THE    EOT.  283 

with  the  dung,  and  preserved  from  destruction  by  warmth  and 
moisture,  and  swallowed  by  other  sheep. 

There  is  also  the  opinion  that  the  disease  is  to  be  attributed  to 
the  taking  into  the  system  a  superabundance  of  watery  food,  thus 
surcharging  the  body  with  aqueous  matter,  diluting  the  blood, 
and  producing  the  train  of  symptoms  that  are  met  with ;  others 
ascribe  it  to  a  plant  growing  on  boggy  soils,  called  Sheep-rot 
weed. 

Numberless  facts  have  sufficiently  proved  that  the  rot  does  not 
occur  on  a  sandy,  chalky,  or  porous  soil,  or  on  land  altogether 
under  water,  nor  if  completely  dry.  But  on  land  retentive  of 
moisture,  or  having  pools  of  stagnant  water,  rot  is  very  likely  to 
appear.  It  occurs  in  wet  summers  to  a  much  greater  extent  than 
in  dry,  and  it  has  therefore  been  much  less  prevalent  during  the 
last  few  years. 

Most  of  the  theories  respecting  its  introduction  may  now  be 
set  at  rest  by  the  researches  that  have  been  made  in  the  natural 
history  of  the  fluke. 

Professor  Simonds,  in  his  exhaustive  article  on  the  rot  in  sheep 
in  vol.  xxiii.  of  the  '  Journal  of  the  E.  A.  S.  E.,'  thus  refers  to 
the  natural  history  of  the  liver  fluke,  which  we  may  justly  regard 
as  the  true  cause  of  rot : — 

'  Sistoma  bepaticum  or  Fasciola  bepatlca. — The  name 
Fasciola  was  originally  bestowed  on  this  entozoon  by  LinnfBus, 
while  that  of  Distoma  was  adopted  by  Retzius,  under  the  belief  that 
it  was  furnished  with  two  distinct  mouths.  The  term  hepaticum 
is  employed  in  conjunction  with  distoma  to  signify  that  the  ento- 
zoon is  met  with  in  the  liver.  The  distcma  belongs  to  the  order 
Trematoda  which  denotes  that  is  a  suctorial  worm,  and  is  placed 
in  the  second  family  of  this  order. 

•  Form  and  Size. — The  Distoma  hepaiicmn  varies  in  size  in 
the  same  animal,  according  to  the  age  of  the  entozoon.  Although 
this  is  the  case  it  is  a  singular  circumstance,  hereafter  to  be 
explained,  that  no  distomata  are  found,  even  in  long  existing  cases 
of  rot,  so  small  as  to  warrant  the  belief  that  they  had  been  hatched 
within  the  biliary  ducts.  The  form  of  the  entozoon  is  that  of  an 
oblong  oval,  flattened  from  side  to  side.  Its  greatest  breadth  is 
anteriorly,  immediately  behind  the  central  sucker,  from  which 
point  it  gradually  tapers  to  its  tail.  When  fully  developed,  the 
distoma  wdli  attain  a  length  of  an  inch  and  a  quarter,  and  a  breadth 
of  half  an  inch.  Many  of  the  smaller  specimens,  however,  are 
somewhat  rounder  in  form.  On  being  removed  alive  from  the 
biliary  ducts,  the  creatures  are  seen  to  contract  themselves,  so  as 
to  appear  very  much  smaller  than  they  really  are — which  has  ofteu 


284  DISEASES    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

led  to  an  incorrect  conclusion  with  regard  to  their  real  size  and 
age,  and  the  length  of  time  they  had  been  located  within  the 
ducts. 

The  colour  varies  according  to  the  amount  of  bile  contained 
within  its  digestive  system ;  it  being  dark-brown  or  brownish  hue 
if  full,  and  if  nearly  empty  of  a  yellowish-brown. 

Judging  from  analogy  there  appears  no  reason  to  doubt  that 
the  siliated  embryo  of  the  Distotna  hepaticum  does  not  undergo 
any  material  change  until  becoming  parasitic  to  water-snails,  slugs, 
&c.,  when  it  becomes  converted  into  a  peculiar  organism  called  a 
Cercaria-sac.  From  the  nucleus  of  the  distoma-embryo  develop- 
ment goes  on,  and  a  brood  of  young  cercarice  are  ultimately  formed 
within  the  sac,  by  a  species  of  successive  budding,  each  one  in 
turn  thus  becoming  a  parent.  From  the  first,  second,  or  third  of 
these  offspring  a  return  to  the  form  of  the  original  parent  distoma 
takes  place. 

This  system  of  propagation  has  been  described  most  accurately 
by  Steenstrup,  who  has  named  it  'Alternation  of  Generation,'  as 
differing  materially  from  ordinary  metamorphoses.  We  give  his 
own  definition  of  the  process.  '  Alternation  of  Generation  is,'  he 
says,  ^the  remarkable  phenomenon  of  an  animal  producing  an 
offspring  which  at  no  time  resembles  its  parent,  but  which,  on  the 
other  hand,  itself  brings  forth  a  progeny  which  returns  in  its  form 
and  nature  to  the  parent  animal;  so  that  the  maternal  animal 
does  not  meet  with  its  resemblance  in  its  own  brood,  but  in  its 
descendants  of  the  second,  third,  or  fourth  degree  of  generation.' 
The  cercariae  were  for  a  long  time  considered  as  infusoria  when 
found  to  be  floating  in  water,  their  origin  and  mode  of  propagation 
being  unknown  until  the  discovery  of  Steenstrup.  The  cercaria- 
sacs  were  designated  by  him  '  nurses,'  and  the  young  cercarise  de- 
veloped within  them  *  patent-nurses ' — terms  which  have  helped 
rather  to  mystify  the  matter  than  to  render  it  plain. 

Most  cercaria-sacs  are  of  simple  organisation,  but  they  are 
found  of  various  forms,  according  to  the  kind  of  cercarise  de- 
veloped. 

When  first  set  free  from  the  sac,  the  cercaria  is  rather  tardy  in 
its  action ;  but  after  a  time  it  swims  freely  about,  assisted  in  its 
various  movements  by  the  length  of  its  tail.  In  the  most  per- 
fected cercarise  no  sexual  organs  can  be  detected,  although  in 
other  respects  their  resemblance  to  distomata  is  so  complete. 

It  is  evident  from  this  that  they  have  to  undergo  a  higher 
form  of  development,  which  they  can  only  attain  by  becoming 
entozoic  to  other  creatures.  Some  varieties  of  them  have  been 
observed  to  bore  their  way  into  water-snails,  to  cast  off  their  tails, 


THE    ROT.  285 

and  develop  into  flukes,  thus  forming  the  series  of  changes.  After 
entering  the  body  of  the  snail,  and  before  being  transformed  into 
the  fluke,  the  cercaria  rolls  itself  into  a  little  ball  and  passes  into 
the  pupa  state,  by  emitting  from  the  surface  of  its  body  a  mucous 
secretion  which  encloses  it. 

Encysted  cercariae,  besides  adhering  in  large  numbers  to  a 
great  variety  of  mollusca,  the  larvae  of  aquatic  insects,  &c.,  are 
likewise  found  free  in  water.  How  long  their  pupa  state  may 
continue  is  not  known ;  but,  according  to  the  experience  of  Steen- 
strup,  in  some  varieties  of  cercaria  it  does  so  '  for  many  months.' 

Although  distomata  are  so  widely  diff'used,  it  is  an  established 
fact  that  ruminating  animals  are  more  frequently  affected  with 
them  than  others,  and  sheep  most  of  all. 

Encysted  cercarise  received  with  the  food  of  ruminants  are  not 
at  once  exposed  to  the  solvent  action  of  the  gastric  juice,  but  are 
detained  for  an  indefinite  length  of  time  within  the  rumen  and 
the  other  preparatory  stomachs  whose  secretion  is  non-digestive. 
Within  these  organs,  therefore,  no  special  cause  of  destruction  to 
the  vitality  of  the  cercarise  exists,  and  hence  a  great  number  of 
distomata  are  perfected,  ultimately  to  find  their  way  into  the 
bile-ducts  by  passing  first  into  the  true  digestive  stomach  and 
onwards  into  the  duodenum. 

The  converse  is  the  case  with  herbivora  with  single  stomachs, 
in  which  encysted  cercariae,  on  entering  the  digestive  system,  are 
immediately  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  gastric  juice,  by  which 
many  have  been  destroyed,  and  do  not  reach  their  proper  habitat 
— the  liver. 

This  circumstance  may  account  in  part  for  the  well-known 
fact  that  horses  graze  almost  with  impunity  on  pastures  where 
both  oxen  and  sheep  become  affected  with  flukes.  Nevertheless, 
distomata  have  now  and  then  been  found  in  the  horse  and  also  in 
the  ass.  The  late  Professor  Sewell  discovered  some  flukes  in  the 
ass,  specimens  of  which  are  preserved  in  the  College  Museum. 
Mr.  Pritchard,  M.E.C.V.S.,  Wolverhampton,  also  found  flukes  in 
the  liver  of  a  horse.  They  have  also  been  found  in  man  as  well 
as  in  other  animals. 

The  two  causes  which  render  sheep  so  susceptible  to  the 
entozoa  are  its  natural  habit  of  feeding  close  to  the  ground  and 
its  being  a  ruminating  animal.  With  an  elevated  temperature 
combined  with  excess  of  moisture,  cercariae,  which  would  other- 
wise perish  are  brought  to  perfection,  abounding  wherever  the 
ova  of  flukes  may  have  been  conveyed.  Lands  liable  to  flood  are 
therefore  the  most  dangerous,  as  the  overflowing  of  rivers  and 
brooks  brings  upon  them  these  infusorial  creatures  in  countless 


286  DISEASES    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

numbers.  They  may  he  conveyed  in  some  of  their  metamorphoses, 
and  in  forms  more  or  less  active  by  innumerable  means,  some  of 
which  would  be  scarcely  suspected.  In  considering  these  causes, 
the  long  duration  of  the  vital  principle  in  the  ova  of  the  liver- 
flukes,  of  which  notable  examples  have  been  given,  must  not  be 
lost  sight  of,  nor  must  the  fact  of  the  millions  of  ova  which  are 
constantly  being  cast  from  out  of  the  intestines  of  rotten  sheep 
and  other  animals,  in  all  situations  and  under  all  circumstances.' 

Sijmptoms. — In  the  early  stages  of  rot  the  flukes  simply  act  as 
irritants  to  the  liver,  and  induce  it  to  increased  performance  of  its 
functions,  by  which  the  animal  thrives  at  a  greater  pace  than 
before ;  but  presently  this  is  succeeded  by  structural  changes  and 
impaired  functions,  and  at  the  same  time  the  further  development 
of  the  fluke  actually  robs  the  animal  of  that  which  would  in  a 
normal  state  nourish  and  increase  the  fat  and  flesh  of  the  body,  so 
that  the  blood,  deprived  of  its  globules  and  red  particles,  becomes 
watery  and  weak,  so  that  the  membranes  become  pale  and  white, 
which  may  be  shown  by  everting  the  eyelids,  and  is  one  of  the 
early  and  prominent  indications  of  rot.  Increased  thirst  and  a 
failure  and  uncertainty  of  the  appetite,  with  irregularity  of  the 
bowels,  succeeds,  with  gradual  loss  of  condition.  Watery  swellings 
succeed,  particularly  round  the  throat  and  lower  jaw;  a  cough, 
increased  weakness,  quick  breathing  and  stupor,  pave  the  way  for 
the  final  termination. 

The  time  occupied  by  the  disease  varies  much,  being  under 
unfavourable  circumstances  very  brief,  whilst  in  others,  with 
nutritious  food  and  dry  land,  it  may  extend  through  the  following 
summer.  There  are  very  numerous  cases  on  record  which  prove 
that  sheep  may  contract  the  rot  in  a  very  short  space  of  time, 
even  in  passing  from  one  dry  farm  to  another,  provided  they  have 
in  their  passage  cropped  the  pasture  off"  some  marshy  land  for  the 
space  of  an  hour  or  two. 

With  abundance  of  wet  and  a  high  temperature  the  rot  can  be 
produced  at  any  time  during  the  summer,  or  from  May  to  Octoler; 
but  it  is  in  the  autumn  months  that  the  symptoms  of  its  existence 
are  usually  apparent.  The  danger  appears  to  disappear  with  the 
first  appearance  of  frost. 

With  regard  to  the  treatment  of  rot,  it  is  well  to  consider  the 
object  we  have  in  view.  A  perfect  cure  is  almost  hopeless;  and 
it  would  be  very  imprudent  to  keep  animals,  supposed  to  be 
affected,  for  breeding  purposes.  The  object  should  be  to  make 
the  most  of  the  animal  for  the  purpose  of  the  butcher.  To  give 
the  most  nutritious  and  blood-forming  food,  containing  plenty  of 
only  such  as  linseed-cake  and  pulse,   with  which  may   be  com- 


INFLUENZA.  287 

biued  vegetable  and  mineral  tonics,  sucli  as  anise-seed  and  sulphate 
of  iron : — 

Sulphate  of  iron  1  dram. 

Salt        ...  .        .        .    i      „ 

Auise  seed    .        .  .        .        .     |      „ 

May  be  mixed  with  half  a  pound  each  of  linseed-meal,  quarter  of 
pound  each  of  peas  and  locust-beans,  and  given  daily  to  each 
sheep ;  and  of  course  a  calculation  could  be  made  for  a  larger 
number  in  the  same  proportion. 

It  is  well  known  that  salt  is  fatal  to  the  fluke,  and  that  sheep 
may  feed  on  salt  marshes  with  impunity.  It  is  therefore  of  con- 
sequence that  salt  should  be  freely  offered  to  sheep,  for  it  is  not 
only  inimical  to  the  fluke  and  the  early  stages  of  its  development, 
but  supplies  soda  for  the  blood.  Farmers  are  too  neglectful  of 
this.  Rock-salt  should  be  always  accessible,  and  it  is  more  par- 
ticularly demanded  during  a  wet  season. 


EPIZOOTIC    DISEASES. 

Influenza. — This  disease  is,  in  the  sheep  as  well  as  the  horse, 
of  a  peculiar  kind ;  it  is  not  simple  catarrh,  or  even  epidemic 
catarrh,  but  an  affection  of  the  mucous  membranes  generally,  and 
is  attended  with  much  prostration  of  strength.  It  is  probably  in- 
fectious, and  its  attack  usually  extends  to  a  considerable  number. 
It  is  perhaps  most  common  amongst  the  marshes,  but  appeare 
likewise  on  the  hills,  and  young  sheep  are  most  subject  to  its 
visitation. 

We  are  indebted  to  Messrs.  Darby,  Evison,  and  Spilsby  for 
several  valuable  communications  on  this  disease. 

Mr.  Da-rby  observes : — '  The  symptoms  in  acute  cases  I  have 
generally  found  to  be  a  closed  eye,  disturbed  respiration,  dis- 
charge from  the  nose,  with  extreme  prostration  of  strength  ;  pulse 
from  80  to  lOQ.  In  this  stage  you  may  expect  quickly  to  lose 
your  patient.  The  post-mortem  appearances  are  engorged  lungs, 
and  frequently  the  vessels  of  the  brain  are  in  a  stage  of  tur- 
gescence,  with  more  or  less  disease  of  the  whole  of  the  mucous 
surfaces.  The  manyplus  is  very  much  distended  with  food, 
which  appears  as  if  it  had  been  in  a  press. 

'  In  the  chronic  stage  there  is  the  dull  vacant  eye — extreme 
debility — the  animal  generally  leaning  against  the  fence  with  his 
back  up.  Sometimes  he  feeds  moderately,  at  other  times  not  at 
all ;  and  so  goes  on,  until  ttltimately  he  is  worn  out  with  organic 
disease.     The  examination  after  death  exhibits  sad  mischief.    The 


288  DISEASES    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

lungs  are  often  adhering  to  the  sides ;  and  an  effusion  of  serum,  in 
an  enormous  quantity,  into  the  cavity  of  the  chest ;  the  liver  very 
much  diseased ;  and,  in  some  cases,  I  have  found  engorgement 
of  the  spleen,  vdth — in  both  stages  of  the  disease — much  froth} 
mucus  in  the  windpipe.' 

Mr.  Darby  also  furnishes  us  with  the  fcllowing  account : — 
'  On  the  8th  ult,  I  was  called  to  attend  a  flock  of  sheep,  consisting 
of  250  lamb-hogs,  which  had  lost,  and  was  losing,  at  the  rate  of 
four  or  five  sheep  daily.  The  shepherd  brought  three  dead  ones 
from  the  fold  that  morning,  and  on  closely  examining  the  flock  I 
found  the  greater  part  to  be  more  or  less  affected  with  influenza. 
The  eyes  were  closed,  or  partially ;  the  head  very  much  affected ; 
a  purulent  discharge  issued  from  the  nostrils,  and  some  hours  pre- 
vious to  death  a  thick  ropy  discharge  took  place  from  the  mouth, 
the  stench  from  which  was  abominable ;  a  glaring  eye,  with  an 
inclination  to  keep  forming  a  circle,  was  the  last  symptom ;  and 
then  death  soon  closed  the  scene.  On  examining  those  that  had 
died  that  morning,  the  following  appearances  presented  them- 
selves :  the  membrane  of  the  windpipe  was  of  a  purple  colour,  and 
the  tube  contained  much  frothy  mucus ;  the  lungs  were  highly  con- 
gested, as  were  the  vessels  of  the  brain,  and  inflammatory  patches 
existed  throughout  the  whole  length  of  the  intestinal  canal.  The 
symptoms  were  described  next  day  to  Dr.  Banks,  a  physician  of 
this  place,  and  he  pronounced  them  to  be  the  most  decided 
symptoms  of  influenza  he  ever  heard  of  in  sheep. 

*  I  commenced  my  treatment  by  giving  the  whole  flock  four 
drams  each  of  Epsom  salts,  combined  with  vegetable  tonics, 
and  calculating  the  proper  quantity  of  warm  water,  we  brewed 
the  medicine  in  the  gross,  giving  each  sheep  a  quarter  of  a  pint  of 
the  mixture.  I  also  gave  to  those  that  required  it  small  doses  of 
digitalis,  opium,  tartarised  antimony,  and  vegetable  tonics.  I  am 
happy  in  being  enabled  to  add  that,  after  having  given  this 
medicine,  I  never  lost  a  single  sheep,  and  they  are  at  this  moment 
as  flne  a  flock  of  hogs  as  any  on  the  walks.  I  should  have  said, 
when  I  first  saw  them,  that  they  were  on  turnips,  and  having  two 
ounces  each  of  linseed-cake,  with  barley-chaff.  I  had  them  re- 
moved from  the  turnips  to  old  seeds  for  some  days,  but  they  are 
now  on  their  usual  keep.  Several  of  them  went  blind,  but  by 
applying  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  zinc  and  tincture  of  opium,  they 
have  recovered  their  sight.' 

We  have  in  this  account  the  low  fever  and  the  aff"ection  of  the 
head  and  mucous  membranes  which  characterize  the  influenza  of 
the  horse,  and  which  justifies  us  in  giving  it  the  same  denomina- 
tion in  the  sheep ;  whilst  the  same  moderate  system  of  treatment 
was  also  found  successful. 


EPIZOOTIC    DISEASES.  289 

In  the  following  description  by  Mr.  Clayworth.  we  observe 
the  same  character  in  the  principal  symptoms,  but  attended  with 
some  modifications,  probably  arising  from  the  nature  of  the 
locality. 

Mr.  Clayworth,  in  his  communication,  observes  that  he  has 
found  the  disease  most  prevalent  in  the  marshes  near  the  sea, 
where  the  land  is  good,  but  much  exposed.  It  prevails  mostly  in 
March  and  April,  and  generally  attacks  young  sheep.  He  then 
proceeds  to  give  an  account  of  a  flock  which  he  attended  in  1838. 
'  On  my  arrival,  on  April  19,  I  found  seven  or  eight  dead.  They 
were  observed  to  be  ill  on  the  day  previous  to  my  seeing  them. 
I'here  were  eight  more  that  could  not  stand,  having  lost  all 
power  of  motion.  Of  the  remainder  I  found  some  scarcely 
affected  at  all,  while  others  were  gradually  going  on  in  the  same 
way  as  those  that  had  died. 

'  The  first  symptoms  exhibited  were  dulness  of  countenance, 
and  a  disinclination  to  join  the  rest  of  their  comprinions,  or  look 
out  for  food.  They  soon  became  more  dullj  a  thin  mucous  dis- 
charge made  its  appearance  from  the  nose  and  eyes,  the  tissues 
being  highly  injected;  the  ears  drooped,  a  grating  of  the  teeth 
was  heard,  and  a  stago:ering  gait  evinced  in  walking. 

^The  animals  were  able  to  walk  at  a  slow  pace,  but  if  urged 
mto  a  quicker  one  they  would  fall  down  on  their  knees,  and  then 
on  their  sides,  throw  their  heads  back,  and  grate  their  teeth.  At 
this  stage  the  sheep  often  became  affected  with  spontaneous 
diarrhoea.  Those  that  did  not  purge  usually  voided  much  mucus 
with  the  dung.  After  this  they  would  lie  still,  but  continue  to 
grate  their  teeth,  and  a  rattling  noise  was  heard  in  the  windpipe, 
accompanied  with  a  frothy  discharge  from  the  mouth  and  nose, 
and  an  occasional  cough,  to  which  death  succeeded  in  a  few 
hours. 

'  The  treatment  I  pursued  with  those  that  could  not  stand  was, 
first,  to  place  them  under  a  shed,  with  plenty  of  dry  straw  to  lie 
upon ;  to  those  afiected  with  diarrhoea  astringents  were  adminis- 
tered, such  as  catechu,  chalk,  &c.,  combining  them  with  an 
aromatic  tonic,  and  the  spiritus  cetheris  nitrici-,  while  to  others 
that  were  constipated  I  gave  a  gentle  laxative,  following  it  up 
with  a  vegetable  tonic.  This  course  of  procedure  appeared  to  be 
attended  with  benefit;  for  out  of  the  number,  eight  that  could 
not  stand  recovered,  and  were  able  to  provide  for  themselves  in 
two  or  three  days.  The  remainder  of  the  flock  were  removed 
into  as  sheltered  a  situation  as  could  be  found,  or  sheds  were 
erected  for  them,  with  plenty  of  dry  straw  to  lie  upon.  A  liberal 
diet   of  oats   and  hay  was  allowed,   and  their  general  comfort 

0 


290  DISEASES    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

attended  to  as  mucli  as  possible.  To  many  that  gare  indications 
of  the  approach  of  an  attack  of  the  malady,  a  laxative  and  a  tonic 
were  combined  and  given. 

'  On  April  21st  the  sheep  -were  not  only  looking  better,  but 
had  very  materially  improved.  The  above-mentioned  treatment 
was  continued,  with  occasional  variations,  according  to  the  cir- 
cumstances of  each  case,  and  in  five  or  six  days  they  were  all  out 
of  danger.  After  this  there  were  not  more  than  two  or  three 
sheep  out  of  the  flock  in  which  the  prostration  of  strength  became 
80  great  as  to  render  them  unable  to  stand ;  and  I  would  add, 
that  I  never  knew  one  case  recover  without  the  aid  of  medicine, 
after  the  disease  had  lasted  so  long  as  to  produce  the  loss  of 
power.' 

We  have  given  these  accounts  in  full,  as  they  are  useful,  not 
only  as  giving  clear  and  satisfactory  details  of  this  epidemic, 
but  also  as  afibrding  a  convincing  proof  of  how  much  can  be  done 
in  the  cure  of  the  diseases  of  sheep  by  rational  and  scientific 
treatment. 

Tlie  Epidemic  of  1840,  since  generally  termed  the  Toot 
and  Month  Disea^se.  —In  the  winter  of  1839  and  1840,  and  through- 
out the  greater  portion  of  the  latter,  and  extending  even  to  the 
following  year,  and  again  making  its  appearance  at  the  period  I  am 
writing,  1843,  this  country  has  been  visited  by  an  epizootic,  to 
which,  for  the  almost  universality  of  its  attack,  a  parallel  can 
scarcely  be  found  even  in  the  virulent  epidemics  of  former  times. 
Horned  cattle  and  sheep  are  equally  susceptible  to  its  influence ; 
even  pigs  are  not  exempt.  That  it  is  decidedly  contagious  no  one 
can  doubt,  for  proofs  have  been  adduced  both  numerous  and 
positive  :  and  yet  its  attack  is  frequently  very  erratic,  attacking 
perhaps  the  cows  at  one  period  and  the  sheep  at  another,  and  in 
other  places  visiting  both  at  the  same  time.  The  mouth  and  the 
feet  are  the  chief  parts  locally  aftected,  and  in  cattle  the  mouth 
generally  manifested  the  disease  first ;  but  in  sheep  the  feet  were 
earliest  and  most  severely  aff"ected,  and  in  the  majority  of  cases 
the  mouth  altogether  escaped.  The  constitutional  symptoms,  too, 
were  less  severe  in  the  sheep,  but  the  affection  of  the  feet  was 
generally  more  virulent  and  obstinate  than  with  cattle.  In  the 
latter  an  indisposition  to  feed,  from  soreness  of  the  mouth,  was 
generally  the  first  symptom  perceived ;  the  saliva  would  drivel 
from  it,  and  soon  large  bladders  would  be  observed  on  and  under 
the  tongue,  and  in  other  parts  of  the  mouth,  which  in  a  few  days 
would  burst,  when  the  soreness  would  become  still  more  severe. 
These  symptoms  were  also  observed  in  sheep  when  the  mouth 
waa  affected,  but  the  feet  were,  iu  these  animals,  usually  first 


THB    FOOT    AND    MOUTH    DISEASE.  291 

attacked :  attention  was  first  directed  to  a  flock  hj  observing 
some  of  the  sheep  lame,  and  on  inspecting  them  either  a  sore 
would  be  observed  between  the  clees,  or  the  foot  would  feel  very 
hot.  The  disease  appears  to  be  essentially  a  fever  of  a  contagious 
and  peculiar  nature,  aff"ecting  and  disturbing  the  whole  system, 
and  manifesting  itself  externally  by  this  afi'ection  of  the  feet  and 
mouth,  just  as  in  the  human  subject  small-pox  or  measles  exhibits 
itself  externally  by  forming  eruptions  and  ulcers  on  particular 
parts  of  the  skin.  In  many  instances  the  disease  appears,  in  sheep, 
to  have  been  confined  to  this  one  local  afiection  of  the  feet,  and 
sometimes  without  any  treatment  the  animals  have  soon  got  well. 
Not  so,  however,  in  the  majority  of  cases :  the  sore  would  spread, 
the  foot  feel  hot,  matter  would  form  beneath  it  at  the  back  of  the 
foot  and  between  its  divisions,  and  this  spreading  forwards,  the 
hoofs,  in  many  instances,  would  slough  off,  and  sometimes  fungus, 
in  large  quantities,  would  be  thrown  out,  particularly  if  the 
animals  were  exposed  to  much  moisture.  The  sheep  for  a  long 
time  would  crawl  about  on  their  knees,  and  from  inability  to  walk 
and  the  pain  combined  lose  flesh  considerably.  I  have  seen  in  a 
flock  of  sheep  severely  aSected  some  cases  in  which  it  was  sup- 
posed to  have  extended  to  the  knee-joints,  which  were  in  so  sad 
a  state  of  internal  inflammation  as  to  threaten  loss  of  the  joint, 
whilst  externally  they  were  covered  with  extensive  sores.  I  am  of 
opinion,  however,  that  this  diseased  appearance  is  of  a  local 
character,  produced  by  the  sheep  travelling  so  much  on  their 
knees,  or  standing  so  much  on  one  leg,  in  order  to  favour  the 
other.  In  one  instance  abscesses  had  formed,  and  I  fear  the  knife 
of  the  shepherd  had,  in  opening  them,  extended  the  incision  into 
the  joint,  and  thus  added  greatly  to  the  inflammation  in  the  joint 
and  the  general  fever  in  the  system. 

Sheep  were,  generally  speaking,  much  longer  in  getting  well 
than  cattle,  which  may  be  attributed  to  their  being  more  exposed 
to  dirt  and  moisture,  and  having  from  their  numbers  less  personal 
attention  bestowed  on  them  individually.  If  the  animals  were 
attentively  examined,  symptoms  of  fever  would  be  discovered, 
such  as  a  hot  mouth  and  increased  circulation,  but  the  afi*ection 
of  the  feet  was  generally  the  most  formidable  and  most  trouble- 
some attendant. 

This  disease  appears  to  have  spread  throughout  every  description 
of  land,  and  during  every  variety  of  weather ;  in  some  instances, 
however,  it  disappears  during  a  frost,  and  was  generally  more 
prevalent  and  more  severe  in  wet  weather  than  in  dry.  In  sheep 
this  was  more  particularly  observable,  and  in  them  the  disease 
was  very  considerably  protracted  by  wet  lair,  and  to  this,  and  the 

o2 


292  DISEASES    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

less  attention  they  received,  I  attribute  the  fact  of  their  being 
longer  in  getting  well  than  cattle. 

With  regard  to  the  cause  of  this  disease,  it  is,  I  imagine, 
beyond  the  power  of  man  to  discover.  Some  mysterious  principle, 
or  some  invisible  gas  escaping  from  the  laboratory  of  nature,  and 
imbibed  by  the  systems  of  animals  susceptible  of  its  influence, 
and  receiving  probably  from  the  emanations  of  diseased  animals 
a  large  accession  of  deleterious  and  infectious  atoms,  and  thus 
travelling  onwards,  and  widely  extending  its  ravages,  is  all  that 
we  can  off'er  towards  an  hypothesis  explanatory  of  the  cause  of 
this  very  serious  and  troublesome  malady.  Sheep  that  travel 
much,  and  are  driven  about  from  fair  to  fair,  have  the  disease 
much  more  frequently  than  others  that  remain  stationary  ;  and  it 
is  in  this  manner,  in  many  instances,  that  it  appears  to  be  brought 
on  a  farm,  or  into  a  district.  Whether  it  is  that  sheep  thus  driven 
about  are  more  likely  to  meet  with  the  invisible  cause  of  the 
epidemic,  whatever  it  be,  or  whether  their  systems  become  more 
excited  by  travelling,  and  thus  more  susceptible  to  disease ; — 
which  of  these  reasons  it  is,  or  whether  both  are  in  operation,  we 
cannot  tell;  the  fact,  however,  is  indisputable,  that  migratory 
sheep  are  more  frequently  affected  than  others. 

There  cannot  be  a  doubt  as  to  the  infectious  nature  of  this 
disease;  numerous  instances  have  been  related  which  go  far 
towards  establishing  the  fact ;  but  the  following  experiments,  by 
a  German  veterinary  surgeon,  put  it  altogether  beyond  doubt. 
He  says  : — '  My  first  experiment  was  on  a  flock  of  900  sheep,  160 
of  which  were  already  lame.  I  had  those  selected  in  which  the 
horn  had  not  quite  come  off  from  the  foot,  but  where  it  was  so 
loose  that  a  slight  pressure  of  the  finger  would  be  enough  to 
separate  it.  With  the  matter  found  in  the  hoof  I  inoculated  500 
animals  on  that  side  of  the  ear  which  is  most  free  from  wool. 
In  the  course  of  twenty-four  hours  considerable  fever  had  arisen : 
in  forty-eight  hours  the  inoculated  places  exhibited  symptoms  ot 
intense  inflammation  ;  and  in  seventy-two  hours  I  found  in  many 
of  them  small  blisters  full  of  serum.  On  the  sixth  day  I 
examined  them  all  separately,  and  found  that  nearly  every  bladder 
had  burst,  and  that  purulent  matter,  of  an  unpleasant  smell,  was 
escaping  from  them.  During  the  first  ten  days  after  the  inocula- 
tion, sixty  of  them  became  lame,  although  in  each  the  blister,  or 
pock,  had  risen  on  the  spot  inoculated.  That  lameness,  however, 
was  not  very  great,  and  in  general  lasted  only  about  two  days. 
All  the  other  inoculated  animals  remained  free  from  the  disease, 
though  iu  some  not  inoculated  it  raged  as  much  as  before.     I  can 


THE    FOOT    AND    MOUTH    DISEASE.  293 

only  explain  the  circumstance  of  sixty  becoming  lame  after  the 
inoculation  by  the  supposition  that  they  must  previously  have 
been  infected.  Other  experiments  have  been  attended  with 
similar  results.' 

The  treatment  of  this  disease  consists  of  both  local  and  con- 
stitutional measures,  though  in  slight  cases  the  former  may  be 
altogether  dispensed  with.    Take 


Sulphate  of  magnesia 
Nitrate  of  potash  . 
Powdered  ginger  . 
Spirit  of  nitrous  ether 


1  ounce. 

2  drama. 

1  dram. 

2  drams. 


The  powders  to  be  gradually  mixed  with  the  ether,  and  a  quarter 
of  a  pint  of  warm  water  then  slowly  added. 

This  may  be  given  to  each  sheep  that  exhibits  appearance  of 
fever.  It  will  of  course  be  the  simplest  method  to  prepare  this 
medicine  in  much  larger  quantities,  but  in  the  same  proportion. 
The  sores  in  the  feet  may  be  simply  dressed  with  a  solution  of 
sulphate  of  copper,  if  confined  to  the  upper  parts;  but  if  the 
lower  parts  should  be  affected,  and  matter  sliould  be  present  under 
the  horn,  a  sufficient  quantity  should  be  removed  to  give  exit  to 
the  matter,  but  the  too  free  and  indiscriminate  employment  of  the 
knife  should  be  avoided,  as  it  is  likely  to  increase  the  growth 
of  fungus.  One  of  the  following  applications  may  then  be 
used  : — Take 

Oil  of  tar ^  pint. 

Creosote ^  ounce. 

Olive  oil 1      » 


Or, 


Barbadoes  or  Stockholm  tar        .         .1  pound. 

Melted  lard 2  ounces. 

Sulphuric  acid 1  ounce. 


To  be  carefully  mixed. 

After   one    or   two  applications  of  the  above,  the   following 
powder  may  then  be  scattered  over  the  sores  daily  : — 


Mix. 


Powdered  chalk  . 
Armenian  bole  . 
Powdered  charcoal 

„        alum   . 
Sulphate  of  zinc 


4  ounces. 
1  ounce. 
1       „ 
h      „ 


"When  fungous  flesh  is  present,  a  caustic,  such  as  either  muriate 
of  antimony  or  hydrochloric  acid  (the  latter  being  the  strongest), 


294  DISEASES    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

should  be  applied  with  a  feather,  but  should  not  often  be 
repeated. 

An  object  of  equal,  if  not  superior,  importance  to  even  medical 
treatment,  is  to  secure  for  the  sheep  a  dry  surface  for  their  feet. 
The  troublesome  and  protracted  cases  which  have  too  frequently 
occurred,  may  be  attributed  in  a  great  measure  to  the  constant 
dirt  and  moisture  to  which  the  sheep  have  been  exposed  j  whilst 
this  continues  it  is  vain  to  expect  a  cure.  The  sheep  should 
either  be  kept  in  the  driest  pasture  on  the  farm,  or  in  littered 
yards  or  houses,  and  they  should  be  made  to  walk  over  a  surface 
strewed  with  fresh  lime  once  or  twice  a  day. 

After  the  first  symptoms  of  fever  have  disappeared,  the  sheep 
should  be  kept  pretty  well,  to  counteract  the  debility  and  loss  of 
flesh  that  often  supervene.  If  they  are  being  fattened,  plenty  of 
corn  and  oil-cake  should  be  allowed  with  the  hay  and  turnips ; 
and  if  they  are  ewes  in  lamb,  or  with  lambs  by  their  side,  corn 
even  then,  particularly  oats,  will  not  be  injudicious.  This  nu- 
tritious food  should  not,  however,  be  given  till  all  symptoms  of 
fever  have  disappeared. 

Epidemic  Diseases  in  Australia. — It  will  be  proper  in  this 
place  to  mention  a  formidable  epizootic  which  prevailed  extensively 
in  New  South  Wales,  in  the  years  1834  and  1835,  and  was  so  fatal 
in  that  colony,  that  some  sheep-masters  lost  half  their  flocks.  An 
inquiry  was  instituted  by  the  Governor,  under  the  direction  of 
Mr.  Bennett,  a  surgeon  in  the  colony,  and  the  following  is  an 
abstract  of  their  Report,  as  quoted  by  Mr.  Youatt,  in  his  work  on 
sheep : — 

'  The  character  of  the  runs  on  which  the  sheep  fed  was  that 
of  lofty  ranges  abounding  in  excellent  pasture  and  good  water. 
They  had  been  placed  in  this  locality  five  or  six  years,  and  had 
remained  perfectly  healthy.  The  winter  months  had  been  dry, 
with  severe  frosts ;  but  the  rain  setting  in  during  the  latter  part 
of  the  spring,  the  epidemic  began  to  appear.  The  animal  separates 
from  his  companions,  and  appears  depressed  and  listless:  the  ejea 
are  watery,  the  membrane  of  the  nose  red,  and  the  sheep  sneezes 
frequently.  A  watery  discharge,  but  soon  becoming  glairy  and 
clammy,  is  observed  from  one  nostril,  and  there  is  a  collection  of 
adhesive  mucus  encrusting  the  eyelids;  the  animal  ceases  to 
ruminate,  and  droops  his  head,  but  is  evidently  uneasy,  and  con- 
tinually shifting  his  posture  or  his  place.  This  first  stage  lasts 
from  four  to  twelve  hours.  The  eyes  and  nose  become  redder, 
the  discharge  increases,  it  is  thicker  and  of  a  yellowish  hue,  and 
it  hardens  about  the  orifices  of  the  nose,  and  obstructs  respiration. 
The  orifice  of  the  nostrils  is  swelled^  the  breathing  is  evidently 


AUSTRALIAN    EPIZOOTICS.  295 

hurried,  and  the  animal  is  in  great  pain  ;  the  head  is  "heavy,  and 
is  rested  on  the  hurdles  of  the  foldj  and  a  cough,  troublesome 
and  painful,  is  observed. 

'The  third  and  last  stage  now  advances.  The  membrane  of 
the  nose  assumes  a  leaden  or  dark  purple  hue  ;  the  discharge  is 
lessened,  but  it  is  very  thick  and  streaked  with  blood  ;  the  breath- 
ing is  more  laborious,  and  the  cough  more  painful.  The  lips,  and 
particularly  the  upper  lip,  the  nostrils,  and  sometimes  the  whole 
face  and  head,  are  swollen ;  and,  presently,  a  general  trembling 
comes  over  the  animal ;  he  appears  stupid ;  he  runs  against  every- 
thing in  his  way ;  he  kneels  down,  or  falls  down ;  becomes 
comatose,  and,  after  a  few  struggles,  expires.  In  some  of  the 
sheep  death  occurred  in  six  hours  after  the  first  attack — oftener 
twelve  hours  elapsed,  and  sometimes  the  animal  lingered  on  to 
the  third  day.  If  he  lived  beyond  that  time,  he  usually  recovered. 
In  those  that  did  recover,  general  debility  remained  for  a  long 
while,  and  in  almost  all  of  them  the  wool  fell  off,  leaving  the 
poor  animals  perfectly  naked.  The  surface  of  the  body,  after 
death,  appeared  to  be  of  a  dark  purple  or  livid  hue,  and  the 
carcass  very  speedily  became  putrid. 

'  Post-morte77i  examination  presented,  in  most  cases,  inflamma- 
tion of  all  the  sinuses  of  the  skull,  a  strong  affection  of  the 
membranes  of  the  brain,  but  not  the  slightest  disease  of  the 
substance  of  the  brain.  The  membrane  of  the  nose  was  highly 
inflamed  and  thickened,  and  a  tough  viscid  matter  was  eff'used 
over  it,  which  could  be  scraped  away  with  a  knife.  In  many 
cases  the  disease  was  confined  to  those  membranes,  except  that  the 
heart  was  gorged  with  black  blood.  In  other  animals  the  disease 
was  confined  to  the  pulmonary  organs;  the  inflammation  extended 
down  the  larynx,  the  trachea,  and  all  the  bronchial  passages ;  the 
membrane  was  thickened,  and  the  air-tubes  obstructed  with  viscid 
mucus.  The  stomachs  were  usually  healthy,  and  filled  with  food 
in  a  healthy  state :  the  whole  of  the  intestinal  canal  was  perfectly 
sound,  except  that  the  faeces  had  accumulated  in  hard  lumps,  and 
produced  some  abrasion  of  the  mucous  membrane.  The  liver 
was  usually  free  from  disease,  as  were  also  the  kidneys  and  the 
bladder. 

'  The  treatment  was  simple,  but  decisive.  The  animal  was 
bled  almost  to  fainting,  and  an  ounce  of  Epsom  salts  administered, 
with  a  dram  of  nitre,  in  warm  gruel.  The  infected  sheep  were 
separated  from  the  sound  ones,  without,  however,  fatiguing  or 
distressing  the  animals  by  long  harassing  journeys  or  otherwise. 
If  the  patient  was  not  relieved  in  four  or  six  hours,  the  bleeding 
was  repeated,  and  the  quantity  regulated  by  the  effect  which  it 


296  DISEASES    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

produced  on  the  pulse.  The  administration  of  salts  was  also 
persevered  in  until  the  bowels  were  well  opened.  The  chance  of 
success  was  greater  in  proportion  as  these  remedial  means  were 
early  applied.  Even  in  the  second  stage  of  the  disease  they  had 
occasionally  good  effect,  but  in  the  third  stage  they  were  of  no 
avail.  Relapses  on  change  of  weather  were  frequent^  the  con- 
valescents being  for  a  long  period  extremely  weak.  There  did 
not  seem  to  be  any  preventive  ;  and  those  who  bled  all  their  sheep, 
on  the  appearance  of  the  disease  in  a  few,  had  reason  to  repent  it, 
on  account  of  the  greater  number  that  were  eventually  attacked, 
and  in  the  increased  proportion  of  deaths.  It  was  difficult  to 
ascertain  the  number  of  sheep  that  were  effected,  and  died,  or 
recovered ;  because  this  epidemic,  like  almost  every  other,  was 
very  capricious  as  to  the  farms  that  it  attacked,  and  the  proportion 
of  its  victims.  The  greater  part  of  the  flocks  escaped  altogether. 
Where  a  flock  of  sheep,  consisting  of  about  300,  was  attacked, 
the  average  number  of  patients  would  be  100,  of  which  about 
55  would  recover,  and  45  be  lost.  The  whole  number  of  deaths 
was  more  than  7,000.  It  was  plainly  an  infectious  disease,  but 
only  communicable  when  the  animals  were  brought  into  actual 
contact.' 

In  Sydney,  it  appears  that  many  sheep  die  from  diseases 
originating  in  the  astringency  of  the  water,  produced  by  decayed 
leaves.  The  following  brief  account  was  communicated  to  the 
'  Veterinarian  '  by  the  late  Mr.  Cheetham  : — 

'  In  consequence  of  the  ruinous  effects  of  a  very  prevalent 
complaint  among  sheep,  his  Excellency  has  appointed  commis- 
sioners to  investigate  thoroughly  the  nature  of  the  disease,  with 
a  view  to  its  cure,  and  prevention  in  future.  We  have  lately  had 
a  conversation  with  an  extensive  sheep-holder  on  the  subject ;  and 
as  it  is  one  of  a  most  important  nature,  I  will  endeavour  to  give, 
for  the  benefit  of  the  community,  the  substance  of  his  experience 
— at  least  in  some  diseases  which  were  until  then  unknown,  and 
whose  immediate  causes  are  still  little  understood. 

'  The  first,  then,  to  which  we  beg  to  call  the  attention  of  your 
readers,  is  the  water  to  which  the  sheep  have  general  access.  The 
water-holes  are  usually  surrounded  with  trees,  which,  during  a 
continued  drought,  shed  their  leaves  into  the  water.  Now,  while 
any  large  body  of  water  remains  in  the  holes,  the  effects  arising 
from  the  infusion  will  not  be  perceptible  on  the  animal  ;  but 
when,  during  the  excessive  heats  of  summer,  the  quantity  becomes 
reduced,  its  powerful  astringent  effects  will  be  discovered  in  the 
disease,  and  consequent  death,  of  many  of  the  flock.     This  latter 


SPECIFIC    DISEASES.  297 

circumstance  more  frequently  occurs  than  in  cases  of  scab  or  rot ; 
because  in  the  bitter  the  nature  of  the  complaint  is  known  imme- 
diately, and  proper  remedies  can  be  applied  in  the  first  stage  of 
the  disorder  -,  whereas  in  the  former  it  is  unknown  until  after 
death  (and  then  only  discoverable  by  a  thorough  anatomical 
process),  while  a  remedy  or  cure  is  entirely  out  of  the  question. 

'  The  only  chance  which  suggests  itself  to  save  a  flock  thus 
attacked,  is  instant  removal  to  a  situation  where  water  may  be 
obtained  without  contaming  that  strong  principle  of  tannin  which 
all  our  trees  possess  in  a  greater  or  less  degree. 

'  There  is  another  disease,  not  unlike  the  above,  to  which  sheep 
axe  liable,  arising  from  a  somewhat  similar  cause,  and  to  which 
the  same  remedy  only  can  be  effectually  applied.  This  arises 
from  drinking  water  impregnated  with  alum.  The  gentleman  to 
whom  I  have  formerly  alluded  informed  me  that  on  one  occasion 
a  very  large  proportion  of  a  flock  died  off" — a  circumstance  for 
which  he  could  in  nowise  accoimt.  There  was  no  external  sign 
of  illness,  yet  they  died.  This  induced  him  to  subject  the  carcass 
of  one  of  them  to  a  regular  anatomical  process,  which  pointed  out 
the  stomach  as  the  seat  of  the  disease  ;  and,  from  other  appear- 
ances, he  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  evil  was  caused  by  the 
water.  He  accordingly  tested  the  water  from  holes  on  the  run, 
and  discovered  one  strongly  impregnated  with  alum.  The 
mysteiy  was  elucidated  ;  the  flock  was  removed,  and  the  mortality 
ceased.  We  may,  however,  expect  more  information  upon  this 
subject  when  a  proper  investigation  shall  have  taken  place.' 

The  writer  does  not  mention  the  symptoms  of  the  disease ; 
but,  from  its  cause,  I  should  imagine  it  must  bear  some  analogy  to 
that  termed  Pining,  described  at  page  228,  which  proceeds  from 
the  astringency  of  the  food.  Epsom  salts  and  other  aperients 
would  seem  to  be  proper  remedies;  but  little  good  can  be  ex- 
pected unless  the  cause  also  is  removed  by  changing  the  pasture. 
In  a  country  like  this,  where  labour  is  so  scarce  and  dear,  the 
flocks  of  sheep  are  of  course  kept  entirely  on  natural  pastures ; 
but  if  a  few  succulent  roots,  such  as  white  turnips,  could  be 
cultivated,  or  the  purging  flax  (Lininn  cat/iaiimmi),  in  situations 
where  the  disease  is  apt  to  prevail,  it  would  materially  conduce 
towards  preventing  and  curing  it. 

SPECIFIC    DISEASES. 

Scrofula. — Sheep  are  liable  to  a  scrofulous  disease  which  is 
almost  uniformly  fatal.  It  is  called  the  I^vil  in  some  places,  and 
elsewhere  receives  other  denominations.     A  hard  swelling  of  tbs 


298  DISEASES    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

glands  under  the  jaws  is  first  observed ;  after  a  time  small  pus- 
tules appear  about  the  head  and  neck,  which  break,  discharging 
a  white  matter,  then  heal,  and  are  followed  by  others  more 
numerous.  This  gradually  robs  the  animal  of  flesh ;  and  slowly 
pining  away,  it  becomes  at  length  quite  useless,  and  in  this  state 
is  destroyed.  It  seldom  attacks  a  great  number  at  a  time,  but 
selects  generally  a  few  individuals  from  a  flock. 

The  writer  has  succeeded  in  eff'ecting  a  cure  so  far  that  the 
tumours  disappeared  and  the  animals  improved  in  flesh  and  health, 
by  administering  four  or  five  grains  of  hydriodate  of  potash  daily 
in  gruel,  and  rubbing  the  part/?  likewise  with  ointment  of  iodide 
of  mercury.  As  soon  as  the  animal  is  considerably  better,  it 
should,  however,  be  sent  to  the  butcher. 

Somewhat  analogous  to  this  disease  is  the  following  account, 
which  appears  in  vol.  x.  of  the  '  Veterinarian.'  It  is  introduced 
by  the  editor,  who  does  not  mention  the  country  in  which  the 
disease  appeared  and  the  writer  then  resided : — 

'  This  spring  my  South  Down  sheep  looked  somewhat  ragged 
in  their  fleeces,  but  were  in  good  condition  until  about  six  weeks 
before  their  lambing,  when,  notwithstanding  their  excellent  feed, 
they  seemed  to  lose  their  flesh,  as  pregnant  animals  are  apt  to  do. 
On  the  20th  of  April  I  was  enabled  to  turn  them  on  a  little  grass. 

*  On  the  2oth  my  little  flock  (our  correspondent  is  a  farmer  on 
a  very  large  scale,  but  this  was  the  first  time  that  he  had  been 
enabled  to  try  the  South  Downs :  they  had  been  drawn  from  the 
flock  of  Mr.  Ellman,  and  exported  by  him)  commenced  lambing, 
and  every  lamb  was  deformed  by  an  enlargement  of  the  neck.  It 
gasped  once  or  twice,  struggled  a  little,  and  then  died,  although 
perfectly  and  excellently  developed  in  every  other  respect.  In 
this  way  I  lost  twenty-three  lambs,  two  only  living  a  miserable 
existence. 

^  The  enlargement  varies  a  little  in  position  up  and  down  the 
neck,  and  embraces  the  thorax  more  or  less  closely,  and  varies  in 
size  from  that  of  a  walnut  to  a  hen's  egg.  The  lungs  had  evi- 
dently never  passed  any  blood  through  them. 

'I  first  thought  that  it  was  goitre ;  but  it  did  not  eon-espond 
with  the  situation  or  appearance  of  that  disease,  I  attributed  it 
to  some  peculiarity  in  the  water;  but,  on  communication  with 
other  breeders,  I  found  that  flocks  drinking  the  same  water  had, 
in  two  successive  seasons,  produced  lambs  with  and  without  this 
defect ;  and  I  also  found  that  it  had  appeared  where  well-water, 
and  also  where  springs,  and  brooks,  and  swampy  water  had  been 
used ;  but,  with  one  exception  only,  I  found  that,  in  all  cases  in 
which  this  enlargement  of  the  neck  had  'taken  place,  the  ewes 


SPECIFIC    DISEASES.  299 

had  been  grained  (had  corn  given  them),  and  that,  too,  pretty 
highly.  "What  to  do  with  this  one  exception  I  do  not  know. 
One  of  my  ewes  seemed  to  me  to  be  consumptive,  and  I  kept  her 
in  a  stable,  and  fed  her  with  whatever  she  would  eat ;  oats,  oil- 
cake, hay,  turnips,  or  tea-leaves — no  very  scientific  feeding,  you 
will  say.  She  retained  her  strength  until  the  lambing  time  came, 
and  then  she  brought  me  a  lamb  with  an  enlarged  neck.  The 
tutor  in  my  family  amused  himself  with  feeding,  in  a  small  yard 
close  by  mine,  half-a-dozen  nice  ewes.  He  fed  them  with  poor 
hay,  but  the  best  oats ;  and  they  had  nothing  but  snow-water  to 
drink  until  late  in  March,  when  they  drank  of  the  same  swamp- 
water  as  my  sheep.     All  their  lambs  came  perfect. 

'I  sold  six  full-bred  Merino  sheep,  and  six  grade  (half-bred) 
sheep  that  were  fed  with  a  quart  of  oats  per  day,  and  drank  at  a 
spring.     All  their  lambs  came  with  enlarged  glands. 

'I  will  only  remark,  that  of  the  lambs  that  did  well  the 
swellings  seemed  loose,  and  almost  pendulous  j  yet  the  breathing 
was  difficult  and  spasmodic,  and  there  was  mucous  discharge  from 
the  nostrils.  One  lamb  with  these  swellings  died  very  fat,  and 
in  another  the  swellings  have  much  decreased. 

'  Within  the  last  twelve  months  I  find  that  no  less  than  six 
of  my  ewes  have  enlarged  necks,  which  does  not  seem  to  incon- 
venience them  in  the  least;  they,  however,  are  not  ewes  that 
carry  much  flesh.  The  old  sheep  showing  tliis  enlargement  have  a 
little  puzzled  me.' 

The  treatment  I  should  be  inclined  to  adopt  in  such  cases  as 
the  above  is  the  exhibition  of  iodine,  in  the  forms  before  recom- 
mended. The  disease  may  be  considered  as  endemic ;  and  it  is 
to  be  regTetted  that  the  writer  makes  no  observations  on  the 
nature  of  the  climate  or  the  soil.  The  fact  of  the  lambs  escaping 
that  were  produced  by  the  ewes  that  had  had  snow-water  (whicli 
is  exceedingly  pure)  to  drink  till  near  the  time  of  lambing,  would 
induce  the  belief  that  the  water  must,  from  some  mineral  taint  or 
other  impurity,  have  been  an  active  cause  in  producing  the  disease. 
In  such  case,  where  an  endemical  disease  makes  its  appearance,  a 
discovery  of  the  cause  is  better  than  that  of  the  cure ;  and,  in  the 
instance  in  question,  no  pains  should  have  been  spared  in  eliciting 
it.  Numerous  experiments  should  be  instituted,  by  keeping 
various  ewes  on  different  food  and  water,  and  by  such  means 
the  real  cause  of  the  mischief  would  have  been  brought  to 
light. 

Dropsy. — Various  parts  of  the  body  may  become  affected  with 
anasarcous  or  dropsical  swellings,  although  by  no  means  so  fre- 
quently as  in  the  horse.     The  following  brief  account  of  such 


300  DISEASE?    or    THE    SHEEP. 

disease  is  communicated  by  Mr.  J.  Tombs,  in  vol.  xiv.  of  the 
*  Veterinarian : ' — 

'  There  has  been  a  disease  very  prevalent  among  sheep  in  this 
county  (Worcestershire)  :  it  made  its  appearance  about  a  week 
after  they  v^ere  shorn.  A  swelling  came  on  near  the  udder,  and 
extended  along  on  both  sides  of  the  abdomen  to  the  anterior 
extremities.  After  it  had  existed  for  some  time,  a  swelling  on 
the  inside  of  the  thighs  came  on.  The  pulse  was  quick  and 
feeble ;  the  eyes  had  a  peculiarly  watery  appearance ;  the  animals 
were  very  soon  emaciated.  The  shepherds  ver}'  improperly  called 
it  murrain,  as  it  was  to  all  intents  and  purposes  anasai'ca,  the 
swellings,  when  punctured,  discharging  a  watery  fluid.  The 
causes  of  the  disease  were — cold  and  wet  weather  when  shorn,  and 
eating  wet  grass.  Many  shepherds,  thinking  it  was  murrain, 
dressed  the  sheep  with  liquid  caustics,  which  killed  them  out- 
right. The  cases  that  came  under  my  notice  yielded  to  repelling 
lotions,  and  the  exhibition  of  diuretics  and  vegetable  tonics.' 

This  disease,  or  one  very  similar  to  it,  prevails  in  some  of  the 
midland  counties,  and  is  denominated  Black-leg.  It  is  best  treated 
by  mild  aperients,  and  diuretics  combined  with  tonics. 

In  all  dropsical  affections  it  will  be  prudent  to  change  the 
food  from  wet  to  dry,  giving  good  hay  cut  into  chaff,  with  a  little 
corn  and  oatmeal  gruel.  When  water  collects  within  the  cavity 
of  the  abdomen,  as  it  sometimes  does,  and  generally  in  old  sheep, 
it  is  usually  preceded  by  some  degree  of  inflammation  of  the 
eritoneum,  the  membrane  by  which  the  water  is  secreted. 

LOCAL    DISEASES. 

Injuries  of  the  Feet. — We  have  noticed  the  peculiar 
structure  of  the  feet  in  sheep  in  a  previous  part  of  the  work, 
p.  95,  and  we  have  mentioned  that  the  principal  part  of  the 
weight  is  supported  by  the  heel  or  back  part  of  the  foot.  The 
front  part  is,  from  its  pointed  nature,  well  adapted  to  preserve  the 
foot-hold  and  prevent  slipping,  particularly  in  ascending  rocky 
declivities ;  and  in  such  situations,  and  particularly  if  the  animal 
lias  to  travel,  the  wear  of  the  horn  at  the  toe  is  equal  to  its 
growth.  But  in  wet  pastures,  or  on  soft  soil,  the  growth  of  the 
toe  is  much  greater  than  the  wear,  and  consequently  this  part 
often  grows  extremely  long  and  irregular,  so  that  it  separates 
from  the  quick,  and  dirt  sinuates,  and  lameness  and  a  trouble- 
some wound  are  the  consequences,  sometimes  leading  to  foot-rot. 
This  might  be  prevented  by  cutting  off  the  superfluous  horn  with 
the  knife. 


LOCAL    DISEASES.  301 

The  foot  of  the  sheep  often  becomes  sore  from  travelling,  par- 
ticularly on  sandy  roads.  In  this  case  it  is  the  heels  and  the  skin 
between  them  that  suffer;  but  timely  rest  will  set  the  matter 
right,  and  a  little  oil  of  tar  may  be  applied  to  the  wound. 

Sometimes  the  biflex  canal  becomes  the  seat  of  disease  and 
the  cause  of  lameness ;  sand  may  penetrate,  or  the  part  may  be 
chafed  by  much  walking  in  the  dirt,  and  inflammation  and  ulcera- 
tion are  the  consequence.  The  part  should  be  cleaned  and  dressed 
with  a  little  tincture  of  myrrh,  or  the  astringent  powder  recom- 
mended at  p.  293  for  the  epidemic.  If  proud  flesh  forms,  it  should 
be  kept  down  -with  the  muriate  of  antimony. 

These  various  injuries  often  prove  very  troublesome  from  the 
circumstance  of  the  sheep  being  exposed  to  dirt  and  moisture  and 
the  vicissitudes  of  the  weather,  and  sometimes  prove  the  fore- 
runner of  a  still  more  troublesome  malady. 

The  Foot-rot. — This  disease  is  a  sadly  troublesome  aff'air 
both  to  the  sheep-owner  and  the  shepherd ;  and  though  seldom 
fatal,  yet  often,  by  the  irritation  and  lameness  it  produces,  robs 
the  animal  of  its  flesh,  to  the  great  injury  of  the  owner.  It  con- 
sists of  inflammation  and  suppuration,  and  often  ulceration  of  the 
sensible  and  secreting  parts  of  the  foot,  and  occurs  either  during 
or  immediately  after  a  long  continuance  of  wet  weather,  and  is 
most  prevalent  on  land  retentive  of  wet.  There  is  much  diff'erence 
of  opinion  as  to  its  being  contagious  or  not.  Mr.  Read,  in  an  ex- 
cellent essay  on  the  subject,  in  vol.  xiii.  of  the  'Veterinarian,' 
inclines  to  the  opinion  that  it  is  not  so,  but  believes  that  the 
sheep  are  all  infected  from  the  same  cause ;  but  we  will  let  him 
speak  for  himseK  presently.  Many  writers  consider  it  infectious, 
and  some  carry  this  opinion  so  far  as  to  believe  that  the  infection 
may  remain  in  the  ground  for  years ;  this,  however,  is  absurd.  A 
shepherd,  in  a  communication  in  vol.  xii.  of  the  '  Veterinarian,' 
after  stating  his  belief  that  it  is  decidedly  infectious,  mentions  an 
instance  of  a  large  flock,  half-bred,  between  the  Leicester  and  the 
Down,  though  occupying  a  sound  pasture,  yet  becoming  affected 
in  consequence  of  a  neighbouring  plantation  being  thrown  open, 
which  plantation  was  almost  constantly  in  a  wet  state :  the  effect 
produced  was  to  give  the  foot-rot  to  every  sheep  or  lamb  that 
entered  it,  though  after  a  time  the  sheep  that  were  used  to  it 
enjoyed  a  comparative  immunity,  although  if  any  strangers  were 
turned  in,  they  were  sure  to  become  affected. 

We  are  inclined  to  the  opinion  that  the  disease  is  produced  by 
the  continual  immersion  of  the  feet  in  a  wet  or  damp  soil,  by 
which  the  horn  is  softened  and  weakened,  and  no  longer  capable 
of  protecting  the  vascular  parts  beneath.     It  is  probably  assisted 


302  DISEASES    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

by  decaying  vegetation,  and  the  diseased  matter  from  the  feet  of  the 
affected  sheep  probably  assists  in  producing  the  disease  when  aided 
by  the  agency  of  moisture.  But  as  for  the  disease  being  always 
or  even  generally  produced  by  contagion,  such  opinion  is  un- 
doubtedly erroneous.  Whether  this  theory  be  correct  or  other- 
wise, there  cannot  be  a  doubt  of  the  close  connection  which 
moisture  has  with  the  disease,  and  the  disposition  which  land 
retentive  of  wet  has  to  produce  it.  We  are  aware  that  many 
whose  opinions  are  deserving  of  great  weight  express  a  positive 
opinion  against  the  foot-rot  being  contagious,  and  this  opinion  is 
grounded  chiefly  on  the  fact  which  has  come  before  their  notice, 
that  diseased  sheep  have  failed  to  produce  the  foot-rot  in  sound 
animals  on  dry  lands.  This,  however,  is  not  sufficient  to  establish 
its  non-contagiousness ;  for  when  the  horn  is  dry  and  strong,  and 
free  from  cracks  and  fissures,  and  the  skin  above  also  sound  and 
properly  lubricated  with  the  unctuous  secretion  which  is  here 
particularly  supplied,  there  is  no  disposition  to  absorb  foreign 
matters,  but,  on  the  contrary,  a  power  of  resisting  their  influence, 
and  thus  we  cannot  be  surprised  that  the  foot-rot  matter  has  no 
eflfect  under  such  circumstances.  When,  however,  the  oily  secre- 
tion is  washed  ofl",  the  skin  in  an  irritable  and  probably  sore  state 
from  the  friction  of  the  wet  and  dirt  between  the  clees,  the  horn 
long  at  the  toe  and  ragged  underneath,  and  particularly  the  upper 
or  coronary  portion  which  unites  with  the  skin,  and  consequently 
is  very  thin — when  this  part  is  blanched,  weakened,  and  probably 
in  some  degree  separated  from  the  skin  above,  we  cannot  be  sur- 
prised that  such  a  state  of  the  parts  must  greatly  expose  them  to 
the  action  of  any  infectious  matter  from  without.  Even  if  we 
regard  the  disease  as  contagious,  we  do  not  imagine  that  it  is  pro- 
pagated so  much  by  this  means  as  by  the  various  causes  that  we 
have  just  mentioned,  and  more  particularly  by  the  reaction  which 
follows  on  a  change  of  weather,  or  even  without  it. 

The  progressive  symptoms  developed  by  this  disease  are  so  well 
described  by  Mr.  W.  Hogg  in  a  prize  essay  communicated  to  the 
Highland  Society,  that  we  cannot  do  better  than  give  it  a  place 
here.  He  observes: — 'The  first  indication  of  the  foot-rot  is  a 
slight  halt  in  the  animal.  It  gradually  increases,  and  in  two  or 
three  days  the  animal  assumes  a  lank  appearance,  lags  behind  the 
rest,  lies  much,  and,  when  roused,  appears  anxious,  and  confused 
at  finding  itself  alone.  It  becomes  more  and  more  lame.  Fre- 
quently the  hoof  is  swelled ;  and  in  the  course  of  five,  eight,  or 
ten  days,  the  insensible  laminae  which  lines  it  is  dissolved,  and  the 
hoof  hangs  loose  round  the  exterior  of  the  foot,  entirely  separated 
from  it^  except  at  the  upper  edge.     The  disease  also  eats  through 


THE    FOOT    EOT.  303 

the  hoof,  generally  at  its  lower  edges,  after  whicli  the  homy  part 
comes  away  in  fragments.  The  insensible  part  of  the  sole  also 
peels  oiF,  leaving  the  incrustation  which  invests  the  bone  quite 
bare.  The  animal  is  then  obliged  to  gather  its  food  on  its  knees. 
It  remains  in  a  single  spot  all  day,  and  becomes  very  lean;  and,  if 
the  summer  be  soft  and  sultry,  is  unable  to  preserve  itself  from  the 
intrusion  of  the  flesh-fly,  so  that  at  length  maggots  swarm  over 
its  whole  body.  If  it  lingers  on  till  about  Martinmas,  when  long 
exposure  to  the  air  and  sharp  nights  of  frost  kills  the  contagion,  a 
new  hoof  grows  from  its  upper  edge,  and  the  foot  is  again  sheathed 
in  a  horny  case ;  but  if  winter  sets  in  with  severity,  the  animal, 
already  disfigured  by  pain  and  disease,  generally  falls  a  victim. 
Such  are  the  consequences  of  foot-rot  when  the  disease  is  not 
interrupted  in  its  progress. 

'  On  examining  the  foot,  in  the  first  stage  of  the  disease,  the 
coronary  edge,  though  no  external  injury  can  be  traced,  is  some- 
times found  a  little  swollen  and  inflamed ;  at  other  times  the  hoof 
is  eroded ;  but  whether  it  be  shattered  or  entire,  an  intense  heat 
is  always  perceptible  in  the  foot,  with  a  strong  pulsation  in  the 
arteries,  where  they  are  inserted  into  the  coronary  edges  of  the 
hoof;  and,  however  sound  the  hoof  may  appear  externally,  the 
connexion  between  it  and  the  interior  of  the  foot  is  always  dis- 
solved, though  the  separation  is  not  evident  till  the  hoof  is  pared 
away.  A  peculiar  smell  is  perceptible,  especially  in  the  advanced 
stages,  or  when  the  ulcerous  part  is  newly  opened ;  yet,  even  in 
the  worst  cases,  a  large  quantity  of  ichor  is  never  discharged, 
there  being  little  more  than  will  wet  the  finger,  and  that  only 
when  pressed  out.' 

The  late  Mr.  Eead,  V.  S.,  of  Crediton,  Devon,  has  written  in 
the  *  Veterinarian '  an  excellent  essay  on  this  disease ;  and  as  it  is 
at  once  both  practical  and  scientific,  and  accords  for  the  most  part 
with  our  own  views — and  we  have  witnessed  the  ravages  of  the 
disease  to  a  great  extent — we  prefer  quoting  largely  from  it.  Mr. 
Head  observes  that  the  disease  is  of  extensive  prevalence  in  his 
neighbourhood,  '  and  on  some  farms  scarcely,  if  ever,  absent, 
particularly  if  they  consist  of  rich  meadow,  old  pasturage  park 
lands,  or  meadows,  situated  near  towns,  so  as  to  receive  the  con- 
tents of  drains  and  cesspools.  Low  situations,  conjoined  with 
moisture,  are  the  fruitful  and  primary  causes  of  foot-rot.  Sheep 
in  these  situations  have  their  hoofs  and  the  integument  above  to 
which  they  are  united,  and  the  highly  elastic  tissue  situated 
between  the  claws,  constantly  in  a  wet  and  humid  state.  Go  into 
any  of  these  pastures  after  sheep  have  been  placed  there  for  only 
a  short  period,  and  look  at  their  feet — will  there  not  be  an  in- 


304  DISEASES    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

creased  growth  of  hoof?  will  not  the  skin  round  the  coronet,  and 
the  highly  sensitive  membranous  tissue  between  the  claws,  be 
blanched?  will  not  the  vascularity  of  the  parts  be  weakened 
from  its  circulation  being  enfeebled  ?  Now  this  is  all  produced 
by  wet.  In  a  few  days,  perhaps,  we  have  a  change  of  tempera- 
ture ;  evaporation  is  produced  from  the  surface  of  the  land,  and 
from  animal  bodies  as  well,  and  the  ground  becomes  drier.  A 
re-action  takes  place,  the  circulation  is  quickened ;  the  hoof  swells, 
or  rather  is  pushed  from  the  parts  beneath ;  the  skin  between  the 
claws  inflames  ;  the  heels  bulge  ;  the  coronet  enlarges  ;  abscesses 
form ;  matter  penetrates  between  the  horn  and  the  substance 
beneath,  and  disunites  the  sensitive  from  the  horny  laminae  ;  and 
in  the  worst  forms  of  the  disease  the  hoof  falls  off.  The  joints, 
tendons,  and  ligaments  are  soon  implicated.  Sometimes,  from  the 
overshooting  of  the  toe  of  the  hoof,  it  turns  back  or  upwards, 
and  breaks  the  horny  sole  from  the  crust;  gravel  then  gets 
in ;  inflammation  is  set  up  ;  a  separation  of  the  foot  from  its  horny 
covering  is  produced;  and  from  every  part  of  the  foot  thus 
denuded  fungus  quickly  sprouts.  The  true  foot-rot  does  not,  as  is 
generally  thought,  so  often  begin  from  below  as  from  above. 

'  Hundreds  of  sheep  on  sharp  sandy  farms  wear  away  their 
hoofs  and  soles,  and  expose  the  sensitive  parts.  A  little  heat  and 
tenderness  ensue,  and  matter  forms,  which  is  soon  replaced  by 
fungus.  This  might  be  got  rid  of  in  a  short  time.  It  is  only  a 
spurious  kind  of  rot,  and  is  again  produced  by  the  injudicious 
paring  of  the  horny  parts  by  the  farmers  and  shepherds. 

^  If  a  little  gravel  happens  to  have  insinuated  itself  between 
the  junction  of  the  crust  and  sole,  the  knife  cuts  away  without 
any  ceremony  too  much  of  the  crust,  exposing  the  laminse,  and 
the  sole  is  so  thinned  as  to  afford  no  protection  in  walking.  The 
animal  limps  at  every  step  from  the  want  of  the  horny  crust ; 
whereas,  by  only  properly  paring  the  foot,  all  might  have  been 
prevented. 

'  It  is  now-a-days  too  much  the  fashion  for  the  farmer  or 
shepherd  to  have  his  sheep-foot  knife  always  in  his  pocket,  and 
every  poor  animal  that  happens  to  halt  is  caught,  and  but  too 
often  unmercifully  pared.  I  have  myself  been  an  eye-witness  to 
this.  I  have  reasoned  on  its  impropriety.  The  knife  has  been 
spared,  and  lameness  has  diminished.  These  two  last  causes  are 
mechanical  productions  of  the  disease.  Yet,  on  the  other  hand, 
if  the  foot  is  improperly  managed,  and  a  fair  vent  not  given  for 
the  escape  of  the  matter,  it  rises  upwards  and  breaks  out  at  the 
coronet,  and  makes  the  cure  more  tedious. 


THE    FOOT    ROT.  30o 

'  Sometimes  one  foot,  either  the  fore  or  hinder,  is  affected,  at 
other  times  both  fore  feet ;  now  and  then  all  four ;  sometimes  only  a 
single  claw  on  one  foot,  and  both  on  another.  Such  are  the 
symptoms  which  I  have  been  accustomed  to  observe  during  fifteen 
years'  practice  among  these  useful  animals.  As  to  the  question 
of  its  contagiousness,  I  have  never  been  able  to  make  up  my  mind 
decidedly  on  this  point,  although  the  strong  leaning  of  my  opinion 
is  against  its  contagiousness.  For  the  last  three  or  four  years  I 
have  made  every  inquiry  of  men  accustomed  to  sheep.  Some 
say,  on  my  asking  their  opinion,  that  it  is  as  infectious  as  the 
plague  ;  for  if  they  put  a  lot  of  sound  ones  with  some  that  were 
lame,  they  all  become  so.  But  I  have  then  said,  "Perhaps  tlie 
sheep  with  whom  yours  were  put  were  in  a  soil  favourable  to  the 
production  of  the  foot-rot,  and  yours  were  taken  from  a  healthy 
soil."  Such  was  generally  the  case,  and  such  is  the  proof  which 
farmers  and  others  pretend  to  give  us  of  its  infectious  nature. 
Little  do  they  imagine  what  is  the  operating  cause  on  a  soil  dis- 
posed to  it.  That  which  gives  it  to  one  will  give  it  to  a  hundred, 
if  there  is  a  predisposition  to  take  it  on. 

'  Again,  we  hear  of  farmers  that  never  had  it  on  their  estates, 
the  farms  being  on  healthy  sites ;  but  happening  to  take  for  a 
season,  or  buy  at  an  auction,  a  ram  that  had  the  disease,  and  put 
him  with  the  ewes,  in  from  four  to  six  weeks  nearly  the  whole 
flock  had  been  lamed.  Scores  of  histories  of  this  kind  had  been 
told  me  by  different  people  ;  but,  from  what  I  could  gather,  they 
were  solitary  cases,  and  confined  to  the  experience  of  the  in- 
dividual narrator.  It  might  have  been  a  wet  season  ;  for,  during 
a  very  wet  or  rainy  summer  (which  has  this  year  been  the  case) 
many  farms  that  were  free  from,  and  others  that  rarely  had 
it,  have  this  season  been  pestered  with  it.  Such  a  season  might 
have  occurred  when  conclusions  were  made  to  establish  its 
contagiousness. 

'My  opinion  is,  that  you  may  put  lame  sheep  with  sound  ones 
on  a  healthy  farm,  and  they  will  soon  get  well,  and  the  others 
will  not  become  infected.  As  a  proof  of  this,  I  will  relate  the  ex- 
perience of  a  near  relative  of  mine  who  has  a  very  healthy  sheep 
estate,  but  who  also  rents  an  extraordinary  rich  flat  piece  of 
meadow-land  watered  by  the  town  sewers.  His  sheep  are  put 
there  occasionally  ;  but  before  a  fortnight  has  expired  they  are 
nearly  all  lame.  He  drives  them  home  again,  and  in  a  very  short 
time  they  are  all  sound,  and  not  one  of  the  others  infected  ;  but 
if  the  lame  sheep  had  been  driven  back  to  a  farm  disposed  to  the 
foot-rot  (although  none  lame  thereon  at  the  time),  it  would  have 


306  DISEASES    OF    TKE    SHEEP. 

been  ascribed  to  infection,  had  they  ako  become  lame  after  some 
lapse  of  time,  instead  of  the  soil,  which  is  the  grand  operating 
cause,  in  conjunction  with  moisture. 

'  If  this  disease  is  infectious,  how  is  it  induced  ?  Many 
experiments  have  been  tried  by  the  French  and  others,  by  a  direct 
application  of  the  matter  to  the  feet  of  sheep,  on  abraded  and 
non-abraded  surfaces  ;  but  the  results  have  not  been  satisfactory. 
Now,  if  a  direct  manual  application  of  the  discharge  to  the  feet 
of  sheep  scarcely,  if  ever,  produces  the  malady,  how  can  sheep 
acquire  the  foot-rot  from  one  another  by  walking  or  treading 
about  while  feeding,  when  it  is  with  so  much  difficulty  produced 
by  the  actual  contact  of  matter  discharged  from  feet  having  the 
disease  ?  The  discharge  issuing  from  feet  in  any  stage  of  the 
disorder  is  not  in  a  very  considerable  quantity,  and  must  be  lost 
on  the  land  on  which  they  are  roving  about.  Neither  are  they 
infected  while  being  folded  so  close  in  contact  as  to  render  it 
almost  impossible  that  they  should  avoid  inoculating  themselves. 

'  Shepherds  and  sheep-breeders,  however,  cannot  be  dissuaded 
that  if  a  piece  of  land  or  an  enclosure,  which  gave  their  flock  the 
foot- rot  seven  years  since,  should  at  the  end  of  that  period  have 
some  sheep  turned  upon  it ;  and  again,  although  none  had  been 
pastured  there  during  these  years,  contract  the  lameness,  they 
cannot,  I  say,  be  dissuaded  from  the  belief  that  it  must  have 
remained  in  the  ground  with  all  its  virulence  the  whole  time,  not 
thinking  that  the  same  soil  which  produced  it  seven  years  ago  is 
capable  of  producing,  for  ages  to  come,  under  favourable  circum- 
stances, the  same  disease.  • 

'  There  are,  however,  many  stubborn  facts  recorded  as  to  its 
infectious  nature.  Should  these  happen  to  be  true,  can  there  be 
given  off  from  the  feet  of  sheep  labouring  under  the  disease  an 
animal  effluvium,  which,  on  a  soil  predisposed  to  it,  is  still  rendered 
more  contagious  by  uniting  with  any  exhalation  from  the  earth  ? 
Then,  on  the  other  hand,  sheep  with  the  foot-rot,  put  on  a  sound 
farm,  oftentimes  cure  themselves,  and  do  not  infect  the  others. 
Such  may  be  the  case,  as  exhalations  vary  on  different  soils  in 
their  constituent  parts  as  the  land  does  in  quality.  Now,  if 
empoisoned  effluvia  from  the  feet,  or  any  malaria  from  the  soil, 
uniting,  become  the  cause,  the  effect  must  be  produced  on  the 
local  part  by  means  of  respiration  whilst  depasturing.  We  all 
know  that  there  are  many  local  diseases  produced  through  atmos- 
pheric agency,  and  of  a  specific  nature,  capable  of  being  again 
produced  by  inoculation.' 

With  reference  to  treatment,  Mr.  Read  observes : — '  When  a 
gheep  halts,  let  your  attendant  cast  him.     Then,  if  the  hoof  is  too 


THE    FOOT    EOT.  307 

long,  pare  it  on  a  level  -svith  the  sole ;  shorten  the  toe ;  and  be 
particular  in  examining  the  foot  between  the  claws.  If  it  is 
swollen,  looks  red,  or  has  any  discharge  of  bloody  serum  oozing 
from  any  fissure  or  fissures,  let  the  solution  of  the  bichloride  of 
mercury  or  hydrochloric  acid  be  well  applied  to  the  part  by  means 
of  a  little  tow  twisted,  or  a  small  flat  piece  of  whalebone,  and  in 
this  stage  of  the  complaint  one  dressing  is  usually  sufficient. 
There  is  nothing  so  much  desired  by  the  farmer  as  an  application 
which  will  at  once  put  a  stop  to  this  complaint.  The  trouble  it 
would  save  is  incalculable  when  we  consider  the  time  it  takes  to 
dress  the  feet  every  day  of  from  thirty  to  fifty  or  one  hundred 
sheep.  If  abscesses  have  formed  around  the  coronet  and  burst, 
they  usually  have  two  or  three  fistulous  openino-s,  which,  with 
your  silver  probe,  you  will  soon  discover.  Arm  the  eye  of  the 
probe  with  a  little  tow  dipped  in  the  solution,  and  draw  it 
through  the  sinus  or  sinuses.  If  they  extend  into  the  joint,  the 
same  thing  must  be  done.  Twice  is  most  commonly  sufficient  to 
apply  the  solution  in  these  cases ;  and  oftentimes,  when  you 
attempt  to  pass  the  probe  the  second  time,  you  will  not  be  able, 
from  its  being  filled  with  coagulated  lymph.  If  any  of  the  dis- 
charge is  between  the  crust,  pare  the  sole,  and  with  a  feather  or 
syringe  apply  it  to  the  part.  Fungus  is  sm-e  to  sprout  from  any 
part  where  the  sole  or  crust  is  lost,  and  rapidly  will  it  sprout. 
Agriculturists  and  shepherds  are  at  a  loss  in  curing  these  morbid 
growths,  as  they  resist  nearly  all  the  caustic  applications  in  use, 
both  empirical  and  those  contained  in  the  Materia  Medica.  Butyr 
of  antimony,  quicksilver  and  aquafortis,  and  numerous  other 
applications,  are  of  no  avail,  especially  if  the  disease  is  of  long 
standing.  There  is  but  one  quick  and  effectual  remedy,  that  is 
the  hot  iron,  which  will  do  more  good  in  five  minutes  than  all  the 
caustics  in  our  pharmacy. 

'  About  four  months  ago  I  was  called  in  to  look  at  two  very 
valuable  rams,  that  had  been  lame  for  four  months  with  a  fungous 
sole,  belonging  to  a  celebrated  breeder,  who  had  tried  all  his  usual 
remedies  to  no  purpose.  I  applied  the  hot  iron  with  a  keen  edge, 
so  as  to  cut  off  the  fungus.  All  fungus  that  sprouts  from  a 
denuded  sole  when  of  long  standing  becomes  hard  and  contracted 
at  its  base,  which  a  hot  iron  will  soon  remove,  and  the  lameness 
also  in  a  few  days,  as  it  did  in  the  case  just  recited.  The  fungus 
that  grows  from  any  part  of  the  foot,  from  between  the  claws, 
from  the  laminae,  and  from  the  junction  of  the  crust  at  the  heel, 
may  all  be  removed  in  the  like  manner  by  a  keen  hot  iron.' 

There  are  many  specifics  which  are  recommended  for  this 
disease,  and  aU  with  the  boast  of  being  entirely  successful.     Some 


308  DISEASES    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

rely  witli  confidence  on  the  muriate  of  antimoD  j,  which  is  a  very 
good  application;  others  on  a  mixture  which  is  supposed  to 
acquire  much  of  its  virtue  from  the  presence  of  gunpowder. 
Mr.  Hogg,  whom  we  have  before  quoted,  advises  the  following 
mixture,  having  found  it  very  successful,  first  removing  the  horn 
from  the  part  having  matter  underneath : — 

Turpentine 2  ounces. 

Sulphuric  acid 2  drams. 

to  be  well  mixed  before  it  is  used,  and  then  to  be  applied  freely 
to  the  diseased  part. 

An  ounce  of  olive-oil  and  double  the  quantity  of  the  sulphuric 
acid  would,  I  take  it,  be  an  improvement.  The  acid  must  be 
mixed  carefully  with  the  turpentine,  as  considerable  inflammation 
immediately  takes  place.  In  our  own  experience  we  have  used 
all  the  powerful  acids  with  success ;  and  it  is,  I  imagine,  of  but 
little  consequence  which  caustic  is  employed,  provided  it  be  of 
sufficient  strength.  The  beneficial  agency  of  a  caustic  may  be 
thus  explained  :  it  first  destroys  the  parts  to  which  it  is  applied, 
thus  arresting  the  progress  of  the  disease  by  substituting  a  more 
destructive  though  more  limited  action  for  a  milder  but  more 
progressive  one.  The  caustic  not  only  burns  the  diseased  part, 
but  that  in  contact  with  it,  or,  as  Shakespeare  says, '  One  fire  puts 
out  another  burning,'  on  the  same  principle  as  we  pull  down  a 
single  house  to  preserve  a  whole  street  from  the  flames.  The 
diseased  action  being  thus  arrested,  an  eschar  is  formed  which 
protects  the  parts  beneath,  whilst  a  new  and  healthy  action  on  a 
level  surface  is  set  up.  The  treatment  pursued  by  Mr.  Read  L  as 
good  as  can  be  employed ;  and  in  cases  progressing  favourably, 
but  still  possessing  sores,  we  have  used  with  much  benefit  the 
astringent  powder  recommended  in  the  chapter  on  the  Epidemic. 
It  will  also  greatly  assist  the  cure  if  the  diseased  sheep  are  put 
in  a  shed  with  a  clean  floor,  on  which  some  quicklime  is  spread 
every  day. 

Professor  Brown  has  an  interesting  article  on  the  foot-rot  in 
the  'Journal  of  theB.W.E.S.',  1864,  illustrated  by  some  woodcuts, 
showing  the  peculiar  structure  of  the  foot  in  health  and  under 
disease.  He  expressed  a  decided  opinion  that  the  disease  is  not 
contagious,  but  is  due  entirely  to  the  wet  soil.  He  advises  the 
following  composition  when  a  caustic  is  required : — 

Two  drams  of  mercury  to  be  dissolved  in  two  ounces  of 
nitric  acid,  then  add  an  ounce  each  of  hydrochloric  and  acetic 
acid,  and  dilute  with  four  to  twelve  parts  of  water,  according  to 
the  strength  required. 


DISEASES    OF    THE    EYE.  309 

In  certain  stages  creosote  and  carbolic  acid,  as  powerful  anti- 
septics, will  be  found  very  useful. 

Diseases  of  the  Eye. — Sheep  are  subject  to  inflammation 
of  the  eye  far  more  frequently  than  is  generally  imagined,  and  the 
number  of  instances  of  total  or  partial  blindness  of  one  or  both 
eyes  that  are  to  be  met  with  in  the  slaughter-house  are  very 
numerous.  It  is  unnecessary  to  make  those  distinctions  which, 
though  they  probably  exist  in  the  slieep  as  well  as  other  animals, 
are  of  little  practical  importance:  but  there  are  two  varieties  of 
inflammation  which  it  will  be  proper  to  mention.  One  is  of  a 
superficial  description,  and  is  produced  either  by  a  cold  or  external 
injury,  and  is  attended  with  dulness  and  weakness  of  the  eyes, 
and  a  discharge  of  tears  at  first,  and  afterwards  of  mucus  from 
the  corners  of  the  eyes.  One  eftect  of  this  attack,  which  not  un- 
frequently  occurs,  is  adhesion  of  the  lids  to  the  eye  at  first,  with 
mucus,  and  afterwards  with  lymph,  which  if  neglected  produces 
blindness  by  covering  the  sight.  This  effect  is  more  likely  to  be 
produced  if  the  lids  participate  in  the  inflammation,  and  more 
particularly  if  there  is  any  scab  about  the  animal  at  the  same 
time,  so  as  to  cause  rubbing.  It  is  necessary  in  such  case  to 
separate  the  lid  from  the  eye  by  means  of  the  handle  of  a  spoon, 
or  a  bit  of  smooth  wood,  and  to  apply  some  cooling  ointment  or 
oil  to  the  part,  to  prevent  adhesion  again. 

The  more  severe  kind  of  ophthalmia  frequently  occurs  without 
apparent  cause,  and  the  sheep  is  said  to  be  lark-spurred,  from  the 
supposition  that  the  injury  has  been  produced  by  the  spurs  of  a 
lark.  The  idea,  of  course,  is  ridiculous.  The  disease  sometimes 
quickly  disorganises  the  eye,  and  at  other  times  is  much  slower  in 
its  progress.  It  may  terminate  in  blindness  either  by  causing 
opacity  of  the  cornea,  the  humours  of  the  eye  to  be  cloudy,  or  the 
crystalline  lens  opaque,  which  is,  in  fact,  a  cataract ;  or  there  may 
be  general  disorganisation  throughout  the  whole  of  the  eye. 

The  treatment  of  these  cases  must  consist  in  bleeding  from  the 
vein  under  the  eye,  lancing  the  eyelids,  and  fomenting  the  eye 
with  warm  water;  and  if  the  animal  is  of  sufficient  value — such, 
for  instance,  as  a  choice  ram  or  ewe — following  up  the  treatment 
by  a  dose  of  salts  and  the  frequent  application  to  the  eye  of  a 
lotion  consisting  of  an  ounce  of  tincture  of  opium  in  a  pint  of  cold 
water. 

Besides  these  diseases,  the  eye  is  sometimes  torn  and  lacerated 
from  injuries  received  from  fighting  with  other  sheep;  and  when 
the  substance  of  the  eye  is  broken  through,  blindness  always 
follows.  When  less  severe,  the  treatment  before  advised  will  be 
found  effectual. 


310  DISEASES    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

Gutta-serena,  or  amaurosis,  or  paralysis  of  the  optic  nerve, 
sometimes  occurs  from  injury  of  the  brain,  and  it  not  unfrequently 
accompanies  giddiness.     It  is  generally  incurable. 

Diseases  of  tlie  Mouth. — Sheep  are  liable  to  several 
diseases  of  the  mouth,  the  most  frequent  of  which  is  Blain  or 
Gloss- Anthrax.  In  this  the  tongue,  or  rather  its  connections,  are 
mostly  affected :  a  number  of  vescicles  or  bladders  appear  on  its 
side,  attended  with  inability  to  feed,  and  a  discharge  of  saliva 
from  the  mouth,  which  sometimes  becomes  bloody  and  oiFensive. 
These  bladders  burst,  and  leave  behind  large  sores,  which  some- 
times become  troublesome  ulcers ;  and  these  symptoms  are 
occasionally  attended  with  swellings  of  the  head  and  throat. 
There  is  little  doubt  but  that  the  disease  is  infectious,  whether  it 
appears  as  an  epidemic  or  not,  and  therefore  the  affected  sheep 
should  be  immediately  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  flock.  The 
vesicles  should  be  freely  lanced,  and,  after  being  well  cleaned  with 
warm  water,  may  be  washed  with  half  an  ounce  of  alum  dissolved 
in  water;  but  if  the  discharge  is  anyways  offensive,  the  mouth 
should  be  washed  with  a  lotion  composed  of  one  dram  of  chloride 
of  lime  dissolved  in  a  pint  of  warm  water.  The  sheep  should  be 
drenched  with  gruel,  in  which  should  be  mixed,  if  the  animal  is 
weak,  a  dram  of  ginger  and  two  of  gentian. 

Aphtbse,  or  Thrush,  is  another  disease  of  the  mouth  with 
which  sheep  are  affected.  It  sometimes  resembles  that  last  de- 
scribed, but  is  less  severe.  It  is  attended  with  vesicles,  but  of  a 
slighter  description,  and  the  sheep  is  often  unable  to  feed. 

The  following  cases  are  related  by  Mr.  Rawlins,  of  Bristol, 
in  vol.  X.  of  the  '  Veterinarian.'  He  says  :  '  In  the  month  of 
May,  1836,  I  was  requested  to  examine  the  flock  of  Mr.  Charles 
Marshal,  Snowshill,  near  Broadway,  Worcestershire,  who  had 
lost  several  ewes  and  lambs  previous  to  my  seeing  them.  I  found 
seventy  lambs  in  a  most  emaciated  state,  scarcely  able  to  move, 
their  mouths  presenting  a  mass  of  disease,  being  one  complete 
ulcer.  On  examination,  I  found  a  large  fungus  issuing  from  and 
around  the  lower  gum,  enveloping  the  teeth,  and  protruding  over 
the  lip  to  a  very  considerable  extent.  There  were  about  thirty 
lambs  more  or  less  affected.  The  disease  clearly  originated  in  the 
lower  gum,  and  when  it  was  matured  to  any  extent  the  ewes  re- 
fused to  allow  the  lamb  to  suck,  and  it  gradually  pined  away.  At 
this  stage  of  the  disease,  the  lamb  communicates  it  to  the  ewe's 
udder.  As  soon  as  she  is  affected,  she  begins  to  lose  flesh  most 
rapidly;  the  udder  becomes  tumefied.  In  some  of  the  extreme 
cases  the  udder  suppurated,  and  parts  of  it,  with  one  or  both  teats, 
sloughed ;  and  the  ewe  was  rendered  useless  for  a  stock  ewe. 


INJURIES    A^'D    OPEEATIO^S.  Sll 

'  My  first  object  was  to  get  the  flock  separated — those  severely 
affected,  both  ewes  and  lambs,  from  those  less  so ;  and  to  keep 
the  sound  ones  in  a  distant  field,  the  disease  being  contagious.  By 
carefully  attending  to  this  plan  and  examining  the  fiock,  and  re- 
moving those  that  became  afiected,  and  using  the  following  deter- 
gent dressing,  I  succeeded  in  curing  the  whole.     Take  of 

Simple  oxymel i  lb. 

Burnt  alum 6  ounces. 

Sulphate  of  copper       .         ...     2  drams. 

Mix,  and  apply  it  every  morning  to  the  affected  part. 

'  Mr.  Hyatt,  at  the  adjoining  farm,  had  his  flock  also  affected, 
but  by  using  the  same  means  his  sheep  soon  got  well.' 

The  above  treatment  is  as  good  as  can  be  employed. 


INJURIES    A>'D    OPEEATION'S. 

Sheep  are  not  very  liable  to  external  injuries  ;  but  occasions^lly 
we  find  them  either  in  the  form  of  Woimds,  £ruise^,  Abscess, 
Strains,  and  Fractures. 

Woimds  are  of  various  kinds,  either  simply  incised,  lacerated, 
superficial,  or  deep-seated. 

A  single  incised  wound  should,  if  possible,  be  united  by  the 
first  intention;  the  edges  of  the  skin  should  be  brought  together, 
and  joined  by  means  of  stitches,  over  which  a  bandage  may  be 
placed,  and  by  this  means  a  cure  is  frequently  effected  in  a  short 
time.  If  the  injury  is  considerable,  metallic  wire  will  be  the  best 
material  for  these  stitches. 

If  the  wound  is  lacerated  and  irregular,  and  extending  amongst 
the  flesh  or  muscles,  this  plan  cannot  be  adopted,  and  should  not 
be  attempted.  The  parts  should  be  fomented  and  kept  clean,  and 
a  mild  stimulant,  such  as  the  tincture  of  myrrh,  may  be  applied, 
and  the  astringent  powder,  recommended  at  page  293,  may  then 
be  scattered  over  the  wound  every  day.  Flesh  generally  heals 
very  rapidly,  but  skin  is  far  more  tedious,  as  it  grows  only  from 
the  edges  of  the  old  skin.  Thus  the  time  which  an  extensive 
wound  may  take  in  getting  well  may  be  estimated  by  the  quantity 
of  skin  to  be  supplied.  In  horses  new  skin  is  generally  weaker 
than  the  old,  and  does  not  carry  any  hair,  the  bulbs  of  the  hairs 
having  been  lost  with  the  old,  and  not  replaced  with  the  new 
skin ;  but  in  sheep  there  is  very  frequently  a  horny  excrescence 
that  grows  on  the  surface  of  the  new  skin,  in  the  place  of  the 
wool.  When  the  granulations  are  too  luxuriant,  rising  above  the 
level  of  the  neighbouring  skin,  as  will  generally  be  the  case  with 


312  DISEASES    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

extensive  wounds,  they  should,  be  touched  by  means  of  a  feather, 
with  a  little  muriate  of  antimony  or  other  caustic,  every  day  till 
sufficiently  reduced. 

Bruises  are  not  very  common  with  sheep,  the  wool  forming 
generally  a  secure  protection  from  such  injury.  When,  however, 
they  occur,  hot  fomentations  are  the  best  means  of  reducing  the 
attending  inflammation. 

Abscess,  which  is  a  collection  of  pus  or  matter  under  the  skin, 
may  be  produced  by  a  bruise,  or  by  some  constitutional  cause. 
Whilst  collecting,  the  surface  of  the  skin  is  usually  very  tender, 
and  sometimes  there  is  also  much  constitutional  irritation  present. 
A  collection  of  matter  may  be  known  by  the  heat,  swelling,  and 
pain  of  the  part.  On  pressing  it,  the  contained  fluid  is  felt  to 
fluctuate  ;  and  the  pressure  being  removed,  the  part  immediately 
assumes  its  former  shape,  whilst  a  watery  or  dropsical  swelling, 
on  being  pressed,  leaves  for  some  time  the  marks  of  the  flngers. 
After  some  time  the  abscess  points ;  that  is,  the  matter  can  be 
more  distinctly  felt  at  one  particular  part,  at  which,  if  permitted, 
the  abscess  would  soon  burst.  This  however,  should  be  avoided 
by  opening  the  abscess  at  the  lowest  part,  or  that  which  would 
admit  most  readily  of  its  discharging  itself.  The  opening  should 
be  large,  and  no  dressing  will  be  required  except  the  continuance 
of  the  fomentation,  which  should  previously  be  used.  It  should 
be  observed,  that  if  the  abscess  is  languid  and  slow  in  forming,  a 
stimulant,  such  as  hartshorn  and  oil,  rubbed  in  occasionally,  will 
be  useful. 

Sti'ains  are  very  rare  with  sheep,  locomotion  in  these  animals 
being  slow  and  careful.  When,  however,  they  do  occur,  the  fet- 
lock joint  is  the  part  most  frequently  so  injured.  The  treatment 
should  be  rest,  fomentations,  and  poultices ;  and  if  any  swelling 
afterwards  continues,  a  strong  stimulant  or  mild  blister  may  be 
rubbed  in. 

Fractures  are  sometimes  the  consequence  of  falls ;  the  bones 
below  the  knee  are  those  most  frequently  so  injured.  If  the  skin 
is  cut  through  by  the  broken  bones,  it  is  called  a  compound 
fracture  ;  whilst,  if  the  skin  is  not  thus  penetrated,  the  injury  is 
denominated  a  simple  fracture.  In  the  former  case,  if  the  carcass 
is  of  any  value,  the  wisest  plan  will  generally  be  to  destroy  the 
animal,  unless,  indeed,  it  should  be  a  ram  of  value. 

The  treatment  of  a  fracture  will  be,  in  the  first  place,  to  reduce 
it ;  that  is,  to  restore  the  bones  to  their  proper  situation,  which 
should  be  eff'ected  with  much  care.  The  wool  having  been  cut 
from  the  limb,  some  slips  of  coarse  brown  paper,  smeared  on  one 
side  with  gum  or  paste,  should  be  wound  round  the  part  a  great 


OPERATIONS.  31 G 

many  times,  and  oyer  this  some  fine  tow  should  be  placed  in  the 
greatest  abundance  where  the  limb  is  smallest,,  so  as  to  render  it 
of  a  uniform  size,  by  which  means  the  bandages  will  be  prevented 
from  shifting.  Two  bandages  of  linen  or  cotton,  about  three  or 
four  inches  wide,  and  four  feet  long,  should  then  be  carefully  put 
on,  a  little  paste  or  gum  being  likewise  smeared  on  one  side. 
This  mode  of  treatment  will  be  better  than  using  wooden  splints, 
and  less  likely  to  injure  the  skin.  The  animal  should  be  kept 
perfectly  quiet,  and  the  bandages  should  remain  on  for  a  month. 

Castration. — The  earlier  this  operation  is  performed,  the  less 
likely  is  it  to  be  followed  by  inj  urious  effects.  A  favourable  day 
should  be  selected,  dry,  but  neither  hot  nor  cold  ;  and  if  the  flock 
is  considerable,  it  will  be  better  to  operate  upon  the  lambs  at 
different  periods — by  which  they  can  all  be  operated  on  at  pretty 
nearly  the  same  age — than  to  wait  and  perform  the  whole  at  the 
same  time  :  a  fortnight  is  a  very  good  age.  It  will  also  save 
trouble,  and  be  quite  as  well,  to  dock  them  at  the  same  time. 
There  are  different  methods  of  performing  the  operation  ;  but  the 
following,  which  we  have  generally  practised,  is  as  expeditious, 
convenient,  little  painful,  and  satisfactory  as  any  : — 

The  operator  sits  astride  on  a  long  stool,  with  one  of  the 
lamb's  hind  legs  under  each  thigh,  the  fore  legs  and  head  being 
held  by  an  assistant.  With  the  finger  and  thumb  of  the  left 
band,  he  draws  up  the  lower  part  of  the  scrotum  or  bag,  and  cuts 
ofi'  a  portion  of  the  skin  with  a  sharp  scalpel  or  knife.  He  then 
grasps  the  upper  part  of  the  scrotum,  which  forces  the  testicles 
forwards,  and  with  one  incision  separates  the  septum  or  membrane 
which  divide?  the  testicles,  sufficiently  to  cause  them  both  to 
escape  from  the  ba^.  He  then  places  the  iron  clams  on  the  cords 
above  the  testicles,  and  with  a  hot  iron  divides  the  cords,  and  the 
operation  is  completed.  By  removing  a  portion  of  the  skin, 
though  the  wound  is  rather  longer  healing,  there  is  less  likelihood 
of  matter  collecting  within  the  bag.  A  little  lard  maybe  smeared 
on  the  parts  afterwards,  to  keep  ofl"  the  flies,  &c.  Before  the 
operation  is  performed  the  bag  should  be  examined,  in  order  to 
find  whether  any  rupture  exists ;  if  so,  some  of  the  intestines 
will  have  escaped  into  the  scrotum.  In  such  case,  the  operation 
must  be  performed  in  a  more  careful  and  elaborate  manner.  Four 
small  slips  of  wood,  abi-ut  four  inches  in  length,  must  first  be 
provided.  Two  sticks  of  elder  cut  in  half  will  be  most  suitable  ; 
and  it  will  be  better  if  the  pith  is  removed,  and  the  vacancy  filled 
with  some  caustic.  One  end  of  each  pair  must  be  fastened  to- 
gether with  waxed  thread.  The  intestines  should  be  gently  forced 
up  into  the  abdomen,  at  any  rate  as  high  as  possible.     An  incision 

P 


314  DISEASES    OF    THE    SHEEP. 

shoald  then  be  carefully  made  over  each  testicle,  and  through  the 
skin  alone :  the  testicle,  with  its  coverings,  should  then  be  pressed 
through  the  opening  in  the  skin,  which  being  held  back,  the 
elder-sticks  should  be  placed  on  the  cord  above  the  testicle ;  and 
the  ends  having  been  previously  united  on  one  side,  the  other  ends 
should  be  brought  together,  and  iirmly  tied  by  an  assistant  with 
waxed  thread.  The  other  testicle  may  then  be  operated  on  in  a 
similar  manner.  Care  must  be  taken  that  neither  the  skin  nor 
any  portion  of  the  intestine  be  included  in  the  wooden  clams,  and 
they  must  be  pressed  together  as  closely  as  possible. 

In  the  course  of  three  or  four  days  the  lamb  should  be 
examined ;  and  if  the  testicle  has  fallen  off,  or  can  be  removed  by 
the  hand,  the  thread  may  be  cut  and  the  clams  removed. 

In  castrating  full-grown  rams,  it  is  better  to  take  out  each 
testicle  separately,  through  an  incision  made  into  each  compart- 
ment of  the  scrotum,  and  the  same  method  may  be  adopted  as  is 
practised  with  the  horse. 

Socking-. — This  simple  operation  is  performed  on  most  lambs 
at  an  early  age,  generally,  and  very  properly,  at  the  period  of 
castration.  In  the  Dorset  and  Somerset  horned  sheep,  and  a  few 
others,  it  is, however,  customary  to  leave  the  tails;  but  if  diarrhoea 
should  attack  the  lamb,  as  it  is  likely  to  do  in  some  degree,  the 
long  tails  harbour  filth,  and  sometimes  cause  sores,  on  which  the 
fly  will  deposit  its  eggs. 

The  best  method  of  performing  the  operation  is  to  place  the 
tail  on  a  block  of  wood,  and  excise  it  with  a  sharp  iron,  red  hot, 
about  four  inches  from  the  root.  It  may,  however;  be  cut  off 
without  any  bad  effect. 


311 


A   LIST   OF   MEDICINES 

EMPLOYED   IN   THE   TREATMENT   OF  THE   DISEASES 
OF   SHEEP. 


Aloes,  though  a  valuable  purgative  in  the  horse,  is  rarely,  if  ever, 
employed  in  the  sheep  internally,  being  uncertain  and  attended  with  danger  ; 
as  a  tincture,  however,  it  becomes  a  useful  stimulant  to  wounds. 

Alum.  An  astringent.  Dose,  half  a  dram  with  gruel;  but  it  is  inferior 
to  other  astringents.  As  an  external  application  it  is  useful  as  a  wash 
or  lotion  applied  to  the  mouth  in  several  of  its  diseases,  and  also  mixed  with 
chalk  it  makes  a  good  external  application  to  sores. 

Antimony,  Butyr  or  Chloride  of.  An  excellent  caustic  for  foot-rot  and 
other  diseases.     It  may  be  applied  with  a  feather. 

Areca  Nut.  Recommended  by  Professor  Cobbold  as  a  vermifuge.  Dose, 
one  to  two  drams,  combined  with  a  similar  quantity  of  male  fern,  powdered. 

Arsenic  is  sometimes  used  as  an  infusion  for  the  purpose  of  dipping 
sheep,  to  destroy  ticks  and  other  insects.  It  should  be  employed  with  cau- 
tion, and  the  vessels  in  which  it  is  used  carefidly  cleansed  afterwards.  Too 
much  caution  can  scarcely  be  used  in  the  application  of  arsenic  or  corrosive 
sublimate  to  the  skin.  A  gentleman  in  Dorsetshire  having  some  fine  sheep 
preparing  for  an  approaching  show,  had  then,  sheared  and  then  anointed  with 
oil,  and  aftei-wai'ds  Courtney's  fly-powder  rubbed  in,  the  consequence  of 
which  was  that  a  dozen  died  very  shortly  afterwards.  The  previous  appli- 
cation of  the  oil  no  doubt  assisted  the  absoi-ption  of  the  poison,  and  the 
danger  is  therefore  much  greater  than  if  used  as  a  powder,  or  even  as  a 
lotion. 

The  following  prescriptions  for  sheep-washes  are  given  in  '  Morton's 
Manual  of  Pharmacy  '  : — 

Arsenic  powder 

Carbonate  of  potassa 

Water 

Boil  for  half  an  hour. 

Also — Arsenic  powder 

Soft  soap   .... 

Carbonte  of  potassa  . 

Sulphur 

Hellebore  root  .... 

Water 

Boil  for  half  an  hour  in  a  portion  of  the  water,  !hen  add  the  remai  ider  aaJ 
strain.    To  be  used  with  care  in  cases  of  scab. 

p2 


6 

ounces. 

0 

„ 

U 

gals. 

6 

ounces. 

6 

,, 

6 

n 

4 

»J 

2 

»> 

14 

gals. 

316  LIST    OF    MEDICINES. 

Camphor  is  both  a  narcotic,  sedative,  and  anti-spasmodic.  Dose,  one 
scruple  to  a  dram.  It  is  also  used  Avith  oil  or  spirits  of  wine  as  an  external 
htimulant. 

Cantharides  (Spanish  Flies).  The  principal  ingredient  in  blisters,  but 
otherwise  rarely  employed  in  the  sheep. 

Caraway-seeds.     Stomachic.     Dose,  two  to  four  drams. 

Carbolic  Acid.  This  is  found  very  useful  as  a  topical  application  in 
foot-rot,  and  in  the  foot-and-mouth  disease.  Messrs.  McDougall  make  an 
excellent  disenfectant,  in  which  carbolic  acid  is  combined  with  sulphurous 
acid,  magnesia,  and  lime,  and  also  with  soluble  phosphate. 

Catechu.  A  useful  astringent,  and  as  such  employed  with  opium  and 
chalk  in  diarrhoea.     Dose,  half  a  dram  to  a  dram. 

Chalk,  Prepared.  An  antacid  and  mild  astringent,  excellent  in  diarrhoea. 
Dose,  half  an  ounce  to  an  ounce.  Also  a  useful  external  application  to 
wounds  and  sores. 

Colchicum  (Meadow  Saffron)  sometimes  proves  poisonous  to  cattle  and 
sheep  when  partaken  too  largely.  A  useful  medicine  in  rheumatic  affections, 
and  those  of  the  eye.  Dose,  for  a  sheep,  one  scruple  of  the  dry  powdered 
root,  or  the  seed. 

Copper,  Sulphate  o/(Blue  Vitriol).  Externally  a  mild  caustic  ;  internally 
a  tonic.     Dose,  half  a  dram. 

Corrosive  Sublimate  (Bichloride  of  Mercur\').  A  strong  caustic  and 
poison,  sometimes  employed  for  the  scab,  and  to  destroy  vermin.  It  requires 
much  caution. 

Creasote.  A  very  useful  application  to  foul  ulcers  and  to  foot-rot. 
Creasote  and  oil  of  turpentine,  of  each  two  ounces,  olive-oil  four  ounces,  Avill 
make  a  good  liniment,  or  an  ointment  may  be  made  by  combining  two  parts 
of  creasote  with  eight  parts  of  lard. 

Croton  Seeds  or  Oil.  A  very  powerful  purgative,  rarely  used  in  sheep, 
but  useful  in  obstinate  constipation.     Dose,  five  to  fifteen  drops  of  the  oil. 

Digitalis  (Fox-glove).  A  sedative,  lowering  and  diminishing  the  action 
of  the  heart.     Dose,  one  scruple. 

Epsom  Salts  (Sulphate  of  Magnesia).  An  excellent  purgative  in  doses 
of  from  one  to  two  ounces,  or  more,  dissolved  in  warm  water  or  gruel. 

Fern.  The  male  fern  is  a  very  good  vermifuge,  and  maybe  given  in  a 
powdered  state.  Dose,  for  a  sheep,  one  to  two  drams.  This  fern  no  doubt 
tends  to  keep  away  w^orms  from  cattle  turned  into  forests. 

Gentian.     A  useful  vegetable  tonic.     Dose,  from  one  to  three  drams. 

Ginger.  A  valuable  cordial  and  stomachic.  Dose,  from  half  a  dram 
to  two  drams.  It  is  very  commonly  given  with  aperient  medicine,  w^hich 
it  prevents  griping. 

Hartshorn,  Spirit  of.  A  stimulant  and  anti-spasmodic  useful  in  hoove. 
Dose,  two  drams  in  six  ounces  of  warm  gruel  or  water. 

Iodine.  A  powerful  stimulant  to  the  absorbent  vessels,  whether  adminis- 
tered externally  by  friction  or  internally.  It  has  peculiar  influence  over 
glandular  swellings,  and  is  generally  administered  in  the  form  of  Iodide  of 
I'otassium  internally  in  doses  fiom  four  to  six  grains,  or  in  the  form  of 


LIST    OF    MEDICINES.  317 

Iodide  of  ]Mercury,  with  eight  parts  of  lard  as  an  external  application.  For 
enlargement  of  the  udder  or  other  glands  the  ointment  of  Iodide  of  Potas- 
sium will  often  be  fomid  useful. 

Laudanum.     See  Opium. 

Lead,  Acetate  or  Sugar  of  Lead,  or  in  the  form  of  Goulard's  extract,  is 
a  common  ingredient  in  cooling  lotions. 

Lead,  TFTiite,  is  a  useful  application  for  the  prevention  of  the  fly. 

Lime,  Chloride  of.  A  valuable  antiseptic,  and  an  excellent  application 
to  foul  and  offensive  wounds  and  ulcers.  Also  useful  as  a  means  of  prevent- 
ing infection. 

Linseed  Oil.  A  safe  and  useful  purgative,  though  less  suitable  than  the 
sulphate  of  magnesia.     Dose,  two  ounces. 

Locust  Beans  or  Sugar  Pods. — Imported  in  cargoes  from  Portugal  and 
Africa,  It  is  used  as  sheep  food,  and  is  much  relished,  and  when  ground 
forms  the  basis  of  the  spiced  food,  which  is  sold  at  a  high  price.  It  contains 
50  per  cent,  of  sugar. 

Magnesia,  Sulphate  of.     See  Epsom  Salts. 

3Iercurial  Oititment  is  sometimes  employed  for  the  scab,  but  it  should  be 
diluted  with  four  or  five  times  the  quantity  of  lard  and  of  the  mixture.  One 
to  two  ounces  should  be  used  for  a  sheep,  and  one-third  of  this  for  a  lamb. 

3Iuriatic  Acid  (Spirit  of  Salt).     A  powerful  caustic,  valuable  in  foot-rot. 

Nitrate  of  Potash  (Nitre  or  Saltpetre).  A  cooling  diuretic.  Dose,  two 
drams. 

Olive  Oil  (Sweet  Oil).  A  laxative,  though  not  so  good  as  linseed-oil ; 
useful  as  an  external  application  in  cases  ot  bums  or  bites  from  venomous 
insects. 

Opium.  A  valuable  antirspasmctdic  and  sedative.  It  may  be  used  either 
in  the  form  of  a  gum  or  powder.  Dose,  ten  grains.  It  is  more  usually 
given  in  the  form  of  tincture  of  opium  or  laudanum.  Dose,  one  to  two 
drams. 

Pimento  (Allspice).  A  useful  cordial  and  stomachic.  Dose,  one  to  two 
drams. 

Potassa  is  useful  in  various  forms.  Nitrate  of  Potash  has  been  spoken 
of.  Carbonate  of  Pctash  is  an  excellent  antacid  ;  and  Chlorate  of  Potash 
has  been  recommended  for  hoove  and  as  a  febrifuge  and  diuretic.  The 
dose  for  a  sheep  is  half  a  dram. 

Eije,  Spurred  (Ergot  of  Eye).  A  powerful  stimulant  to  the  uterus,  and 
may  with  this  view  be  given  in  cases  of  very  protracted  lambing.  Dose,  a 
scruple  infused  in  hot  water,  and  repeated  if  required  in  the  course  of  one 
or  two  hours. 

Salt  (Muriate  of  Soda).  In  large  doses  a  purgative,  in  smaller  ones  a 
stomachic  and  tonic.  Sheep  are  very  fond  of  it ;  and,  in  moderate  quantities, 
given  with  the  food,  it  has  a  useful  elFect  on  the  health.  It  is  a  good  plan 
to  put  rock  salt  in  the  troughs,  so  as  to  admit  the  sheep  licking  it  when  they 
choose.  It  has  been  found  to  have  more  effect  in  counteracting,  if  not 
curing  the  rot,  than  any  other  medicine.  As  a  purgative  the  dose  is  about 
an  ounce. 

p  3 


318  LIST    OF    MEDICINES. 

Saltpetre.     See  Nitre. 

Soda.  Carbonate  of  Soda  is  an  excellent  antacid,  and  Sulphate  of  Soda 
or  Glauber's  Salts,  a  cooling  aperient  which  may  be  given  for  the  same 
jnirposes,  and  in  about  the  same  doses,  as  Epsom  Salts.  Sulphate  of  Soda  is 
also  an  excellent  antacid,  and  very  useful  in  cases  of  tympanites  or  hoove, 
the  dose  being  half  a  dram  to  a  dram  in  water. 

Spirit  of  Nitrous  Ether  (Sweet  Spirit  of  Nitre).  A  diffusible  stimulant 
and  anti-spasmodic.     Dose,  two  or  thi-ee  drams. 

Sulphate  of  Copper  (Blue  Vitriol).  A  strong  tonic,  though  seldom  used 
in  the  sheep.  Dose,  one  scruple.  Infused  in  hot  water,  it  makes  an  excel- 
lent astringent  lotion. 

Sulphate  of  Iron  (Green  Vitriol).  A  useful  tonic.  Dose,  a  dram  com- 
Inued  with  ginger. 

Sulphur  is  largely  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  Sulphuric  Acid 
There  are  three  qualities  imported,  and  distinguished  as  first,  seconds,  and 
thirds. 

Sulphuric  Acid  (Oil  of  Vitriol).  A  very  powerful  caustic,  useful  in 
foot-rot,  alone  or  combined  with  tar. 

Sulphitric  Ether.  A  powerful  stimulant  and  anti'Spasmodic.  Dose,  one 
dram  with  warm  water. 

Sulphur,  Sublimed  (Flower  of  Sulphur).  An  aperient  given  in  com- 
bination with  Epsom  Salts.  Dose,  one  to  two  ounces.  Yellow  sulphur  is 
also  sometimes  used  as  an  external  application  for  the  scab  in  the  form  of  an 
ointment. 

Sulphur  Vivum  is  less  pure  than  the  yellow  sulphur,  but  cheaper  ;  its 
colour  is  grey,  whilst  the  former  is  yellow,  and  it  is  only  used  as  an  external 
application. 

Sweet  Spirit  of  Nitre,     See  Spirit  of  Nitrous  Ether. 

Tar.  A  useful  application  to  the  feet  in  cases  simulating  or  bordering 
on  foot-rot,  particularly  when  combined  with  sulphuric  acid  or  other  caustics. 
Oil  or  Spirit  of  Tar  is  also  sometimes  employed  for  the  same  purpose,  but 
it  should  not  be  mixed  with  powerful  acids.  It  is  also  a  good  stimulant  to 
wounds,  and  is  commonly  applied  to  the  wounds  in  the  skin  made  in  sheep- 
sliearing,  and  likewise  for  the  fly. 

Turpentine.  There  are  several  varieties  of  turpentine.  Common  or  Horse 
Turpentine  is  an  ingredient  in  digestive  ointments,  but  is  net  administered 
internally  in  the  sheep.  Venice  Turpentine  is  a  pure  and  more  expensive 
kind.  Oil  or  Spirit  of  Turpentine  is  a  powerful  stimulant  and  anti-spasmodic, 
Dose,  one  dram. 

Vitriol,  Blue.     See  Sulphate  nf  Copper, 

Vitriolic  Acid,     See  Sulphuric  Acid, 


INDEX 


ABO 

\BOMASUM,       the,       or      fourth 
ii    stomach,  108,  114 
Abortion,  255 
Abscess,  312 
Acari,  the,  267 
After-pains,  259 

Age,  the  method  of  judging,  102 
Albumen,  125 
Amaurosis,  309 
Anasarca,  299 

Ancient  history  of  the  sheep,  1 
Ancient  Upland  breeds,  25 
Animal  heat,  production  of,  126 
Aphthae,  or  thrush,  310 
Apoplexy,  197 
Archenfield  sheep,  50 
Argali,  the,  1 
Arteries,  the,  128 

Atmospheric  air  :  its  composition,  133 
Australia,  sheep  introduced  into,  76 
'—  exports  and  imports  of,  168 
-^  epidemic  diseases  in,  294 
'—  disease  from    astringency    of   the 
water  in,  296 

pACK,  bones  of,  92 
ij     Bakewell,    the    founder    of    the 
New  Leicester  sheep,  63 

—  his  object  and  system,  62 

—  his  mode  of  letting  rams,  65 

-—  the  little  reward  he  received  for 
some  years,  65 

—  the     large     sums     he     afterwards 

realized,  66 

—  establishes  the  Dishley  Society,  66 
Bampton  Nott,  the,  96,  230 
Barford,  V.,  72 

Bennett,  Mr.,  on    Australian   epide- 
mics, 294 
Berkshire,  32 
Bezoars,  217 
Biflex  canal,  96 
Black-faced  heath  sheep,  15 
Black-leg,  300 
Bladder,  description  of  the,  119 

—  inflammation  of  the,  243 
Biain,  or  Gloss-anthrax,  310 


CRI 

Blasting,  210 

Blood  and  its  circulation,  125 

—  its  analysis,  174 

BoiHng  sheep  in  Australia  for  the  ta.- 

low,  79 
Bones,  structure  and  composition  of, 

86 
Bowels,  inflammation  of  the,  222 
Brain,  description  of  the,  99 

—  inflammation  of  the,  198 

—  water  on  the  (hydrocephalus),  197 
Breeding,  its  principles  and  practice, 

137 
Bronchitis,  234 
Bronchial  worms,  235 
Bruises,  312 
Buckley,   Mr.,  on   a   disease  amongst 

ewes,  265 

CARBONIC  acid  gas,  133 
Cassein,  176 
Castration,  313 
Catarrh,  or  cold,  233 
Calculi,  244 

Cells  of  the  reticulum.  111 
Cerebrum  and  cerebellum,  99 
Chest,  the,  and  its  contents,  121 

—  the  form  of,  most  suited  for  fatten- 
ing, 123 

Cheviot  sheep,  20 

Childers,  Mr. ;  his  experiment  on  feed- 
ing sheep,  180 

Circulation  of  the  blood,  105 

Clayworth,  Mr.,  on  the  influenza,  2s7 

Cleeve,  Mr.,  on  palsy,  206 

on  parturition,  251 

Coates,  Mr.,  on  the  poisonous  eftect.s  of 
soot,  215 

Coleman,  Prof.,  183 

Colic,  spasmodic,  222 

Concretions  in  the  stomachs,  216 

Copeman,  Mr.,  on  worms,  22 

Corn,  feeding  with,  183 

Cotswold  sheep,  57 

Cranial  cavity,  87 

—  nerves,  97 

Crisp,  Dr.,  on  parasites.  236 


320 


INDEX. 


CRO 

Crossing,  on,  146 
Cystitis,  243 

DARBY,  Mr.,  on  the  influenza,  287 
Dartmoor  sheep,  14 
Daubenv,   Dr.,  on   the  purging   flax 

and  septfoil,  228 
Diarrhoea,  218 
Dickens,  Mr.,  on  inflammation  of  the 

bladder,  343 
Digestive  organs,  diseases  of  the,  208 
Dipping,  on,  272,  277 
Disease  previous  to  lambing,  257 
Dishley,the,  or  New  Leicester  sheep,  G2 

—  Society,  rules  of,  60 
Dorset  sheep,  26 
Dropsy,  299 

—  of  the  abdomen,  257 

Ducie,  Lord  ;  his  experiment  on  feed- 
ing in  sheds,  180 
Dura  Mater,  the,  87 
Dysentery',  218 
Druce,  Mr. ;  his  sheep,  61 

EARLY  lambs,  26 
Elhnan,  Mr.,  the  improver  of  the 
South  Down  sheep,  41 

his  description  of  ditto,  42 

Epidemic,  the,  of  1840,  &c.,  290 

—  diseases  in  Australia,  294 
Epilepsy,  206 

Epizootic  diseases,  287 

Esam,  Mr. ;  his  operation  for  drops v, 
257 

Eustachian  cavities,  87 

Exmoor  sheep,  14 

Expfriments,  Lord  Ducie's,  on  sheep- 
feeding,  180 

—  Mr.  Childers's,  180 

FACE,  bones  of  the,  87 
Fair,  Mr.,  on  louping-ill,  199 
Fat-tailed  sheep,  5 
Feeding  and  fatting,  171,  179 
Feet,  injuries  of  the,  300 
Feltins;  propertv  of  wool,  162 
Fle5h,''the,  98 

—  its  analysis,  174 

Fluke,  description  of  the,  281,  283 

—  engraving  ofj  281 

—  theories  respecting,  &c,,  282 
Flux,  tlie,  216 

Fly,  the,  275 
Food  and  increase,  186 
Foot,  description  of  the,  95 
Foot-and-mouth  disease,  290 
Foot-rot,  301 
Fore-extremities,  bones  of,  93 


LAR 

Forest  breeds,  14 

Fractures,  313 

France,  Merino  sheep  iu,  72 

GAD-FLY  (CEstrus  Ovis),  the,  276 
Garget,  the,  262 
Gasparin,  M.,  on  epilepsy,  206 
Gastric  juice,  the,  108 
George  "ill.  imports  Merino  sheep,  70 
Germ  any,  introduction  of  Merino  sheep 

into  in  1765,  74 
Giddiness,  goggles,  &c.,  194 
Grantham,   Mr.  S. ;  his   prize   South 

Downs,  43 
Grass  lambs,  29 
Greaves,  Mr.,  on  giddiness,  194 
Gullet,  obstruction  in  the,  209 
Gutta-serena,  309 
Gutteridge,  Mr.,  on  concretions  in  the 

stomachs,  216 

HAMOXT  and  Fisher,  MM.,  on  the 
rot,  278 
Hampshire  Down  sheep,  31 
old  breed,  3 

—  improved  breed,  32 

Hawes,  Mr.,  on  the  fatal  effects  of  new 

wheat,  214 
Hay,  its  analysis,  177 

—  its  nutritious  qualities,  179 
Heart,  the,  127 

Heaving,  or  after-pams,  259 
Herdwick  sheep,  23 
Hereford  sheep,  50 
Hind-extremities,  bones  of,  97 
Hogg,  Mr.,  on  giddy  sheep,  194 

foot-rot,  302 

pining,  228 

Hoove,  hoven,  210 

House  lambs,  28 

Howard,  Mr.  C. ;  his  sheep,  60 

Humphrey,  Mr. ;  his  sheep,  38 

Hydatids,' 194 

Hydrocephalus,  197 

Hyett,  Mr.,  on  feeding  and  fatting,  179 

IN-AND-IN  breeding  considered,  148 
Influenza,  144 
Injuries,  311 

—  of  the  feet,  300 
Intestines,  diseases  of  the,  222 
Irish  sheep,  13 


K 


ERRY  sheep,  14 


LAMBING,  difficult,  250 
Larj-nx,  the,  106 


INDEX. 


321 


LEI 

Leicester,  the  old,  62 

—  the  new,  63 

—  the  fleece  of,  67 

—  the  improvers  of  other  breeds,  68 

—  their  management  in  Scotland,  68 

—  Lord,  on  Norfolk  sheep,  25 
Leicester  wool,  51 

Lincoln  sheep,  52 
Local  diseases,  300 
Loins,  bones  of  the,  92 
Long-wooUed  breeds,  51 

—  Lonk  sheep,  24 

Low,  Prof.,  on  the  Argali,  1 

Black-faced  heath  sheep,  15 

Cheviot  sheep,  20 

Penistone  sheep,  24 

— -his  account  of  the  sheep   of 

Europe,  8 
Louping-ill,  199 

Luccock  and  Hubbard's  tables,  167 
Lungs,  description  of  the,  124,  132 

—  inflamed,  238 

MACKENZIE,  Sir  G.,  on  dysentery, 
219 

M'Arthur,  Capt.,  cultivates  Merino 
sheep  in  Australia,  76 

M'CuUoch  on  woollen  manufactures, 
167 

Madness,  canine,  202 

Maniplus,  the.  or  manifolds,  or  third 
stomach,  108 

Marrow,  the,  99 

Mastication,  the  organs  of,  102 

Mayer,  Mr.,  on  bronchitis,  235 

Medicines,  a  list  of,  employed  iu  the 
diseases  of  sheep,  315 

Medulla  oblongata,  99 

Meire,  Mr.,  on  Shropshire  sheep,  49 

Merino  sheep,  70 

Middleton,  Mr.,  on  rearing  house  lambs. 
28 

Milk,  its  analysis,  170 

Moife  Common  sheep,  50 

Morton,  Mr.  ;  his  description  and  en- 
graving of  the  fluke,  281 

Mountain  breeds,  14 

Mouth,  diseases  of  the,  310 

Muscles,  the,  or  flesh,  98 

Musmon,  1 

NECK,  bones  of  the,  87 
Negretti  sheep,  72 
Nerves  of  the  head,  99 

spine,  their  double  origin,  99 

New  Oxford  sheep,  59 

Nippers  or  incisor  teeth,  the,  102 

Nitrogen,  or  azote,  132 


SAT 

Norfolk  sheep,  25 
Nostrils,  the,  87 

Nutriment  in   different  specimens   of 
food,  174 

ABSTRUCTION  in  the  gullet,  209 
yJ     Oil-cake,  177,  184 
Operations,  311 
Orkney  sheep,  10 
Os-hyoides,  105 
Oxygen,  132 

PALSY,  paralysis,  206 
Parotid  glands,  the,  10* 
Parturient-fever,  261 
Parturition,  250 
Penistone  sheep,  the,  24 
Pharynx,  the,  1<I5 
Pia  mater,  the,  99 
Pining,  228 

Pleurisy,  pleutritis,  242 
Pliny  an  ancient  writer  on  sheep,  3 
Pneumonia,  238 
Portland  sheep,  30 
Price,  Mr.,  on  parturition,  250 
Probang,  209 

RABIES,  or  madness,  202 
Kadnor  sheep,  21 
Rawlence,   Mr.   James;   his  breed  of 

sheep,  37 
Rawlins,  Mr.,  on  aphthae,  or  thrush, 

310 
Read,  Mr.,  on  the  foot-rot,  303,  306 
Redwater,  231 

Respiration  and  its  effects,  132 
Reticulum  or  second  stomach,  the,  108 
Rham,  Rev.  W.,  on  the  constituents  of 

food,  178 
Rheumatism,  208 
Ribs,  the,  92 
Roche  Lubin,  M.,  on  inflammation  of 

the  lungs,  240 
Romney  Marsh  sheep,  54 
Ross  sheep,  the,  150 
Rot,  the,  278 

Royal   Agricultural    Society  of  Eng- 
land, Journal  of  the,  179,  225,  265, 

283 
Rumen  or  first  stomach,  description  of 

the,  108 
—  mechanical  distension  of  the,  214 
Ryelaud  sheep,  50 

q ALIVA,  the,  105 
O     Saxony  sheep,  74 
Saver,  Mr.,  on   diarrhoea   and  dvsen- 
tery,  220 


322 


INDEX. 


SCA 


ZET 


\ 


Scab,  the,  267 

Scouring,  the,  218 

Scriptural  account  of  the  sheep,  3 

Scrofula,  297 

Selection  in  breeding,  145 

Seron,   M.,   on    inflammation    of  the 

lungs,  240 
bewell,    Prof.  ;   advice    on   a   disease 

amongst  ewes,  265 
Sheep  Pox,  272 
Short -tailed  sheep,  10 
Shropshire  sheep,  49 
Skeleton  of  the  sheep,  86 
Skin,  diseases  of,  267 
Skit,  white,  21 
Sibbald  on  parturition,  253 
Simonds,  Prof.,  on  worms,  225,  235 

dipping,  271 

sheep  tick,  275 

Smearing,  18,  23 

Snow-storm,  23 

Soft  palate,  102 

Somerset  sheep,  30 

Sore  heads,  277 

Soot,  fatal  eff"ects  of,  215 

South  Down  sheep,  40 

South-hams,  Devonshii-e,  57 

Southey  on  wool,  164 

Spain,  the  sheep  of,  72 

Spasmodic  colic,  222 

Specific  diseases,  279 

Spencer,  Earl,  on  Norfolk  sheep,  25 

Spinal  marrow,  99 

Stevens,  Mr.,  on  calculi  in  the  urinarj 

organs,  244 
Stevenson,  Mr.,  on  dysentery,  219 
Strains,  312 
Structure  of  the  sheep,  general  view  of, 

83 
Sussex  sheep,  40 
Sweden,  introduction  of  Merino  sheep 

into  in  1723,  70 

TAIT,  Mr.,  on  apoplexy,  197 
Tees  water  sheep,  52 
Tetanus  (locked  jaw),  205 
Teeth,  102 
Thrush,  310 

Thwartil-ill,  or  trembling,  283 
Tick  or  fly,  the,  274 
Tindal,  Mr.,  on  inflammation  of  the    | 

bladder,  243  i 

Tochenlin,  i\I.,  on  inflammation  of  the    I 

bowels,  223  I 


Tombs,  Mr.,  on  dropsy,  257 
Tongue,  description  of  the,  102 
Transhumantes,  or  migratory  sheep,  72 
Tumsick,  194 
Tw;^mam,  Mr. ;  his  breed  of  sheep,  35 

URINARY  organs,  119 
diseases  of,  24 

Urine  of  sheep,  20 

YAN  DIEMEN'S  LAND,  sheep 
'      introduced  into,  76 

Variola  Ovina,  272 

Veins,  the,  126 

Velum  palati,  the,  102 

'  Veterinarian,'  monthly  journal  ot 
veterinary  science,  282,  312,  313, 
315,  326,*  341,  350,  352,  354,  366, 
370,  405,  424,  427,  434 

Vinquish,  the,  229 

WALZ,M. ;  account  of  the  acari,  261 
Warwickshire  sheep,  56 
Washing  sheep,  18,  21 
Water,     astringency     of,     producing 

disease,  421 
Webb,   Mr.  Jonas  ;    his  pure  South 

Downs,  44 
Welsh  sheep,  11 
Western's,  Lord,  sheep,  77 
Wheat,  evil  effects  of  new,  214 
Wicklow  sheep,  13 
Wild  fire  (Ignis  sacer),  380 
Wiltshire  sheep,  the  old,  31 
Windpipe,  the,  123 
Wool  and  its  manufactures,  159 

—  long  and  short,  161 

—  combing  and  carding,  161 

—  serrated  edge,  163 

—  trade,  168 
Worms,  223 
Wounds,  311 

YOU  ATT,  Mr.,  discovers  the  serrated 
edge  of  wool,  163 

on  epilesy,  206 

on  Australian  epidemics,  294 

his  work  on  sheep,  276 

on  concretions  in  the  stomac'is, 

216 
on  pleuritis,  &c.,  242 

yETLAND  sheep,  10 


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\*  Opinions  of  the  Press. 

"  In  Its  modernised  form  Hutton's  '  Templeton  '  should  have  a  wide  sale,  for  it  contains  much 
valuable  information  which  the  mechanic  will  often  find  of  use,  and  not  a  few  tables  and  notes  which 
he  might  look  for  in  vain  in  other  works.  This  modernised  edition  will  be  appreciated  by  all  who 
have  learned  to  value  the  original  editions  of '  Templeton.'  " — Eng-lish  Mechanic. 

"  It  has  met  with  great  success  in  the  engineering  workshop,  as  we  can  testify  ;  and  there  are 
a  great  many  men  who,  in  a  great  measure,  owe  their  rise  in  life  to  this  little  hook."— Buildings  News. 

"  This  familiar  text-book — well  known  to  all  mechanics  and  engineers— is  of  essential  service  to 
the  every-day  requirements  of  engineers,  millwrights,  and  the  various  trades  connected  with 
engineering  and  building.    The  new  modernised  edition  is  worth  its  weight  hi  ^oldi."— Building 

"  The  publishers  wisely  entrusted  the  task  of  revision  of  this  popular,  valuable  and  useful  boo 
of  Mr,  Hutton,  than  whom  a  more  competent  man  they  eould  not  have  found."— /r<?«. 


MECHANICS,  MECHANICAL   ENGINEERING,  etc.        3 

Stone-ivorMng  Machinery, 

STONE-WORKING  MACHINERY,  and,  the  Rapid  and  Economu 
cal  Conversion  of  Stone.     With  Hints  on  the  Arrangement  and  Management 
of  Stone  Works.    By  M.  Powis  Bale,  M.I.M.E.    Crown  8vo,  9s. 
"Should  be  in  the  hands  of  every  mason  or  student  of  stone-work."— Co//tery  Guardian. 
"It  is  in  every  sense  of  the  word  a  standard  work  upon  a  subject  which  the  author  is  ftiHy 
competent  to  deal  exhaustively  vnt\i."—B2iiIde>''s  I^eekly  Reporter. 

"A  capital  handbook  for  all  who  manipulate  Stone  for  building  or  ernamental  purposes."— 
Machinery  Market. 

Tump  Construction  and  Management, 

PUMPS  AND  PUMPING  :  A  Handbook  for  Pump  Users.  Being 
Notes  on  Selection,  Construction  and  Management.  By  M.  Powis  Bale, 
M.I.M.E.,  Author  of  "  Woodworking  Machinery,"  "  Saw  Mills,"  &c.  Crown 
8vo,  2S.  6d.  cloth.  [just  published. 

"The  matter  is  set  forth  as  concisely  as  possible.  In  fact,  condensation  rather  than  diffuseness 
h.^s  been  the  author's  aim  throughout ;  j'et  he  does  not  seem  to  have  omitted  anything  likely  to  be 
of  use-'—yournaiofGas  Lishting. 

"  Thoroughly  practical  and  simply  and  clearly  v,ntten."—GIas£-o'u'  Herald. 

Turning, 

LATHE-WORK  :  A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Tools,  Appliances, 

and  Processes  employed  in  the  Art  of   Turning.      By  Paul  N.  Hasluck. 

Third  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged.    Crown  8vo,  5s.  cloth. 

"  Written  by  a  man  v,-ho  knows,  not  only  how  work  ought  to  be  done,  but  who  also  knows  how 
to  do  it,  and  how  to  convey  his  knowledge  to  others.  To  all  turners  this  book  would  be  valuable." 
—Engineering'. 

"  We  can  safely  recommend  the  work  to  young  engineers.  To  the  amateur  it  will  simply  be 
Invaluable.    To  the  student  it  will  convey  a  great  deal  of  useful  information."— £«^t«^i;r. 

"A  compact,  succinct,  and  handy  guide  to  lathe- work  did  not  exist  in  our  lajiguage  until  Mr. 
Hasluck,  by  the  publication  of  this  treatise,  gave  the  turner  a,tzuQvad€-fmcum."— House  Decorator. 

Screiv-Ciitting, 

SCREW  THREADS:  Ajid  Methods  of  Producing  Them.  With 
Numerous  Tables,  and  complete  directions  for  using  Screw-Cutting  Lathes. 
By  Paul  N.  Hasluck,  Author  of  "  Lathe- Work,"  &c.  With  Fifty  Illustra- 
tions. Second  Edition.  Waistcoat-pocket  size,  price  is.  cloth, 
"  FuU  of  useful  information,  hints  and  practical  criticism.  Taps,  dies  and  screwing-tools  gene- 
rally are  illustrated  and  their  action  descxih&6.."~Mechanical  World. 

Smith's  Tables  for  MecJianics,  etc, 

TABLES,  MEMORANDA,  AND  CALCULATED  RESULTS, 
FOR  MECHANICS,  ENGINEERS,  ARCHITECTS,  BUILDERS,  etc. 
Selected  and  Arranged  by  Francis  Smith.  Fourth  Edition,  Revised  and  En- 
larged, 250  pp.,  waistcoat-pocket  size,  is.  6d.  limp  leather. 

"  It  would,  perhaps,  be  as  difficult  to  make  a  small  pocket-book  selection  of  notes  and  formulae 
to  suit  ALL  engineers  as  it  would  be  to  make  a  universal  Medicine  ;  but  Mr.  Smith's  waistcoat- 
pocket  collection  may  be  looked  upon  as  a  successful  attempt." — Engineer. 

"The  best  example  we  have  ever  seen  of  250  pages  of  useful  matter  packed  into  the  dimen- 
sions of  a  card-case."— Building  News.        "A  veritable  pocket  treasury  of  knowledge."— /»-<?«. 

Engineer's  and  Machinist's  Assistant. 

THE  ENGINEER'S,  MILLWRIGHT'S,  and  MACHINIST'S 

PRACTICAL  ASSISTANT.   A  collection  of  Useful  Tables,  Rules  and  Data. 

By  William  Templeton.    7th  Edition,  with  Additions.    iSmo,  2s.  6d.  cloth. 

"  Occupies  a  foremost  place  among  books  of  this  kind.  A  more  suitable  present  to  an  appren 
tice  to  any  of  the  mechanical  trades  could  not  possibly  be  made." — Building  Nctvs. 

"A  deservedly  popular,  work,  it  should  be  in  the  'drawer'  of  every  mectiamc."— English 
Mecfuxnic. 

Iron  and  Steel, 

**  IRON  AND  STEEL  "  ;  ^  Worh  for  the  Forge,  Foundry,  Factory, 
and  Office.  Containing  ready,  useful,  and  trustworthy  Information  for  Iron- 
masters and  their  Stock-takers ;  Managers  of  Bar,  Rail,  Plate,  and  Sheet 
RoUing  Mills ;  Iron  and  Metal  Founders ;  Iron  Ship  and  Bridge  Builders  ; 
Mecnanical,  Mining,  and  Consulting  Engineers  ;  Architects, Builders,  and 
Draughtsmen.  By  Charles  Hoare,  Author  of  "  The  Slide  Rule,"  &c.  Eighth 
Edition,  Revised  and  considerably  Enlarged.    32mo,  6s.  leather. 

"One  of  the  best  of  the  pocket  hooks."— English  Mechanic. 

"We  cordially  recommend  this  book  to  those  engaged  in  considering  the  details  of  all  kinds  of 
iron  and  steel  yior\ss,"— Naval  Science, 


4.  CROSBY  LOCKWOOD  &-  SON'S  CATALOGUE. 

Engineering  Construction, 

PATTERN -MAKING  :  A  Practical  Treatise,  embracing  the  Main 
Types  of  Engineering  Construction,  and  including  Gearing,  both  Hand  and 
Machine  made.  Engine  Work,  Sheaves  and  Pulleys,  Pipes  and   Columns, 
Screws,  Machine  Parts,  Pumps  and  Cocks,  the  Moulding  of  Patterns  in 
Loam   and   Greensand,  &c.,  together  with  the  methods  of  Estimating  the 
weight  of  Castings;  to  which  is  added  an  Appendix  of  Tables  for  Workshop 
Reference.     By  a  Foreman  Pattern   Maker.     With   upwards  of  Three 
Hundred  and  Seventy  Illustrations.  Crown  8vo,  ys.  6d.  cloth. 
"  A  well- written  technical  guide,  evidently  written  by  a  man  who  understands  and  has  prac- 
tised what  he  has  written  about.     We  cordially  recommend  it  to  engineering  students,  young 
journeymen,  and  others  desirous  of  being  initiated  into  the  mysteries  of  pattern-making." — Builder. 
"  Likely  to  prove  a  welcome  guide  to  many  workmen,  especially  to  draughtsmen  who  have 
lacked  a  training  in  the  shops,  pupils  pursuing  their  practical  studies  in  our  factories,  and  to  em- 
ployers  and  managers  in  engineering  -works,:'—  Hard-ware  Trade  Journal. 

"More  than  370  illustrations  help  to  explain  the  text,  which  is,  however,  always  clear  and  ex- 
plicit, thus  rendering  the  work  an  excellent  vade  mecuni  for  the  apprentice  who  desires  to  become 
master  of  his  trade." — English  Mechanic. 

JDictionary  of  3Iechanical  Engineering  Terms, 

LOCKWOOD' S  DICTIONARY  OF  TERMS  USED   IN  THE 

PRACTICE  OF  MECHANICAL  ENGINEERING,  embracing  those  current 

in  the  Drawing  Ofl&ce,  Pattern  Shop,  Foundry,  Fitting,  Turning,  Smith's  and 

Boiler  Shops,  &c.  &c.     Comprising  upwards  of  6,000  Definitions.     Edited  by 

A  Foreman  Pattern-Maker,  Author  of  "  Pattern   Making."    Crown  8vo, 

ys.  6d.  cloth. 

"Just  the  sort  of  handy  dictionary  required  by  the  various  trades  engaged  in  mechanical  en- 
gineering. The  practical  engineering  pupil  will  find  the  book  of  great  value  in  his  studies,  and' 
every  foreman  engineer  and  mechanic  should  have  a  copy.  — Building  Nezvs. 

"After  a  careful  examination  of  the  book,  and  trying  all  manner  of  words,  we  think  that  the 
engineer  will  here  find  all  he  is  likely  to  require.  _  It  will  be  argely  used." — Practical  Engineer. 

"This  admirable  dictionary,  although  primarily  intended  for  the  use  of  draughtsmen  and  other 
technical  craftsmen,  is  of  much  larger  value  as  a  book  of  reference,  and  will  find  a  ready  welcome 
in  many  libraries." — Glasgow  Herald. 

"One  of  the  most  useful  books  which  can  be  presented  to  a  mechanic  or  student. "—£";/^/ijA 
Mecha7iic. 

"  Not  merely  a  dictionary,  but.  to  a  certatn  extent,  also  a  most  valuable  guide.  It  strikes  us  as 
a  happy  idea  to  combine  with  a  definition  of  the  phrase  useful  information  on  the  subject  of  which 
it  treats." — Machinery  Market. 

"  This  careiully-compiled  volume  forms  a  kind  of  pocket  cyclopaedia  of  the  extensive  subject 
to  which  it  is  devoted.  No  word  having  connection  with  any  branch  of  constructive  engineering 
seems  to  be  omitted.     No  more  comprehensive  work  has  been,  so  far,  issued." — Knowledge. 

'•  We  strongly  commend  this  useful  and  reliable  adviser  to  our  friends  in  the  workshop,  and  to 
-students  everywhere." — Colliery  Guardian. 

Steam  Boilers, 

A  TREATISE  ON  STEAM  BOILERS:  Their  Strength,  Con- 
struction, and  Economical  W&rking.  By  Robert  Wilson,  C.E.  Fifth  Edition. 
i2mo,  6s.  cloth. 

"The  best  treatise  that  has  ever  r  een  published  on  steam  hoilers."— Engineer. 

"The  author  shows  himself  perfect  master  of  his  subject,  and  we  heartily  recommend  all  em- 
ploying steam  power  to  possess  themselves  of  the  yfOx)i.."—Ryland's  Iron  Trade  Circular. 

Boiler  Chimneys. 

BOILER  AND  FACTORY  CHIMNEYS;  Their  Draught-Power 
and  Stability.  With  a  Chapter  on  Lightning  Conductors.  By  Robert 
Wilson,  C.E.,  Author  of  "A  Treatise  on  Steam  Boilers,"  &c.  Second 
Edition.  Crown  8vo,  ^s-  6d.  cloth. 
"Full  of  useful  information,  definite  in  statement,  and  thoroughly  practical  in  treatment." — 
Tne  Local  Gc^emment  Chronicle. 

"  A  valuable  contribution  to  the  literature  of  scientific  building.  .  .  .  The  whole  subject  is 
a  very  interesting  and  important  one,  and  it  is  gratifying  to  know  that  it  has  fallen  into  such  com- 
petent hands." — The  Builder. 

Boiler  Making. 

THE  BOILER-MAKER'S  READY  RECKONER.     With  Ex- 
amples of   Practical  Geometry  and  Templating,   for  the  Use  of   Platers, 
Smiths  and  Riveters.    By  John  Courtney,  Edited  by  D.  K.  Clark,  M.I. C.E. 
Second  Edition,  Revised,  with  Additions,  lamo,  5s.  half-bound. 
"  No  workman  or  apprentice  should  be  without  this  hook."— Iron  Trade  Circular. 
"A  reliable  guide  to  the  working  boiler-maker." — Iron. 

"  Boiler-makers  will  readily  recognise  the  value  of  this  volume.  .  .  .  The  tables  are  clearly 
printed,  and  so  arranged  that  they  can  be  referred  to  with  the  greatest  facility,  so  that  it  cannot  be 
doubted  that  they  will  be  generally  appreciated  and  much  usQd."— Mining  Journal. 


MECHANICS,  MECHANICAL  ENGINEERING,  etc.        5 

Steam  Engine, 

TEXT-BOOK  ON  THE  STEAM  ENGINE.  With  a  Sup- 
plement on  Gas  Engines.  By  T.  M.  Goodeve,  M.A.,  Barrister-at-Law, 
Author  of  "The  Elements  of  Mechanism,"  &c.  Tenth  Edition,  Enlarged. 
With  numerous  Illustrations.     Crown  8vo,  6s.  cloth,  \Just  published. 

"Professor  Goodeve  has  given  us  a  treatise  on  the  steam  eng^e  which  wUl  heax  comparisoa 

with  anything  written  by  Huxley  or  Maxwell,  and  we  can  award  it  no  higrher  praise." — Engineer. 
"  Professor  Goodeve's  book  is  ably  and  clearly  written.     It  is  a  sound  work." — AthettiSti>n. 
"  Mr.  Goodeve's  text-book  is  a  work  of  which  every  young  engineer  should  possess  himself." 

—Mining-  journal. 

"Essentially  practical  in    ts  aim.      The  manner  of  exposition  leaves  nothing  to  be  desired."— 

Scotsman, 

Gas  Engines, 

ON  GAS-ENGINES.  Being  a  Reprint,  with  some  Additions,  of 
the  Supplement  to  the  Text-book  on  the  Steam  Engine,  by  T.  M.  Goodeve, 
M.A.     Crown  8vo,  2S.  6d.  cloth.  [Just  published. 

"  Like  aH  Mr.  Goodeve's  writings,  the  presentl  s  no  exception  in  point  of  general  excellence. 
It  is  a  valuable  little  \o\ume."—.UecAa!iural  U^orld. 

"  This  little  book  will  be  useful  to  those  who  desire  to  understand  how  the  gas-engine  works,' 
—EH£^lish  Mechanic. 

Steam, 

THE  SAFE  USE  OF  STEAM.  Containing  Rules  for  Un- 
professional Steam-users.    By  an  Engineer.    Sixth  Edition.    Sewed,  6d. 

"  If  steam-users  would  but  learn  this  little  book  by  heart  boiler  explosions  wjuld  become 
sensations  by  their  rarity."— Eu^-Hsh  Mechanic. 

Coal  and  Speed  Tables. 

A  POCKET  BOOK  OF  COAL  AND  SPEED  TABLES,  for 
Engineers  and  Steam-users.  By  Nelson  Foley,  Author  of  "  Boiler  Con- 
struction."   Pocket-size,  3s.  6d.  cloth  ;  4s.  leather. 

"  This  is  a  very  useful  book,  containing  very  useful  tables.  The  results  given  are  well  chosen, 
and  the  volume  contains  evidence  that  the  author  really  understands  his  subject.  We  ciin  recom- 
mend the  work  with  pleasure."— .V/a-/ja«i<ra/  irorld. 

"  These  tables  are  designed  to  meet  the  requirements  of  every-day  use  ;  they  are  of  sufficient 
scope  for  most  practical  purposes,  and  may  be  commended  to  engineers  and  users  of  steam."— 
Iron. 

"  This  pocket-book  well  merits  the  attention  of  the  practical  engineer.  Mr.  Foley  has  com- 
piled a  very  useful  set  of  tables,  the  information  contained  in  which  is  frequently  required  by 
engineers,  coal  consumers  and  users  of  st&aaa."— Iron  and  Coal  Trades  Review. 

Fire  Engineering, 

FIRES,  FIRE-ENGINES,  AND  FIRE-BRIGADES.  With 
a  History  of  Fire-Engines,  their  Construction,  Use,  and  Management ;  Re- 
marks on  Fire-Proof  Buildings,  and  the  Preservation  of  Life  from  Fire  ; 
Statistics  of  the  Fire  Appliances  in  English  Towns ;  Foreign  Fire  Systems  ; 
Hints  on  Fire  Brigades,  &c.  &c.  By  Charles  F.  T.  Young,  C.E.  With 
numerous  Illustrations,  544  pp.,  demy  8vo,  £1  4s.  cloth. 
"  To  such  of  our  readers  as  are  interested  in  the  subject  of  fires  and  fire  apparatus,  we  can  most 

heartily  commend  this  book.    It  is  really  the  only  English  work  we  now  have  upon  the  subject."— 

£HoiHeeriH£: 

"It  displays  much  evidence  of  careful  research;    and  Mr.  "Vouno^  has  put  his  facts  neatly 

together.    It  is  evident  enough  that  his  acquaintance  with  the  practical  details  of  the  construction  of 

steam  fire  engines,  old  and  new,  and  the  conditions  with  which  it  is  necessary  they  should  comply, 

is  accurate  and  full." — Engineer. 

Gas  Lighting, 

COMMON  SENSE  FOR  GAS-USERS :  A  Catechism  of  Gas- 
Lighting  for  Householders,  Gasfitters,  Millowners,. Architects,  Engineers,  etc. 
By  Robert  Wilson,  C.E.,  Author  of  "  A  Treatise  on  Steam  Boilers." 
Second  Edition,  with  Folding  Plates  and  Wood  Engravings.  Crown  8vo, 
price  15.  in  wrapper. 

"  AU  gas-users  will  decidedly  benefit,  both  in  pocket  and  comfort,  if  they  will  avail  themselves- 
of  Mr.  Wilson's  coaasels."— Engineering, 

Dynamo  Construction, 

HOW  TO  MAKE  A  DYNAMO  :  A  Practical  Treatise  for  Amateurs. 
Containing  numerous  Illustrations  and  Detailed  Instructions  for  Construct- 
ing a  Small  Dynamo,  to  Produce  the  Electric  Light.  By  Alfred  Crofts. 
Second  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged.  Crown  8vo,  2S.  cloth.  [Just  published. 
"The  instructions  given  in  this  unpretentious  little  book  are  sufficiently  clear  and  explicit  to 

enable  any  amateur  mechanic  possessed  of  average  skill  and  the  usual  tools  to  be  found  m  aa 

amateur's  workshop,  to  build  a  practical  dynamo^machine. " — Eiecirician, 


6  CROSBY  LOCK  WOOD  &-  SON'S  CATALOGUE. 

THE  POPULAR  WORKS  OF  MICHAEL  REYNOLDS 

("  The  Engine  Driver's  Friend  ")• 

Locomotive-Engine  Driving, 

LOCOMOTIVE-ENGINE  DRIVING  :  A  Practical  Manual  for 
Engineers  in  charge  of  Locomotive  Engines.  By  Michael  Reynolds,  Member 
of  the  Society  of  Engineers,  formerly  Locomotive  Inspector  L.  B.  and  S.  C.  R. 
Eighth  Edition.  Including  a  Key  to  the  Locomotive  Engine.  With  Illus- 
trations and  Portrait  of  Author.  Crown  8vo,  4s.  6d.  cloth. 
"Mr.  Reynolds  has  supplied  a  want,  and  has  supplied  it  well.  We  can  confidently  recommend 

the  book,  not  only  to  the  practical  driver,  but  to  everyone  who  takes  an  interest  in  the  performance 

of  locomotive  engines." — The  Ensineer. 

"  Mr.  Reynolds  has  opened  a  new  chapter  in  the  literature  of  the  day.  This  admirable  practical 

treatise,  of  the  practical  utility  of  which  we  have  to  speak  in  terms  of  warm  commendation." — 

AtlunauTn. 

"  Evidently  the  work  of  one  who  knows  his  subject  thoroughly."— ^az'/wfy  Service  Gazette. 
"Were  the  cautions  and  rules  griven  in  the  book  to  become  part  of  the  every-day  working  of 

our  enjfine-drivers,  we  mig^ht  have  fewer  distressing  accidents  to  ^q^Xqxq  "Scotsman, 

Stationary  Engine  Driving, 

STATIONARY  ENGINE  DRIVING  :  A  Practical  Manual  for 
Engineers  in  charge  of  Stationary  Engines.     By  Michael  Reynolds.     Third 
Edition,  Enlarged.    With  Plates  and  Woodcuts.    Crown  8vo,  4s.  6ci.  cloth. 
"  The  author  is  thoroughly  acquainted  with  his  subjects,  and  his  advice  on  the  variovis  points 

treated  is  clear  and  practical.    ...    He  has  produced  a  manual  which  is  an  exceedingly  useful 

one  for  the  class  for  whom  it  is  specially  intended." — E}igineeri>i^. 

"  Our  author  leaves  no  stone  unturned.    He  is  determined  that  his  readers  shall  not  only  know 

something  about  the  stationary  engine,  but  all  z:c>ovX\t."— Engineer. 

"An  engineman  who  has  mastered  the  contents  of'Mr.Rej-nolds's  bookwill  require  but  little  actual 

experience  with  boilers  and  engines  before  he  can  be  trusted  to  look  after  them." — EjtglishMechanic. 

The  Engineer,  Fireman,  and  Engine-Boy, 

THE  MODEL  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINEER,  FIREMAN,  and 
ENGINE-BOY.  Comprising  a  Historical  Notice  of  the  Pioneer  Locomotive 
Engines  and  their  Inventors.  By  Michael  Reynolds.  With  numerous  Illus- 
trations and  a  fine  Portrait  of  George  Stephenson.  Crown  8vo,  4s.  6rf.  cloth. 
"From  the  technical  knowledge  of  the  author  it  will  appeal  to  the  railway  man  of  to-day  more 
forcibly  than  anything  written  by  Dr.  SraUes.  .  .  .  The  volume  contains  information  of  a  tech- 
nical kind,  and  facts  that  every  driver  should  be  familiar  -with."— English  Mechanic. 

"We  should  be  glad  to  see  this  book  in  the  possession  of  everyone  in  the  kingdom  who  has 
ever  laid,  or  is  to  lay,  hands  on  a  locomotive  engine."— /rc?;j. 

Continuous  Mailway  BraTtes. 

CONTINUOUS  RAILWAY  BRAKES  :  A  Practical  Treatise  on 
the  several  Systems  in  Use  in  the  United  Kingdom;  their  Construction  and 
Performance.  With  copious  Illustrations  and  numerous  Tables.  By  Michael 
Reynolds,    Large  crown  8vo,  gs.  cloth. 
"  A  popular  explanation  of  the  different  brakes.  It  will  be  of  great  assistance  in  forming  public 

jjpinion,  and  will  be  studied  with  benefit  by  those  who  take  an  interest  in  the  hrdiae."— English 

Mechanic. 

"  Written  with  sufficient  technical  detail  to  enable  the  principle  and  relative  connection  of  the 

various  parts  of  each  particular  brake  to  be  readily  gtasped."— Mechanical  fVorld, 

Engine-Driving  Life, 

ENGINE-DRIVING  LIFE  :  Stirring  Adventures  and    hicidents 
in  the  Lives  of  Locomotive-Engine  Drivers.    By  Michael  Reynolds.    Second 
Edition,  with  Additional  Chapters.     Crown  8vo.  2S.  cloth.        \_Just  published, 
"From  first  to  last  perfectly  fascinating.    Wilkie  CoUins's  m.ost  thrilling  conceptions  are  thrown 
Into  the  shade  by  true  incidents,  endless  in  their  variety,  related  in  every  page." — North  British  Mail. 
"Anyone  who  wishes  to  get  a  real  insight  into  raihvay  life  cannot  do  better  than  read  '  Engine- 
Driving  Life  '  for  himself ;  and  if  he  once  take  it  up  he  will  find  that  the  author's  enthusiasm  and  real 
;ove  of  the  engine-driving  profession  will  carry  him  on  till  he  has  read  every  page." — Saturday  Review, 

docket  Companion  for  Enginemen, 

THE  ENGINEMAN' S  POCKET  COMPANION  AND  PR  AC- 
TICAL  EDUCATOR  FOR  ENGINEMEN,  BOILER  ATTENDANTS, 
AND  MECHANICS.  By  Michael  Reynolds.  With  Forty-five  Illustra- 
tions and  numerous  Diagrams.  Second  Edition,  Revised.  Royal  i8mo,  3s.  6rf., 
strongly  bound  for  pocket  wear. 

"  This  admirable  work  is  v.ell  suited  to  accomplish  its  object,  being  the  honest  workmanship  of 
a  competent  engineer." — Glasgoiu  Herald. 

"  A  most  meritorious  work,  giving  in  a  succinct  and  practical  form  all  the  information  an  engine- 
minder  desirous  of  mastering  the  scientific  principles  of  his  daily  calling  wbuld  require." — Miller, 

"  A  boon  to  those  who  are  striving  to  become  efficient  mechanics." — Daily  Chronicle. 


CIVIL  ENGINEERING,  SURVEYING,  etc.  7 

French-English  Glossary  for  Engineers,  etc, 

A  POCKET  GLOSSARY  of  TECHNICAL  TERMS:  ENGLISH- 
FRENCH,  FRENCH-ENGLISH ;  with  Tables  snitable  for  the  Architectural, 
Engineering,  Manufacturing  and  Nautical  Professions.  By  John  James 
Fletcher,  Engineer  and  Surveyor  ;  200  pp.  Waistcoat-pocket  size,  is.  6d., 
limp  leather. 

"  It  ougfht  certainly  to  be  in  the  waistcoat-pocket  of  every  professional  man.  —Iron. 
"It  is  a  very  great  advantage  for  readers  and  correspondents  in  France  and  England  to  have 
so  large  a  number  of  the  words  relating  to  engineering  and  manufacturers  collected  m  a  liliputian 
volume.    The  little  book  will  be  useful  both  to  students  and  travellers."— ^rcAZ-Vrf. 

"  The  glossary  of  terms  is  very  complete,  and  many  of  the  tables  are  new  and  well  arranged. 
We  cordially  conmiend  the  hoo\i.— Mechanical  World. 

Portable  Engines, 

THE  PORTABLE  ENGINE;  ITS  CONSTRUCTION  AND 
MANAGEMENT.  A  Practical  Manual  for  Owners  and  Users  of  Steam 
Engines  generally.  By  William  Dyson  Wansbrough.  With  90  Illustra- 
tions. Crown  8vo,  3s,  6d.  cloth. 
"  This  is  a  work  of  value  to  those  who  use  steam  machinery.  .  .  .  Should  be  read  by  every- 
one who  has  a  steam  engine,  on  a  farm  or  elsewhere." — Mark  Lane  Express. 

"  We  cordially  commend  this  work  to  buyers  and  owners  of  steam  engines,  and  to  those  who 
have  to  do  ^Wth  their  construction  or  use." — Timber  Trades  journal. 

"  Such  a  general  knowledge  of  the  steam  engine  as  Mr.  Wansbrough  furnishes  to  the  reader 
should  be  acquired  by  all  intell^rent  owners  and  others  who  use  the  steam  engine.''— Bttildin^- A^ev/s. 


CIVIL  ENGINEERING,  SURVEYING,  etc. 

MR.  HUMBER'S  IMPORTANT  ENGINEERING  BOOKS. 
The  Water  Supply  of  Cities  and  Toivns. 

A  COMPREHENSIVE  TREATISE  on  the  WATER-SUPPLY 
OF  CITIES  AND  TOWNS.  By  William  Humber,  A-M.Inst.C.E.,  and 
M.  Inst.  M.E.,  Author  of  "  Cast  and  Wrought  Iron  Bridge  Construction," 
&c.  &c.  Illustrated  with  50  Double  Plates,  i  Single  Plate,  Coloured 
Frontispiece,  and  upwards  of  250  Woodcuts,  and  containing  400  pages  of 
Text.    Imp.  4to,  £6  6s.  elegantly  and  substantially  half-bound  in  morocco. 

List  of  Contents. 

I.  Historical  Sketch  of  some  of  the  means  Conduits.— XIII.  Distribution  of  Water.— XIV. 
that  have  been  adopted  for  the  Supply  of  Water  Meters,  Service  Pipes,  and  House  Fittings. — 
to  Cities  and  Towns.— II.  AVater  and  the  Fo-  XV.  The  Law  and  Economy  of  Water  AVorks. 
reign  Matter  usually  associated  wth  it.— III.  ,  XVI;  Constant  and  Intermittent  Supply.— 
Ramfall  and  Evaporation.— IV.  Springs  and  ^  XVII.  Description  of  Plates.  —  Appendices, 
the  water-bearing  formations  of  various  dis-  |  giving  Tables  of  Rates  of  Supply,  Velocities, 
tricts.— V.  Measurement  and  Estimation  of  the  ;  &c.  &c.,  together  with  Specifications  of  several 
flow  of  Water  — VI.  On  the  Selection  of  the  Works  illustrated,  among  which  will  be  found : 
Source  of  Supply. — VII.  Wells. — VIII.  Reser-  Aberdeen,  Bideford,  Canterbury,  Dundee, 
voirs. — IX.  The  Purification  of  Water. — X.  Halifax,  Lambeth,  Rotherham,  Dublin,  and 
Pumps.  —  XI.     Pumping    Machinery.  —  XII.     !    others. 

"  The  most  systematic  and  valuable  work  upon  v.-ater  supply  hitherto  produced  in  English,  er 
In  any  other  language.  .  .  .  Mr,  Humber's  v.'ork  is  characterised  almost  throughout  by  an 
exhaustiveness  much  more  distinctive  of  French  and  German  than  of  English  technical  treatises." 
—Eng^ineer. 

"  We  can  congratulate  Mr.  Humber  on  having  been  able  to  give  so  large  an  amount  of  infor- 
mation  on  a  subject  so  important  as  the  water  supply  of  cities  and  towns.  The  plates,  fifty  in 
number,  are  mostly  drawings  of  executed  works,  and  alone  would  have  commanded  the  attention 
of  every  engineer  whose  practice  may  lie  in  this  branch  of  the  profession,"- .fiwsVi^r. 

Cast  and  Wrought  Iron  Bridge  Construction, 

A  COMPLETE  AND  PRACTICAL  TREATISE  ON  CAST 
AND  WROUGHT  IRON  BRIDGE  CONSTRUCTION,  including  Iron 
Foundations.  In  Three  Parts — Theoretical,  Practical,  and  Descriptive.  By 
William  Humber,  A,M,Inst,C,E.,  and  M.Inst.M.E.  Third  Edition,  Re- 
vised and  much  improved,  with  115  Double  Plates  (20  of  which  now  first 
appear  in  this  edition),  and  numerous  Additions  to  the  Test.  In  Two  Vols., 
imp.  4to,  £6  16s.  6d.  half-bound  in  morocco. 

"A  very  valuable  contribution  to  the  standard  literature  of  civil  engineering.  In  addition  to 
elevations,  plans  and  sections,  large  scale  details  are  given  which  very  much  enhance  the  instruc- 
tive worth  of  those  illustrations." — Civil  Eng-ineer  and  Architect's  Jour nal. 

"Mr.  Humber's  stately  volumes,  lately  issued— in  which  the  most  important  bridges  erected 
during  the  last  five  years,  under  the  direction  of  the  late  Mr,  Brunei,  Sir  W.  Cubitt,  Mr.  Hawk- 
shaw,  Mr,  Page,  Mr,  Fowler,  Mr,  Hemans,  and  others  among  our  most  eminent  engineers,  are 
drawn  and  specified  in  great  dQta^il."— Engineer 


CROSBY  LOCK  WOOD  S-  SON'S  CATALOGUE. 


MR.  NUMBER'S  GREAT  WORK  ON  MODERN  ENGINEERING. 

Complete  in  Four  Volumes,  imperial  4to,  price  £12  12s.,  half-morocco.    Each 
Volume  sold  separately  as  follows : — 

I  RECORD  OF  THE  PROGRESS  OF  MODERN  ENGINEER- 
ING. First  Series.  Comprising  Civil,  Mechanical,  Marine,  Hydraulic, 
Railway,  Bridge,  and  other  Engineering  Works,  &c.  By  William  Humber, 
A-M.Inst.C.E.,  &c.  Imp.  4to,  with  36  Double  Plates,  drawn  to  a  large  scale, 
Photographic  Portrait  of  John  Hawkshaw,  C.E.,  F.R.S.,  &c.,  and  copious 
descriptive  Letterpress,  Specifications,  &c.,  £3  3s,  half-morocco. 

List  of  the  Plates  and  Diagrams. 


Thames,  West  London  Extension  RaUway  (S 
plates);  Armour  Plates:  Suspension  Bridg-e, 
Thames  (4  plates);  The  Allen  Engine;  Sus- 
pension Bridge,  Avon  (3  plates) ;  Underground 
Railway  (3  plates). 


Victoria  Station  and  Roof,  L.  B.  &  S.  C.  R. 
(8  plates) ;  Southport  Pier  (2  plates) ;  Victoria 
Station  and  Root,  L.  C.  &  D.  and  G.  W.  R.  (6 
plates) ;  Roof  of  Cremorne  Music  Hall ;  Bridge 
over  G.  N.  Railway  ;  Roof  of  Station,  Dutch 
Rhenish    Rail    (2  plates) ;    Bridge    over    the 

"  Handsomely  lithographed  and  printed.  It  will  find  favour  with  many  who  desire  to  preserv* 
hi  a  permanent  form  copies  of  the  plans  and  specifications  prepared  for  the  guidance  of  the  con- 
tractors for  many  important  engineering  -works."— £n£U!eer, 

HUMBERTS  RECORD  OF  MODERN  ENGINEERING.  Second 
Series.  Imp.  4to,  with  36  Double  Plates,  Photographic  Portrait  of  Robert 
Stephenson,  C.E.,  M.P.,  F.R.S.,  &c.,  and  copious  descriptive  Letterpress, 
Specifications,  &c.,  £^  3s.  half-morocco. 

List  of  the  Plates  and  Diagrams. 


Birkenhead  Docks,  Low  Water  Basin  (13 
piates);  Charing  Cross  Station  Roof,  C.  C. 
Railway  (3  plates) ;  Digswell  Viaduct,  Great 
Northern  Railway  ;  Robbery  Wood  Viaduct, 
Great  Northern  Railway ;  Iron  Permanent 
Way ;  Clydach  Viaduct,   Merthyr,   Tredegar, 


and  Abergavenny  Railway;  Ebbw  Viaduct, 
Merthyr,  Tredegar,  and  Abergavenny  Rail- 
way ;  College  Wood  Viaduct,  Cornwall  Rail- 
way ;  Dublin  Winter  Palace  Roof  (3  plates)  ; 
Bridge  over  the  Thames,  L.  C.  &  D.  Railway 
(6  plates) ;  Albert  Harbour,  Greenock  (4  plates). 


"  Mr.  Humber  has  done  the  profession  good  and  true  sen'ice,  by  the  fine  collection  of  examples 
he  has  here  brought  before  the  profession  and  the  ^uhWc."— Practical  Mechatitc's  Journal. 

HUMBERTS  RECORD  OF  MODERN  ENGINEERING.  Third 
Series.  Imp.  4to,  with  40  Double  Plates,  Photographic  Portrait  of  J.  R. 
M'Clean,  late  Fres.  Inst.  C.E.,  and  copious  descriptive  Letterpress,  Speci- 
fications, &c.,  £3  3s.  half-morocco. 

List  of  the  Plates  and  Diagrams. 

Sewer,  Reservoir  and  Outlet  (4  plates) ;  OutfeH 
Sewer,  Filth  Hoist ;  Sections  of  Sewers  (North 

and  South  Sides). 


MAIN  DRAINAGE,  METROPOLIS.— A'iJr^A 
Side. — Map  showing  Interception  of  Sewers  ; 
Middle  Level  Sewer  (2  plates) ;  Outfall  Sewer, 
Bridge  over  River  Lea  (3  plates) ;  Outfall  Sewer, 
Bridge  over  Marsh  Lane,  North  Woolwich 
Railway,  and  Bow  and  Barking  Railway  Junc- 
tion ;  Outfall  Sewer,  Bridge  over  Bow  and 
Barking  Railway  (i  plates);  Outfall  Sewer, 
Bridge  over  East  Lnndon  Waterworks'  Feeder 
(2  plates) ;  Outfall  Se\ser,  Reservoir  (2  plates) ; 
Outfall  Sewer,  Tumbling  Bay  and  Outlet ;  Out- 
fall Sewer,  Penstocks.  South  Side.-OutfaU 
Sewer,  Bermondsey  Branch  (2  plates) ;  Outfall 

"  The  drawings  have  a  constantly  increasing  value,  and  whoever  desires  to  possess  clear  repre- 
sentations of  the  two  great  works  carried  out  by  our  Metropolitan  Board  will  obtain  Mr.  Humber's 
volume." — Engijieer. 

HUMBER'S  RECORD  OF  MODERN  ENGINEERING.    Fourth 

Series.  Imp.  4to,  with  36  Double  Plates,  Photographic  Portrait  of  John 
Fowler,  late  Pres.  Inst.  C.E.,  and  copious  descriptive  Letterpress,  Speci- 
fications, &c.,  £3  3s.  half-morocco. 

List  of  the  Plates  and  Diagrams. 


Thames  Embankment.— Section  of  River 
Wall ;  Steamboat  Pier,  Westminster  (2  plates>; 
I-anding  Stairs  between  Charing  Cross  and 
Waterloo  Bridges ;  York  Gate  (2  plates) ;  Over- 
flow and  Outlet  at  Savoy  Street  Sewer  (3  plates) ; 
Steamboat  Pier,  Waterloo  Bridge  (3  plates)  ; 
Junction  of  Sewers,  Plans  and  Sections ; 
Gullies,  Plans  and  Sections ;  Rolling  Stock  ; 
Granite  and  Iron  Forts. 


Mesopotamia ;  Viaduct  over  the  River  W' 
Midland  Rail- 
duct,  Cornwall  R; 


/la- 

way  (2  plates) ;   Wrought- 


Midland  Railway  (3  plates) ;  St.  Germans  Via- 

ailway  (2  pla 
Iron  Cylinder  for  Diving  Bell ;  Millwall  Docks 


Abbey  Mills  Pumping  Station,  Main  Drain- 
age, Metropolis  (4  plates) ;  Barrow  Docks  (s 
plates) ;  Manquis  Viaduct,  Santiago  and  Val- 
paraiso Railway  (2  plates) ;  Adam's  Locomo- 
tive, St.  Helen's  Canal  Railway  (2  plates) ; 
Cannon  Street  Station  Roof,  Charing  Cross 
Railway  (3  plates) ;  Road  Bridge  over  the  River 
Moka  (2  plates) ;  Telegraphic  Apparatus  for 

"We  g<adly  welcome  another  year's  issue  of  this  valuable  publication  from  the  able  pen  of 
Mr.  Humber.  The  accuracy  and  general  excellence  of  this  work  are  well  known,  while  its  useful- 
ness in  giving  the  measurements  and  details  of  some  of  the  latest  examples  of  engineering,  as 
carried  out  by  the  most  eminent  men  in  the  profession,  cannot  be  too  highly  prized."— .^rft'«'a«. 


(6  plates) ;  Milroy's  Patent  Excavator ;  Metro 
politan  District  Railway  (6  plates);  Harbours, 
Ports,  and  Breakwaters  (3  plates). 


CIVIL  ENGINEERING,  SURVEYING,  etc.  9 

MR.  NUMBER'S  ENGINEERING  BOOKS— continued. 

Strains,  Calculation  of, 

A  HANDY  BOOK  FOR  THE  CALCULATION  OF  STRAINS 
IN  GIRDERS  AND  SIMILARSTRUCTURES,AND  THEIR  STRENGTH, 
Consisting  of  Formulce  and  Corresponding  Diagrams,  with  numerous  details 
for  Practical  Application,  &c.  By  William  Hlmber,  A-M.Inst.C.E.,  &c. 
Fourth  Edition,  Crown  8vo,  nearly  100  Woodcuts  and  3  Plates,  7s,  6d.  clotb. 
"  The  formulae  are  neatly  expressed,  and  the  diagrams  ^ood."—Aihenaum. 
"  We  heartily  commend  this  really  handy  book  to  our  engineer  and  architect  tesA<ex%."—Eng^ 
lish  Mechanic, 

Barloiv's  Strength  of  Materials,  enlarged  hyHiiiinhey 

A  TREATISE  ON  THE  STRENGTH  OF  MATERIALS : 
with  Rules  for  Application  in  Architecture,  the  Construction  of  Suspension 
Bridges,  Railways,  &c.  By  Peter  Barlow,  F.R.S.  A  New  Edition,  revised 
by  his  Sons,  P.  W.  Barlow,  F.R.S.,  and  W.  H.  Barlow,  F.R.S. ;  to  which 
are  added.  Experiments  by  Hodgkinson,  Fairbairn,  and  Kirkaldy  ;  and 
Formulae  for  Calculating  Girders,  &c.  Arranged  and  Edited  by  W.  Humber, 
A-M.Inst.C.E.  Demy  8vo,  400  pp.,  with  19  large  Plates  and  numerous  Wood- 
cuts, i8s.  cloth. 
"  Valuable  alike  to  the  student,  tyro,  and  the  experienced  practitioner,  it  will  always  rank  in 

future,  as  it  has  hitherto  done,  eis  the  standard  treatise  on  that  particular  subject." — Engineer, 
"  There  is  no  g^reater  authority  than  B^r\o'f/."~Buii<itng- News. 
"  As  a  scientific  work  of  the  first  class,  it  deserves  a  foremost  place  on  the  bookshelves  of  every 

ci\il  engineer  and  practical  mechanic." — English  Mechanic. 


Trigonoinetrical  Surveying, 

AN  OUTLINE  OF  THE  METHOD  OF  CONDUCTING  A 
TRIGONOMETRICAL  SURVEY,  for  the  Formation  of  Geographical  and 
Topographical  Maps  and  Plans,  Military  Reconnaissance,  Levelling,  &c.,  with 
Useful  Problems,  Formulae,  and  Tables.  By  Lieut.-General  Frome,  R.E. 
Fourth  Edition,  Revised  and  partly  Re- written  by  Major  General  Sir  Charles 
Warren,  G.C.M.G.,  R.E.  With  19  Plates  and  115  Woodcuts,  royal  8vo,  165. 
cloth. 

"  The  simple  fact  that  a  fourth  edition  has  been  called  for  Is  the  best  testimony  to  Its  merits. 
No  words  of  praise  from  us  can  strengthen  the  position  so  well  and  so  steadily  maintained  by  thia 
work.  Sir  Charles  Warren  has  revised  the  entire  work,  and  made  such  additions  as  were  necessary 
to  bring  every  portion  of  the  contents  up  to  the  present  daXe."— Broad  Arrow. 

Oblique  Bridges, 

A  PRACTICAL  AND  THEORETICAL  ESSAY  ON  OBLIQUE 
BRIDGES.  With  13  large  Plates.  By  the  late  George  Watson  Buck, 
M.I.C.E.  Third  Edition,  revised  by  his  Son,  J.  H.  Watson  Buck,  M.I.C.E.  % 
and  with  the  addition  of  Description  to  Diagrams  for  Facilitating  the  Con- 
struction of  Oblique  Bridges,  by  W.  H.  Barlow,  M.I.C.E.  Royal  8vo,  12s. 
cloth. 

"  The  standard  text-book  for  all  engineers  regarding  skew  arches  is  Mr.  Buck's  treatise,  and  ii 
would  be  impossible  to  consult  a  hsittr."— Engineer. 

"Mr.  Buck's  treatise  is  recognised  as  a  standard  text-book,  and  his  treatment  has  divested  the 
subject  of  many  of  the  intricacies  supposed  to  belong  to  it.  As  a  guide  to  the  engineer  and  archi- 
tect, on  a  confessedly  diliicult  subject,  Mr.  Buck's  work  is  unsurpassed." — Building  News. 

Water  Storage,  Conveyance  and  Utilisation, 

IV A  TER  ENGINEERING  :  A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Measure-^ 
ment,  Storage,  Conveyance  and  Utilisation  of  Water  for  the  Supply  of  Towns,, 
for  Mill  Power,  and  for  other  Purposes.  By  Charles  Slagg,  Water  and 
Drainage  Engineer,  A.M. Inst. C.E.,  Author  of  "  Sanitary  Work  in  the  Smaller 
Towns,  and  in  Villages,"  &:c.  With  numerous  Illustrations.  Crown  Svo. 
7s.  6d.  cloth.  [Just  published. 

"  As  a  small  practical  treatise  on  the  water  supply  of  towns,  and  on  some  applications  of" 

water-power,  the  work  is  in  many  respects  exellent." — Engineering. 

'•  The   author  has  collated  the  results  deduced  from  the  experiments  of  the  most  eminent 

authorities,  and  has  presented  them  in  a  compact  and  practical  form,  accompanied  by  very  clear 

and  detailed  explanations.    .     .    .    The  application  of  water  as  a  motive  power  is  treated  very 

carefully  and  exhaustively  "—Builder. 

"For  anyone  who  desires  to  begin  the  study  of  hydraulics  with  a  consideration  of  the  practical 

applications  of  the  science  there  is  no  better  guide.  '—Archilecf. 


10  CROSBY  LOCKWOOD  &-  SON'S  CATALOGUE. 

Statics,  Graphic  and  Analytic, 

GRAPHIC  AND  ANALYTIC  STATICS,  in  their  Practical  Appii. 
cation  to  the  Treatment  of  Stresses  in  Roofs,  Selid  Girders,  Lattice,  Bowstring 
and  Suspension  Bridges,  Braced  Iron  Arches  and  Piers,  and  other  Frameworks. 
Fy  R.Hudson  Graham,  C.E.  Containing  Diagrams  and  Plates  to  Scale. 
With  numerous  Examples,  many  taken  from  existing  Structures.  Specially 
arranged  for  Class-work  in  Colleges  and  Universities.  Second  Edition,  Re- 
vised and  Enlarged.  8vo,  165.  cloth. 
"Mr.  Graham's  book  will  find  a  place  wherever  graphic  and  analj^ic  statics  are  used  or  studied." 
—Engineer, 

"  The  work  is  excellent  from  a  practical  point  of  view,  and  has  evidently  been  prepared  with 
TOUch  care.  The  directions  for  working  are  ample,  and  are  illustrated  by  an  abundance  of  well- 
selected  examples.    It  is  an  excellent  text-book  for  the  practical  draughtsman,"— .<4/A««««wt. 

Student's  Text-Book  on  Surveying, 

PRACTICAL  SURVEYING:  A  Text-Book  for   Students  pre- 
paring for  Examination  or  for  Survey-vsrork  in  the  Colonies.    By  George 
W.  UsiLL,  A.M.I. C.E.,  Author  of  "The  Statistics  of  the  Water  Supply  of 
Great  Britain,"  With  Four  Lithographic  Plates  and  upwards  of  330  Illustra- 
tions.   Crown  8vo,  ys.  6d.  cloth.  [Just  published. 
"  The  best  forms  of  instruments  are  described  as  to  their  construction,  uses  and  modes  of 
■employment,  and  there  are  innumerable  hints  on  work  and  equipment  such  as  the  author,  in  his 
experience  as  surveyor,  draughtsman  and  teacher,  has  found  necessary,  and  which  the  student 
in  his  inexperience  will  find  most  serviceable." — Engineer. 

"  We  have  no  hesitation  in  saying  that  the  student  will  find  this  treatise  a  better  guide  than 
any  of  its  predecessors.  ...  It  deserves  to  be  recognised  as  the  first  book  which  should  be  put  in 
ihe  hands  of  a  pupil  of  Civil  Engineering,  and  every  gentleman  of  education  who  sets  out  for  the 
-Colonies  would  find  it  well  to  have  a  copy." — Architect. 

"A  very  useful,  practical  handbook  on  field  practice.  Clear,  accurate  and  not  too  con- 
densed."— journal  of  Education. 

Survey  Practice, 

AID  TO  SURVEY  PRACTICE,  for  Reference  in  Surveying,  Level- 
ling, Setting-out  and  in  Route  Surveys  of  Travellers  by  Land  and  Sea.  With 
Tables,  Illustrations,  and  Records.  By  Lewis  D'A.  Jackson,  A.M.I.C.E., 
Author  of"  Hydraulic  Manual,"  "  Modern  Metrology,"  &c.  Second  Edition, 
Enlarged.  Large  crown  8vo,  12s.  6d.  cloth. 
"  Mr.  Jackson  has  produced  a  valuable  vade-mecum  for  the  surveyor.    We  can  recommend 

this  book  as  containing  an  admirable  supplement  to  the  teaching  of  the  accomplished  surveyor."— 

Athencsujn. 

"  As  a  text-book  we  should  advise  all  surveyors  to  place  it  in  their  libraries,  and  study  well  the 

matured  instructions  afforded  in  its  pages."— CoUiery  Guardian. 

"  The  author  brings  to  his  work  a  fortunate  union  of  theory  and  practical  experience  which, 

s-ided  by  a  clear  and  lucid  style  of  writing,  renders  the  book  a  very  useful  one."— Builder. 

Surveying,  Land  and  Marine, 

LAND  AND  MARINE  SURVEYING,  in  Reference  to  the  Pre- 
paration of  Plans  for  Roads  and  Railways ;  Canals,  Rivers,  Towns'  Water 
Supplies;  Docks  and  Harbours.  With  Description  and  Use  of  Surveying 
Instruments.  By  W.  D.  Haskoll,  C.E.,  Author  of  "  Bridge  and  Viaduct  Con- 
struction," &c.  Second  Edition,  with  Additions.  Large  crown  Bvo,  9s.  cloth. 
"  This  book  must  prove  of  great  value  to  the  student.  We  have  no  hesitation  in  recommend- 
ing it,  feeling  assured  that  it  will  more  than  repay  a  careful  study." —Mechanical  U^orlJ. 

"  We  can  strongly  recommend  it  as  a  carefuHy-v/ritten  and  valuable  text-book.  It  enjoys  a  well- 
deserved  repute  among  surveyors."  — Builder. 

"  This  volume  cannot  fail  to  prove  of  the  utmost  practical  utility.  It  may  be  safely  recommended 
to  all  students  who  aspire  to  become  clean  and  expert  s\xr\-eyors."— Mining-  Journal. 

Tunnelling, 

PR  A  CTICAL  TUNNELLING.  Explaining  in  detail  the  Setting. 

out  of  the  works,  Shaft-sinking  and  Heading-driving,  Ranging  the  Lines  and 
Levelling  underground,  Sub-Excavating,  Timbering,  and  the  Construction 
of  the  Brickwork  oi  Tunnels,  with  the  amount  of  Labour  required  for,  and  the 
Cost  of,  the  various  portions  of  the  work.  By  Frederick  W.  Simms,  F.G.S., 
M.Inst.C.E.  Third  Edition,  Revised  and  Extended  by  D.  Kinnear  Clark, 
M.Inst.  C.E.  ;  Imperial  8vo,  with  2i  Folding  Plates  and  numerous  Wood 
Engravings,  30s.  cloth. 

"The  estimation  in  which  Mr.  Simms's  book  on  tunnelling  has  been  held  for  over  thirty  years 

cannot  be  more  truly  expressed  than  in  the  words  of  the  late  Prof.  Rankine  : — '  The  best  source  of  in- 

form-ition  on  the  subject  of  tunnels  is  Mr.F.W.  Simms's  work  on  Practical  Tunne^lins.'"— Architect. 

"  It  has  been  regarded  from  the  first  as  a  text  book  of  the  subject.  .  .  .  Mr.  Clarke  has  added 

immensely  to  the  value  of  the  hook."— Engineer. 


CI VIL  ENGINEERING ,  SURVE YING,  etc.  1 1 

Levelling, 

A  TREATISE  ON  THE  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF 

LEVELLING.  Showing  its  Application  to  purposes  of  Railway  and  Civil 
Engineering,  in  the  Construction  of  Roads ;  with  Mr.  Telford's  Rules  for  the 
same.  By  Frederick  W.  Simms,  F.G.S.,  M.Inst.C.E.  Seventh  Edition,  with 
the  addition  of  Law's  Practical  Examples  for  Setting-out  Railway  Curves,  and 
Trautwine's  Field  Practice  of  Laying-out  Circular  Curves.  With  7  Plates 
and  numerous  Woodcuts,  8vo,  8s.  6d.  cloth.  *^*  Trautwine  on  Curves 
may  be  bad  separate,  5s. 
"  The  text-book  on  levelling  in  most  of  our  engineering  schools  and  co\leges."—En£'mei:r. 
"  The  publishers  have  rendered  a  substantial  service  to  the  profession,  especially  to  the  j'ounger 
members,  by  bringing  out  the  present  edition  of  Mr.  Simms's  useful  y/otk."— Engineering: 

Meatf  Eocpansion  hy. 

EXPANSION  OF  STRUCTURES  BY  HEAT.  By  John 
Keily,  C.E.,  late  of  the  Indian  Public  Works  and  Victorian  Railway  Depart- 
ments.   Crown  8vo,  3s.  6d.  cloth. 

Summary  of  Contents. 


Section     L  Formulas  AND  Data, 
Section   IL  Metal  Bars. 
Section  in.  Simple  Frames. 
Section  IV.  Complex     Frames  ,  and 

Plates. 
Section    V.  Thermal  Conductivity. 


Section     VI.  Mechanical  Force  of 

Heat. 
Section  VII.  Work     of    Expansion 

AND  Contraction. 
Section  VIII.  Suspension  Bridges. 
Section     IX.  Masonry  Structures, 


'  The  aim  the  author  has  set  before  him,  viz.,  to  show  the  effects  of  heat  upon  metallic  and 
other  structures,  is  a  laudable  one,  for  this  is  a  branch  of  physics  upon  which  the  engineer  or  archi- 
tect can  find  but  little  reliable  and  comprehensive  data  in  books." — Builder. 

"  Whoever  is  concerned  to  know  the  effect  of  changes  of  temperature  on  such  structures  as 
suspension  bridges  and  the  like,  could  not  do  better  than  consult  Mr.  KeUy's  valuable  and  handy 
exposition  of  the  geometrical  principles  involved  in  these  changes."—Scoisman. 

Practical  Mathematics, 

MATHEMATICS  FOR  PRACTICAL  MEN:  Being  a  Common- 
place Book  of  Pure  and  Mised  Mathematics.     Designed  chiefly  for  the  use 
of  Civil  Engineers,  Architects  and  Surveyors.     By   Olinthus    Gregory, 
LL.D.,  F.R.A.S.,  Enlarged  by  Henry   Law,  C.E.    4th  Edition,  carefully 
Revised  by  J.  R.Young,  formerly  Professor  of  Mathematics,  Belfast  College, 
With  13  Plates,  8vo,  £1  is.  cloth. 
"  The  engineer  or  architect  t\t11  here  find  ready  to  his  hand  rules  for  solving  nearly  every  mathe- 
matical difficulty  that  may  arise  in  his  practice     The  rules  are  in  all  cases  explained  by  means  of 
examples,  in  which  every  step  of  the  process  is  clearly  worked  ont."—B2cilder. 

"  It  is  an  instructive  book  for  the  student,  and  a  text-book  for  him  who,  having  once  mastered 
the  subjects  it  treats  of,  needs  occasionally  to  refresh  his  memory  upon  them." — Building  News. 

Mydraulic  Tables, 

HYDRAULIC  TABLES,  CO-EFFICIENTS,  and  FORMULA 

for  finding  the  Discharge  of  Water  from  Orifices,  Notches,  Weirs,  Pipes,  and 
Rivers.  With  New  Formulae,  Tables,  and  General  Information  on  Ramfall, 
Catchment-Basins,  Drainage,  Sewerage,  Water  Supply  for  Towns  and  Mill 
Power.  By  John  Neville,  Civil  Engineer,  M.R.I.A.  Third  Edition,  care- 
fully Revised,  v/ith  Additions.  Numerous  Illustrations.  Cr.  8vo,  14s.  cloth, 
"  Alike  valuable  to  students  and  engineers  in  practice  ;  its  study  will  prevent  the  annoyance  of 
avoidable  failures,  and  assist  them  to  select  the  readiest  means  of  successfully  carrying  out  any 
given  work  connected  with  hydraulic  engineering."— .l/z"«t;?o-  journal. 

"  It  is,  of  all  English  books  on  the  subject,  the  one  nearest  to  completeness,  .  .  .  From  the 
good  arrangement  of  the  matter,  the  clear  explanations,  and  abundance  of  formulae,  the  carefully 
calculated  tables,  and,  above  all,  the  thorough  acquaintance  with  both  theory  and  construction, 
which  is  displayed  from  first  to  last,  the  book  will  be  found  to  be  an  acquisiuon,"— Architect. 

Hydraulics, 

HYDRA  ULIC  MANUAL.     Consisting  of  Working  Tables  and 
Explanatory  Text.    Intended  as  a  Guide  in  Hydraulic  Calculations  and  Field 
Operations,    By  Lowis  D'A.  Jackson,  Author  of  "Aid  to  Survey  Practice, 
"  Modern  Metrology,"  &c.     Fourth  Edition,  Enlarged.    Large  cr,  8vo,  i6s.  cl. 
"  The  author  has  had  a  wide  experience  in  hydraulic  engineering  and  has  been  a  careful  ob- 
server of  the  facts  which  have  come  under  his  notice,  and  from  the  great  mass  of  material  at  ms 
command  he  has  constructed  a  manual  which  may  be  accepted  as  a  trustworthy  guide  to  this 
branch  of  the  engineer's  profession.    We  can  heartily  recommend  this  volume  to  all  who  desire  to 
be  acquainted  with  the  latest  development  of  this  important  zvi.h}&ct."—Enc^ineertng:  _ 

'•■  The  most  useful  feature  of  this  work  is  its  freedom  from  what  is  superannuated,  and  its 
thorough  adoption  of  recent  experiments  ;  the  text  is,  in  fact,  in  great  part  a  short  account  of  the 
great  modem  experiments."— A'a^wr^. 


12  CROSBY  LOCKWOOD  &-  SON'S  CATALOGUE. 

Ih^ainage, 

ON  THE  DRAINAGE  OF  LANDS,  TOWNS  AND  BUILD- 
INGS.   By  G.  D.  Dempsey,  C.E.,  Author  of  "  The  Practical  Railway  En- 
gineer," &c.      Revised,  with   large    Additions    on    Recent    Practice  in 
Drainage  Engineering,  by  D.  Kinnear  Clark,  M.Inst.C.E.      Author  of 
"Tramways  :  Their  Construction  and  Working,"  "A  Manual  of  Rules,  Tables, 
and  Data  for  Mechanical  Engineers,"  &c.  &c.    Crown  8vo,  7s.  6d.  cloth. 
"  The  new  matter  added  to  Mr.  Dempsey  s  excellent  work  is  characterised  by  the  comprehen- 
sive grrasp  and  accuracy  of  detail  for  which  the  name  of  Mr.  D.  K.  Clark  is  a  sufficient  voucher."— 
Athenctutn. 

"  As  a  work  on  recent  practice  in  drainage  engineering:,  the  book  is  to  be  commended  to  all 
who  are  making  that  branch  of  engineering  science  their  special  study." — Iron. 

"  A  comprehensive  manujil  on  drainage  engineering,  and  a  useful  introduction  to  the  student." 
Building  News, 

Tramways  and  their  Working. 

TRAMWAYS  :  THEIR  CONSTRUCTION  AND  WORKING. 

Embracing  a  Comprehensive  History  of  the  System  ;  with  an  exhaustive 
Analysis  of  the  various  Modes  of  Traction,  including  Horse-Power,  Steam, 
Heated  Water,  and  Compressed  Air ;  a  Description  of  the  Varieties  of  Rolling 
Stock ;  and  ample  Details  of  Cost  and  Working  Expenses :  the  Progress 
recently  made  in  Tramway  Construction,  &c.  &c.  By  D.  Kinnear  Clark, 
M.Inst.C.E.  With  over  200  Wood  Engravings,  and  13  Folding  Plates.  Two 
Vols.,  large  crown  8vo,  30s.  cloth. 

"  All  interested  in  tramways  must  refer  to  it,  as  all  railway  engineers  have  turned  to  the  author's 
work  '  Railway  Machinery.'"— £«^i"«^^r. 

"  An  exhaustive  and  practicjd  work  on  tramways,  in  which  the  history  of  this  kind  of  locomo- 
tion, and  a  description  and  cost  of  the  various  modes  of  laying  tramways,  are  to  be  found." — 
Building  News. 

"  The  best  form  of  rails,  the  best  mode  of  construction,  and  the  best  mechanical  appliances 
are  so  fairly  indicated  in  the  work  under  review,  that  any  engineer  about  to  construct  a  tramway 
will  be  enabled  at  once  to  obtain  the  practical  information  which  will  be  of  most  service  to  him." — 
Ai/iemeufM, 

Oblique  Arches. 

A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE  ON  THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF 
OBLIQUE  ARCHES.    By  John   Hart.    Third  Edition,  with  Plates.    Im- 
erial  Bvo,  8s.  cloth. 

Curves,  Tables  for  Setting-out. 

TABLES  OF  TANGENTIAL  ANGLES  AND  MULTIPLES 

for  Setting-out  Curves  from    5   to  200  Radius.     By  Alexander  Beazeley, 

M.Inst.C.E.    Third  Edition.    Printed  on  48  Cards,  and  sold  in  a  cloth  box, 

waistcoat-pocket  size,  3s.  6d. 

"  Each  table  is  printed  on  a  small  card,  which,  being  placed  on  the  theodolite,  leaves  the  hands 
free  to  manipulate  the  instrument— no  small  advantage  as  regards  the  rapidity  of  v/ork."— Engineer. 

"Very  handy  ;  a  man  may  know  that  all  his  day's  work  must  faU  on  two  of  these  cards,  which 
he  puts  into  his  own  card-case,  and  leaves  the  rest  behind."— A (/unaum, 

Earthwork. 

EARTHWORK  TABLES.  Showing  the  Contents  in  Cubic 
Yards  of  Embankments,  Cuttings,  &c.,  of  Heights  or  Depths  up  to  an  average 
of  80  feet.    By  Joseph  Broadbent,  C.E.,  and  Francis  Campin,  C.E.    Crown 

Svo,  5s.  cloth. 

"  The  way  in  which  accuracy  is  attained,  by  a  simple  division  ot  each  cross  section  into  three 
elements,  two  in  which  are  constant  and  one  variable,  is  ingenious." — Athenmmn. 

Tunnel  Shafts 

THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  LARGE  TUNNEL  SHAFTS  :  A 
Practical  and  Theoretical  Essay.  By  J.  H.  Watson  Buck,  M.Inst.C.E., 
Resident  Engineer,  London  and  North- Western  Railway.  Illustrated  with 
Folding  Plates,  royal  Svo,  12s.  cloth. 

"  Many  of  the  methods  given  are  of  extreme  practical  value  to  the  mason  ;  and  the  observations 

on  the  form  of  arch,  the  rules  for  ordering  the  stone,  and  the  construction  of  the  templates  wUl  be 

found  of  considerable  use.  We  commend  the  book  to  the  engineering  profession."— Buildinjs' News. 

"Will  be  regarded  by  civil  engineers  as  of  the  utmost  value,  and  calculated  to  save  much  time 

and  obviate  many  mistak.es."— Colliery  Guardian. 

Girders,  Strength  of. 

GRAPHIC  TABLE  FOR  FACILITATING  THE  COMPUTA- 
TION OF  THE  WEIGHTS  OF  WROUGHT  IRON  AND  STEEL 
GIRDERS,  etc.,  for  Parliamentary  and  other  Estimates.  By  J.  H.  Watson 
Buck,  M.Inst.C.E,    On  a  Sheet,  2s.6d. 


CIVIL  ENGINEERING,  SURVEYING,  etc.  13 

Hiver  Engineering, 

RIVER  BARS:  The  Causes  of  theif  Formation,  and  their  Treat- 
ment  by  "  Induced  Tidal  Scour ;  "  with  a  Description  of  the  Successful  Re- 
duction by  this  Method  of  the  Bar  at  Dublin.     By  A.  J.  Mann,  Assist.  Eng 
to  the  Dublin  Port  and  Docks  Board.     Royal  8vo,  7s.  6d.  cloth. 
•"  We  recommend  all  interested   in  harbour  works— and,  indeed,  those  concerned  in  the  im- 
provements of  rivers  generally— to  read  Mr.  Manns  interesting  work  oa  the  treatment  of  river 
bars.'  — Engineer. 

Trusses, 

TRUSSES  OF  WOOD  AND  IRON.  Practical  Applications  of 
Science  in  Deiennining  the  Stresses,  Breaking  Weights,  Safe  Loads,  Scantlings, 
and  Details  of  Construction,  with  Complete  Working  Drawings.  By  William 
Griffiths,  Surveyor,  Assistant  Master,  Tranmere  School  of  Science  and 
Art.     Oblong  8vo,  45.  6d.  cloth. 

"  This  handy  little  book  enters  so  minutely  into  every  detail  connected  wth  the  construction  of 
roof  trusses,  that  no  student  need  be  ignorant  of  these  md.XX^xs."— Practical  Ettgincer. 

Mailivay  Working, 

SAFE  RAILWAY  WORKING.  A  Treatise  on  Railway  Acci- 
dents: Their  Cause  and  Prevention;  with  a  Description  of  Modern  Appliances 
and  Systems.  By  Clement  E.  Stretton,  C.E.,  Vice-President  and  Con- 
sulting Engineer,  Amalgamated  Society  of  Railway  Servants.  With  Illus- 
trations and  Coloured  Plates,  crown  8vo,  4s.  6rf.  strongly  bound. 

"  A  book  for  the  engineer,  the  directors,  the  managers  ;  and,  in  short,  all  who  wish  for  informa- 
tion on  railway  matters  will  find  a  perfect  encyclopaedia  in  '  Safe  Railway  Working.'  "—Rail-way 
Rcvie-w. 

"  We  commend  the  remarks  on  railway  signalling  to  all  railway  managers,  especially  where  a 
tmiform  code  and  practice  is  advocated." — Herepath's  Rail-way  Jcurital. 

"The  author  maybe  congratulated  on  having  collected,  in  a  verj- convenient  form,  much 
valuable  infonnation  on  the  principal  questions  affecting  the  safe  working  of  rs.iU\Siys."— Rail- 
Ti'ay  Engineer. 

Field-BooTc  for  Engineers, 

THE  ENGINEER'S,  MINING  SURVEYOR'S,  AND  CON- 
TRA  CTOR  'S  FIELD-BOGK.  Consisting  of  a  Series  of  Tables,  with  Rules, 
Explanations  of  Systems,  and  use  of  Theodolite  for  Traverse  Surveying  and 
Plotting  the  Work  with  minute  accuracy  by  means  of  Straight  Edge  and  Set 
Square  only  ;  Levelling  with  the  Theodolite,  Casting-out  and  Reducing 
Levels  to  Datum,  and  Plotting  Sections  in  the  ordinary  manner;  setting-out 
Curves  with  the  Theodolite  by  Tangential  Angles  and  Multiples,  with  Right 
and  Left-hand  Readings  of  the  Instrument:  Setting-out  Curves  without 
Theodolite,  on  the  System  of  Tangential  Angles  by  sets  of  Tangents  and  Off- 
sets :  and  Earthwork  Tables  to  80  feet  deep,  calculated  for  every  6  inches  in 
depth.  By  W.  Davis  Haskoll,  C.E.  With  numerous  Woodcuts.  Fourth 
Edition,  Enlarged.    Crown  8vo,  12s.  cloth. 

"The  book  is  very  handy  ;  the  separate  tables  of  sines  and  tangents  to  every  minute  will  make 

U  useful  for  many  other  purposes,  the  genuine  traverse  tables  existing  all  the  same." — Athenaum. 

"Every  person  engaged  in  engineering  field  operations  will  estimate  the  importance  of  such  a 

wwrk  and  the  amount  of  valuable  time  which  will  be  saved  by  reference  to  a  set  of  reliable  tables 

prepared  with  the  accuracy  and  fulness  of  those  given  in  this  volume." — Railway  News. 

Earthivorh,  3Ieasurenietit  of, 

A    MANUAL   ON  EARTHWORK.     By  Alex.  J.  S.  Graham, 

C.E.    With  numerous  Diagrams.     i8mo,  is.  6d.  cloth. 

"  A  great  amount  of  practical  information,  very  admirably  arranged,  and  available  for  rough 
estimates,  as  well  as  for  the  more  exact  calculations  required  iu  the  engineer's  and  contractor's 
offices." — Artizan. 

Strains  in  Iromvork, 

THE  STRAINS  ON  STRUCTURES  OF  IRONWORK;  with 
Practical  Remarks  on  Iron  Construction.     By  F.  W.  Sheilds,  M.Inst, C.E, 
Second  Edition,  with  5  Plates.     Royal  8vo,  5s.  cloth. 
"The  student  cannot  find  a  better  little  book  on  this  subject."— Efigineer. 

Cast  Iron  and  other  Metals,  Strength  of, 

A  PRACTICAL  ESSAY  ON  THE  STRENGTH  OF  CAST 
IRON  AND  OTHER  METALS.  By  Thomas  Tredgold,  C.E.  Fifth 
Edition,  including  Hodgkin son's  Experimental  Researches.    8vo,  12s.  cloth. 


14  CROSBY  LOCK  WOOD  S-  SON'S  CATALOGUE, 


AKGHITEGTURE,  BUILDING,  etc. 


Constf'uction, 

THE  SCIENCE  OF  BUILDING  :  An  Elementary  Treatise  on 
the  Principles  of  Construction.  By  E.  Wyndham  Tarn,  M.A.,  Architect. 
Second  Edition,  Revised,  with  58  Engravings.    Crown  8vo,  ys.  6d.  cloth. 

"A  very  valuable  book,  which  we  strongly  recommend  to  all  students."— Builder. 

"  No  architectural  student  should  be  without  this  handbook  of  constructional  knowledge."— 
ArchiUct. 

Villa  Architecture, 

A  HANDY  BOOK  OF  VILLA  ARCHITECTURE  :  Being  a 
Series  of  Designs  for  Villa  Residences  in  various  Styles.  With  Outline 
Specifications  and  Estimates,  By  C.  Wickes,  Architect,  Author  of  "The 
Spires  and  Towers  of  England,"  &c.  61  Plates,  4to,  £1  iis.  6d.  half-morocco, 
gilt  edges. 

"  The  whole  of  the  designs  bear  e-iadence  of  their  being  the  work  of  an  artistic  architect,  and 
they  will  prove  very  valuable  and  suggestive."— Btnlcltn£-  News. 

Text-^ook  for  Architects, 

THE  ARCHITECT'S  GUIDE:  Being  a  Text-Booh  of  Useful 
Information  for  Architects,  Engineers,  Surveyors,  Contractors,  Clerks  of 
Works,  &c.  &c.  By  Frederick  Rogers,  Architect,  Author  of  "  Specifica- 
tions for  Practical  Architecture,"  &c.  Second  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged. 
With  numerous  Illustrations.    Crown  8vo,  6s.  doth. 

"  As  a  text-book  of  useful  information  for  architects,  engineers,  surveyors,  &c.,  it  would  be 
hard  to  find  a  handier  or  more  complete  little  vo\ume."—Siandard. 

"A  young  architect  could  hardly  have  a  better  guide-book."— 7t>«5<>-  Trades  yournal. 

Taylor  and  Cresy's  Home, 

THE  ARCHITECTURAL  ANTIQUITIES  OF  ROME.  By 
the  late  G.  L.Taylor,  Esq.,  F.R.I. B. A.,  and  Edward  Cresy,  Esq.  New 
Edition,  thoroughly  Revised  by  the  Rev.  Alexander  Taylor,  M.A.  (son  oi 
the  late  G.  L.  Taylor,  Esq.),  Fellow  of  Queen's  College,  Oxford,  and  Chap- 
lain of  Gray's  Inn.  Large  folio,  with  13c  Plates,  half-bound,  £2,  3s. 
iV.5. — This  is  the  only  book  which  gives  on  a  large  scale,  and  with  the  precision 

of  architectural  measurement,  the  principal  Monuments  of  Ancient  Rome  in  plan. 

elevation,  and  detail, 

"Taylor  and  Cresy's  work  has  from  its  first  publication  been  ranked  among  those  professional 

books  which  cannot  be  bettered.    ...    It  would  be  difficult  to  find  examples  of  drawings,  even 

among  those  of  the  most  painstaking  students  of  Gothic,  more  thoroughly  worked  out  than  are  the 

one  hundred  and  thirty  plates  in  this  xoXume."— Architect. 

Architectural  Drawing, 

PRACTICAL  RULES  ON  DRA  WING,  for  the  Operative  Builder 
and  Young  Student  in  Architecture.  By  George  Pyne.  With  14  Plates,  4to, 
ys.  6d.  boards.  -:.. 

Civil  Architecture, 

THE  DECORATIVE  PART  OF  CIVIL   ARCHITECTURE. 

By  Sir  William  Chambers,  F.R.S.  With  Illustrations,  Notes,  and  an 
Examination  of  Grecian  Architecture,  by  Joseph  Gwilt,  F.S.A.  Edited  by 
W.  H.  Leeds.    66  Plates,  4to,  21s.  cloth. 

House  Building  and  Mepairing. 

THE  HOUSE-OWNER'S  ESTIMATOR  ;  or,  What  will  it  Cost 
to  Build,  Alter,  or  Repair?  A  Price  Book  adapted  to  the  Use  of  Unpro- 
fessional People,  as  well  as  for  the  Architectural  Surveyor  and  Builder.  By 
James  D.  Simon,  A. R.I. B. A.  Edited  and  Revised  by  Francis  T.  W.  Miller, 
A.R.I. B. A.  With  numerous  Illustrations.  Fourth  Edition,  Revised.  Crown 
Svo,  3S.  6d.  cloth.  [jfust  published. 

"  In  two  years  it  will  repay  its  cost  a  hundred  times  over"— Field, 
"  A  very  handy  hook."— English  Mechanic. 


ARCHITECTURE,  BUILDING,  etc.  iS 

Designing,  Measuring,  and  Valuing, 

THE  STUDENT'S  GUIDE  to  the  PRACTICE  of  MEASUR- 
ING AND  VALUING  ARTIFICERS'  WORKS.  Containing  Directions  for 
taking  Dimensions,  Abstracting  the  same,  and  bringing  the  Quantities  into 
Bill,  with  Tables  of  Constants  for  Valuation  of  Labour,  and  for  the  Calcula- 
tionof  Areas  and  Solidities.  Originally  edited  by  Edward  Dobson,  Architect. 
Revised,  with  considerable  Additions  on  Mensuration  and  Construction,  and 
a  New  Chapter  on  Dilapidations,  Repairs,  and  Contract?,  by  E.  Wyndham 
Tarn,  M.  A.  Sixth  Edition,  including  a  Complete  Form  of  a  Bill  of  Quantities. 
With  8  Plates  and  63  Woodcuts.    Crown  8vo,  ys.  6d.  clo  [Just  published. 

"  Well  fulfils  the  promise  of  its  title-page,  and  v.e  can  thoroughly  recommend  it  to  the  class 
for  whose  use  it  has  been  compiled.  Mr.  Tarn's  additions  and  revisions  have  much  increased  the 
usefulness  of  the  work,  and  have  especially  augmented  its  value  to  students."— £u^i^iecr{»£. 

"This  edition  will  be  found  the  most  complete  treatise  on  the  principles  of  measuring  and 
valumg  artificers'  work  that  has  yet  been  published."— £7tildin£r  -^'e^s. 

JPocket  Estimator  and  Technical  Guide, 

THE  POCKET  TECHNICAL  GUIDE,  MEASURER  AND 
ESTIMATOR  FOR  BUILDERS  AND  SURVEYORS.  Containing  Tech- 
nical  Directions  for  Measuring  Work  in  all  the  Building  Trades,  with  a 
Treatise  on  the  Measurement  of  Timber  and  Complete  Specifications  for 
Houses,  Roads,  and  Drains,  and  an  easy  Method  of  Estimating  the  various 
parts  of  a  Building  collectively.  By  A.  C.  Beaton,  Author  of  "  Quantities 
and  Measurements,"  &c.  Fifth  Edition,  carefully  Revised  and  Priced 
according  to  the  Present  Value  of  Materials  and  Labour,  with  53  Woodcuts, 
leather,  waistcoat-pocket  size,  15.  6d.  gilt  edges.  [Just  published. 

"  No  builder,  architect,  surveyor,  or  valuer  should  be  without  his  '  Be3.ton."  —  Bnilciirtg-  A^ews. 

"  Contains  an  extraordinary  amount  of  information  in  daily  requisition  in  measuring  and 
estimating.     Its  presence  in  the  pocket  will  save  valuable  time  and  trouble."— B7iz/din£-  Il'crld. 

Donaldson  on  Specifications, 

THE  HANDBOOK  OF  SPECIFICATIONS ;  or,  Practical 
Guide  to  the  Architect,  Engineer,  Surveyor,  and  Builder,  in  drawing  up 
Specifications  and  Contracts  for  Works  and  Constructions.  Illustrated  by 
Precedents  of  Buildings  actually  executed  by  eminent  Architects  and  En- 
gineers. By  Professor  T.  L.  Donaldson,  P.R.I. B.A.,  &c.  New  Edition,  in 
One  large  Vol.,  8vo,  with  upwards  of  1,000  pages  of  Text,  and  33  Plates, 
£1  IIS.  6d,  cloth 

"  In  this  work  fortj'-four  specifications  of  executed  works  are  given,  including  the  specifica- 
tions for  parts  of  the  new  Houses  of  Parliament,  by  Sir  Charles  Barrj',  and  for  the  new  Royal 
Exchange,  by  Mr.  Tite,  M.P.  The  latter,  in  particular,  is  a  very  complete  and  remarkable 
docvmaent.  It  embodies,  to  a  great  extent,  as  Mr.  Donaldson  mentions,  'the  bill  of  quantities 
with  the  description  of  the  works.'  .  ,  .  It  is  valuable  as  a  record,  and  more  valuable  still  as  a 
book  of  precedents.  .  .  .  Suffice  it  to  say  that  Donaldson's  '  Handbook  of  Specifications ' 
must  be  bought  by  all  architects."— .ffzaVrffr. 

BartJiolomeiv  and  Hogers'  Specifications, 

SPECIFICATIONS   FOR  PRACTICAL    ARCHITECTURE. 

A  Guide  to  the  Architect,  Engineer,  Surveyor,  and  Builder.    With  an  Essay 

on  the  Structure  and  Science  of  Modern  Buildings.     Upon  the  Basis  of  the 

Work  by  Alfred  Bartholomew,  thoroughly  Revised,  Corrected,  and  greatly 

added  to  by  Frederick  Rogers,  Architect.     Second  Edition,  Revised,  with 

Additions.    With  numerous  Illustrations,  medium  8vo,  155.  cloth, 

"  The  collection  of  specifications  prepared  by  Mr.  Rogers  on  the  basis  of  Bartholomew's  work 

Is  too  well  known  to  need  any  recommendation  from  us.     It  is  one  of  the  books  with  which  every 

young  architect  must  be  equipped  ;  for  time  has  shown  that  the  specifications  cannot  be  set  aside 

through  any  defect  in  them." — Architect. 

"  Good  forms  for  specifications  are  of  considerable  value,  and  it  was  an  excellent  Idea  to  com- 
pile a  work  on  the  subject  upon  the  basis  of  the  late  Alfred  Bartholomew's  valuable  work.  The 
second  edition  of  Mr.  Rogers's  book  is  evidence  of  the  want  of  a  book  dealing  with  modem  re- 
quirements and  materials." — Building  News. 

Building  ;  Civil  and  Ecclesiastical, 

A  BOOK  ON  BUILDING,  Civil  and  Ecclesiastical,  including 
Church  Restoration  ;  with  the  Theory  of  Domes  and  the  Great  Pyramid,  &c. 
By  Sir  Edmund  Beckett,  Bart.,  LL.D.,  F.R. A. S.,  Author  of  "  Clocks  and 
Watches,  and  Bells,"  &c.  Second  Edition,  Enlarged.  Fcap.  8vo,  5s.  cloth, 
"  A  book  which  is  always  amusing  and  nearly  always  instructive.  The  style  throughout  is  In 
the  highest  degree  condensed  and  epigrammatic."— 7"r'wcy. 


i€  CROSBY  LOCKWOOD  ^  SON'S  CATALOGUE. 


Geometry  for  the  ArcMtectf  Engineer,  etc. 

PRACTICAL  GEOMETRY,  for  the  Architect,  Engineer  and 
Mechanic.  Giving  Rules  for  the  Delineation  and  Application  oi  various 
Geometrical  Lines,  Figures  and  Curves.  By  E.  W.  Tarn,  M.A.,  Architect, 
Author  of  "The  Science  of  Building,"  &c.  Second  Edition.  With  Appen- 
<iices  on  Diagrams  of  Strains  and  Isometrical  Projection.  With  172  Illus- 
trations, demy  8vo,  9s.  cloth. 
"  No  book  with  the  same  objects  in  view  has  ever  been  published  in  which  the  clearness  of  the 

rules  laid  down  and  the  illustrative  diagrams  have  been  so  s&t\siactoxy."— Scotsman. 

"This  is  a  manual  for  the  practical  man,  whether  architect,  engineer,  or  mechanic.    .     .    .  The 

object  of  the  author  being  to  avoid  all  abstruse  formulae  or  complicated  methods,  and  to  enable 

persons  with  but  a  moderate  knowledge  of  geometry  to  work  out  the  problems  required." — Eiiglish 

Mechanic. 

TJie  Science  of  Geometnj. 

THE    GEOMETRY   OF   COMPASSES;   or,  Problems  Resolved 
by  the  mere  Description  of  Circles,  and  the  use  of  Coloured.  Diagrams  and, 
Symbols.    By  Oliver  Byrne.    Coloured  Plates.    Crown  8vo,  3s.  6d.  cloth, 
"  The  treatise  is  a  good  one,  and  remarkable— like  all  Mr.  Byrne's  contributions  to  the  science 
tsf  geometrj-— for  the  lucid  character  of  its  teaching."— £uiidiH£^  Neivs. 


DECORATIVE  ARTS,  etc. 

Woods  and  Marbles  (Imitation  of), 

SCHOOL  OF  PAINTING  FOR  THE  IMITATION  OF  WOODS 
AND  MARBLES,  as  Taught  and  Practised  by  A.  R.  Van  der  Burg  and  P. 
Van  der  Burg,  Directors  of  the  Rotterdam  Painting  Institution.  Royal  folio, 
iSi  by  12I  in.,  Illustrated  v/ith  24  full-size  Coloured  Plates;  also  12  plain 
Plates,  comprising  154  Figures.  Second  and  Cheaper  Edition.  Price  £i  iis.6d. 
List  of  Plates. 

1.  Various  Tools  required  for  Wood  Painting 


— 2,  3.  AValnut:  Preliminary  Stages  of  Graining 
and  Finished  Specimen  —  4-  T  ools  used  for 
Marble  Painting  and  Method  of  Manipulation— 
c,  6.  St.  Remi  Marble:  Earlier  Operations  and 
Pinished  Specimen— 7.  Methods  of  Sketching 
diS'erent  Grains,  Knots,  &c.— 8,  9.  Ash:  Pre- 
fiminary  Stages  and  Finished  Specimen— 10. 
Methods  of  Sketching  Marble  Grains— 11,  la. 
Breche  Marble :  Preliminary  Stages  of  Working 
and  Finished  Specimen— 13.  Maple:  Methods 
■of  Producing  the  different  Grains— 14, 15.  Bird's- 
eye  Maple:    Preliminary  Stages  and  Finished 


liminary  Stages  and  Finished  Specimen — 34,  35, 

" U  a 

,^.^.„  „j^ ,.  finished  and  Finished  Specimens. 

aiarble:    Preliminary  Stages  of  Process   and 


Specimen— 16.  Methods  of  Sketching  the  dif- 
ferent Species  of  V/hite  Marble— 17,  18.  V/hite 


Finished  Specimen — 19.  Mahogany :  Specimens 
of  various  Grains  and  Methods  of  Manipulation 
— 20,  21 .  Mahogany :  Earlier  Stages  and  Finished 
Specimen — 22,  23,  24.  Sienna  Marble :  Varieties 
of  Grain,  Preliminary  Stages  and  Finished 
Specimen — 25,  26,  27.  Juniper  Wood  :  Methods 
of  producing  Grain,  &c. :  Preliminary  Stages 
and  Finished  Specimen — 28,  29,  30.  Vert  de 
Mer  Marble :  Varieties  of  Grain  and  Methods 
of  Working  Unfinished  and  Finished  Specie 
mens — 31.  32.  33.  Oak:  Varieties  of  Grain,  "Tools 
Employed,  and  Methods  of  Manipulation,  Pre- 


36.  Waulsort  Marble:  Varieties  of  Grain, 
finished  and  Finished  Specimens, 


*^*  Opinions  of  the  Press. 

"  Those  who  desire  to  attain  skill  in  the  art  of  painting  woods  and  marbles  will  find  advantage 
dn  consulting  this  book.  .  .  .  Some  of  the  Working  Men's  Clubs  should  give  their  young  men 
•ihe  opportunity  to  study  it."— Builiicr. 

"  A  comprehensive  guide  to  the  art.  The  explanations  of  the  processes,  the  manipulation  and 
management  of  the  colours,  and  the  beautifully  executed  plates  will  not  be  the  least  valuable  to  the 
student  who  aims  at  making  his  work  a  faithful  transcript  of  nature."— Buiidin^^  A'eTvs. 

"Students  and  novices  are  fortunate  who  are  able  to  become  the  possessors  ol  so  nob!e  a 
suoyk." —Architect. 

Mouse  Decoration, 

ELEMENTARY    DECORATION.     A   Guide  to   the   Simpler 
Forms  of  Everyday  Art,  as  applied  to  the  Interior  and  Exterior  Decoration  of 
Dwelling  Houses,  &c.    By  James  W.  Facey,  Jun.    With  68  Cuts.    i2mo,  zs. 
cloth  limp. 
"Asa  technical  guide-book  to  the  decorative  painter  it  will  be  found  reliahle."— Building- News. 

PRACTICAL  HOUSE  DECORATION  :  A  Guide  to  the  Art  of 
Ornamental  Painting,  the  Arrangement  of  Colours  in  Apartments,  and  the 
principles  of  Decorative  Design.  With  some  Remarks  upon  the  Nature  and 
Properties  of  Pigments.  By  James  William  Facey,  Author  of  "  Elementary 
Decoration,''  &c.  With  numerous  Illustrations.  i2mo,  25.  6d.  cloth  limp. 
N.B. — The  above  Timo  Works  together  in  One  Vol.,  strongly  half-bound,  5s, 


DECORATIVE  ARTS,  etc.  17 

Colour, 

A    GRAMMAR    OF   COLOURING.      Applied  to  Decorative 

Painting  and  the  Arts,     By  George  Field.    New  Edition,  Revised,  Enlarged, 
and  adapted  to  the  use  of  the  Ornamental  Painter  and  Designer.    By  Ellis 
A.  Davidson.  With  New  Coloured  Diagrams  and  Engravings.    lamo,  3s.  td, 
cloth  boards. 
"The  book  is  a  most  useful  resume  of  the  properties  of  pigmenXs."— Builder. 

Souse  Painting,  Graining,  etc, 

HOUSE  PAINTING,  GRAINING,  MARBLING,  AND  SIGN 
WRITING,  A  Practical  Manual  of.    By  Ellis  A.  Davidson.    Fifth  Editioii. 

With  Coloured  Plates  and  Wood  Engravings.    i2mo,  6s.  cloth  boards. 

"  A  mass  of  information,  of  use  to  the  amateur  and  of  value  to  the  practiced  maa."— English 
Mechanic. 

"Simply  invaluable  to  the  youngrster  entering  upon  this  particular  calling,  and  highly  ser\-ice» 
able  to  the  man  who  is  practising  it."— Fur7iiture  Gazette. 

Decorators,  Receipts  for, 

THE  DECORATOR'S  ASSISTANT :  A  Modern  Guide  to  De- 
corative Artists  and  Amateurs,  Painters,  Writers,  Gilders,  &c.  Containing 
upwards  of  600  Receipts,  Rules  and  Instructions  ;  with  a  variety  of  Informal 
tion  for  General  Work  connected  with  every  Class  of  Interior  and  Exterior 
Decorations,  &c.  Third  Edition,  Revised.  152  pp.,  crown  8vo,  is.  in  wrapper. 
"  Full  of  receipts  of  value  to  decorators,  painters,  gilders,  &c.  The  book  contains  the  gist  of 
larger  treatises  on  colour  and  technical  processes.  It  would  be  difficult  to  meet  with  a  work  so  full 
of  varied  information  on  the  painter's  art." — Buiiding-  News. 

"  We  recommend  the  work  to  all  who,  whether  for  pleasure  or  profit,  require  a  guide  to  decora- 
tion."—/'/M;«*er  a^jrf  Decorator. 

Moijr  Smith  on  Interior  Decoration, 

ORNAMENTAL   INTERIORS,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 

By  J.  MoYR  Smith.     Super-royal  8vo,  with  32  full-page  Plates  and  numerous 

smaller  Illustrations,  handsomely  bound  in  cloth,  gilt  top,  price  i8s. 

IS"  7h  "Ornamental  Interiors"  the  designs  of  more  than  thirty  artist- 
decorators  and  architects  of  high  standing  have  been  illustrated.  The  book  may 
therefore  fairly  claim  to  give  a  good  general  view  of  the  works  of  the  modern  school 
of  decoration,  besides  giving  characteristic  exatnples  of  earlier  decorative  arrange- 
ments. 

"Ornamental  Interiors"  gives  a  short  account  of  the  styles  of  Interior 
Decoration  as  practised  by  the  Ancients  in  Egypt,  Greece,  Assyria,  Rome  andByzan- 
Hum.    This  part  is  illustrated  by  characteristic  designs. 
%*  Opinions  of  the  Press. 

"  The  book  is  well  illustrated  and  handsomely  got  up,  and  contains  some  true  criticism  and  a 
good  many  good  examples  of  decorative  treatment." — The  Builder. 

"  Well  fitted  for  the  dilettante,  amateur,  and  professional  designer." — Decoration. 

"  This  is  the  most  elaborate,  and  beautiful  work  on  the  artistic  decoration  of  interiors  that  we 
have  seen.  .  .  .  The  scrolls,  panels  and  other  designs  from  the  author's  own  pen  are  very 
beautiful  and  chaste  ;  but  he  takes  care  that  the  designs  of  other  men  shall  figure  even  more  than 
his  own." — Liverpool  Albion. 

"  To  all  who  take  an  interest  in  elaborate  domestic  ornament  this  handsome  volimie  will  be 
welcome." — Graphic. 

"  Mr.  Moyr  Smith  deserves  the  thanks  of  art  workers  for  having  placed  within  their  reach  a 
book  that  seems  eminently  adapted  to  afford,  by  example  and  precept,  that  guidance  of  which 
most  craftsmen  stand  in  need." — Furniture  Gazette. 

British  and  Foreign  Marbles, 

MARBLE  DECORATION  and  the  Terminology  of  British  and 

Foreign  Marbles.    A  Handbook  for  Students.     By  George  H.  Blagrove, 

Author  of  "  Shoring  and  its  Application,"  &c.   With  28  Illustrations.    Crown 

Svo,  3s.  td.  cloth. 

"  This  most  useful  and  much  wanted  handbook  should  be  in  the  hands  of  every  architect  and 
builder."— ^Mi'/<;i«^  World. 

••  It  is  an  excellent  manual  for  students,  and  interesting  to  artistic  readers  generally."— i'a/wr^/ay 
RevicTv. 

"  A  carefiilly  and  usefully  written     eatise  ;  the  work  is  essentially  practiczl." —Scotsman. 

Marble  Working,  etc, 

MARBLE  AND  MARBLE  WORKERS:  A  Handbook  for 
Architects,  Artists,  Masons  and  Students.  By  Arthur  Lee,  Author  of  "  A 
Visit  to  Carrara,"  "  The  Working  of  Marble,''  &c.  Small  crown  8vo,  as.  cloth. 
"  A  reaBy  valuable  addition  to  the  techoical  literature  of  architects  and  imsons."—BMiiditt£, 


i8  CROSBY  LOCK  WOOD  &-  SON'S  CATALOGUE. 


DELAMOTTE'S  WORKS  ON  ILLUMINATION  AND  ALPHABETS. 


A  PRIMER  OF  THE  ART  OF  ILLUMINATION,  for  the  Use  of 

Beginners  :  with  a  Rudimentary  Treatise  on  the  Art,  Practical  Directions  for 
its  exercise,  and  Examples  taken  from  Illuminated  MSS.,  printed  in  Gold  and 
Colours.  By  F.  Delamotte.  New  and  Cheaper  Edition.  Small  4to,  6s.  orna- 
mental boards, 
"The  examples  of  ancient  MSS.  recommended  to  the  student,  which,  with  much  ?ood  sense, 

the  author  chooses  from  collections  accessible  to  all,  are  selected  with  judgment  and  Knowledge, 

as  well  as  taste."— yH/ienaum, 

ORNAMENTAL  ALPHABETS,  Ancient  and  Mediaval,  front  the 
Eighth  Century,  with  Numerals;  including  Gothic,  Church-Text,  large  and 
small,  German,  Italian,  Arabesque,  Initials  for  Illumination,  Monograms, 
Crosses,  &c.  &c.,  for  the  use  of  Architectural  and  Engineering  Draughtsmen, 
Missal  Painters,  Masons,  Decorative  Painters,  Lithographers,  Engravers, 
Carvers,  &c.  &c.  Collected  and  Engraved  by  F.  Delamotte,  and  printed  in 
Colours.  New  and  Cheaper  Edition.  Royal  8vo,  oblong,  2S.  6d.  ornamental 
boards. 

' '  For  those  who  Insert  enamelled  sentences  round  gilded  chalices,  who  blazon  shop  legends  over 
shop-doors,  who  letter  church  walls  witli  pithy  sentences  from  the  Decalogue,  this  book  will  be  use- 
ful. ' ' — A  t^UnCZH  7)1 . 

EXAMPLES  OF  MODERN  ALPHABETS,  Plain  and  Ornamental; 
including  German,  Old  English,  Saxon,  Italic,  Perspective,  Greek,  Hebrew, 
Court  Hand,  Engrossing,  Tuscan,  Riband,  Gothic,  Rustic,  and  Arabesque; 
with  several  Original  Designs,  and  an  Analysis  of  the  Roman  and  Old  English 
Alphabets,  large  and  small,  and  Numerals,  for  the  use  of  Draughtsmen,  Sur- 
veyors, Masons,  Decorative  Painters,  Lithographers,  Engravers,  Carvers,  &c. 
Collected  and  Engraved  by  F.  Delamotte,  and  printed  in  Colours.  New 
and  Cheaper  Edition.  Royal  8vo,  oblong,  2S.  6d.  ornamental  boards. 
"There  is  comprLsed  in  it  every  possible  shape  into  which  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  and 

n'.:merals  can  be  foimed,  and  the  talent  which  has  been  expended  in  the  conception  of  the  various 

plain  and  ornamental  letters  is  \voadeiful."—Sta?idard. 

MEDIEVAL   ALPHABETS  AND   INITIALS  FOR  ILLUMI- 
NATORS.      By    G.   Delamotte.     Containing    21   Plates  and  Illuminated 
Title,  printed  in  Gold  and  Colours.    With  an  Introduction  by  J.  Willis 
Brooks.    Fourth  and  Cheaper  Edition.    Small  4to,  4s.  ornamental  boards. 
"  A  volume  in  which  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  come  forth  glorified  in  gilding  and  all  the  colours 

cf  the  prism  interwoven  and  intertwined  and  intermingled." — Suh. 

THE  EMBROIDERER'S  BOOK  OF  DESIGN.  Containing 
Initials,  Emblems,  Cyphers,  Monograms,  Ornamental  Borders,  Ecclesiastical 
Devices,  Mediasval  and  Modern  Alphabets,  and  National  Emblems.  Col- 
lected by  F.  Delamotte,  and  printed  in  Colours.  Oblong  royal  8vo,  is.  6d. 
ornamental  wrapper. 
"The  book  will  be  of  great  assistance  to  ladies  and  young  childreil  who  are  endowed  with  the 

art  of  plying  the  needle  in  this  most  ornamental  and  useful  px&tty  yfoxk,"— East  A7i£lia7i  Times. 


Wood  Carving. 

INSTRUCTIONS  IN  WOOD-CARVING,  for  Amateurs;  with 
Hints  on  Design.    By  A  Lady.    With  Ten  large  Plates,  as.  6d.  in  emblematic 
wrapper. 
"The  handicraft  of  the  wood-carver,  so  well  as  a  book  can  Impart  it,  may  be  learnt  from  '  A 

Lady's '  p\x\Mca.t\on."—Athenaum. 

"  The  directions  given  are  plain  and  easily  understood."— Eng-lish  Mechajiic. 

Glass  Painting, 

GLASS  STAINING  AND  THE  ART  OF  PAINTING  ON 
GLASS.  From  the  German  of  Dr.  Gessert  and  Emanuel  Otto  Fromberg. 
With  an  Appendix  on  The  Art  of  Enamelling.    i2mo,  2S.  6d.  cloth  lin>-p. 

Letter  Painting, 

THE  ART  OF  LETTER  PAINTING  MADE  EASY.  By 
James  Greig  Badenoch.  With  12  full-page  Engravings  of  Examples,  is.  6d. 
cloth  limp. 

"  The  system  is  a  simple  one,  but  quite  original,  and  well  worth  the  careful  attentien  of  letter 
painters.    It  can  be  easily  mastered  and  remembered." — Building  News, 


CARPENTRY,  TIMBER,  etc.  19 

CARPENTRY,  TIMBER,   etc. 

Tredgold's  Carpentry,  Enlarged  by  Tarn, 

THE  ELEMENTARY  PRINCIPLES  OF  CARPENTRY. 
A  Treatise  on  the  Pressure  and  Equilibrium  of  Timber  Framing,  the  Resist- 
ance of  Timber,  and  the  Construction  of  Floors,  Arches,  Bridges,  Roofs, 
Uniting  Iron  and  Stone  with  Timber,  &c.  To  which  is  added  an  Essay 
on  the  Nature  and  Properties  of  Timber,  &c.,  with  Descriptions  of  the  kinds 
of  Wood  used  in  Building ;  also  numerous  Tables  of  the  Scantlings  of  Tim- 
ber for  different  purposes,  the  Specific  Gravities  of  Materials,  &c.  By  Thomas 
Tredgold,  C.E.  With  an  Appendix  of  Specimens  of  Various  Roots  of  Iron 
and  Stone,  Illustrated.  Seventh  Edition,  thoroughly  revised  and  considerably 
enlarged  by  E.  Wyndham  Tarn,  M.A.,  Author  of  "The  Science  of  Build- 
ing," &c.  With  61  Plates,  Portrait  of  the  Author,  and  several  Woodcuts.  lu 
one  large  vol.,  4to,  price  £1  5s.  cloth. 
■'Ought  to  be  in  every  architect's  and  every  builder's  library."— BuHcier. 


"A  work  whose  monumental  excellence  must  commend  it  wherever  skilful  carpentrj'  Is  con- 
cerned. The  author's  principles  are  rather  confirmed  than  impaired  by  time.  The  additional 
plates  are  of  great  intrinsic  value."— Buiidut£'  News, 


Woodworking  Machinery. 

WOODWORKING  MACHINERY :  Its  Rise,  Progress,  and  Con- 
struction. With  Hints  on  the  Management  of  Saw  Mills  and  the  Economical 
Conversion  of  Timber.  Illustrated  with  Examples  ot  Recent  Designs  by 
leading  English,  French,  and  American  Engineers.  By  M.  Powis  Bale, 
A.M.Inst,C.E.,M.I.M.E.  Large  crown  8vo,  12s.  6d.  cloth. 
"  Mr.  Bale  is  evidently  an  expert  on  the  subject  and  he  has  collected  so  much  Information  that 

his  book  is  all-sufficient  for  builders  and  others  engaged  in  the  conversion  of  timher."— A rchiiect. 
"The  most  comprehensive  compendium  of  wood-working  machinery  we  have  seen.    The 

author  is  a  thorough  master  of  his  subject."— BuzJdin^  A'rws. 

"The  appearance  of  this  book  at  the  present  time  will,  we  should  think,  give  a  considerable 

Impetus  to  the  onward  march  of  the  machinist  engaged  in  the  designing  and  manufacture  of 

wood- working  machines.    It  should  be  in  the  office  of  every  wood- working  factorj-." — English 

Mechanic. 

Saiv  Mills, 

SAW  MILLS:  Their  Arrangement  and  Management,  and  the 
Economical  Conversion  of  Timher.  (A  Companion  Volume  to  "  Woodworking 
Machinery.")  By  M.  Powis  Bale.  With  numerous  Illustrations.  Crown 
8vo,  105.  ^d.  cloth. 

"  The  administration  of  a  large  sawing  establishment  is  discus<;ed.  and  the  subject  examined 
from  a  financial  standpoint.  Hence  the  size,  shape,  order,  and  disposition  ot  saw-mills  and  the 
like  are  gone  into  in  detail,  and  the  course  of  the  timber  is  traced  from  its  reception  to  its 
delivery  m  its  converted  state.  We  could  not  desire  a  more  complete  or  practical  treatise." — 
Builder. 

"  AVe  highly  recommend  Mr.  Bale's  work  to  the  attention  and  perusal  of  all  those  who  are  en- 
gaged in  the  art  of  wood  conversion,  or  who  are  about  building  or  remodelling  saw-mills  on  im- 
proved principles." — Building  News. 

Carpentering, 

THE  CARPENTER'S  NEW  GUIDE ;  or,  Book  of  Lines  for  Car- 
penters ;  comprising  all  the  Elementary  Principles  essential  for  acquiring  a 
knowledge  of  Carpentry.  Founded  on  the  late  Peter  Nicholson's  Standard 
Work,  A  New  Edition,  Revised  by  Arthur  Ashpitel,  F.S.A.  Together 
with  Practical  Rules  on  Drawing,  by  George  Pyns.  Vvilh  74  Plates, 
4to,  £1  IS.  cloth. 

Mandrailing, 

A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE  ON  HANDRAILING  :  Showing 
New  and  Simple  Methods  for  Finding  the  Pitch  of  the  Plank,  Drawing  the 
Moulds,  Bevelling,  Jointing-up,  and  Squaring  the  Wreath.  By  George 
CoLLiNGs.    Illustrated  with  Plates  and  Diagrams.    lamo,  is.  6d.  cloth  limp. 

"Will  be  found  of  practical  utility  in  the  execution  of  this  difficult  branch  of  jo\nerY."—Builaer. 

"  Almost  everj'  difficult  phase  of  this  somewhat  intricate  branch  of  joinery  is  elucidated  by  the 
aid  of  plates  and  explanatory  letterpress."— Furniture  Gazette, 

Circular  TFork. 

CIRCULAR  WORK  IN  CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY:  A 
Practical  Treatise  on  Circular  Work  of  Single  and  Double  Curvature.  By 
George  Collings,  Author  of  "  A  Practical  Treatise  on  Handrailing."  Illus- 
trated with  numerous  Diagrams.     i2mo,  25.  6d,  cloth  limp. 

"  An  excellent  example  of  what  a  book  of  this  kind  should  be.  Cheap  in  price,  clear  in  defini- 
tion and  practical  in  the  examples  selected."— /;«tA^«r. 


20  CROSBY  LOCK  WOOD  S'  SON  'S  CATALOGUE. 

Timber  Merchant's  Companion, 

THE  TIMBER  MERCHANT'S  AND  BUILDER'S  COM- 
PANION. Containing  New  and  Copious  Tables  of  the  Reduced  Weight  ar>d 
Measurement  of  Deals  and  Battens,  of  all  sizes,  from  One  to  a  Thousand 
Pieces,  and  the  relative  Price  that  each  size  bears  per  Lineal  Foot  to  any 
given  Price  per  Petersburg  Standard  Hundred  ;  the  Price  per  Cube  Foot  of 
Square  Timber  to  any  given  Price  per  Load  of  50  Feet :  the  proportionate 
Value  of  Deals  and  Battens  by  the  Standard,  to  Square  Timber  by  the  Load 
of  50  Feet ;  the  readiest  mode  of  ascertaining  the  Price  of  Scantling  per 
Lineal  Foot  of  any  size,  to  any  given  Figure  per  Cube  Foot,  &c.  &c.  By 
William  Dowsing.  Fourth  Edition,  Revised  and  Corrected.  Cr.  8vo,  3s.  cl. 
••  Everythingf  is  as  concise  and  clear  as  it  can  possibly  be  made.    There  can  be  no  doubt  than 

every  timber  merchant  and  builder  ought  to  possess  \t."—HuU  Advertiser. 

"  We  are  glad  to  see  a  fourtn  edition  of  these  admirable  tables,  which  for  correctness  and 

simplicity  of  arrangement  leave  nothing  to  be  desired."— Timier  Trades  yournal. 

"An  exceedingly  well-arranged,  clear,  and  concise  manual  of  tables  for  the  use  of  all  who  buy 

or  sell  i-iXvUoer."— Journal  of  Forestry. 

^Practical  Tiinher  MercJiant. 

THE  PRACTICAL  TIMBER   MERCHANT.    Being  a  Guide 

for  the  use  of  Building  Contractors,  Surveyors,  Builders,  &c.,  comprising 
useful  Tables  for  all  purposes  connected  with  the  Timber  Trade,  Marks  of 
Wood,  Essay  on  the  Strength  of  Timber,  Remarks  on  the  Growth  of  Timber, 
&c.    By  W.  Richardson.    Fcap.  8vo,  3s.  6d.  cloth. 

"  Contains  much  valuable  information  for  the  use  of  timber  merchants,  builders,  foresters,  and 
all  others  connected  with  the  grovrth,  sale,  and  manufacture  of  timber.' — yournal  0/  Forestry. 

Timber  Freight  Book, 

THE  TIMBER  MERCHANTS,  SAW  MILLER'S,  AND 
IMPORTER'S  FREIGHT  BOOK  AND  ASSISTANT.  Comprising  Rules, 
Tables,  and  Memoranda  relating  to  the  Timber  Trade.  By  William 
Richardson,  Timber  Broker;  together  with  a  Chapter  on  "Speeds  of  Saw 
Mill  Machinery,"  by  M.  Powis  Bale,  M.I.M.E.,  &c.  lamo,  3s.  6d.  cl.  boards. 

"A  very  useful  manual  of  rules,  tables,  and  memoranda  relating  to  the  timber  trade.  We  re- 
commend it  as  a  compendium  of  calculation  to  all  timber  measurers  and  merchants,  and  cis  supply- 
ing a  real  want  in  the  trade."— Buildtn£'  jVews. 

JPacking-Case  ^lakers.  Tables  for, 

PACKING-CASE   TABLES ;    showing  the  number  of  Super- 
ficial Feet  in  Boxes  or  Packing-Cases,  from  six  inches  square  and  upwards. 
By  W.  Richardson,  Timber  Broker.  Second  Edition.    Oblong  4to,  3s.  6d.  cl, 
"Invaluable  labour-saving  tAb\e5."—Ironmong-er. 
"Will  save  much  labour  and  calculation."— Cr<;«r. 

Superficial  Measurement, 

THE  TRADESMAN'S  GUIDE  TO  SUPERFICIAL  MEA- 
SUREMENT. Tables  calculated  from  i  to  200  inches  in  length,  by  i  to  io3 
inches  in  breadth.  For  the  use  of  Architects,  Surveyors,  Engineers,  Timber 
Merchants,  Builders,  &c  By  James  Hawkings.  Third  Edition.  Fcap,, 
3S.  6d.  cloth. 
"  A  useful  collection  of  tables  to  facilitate  rapid  calculation  of  surfaces.  The  exact  area  of  any 
Tirface  of  which  the  limits  have  been  ascertEiined  can  be  instantly  determined.  The  book  will  be 
found  of  the  greatest  utility  to  all  engaged  in  building  ooerations." — Scotsman. 

"  These  tables  will  be  found  of  great  assistance  to  all  who  require  to  make  calculations  in  super- 
ficial  measurement."— J5«jg-(?wA  Mechanic. 

Forestry. 

THE  ELEMENTS  OF  FORESTRY.  Designed  to  afford  In- 
formation  concerning  the  Planting  and  Care  of  Forest  Trees  for  Ornament  or 
Profit,  with  Suggestions  upon  the  Creation  and  Care  of  Woodlcinds.  By  F.  B. 
Hough.    Large  crown  8vo,  los.  cloth. 

Tiinber  Importer's  Guide, 

THE  TIMBER  IMPORTER'S,  TIMBER  MERCHANT'S  AND 
BUILDER'S  STANDARD  GUIDE.  By  Richard  E.  Grandy.  Compris- 
ing an  Analysis  of  Deal  Standards,  Home  and  Foreign  with  Comparative 
Values  and  Tabular  Arrangements  for  fixing  Nett  Landed  Cost  on  Baltic 
and  North  American  Deals,  including  all  intermediate  Expenses,  Freight, 
Insurance,  &c.  &c.  Together  with  copious  Information  for  the  Retailer  and 
Builder.  Third  Edition,  Revised.  i2mo,  2S.  cloth  limp. 
"  Everything  it  pretends  to  be :  built  up  gradually,  it  leads  one  from  a  forest  to  a  treenail,  and 

throws  in.  as  a  makeweight,  a  host  of  matericU  concerning  bricks,  columns,  cisterns,  &c,"—£tt^uM 

Mtckanit. 


NA  VAU  ARCHITECTURE,  NAVIGATION,  etc.  21 

MARINE  ENGINEERING,  NAVIGATION,  etc. 

Chain  Cables,  

CHAIN  CABLES  AND  CHAINS.  Comprising  Sizes  and 
Curves  of  Links,  Studs,  &c.,  Iron  for  Cables  and  Chains,  Chain  Cable  and 
Chain  Making,  Forming  and  Welding  Links,  Strength  of  Cables  and  Chains, 
Certificates  for  Cables,  Marking  Cables,  Prices  of  Chain  Cables  and  Chains, 
Historical  Notes,  Acts  of  Parliament,  Statutory  Tests,  Charges  for  Testing, 
List  of  Manufacturers  of  Cables,  &c.  &c.  By  Thomas  W.  Traill,  F.E.R.N., 
M.  Inst.  C.E.,  Engineer  Surveyor  in  Chief,  Board  of  Trade,  Inspector  of 
Chain  Cable  and  Anchor  Proving  Establishments,  and  General  Superin- 
tendent, Lloyd's  Committe.e  on  Proving  Establishments.  With  numerous 
Tables,  Illustrations  and  Lithographic  Drav?ings.  Folio,  £2  2S.  cloth. 
"It  contains  a  vast  amount  of  valu^  jle  information.  Nothing  seems  to  be  wanting  to  mcike  it 
£  complete  and  standard  worlc  of  reference  on  the  subject." — Nautical  Ma^^azine. 

Marine  Engineering, 

MARINE   ENGINES  AND   STEAM  VESSELS  (A   Treatise 

on).     By  Robert  Murray,  C.E.     Eighth  Edition,  thoroughly  Revised,  with 

considerable  Additions  by  the  Author  and  by  George  Carlisle,  C.E., 
Senior  Surveyor  to  the  Board  of  Trade  at  Liverpool.    i2mo,  5s.  cloth  boards. 

"  Well  adapted  to  give  the  young  steamship  engineer  or  marme  engine  and  boiler  maker  a 
general  introduction  into  his  practical  \,oi\i."—Mechanicil  U'or/d. 

"  We  feel  sure  that  this  thoroughly  revised  edition  will  continue  to  be  as  popular  in  the  future 
as  it  has  been  in  the  past,  as  for  its  size,  it  contains  more  useful  information  than  any  similar 
treatise."— /ndusiries. 

"  The  information  given  is  both  sound  and  sensible,  and  well  qualified  to  direct  young  sea- 
going hands  on  the  straight  road  to  the  extra  chief's  certificate." — G/as^ow  Herald. 

"An  indispensable  manual  for  the  student  of  marine  engineering." — Liverpool  Mercury. 

PocJcet-Booh  for  Naval  Architects  and  Shiphuilders, 

THE  NAVAL  ARCHITECT'S  AND  SHIPBUILDER'S 
POCKET-BOOK  of  FormttlcE,  Rules,  and  Tables, and  MARINE  ENGINEER'S 
AND  SURVEYOR'S  Handy  Book  of  Reference.  By  Clement  Mackrow, 
Member  of  the  Institution  of  Naval  Architects,  Naval  Draughtsman.  Third 
Edition,  Revised.  With  numerous  Diagrams,  &c.  Fcap.,  12s.  6d.  leather. 
"Should  be  used  by  all  who  are  engaged  in  the  construction  or  design  of  vessels.    .    .    .    Will 

he  found  to  contain  the  most  useful  tables  and  formulae  required  by  shipbuilders,  carefully  collected 

from  the  best  authorities,  and  put  together  in  a  popular  and  simple  form." — Engineer. 

"  The  professional  shipbuilder  has  now,  in  a  convenient  and  accessible  form,  reliable  data  for 

solving  many  of  the  numerous  problems  that  present  themselves  in  the  course  of  his  work." — Iran. 
"There  is  scarcely  a  subject  on  which  a  naval  architect  or  shipbuilder  can  require  to  refresh 

his  memory  which  wil  laot  be  found  within  the  covers  of  Mr.  Mackrow's  book."— £«^/mA  Mechanic. 

PocJcet-BooJc  for  Marine  Engineers, 

A    POCKET-BGOK   OF    USEFUL    TABLES    AND     FOR- 
MULA FOR    MARINE  ENGINEERS.     By  Frank  Proctor,  A.I.N.A. 
Third  Edition.     Royal  samo,  leather,  gilt  edges,  with  strap,  4s. 
"We  recommend  it  to  our  readers  as  going  far  to  supply  a  long-felt  want." — Naval  Science, 
"A  most  useful  companion  to  ail  marine  engineers." — United  Service  Gazette, 

Introduction  to  31arine  Engineering, 

ELEMENTARY  ENGINEERING  :  A  Manual  for  Young  Marine 
Engineers  and  Apprentices.  In  the  Form  of  Questions  and  Answers  on 
Metals,  Alloys,  Strength  of  Materials,  Construction  and  Management  of 
Marine  Engines,  &c.  Sec.  With  an  Appendix  of  Useful  Tables.  By  J.  S. 
Brewer,  Government  Marine  Surveyor,  Hongkong.  Small  crown  8vo, 
2S.  6d.  cloth.  [Just  publish^, 

"  Contains  much  valuable  information  for  the  class  for  whom  it  is  intended,  especially  in  tha 
chapters  on  the  management  of  boilers  and  engines." — Nautical  Magazine. 

"  A  useful  introduction  to  the  more  elaborate  text  books." — Scotsman. 

"  To  a  student  who  has  the  requisite  desire  and  resolve  to  attain  a  thorough  knawledge,  Mr. 
Brewer  offers  decidedly  useful  help." — Athenceum. 

Navigation, 

PRACTICAL  NAVIGATION,  Consisting  of  The  Sailor's 
Sea-Book,  by  James  Greenwood  and  W.  H.  Rosser  ;  together  with  the 
requisite  Mathematical  and  Nautical  Tables  for  the  Working  of  the  Problems. 
By  Henry  Law.  C.E.,  and  Professor  J.  R.  Young.  Illustrated.  i2mo,  7$. 
strongly  half-bound. 


22  CROSBY  LOCKWOOD  &-  SON'S  CATALOGUE. 

MINING  AND  MINING  INDUSTRIES. 

Metalliferous  Mining, 

BRITISH  MINING  :  A  Treatise  on  the  History ,  Discovery ,  Practical 

Development,  and  Future  Prospects  of  Metalliferous  Mines  in  the  United  King- 
dom. By  Robert  Hunt,  F.R.S.,  Keeper  of  Mining  Records ;  Editor  of 
"  Ure's  Dictionary  of  Arts,  Manufactures,  and  Mines,"  &c.    Upwards  of  950 

pp.,  with  230  Illustrations.    Second  Edition,  Revised.      Super-royal  8vo, 

£2  2S.  cloth. 

"  One  of  the  most  valuable  works  of  reference  of  modem  times.  Mr.  Hunt,  as  keeper  of  mining 
records  of  the  United  Kingdom,  has  had  opportunities  for  such  a  task  not  enjoyed  by  anyone  else, 
and  has  evidently  made  the  most  of  them.  .  .  .  The  language  and  style  adopted  are  good,  and 
the  treatment  of  the  various  subjects  laborious,  conscientious,  and  scientific." — Engineering. 

"The  book  is,  in  fact,  a  treasure-house  of  statistical  information  on  mining  subjects,  and  we 
know  of  no  other  work  embodying  so  great  a  mass  of  matter  of  this  kind.  Were  this  the  only 
merit  of  Mr.  Hunt  s  volume,  it  would  be  sufficient  to  render  it  indispensable  in  the  library  of 
everj^one  interested  in  the  development  of  the  mining  and  metallurgical  mdustriesof  the  country." 
— Athenceutn. 

"A  mass  of  information  not  elsewhere  available,  and  of  the  greatest  value  to  those  who  may 
be  interested  in  our  great  mineral  industries." — Engineer. 

"A  sound,  business-like  collection  of  interesting  facts.  .  .  .  The  amount  of  Information 
Mr.  Hunt  has  brought  together  is  enormous.  .  .  .  The  volume  appears  likely  to  convey  more 
Instruction  upon  the  subject  than  any  work  hitherto  published."— Mining  journal. 

"The  work  ^vill  be  for  the  mining  industry  what  Dr.  Percy's  celebrated  treatise  has  been  for  the 
metallurgical— a  book  that  cannot  with  advantage  be  omitted  from  the  library."— /rcw  a7ul  Coal 
Trades  Revie-w. 

"  The  volume  is  massive  and  exhaustive,  and  the  high  intellectual  powers  and  patient,  persist- 
ent application  which  characterise  the  author  have  evidently  been  brought  into  play  in  its  produc- 
tion.   Its  contents  are  invaluable."— Cc/ZiVr^  Gtiardian, 

Coal  and  Iron, 

THE  COAL  AND  IRON  INDUSTRIES  OF  THE  UNITED 
KINGDOM.  Comprising  a  Description  of  the  Coal  Fields,  with  Returns  ot 
their  Produce  and  its  Distribution,  and  Analyses  of  Special  Varieties.  Also 
an  Account  of  the  occurrence  of  Iron  Ores  in  Veins  or  Seams ;  Analyses  of 
each  Variety ;  and  a  History  of  the  Rise  and  Progress  of  Pig  Iron  Manufacture 
since  the  year  1740.  By  Richard  Meade,  Assistant  Keeper  of  Mining  Records. 
With  Maps  of  the  Coal  Fields  and  Ironstone  Deposits  of  the  United  Kingdom. 
8vo,  £1  8s.  cloth. 
"The  book  is  one  which  must  find  a  place  on  the  shelves  of  all  Interested  in  coal  and  iron 

production,  and  in  the  iron,  steel,  and  other  metallurgical  industries." — Engineer. 

"  Of  this  book  we  may  unreservedly  say  that  it  is  the  best  of  its  class  which  we  have  ever  met. 

...    A  book  of  reference  which  no  one  engaged  in  the  iron  or  coal  trades  should  omit  from  his 

Kbrary." — Iron  and  Coal  Trades  Review. 

"An  exhaustive  treatise  and  a  valuable  work  of  lekrencQ."— Mining  ^mtnial. 

Prospecting  for  Gold  and  other  3Ietals, 

THE  PROSPECTOR'S  HANDBOOK:  A  Guide  for  the  Pro- 
spector and  Traveller  in  Search  of  Metal-Bearing  or  other  Valuable  Minerals. 
By  J.  W.  Anderson,  M.A.  (Camb.),  F.R.G.S.,  Author  of  "Fiji  and  New 
Caledonia."  Fourth  Edition,  thoroughly  Revised  and  Enlarged.  Small 
crown  Svo,  3s.  6d.  cloth.  [Just  published. 

"  Will  supply  a  much  felt  want,  especially  among  Colonists,  n  whose  way  are  so  often  thrown 
many  mineralogical  specimens  the  value  of  which  it  is  difficult  for  anyone,  not  a  specialist,  to 
determine.  The  author  has  placed  his  instructions  before  his  readers  in  the  plainest  possible 
terms,  and  his  book  is  the  best  of  its  kind." — Engivefr. 

I' How  to  find  commercial  minerals,  and  how  to  identify  them  when  they  are  found,  are  the 

leading  points  to  which  attention  is  directed.    The  author  has  managed  to  pack  as  much  practical 

detail  into  his  pages  as  would  supply  materiail  for  a  book  three  times  its  size." — Mining  journal. 

"  Those  toilers  who  explore  the  trodden  or  untrodden  tracks  on  the  face  of  the  globe  will  find 

much  that  is  useful  to  them  in  this  hook."— A i/ienaum. 

Mining  Notes  and  Fonmilce, 

NOTES  AND  FORMULA  FOR  MINING  STUDENTS.  By 
John  Herman  Merivale,  M.A.,  Certificated  Colliery  Manager,  Professor  of 
Mining  in  the  Durham  College  of  Science,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne.  Second 
Edition,  carefully  Revised.  Small  crown  Svo,  cloth,  price  zs.  6d. 
"  Invaluable  to  anyone  who  is  working  up  for  an  examination  on  mining  subjects." — Coal  and 
Iron  Trades  Reinew. 

"  The  author  has  done  his  work  in  an  exceedingly  creditable  manner,  and  has  produced  a  book 
that  will  be  of  service  to  students,  and  those  who  are  practically  engaged  in  mining  operations.'' — 
Engineer 

"  A  vast  amount  of  technical  matter  of  the  utmost  value  to  mining  engineers,  and  of  consider- 
able  interest  to  iXude-aX.%:' —Schoolmaster. 


MINING  AND  MINING  INDUSTRIES.  23 

Gold,  Metallurgy  of, 

THE  METALLURGY  OF  GOLD:  A  Practical  Treatise  on  the 
Metallurgical  Treatment  of  Gold-bearing  Ores.  Including  the  Processes  of 
Concentration  and  Cnlorination,  and  the  Assaying,  Melting  and  Refining  of 
Gold.  By  M.  Eissler,  Mining  Engineer  and  Metallurgical  Chemist,  formerly 
Assistant  Assayer  of  the  U.  S.  Mint,  San  Francisco.  Second  Edition,  Revised 
and  much  Enlarged.     With  132  Illustrations.    Crown  8vo,  gs.  cloth. 

[Jxist  published. 
"This  book  thoroughly  deserves  its  title  of  a  ' Practical  Treatise.'    The  whole  process  of  gold 
mining-,  from  the  breaking  of  the  quartz  to  the  assay  of  the  bullion,  is  described  in  clear  and 
orderly  narrative  cind  with  much,  but  not  too  much,  fulness  of  detail." — Saturday  Review. 

"  The  work  is  a  storehouse  of  information  and  valuable  data,  and  we  strongly  recommend  it  o 
all  professional  men  engaged  in  the  gold-mining  industry."— .l/z>n';z^  yournal. 

"  Anyone  who  wishes  to  have  an  intelligent  acquaintance  \\-ith  the  characteristics  of  gold  and 
gold  ores,  the  methods  of  extracting  the  metal,  concentrating  and  chlorinating  it,  and  further  on 
of  refining  and  assaying  it,  will  find  all  he  wants  in  Mr.  Eissler's  hook."— Financial  Keius. 

Silver,  Metallurgy  of, 

THE  METALLURGY  OF  SILVER  :  A  Practical  Treatise  on  the 
Amalgamation,  Roasting  and  Lixiviation  of  Silver  Ores.  Including  the 
Assaying,  Melting  and  Refining  of  Silver  Bullion.  By  M.  Eissler,  Author 
of  "The  Metallurgy  of  Gold.''  With  124  Illustrations.  Crown  8vo,  los.  6d. 
cloth.  IJtist  published. 

' '  A  practical  treatise,  and  a  technical  work  which  we  are  convinced  will  supply  a  long-felt  want 

amongst  practical  men,  and  at  the  same  time  be  of  value  to  students  and  others  indirectly  connected 

with  tne  industries." — Mitiing-  'yournal. 

"  From  first  to  last  the  book  is  thoroughly  sound  and  reliable." — Colliery  Guardian. 

"For  chemists,  practical  miners,  assayers  and  investors  alike,  we  do  not  know  of  any  work 

on  the  subject  so  handy  and  yet  so  comprehensive." — Glasgow  Herald. 

Mineral  Surveying  and  Valuing, 

THE  MINERAL  SURVEYOR  AND  VALUER'S  COMPLETE 
GUIDE,  comprising  a  Treatise  on  Improved  Mining  Surveying  and  the  Valua- 
tion of  Mining  Properties,  with  New  Traverse  Tables.  By  Wm.  Lintern, 
Mining  and  Civil  Engineer.  Third  Edition,  with  an  Appendix  on  "  Magnetic 
and  Angular  Surveying,"      With  Four  Plates.    i2mo,  4s.  cloth. 

"  An  enormous  fund  of  information  of  great  value."— ^f^n^n£■  yournal. 

"  Mr.  Lintem"s  book  forms  a  valuable  and  thoroughly  trustworthy  guide." — Iron  and  Coal 
Trades  Review. 

"  This  new  edition  must  be  of  the  highest  value  to  colliery  surveyors,  proprietors  and  mana- 
gers."—C<7//i<fry  Guardian. 

Metalliferous  Minerals  and  Mining. 

TREATISE  ON  METALLIFEROUS  MINERALS  AND 
MINING.    By  D.  C.  Davies,  F.G.S.,  Mining  Engineer,  &c..  Author  of  "A 

Treatise  on  Slate  and  Slate  Quarrying."     Illustrated  with  numerous  Wood 

Engravings.     Fourth  Edition,  carefully  Revised.    Crown  8vo,  12s.  6d.  cloth. 

"  Neither  the  practical  miner  nor  the  general  reader  interested  in  mines  can  have  a  better  book 
for  his  companion  and  his  guide."— Afining-  yottrnal. 

"The  volume  is  one  which  no  student  of  mineralogy  should  be  without.'  —Colliery  Guardian, 

"A  book  that  will  not  only  be  useful  to  the  geologist,  the  practical  miner,  and  the  metallurgist, 
but  also  very  interesting  to  the  general  puh]ic."— Iron. 

"  As  a  history  of  the  present  state  of  mining  throughout  the  world  this  book  has  a  real  valu  e, 
and  it  supplies  an  actual  want,  for  no  such  information  has  hitherto  been  brought  together  within 
such  limited  space."— Athefuzum. 

Earthy  Minerals  and  Mining, 

TREATISE  ON  EARTHY  AND  OTHER  MINERALS  AND 
MINING.  By  D.  C.  Davies,  F.G.S.  Uniform  vnth,  and  forming  a  Com- 
panion Volume  to,  the  same  Author's  "  Metalliferous  Minerals  and  Mining." 
With  76  Wood  Engravings.  Second  Edition.  Crown  8vo,  12s.  6d.  cloth. 
"  It  is  essentially  a  practical  work,  intended  primarily  for  the  use  of  practical  men. ....  We 
do  not  remember  to  have  met  with  any  English  work  on  mining  matters  that  contains  the  same 
amount  of  information  packed  in  equally  convenient  {orm."— .Academy. 

"  The  book  is  clearly  the  result  of  many  years'  careful  work  and  thought,  and  we  should  be 
inclined  to  rank  it  as  among  the  very  best  of  the  handy  technical  and  trades  manuals  which  have 
recently  appeared." — British  Quarterly  Review. 

"The  volume  contains  a  great  mass  of  practical  information  carefully  methodised  and  pre- 
sented in  a  very  mtelligible  s'^^.peJ"— Scotsman. 

"The  subject  matter  of  the  volume  will  be  found  of  high  value  by  all— and  they  are  a  nnnier- 
ous  cIeiss— who  trade  in  earthy  minerals."— yi^A««<Ewwj. 


24  CROSBY  LOCK  WOOD  cS-  SON'S  CATALOGUE. 

Underground  JPumping  Machineinf, 

MINE  DRAINAGE.  Being  a  Complete  and  Practical  Treatise 
on  Direct-Acting  Underground  Steam  Pumping  Machinery,  with  a  Descrip- 
tion of  a  large  number  of  the  best  known  Engines,  their  General  Utility  and 
the  Special  Sphere  of  their  Action,  the  Mode  of  their  Application,  and 
their  merits  compared  with  other  forms  of  Pumping  Machinery.  By  Stephen 
MicHELL.  8vo,  15s.  cloth. 
"Will  be  highly  esteemed  by  colliery  owners  and  lessees,  mining  engineers,  and  students 

generally  who  require  to  be  acquainted  with  the  best  means  of  securing  the  drainage  of  mines.     It 

Is  a  most  valuable  work,  and  stands  almost  alone  in  the  literature  of  steeim  pumping  machinery.'  — 

Colliery  Guardian. 

"  Much  valuable  information  is  given,  so  that  the  book  is  thoroughly  worthy  of  an  extensive 

circulation  amongst  practical  men  and  purchasers  of  machinery. ' — Milling  youmal. 

Mining  Tools, 

A   MANUAL  OF  MINING   TOOLS.     For  the  Use  of  Mine 
Managers,  Agents,  Students,  &c.     By  William  Morgans,  Lecturer  on  Prac- 
tical Mining  at  the  Bristol  School  of  Mines,    izmo,  2s.  6d.  cloth  limp. 
ATLAS   OF  ENGRAVINGS  to  Illustrate  the  above,  contain- 
ing  ass  Illustrations  of  Mining  Tools,  drawn  to  scale.    4to,  4s,  6d.  cloth. 
"Students  in  the  science  of  mining,  and  overmen,  captains,  managers,  and  viewers  may  gain 

practical  icnowledge  and  useful  hints  by  the  study  of  Mr.  Morgans'  manual." — Colliery  Guardian. 
"A  valuable  work,  which  will  tend  materially  to  improve  our  mining  literature."— J/i«mi' 

yournai. 

Coal  Mining. 

COAL  AND  COAL  MINING:  A  Rudimentary  Treatise  on.     By 
Sir  Warington  W.  Smyth,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  &c..  Chief  Inspector  of  the  Mines  of 
the  Crown.     New  Edition,  Revised  and  Corrected.     With  numerous  Illus- 
trations.    i2mo,  4s.  cloth  boards. 
"As  an  outline  is  given  of  everj'  known  coal-field  in  this  and  other  countries,  as  well  as  of  the 

principal  methods  of  working,  the  book  will  doubtless  interest  a  very  large  number  of  readers."— 

Mining  yournai. 

Granite  Quarrying, 

GRANITES    AND    OUR    GRANITE    INDUSTRIES.        By 
George  F.  Harris,  F.G.S.,  Membre  de  la  Societe  Beige  de  Ge'ologie,  Lec- 
turer on  Economic  Geology  at  the  Birkbeck  Institution,  &c.     With  Illustra- 
tions.    Crown  8vo,  2s.  6d.  cloth. 
"•  A  clearly  and  well-written  manual  for  persons  engaged  or  interested  in  the  granite  industrj'." 

— Scolstnan. 

"  An  interesting  work,  which  will  be  deservedly  esteemed.     We  advise  the  author  to  write 

again." — Colliery  GuardiaJi. 

'•  An  exceedingly  interesting  and  valuable  monograph,  on  a  subject  which  has  hitherto  received 

unaccountably  little  attention  in  the  shape  of  systematic  literary  treatment."— 56-  otlish  Leader. 


NATURAL  AND  APPLIED  SCIENCE. 


Text  Book,  of  Electricity, 

THE  STUDENTS  TEXT-BOOK  OF  ELECTRICITY.  By 
Henry  M.  Noad,  Ph.D.,  F.R.S.,  F.C.S.  New  Edition,  carefully  Revised. 
With  an  Introduction  and  Additional  Chapters,  by  W.  H.  Preece,  M.I.C.E., 
Vice-President  of  the  Society  of  Telegraph  Engineers,  &c.  With  470  Illustra- 
tions.   Crown  8vo,  12s.  6d.  cloth. 

"The  original  plan  of  this  book  has  been  carefully  adhered  to  so  as  to  make  it  a  reflex  of  the 
existing  state  of  electrical  science,  adapted  for  students.  .  .  .  Discovery  seems  to  have  pro- 
cessed with  marvellous  strides  ;  nevertheless  it  has  now  apparently  ceased,  and  practical  applica- 
tions have  commenced  their  career  ;  and  it  is  to  give  a  faithful  account  of  these  that  this  fresh 
edition  of  Dr.  Noad's  valuable  text-book  is  launched  forth." — Extractfrom  Introduction  by  W.  H. 
Preece,  Esq. 

"We  can  recommend  Dr.  Noad's  book  for  clear  style,  great  range  of  subject,  a  good  index 
and  a  plethora  of  woodcuts.     Such  collections  as  the  present  are  indispensable."— ^/Aif«i?»^»». 

"  An  admirable  text  book  for  every  student  —  beginner  or  advanced  —  of  electricity."— 
Engineering. 

Electricity, 

A  MANUAL  OF  ELECTRICITY :  Including  Galvanism,  Mag- 
netism,  Dia-Magnetism,  Electro-Dynamics,  Magno-Electricity,  and  the  Electric 
Telegraph.    By  Henrt  M.  Noad,  Ph.D.,   F.R.S.,  F.C.S.    Fourth  Edition. 
With  500  Woodcuts.    8vo.  £1  4s.  cloth. 
■"It  is  worthy  of  a  place  in  the  library  of  every  public  institution."— ^»«t«^  yournai. 


NATURAL  AND  APPLIED  SCIENCE.  25 

Electric  Light, 

ELECTRIC  LIGHT  :  Its  Production  and  Use.  Embodying  Plain 
Directions  for  the  Treatment  of  Voltaic  Batteries,  Electric  Lamps,  and 
Dynamo-Electric  Machines.  By  J.  W.  Urquhart,  C.E.,  Author  of  "  Electro- 
plating :  A  Practical  Handbook."  Edited  by  F.  C.  Webb,  M.I.C.E.,  M.S.T.E. 
Second  Edition,  Revised,  with  large  Additions  and  128  lUusts.  7s.  6J.  cloth. 
"  The  book  is  by  far  the  best  that  we  have  yet  met  with  on  the  s\ih}QZ\:."—Athena;um. 
"It  is  the  only  work  at  present  available  which  gives,  in- language  intelligible  for  the  most  part 

to  the  ordinary  reader,  a  general  but  concise  history  of  the  means  which  have  been  adopted  up  to 

the  present  time  in  producing  the  electric  W^hl."— Metropolitan. 

"The  book  contains  a  general  account  of  the  means  adopted  in  producing  the  electric  light, 

not  only  as  obtained  from  voltaic  or  galvanic  batteries,  but  treats  at  length  of  the  dynamo-electric 

machine  in  several  of  its  iorms."— Colliery  Guardian. 

Electric  Lighting, 

THE  ELEMENTARY  PRINCIPLES  OF  ELECTRIC  LIGHT- 
ING.    By  Alan  A.  Campbell  Swinton,  Associate  I.E.E.     Second  Edition, 
Enlarged  and  Revised.     With  16  Illustrations.    Crown  8vo,  is.  6d.  cloth. 
"Anyone  who  desires  a  short  and  thoroughly  clear  exposition  of  the  elementary  principles  of 
electric-lighting  cannot  do  better  than  read  this  Httle  yiox\.."— Bradford  Observer. 

J>r,  Lardner's  School  Handbooks, 

NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY  FOR  SCHOOLS.  By  Dr.  Lardner. 

328  Illustrations.     Sixth  Edition.     One  Vol.,  3s.  6d.  cloth. 

"  A  very  convenient  class-book  for  junior  students  in  private  schools.  It  is  intended  to  convey, 
in  clear  and  precise  terms,  general  notions  of  all  the  pruicipal  divisions  of  Physical  Science."— 
British  Quarterly  Review. 

ANIMAL  PHYSIOLOGY  FOR  SCHOOLS.    By  Dr.  Lardner. 

With  190  Illustrations.     Second  Edition.     One  Vol.,  3s.  6d.  cloth. 
"Clearly  written,  well  arranged,  and  excellently  illustrated."— Garfifif^ier'j  Chronicle. 

Dr,  Lardner^s  Electric  Telegrajyh, 

THE    ELECTRIC   TELEGRAPH.      By   Dr.    Lardner.      Re- 
vised and  Re-written  by  E.  B.  Bright,  F.R.A.S.    140  Illustrations.    Small 
Svo,  25.  6d.  cloth, 
"  One  of  the  most  readable  books  extant  on  the  Electric  Telegraph."— £«i?-/z^/f  Mechanic. 

Astronomy. 

ASTRONOMY.     By  the  late  Rev.  Robert  Main,  M.A.,  F.R.S., 

formerly  Radcliffe  Observer  at  Oxford.  Third  Edition,  Revised  and  Cor- 
rected to  the  present  time,  by  William  Thynne  Lynn,  B.A.,  F.R.A.S., 
formerly  of  the  Royal  Observatory,  Greenwich.     i2mo,  2s.  cloth  limp. 

"A  sound  and  simple  treatise,  very  carefully  edited,  and  a  capital  book  for  beginners." — 
Ji'>iaic'led£-e.  [tioual  Times. 

"Accurately  brought  down  to  the  requirements  of  the  present  time  by  Mr.  Lynn." — Educa- 

The  Bloivpipe, 

THE  BLOWPIPE JN  CHEMISTRY,  MINERALOGY,  AND 

GEOLOGY.    Containing  all  known  Methods  of  Anhydrous  Analysis,  many 

Working  Examples,  and  Instructions  for   Making  Apparatus.      By   Lieut.- 

Colonel  W.  A.  Ross,  R.A.,  F.G.S.     With  120  Illustrations.     Second  Edition, 

Revised  and  Enlarged.     Crown  Svo,  5s.  cloth.  ^Jitst  published, 

"The  student  who  goes  conscientiously  through  the  course  of  experimentation  here  laid  down 

will  gain  a  better  insight  into  inorganic  chemistry  and  mineralogy  than  if  he  had  'got  up'  any  of 

the  best  text-books  ot  the  day,  and  passed  any  number  of  examinations  in  their  contents." — Chemi- 

cai  News. 

The  Military  Sciences, 

AIDE-MEMOIRE  TQ  THE  MILITARY  SCIENCES.  Framed 
from  Contributions  of  Officers  and  others  connected  with  the  different  Ser- 
vices. Originally  edited  by  a  Committee  of  the  Corps  of  Royal  Engine^s. 
Second  Edition, |most  carefully  Revised  by  an  Officer  oftthe  Corps,  with  many 
Additions;  containing  nearly  350  Engravings  and  many  hundred  Woodcuts. 
Three  Vols.,  royal  Svo,  extra  cloth  boards,  and  lettered,  £4  los. 
"A  compendious  encyclopaedia  of  military  knowledge,  to  which  we  are  greatly  indebted."^ 

Edinburgh  Review. 

"  The  most  comprehensive  book  of  reference  to  the  military  and  collateral  sciences." — 

Volunteer  Service  Gazette. 

Field  Fortification, 

A  TREATISE  ON  FIELD  FORTIFICATION,  THE  ATTACK 
OF  FORTRESSES,  MILITARY  MINING,  AND  RECONNOITRING.  By 
Colonel  I.  S.  Macaulay,  late  Professor  of  Fortification  in  the  R.M.A.,  Wool- 
wich.   Sixth  Edition,  crown  Svo,  cloth,  with  separate  Atlas  of  la  Plates,  i«. 


26  CROSBY  LOCK  WOOD  S-  SON'S  CATALOGUE. 

Temp  eram  ents, 

OUR  TEMPERAMENTS,  THEIR  STUDY  AND  THEIR 
TEACHING.  A  Popular  Outline.  By  Alexander  Stewart,  F.R.C.S. 
Edin.  In  one  large  8vo  volume,  with  30  Illustrations,  including  A  Selection 
from  Lodge's  "  Historical  Portraits,"  showing  the  Chief  Forms  of  Faces. 
Price  15s.  cloth,  gilt  top. 
"The  book  is  exceedingly  interesting,  even  for  those  who  are  not  systematic  students  of  an- 
thropolog:}'.  ...  To  those  who  think  the  proper  study  of  mankind  is  man,  it  will  be  full  of  attrac- 
tion."— Daily  Telegraph. 

"The  author's  object  is  to  enable  a  student  to  read  a  man's  temperament  in  his  aspect.  The 
work  is  well  adapted  to  its  end.  It  is  worthy  of  the  attention  of  students  of  human  nature."— 
Scots>nan. 

"  The  volume  is  heavy  to  hold,  but  light  to  read.  Though  the  author  has  treated  his  subject 
exhaustively,  he  writes  in  a  popular  and  pleasant  manner  that  renders  it  attractive  to  the  general 
reader."— /"j^^wrA. 

Antiseptic  Nursing, 

ANTISEPTICS :  A  Handbook  for  Nuyses.  Being  an  Epitome  of 
Antiseptic  Treatment.  With  Notes  on  Antiseptic  Substances,  Disinfection, 
Monthly  Nursing,  &c.  By  Mrs.  Annie  Hewer,  late  Hospital  Sister,  Diplomee 
Obs.  Soc.  Lond.     Crown  8vo,  is.  6d.  cloth.  [Just  published. 

"This  excellent  little  work    ...    is  verj'  readable  and  contains  much  information.    We  can 

strongly  recommend  it  to  those  who  are  undergoing  training  at  the  various  hospitals,  and  also  to 

those  who  are  engaged  in  the  practice  of  nursing,  as  they  cannot  fail  to  obtain  practical  hints  from 

its  perusal."— Lancet. 

'•  The  student  or  the  busy  practitioner  would  do  well  to  look  through  its  pages,  offering  as  they 

do  a  suggestive  and  faithful  picture  of  antiseptic  methods." — Hospital  Gazette. 
"A  clear,  concise,  and  excellent  little  handbook."— r/%<;  Hospital. 

Pneumatics  and  Acoustics, 

PNEUMATICS  :  including  Acoustics  and  the  Phenomena  of  Wind 
Currents,  for  the  Use  of  Beginners.  By  Charles  Tomlinson,  F.R.S., 
F.C.S.,  &c.  Fourth  Edition,  Enlarged.  With  numerous  Illustrations. 
i2mo,  15.  6d.  cloth. 
' '  Beginners  in  the  study  of  this  important  application  of  science  could  not  have  a  better  manual. ' ' 
~-Scctsvia>:. 

"A  valuable  and  suitable  text-book  for  students  of  Acoustics  and  the  Phenomena  of  Wind 
Cuxx&nXs:'  —Schoolmaster. 

ConcJiology, 

A  MANUAL  OF  THE  MOLLUSC  A  :  Being  a  Treatise  on  Recent 
and  Fossil  Shells.  By  S.  P.  Woodward,  A.L.S.,  F.G.S.,  late  Assistant 
Paleontologist  in  the  British  Museum.  Fifth  Edition.  With  an  Appendix 
on  Recent  and  Fossil  Conchological  Discoveries,  by  Ralph  Tate,  A.L.S., 
F.G.S.  Illustrated  by  A.  N.  Waterhouse  and  Joseph  Wilson  Lowry. 
With  23  Plates  and  upwards  of  300  Woodcuts.  Crown  8vo,  ys.  6d.  cloth 
boards. 
"A  most  valuable  storehouse  of  conchological  and  geological  information." — Science  Gossip. 

Geology, 

RUDIMENTARY  TREATISE   ON  GEOLOGY,  PHYSICAL 

AND  HISTORICAL.  Consisting  of  "Physical  Geology,"  which  sets  forth 
the  leading  Principles  of  the  Science ;  and  "  Historical  Geology,"  which 
treats  of  the  Mineral  and  Organic  Conditions  of  the  Earth  at  each  successive 
epoch,  especial  reference  being  made  to  the  British  Series  of  Rocks.  By 
Ralph  Tate,  A.L.S.,  F.G.S.,  &c.,  &c.  With  250  Illustrations.  i2mo,  55. 
cloth  boards. 

"  The  fulness  of  tlie  matter  has  elevated  the  book  into  a  manual.  Its  information  is  exhaustive 
and  well  arranged." — School  Board  Chronicle, 

Geology  and  Genesis, 

THE   TWIN   RECORDS  OF   CREATION ;    or,   Geology    and 

Genesis:  their  Perfect   Harmony    and    Wonderful   Concord,    By  George  W. 

Victor  le  Vaux.    Numerous  Illustrations.    Fcap.  8vo,  55.  cloth. 

"  A  valuable  contribution  to  the  evidences  of  Revelation,  and  disposes  very  conclusively  of  the 
arguments  of  those  who  would  set  God's  Works  against  God's  Word.  No  real  difficulty  is  shirked, 
and  no  sophistrj'  is  left  unexposed." — The  Rock, 

"  The  remarkable  peculiarit>;  of  this  author  is  that  he  combines  an  unbounded  admiration  of 
science  with  an  unbounded  admiration  of  the  Written  record.  The  two  impulses  are  balanced  to 
a  nicety  ;  and  the  consequence  is  that  difficulties,  which  to  minds  less  evenly  poised  would  be  seri- 
ous, find  immediate  solutions  of  the  happiest  kxcds."— Loudon  Review. 


NATURAL  AND  APPLIED  SCIENCE.  27 


DR.  LARDNER'S  HANDBOOKS  OF  NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY. 

THE  HANDBOOK  OF  MECHANICS.     Enlarged  and  almost  re- 
written by  Benjamin  Loewy,  F.R.A.S.    With  378  Illustrations.    Post  8vo, 
6s.  cloth. 
"The  perspicuity  of  the  original  has  been  retained,  and  chapters  which  had  become  obsolete 

have  been  replaced  by  others  of  more  modem  character.      The  explanations  throughout  are 

studiously  popular,  and  care  has  been  taken  to  show  the  application  of  the  various  brsmches  oi 

physics  to  the  industrial  arts,  and  to  the  practical  business  of  Ufe." — Mining"  jfournal. 

"Mr.  Loewy  has  carefully  revised  the  book,  and  brought  it  up  to  modem  requirements."— 

Nature. 

"  Natural  philosophy  has  had  few  exponents  more  able  or  better  skilled  in  the  art  of  popu- 

larising  the  subject  than  Dr.  Lardner  ;  and  Mr.  Loewy  is  doing  good  service  in  fitting  this  treatise, 

and  the  others  of  the  series,  for  use  at  the  present  time." — Scotsman. 

THE  HANDBOOK  OF  HYDROSTATICS  AND  PNEUMATICS. 

New  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged,  by  Benjamin  Loewy,  F.R.A.S.    With 

236  Illustrations.    Post  8vo,  5s.  cloth. 

"For  those  'who  desire  to  attain  an  accurate  knowledge  of  physical  science  without  the  pro- 
found methods  of  mathematical  investigation,'  this  work  is  not  merely  intended,  but  well  adapted." 
'-Chemical  News, 

"The  volume  before  us  has  been  carefully  edited,  augmented  to  nearly  tn-ice  the  bulk  of  the 
former  edition,  and  all  the  most  recent  matter  has  been  added.  .  .  .  It  is  a  vjiluable  text-book." 
—Nature, 

"  Candidates  for  pass  examinations  will  find  it,  we  think,  specially  suited  to  their  requirements." 
English  Mechanic. 

THE  HANDBOOK  OF  HEAT.     Edited  and  almost  entirely  re- 
written by  Benjamin  Loewy,  F.R.A.S.,  &c.    117  Illustrations.    Post  8vo,  6s, 
cloth. 
"The  style  Is  always  clear  and  precise,  and  conveys  instmction  -without  leaving  jiny  cloudiness- 

or  lurking  doubts  behind." — Engineering; 

"A  most  exhaustive  book  on  the  subject  on  which  it  treats,  and  is  so  arranged  that  it  can  be 

understood  by  all  who  desire  to  attain  an  accurate  knowledge  of  physical  science Mr, 

Loewy  has  included  all  the  latest  discoveries  in  the  varied  lav\s  and  effects  oi  heat."— Standard. 
"A  complete  and  handy  text-book  for  the  use  of  students  and  general  readers." — English 

Mechanic, 

THE  HANDBOOK  OF  OPTICS.  By  Dionysius  Lardner,D.C.L., 
formerly  Professor  of  Natural  Philosophy  and  Astronomy  in  University 
College,  London.  New  Edition.  Edited  byT.  Olver  Harding,  B.A.  Lond.. 
of  University  College,  London.  With  298  Illustrations.  Small  8vo,  448 
pages,  5s.  cloth. 
"Written  by  one  of  the  ablest  English  scientific  writers,  beautifully  and  elaborately  illustrated. 

Mechanic's  Magazine. 

THE   HANDBOOK  OF  ELECTRICITY,   MAGNETISM,   AND 
ACOUSTICS.  By  Dr.  Lardner.    Ninth  Thousand.    Edit,  by  George  Carey 
Foster,  B.A.,  F.C.S.    With  400  Illustrations.    Small  8vo,  5s.  cloth. 
"  The  book  could  not  have  been  entrusted  to  anyone  better  calculated  to  preserve  the  terse  and 

lucid  stj'le  of  Lardner,  while  correcting  his  errors  and  bringing  up  his  work  to  the  present  state  oi 

scientific  linovr\eds&."— Popular  Science  Review. 

\*  The  above  Five  Volumes,  though  each  is  Complete  in  itself,  form  A  Com- 
plete Course  of  Natural  Philosophy. 


I>r,  Lardner's  MandhooTc  of  Astronomy, 

THE  HA  NDBOOK  OF  A  STRONOMY.  Forming  a  Companion 
to  the  "  Handbook  of  Natural  Philosophy.''  By  Dionysius  Lardner,  D.C.L., 
formerly  Professor  of  Natural  Philosophy  and  Astronomy  in  University 
College,  London.  Fourth  Edition.  Revised  and  Edited  by  Edwin  Dunkin, 
F.R.A.S.,  Royal  Observatory,  Greenwich,  With  38  Plates  and  upwards  of 
ICO  Woodcuts.  In  One  Vol.,  small  8vo,  550  pages,  gs.  6d.  cloth. 
"Probably  no  other  book  contains  the  same  amount  of  infonnation  in  so  compendious  and  well- 
arranged  a  form — certainly  none  at  tl;e  price  at  which  this  is  offered  to  the  ^■ao]xc"—AtheniZum. 

"We  can  do  no  other  than  pronounce  this  work  a  most  valuable  manual  of  astronomy,  and  we 
strongly  recommend  it  to  all  who  wish  to  acquire  a  general— but  at  the  same  time  correct— acquaiat- 
ance  Tvith  this  sublime  szience."— Quarterly  Journal  of  Science, 

"One  of  the  most  deservedly  popular  books  on  the  subject  .  .  .  We  would  recommend  not 
only  the  student  of  the  elementary  principles  of  the  science,  but  he  who  aims  at  mastering  the 
higher  and  mathematical  branches  of  astronomy,  not  to  be  without  this  work  beside  \am."— Practi- 
cal Magazint, 


28  CROSBY  LOCKWQOD  &-  SON'S  CATALOGUE. 

DR.  LARDNER'S  MUSEUM  OF  SCIENCE  AND  ART. 


THE  MUSEUM  OF  SCIENCE  AND  ART.  Edited  by 
DiONYsius  Lardner,  D.C.L.,  formerly  Professor  ot  Natural  Philosophy  and 
Astronomy  in  University  College,  London.  With  upwards  of  1,200  Engrav- 
ings on  Wood.  In  6  Double  Volumes,  £1  is.,  in  a  new  and  elegant  cloth  bind- 
ing ;  or  handsomely  bound  in  half-morocco,  31s.  6(i. 

Contents : 

motive  —  Thermometer  —  New  Planets :    Le- 
verrier  and  Adams's  Planet — Magnitude  and 


The  Planets:  Are  they  Inhabited  Worlds  ?- 
Weather    Prognostics  —  Popular   Fallacies  in 


Questions  of  Physical  Science— Latitudes  and 
Longitudes  —  Lunar  Influences  —  Meteoric 
Stones  and  Shooting  Stars — Railway  Accidents 
—Light— Common  Things  :  Air — Locomotion 
ir.  the  United  States — Cometary  Influences — 
Common  Things :  Water— The  Potter's  Art- 
Common  Things :  Fire  —  Locomotion  and 
Transport,  their  Influence  and  Progress — The 
Moon  — Common  Things:  The  Earth  — The 
Electric  Telegraph  —  Terrestrial  Heat  — The 
Sun— Earthquakes  and  Volcanoes— Barometer, 
Safety  Lamp,  and  Whitworth's  Micrometric 
Apparatus — Steam — The  Steam  Engine — The 
Eye  —  The  Atmosphere  -'  Time  —  Common 
Things :  Pumps — Common  Things  :  Spectacles, 
the  Kaleidoscope  —  Clocks  and  Watches  — 
Jrlicroscopic  Drawing  and  Engraving — Loco- 


Minuteness — Common  Things :  The  Almanack 
—Optical  Images— How  to  observe  the  Heavens 
—  Common  Things  :  The  Looking-glass  — 
Stellar  Universe— The  Tides— Colour— Com- 
mon Things:  Man— Magnifying  Glasses— In- 
stinct and  Intelligence— The  Solar  Microscope 
—The  Camera  Lucida— The  Magic  Lantern — 
The  Camera  Obscura— The  Microscope— The 
White  Ants  :  Their  Manners  and  Habits— The 
Surface  of  the  Earth,  or  First  Notions  of 
Geography — Science  and  Poetry — The  Bee — 
Steam  Navigation  —  Electro-Motive  Power  — 
Thunder,  Lightning,  and  the  Aurora  Borealis 
—The  Printing  Press— The  Crust  of  the  Earth 
—Comets— The  Stereoscope— The  Pre-Adam- 
ite  Earth— Eclipses— Sound, 


*j^*  Opinions  of  the  Press. 

"This  series,  besides  aflfording  popular  but  sound  instruction  on  scientific  subjects,  with  which 
the  humblest  man  in  the  country  ought  to  be  acquainted,  also  undertakes  that  teaching  of  '  Com- 
mon Things  '  which  every  well-wisher  of  his  kind  is  anxious  to  promote.  Many  thousand  copies  of 
this  serviceable  publication  have  been  printed,  in  the  belief  and  hope  that  the  desire  for  instruction 
and  improvement  widely  prevails  ;  and  we  have  no  fear  that  such  enlightened  faith  will  meet  with 
disappointment." — Times. 

"  A  cheap  and  interesting  publication,  alike  informing  and  attractive.  The  papers  combine 
subjects  of  importance  and  great  scientific  knowledge,  considerable  inductive  powers,  and  a 
popular  style  of  treatment." — Spectator. 

"The  'Museum  of  Science  and  Art'  is  the  most  valuable  contribution  that  has  ever  been 
made  to  the  Scientific  Instruction  of  every  class  of  society." — Sir  David  BREWSTER,  in  the 
North  British  Review. 

"  Whether  we  consider  the  liberality  and  beauty  of  the  illustrations,  the  charm  ot  the  writing^, 
or  the  durable  interest  of  the  matter,  we  must  express  our  belief  that  there  is  hardly  to  be  found 
among  the  new  books  one  that  would  be  welcomed  by  people  of  so  many  ages  and  classes  as  a 
valuable  piessnt."— Examiner. 

%*  Separate  books  formed  from  the  above,  suitable  for  Workmen's  Libraries, 
Science  Classes,  etc. 

Common  Tilings  Explained.  Containing  Air,  Earth,  Fire,  Water,  Time, 
Man,  the  Eye,  Locomotion,  Colour,  Clocks  and  Watches,  &c.  233  Illus- 
trations, cloth  gilt,  5S. 

The  3Iicroscope.  Containing  Optical  Images,  Magnifying  Glasses,  Origin 
and  Description  of  the  Microscope,  Microscopic  Objects,  the  Solar  Micro- 
scope, Microscopic  Drawing  and  Engraving,  &c,     147  Illustrations,  clotb 

gilt,  2S. 

Popular  Geology.    Containing  Earthquakes  and  Volcanoes,  the  Crust  of 

the  Earth,  &c.    201  Illustrations,  cloth  gilt,  2s.  6d. 
popular  Fhysics.     Containing  Magnitude  and  Minuteness,  the  Atmo- 

•sphere,    Meteoric  Stones,    Popular  Fallacies,   Weather    Prognostics,    the 

Thermometer,  the  Barometer,  Sound,  &c.   85  Illustrations,  cloth  gilt,  2S.  6d. 
Steam  and  its  Uses.    Including  the  Steam  Engine,  the  Locomotive,  and 

Steam  Navigation,     89  Illustrations,  cloth  gilt,  zs. 

Poptdar  Astronomy.  Containing  How  to  observe  the  Heavens— The 
Earth,  Sun,  Moon,  Planets,  Light,  Comets,  Eclipses,  Astronomical  Influ- 
ences, &c.    182  Illustrations,  4s.  6d, 

The  Bee  and  White  Ants :  Their  Manners  and  Habits.  With  Illustra 
tions  of  Animal  Instinct  and  Intelligence.    135  Illustrations,  cloth  gilt,  2S. 

The  Electric  Telegraph  Popidarized.  To  render  intelligible  to  all  who 
can  Read,  irrespective  of  any  previous  Scientific  Acquirements,  the  various 
■ibrms  of  Telegraphy  in  Actual  Operation.  100  Illustrations,  cloth  gilt, 
IS.  6d. 


COUNTING-HOUSE  WORK,  TABLES,  CALCULA TORS,  etc.    og 

COUNTING-HOUSE  WORK,  TABLES,  etc. 

Accounts  for  Manufacturers, 

FACTORY  ACCOUNTS:  Their  Principles  and  Practice.  A 
Handbook  for  Accountants  and  Manufacturers,  with  Appendices  on  the  No- 
menclature of  Machine  Details;  the  Income  Tax  Acts;  the  Rating  of  Fac- 
tories ;  Fire  and  Boiler  Insurance ;  the  Factory  and  Workshop  Acts,  &c.^ 
including  also  a  Glossary  of  Terms  and  a  large  number  of  Specimen  Rulings, 
By  Emile  Garcke  and  J.  M.  Fells.  Third  Edition.  Demy  8vo,  250  pages, 
price  6s.  strongly  bound.  [Just  published. 

"A  very  interesting  description  of  the  requirements  of  Factory  Accounts.     .     .     .     the  principle 

©f  assimilating  the  Factory  Accounts  to  the  genercd  commercial  books  is  one  which  we  thoroughly 

agree  with." — Accou7itants'  yournal. 

"  Characterised  by  extreme  thoroughness.      There  are  few  o-«Tiers  of  Factories  who  would 

not  derive  great  benefit  from  the  perusal  of  this  most  admirable  y>oik."— Local  Governmeyit 

Chronicle. 

Foreign  Commercial  Correspondence, 

THE  FOREIGN  COMMERCIAL  CORRESPONDENT :  Being 
Aids  to  Commercial  Correspondence  in  Five  Languages — English,  French, 
German,  Italian  and  Spanish.  By  Conrad  E.  Baker.  Second  Edition, 
Revised.    Crovyn  8vo,  3s.  6d.  cloth.  [Just  published. 

' '  Whoever  wishes  to  correspond  in  all  the  languages  mentioned  by  Mr.  Baker  cannot  do  bettes 
than  study  this  work,  the  materials  of  which  are  excellent  and  conveniently  arranged.  They  con- 
sist not  of  entire  specimen  letters,  but  what  are  far  more  useful— short  passages,  sentences,  or 
phrases  expressing  the  same  general  idea  in  various  form<:." — Athencsntn. 

"A  careful  examination  has  convinced  us  that  it  is  unusually  complete,  well  arranged  and 
reliable.     The  book  is  a  thoroughly  good  one."— Schoolntasler. 

Intuitive  Calculations, 

THE  COMPENDIOUS  CALCULATOR ;  or,  Easy  and  Con- 
cise Methods  of  Performing  the  various  Arithmetical  Operations  required  in 
Commercial  and  Business  Transactions,  together  with  Useful  Tables.  By 
Daniel  O'Gorman.  Corrected  and  Extended  by  J.  R.  Young,  formerly 
Professor  of  Mathematics  at  Belfast  College,  Twenty-seventh  Edition,  care- 
fully Revised  by  C.  Norris.  Fcap.  8vo,  3s.  6d.  strongly  half-bound  in  leather. 
"  It  would  be  difficult  to  exjiggerate  the  usefulness  of  a  book  like  this  to  everj'one  engaged  iii 

commerce  or  manufacturing  industry.    It  is  crammed  full  of  rules  and  formulae  for  shortening  and 

employing  calculations."— JiTnoTvled^-e. 

"  Supplies  special  and  rapid  methods  for  all  kinds  of  calculations.    Of  great  utility  to  persons 

engaged  in  any  kind  of  commercial  transactions."— Scots »ian. 

Modem  Metrical  Units  and  System^s, 

MODERN  METROLOGY :  A  Manual  of  the  Metrical  Units 
and  Systems  of  the  Present  Century.  With  an  Appendix  containing  a  proposed 
English  System.  By  Lewis  D'A.  Jackson,  A.M.Inst.C.E.,  Author  of  "Aid 
to  Survey  Practice,"  &c.    Large  crown  8vo,  12s.  6d.  cloth. 

"The  author  has  brought  together  much  valuable  and  interesting  information.  .  ,  ,  We 
cannot  but  recommend  the  work  to  the  consideration  of  cill  interested  in  the  practical  reform  of  ouy 
weights  and  measures." — Nature. 

"  For  exhaustive  tables  of  equivalent  weights  and  measures  of  all  sorts,  and  for  clear  demonstra- 
tions of  the  effects  of  the  various  systems  that  have  been  proposed  or  adopted,  Mr.  Jacksons 
treatise  is  without  a  TiYal."—Academy. 

The  Metric  System  and  the  British  Standards. 

A  SERIES  OF  METRIC  TABLES,  in  which  the  British  Stand- 
ard Measures  and  Weights  are  compared  with  those  of  the  Metric  System  at  present 
in  Use  on  the  Continent.  By  C.  H.  Dowling,  C.E.  8vo,  ios.  6d.  strongly  bound. 
"  Their  accuracy  has  been  certified  by  Professor  Airy,  the  AstTonomer-Royal."— Builder. 
"Mr.  Bowling's  Tables  are  well  put  together  as  a  ready-reckoner  for  the  conversion  of  on« 
system  into  the  other." — Atketiaum. 

Iron  and  Metal  Trades'  Calculator, 

THE  IRON  AND  METAL  TRADES'  COMPANION.  For 
expeditiously  ascertaining  the  Value  of  any  Goods  bought  or  sold  by  Weight, 
from  IS.  per  cwt.  to  112s.  per  cwt.,  and  from  one  farthing  per  pound  to  one 
shilling  per  pound.  Each  Table  extends  from  one  pound  to  100  tons.  To 
which  are  appended  Rules  on  Decimals,  Square  and  Cube  Root,  Mensuration 
of  Superficies  and  Solids,  &c. ;  Tables  of  Weights  of  Materials,  and  other 
Useful  Memoranda.  ByTnos.  Downie.  396  pp.,  9s.  Strongly  bound  in  leather. 
"  A  most  useful  set  of  tables,  and  will  supply  a  want,  for  nothing  like  them  before  existed." — 

Buildin£^  News. 

"  Although  specially  adapted  to  the  iron  and  metal  trades,  the  tables  will  be  found  useful  is 

every  other  business  in  which  merchandise  is  bought  and  sold  by  weight."— ^«t/ic^>'  Newt. 


30  CROSBY  LOCK  WOOD  &-  SON'S  CATALOGUE. 

Calculator  for  Nimihers  and  Weights  Combined, 

THE  NUMBER  AND  WEIGHT  CALCULATOR.  Contain- 
ing upwards  of  250,000  Separate  Calculations,  showing  at  a  glance  the  value 
at  421  difierent  rates,  ranging  from  Jjth  of  a  Penny  to  20s.  each,  or  per  cwt., 
and  £20  per  ton,  of  any  number  of  articles  consecutively,  from  i  to  470. — 
Any  number  of  cwts.,  qrs.,  and  lbs.,  from  i  cwt.  to  470  cwts. — Any  number  ot 
tons,  cwts.,  qrs.,  and  lbs.,  from  i  to  23^  tons.  By  William  Chadwick,  Public 
Accountant.  Second  Edition,  Revised  and  Improved,  and  specially  adapted 
for  the  Apportionment  of  Mileage  Charges  for  Railway  Trafi&c.  8vo,  price 
18s.,  strongly  bound  for  Ofl&ce  wear  and  tear.  [Just  published. 

'  IS°  This  comprehensive  and  entirely  unique  and  original  Calculator  is  adapted 
for  the  use  of  Accountants  and  Auditors,  Railway  Companies,  Canal  Companies, 
Shippers,  Shipping  Agents,  General  Carriers,  etc.  Ironfounders,  Brassfounders, 
Metal  Merchants,  Iron  Manufacturers,  Ironmongers,  Engineers,  Machinists,  Boiler 
Makers,  Millwrights,  Roofing,  Bridge  and  Girder  Makers,  Colliery  Proprietors,  etc. 
Timber  Merchants,  Builders,  Contractors,  Architects,  Surveyors,  Auctioneers, 
Valuers,  Brokers,  Mill  Owners  and  Manufacturers,  Mill  Furnishers,  Merchants  and 
General  Wholesale  Tradesmen. 

\*  Opinions  of  the  Press. 

The  book  contains  the  answers  to  questions,  and  not  simply  a  set  of  ingenious  puzzle 
methods  of  arriving  at  results.  It  is  as  easy  of  reference  for  any  answer  or  any  number  of  answers 
as  a  dictionary,  and  the  references  are  even  more  quickly  made.  For  making  up  accounts  or  esti- 
mates, the  book  must  prove  invaluable  to  all  who  have  any  considerable  quantity  of  calculations 
involving  price  and  measure  in  any  combination  to  do." — Engineer. 

"  The  most  complete  and  practical  ready  reckoner  which  it  has  been  our  fortune  yet  to  see. 
It  is  difficult  to  imagine  a  trade  or  occupation  in  which  it  could  not  be  of  the  greatest  use,  either 
ta  saving  human  labour  or  in  checking  work.    The  Publishers  have  placed  within  the  reach  of 
every  commercial  man  an  invaluable  and  unfailing  assistant." — The  Miller. 
"  The  most  perfect  work  of  the  kind  yet  prepared." — Glasgow  Herald, 

Comprehensive  Weight  Calculator, 

THE  WEIGHT  CALCULATOR.  Being  a  Series  of  Tables 
upon  a  New  and  Comprehensive  Plan,  exhibiting  at  One  Reference  the  exact 
Value  of  any  Weight  from  i  lb.  to  15  tons,  at  300  Progressive  Rates,  from  id. 
to  i68s.  per  cwt.,  and  containing  186,000  Direct  Answers,  which,  with  their 
Combinations,  consisting  of  a  single  addition  (mostly  to  be  performed  at 
sight),  will  afford  an  aggregate  of  10,266,000  Answers;  the  whole  being  calcu- 
lated and  designed  to  ensure  correctness  and  promote  despatch.  By  Henry 
Harben,  Accountant.  Fourth  Edition,  carefully  Corrected.  Royal  Svo, 
strongly  half-bound,  £1  5s. 
"  A  practical  and  useful  work  of  reference  for  men  of  business  generally  ;  it  is  the  best  of  the 

kind  we  have  se&n."—Ironmon£^er. 

"Of  priceless  value  to  business  men.    It  is  a  necessary  book  in  all  mercantile  offices."— 5.^</- 

/ield   hidependent. 

Comprehensive  Discount  Guide, 

THE  DISCOUNT  GUIDE.  Comprising  several  Series  of 
Tables  for  the  use  of  Merchants,  Manufacturers,  Ironmongers,  and  others, 
by  which  may  be  ascertained  the  exact  Profit  arising  from  any  mode  of  using 
Discounts,  either  in  the  Purchase  or  Sale  of  Goods,  and  the  method  of  either 
Altering  a  Rate  of  Discount  or  Advancing  a  Price,  so  as  to  produce,  by  one 
operation,  a  sum  that  will  realise  any  required  profit  after  allowing  one  or 
more  Discounts :  to  which  are  added  Tables  of  Profit  or  Advance  from  i|  to 
Qo  per  cent.,  Tables  of  Discount  from  i|  to  gSf  per  cent.,  and  Tables  of  Com- 
mission, &c.,  from  \  to  10  per  cent.  By  Henry  Harben,  Accountant,  Author 
of  "  The  Weight  Calculator."  New  Edition,  carefully  Revised  and  Corrected. 
Demy  Svo,  544  pp.  half-bound,  £1  5s. 

"  A  book  such  as  this  can  only  be  appreciated  by  business  men,  to  whom  the  saving  of  time 
means  sa^nng  of  money.  We  have  the  high  authority  of  Professor  J.  R.  Young  that  the  tables 
throughout  the  work  are  constructed  upon  strictly  accurate  principles.  The  work  is  a  model 
of  typographical  clearness,  and  must  prove  of  great  value  to  merchants,  manufacturers,  and 
general  triiders."— British  Trade  Journal. 

Iron  Shiphuilders'  and  Merchants'  Weight  Tables, 

IRON -PLATE  WEIGHT  TABLES:  For  Iron  Shipbuilders, 
Engineers  and  Iron  Merchants.  Containing  the  Calculated  Weights  of  up- 
wards of  150,000  difierent  sizes  of  Iron  Plates,  from  i  foot  by  6  in.  by  |  in.  to 
10  feet  by  5  feet  by  i  in.  Worked  out  on  the  basis  of  40  lbs.  to  the  square 
foot  of  Iron  of  i  inch  in  thickness.  Carefully  compiled  and  thoroughly  Re- 
vised by  H.  Burlinson  and  W.  H,  Simpson.  Oblong  4to,  255.  halt-bound. 
"This  work  will  be  found  of  great  utility.    The  authors  have  had  much  practical  experience 

of  what  is  wanting  in  making  estimates;  and  the  use  of  the  book  will  save  much  time  iu  making 

elaborate  calculations.  —English  Mechanic. 


INDUSTRIAL  AND  USEFUL  ARTS.  31 

INDUSTRIAL  AND  USEFUL  ARTS. 
Soap-niaMng, 

THE  ART  OF  SOAP-MAKING :  A  Practical  Handbook  of  the 
Manufacture  of  Hard  and  Soft  Soaps,  Toilet  Soaps,  etc.  Including  many  New 
Processes,  and  a  Chapter  on  the  Recovery  of  Glycerine  from  Waste  Leys. 
By  Alexander  Watt,  Author  of  "  Electro-Metallurgy  Practically  Treated," 
&c.  With  numerous  Illustrations.  Third  Edition,  Revised.  Crown  8vo, 
ys.  6d.  cloth. 
"The  work  %viU  prove  very  useful,  not  merely  to  the  technological  student,  but  to  the  practical 

soap-boiler  who  wishes  to  understand  the  theory  of  his  art." — Cheynical News. 

"Really  an  excellent  example  of  a  technical   manuzil,  entering,  as  it  does,   thoroughly  and 

exhaustively  both  into  the  theory  and  practice  of  soap  manufacture.    The  book  is  well  and  honestly 

done,  and  deseri-es  the  considerable  circulation  with  which  it  will  doubtless  meet." — KncnuUdge, 
"Mr.  Watt's  book  is  a  thoroughly  practical  treatise  on  an  art  which  has  almost  no  literature  in 

our  language.    We  congratulate  the  author  on  the  success  of  his  endeavour  to  fill  a  void  in  English 

technical  literature."— A '«;'«;-?. 

Taper  MaMng, 

THE  ART  OF  PAPER  MANUFACTURE:  A  Practical  Hand- 
book of  the  Manufacture  of  Paper  from  Rags,  Esparto,  Wood  and  other  Fibres. 
By  Alexander  Watt,  Author  of  "  The  Art  of  Soap-Making,"  •'  The  Art  of 
Leather  Manufacture,"  &c.  With  numerous  Illustrations.  Cr,  8vo,  [In  the  press. 

Leather  Manufacture, 

THE  ART  OF  LEATHER  MANUFACTURE.  Being  a 
Practical  Handbook,  in  which  the  Operations  ot  Tanning,  Currying,  and 
Leather  Dressing  are  fully  Described,  and  the  Principles  of  Tanning  Ex- 
plained, and  many  Recent  Processes  introduced;  as  also  Methods  for  the 
Estimation  of  Tannin,  and  a  Description  of  the  Arts  of  Glue  Boiling,  Gut 
Dressing,  &c.  By  Alexander  Watt,  Author  of  "  Soap-Making,"  "  Electro- 
Metallurgy,"  &c.  With  numerous  Illustrations.  Second  Edition.  Crown 
8vo,  gs.  cloth. 
"A  sound,  comprehensive  treatise  on  tanning  and  its  accessories.    .    .    An  eminently  valuable 

production,  which  redounds  to  the  credit  of    both  author  and  pabliihers." — Chetnical  Review. 
"This  volume  is  technical  without  being  tedious,  comprehensive  and  complete  without  being 

prosy,  and  it  bears  on  every  page  the  impress  of  a  master  hand.    We  have  never  come  across  a 

better  trade  treatise,  nor  one  that  so  thoroughly  supplied  an  absolute  want."— SA^w  and  Leather 

Trades'  Chro?ticle. 

Boot  and  Shoe  flaking. 

THE  ART  OF  BOOT  AND  SHOE-MAKING.     A  Practical 

Handbook,  including  Measurement,  Last-Fitting,  Cutting-Out,  Closing  and 

Making,  with  a  Description  of  the  most    approved  Machinery  employed. 

By  John  B.  Lend,  late  Editor  of  St.  Crispin,  and  The  Boot  and  Shoe-Maker, 

With  numerous  Illustrations.    Third  Edition.     lamo,  2s.  cloth  limp. 

"This  excellent  treatise  is  by  far  the  best  work  ever  written  on  the  subject.    A  new  work, 

embracing  all  modem  improvements,  was  much  wanted.   This  want  is  now  satisfied.    The  chapter 

on  clicking,  which  shows  how  waste  may  be  prevented,  will  save  fifty  times  the  price  of  the  book." 

— Scottish  Leather  Trader. 

"  This  volume  is  replete  with  matter  well  worthy  the  perusal  of  boot  and  shoe  manufacturers 
and  experienced  craftsmen,  and  instructive  and  valuable  in  the  highest  degree  to  all  young 
beginners  and  craftsmen  in  the  trade  of  which  it  treats."— Leather  Trades'  Circular. 

Dentistry, 

MECHANICAL  DENTISTRY  :  A  Practical  Treatise  on  the 
Construction  of  the  various  kinds  of  Artificial  Dentures.  Comprising  also  Use- 
ful Formulae,  Tables  and  Receipts  for  Gold  Plate,  Clasps,  Solders,  &c.  &c. 
By  Charles  Hunter.  Third  Edition,  Revised.  With  upwards  of  100 
Wood  Engravings.  Crown  Svo,  3s.  6d.  cloth. 
"  The  work  is  very  practical."— Jifonthiy  Review  of  Dental  Surgery. 
"  We  can  strongly  recommend  Mr.  Hunter's  treatise  to  all  students  preparing  for  the  profession 

of  dentistry,  as  well  as  to  every  mecluinical  dentist."— X>K6/iM  Journal  of  Medical  Scieiice. 

"  A  work  in  a  concise  form  that  few  could  read  without  gaining  information  irovx."— British 

Journal  of  Dental  Science. 

Wood  Engraving, 

A  PRACTICAL  MANUAL  OF  WOOD  ENGRAVING.  With 
a  Brief  Account  of  the  History  of  the  Art.  By  William  Norman  Brown. 
With  numerous  Illustrations.    Crown  Svo,  zs.  cloth. 

"  The  author  deals  with  the  subject  in  a  thoroughly  practical  and  easy  series  of  representative 
lessons."— /'«/«>-  and  Printing  Trades  Journal. 

"The  book  is  clear  and  complete,  and  will  be  useful  to  anyone  wanting  to  understcind  the  first 
elements  of  the  beautiful  art  of  wood  engraving."— Gr«/>;^jV. 


32  CROSBY  LOCK  WOOD  &>  SON'S  CATALOGUE. 

HANDYBOOKS  FOR  HANDICRAFTS.    By  PAUL  N.  HASLUCK. 

IS"  These  Handybooks  are  written  to  supply  Handicraftsmen  with  informa- 
tion on  workshop  practice,  and  are  intended  to  convey,  in  plain  language,  technical 
knowledge  of  the  several  crafts.  Workshop  terms  are  used,  and  workshop  practice 
described,  the  text  being  freely  illustrated  with  drawings  of  modern  tools,  appliances 
and  processes. 

N.B.  The  following  Volumes  are  already  published,  and  others  are  in  preparation. 

Metal  Turning, 

THE  MET  A  L  TURNER'S  HA  ND  YBOOK.  A  Practical  Manual 
for  Workers  at  the  Foot-Lathe:  Embracing  Information  on  the  Tools, 
Appliances  and  Processes  employed  in  Metal  Turning.  By  Paul  N.  Has- 
LUCK,  Author  of  "  Lathe-Work."  With  upwards  of  One  Hundred  Illustra- 
tions.   Second  Edition,  Revised.    Crown  8vo,  2S.  cloth. 

"  Altogether  admirably  adapted  to  initiate  students  into  the  art  oiinrmng."— Leicester  Post. 
"  Clearly  and  concisely  written,  excellent  in  every  way,  we  heartily  commend  it  to  all  interested 
In  metal  turning." — Mechanical  World. 

Wood  Turning, 

THE  WOOD  TURNER'S  HANDYBOOK.  A  Practical  Manual 
for  Workers  at  the  Lathe:  Embracing  Information  on  the  Tools,  Appliances 
and  Processes  Employed  in  Wood  Turning.  By  Paul  N.  Hasluck.  Wiih 
upwards  of  One  Hundred  Illustrations.  Crown  8vo,  2S.  cloth. 
"We  recommend  the  book  to  young  turners  and  amateurs.  A  multitude  of  workmen  have 
hitherto  sought  in  vain  for  a  manual  of  this  special  industry." — Mechanical  World. 

Watch  Hepairing, 

THE  WATCH  JOBBER'S  HANDYBOOK.  A  Practical  Manual 
on  Cleaning,  Repairing  and  Adjusting.  Embracing  Information  on  the  Tools, 
Materials,  Appliances  and  Processes  Employed  in  Watchwork.  By  Paul  N. 
Hasluck.  With  upwards  of  One  Hundred  Illustrations.  Cr.  8vo,  2S.  cloth. 
"  AH  young  persons  connected  with  the  trade  should  acquire  and  study  this  excellent,  and  it 
the  Scune  time,  inexpensive  woik."—Cl€riemvell  Cnronicle. 

Pattern  MaMng, 

THE  PATTERN  MAKER'S  HANDYBOOK.  A  Practical 
Manual,  embracing  Information  on  the  Tools,  Materials  and  Appliances  em- 
ployed in  Constructing  Patterns  for  Founders.  By  Paul  N.  Hasluck. 
With  One  Hundred  Illustrations.  Crown  Svo,  2s.  cloth. 
•'  We  commend  it  to  all  who  are  interested  in  the  counsels  it  so  ably  gives."— Colliery  Guardian. 
"This  handy  volume  contains  sound  information  of  considerable  value  to  students  and 
artificers."— //arrfa/are  Trades  yournal. 

Mechanical  Manipulation, 

THE  ME  CHA  NICS  WORKSHOP  HA  ND  YBOOK.  A  Practical 
Manual  on  Mechanical  Manipulation.  Embracing  Information  on  various 
Handicraft  Processes,  with  Useful  Notes  and  Miscellaneous  Memoranda. 
By  Paul  N.  Hasluck,    Crown  Svo,  zs.  cloth. 

"  It  is  a  book  which  should  be  found  in  every  workshop,  as  it  is  one  which  will  be  continually 
referred  to  for  a  very  great  amount  of  standard  information."— Sai'wrtfay  Revteu\ 

Model  Engineering, 

THE  MODEL  ENGINEER'S  HANDYBOOK :  A  Practical 
Manual  on  Model  Steam  Engines.  Embracing  Information  on  the  Tools. 
Materials  and  Processes  Employed  in  their  Construction.  By  Paul  N. 
Hasluck.  With  upwards  of  loo  Illustrations.  Crown  Svo,  2S.  cloth. 
"  Mr.  Hasluck's  latest  volume  is  of  greater  importance  than  would  at  first  appear  ;  and  indeed 
he  has  produced  a  very  good  little  book." — Builder. 

"  By  carefully  going  through  the  work,  amateurs  may  pick  up  an  excellent  notion  of  the  con- 
struction of  full-sized  steam  engines."— Tele£'raj>hic  yournal. 

Clock  Repairing, 

THE  CLOCK  JOBBER'S  HANDYBOOK :  A  Practical  Manual 
on  Cleaning,  Repairing  and  A  djusHng.  Embracing  Information  on  the  Tools, 
Materials,  Appliances  and  Processes  Employed  in  Clockwork.  By  Paul  N. 
Hasluck.  Withupwards of  ioo Illustrations.   Cr,  Svo. «. cloth.    \Juitrcady. 


INDUSTRIAL  AND  USEFUL  ARTS.  33 


Electrolysis  of  Gold,  Silver,  Copper,  etc, 

ELECTRO-DEPOSITION  :  A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Electrolysis 
of  Gold,  Silver,  Copper,  Nickel,  and  other  Metals  and  A  Hoys.    With  descrip- 
tions of  Voltaic  Batteries,  Magneto  and  Dynamo-Electric  Machines,  Ther- 
mopiles, and  ol  the  Materials  and  Processes  used  in  every  Department  of 
the  Art,    and    several   Chapters  on    Electro-Metallurgy.      By   Alexander 
Watt,  Author  of  "  Electro-Metallurgy,"  &c.    With  numerous  Illustrations. 
Third  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged.     Crown  8vo,  gs.  cloth, 
i  I  Eminently  a  book  for  the  practical  worker  in  electro-deposition.      It  contains  minute  and 
liractical  descriptions  of  methods,  processes  and  materials  as  actually  pursued  and  used  in  the 
workshop.    Mr.  Watt's  book  recommends  itself  to  all  interested  in  its  subjects."— ^^^J^w/*. 

Electro-Metallurgy, 

ELECTRO-MET  A  LL  ORG  Y ;  Practically  Treated.  By  Alexander 
Watt,  Author  of  "  Electro  Deposition,"  &c.  Ninth  Edition,  including  the 
most  recent  Processes.  lamo,  4s.  cloth  boards. 

"From  this  book  both  am.ateur  and  artisan  may  learn  everj'thing  necessary  for  the  successful 
prosecution  of  electroplating."— /r<7«. 

Electroplating, 

ELECTROPLATING  :  A  Practical  Handbook  on  the  Deposi- 
tion of  Copper,  Silver,  Nickel,  Gold,  Aluminium,  Brass,  Platinum,  &c.  &c. 
With  Descriptions  of  the  Chemicals,  Materials,  Batteries  and  Dynamo 
Machines  used  in  the  Art.  By  J.  W.  Urquhart,  C.E.,  Author  of  "  Eiectric 
Light,"  &c.  Second  Edition,  Revised,  with  Additions.  Numerous  Illustra- 
tions. Crown  8vo,  5s.  cloth. 
An  excellent  practical  rm.'mxd.\."—E)io^ineeriiig; 

•This  book  will  show  any  person  how  to  become  an  expert  in  electro-deposition."— 5;<iMc->'. 
'An  excellent  work,  giving  the  newest  vaioxmdXiQn."—Horolo^ical  Journal. 

Mectrotyping, 

ELECTROTYPING  :  The  Reproduction  and  Multiplication  of  Print 

ing  Surfaces  and  Works  of  Art  by  the  Electro-deposition  of  Metals,    ByJ.  W 

Urquhart,  C.E.    Crown  8vo,  5s.  cloth, 

"  The  book  is  thoroughly  practical.  The  reader  is,  therefore,  conducted  through  the  leading 
aws  of  electricity,  then  through  the  metals  used  by  electrotypers,  the  apparatus,  and  the  depositmg 
P'-ocesses,  up  to  the  final  preparation  of  the  work."— ^r^  Journal. 

Goldsmiths'  Work, 

THE  GOLDSMITH'S   HANDBOOK.      By  George  E.  Gee, 
Jeweller,  &c.    Third  Edition,  considerably  Enlarged.    i2mo,  3s.  6d.  cloth. 
"A  good,  soimd,  technical  educator,  and  will  be  generally  accepted  as  an  authority.."— i/t^rc- 
ogical  Journal. 

"A  standard  book  v/hich  few  will  care  to  be  without."— y«we//er  a7id  Metalworker, 

Silversmiths'  Work, 

THE  SILVERSMITH'S  HANDBOOK,     By  George  E.  Gee, 
Jeweller,  &c.  Second  Edition,  Revised,  with  Illustrations.  i2mo,  3s.  6d,  cloth. 
"The  chief  merit  of  the  work  is  its  practical  character.    .     .    .     The  workers  in  the  trade  will 
speedily  disco'.'er  its  merits  when  they  sit  do«-n  to  study  \\.."— English  Mechanic. 

*:^*  The  above  two  works  together,  strongly  half-bound,  price  ys. 

Bread  and  Biscuit  Baking. 

THE  BREAD  AND  BISCUIT  BAKER'S  AND  SUGAR- 
BOILER'S  ASSISTANT.  Including  a  large  variety  of  Modern  Recipes. 
With  Remarks  on  the  Art  of  Bread-making.  By  Robert  Wells,  Practical 
Baker.     Crown  8vo,  2J.  cloth.  [Just  published. 

'A  large  number  of  wrinkles  for  the  ordinary  cook,  as  well  as  the  hakex."—Sai!irday  Rez'ieiv. 
"  A  book  of  instruction  for  learners  and  for  daily  reference  in  the  hakeh.o\ise.''— Baker's  Times. 

Confectionery, 

THE  PASTRYCOOK  AND  CONFECTIONER'S  GUIDE. 
For  Hotels,  Restaurants  and  the  Trade  in  general,  adapted  also  for  Family 
Use.  By  Robert  Wells,  Author  of  "  The  Bread  and  Biscuit  Baker's  and 
Sugar  Boiler's  Assistant."     Crown  8vo,  2S.  cloth.  [Just  published. 

"  We  cannot  speak  too  highly  of  this  really  excellent  work.  In  these  days  of  keen  competition 
our  readers  cannot  do  better  than  purchase  this  hooVi:'— Baker's  Times. 

•'  Will  be  found  as  serviceable  by  priyate  families  as  by  restaurant  chefs  and  victuallers  in 
general.  "—Miller. 

Laundry  Work, 

A  HANDBOOK  OF  LAUNDRY  MANAGEMENT.  For  Use 
in  Steam  and  Hand-Power  Laundries  and  Private  Houses.  By  the  Editor 
of  The  Laundry  Journal.    Crown  8vo,  2s.  6d.  cloth.  [Just  publishM 


34  CROSBY  LOCK  WOOD  S'  SON'S  CATALOGUE. 

Homology. 

A  TREATISE  ON  MODERN  HOROLOGY,  in  Theory  and  Prac- 
tice. Iranslated  from  the  French  of  Claudius  Saunier,  ex-Director  of  the 
School  ot  Horology  at  Macon,  by  Julien  Tripplin,  F.R.A.S.,  Besancon, 
Watch  Manufacturer,  and  Edward  Rigg,  M.A.,  Assayer  in  the  Royal  Mint. 
With  Seventy-eight  Woodcuts  and  Twenty-two  Coloured  Copper  Plates. 
Second  Edition.  Super-royal  8vo,  £2  2S.  cloth  ;  £2  los.  half-calf. 
"  1  here  is  no  horological  work  in  the  English  language  at  aU  to  be  compared  to  this  produc- 
tion of  M.  Saunier's  for  clearness  and  completeness.  It  is  alike  good  as  a  guide  for  the  student  and 
as  a  reerence  lor  the  experienced  horologist  and  skilled  workman."— Ho?-olo^icai  Journal. 

"  The  latest,  the  most  complete,  and  the  most  reliable  of  those  literary  productions  to  which 
continental  watchmakers  are  indebted  for  the  mechanical  superiority  o\'er  their  English  brethren 
—in fact,  the  Book  of  Books,  is  M.  Saunier's  'Treatise,'"— fVatchwa^er,  Jeweller  a7id Silversmith, 

Watchmaking, 

THE  WATCHMAKER'S  HANDBOOK.  Translated  from  the 
French  of  Claudius  Saunier,  and  considerably  Enlarged  by  Julien  Tripp- 
lin, F.R.A.S.,  Vice-President  of  the  Horological  Institute,  and  Edward  Rigg, 
M.A.,  Assayer  in  the  Royal  Mint.  With  Numerous  Woodcuts  and  Fourteen 
Copper  Plates.  Second  Edition,  Revised. With  Appendix.  Cr.  8vo,  gs.  cloth. 
"  Each  part  is  truly  a  treatise  in  itself.  The  arrangement  is  good  and  the  language  is  clear  and 
concise.    It  is  an  admirable  guide  for  the  young  y.-a.tctin\3.ker."—E?io^ineering: 

"  It  is  impossible  to  speak  too  highly  of  its  excellence.  It  fulfils  every  requirement  in  a  hand- 
book intended  for  the  use  of  a  worKman.  Should  be  found  in  every  workshop."— Wa/cA  and 
Clockmaker. 


CHEMICAL  MANUFACTURES  &  COMMERCE. 

Alkali  Tradef  Maniifactuve  of  Sulphuric  Acid,  etc, 

A    MANUAL    OF    THE    ALKALI    TRADE,    including   the 

Manufacture  of  Sulphuric  Acid,  Sulphate  of  Soda,  and  Bleaching  Powder. 

By  John  Lomas,  Alkali  Manufacturer,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne  and  London. 

With  232  Illustrations  and  Working  Drawings,  and  containing  390  pages  of 

Text.     Second  Edition,  with  Additions.     Super-royal  8vo,  £1  los.  cloth. 

"This  book  is  wTitten  by  a  manufacturer  for  manufacturers.    The  working  details  of  the  most 

approved  forms  of  apparatus  are  given,  and  these  are  accompanied  by  no  less  than  232  wood  en- 

Sn^Tings,  all  of  which  may  be  used  for  the  purposes  of  construction.    Every  step  in  the  manufac 

ture  is  very  fully  described  in  this  manual,  and  each  improvement  ex-p^amed.'  ~  Athen<zzc7n. 

"  AVe  find  here  not  merely  a  sound  and  luminous  explanation  of  the  chemical  principles  of  the 
trade,  but  a  notice  of  numerous  matters  which  have  a  most  important  bearing  on  the  successfu 
conduct  of  alkali  works,  but  which  are  generalb*  overlooked  by  even  experienced  technologica 
authors." — Chaitical  Review. 

Brewing, 

A    HANDBOOK  FOR    YOUNG  BREWERS.      By  Herbert 

Edwards  Wright,  B.A.     Crown  8vo,  3s.  6d.  cloth. 

"  This  little  volume,  containing  such  a  large  amount  of  good  sense  in  so  small  a  compass,  ough 
to  recommend  itself  to  every  brewery  pupil,  and  many  who  have  passed  that  .stage."— .fir«w«rf 
Guardiafi. 

"The  book  is  very  clearly  written,  and  the  author  has  successfully  brought  his  scientific  know 
ledge  to  bear  upon  the  various  processes  and  details  of  brewing.'— ^r^w^r. 

Commercial  Chemical  Analysis, 

THE  COMMERCIAL  HANDBOOK  OF  CHEMICAL  ANA- 
LYSIS;  or,  Practical  Instructions  for  the  determination  of  the  Intrinsic  or 
Commercial  Value  of  Substances  used  in  Manufactures,  in  Trades,  and  in  the 
Ans.  By  A.  Normandy,  Editor  of  Rose's  "Treatise  on  Chemical  Analysis." 
New  Edition,  to  a  great  extent  Re-written  by  Henry  M.  Noad,  Ph.D., 
F.R.S.  With  numerous  Illustrations.  Crown  8vo,  12s.  6d.  cloth. 
"We  strongly  recommend  this  book  to  our  readers  as  a  guide,  alike  indispensable  to  the  house- 
wife as  to  the  pharmaceutical  practitioner." — Medical  Times. 

' '  Essential  to  the  analysts  appointed  under  the  new  Act.  The  most  recent  results  are  given, 
and  the  work  is  well  edited  and  carefully  written,"— A^aiure. 

Explosives. 

A    HANDBOOK    OF    MODERN    EXPLOSIVES.      Being   a 

Practical  Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  and  Application  of  Dynamite,  Gun- 
Cotton,  Nitro-Clycerine,  and  other  Explosive  Compounds.  By  M.  Eissler, 
Mining  Engineer  ,  Author  of  "The  Metallurgy  of  Gold,"  "  The  Metallurgy 
of  Silver,'' &c.    With  about  100  Illustrations.    Crown  8vo.         [In  the  press. 


AGRICULTURE,  FARMING,  GARDENING,  etc.  35 

Dye-Wares  and  Colours, 

THE  MANUAL  OF  COLOURS  AND  DYE-WARES  :  Their 
Properties,  Applications,  Valuation,  Impurities,  and  Sophistications.    For  the 
use  of  Dyers,  Printers,  Drysalters,  Brokers,  &c.    By  J.  W.  Slater.    Second 
Edition,  Revised  and  greatly  Enlarged.    Crown  8vo,  ys.  6d.  cloth, 
"A  complete  encyclopaedia  of  the  ^nateria  Hnctoria.    The  information  given  respecting  each 

article  is  full  and  precise,  and  the  methods  of  determining  the  value  of  articles  such  as  the-e,  so 

liable  to  sophistication,  are  given  with  clearness,  and  are  practical  as  well  as  valuable."— C/;eww; 

and  Drtifrg-ist. 

"  There  is  no  other  work  which  covers  precisely  the  same  ground.    To  students  preparing 

for  examinations  in  dyeing  and  printing  it  will  prove  exceedingly  useful." — Chemical  News. 

Pigments, 

THE  ARTIST'S  MANUAL  OF  PIGMENTS.  Showing 
their  Composition,  Conditions  of  Permanency.  Non-Permanency,  and  Adul- 
terations; Effects  in  Combination  with  Each  Other  and  with  Vehicles  ,  and 
the  most  Reliable  Tests  ol  Purity.  Together  with  the  Science  and  Arts 
Department's  Examination  Questions  on  Painting.  By  H.  C.  Stand.^ge. 
Second  Edition,  Revised.     Small  crown  8vo,  2s.  6d.  cloth. 

"This  work  is  indeed  ■mulhun-in-par-vo,  and  we  can,  with  good  conscience,  recommend  it  to 
all  who  come  in  contact  wnth  pigments,  whether  as  makers,  dealers  or  vlsqts."— Chemical  Review. 
"This  manual  cannot  fail  to  be  a  very  valuable  aid  to  all  painters  who  wish  their  work  to 
endure  and  be  of  a  sound  character  ;  it  is  complete  and  comprehensive." — Siectator. 

"The  author  supplies  a  great  deal  of  very  valuable  information  and  memoranda  as  to  the 
^chemical  qualities  and  artistic  effect  of  the  principal  pigments  used  by  painters." — Builder. 

Gauging,    Tables  and  Rules  for  Revenue  Officers, 

Bretcers,  etc. 

A  POCKET  BOOK  OF  MENSURATION  AND  GAUGING  : 
Containing  Tables,  Rules  and  Memoranda  for  Revenue  Officers,  Brewers, 
Spirit  Merchants,  &c.  By  J.  B.  Manx  (Inland  Revenue).  Oblong  iSmo,  4s. 
leather,  with  elastic  band. 

"  This  handv  and  useful  book  is  adapted  to  the  requirements  of  the  Inland  Revenue  Depart- 
ment, and  will  be  a  favourite  book  of  reference.  The  range  of  subjects  is  comprehensive,  and  the 
arrangement  simple  and  clea.r."— Civilian. 

"  A  most  useful  book.  It  should  be  in  the  hands  of  ever\-  practical  brewer  "—Breivers' 
yoiirnal. 

AGRICULTURE,  FARMING,   GARDENING,  etc. 

Agricultural  Facts  and  Figures, 

NOTE-BOOK  OF  AGRICULTURAL  FACTS  AND  FIGURES 
FOR  FARMERS  AND  FARM  STUDENTS.  By  Primrose  McConnell, 
Fellow  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society  ;  late  Professor  of  Agricul- 
ture, Glasgow  Veterinary  College.  Third  Edition.  Royal  samo,  full  roan, 
gilt  edges,  with  elastic  band,  4s. 
"The  most  comolete  and  comprehensive  Note-book  for  Farmers  and  Farm  Students  that  we 

have  seen.    It  literally  teems  with  mformation,  and  we  can  cordially  recommend  it  to  all  connected 

with  a.grcuilture."—\oylh  British  Azriadturist. 

Youatt  and  Burn's  Complete  GiiHizier. 

THE  COMPLETE  GRAZIER,  and  FARMER'S  and  CATTLE- 
BREEDER'S  ASSISTANT.  A  Compendium  of  Husbandry;  especially  in 
the  departments  connected  with  the  Breeding,  Rearing,  Feedins,  and  General 
Management  of  Stock;  the  Management  of  the  Dairy,  &c.  With  Directions 
for  the  Culture  and  Management  of  Grass  Land,  of  Grain  and  Root  Crops, 
the  Arrangement  of  Farm  Offices,  the  use  of  Implements  and  Machines,  and 
on  Draining,  Irrigation.  Warping,  &c.  ;  and  the  Application  and  Relative 
Value  of  Manures.  By  William  Youatt,  Esq.,  V.S.  Twelfth  Edition,  En- 
larged by  Robert  Scott  Burn,  Author  of  "  Outlines  of  Modern  Farming,' 
"  Systematic  Small  Farming,"  &c.  One  large  8vo  volume,  S60  pp,,  with  244 
Illustrations,  £i  is.  half-bound. 

"  The  standard  and  text-book  with  the  farmer  and  graizier."— Farmers  Magazine. 
"  A  treatise  which  will  remain  a  standard  work  on  the  subject  as  long  as  British  agriculture 
endures."— jl/ar*  Lane  Express  (First  Notice). 

"The  h>ook  deals  with  all  departments  of  agriculture,  and  contains  an  immense  amount  of 
valuable  information.  It  is,  in  fact,  an  encyclopaedia  of  agriculture  put  into  readable  form,  and  it 
Is  the  only  work  equally  comprehensive  brought  down  to  present  date.  It  is  excellently  printed  on 
thick  paper,  and  strongly  bound,  and  deserves  a  place  in  the  Ubrary  of  every  agriculturist.  '—Mark 
Za««  ^-vjJr^jj  (Second  Notice).  .     ,      .  ,-      , 

"This  esteemed  work  is  well  worthy  of  a  place  in  the  libraries  of  .agriculturists,  —^orth 
British  Agriculturist. 


36  CROSBY  LOCK  WOOD  6-  SON'S  CATALOGUE. 

Flour  Manufacture,  Milling^  etc, 

FLOUR   MANUFACTURE :   A  Treatise   on   Milling   Science 
and  Practice.    By  Friedrich  Kick,  Imperial  Regierungsrath,  Professor  of 
Mechanical    Technology   in    the   Imperial   German   Polytechnic    Institute, 
Prague.    Translated  from  the  Second  Enlarged  and  Revised  Edition  with 
Supplement.     By  H.  H.  P.  Powles,  A.M.I.C.E.     Nearly  400  pp.     Illustrated 
with  28  Folding  Plates,  and  167  Woodcuts.     Royal  8vo,  25s.  cloth. 
"  This  valuable  work  is,  and  will  remain,  the  standard  authority  on  the  science  of  milliiigf.    .     . 
The  miller  v.  ho  has  read  and  digested  this  v.ork  will  have  laid  the  foundation,  so  to  speak,  of  a  suc- 
cessful career  ;  he  will  have  acquired  a  number  of  general  principles  which  he  can  proceed  to 
apply.     In  this  handsome  volume  we  at  last  have  the  accepted  text -book  of  modem  milling  in  good 
sound  English,  which  hasUtde,  if  any,  trace  of  the  German  idiom."— T/ie  Miher. 

"  The  appearance  of  this  celebrated  work  in  English  is  very  opportune,  and  British  millers 
%vill,  we  are  sure,  not  be  slow  in  availing  themselves  of  its  ^?lS,&%"— Millers'  Gazette. 

Small  Farming, 

SYSTEMATIC   SMALL   FARMING;    or,  The  Lessons  of  my 

Farm.     Being  an  Introduction  to  Modern  Farm  Practice  for  Small  Farmers. 

By  Robert  Scott  Burn,  Author  of  "  Outlines  of  Modern  Farming."     With 

numerous  Illustrations,  crown  8vo,  6s.  cloth. 

"This  is  the  completest  book  of  its  class  we  have  seen,  and  one  which  every  Smateur  fanner 
wiU  read  with  pleasure  and  accept  as  a  guide." — Field. 

"The  Tolume  contains  a  vast  amount  of  useful  infonnation.  No  branch  of  farming  is  left 
untouched,  from  the  labour  to  be  done  to  the  results  achieved.  It  ma}-  be  safelj'  recommended  to  ' 
all  who  think  they  will  be  in  paradise  when  they  buy  or  rent  a  three-acre  i?an\."—Glasgo-w  Herald, 

Modem  Farming, 

OUTLINES  OF  MODERN  FARMING.     By  R.  Scott  Burn. 
Soils,  Manures,  and  Crops— Farming  and  Farming  Economy— Cattle,  Sheep, 
and  Horses  —  Management  of  Dairy,    Pigs    and    Poultry  —  Utilisation  of 
Town-Sewage,  Irrigation,  &c.    Sixth  Edition.    In  One  Vol.,  1,250  pp.,  half- 
bound,  profusely  Illustrated,  12s. 
The  aim  of  the  author  has  been  to  make  his  work  at  once  comprehensive  and  trustworthy, 
ana  m  this  aim  he  has  succeeded  to  a  degree  which  entitles  him  to  much  credit."— Morftwg' 
Adverttier.        "  No  farmer  should  be  without  this  hook."— Bantury  Guardia)i. 

Agricultural  Engineering, 

FARM  ENGINEERING,  THE  COMPLETE  TEXT-BOOK  OF. 

Comprising  Draining  and  Embanking ;  Irrigation  and  Water  Supply ;  Farm 
Roads,  Fences,  and  Gates  ;  Farm  Buildings,  their  Arrangement  and  Con- 
struction, with  Plans  and  Estimates;  Barn  Implements  and  Machines  ;  Field 
Implements  and  Machines;  Agricultural  Surveying,  Levelling,  &c.  By  Prof. 
John  Scott,  Professor  of  Agriculture  at  the  Royal  Agricultiural  College, 
Cirencester,  &c.  In  One  Vol.,  1,150  pages,  half-bound,  6co  Illustrations,  12s. 
"  Written  with  great  care,  as  well  as  with  knowledge  and  ability.    The  author  has  done  his 

work  well ;  we  have  found  him  a  very  trustivorthy  guide  wherever  we  have  tested  his  statements. 

The  volume  will  be  of  great  value  to  agricultijral  students,"— J/sr/fe  La^u  Express. 

"For  a  j-oung  agriculturist  we  know  of  no  handy  volume  so  likely  to  be  more  usefiilly  studied. 

—Bell's  JVeekly  Messencrer. 

Englisli  Agriculture, 

THE    FIELDS   OF   GREAT    BRITAIN  :    A  Text-Book    of 

Agriculture,  adapted  to  the  Syllabus  of  the  Science  and  Art  Department. 
For  Elementary  and  Advanced  Students.  By  Hugh  Clements  (Board  of 
Trade).     Second  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged.     i8mo,  2s.  6d.  cloth. 

|]  A  most  comprehensive  volume,  gi\-ing  a  mass  of  in{ormation."—A£-rict(lt2iral  Economist. 
"  It  is  a  long  time  since  we  have  seen  a  book  which  has  pleased  us  more,  or  which  contains 
such  a  vast  and  useful  fund  of  knoviledge."— Educational  Times. 

Neiv  Focket  Book  for  Farmers, 

TABLES,  MEMORANDA,  AND  CALCULATED  RESULTS 

for  Farmers,  Graziers,  Agricultural  Students,  Surveyors,  Land  Agents  Auc- 
tioneers, etc.      With  a  New  System  of  Farm  Book-keeping.      Selected  and 
Arranged  by  Sidney  Francis.     Second  Edition,  Revised.    272  pp.,  waist- 
coat-pocket size,  IS.  6d.,  limp  leather.  [Just  published. 
'•Weighing  less  than  i  oz  .  and  occupving  no  more  space  than  a  match  box,  it  contains  a  mass 
of  facts  and  calculations  which  has  never  before,  in  such  handy  form,  been  obtainable.     Every 
operation  on  the  farm  is  dealt  with.     The  work  may  be  taken  as  thoroughly  accurate,  having  been 
revised  by   Dr.   Fream.      We  cordially  recommend   it."— Bells  Weekly  Messenger. 

'•  A  marvellous  little,  book.  .  .-.  The  agriculturist  who  possesses  himself  of  it  will  not  be 
disappointed  with  his  investment.' —TVie  Farm, 


AGRICULTURE,  FARMING,  GARDENING,  etc.  37 

Farm  and  Estate  Bookkeejnng, 

BOOK-KEEPING  FOR  FARMERS  &  ESTATE  OWNERS. 
A  Practical  Treatise,  presenting,  in  Three  Plans,  a  System  adapted  to  all 
Classes  of  Farms.  By  Johnson  M.Woodman,  Chartered  Accountant.  Second 
Edition,  Revised.  Crown  8vo,  35.  6d.  cloth  boards ;  or  2s.  6d.  cloth  limp. 
"  The  volume  is  a  capital  studj-  of  a  most  important  subject."— ^^rzV/^/^/vra/  Gazette. 
"Will  be  found  of  great  assistance  by  those  who  intend  to  commence  a  system  of  book-keep- 
Irg,  the  author's  examples  being  clear  smd  explicit,  and  his  explanations,  while  full  and  accurate, 
being-  to  a  large  extent  free  from  technicalities."— Zzz'«  StocM  Journal. 

Farm  Account  Book, 

WOODMAN'S  YEARLY  FARM  ACCOUNT  BOOK.  Giving 
a  Weekly  Labour  Account  and  Diary,  and  showing  the  Income  and  Expen- 
diture under  each  Department  of  Crops,  Live  Stock,  Dairy,  &c.  &c.  With 
Valuation,  Profit  and  Loss  Account,  and  Balance  Sheet  at  the  end  of  the 
Year,  and  an  Appendix  of  Forms.  Ruled  and  Headed  for  Entering  a  Com- 
plete Record  of  the  Farming  Operations.  By  Johnson  M.  Woodman, 
Chartered  Accountant,  Author  of  "Book-keeping  for  Farmers."  Folio, 
7s.  6rf.  half  boimd.  [culture. 

"Contains  everj-  requisite    orm  for  keeping  farm  accounts  readily  and  accurately."— ^^ri- 

Early  Fruits,  Flowers  and  Vegetables, 

THE  FORCING  GARDEN ;  or,  How  to  Grow  Early  Fruits, 
Flowers,  and  Vesetables.  With  Plans  and  Estimates  for  Building  Glass- 
houses, Pits  and  Frames.  Containing  also  Original  Plans  for  Double  Glazing, 
a  New  Method  of  Growing  the  Gooseberry  under  Glass,  &c.  &c.,  and  on  Venti- 
lation, &c.  With  Illustrations.  By  Samuel  Wood.  Crown  8vo,  3s.  6rf.  cloth. 
"  A  good  book,  and  fairly  fills  a  place  that  was  in  some  degree  vacant.    The  book  is  written  with 

great  care,  and  contains  a  great  deal  of  valuable  teaching." — Gardeners'  Magaziiie. 

"Mr.  Wood's  book  is  an  original  and  exhaustive  answer  to  the  question  'How  to  Grow  Early 

Fruits,  Flowers  and  Vegetables  J  ' " — Land  and  Water. 

Good  Gardening, 

A  PLAIN  GUIDE  TO  GOOD  GARDENING  ;  or.  How  to  Grow 

Vegetables,  Fruits,  and  Flowers.    With  Practical  Notes  on  Soils,  Manures, 

Seeds,  Planting,  Laying-out  of  Gardens  and  Grounds,  &c.     By  S.  Wood. 

Third  Edition,  with  considerable  Additions,  Sic,  and  numerous  Illustrations. 

Crown  Svo.  5s.  cloth. 

"  A  %'erj'  good  book,  and  one  to  be  highly  recommended  as  a  practical  guide.  The  practical 
directions  are  e-^ce\\evit."—Atk€?uzn?n. 

"  May  be  recommended  to  young  gardeners,  cottagers  and  amateurs,  for  the  plain  and  trust 
worthy  information  it  gives  on  common  matters  too  often  neglected." — Gardefiers'  Chronicle. 

Gainful  Gardening, 

MULTUM-IN-PARVO  GARDENING;  or,  How  to  make  One 

Acre  of  Land  produce  £620  a-year  by  the  Cultivation  of  Fruits  and  Vegetables ; 
also,  How  to  Grow  Flowers  in  Three  Glass  Houses,  so  as  to  realise  £176  per 
annum  clear  Profit.  By  Samuel  Wood,  Author  of  "Good  Gardening,"  &c. 
Fourth  and  cheaper  Edition,  Revised,  with  Additions.  Crown  Svo.  is.  sewed. 
"We  are  bound  to  recommend  it  as  not  only  suited  to  the  case  of  the  amateur  and  gentleman's 
gardener,  but  to  the  market  grovrer."— Gardeners'  Magazine. 

Gardening  for  Ladies, 

THE  LADIES'  MULTUM-IN-PARVO  FLOWER  GARDEN, 

:ind  Amateurs'  Complete  Guide.     By  S.  Wood.     Crown  Svo,  3s.  6d.  cloth. 

"  This  volume  contains  a  good  deal  of  sound,  common  sense  instruction." — Florist. 

"Full  of  shrewd  hints  and  useful  instructions,  based  on  a  lifetime  of  experience." — Scotstnatt, 

Receijits  for  Gardeners, 

GARDEN  RECEIPTS.     Edited  by  Charles  W.  Quin.     i2mo 
IS.  6d.  cloth  limp. 
"A  useful  and  handy  book,  containing  a  good  deal  of  valuable  infoIm^tion."—AtAe1!i^7tfn, 

^Market  Gardening, 

MARKET  AND  KITCHEN  GARDENING.  By  Contributors 
to  "  The  Garden.''  Compiled  by  C.  W.  Shaw,  late  Editor  of  "Gardening 
Illustrated."     lamo,  3s.  6d.  cloth  boards.  {Just  published. 

Tke  most  \-aluable  compendium  of  kitchen  and  market-garden  work  published."— /"ar7«<fr. 

Cottage  Gardening, 

COTTAGE  GARDENING;  or,  Flowers,  Fruits,  and  Vegetables  or 
Stiiall  Gardens.    By  E.  Hobday,     izmo,  is.  6d.  cloth  limp. 
"Contains  much  useful  information  at  a  small  charge."— Glasgow  Herald. 


38  CROSBY  LOCK  WOOD  &>  SON'S  CATALOGUE. 

ESTATE  MANAGEMENT,  AUCTIONEERING,  LAW,  etc. 


Hudson's  Land  Valuer's  JPocket-Book, 

THE  LAND  VALUER'S  BEST  ASSISTANT:  Being  Tables 

on  a  very  much  Improved  Plan,  for  Calculating  the  Value  of  Estates.  With 
Tables  for  reducing  Scotch,  Irish,  and  Provincial  Customary  Acres  to  Statute 
Measure,  &c.  By  R.  Hudson,  C.E.  New  Edition.  Royal  32mo,  leather, 
elastic  band,  4s. 

"This  new  edition  includes  tables  or  ascertaining  the  value  of  leases  for  any  term  of  years ; 
auid  for  showingf  how  to  lay  out  plots  of  arround  of  certain  acres  in  forms,  square,  round,  &c.,  with 
valuable  rules  for  ascertaining-  the  probable  vorth  of  standing  timber  to  auy  amount ;  Eind  is  of 
'ncalculable  value  to  the  countrj-  gentleman  and  professional  man." — Farniers'  Journal, 

Eivart's  Land  Improver's  Pocket-Book, 

THE  LAND  IMPROVER'S  POCKET-BOOK  OF  FORMULAE, 

TABLES  and  MEMORANDA  repiiired  in  any  Computation  relating  to  the 
Permanent  Improvement  of  Landed  Property.   By  John  Ewart,  Land  Surveyor 
and  Agricultural  Engineer.     Second  Edition^  Revised.    Royal  321110.  oblong, 
leather,  gilt  edges,  with  elastic  band,  4s. 
"A  compendious  and  handy  little  volume."— S/^rfa/t/r. 

Complete  Agricultural  Surveyor's  Pocket-Book, 

THE  LAND  VALUER'S  AND  LAND  IMPROVER'S  COM- 
PLETE POCKET-BOOK.  Consisting  of  the  above  Two  Works  bound  to- 
gether.   Leather,  gilt  edges,  with  strap,  75.  6d. 

"  Hudson's  book  is  the  best  ready-reckoner  on  matters  relating  to  the  valuation  of  land  and 
crops,  and  its  combination  with  Mr.  Ewart 's  work  greatly  enhances  the  value  and  usefulness  of  the 
latter-mentioned.  .  .  .  It  is  most  useful  as  a  manual  for  reference."— ^V^^A  (j/^^ijf/a^rfFarwfr. 

Auctioneer's  Assistant, 

THE  APPRAISER,  A  UCTIONEER,  BROKER,  HOUSE  AND 
ESTATE  AGENT  AND  VALUER'S  POCKET  ASSISTANT,  for  the  Valua- 
tion  for  Purchase,  Sale,  or  Renewal  of  Leases,  Annuities  and  Reversions,  and 
of  property  generally;  with  Prices  for  Inventories,  &c.  By  John  Wheeler, 
Valuer,  &c.  Fifth  Edition,  re-written  and  greatly  extended  by  C.  Norris, 
Surveyor,  Valuer,  &c.     Royal  szmo,  5s.  cloth. 

"A  neat  and  concise  book  of  reference,  containing  an  admirable  and  clearly-arranged  list  ot 

prices  for  inventories,  and  a  very  practical  guide  to  determine  the  value  of  {umiUiie,&c."—Siandarcl. 

"  Contains  a  large  quantity  of  varied  and  useful  information  as  to  the  valuation  for  purchase, 

sale,  or  renewal  of  leases,  annuities  and  reversions,  and  of  property  generally,  with  prices  for 

inventories,  and  a  guide  to  determine  the  value  of  interior  fittings  and  other  eSects."— Builder. 

Auctioneering, 

AUCTIONEERS :  Their  Duties  and  Liabilities.  By  Robert 
Squibbs,  Auctioneer.    Demy  8vo,  los.  6d.  cloth. 

"The  position  and  duties  of  auctioneers  treated  compendiously  and  c\e&T\y."— Builder. 
"Every  auctioneer  ought  to  possess  a  copy  of  this  excellent  viqxY."— Ironmonger. 
"  Of  great  value  to  the  profession.    .    .    .    We  readily  welcome  this  book  from  the  fact  that  it 
treats  the  subject  in  a  manner  somewhat  nev.-  to  the  profession."— Estates  Ga-ette. 

Legal  Guide  for  Pawnbrokers, 

THE  PAWNBROKERS',  FACTORS'  AND  MERCHANTS' 
GUIDE  TO  THE  LAW  OF  LOANS  AND  PLEDGES.  With  the 
Statutes  and  a  Digest  of  Cases  on  Rights  and  Liabilities,  Civil  and  Criminal, 
as  to  Loans  and  Pledges  of  Goods,  Debentures,  Mercantile  and  other  Se- 
curities. By  H.  C.  FoLKARD,  Esq.,  Barrister-at-Law,  Author  of  "  The  Law 
of  Slander  and  Libel,"  &c.  With  Additions  and  Corrections.  Fcap.  8vo, 
3s.  6d.  cloth. 

"  This  work  contains  simply  everything  that  requires  to  be  known  concerning  the  department 
of  the  law  of  which  it  treats.  We  can  safely  commend  the  book  as  unique  and  very  nearly  perfect." 
—Iron. 

"The  task  undertaken  by  Mr.  Folkard  has  been  very  satisfactorily  performed.  .  .  .  Such  ex- 
planations as  are  needful  have  been  supplied  with  great  clearness  and  with  due  regard  to  brevity.' 
Ciiy  Press. 


ESTATE  MANAGEMENT,  AUCTIONEERING,  LAW,  etc.  39 

Mow  to  Invest, 

HINTS  FOR  INVESTORS  :  Being  an  Explanation  of  the  Mode 
of  Transacting  Business  on  the  Stock  Exchange.  To  which  are  added  Com- 
ments on  the  Fluctuations  and  Table  of  Quarterly  Average  prices  ol  Consols 
since  1759.  Also  a  Copy  oi  the  London  Daily  Stock  and  Share  List.  By 
Walter  M.  Playford,  Sworn  Broker.  Crown  8vo,  25.  cloth. 
"An  invcUuable  giiide  to  investors  and  speculators."— 5m//i<?«w-< 

Metropolitan  Hating  Apj^eals. 

REPORTS  OF  APPEALS  HEARD  BEFORE  THE  COURT 
OF  GENERAL  ASSESSMENT  SESSIONS,  from  the  Year  1871  to  1885. 
By  Edward  Ryde  and  Arthur  Lyon  Ryde.  Fourth  Edition,  brought  down 
to  the  Present  Date,  with  an  Introduction  to  the  Valuation  (Metropolis)  Act, 
1869,  and  an  Appendix  by  Walter  C.  Ryde,  ol  the  Inner  Temple,  Barrister- 
at-Law.     8vo,  i6s.  cloth. 

"  A  useful  work,  occupying^  a  place  mid-way  between  a  handbook  for  a  lawyer  and  a  guide  to 
the  surveyor.  It  is  compiled  by  a  gentleman  eminent  in  his  profession  as  a  land  agent,  whose  spe- 
cialtj-,  it  is  acknowledged,  hes  in  the  direction  of  assessing  property  for  rating  purposes."— Z.a«rf 
A^ejits'  Record. 

House  Property, 

HA  NDBOOK  OF  HO  USE  PROPERTY.  A  Popular  and  Practical 
Guide  to  the  Purchase,  Mortgage,  Tenancy,  and  Compulsory  Sale  of  Houses  and 
Land,  including  the  Law  of  Dilapidations  and  Fixtures ;  with  Examples  of 
all  kinds  of  Valuations,  Useful  Information  on  Buildings,  and  Suggestive 
Elucidations  of  Fine  Art.  By  E.  L,  Tarbuck,  Architect  and  Surveyor. 
Fourth  Edition,  Enlarged.    i2mo,  5s.  cloth. 

"The  advice  is  thoroughly  practical."— Law  your^uxl. 

'"For  all  who  have  dealings  ^-ith  house  property,  this  is  an  indispensable  guide.  ' — DecoraHon. 

"Carefully  brought  up  to  date,  and  much  improved  by  the  addition  of  a  division  on  fine  art. 

■■  A  well-wTitten  and  thoughtful  \sor\i:' —Laiid  Agents  Record. 

Inwood's  Estate  Tables, 

TABLES  FOR  THE  PURCHASING  OF  ESTATES,  Freehold, 

Copyhold,  or  Leasehold;  Annuities,  A dvowsons,  etc.,  a.nd  for  the  Renewing  of 
Leases  held  under  Cathedral  Churches,  Colleges,  or  other  Corporate  bodies, 
for  Terms  ot  Years  certain,  and  for  Lives ;  also  tor  Valuing  Reversionary 
Estates,  Deferred  Annuities,  Next  Presentations,  &c. ;  together  with  Smart's 
Five  Tables  of  Compound  Interest,  and  an  Extension  of  the  same  to  Lower 
and  Intermediate  Rates.  By  W.  Inwood.  25rd  Edition,  with  considerable 
Additions,  and  new  and  valuable  Tables  of  Logarithms  for  the  more  Difficult 
Computations  of  the  Interest  of  Money,  Discount,  Annuities,  &c. ,  by  M.  Fedor 
Thoman,  of  the  Societe  Credit  Mobilier  of  Paris.  Crown  Svo,  Ss.  cloth. 
"Those  interested  in  the  purchase  and  sale  of  estates,  and  in  the  adjustment  of  compensation 

cases,  as  well  as  in  transactions  in  annuities,  life  insurances,  &c.,  viill  find  the  present  edition  of 

eminent  service." — Engineering: 

"  '  Inwood's  Tables  '  still  maintain  a  most  enviable  reputation.  The  new  issue  has  been  enriched 

by  large  additional  contributions  by  M.  Fedor  Thoman,  whose  carefully  arranged  Tables  cannot 

fail  to  De  of  the  utmost  utilixy."— Mining  youmal. 

Agricultural   and  Tenant-Right   Valuation, 

THE  AGRICULTURAL  AND  TENANT-RIGHT-VALUER'S 
ASSISTANT.  A  Practical  Handbook  on  Measuring  and  Estimating  the 
Contents,  Weights  and  Values  of  Agricultural  Produce  and  Timber,  the 
Values  of  Estates  and  Agricultural  Labour,  Forms  of  Tenant-Right-Valua- 
tions, Scales  of  Compensation  under  the  Agricultural  Holdings  Act,  1883, 
&c.  &c.  By  Tom  Bright,  Agricultural  Surveyor.  Crown  8vo,  3s.  6d.  cloth. 
"  Full  of  tables  and  examples  in  connection  with  the  valuation  of  tenant-right,  estates,  labour. 

contents,  and  weights  of  timber,  and  farm  produce  of  all  k.inds."—Agric7i/tnral  Gazette. 

"  An  eminendy  practical  handbook,  full  of  practical  tables  and  data  of  undoubted  interest  and 

value  to  surveyors  and  auctioneers  in  preparing  valuations  ot  all  kinds.'— Farf^ier. 

Plantations  and  Underwoods, 

POLE  PLANTATIONS  AND   UNDERWOODS :  A  Practical 

Handbook  on  Estimating  the  Cost  of  Forming,  Renovating,  Improving  and 
Grubbing  Plantations  and  Underwoods,  their  Valuation  for  Purposes  ot 
Transfer,  Rental,  Sale  or  Assessment.  By  Tom  Bright,  F.S.Sc,  Author  ot 
•'The  Agricultural  and  Tenant-Right-Valuer's  Assistant,"  &c.  Crown  Svo, 
3s.  6d.  cloth.  [Just  published. 

••Very  useful  to  those  actually  engaged  in  managing  v,-ood.''— Beit's  Jl^eei/y  Afessenger. 

•'  To  valuers,  foresters  and  agents  it  will  be  a  welcome  aid."— AVr/A  British  AgricuUurist. 

'•Well  calculated  to  assist  the  valuer  in  the  discharge  of  his  duties,  and  of  undoubted  interest 
And  use  both  to  surveyors  and  auctioneers  in  preparing  valuations  of  all  kinds.  '—Kent  Herald. 


40  CROSBY  LOCK  WOOD  &>  SON'S  CATALOGUE. 

A  Complete  EiJitonie  of  the  Jbaivs  of  this  Country, 

EVERY  MAN'S  OWN  LAWYER:  A  Handy. Book  of  the 
Principles  of  Law  and  Equity.  By  A  Barrister.  Twenty-sixth  Edition. 
Reconstructed,  Thoroughly  Revised,  and  much  Enlarged.  Including  the 
Legislation  of  the  Two  Sessions  of  1888,  and  including  careful  digests  of  The 
Local  Government  Act,  1888;  County  Electors  Act,  1888;  County  Courts  Act, 
1888;  Glebe  Lands  Act,  1888;  Law  of  Libel  Amendment  Act,  1888;  Patents, 
Designs  and  Trade  Marks  Act,  1888;  Solicitors  Act,  1888;  Preferential  Pay- 
ments in  Bankruptcy  Act,  1888;  Land  Charges  Registration  and  Searches  Act, 
1888  ;  Trustee  Act,  1888,  &c.  Crown  8vo,  688  pp.,  price  6s.  M.  (saved  at  every 
consultation !  ),  strongly  bound  in  cloth.  {.J'^'st  published, 

*^*  THE  BOOK  WILL  BE  FOUND  TO  COMPRISE  (AMONGST 
OTHER  MATTER)— 

THE  Rights  and  Wrongs  of  Individuals— Mercantile  and  commercial  Law 
—Partnerships,  Contracts  and  Agreements  —  Guarantees,  Principals  and 
Agents— Criminal  Law— Parish  Law— County  Court  Law— Game  and  Fishery 
Laws— Poor  Mens  Lawsuits— Laws  of  Bankruptcy— Wagers— Cheques,  Bills 
AND  Notes— Copyright— Elections  and  Registration— Insurance— Libel  and 
Slander— Marriage  and  Divorce— Merchant  Shipping— Mortgages— Settle- 
ments-Stock Exchange  Practice— Trade  Marks  and  Patents— Trespass— Nui- 
sances—Transfer  of  Land— Wills,  &c.  &c.  Also  Law  for  Landlord  and  Tenant 
—Master  and  Servant— Heirs— Devisees  and  Legatees— Husband  and  Wife- 
Executors  AND  Trustees— Guardian  and  Ward— Married  Women  and  Infants 
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Vendor— Companies— Friendly  Societies— Clergymen— Churchwardens— Medi- 
cal Practitioners— Bankers— Farmers— Contractors— Stock  Brokers— Sports- 
men—Gamekeepers— Farriers— Horse  Dealers— Auctioneers— House  Agents- 
Innkeepers— Bakers— Millers— Pawnbrokers— Surveyors— Railways  and  Car- 
riers—Constables—Seamen—Soldiers, &c.  &c. 

1^"  The  following  subjects  may  be  mentioned  as  amongst  those  which  have  re- 
ceived  special  attention  during  the  revision  in  q  uestion: — Marriage  of  British  Subjects 
Abroad  ;  Police  Constables  ;  Pawnbrokers ;  Intoxicating  Liquors  ;  Licensing ; 
Domestic  Servants;  Landlord  and  Tenant;  Vendors  and  Purchasers;  Muni- 
cipal Elections  ;  Local  Elections ;  Corrupt  Practices  at  Elections  ;  Public  Health 
and  Nuisances  ;  Highways  ;  Churchwardens  ;  Legal  and  Illegal  Ritual;  Vestry 
Meetings  ;  Rates. 

It  is  believed  that  the  extensions  and  amplifications  of  the  present  edition, 
while  intended  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  ordinary  Englishman,  will  also 
have  the  effect  of  rendering  the  book  useful  to  the  legal  practitioner  in  the 
country. 

One  result  of  the  reconstruction  and  revision,  with  the  extensive  additions 
thereby  necessitated,  has  been  the  enlargement  of  the  book  by  nearly  a  hundred  and 
fifty  pages,  while  the  price  remains  as  before. 

The  Publishers  feel  every  confidence,  therefore,  that  this  standard  work 
will  continue  to  be  regarded,  as  hitherto,  as  an  absolute  necessity  for  every 
Man  of  Business  as  well  as  every  Head  of  a  Family. 

***  Opinions  of  the  Press. 

"It  is  a  complete  code  of  English  Law,  written  in  plain  language,  which  all  can  understand, 
.  .  .  Should  be  in  the  hands  of  every  business  man,  and  all  who  wish  to  abolish  lawj-ers'  bills." — 
Weekly  Times. 

"A  useful  and  concise  epitome  of  the  law,  compiled  vnth  considerable  care.  —Law  Magazine. 

"  A  concise,  cheap  and  complete  epitome  of  the  English  law.  So  plainly  written  tha,t  he  who 
runs  may  read,  and  he  who  reads  may  understand.'' — Figaro. 

"  A  dictionary  of  legal  facts  well  put  together.    The  book  is  a  very  useful  Gn%." -^Spectator. 

"  A  work  which  has  long  been  wanted,  which  is  thoroughly  well  done,  and  which  we  most 
cordially  recommend.' — Siaiday  Times, 

Private  Bill  Legislation  and  Provisional  Orders. 

HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   USE  OF  SOLICITORS  AND  EN- 
GINEERS Engaged  in  Promoting  Private  Acts  of  Parliament  and  Provi- 
sional Orders,  for  the  Authorization  of  Railways,  Tramways,  Works  for  the 
Supply  of  Gas  and   Water,  and  other  undertakings  of  a  like  character.     By 
L.  Livingston   Macassey,  of  the  Middle  Temple,   Barrister- at-Law,  and 
Member  of  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers;  Author  of  "  Hints  on  Water 
Supply.''     Demy  8vo,  950  pp.,  price  25s.  cloth. 
"  The  volume  is  a  desideratum  on  a  subject  which  can  be  only  acquired  by  practical  experi- 
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The  author's  suggestions  and  notes  will  be  found  of  great  value  to  engineers  and  others  profession- 
cilly  engaged  in  this  class  of  practice." — Bi<.ildi>tg  News. 

"  The  author's  double  experience  as  an  engineer  and  barrister  has  eminently  qualified  him  for 
the  task,  and  enabled  him  to  approach  the  subject  alike  from  an  engineering  and  legal  point  of 
view.  The  volume  will  be  found  a  great  help  both  to  engineers  and  lawyers  engaged  in  promoting 
Private  Acts  of  Parliament  and  Provisional  Orders."— /,<?<:«/  Government  Chronicle. 

Ji  OGDEN  AND  CO.   LIMITED,   PRINTERS,   GREAT  SAFFRON   HILL,  E.G. 


Wit&W$  iatulrimentaca  Series. 


LONDON,   1862. 
THE  PRIZE   MEDAL 

Was  awarded  to  the  Publishers  of 

"WHALE'S  SERIES." 


A  NEW  LIST    OF 

WEALE'S    SERIES 

RUDIMENTARY  SGIENTIFIGjEDUCATIONAL, 
AND   CLASSICAL. 

Comprising  nearly  Three  Htnidred  and  Fiffv  distinct  works  in  almost  every 
department  of  Science,  Art,  and  lidiication,  lecuininended  to  the  notice  of  Engineers, 
Architects,  Builders,  Artisans,  and  Students  generally,  as  well  as  to  those  inteiexted 
in  Workmen'' s  Libraries,  Literary  and  Scientific  /nstitntions,  Colleges,  Schools, 
Science  Classes,  ^c,  <5>'c. 


IS"  "  WEALE'S  SERIES  includes  Text-Books  on  almost  every  branch  of 
Science  and  Industry,  comprising  such  subjects  as  Agriculture,  Architecture 
and  Building,  Civil  Engineering,  Fine  Arts,  Mechanics  and  Mechanical 
Engineering,  Physical  and  Chemical  Science,  and  many  miscellaneous 
Treatises.  The  whole  are  constantly  undergoing  revision,  and  new  editions, 
brought  up  to  the  latest  discoveries  in  scientific  research,  are  constantly 
issued.  The  prices  at  which  they  are  sold  are  as  low  as  their  excellence  is 
assured." — American  Literary  Gazette. 

"  Amongst  the  literature  of  technical  education,  Weale's  Series  has  ever 
enjoyed  a  high  reputation,  and  the  additions  being  made  by  Messrs.  Crosby 
LocKWOOD  &  Son  render  the  series  even  more  complete,  and  bring  the  infor- 
mation upon  the  several  subjects  down  to  the  present  time." — Mining 
Jour7ial. 

"  It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  no  books  have  ever  proved  more  popular 
with,  or  more  useful  to,  young  engineers  and  others  than  the  excellent 
treatises  comprised  in  Weale's  Series." — Engineer. 

"  The  excellence  of  Weale's  Series  is  now  so  well  appreciated,  that  it 
would  be  wasting  our  space  to  enlarge  upon  their  general  usefulness  and 
value," — Builder. 

"  WEALE'S  SERIES  has  become  a  standard  as  well  as  an  unrivalled 
collection  of  treatises  in  all  branches  of  art  and  science." — Public  Opinion, 


PHILADELPHIA,  1876. 
THE    PRIZE    MEDAL 

Was  awarded  to  the  Publishers  for 

Books :  Rudimentary,  Scientific, 

"WEALE'S  SERIES,"  ETC. 


CROSBY    LOCKWOOD    &   SON, 

7,   STATIONERS'   HALL   COURT,    LUDGATE   HILL,    LONDON,    E.G. 


WEALE'S   RUDIMENTARY   SERIES. 


WEALE'S  RTJDIMEHTARY  SCIENTIFIC  SERIES. 


%*  The  volumes  of  this  Series  are  freely  Illustrated  with 
Woodcuts,  or  otherwise,  where  requisite.  Throughout  the  fol- 
lowing List  it  must  be  understood  that  the  books  are  bound  in 
limp  cloth,  unless  otherwise  stated ;  but  the  volumes  marked 
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extra, 

N.B. — In  ordering  from  this  List  it  is  recommended,  as  a 
means  of  facilitating  business  and  obviating  error,  to  quote  the 
numbers  affixed  to  the  volumes,  as  vuell  as  the  titles  and  prices. 


CIVIL  ENGINEERING,  SURVEYING,  ETC. 

No. 

31.  WELLS  AND  WELL-SINKING.    By  John  Geo.  Swindell, 

A.R.I.B.A.,  and  G.  R.  Burnell,  C.E.  Revised  Edition.  With  a  New 
Appendix  on  the  Qualities  of  AVater.     Illustrated.     2s. 

35.  THE    BLASTING    AND    QUARRYING    OF  STONE,    for 

Building  and  other  Purposes.     By  Gen.  Sir  J.  Burgoyne,  Bart.     is.  6d. 

43.  TUBULAR,  AND  OTHER  IRON  GIRDER  BRIDGES,  ^sx- 

ticularly  describing  the  Britannia  and  Conway  Tubular  Bridges.  By  G. 
Drysdale  Dempsey,  C.E.     Fourth    Edition.     2s. 

44.  FOUNDATIONS  AND  CONCRETE  WORKS,  with  Practical 

Remarks'  on  Footings,  Sand,  Concrete,  Beton,  Pile-driving,  Caissons,  and 
Cofferdams,  &c.    By  E.  Dobson.     Fifth  Edition,     is.  6d. 

60.  LAND  AND  ENGINEERING  SURVEYING.   By  T.  Baker, 

C.E.     Fourteenth  Edition,  revised  by  Professor  J.  R.  Young,     as.t 

80*.  EMBANKING  LANDS  FROM  THE  SEA.     With  examples 
and  Particulars  of  actual  Embankments,  &c.    By  J.  Wiggins,  F.G.S.    2s. 
81.   WATER   WORKS,  for  the  Supply  of  Cities  and  Towns.     With 

a  Description  of  the  Principal  Geological  Formations  of  England  as  in- 
fluencing Supplies  of  Water,  &c.    By  S.  Hughes,  C.E.    New  Edition.    45.* 

118.  CIVIL  ENGINEERING  IN  NORTH  AMERICA,  a  Sketch 
of.    By  David  Stevenson,  F.R.S.E.,  &c.    Plates  and  Diagrams.    3s. 

F67.  IRON  BRIDGES,  GIRDERS,  ROOFS,  AND  OTHER 
WORKS.    By  Francis  Campin,  C.E.    2s.  6d.t 

197.  ROADS  AND  STREETS.  By  H.  Law,  C.E.,  revised  and 
enlarged  by  D.  K.  Clark,  C.E.,  including  pavements  of  Stone,  Wood, 
Asphalte,  &c.    4s.  6d.t 

203.  SANITARY  WORK  IN  THE  SMALLER  TOWNS  AND  IN 
VILLAGES.     By  C.Slagg,  A.M.T.C.E.     Revised  Edition.     35.* 

212.  GAS-WORKS,  THEIR  CONSTRUCTION  AND  ARRANGE. 

MENT;  and  the  Manufacture  and  Distribution  of  Coal  Gas.  Originally 
written  by  Samuel  Hughes,  C.E.  Re-written  and  enlarged  by  William 
Richards,  C.E.     Seventh  Edition,  with  important  additions.     5s.  6d.t 

213.  PIONEER  ENGINEERING.     A  Treatise  on  the  Engineering 

Operations  connected  with  the  Settlement  of  Waste  Lands  in  New  Coun- 
tries.    By  Edward  Dobson,  Assoc.  Inst.  C.E.    4s.  6d.t 
216.  MATERIALS  AND  CONSTRUCTION ;    A  Theoretical   and 
Practical  Treatise  on  the  Strains,  Designing,  and  Erection  of  Works  of  Con- 
struction.  By  Francis  Campin,  C.E.     Second  Edition,  revised.     3s. J 

219.  CIVIL  ENGINEERING.  By  Henry  Law,  M.Inst.  C.E. 
Including  Hydraulic  Engineering  by  Geo.  R.  Burnell,  M.Inst.  C.E. 
Seventh  Edition,  revised,  with  large  additions  by  D.  Kinnear  Clark, 
M.Inst.  C.E.    6s.  6d.,  Cloth  boards,  7s.  6d. 

268.   THE  DRAINAGE  OF  LANDS,  TOWNS,  &  BUILDINGS. 

By  G.  D.  Dempsey,  C.E.  Revised,  with  large  Additions  on  Recent  Practice 
in  Drainage  Engineering,  by  D.  Kinnear  Clark,  M.I. C.E.  Second  Edition, 
Corrected.     4s.  61I.I:  [J^'sf  ptiblished. 


The  X  indicates  that  these  vols,  may  be  had  strongly  bound  at  6d.  extra. 
LONDON:    CROSBY  LOCKWOOD    AND    SON, 


WEALE  S   RUDIMENTARY   SERIES. 


MECHANICAL   ENGINEERING,   ETC. 

33.  CRANES^  the  Construction  of,  and  other  INIachinery  for  Raising 

Heavy  Bodies,    By  Joseph  Glynn,  F.R.S.    Illustrated,     is.  6d. 

34.  THE  STEAM  ENGINE.  By  Dr.  Lardner.   Illustrated,    is.  6d. 
59.  STEAM  BOILERS:    their  Construction  and  Management.     By 

R.  Armstrong,  C.E.     Illustrated,     is.  6d. 
82.  THE  POWER   OF  WATER,  as  applied  to  drive  Flour  Mills, 

and  to  g-ive  motion  to  Turbines,  &c.     By  Joseph   Glynn,  F.R.S.     2%.% 

98.  PRACTICAL  MECHANISM,  the  Elements  of;    and  Machine 

Tools.     By  T.  Baker,   C.E.    With  Additions  by  J.  Nasmyth,  C.E.    2s.  6d.t 

139.  THE  STEAM  ENGINE,  a  Treatise  on  the  Mathematical  Theory 

of,  with  Rules  and  Examples  for  Practical  Men.    By  T.  Baker,  C.E.    is.  6d, 

164.  MODERN    WORKSHOP  PRACTICE,    as   appHed   to    Steam 

,'Eng-ines,  Bridges,  Ship-building,  Cranes,  &c.     By  J.  G.  Winton.     Fourth 
Edition,  much  enlarged  and  carefully  revised.     3s.  6d.t     \_Jiist  published. 

165.  IRON  AND  HEAT,  exhibiting  the  Principles  concerned  in  the 

Construction  of  Iron  Beams,  Pillars,  and  Girders.    By  J.  Armour.    2s.  6d.t 

166.  POWER  IN  MOTION :  Horse-Power,  Toothed-Wheel  Gearing, 

Long  and  Short  Driving  Bands,  and  Angular  Forces.  By  J.  Armour,  2s.t 

171.  THE  WORKMAN'S  MANUAL  OF  ENGINEERING 
DRAWING.    By  J.  Maxton.    6th  Edn.    With  7  Plates  and  350  Cuts.  3s.  6d. J 

190.  STEAM  AND  THE  STEAM  ENGINE,  Stationary  and 
Portable.  Being  an  Extension  of  the  Elementary  Treatise  on  the  Steam 
Engine  of  Mr.  John  Sewell.     By  D.  K.  Clark,  JM.I.C.E.    3s.  od.i 

200.  FUEL,  its  Combustion  and  Economy.  By  C.  W.  Williams 
With  Recent  Practice  in  the  Combustion  and  Economy  of  Fuel — Coal,  Coke 
Wood,  Peat,  Petroleum,  &c.— by  D.  K.  Clark,  M.I.C.E.    3s.  ed.t 

202.  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINES.  By  G.  D.  Dempsey,  C.E. ;  with 
large  additions  by  D.  Kinnear  Clark,  M.I.C.E.    3s. t 

211.  THE  BOILERMAKER'S  ASSISTANT  in  Drawing,  Tern- 
plating,  and  Calculating  Boiler  and  Tank  Work.  By  John  Courtney, 
Practical  Boiler  Maker.    Edited  by  D.K.  Clark,  C.E.    100  Illustrations.  2s. 

217.  SEWING  MACHINERY :  Its  Construction,  History,  &c.,  with 
full  Technical  Directions  for  Adjusting,  &c.   By  J.  W.  Urquhart,  C.E.  2S.1: 

223.  MECHANICAL  ENGINEERING.  Comprising  Metallurgy, 
Moulding,  Casting,  Forging,  Tools,  Workshop  JMachinerj',  Manufacture  of 
the  Steam  Engine,  &c.    By  Francis  Campin,  C.E.   Second  Edition.  2s.  6d.t 

236.  DETAILS    OF  MACHINERY.      Comprising   Instructions   fot 

the  Executirjn  of  various  Works  in  Iron.    By  Francis  Campin,  C.E.    3s.t 

237.  THE  SMITHY  AND  FORGE;  including  the  Farrier's  Art  and 

Coach  Smithing.     By  W.  J.  E.  Crane.     Illustrated.     2s.  6d.J 

238.  THE  SHEET-METAL  WORKER'S  GUIDE;  a  Practical  Hand- 

book  for  Tinsmiths,  Coppersmiths,  Zincworkers,  &c.    With  94  Diagrams  and 
Working  Patterns.    By  W.  J.  E.  Crane.     Second  Edition,  revised,     is.  5d. 

251.  STEAM  AND  MACHINERY  MANAGEMENT:  with  Hints 
on  Construction  and  Selection.    By  M.  Powis  Bale,  M.I.M.E.    2s.  6d.J 

254.  THE    BOILERMAKER'S    READY-RECKONER.      By   J. 

Courtney.      Edited  by  D.  K.  Clark,  C.E.    4s.,  limp  ;  5s.,  half-bound. 

255.  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE-DRIVING.    A  Practical  Manual  for 

Engineers  in  charge  of  Locomotive  Engines.   By  ^Michael  Re^tvolds,  M.S.E. 
Eighth  Edition.     3s.  6d.,  limp  ;  4s.  6d.  cloth  boards. 

256.  STATIONARY  ENGINE-DRIVING.    A  Practical  Manual  for 

Engineers  in  charge  of  Stationary  Engines.    Bj'  INIichael  Reynolds,  M.S.E. 
Third  Edition.     3s.  6d.  limp  ;  4s.  6d.  cloth  boards. 

260.  IRON  BRIDGES  OF  MODERATE  SPAN:  their  Construc- 
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117.  SUBTERRANEOUS  SUR  FEYING,  with  and  without  the  Mag- 

netic  Needle.     By  T.  Fenwick  and  T.  Baker,  C.E.     Illustrated.     2s.  6d.  t 
133.  METALLURGY  OF  COPPER.    By  R.  H.  Lamborn.    2s.  ed.J 
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172.  MINING  TOOLS,  Manual  of.     For  the  Use  of  Mine  Managers, 
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172*.  MINING  TOOLS,  ATLAS  oi  Engravings  to  Illustrate  the  above, 
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1 76.  MET  ALL  URGY  OF  IR  ON.  Containing  History  of  Iron  Manu- 
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revised  and  enlarged.     ss4  S^Ji(st  published, 

180.  COAL  AND  COAL  MINING.   By  Sir  Warington  W.  Smyth, 

M.A.,  F.R.S.     Seventh  Edition,  revised.     3s.  6d.i:  {Jvst published. 

195.  THE  MINERAL  SURVEYOR  AND  VALUER'S  COM- 
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3s.  6d.+  [Jusi pttblished, 

214.  SLATE  AND  SLATE  ^C/^4/?^F/iV6^,  Scientific,  Practical,  and 
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264.  A  FIRST  BOOK  OF  MINING  AND  QUARRYING,  with  the 

Sciences  connected  therewith,  for  Primary  Schools  and  Self  Instruction.    By 
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ARCHITECTURE,  BUILDING,  ETC. 

16.  ARCHITECTURE— ORDERS— The  Orders  and  their  .-Esthetic 

Principles.     By  W.  H.  Leeds.     Illustrated,     is.  6d. 

17.  ARCHITECTURE— STYLES— The  History  and  Description  of 

the  Styles  of  Architecture  of  Various  Countries,  from  the  Earliest   to  the 
Present  Period.     By  T.  Talbot  Bury,  F.R.I.B.A.,  &c.     Illustrated.    2s. 
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18.  ARCHITECTURE— DESIGN— The    Principles    of   Design    in 

Architecture,  as  deducible  from  Nature  and  exemplified  in  the  Works  of  the 
Greek  and  Gothic  Architects.  ByE.L.  Garbett,  Architect.  Illustrated.  2s.6d. 
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2S.  MASONRY  AND  STONECUTTING :  Rudimentary  Treatise 
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42.  COTTAGE   BUILDING.      By  C.    Bruce    Allen,   Architect. 

Tenth  Edition,  revised  and  enlarged.  With  a  Chapter  on  Economic  Cottages 

for  Allotments,  by  Edward  E.  Allen,  C.E.     2s. 
45.  LIMES,  CEMENTS,  MORTARS,  CONCRETES,  MASTICS, 

PLASTERING,  &c.    By  G.  R.  Burnell,  C.E.    Thirteenth  Edition,    is.  6d. 
57.   WARMING  AND    VENTILATION.      An   Exposition   of  the 

General  Principles  as  applied  to  Domestic   and   Public  Buildings,  Mines, 

Lighthouses.  Ships.  &c.     By  C.  Tomlinson.  F.R.S..  &c.     Illustrated.     3s. 

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Ii6.  THE   ACOUSTICS    OF    PUBLIC    BUILDINGS;    or,   The 

Principles  of  the  Science  of  Sound  applied  to  the  purposes  of  the  Architect  and 
Builder.    By  T.  Roger  Smith,  M.R.I.B.A.,  Architect.    Illustrated,    is.  6d. 

127.  ARCHITECTURAL  MODELLING  IN  PAPER,  the  Art  of. 

By  T.  A.  Richardson,  Architect.    Illustrated,     is.  6d. 

128.  VITRUVIUS—THE     ARCHITECTURE      OF     MARCUS 

VITRUVIUS   POLLO.     In  Ten  Books.     Translated  from  the  Latin  by 
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130.  GRECIAN  ARCHITECTURE,  An  Inquiry  into  the  Principles 
of  Beauty  in  ;  with  an  Historical  View  of  the  Rise  and  Progress  of  the  Art  in 
Greece.     By  the  Earl  of  Aberdeen,    is. 
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132.  THE  ERECTION  OF  DWELLING-HOUSES.   Illustrated  by 

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detached Villas,  with  the  Specification,  Quantities,  and  Estimates,  &c.  By 
S.  H.  Brooks.  New  Edition,  with  Plates.  2s.  6d.i: 
156.  QUANTITIES  ^  MEASUREMENTS  in  Bricklayers',  Llasons', 
Plasterers',  Plumbers',  Painters',  Paperhangers',  Gilders',  Smiths',  Carpenters' 
and  Joiners'  Work.     By  A.  C.  Beaton,  Surveyor.     New  Edition,      is.  6d. 

175.  LOCKWOOD'S  BUILDER'S  PRICE  BOOK  FOR  1890.     A 

Comprehensive  Handbook  of  the  Latest  Prices  and  Data  for  Builders, 
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greatly  Enlarged.  By  Francis  T.  W.  Miller,  A.R.I.B.A.  640  pages. 
3s.  6d.t  [J Kst  published. 

182.  CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY— Tn^  Elementary  Prin- 
ciples OF  Carpentry.  Chiefly  composed  from  the  Standard  Work  of 
Thomas  Tredgold,  C.E.  With  a  1 KEATISE  ON  JOINERY  by  E. 
Wyndham  Tarn,  M.A.     Fourth  Edition,  Revised.     3s.  6d.I 

182*.  CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY.      ATLAS  of  35   Plates  to 

accompany  the  above.    With  Descriptive  Letterpress.     4to.  6s. 
185.  THE  COMPLETE  MEASURER  ;  the  Measurement  of  Boards, 
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and    Stone,    and   Standing    Timber,    &c.      By    Richard    Horton.      Fifth 
Edition.      4s.  ;  strongly  bound  in  leather,  5s. 

187.  HINTS   TO    YOUNG  ARCHITECTS.     By  G.  Wightwick. 

New  Edition,     By  G.  H.  Guillaume.     Illustrated.     3s.  6d4 

188.  HOUSE  PAINTING,  GRAINING,  MARBLING,  AND  SIGN 

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189.  THE    RUDIMENTS    OF    PRACTICAL    BRICKLAYING, 

In  Six  Sections  :  General  Principles;  Arch  Drawing,  Cutting,  and  Setting; 
Pointing;  Paving,  Tiling,  Alaterials ;  Slating  and  Plastering;  Practical 
Geometrj',  Mensuration,  &c.    By  Adam  Hammond.    Seventh  Edition,    is.  6d. 

191.  PLUMBING.     A  Text-Book  to  the  Practice  of  the  Art  or  Craft  ot 

the  Plumber.  With  Chapters  upon  House  Drainage  and  Ventilation.  Fifth 
Edition.    AVith  380  Illustrations.    By  W.  P.  Buchan.    3s.  6d.t 

192.  THE   TIMBER   IMPORTER'S,  TIMBER   MERCHANTS, 

and  BUILDER'S  STANDARD  GUIDE.     By  R.  E.  Grandy.     2s. 

206.  A  BOOK  ON  BUILDING,  Civil  and  Ecclesiastical,  including 
Church  Restoration.  With  the  Theorv  of  Domes  and  the  Great  Pyramid, 
&c.   By  Sir  Edmund  Beckett,  Bart.,  LL.b.,Q.C,,  F.R.A.S.    4s.  6d.J 

226.  THE  JOINTS  MADE  AND  USED  BY  BUILDERS  in  the 

Construction  of  various  kinds  of  Engineering  and  Architectural  Works.  By 
WyvillJ.  Christy,  Architect.  With  upwardsof  160  Engravingson  \^'ood.  3s.t 

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228.  THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  ROOFS  OF  WOOD  AND  IRON. 

By  E.  Wyndham  Tarn,  M.A.,  Architect.  Second  Edition,  revised,    is.  6d. 

229.  ELEMENTARY  DECORATION :   as  applied  to  the  Interior 

and  Exterior  Decoration  of  Dwelling-Houses,  &c.      By  J.  "W.  Facey.     2S. 

257.  PRACTICAL  HOUSE  DECORATION     A  Guide  to  the  Art 

of  Ornamental  Painting-.     By  James  W.  Facey.     2S.  6d. 
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230.  HANDRAILING.    Showing  New  and  Shnple  Methods  for  finding 

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Squaring  the  Wreath.    By  George  Collings.    Plates  and  Diagrams.    is.6d, 

247.  BUILDING  ESTA  TES :  a  Rudimentary  Treatise  on  the  Develop- 

ment, Sale,  Purchase,  and  General  Management  of  Building  Land.  By 
Fowler  JNIaitland,  Sur\'eyor.     Second  Edition,  revised.     2s. 

248.  PORTLAND   CEMENT  FOR    USERS.     By  Henry  Faija, 

Assoc.  M.  Inst.  C.E.     Second  Edition,  corrected.    Illustrated.    2s. 

252.  BRICKWORK :    a  Practical  Treatise,    embodying  the  General 

and  Higher  Principles  of  Bricklaying,   Cutting  and  Setting,  &c.      By  F. 
Walker.     Second  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged,     is.  6d. 
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189.      Brick  and  Tile  Making,  by  E.  Dobson,  A.I.C.E.;  Practical  Bricklay- 
252.      ing,  by  A.  Hammond  ;  Brickwork,  by  F.  Walker.    550  pp.  with  270  Illus- 
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253.  THE    TIMBER    MERCHANT'S,    SAW-MILLER'S,    AND 

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M.  Powis  Bale,  A.M.Inst. C.E.     35.* 

258.  CIRCULAR    WORK  IN    CARPENTRY  AND   JOINERY, 

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259.  GAS    FITTING:     A  Practical    Handbook    treating    of    every 

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261.  SHORING  AND  ITS  APPLICATION :  A  Handbook  for  the 
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265.  THE  AR  T  OF  PR  A  CTICAL  BRICK  CUTTING  6-  SETTING. 
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267.  THE  SCIENCE  OF  BUILDING :  An  Elementaiy  Treatise  on 
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and  Enlarged.     With  59  AVood  Engravings.     3s.  6d.t         {Jzist published. 

SHIPBUILDING,    NAVIGATION,    MARINE 
ENGINEERING,   ETC. 

51.  NA  VAL  ARCHITECTURE.    An  Exposition  of  the  Elementary 

Principles  of  the  Science,  and  their  Practical  Application  to  Naval  Construc- 
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53*.  SHIPS  FOR  OCEAN  ^  RIVER  SER  VICE,  Elementary  and 
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53**.  AN  ATLAS  OFENGRA  VINGS  to  Illustrate  the  above.  Twelve 

large  folding  plates.     Ro3'al  4to,  cloth.     7s.  6d. 

54.  MASTING,  MASTMAKING,  AND  RIGGING  OF  SHIPS, 

Also   Tables  of  Spars,  Rigging,  Blocks  ;   Chain,  Wire,  and  Hemp  Ropes, 
&c.,  relative  to  every  class  of  vessels.     By  Robert  Kipping,  N.A.    2s. 
54*.  IRON  SHIP-BUILDING.  With  Practical  Examples  and  Details. 
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Coloured  Plates.'   New  and  enlarged  edition.     By  W.  H.  Rosser.     2S.  6d.t 

80.  MARINE  ENGINES  AND  STEAM  VESSELS.    By  Robert 

Murray,  C.E.  Eighth  Edition,  thoroughly  Revised,  with  Additions  by  the 
Author  and  by  George  Carlisle,  C.E,,  Senior  Surveyor  to  the  Board  of 
Trade,  Liverpool.    4s.  6d.  limp  ;  5s.  cloth  boards. 

%lhis.  THE  FORMS  OF  SHIPS  AND  BOATS.      By  W.  Bland. 

Seventh  Edition,  Revised,  with  numerous  Illustrations  and  Models,   is.  6d. 
99.  NAVIGATION  AND  NAUTICAL  ASTRONOMY,  inTYieory 
and  Practice.    By  Prof,  J.  R.  Young.    New  Edition.    2s.  6d. 
ro6.  SHIPS'  ANCHORS,  a  Treatise  on.   By  G.  Cotsell,  N.A.    is.  6d. 
149.  SAILS  AND  SAIL-MAKING.   With  Draughting,  and  the  Centre 
of  Effort  of  the  Sails  ;   Weights  and  Sizes  of  Ropes  ;    Masting,  Rigging, 
and  Sails  of  Steam  Vessels,  &c.   12th  Edition.   By  R.  Kipping,  N.A,,   2s.  6d.t 
155.  ENGINEER'S  GUIDE  TO  THE  ROYAL  <Sr^  MERCANTILE 
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204. 


AGRICULTURE,  GARDENING,  ETC. 
ti*.A  COMPLETE  READY  RECKONER  FOR  THE  ADMEA- 

SUREMENT  OF   LAND,  &c.      By  A.  Arman.     Third  Edition,  revised 

and  extended  by  C.  Norris,  Surve3'or,  Valuer,  &c.   2S. 
131.  MILLER'S,     CORN    MERCHANT'S,    AND    FARMER'S 

READY  RECKONER.     Second  Edition,  with  a  Price  List  of  Modem 

Flour-Mill  Machinery,  by  W.  S.  Hutton,  C.E.     2s. 

140.  SOILS,  MANURES,   AND   CROPS.    (Vol.   i.  Outlines  of 

Modern  Farming.)    By  R,  Scott  Burn.    Woodcuts,    2s. 

141.  FARMING  &*  FARMING  ECONOMY,  Notes,  Historical  and 

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142.  STOCK;    CATTLE,    SHEEP,    AND    HORSES.      (Vol.    3. 

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146.  UTILIZATION     OF     SEWAGE,      IRRIGATION,      AND 

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201.  KITCHEN  GARDENING  MADE  EASY.    By  George  M.  F. 

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207.  OUTLINES  OF  FARM  MANAGEMENT,  and  the  Organi- 

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208.  OUTLINES    OF  LANDED    ESTATES   MANAGEMENT. 
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Agriculture,  Gardening,  etc.,  continued. 

209.  THE   TREE   PLANTER   AND   PLANT   PROPAGATOR. 

A  Practical  Manual  on  the  Propagation  of  Forest  Trees,  Fruit  Trees, 
Flowering  Shrubs,  Flowering  Plants,  &c.      By  Samuel  "Wood.    2s.$ 

210.  THE  TREE  PRUNER.    A  Practical  Manual  on  the  Pruning  of 

Fruit  Trees,  including  also  their  Training  and  Renovation  ;  also  the  Pruning 
of  Shrubs,  Climbers,  and  Flowering  Plants.     Ey  Samuel  Wood.     2s.t 
•»'  /^"os.  209   c«   210   t'n   One   Vol.,   handsomely  half-bound,  entitled  "The  Treh 
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218.   THE  HA  Y  AND  STRA  W  MEASURER  :  Being  New  Tables 
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By  John  Steele.   Fourth  Edition.   2s. 
222.  SUBURBAN  FARMING.     The  Laying-out  and  Cultivation  of 
Farms,  adapted  to  the  Produce  of  Milk,  Butter,  and  Cheese,  Eggs,  Poultry, 
and  Pigs.     By  Pro£  Tohn  Donaldson  and  R.  Scott  Burn.    3s.  6d.i 

231.  THE  ART  OF  GRAFTING  AND  BUDDING.    By  Charles 

Baltet.     With  Illustrations.     2s.  6d.J 

232.  COTTAGE  GARDENING;  or,  Fio wars,  Fruits,  and  Vegetables 

for  Small  Gardens.     By  E.  Hobday,     is.  6d. 

233.  GARDEN  RECEIPTS.    Edited  by  Charles  W.  Quin.    is.  6d. 

234.  MARKET  AND  KITCHEN  GARDENING.  By  C.  W.  Stiaw, 

'late  Editor  of  "  Gardening  Illustrated."     3s. +  \Jiist  piiblished. 

239.  DRAINING  AND  EMBANKING.     A  Practical  Treatise,  em- 

bodying the  most  recent  experience  in  the  Application  of  Improved  Methods. 
By  John  Scott,  late  Professor  of  Agriculture  and  Rural  Economy  at  the 
Roval  Agricultural  College,  Cirencester.     With  68  Illustrations,     is.  6d. 

240.  IRRIGATION  AND  WATER  SUPPLY.    A  Treatise  on  Water 

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241.  FARM  ROADS,    FENCES,    AND    GATES.      A    Practical 

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Principles  of  Enclosures ;  and  the  different  kinds  of  Fences,  Gates,  and 
Stiles.     By  Professor  John  Scott.    With  75  Illustrations,     is,  6d. 

242.  FARM  BUILDINGS.     A  Practical  Treatise   on  the  Buildings 

necessary  for  various  kinds  of  Farms,  their  Arrangement  and  Construction, 
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243.  BARN  IMPLEMENTS    AND    MACHINES.      A    Practical 

Treatise  on  the  Application  of  Power  to  the  Operations  of  Agriculture ;  and 
on  various  Machines  used  in  the  Threshing-bam,  in  the  Stock-yard,  and  in  the 
Dairv,  &c.   By  Prof.  J.  Scott.   With  123  Illustrations.   2s. 

244.  FIELD   IMPLEMENTS   AND   MACHINES.       A    Practical 

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struction, their  Points  of  Excellence,  and  Management.  By  Professor  John 
Scott.    With  138  Illustrations.    2s. 

245.  AGRICULTURAL   SURVEYING.      A  Practical  Treatise   on 

Land  Surveying,  Levelling,  and  Setting-out;  and  on  Measuring  and  Esti- 
mating Quantities,  Weights,  and  Values  of  Materials,  Produce,  Stock,  &c. 
By  Prof.  John  Scott.     With  62  Illustrations,     is.  6d. 
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250.  ME  A  T  PRODUCTION.     A  Manual  for  Producers,  Distributors, 

&c.    By  John  Ewart.    2s.  6d.t 
266.  BOOK-KEEPING  FOR  FARMERS o;'  ESTATE  OWNERS. 

By  J.  M.  Woodman,   Chartered  Accountant,      2s.  6d.  cloth  limp  ;  3s.  6d. 

cloth  boards.  {^Just  published. 

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MATHEMATICS,    ARITHMETIC,    ETC. 

32.  MATHEMATICAL  INSTRUMENTS,  a  Treatise  on;  Their 
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Heather,  M.A.  Fourteenth  Edition,  revised,  with  additions,  by  A.  T. 
AV'almisley,  M.I.C.E.,  Fellow  of  the  Surveyors'  Institution.  Original  Edi- 
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76.  DESCRIPTIVE    GEOMETRY,    an    Elementary    Treatise    on; 

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G.  MoNGE.  To  which  is  added,  a  description  of  the  Principles  and  Practice 
of  Isometrical  Projection.     By  J.  F.  Heather,  M.A.     With  14  Plates.     2S. 

178.  PRACTICAL    PLANE    GEOMETRY :    gi%ing    the    Simplest 

Modes  of  Constructing  Fig^ures  contained  in  one  Plane  and  Geometrical  Con- 
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Zy  COMMERCIAL  BOOK-KEEPING.  With  Commercial  Phrases 
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84.  ARITHMETIC,  a  Rudimentary  Treatise  on :  ^\^th  full  Explana- 

t!ons  of  its  Theoretical  Principles,  and  numerous  Examplesfor  Practice.     By 
Professor  J.R.  YouxG.    Eleventh  Edition,     is.  6d. 
84*.  A  Key  to  the  above,  containing  Solutions  in  full  to  the  Exercises,  together 
with    Comments,   Explanations,    and   Improved  Processes,  for  the   Use  of 
Teachers  and  Unassisted  Learners.     By  J.  R.  Young,     is.  6d. 

85.  EQUATIONAL  ARITHMETIC,  applied  to  Questions  of  Interest, 

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86.  ALGEBRA,    the    Elements    of.      By  James    Haddon,    M.A. 

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86*.  A  Key  and  Companion  to  the  above  Book,  forming  an  extensive  repository  of 
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necessar>'  in  Algebraical  Operations.     By  J.  R.  Young,     is.  6d. 

88.  EUCLID,  The  Elements  of  :  w-ith  many  additional  Propositions 

89.  and  Explanatory   Notes  :  to  which  is   prefixed,   an  Introductory  Essay  on 
Logic.    By  Henry  Law,  C.E.    2s.  6d4 

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89.  Euclid,  Books  4,  5,  6,  11,  12.    By  Henry  Law,  C.E.    is.  6d. 

90.  ANALYTICAL     GEOMETRY  AND     CONIC    SECTIONS, 

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91.  PLANE     TRIGONOMETRY,   the    Elements    of.     By  James 

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92.  SPHERICAL  TRIGONOMETRY,  the  Elements  of.     By  James 

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93.  MENSURATION  AND  MEASURING.   With  the  Mensuration 

and  Levelling  of  Land  for  the  Purposes  of  ifodem  Engineering.  By  T. 
Baker,  C.E.     New  Edition  by  E.  Nugent,  C.E.     Illustrated,     is.  6d. 

loi.  DIFFERENTIAL  CALCULUS,  Elements  of  the.    By  W.  S.  B. 

AVoolhouse,  F.R.A.S.,  &c.     is.  6d. 
102.  INTEGRAL  CALCULUS,  Rudimentar}-  Treatise  on  the.     By 

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136.  ARITHMETIC,  Rudimentary,  fti  the  Use  of  Schools  and  Self- 

Instruction.     By  James  Haddon,  M.A.    Re\-ised  by  A.  Arman.     is.  ('>d. 

137.  A  Key  to  Haddon's  Rudimentary  Arithmetic.     Bj'  A.  Arman.    is.  6d. 

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Mathematics,  Arithmetic,  etc.,  contiiiued. 
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ing— vl.  Instruments  employed  in  Geometrical  and  Mechanical  Drawing, 
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Arithmetical  Computations.     By  J.  F.  Heather,  M,A.    Illustrated,    is.  6d, 

169.  OPTICAL  INSTRUMENTS.     Including  (more  especially)  Tele- 

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170.  SURVEYING    AND    ASTRONOMICAL    INSTRUMENTS, 

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of  a  portion  of  Ground.   II.  Instruments  Employed  in  Astronomical  Observa- 
tions.    By  J.  F.  Heather,  M.A.    Illustrated,     is.  6d. 
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169.  ?•  M.A.  Enlarged  Edition,  for  the  most  part  entirely're-written.  The  3  Parts  as 
170.-/   above,  in  One  thick  Volume.   With  numerous  Illustrations.  4s.  6d.t 

158.  THE  SLIDE  RULE,  AND  HOW  TO   USE  IT;    containing 

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unexampled  rapidity  and  accuracy.  By  Charles  Hoare,  C.E.  Fifth 
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196.  THEORY  OF  COMPOUND  INTEREST  AND  ANNUI- 
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199.   THE  COMPENDIOUS  CALCULATOR  ;  or,  Easy  and  Concise 

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204.  MATHEMATICAL  T^^Z^^',  for  Trigonometrical,  Astronomical, 
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and  Nautical  Astronomy.  By  Prof.  J.  R.  Young.  New  Edition.  4s. 
204*.  LOGARITHMS.  With  Mathematical  Tables  for  Trigonometrical, 
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and  Revised  Edition.  (Forming  part  of  the  above  Work).  3s. 

221.  MEASURES,  WEIGHTS,  AND  MONEYS  OF  ALL  NA- 
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227.  MATHEMATICS  AS  APPLIED  TO  THE  CONSTRUC- 
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PHYSICAL    SCIENCE,    NATURAL    PHILO- 
SOPHY,  ETC. 

\.  CHEMISTRY.    By  Professor  George  Fownes,  F.R.S.    With 

an  Appendix  on  the  Application  of  Chemistry  to  Agriculture,     is. 

2.  NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY,  Introduction  to  the  Study  of.     By 
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6.  MECHANICS,  Rudimentary  Treatise  on.     By  Charles  Tom- 

linson.     Illustrated,     is.  6d. 

7.  ELECTRICITY ;   showing  the  General  Principles  of  Electrical 

Science,  and  the  purposes  to  which  it  has  been  applied.  By  Sir  W.  Snow 
Harris,  F.R.S.,  &c.      With  Additions  by  R.  Sabine,  C.E.,  F.S.A.     is.  6d. 

7*.  GALVANISM.    By  Sir  W.  Snow  Harris.     New  Edition  by 

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8.  MAGNETISM ;  being  a  concise  Exposition  of  the  General  Prin- 

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72.  MANUAL  OF  THE  MOLLUSC  A  ;  a  Treatise  on  Recent  and 
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97.  STATICS  AND  DYNAMICS,  the  Principles  and  Practice  of; 

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173  RUDIMENTARY  TREATISE  ON  GEOLOGY,  Physical  and 

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183  ANIMAL  PHYSICS,  Handbook  of.     By  Dr.  Lardner,  D.C.L., 

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186.  A    GRAMMAR    OF   COLOURING,    apphed    tc    Decorative 
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249.  THE  HALL-MARKING  OF  JEWELLERY  PRACTICALLY 
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235.  PRACTICAL    ORGAN  BUILDING.      By  W.   E.   Dickson, 

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263.  MECHANICAL    DENTISTRY :   A  Practical  Treatise  on  the 

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