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BY LH- BAILEY

SH
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OF THE

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.

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BUSH -FRUITS

A HORTICULTURAL MONOGRAPH OP
RASPBERRIES, BLACKBERRIES, DEWBERRIES, CURRANTS

GOOSEBERRIES, AND
OTHER SHRUB -LIKE FRUITS

FRED W. CARD

Professor of Horticulture in the Rhode island College of

Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, and Horticulturist to the Experiment Station
formerly Professor of Horticulture in the University of Nebraska

FIFTH EDITION

OF THE

UNIVERSITY

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., LTD.

1909

Set up and electrotyped October, 1898

Reprinted with corrections February, 1901

November, 1903, and November, 1907

July, 1909

Or THE

UNIVERSITY

PREFACE BY THE EDITOR

IN a proposed series of monographs on the
various types of American fruits, this book is the
first. Its purpose is to present both the practical
and technical phases of all the important questions
concerned in the cultivation and domestication of
the fruits under discussion. It has been the effort
to separate these two classes of matter, so that the
grower may go direct to his subject without being
distracted by details of history, botany or ento-
mology ; and the student and investigator may be
equally at ease in rapid reference to the subjects
in which he is primarily interested. A historical
sketch is of the greatest value as information and
in giving the reader a perspective of the subject,
but it is of no direct importance to the cultiva-
tion of a crop, and, therefore, should not form an
introduction to the practical matter, nor be incor-
porated with it, notwithstanding the fact that such
amalgamation is the custom. The practical matters
in this book aim to begin where the cultivator
must begin, — with the land and the plant.

In this, as in other volumes of the series of
(v)

201889

Vi PREFACE Bf THE EDITOR

which it is a part, the aim has been to treat gen-
eral truths and principles, rather than mere details
of practice. A book cannot instruct in all the de-
tails of any rural business, because these details
vary with the environment and the personality of
the operator. The book should attempt, therefore, to
give such instruction as to enable the reader to
think out and to solve the local problems for him-
self. When practices are described in detail, it is
rather more for the purpose of illustrating a prin-
ciple than for the giving of direct advice.

In this book an eifort has been made to dis-
cuss all those small - fruits which have many or
most points in common. Therefore, the strawberry
and cranberry have been omitted, and the term
bush -fruits, long in use in England, is employed
to designate the group. The use of this term will
go far towards elucidating the principles involved
in the cultivation of the fruits here described, by
eliminating unrelated topics ; for the principles
which underlie the management of the strawberry
are no more like the principles underlying the
management of the blackberry than they are like
those concerned in the growing of the apple.

The domestication of the bush -fruits is one of
the most recent developments of American horticul-
ture, and the subject is all the more interesting

PREFACE BY THE EDITOR vil

because all the important types, excepting the cur-
rant, are evolutions from the species of our own
woods. Since the enterprise is so new, the reader
must not expect the advice which is given for the
management of the bush -fruit plantation to be as
permanent and final as that which might be given
for apples or pears.

It only remains to say that this book is an
extension of a thesis presented to the . Cornell Uni-
versity for the degree of Master of Science in Agri-
culture, and to add that the author was a bush-
fruit grower before he was a university student and
a teacher.

L. H. BAILEY.

CORNELL UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y.,
Sept. 30. 1898,

CONTENTS
PART I

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
CHAPTER I

PAGES

INTRODUCTORY DISCUSSION 1_42

The location, 3— The land, 4— Fertilizers, 6— Suggestions on
planting, 8— Management of the land, 12— Tillage tools,
15— Pruning, 16— Winter killing, 19— Propagation, 25—
Thinning the fruit, 27- Effect of spraying on pollination,
27— Forcing raspberries and blackberries, 28— Suggestions
on picking, 29 — Packages and marketing, 32— Remarks on
crossing berries, 36.

PART II

THE BRAMBLES

CHAPTER II

THE RED RASPBERRIES 43-60

Soil, 43-Location, 44- Fertilizers, 45 -Propagation, 45-
Planting, 46— Pollination, 48— Tillage, 49— Pruning, 49—
Autumn fruiting, 52— Harvesting and marketing, 53— Uses,
54— Duration of plantations, 55— Hardiness, 57— Yields
58— Normal profits, 58— Note on the hybrid reds, 59.

CHAPTER III

BLACK RASPBERRIES 61-105

Soil for black-caps, 61— Location, 62— Fertilizers, 63— Propa-
gation, 65— Planting, 67— Tillage, 69— Pruning, 70- Har-
vesting, 74— Methods of drying, 77 (drying out of doors,
drying under glass, drying with evaporatois)— Marketing,
82 — The evaporated raspberry industry, 83— Duration of
plantations, 99— Clearing the ground, 99— Hardiness of
black-caps, 100-Yields, 101-Usual profits, 103.

X CONTENTS

CHAPTER IV PAGES

THE BLACKBERRIES 106-131

Soil, 106— Fertilizers, 107— Propagation of the blackberry,
108-Planting, 112-Tillage and mulching, 115-Pruning,
117-Harvesting and marketing, 119— Uses, 120— Duration
of plantations, 123-Killing the plants, 124-Hardiness,
125- Yield, 125-Proflts, 127.

CHAPTER V

THE DEWBERRIES 132-145

Soil for dewberries, 135- Location, 137- Fertilizers, 138-
Propagation, 138-Planting, 139-Tillage, 141-Pruning
and training, 141 — Harvesting and marketing, 143— Dur-
ation of plantations, 143— Killing out the patch, 144—
Hardiness, 144- Yield of dewberries, 145— Probable
profits, 145.

CHAPTER VI

MISCELLANEOUS BRAMBLES 146-156

The oriental raspberries, 146 (the mayberry, the strawberry-
raspberry, the wineberry, the Chinese raspberry) — Or-
namental species, 150 (Rubus odoratus, R. parviflorus,
JR. cratcegifolius, R. arcticus, R. phoenicolasius , R. spec-
tabilis, R. laciniatus, double white and pink brambles).

CHAPTER VII

VARIETIES OF RASPBERRIES 157-218

(I) Black raspberries, 158— Recommended varieties of black-
caps, 176— (II) The purple-cane raspberries, 177— Recom-
mended varieties, 184— (III) The American red raspberries,
184— History and future of the red raspberries, 186— Varie-
ties, 192— Recommended varieties, 199— (IV) The European
red raspberries, 199— Recommended varieties, 212— (V)
Unclassified varieties, 212— Recommended varieties, 218.

CHAPTER VIII

VARIETIES OF BLACKBERRIES AND DEWBERRIES 219-250

A. The blackberries: History and future of the blackberry,
221- (I) The long-cluster blackberries, 226- (II) The
short-cluster blackberries, 232- (III) The leafy-cluster

CONTENTS Xl

blackberries, 235- (IV) The white blackberries, 237- (V) PAGES
The loose-cluster blackberries, 238— (VI) The sand black-
berry, 240— Recommended varieties of blackberries, 240.
B. The dewberries: (VII) The northern dewberries, 244-
(VIII) The southern dewberries, 246— (IX) The west-
ern dewberries, 247— Recommended varieties of dewber-
ries, 250.

CHAPTER IX

INSECTS AFFECTING THE BRAMBLES 251-283

The more important insects, 252— The less prominent in-
sects, 274.

CHAPTER X

DISEASES OF THE BRAMBLES 284-302

The important fungous diseases, 285— Other important dis-
eases, 292— Less prominent diseases, 296.

CHAPTER XI
THE BOTANY OF THE BRAMBLES 303-336

PART III

THE GROSELLES

CHAPTER XH

CURRANTS ! 337-356

Soil and location, 339— Fertilizers, 340— Propagation, 341—
Planting, 344 -Subsequent tillage, 346- Pruning, 347-
Gathering and marketing, 349— Uses, 351— Duration of
plantations, 352 -Hardiness, 353-Yield, 353-Proflts, 354-
Black currants, 355.

CHAPTER XIII

GOOSEBERRIES 357-374

Soil and location, 358— Fertilizers, 359— Propagation, 359-
Planting, 363 -After-treatment, 364 -Pruning, 364 -Gath-
ering and marketing, 367— Uses, 368— Duration of planta-
tions, 370 -Hardiness, 371-Yield, 371-Proflts, 372-
English gooseberries, 372.

BUSH-FRUITS

PAET I

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTORY DISCUSSION

WHO does not love the garden! It has delights for
all, whether merchant or farmer, matron or maiden.
No garden is complete without bush -fruits. Most
readers who may consult this book are doubtless al-
ready interested in their cultivation, and do not need
to be told of their merits. Yet there are farmers,
even, who say that it is cheaper to buy fruit for the
family than to grow it. Let no one commit this error.
It means that far less will be used than ought to be
used. Fruit is too easily and cheaply grown on the farm
ever to be neglected. It will add much to the attrac-
tiveness of the place, promote the health of its occu-
pants and increase their loyalty and love for the home.
The berries of the hedge-row and wood- lot are disap-
pearing ; time is better spent elsewhere than in hunt-
ing for the few that remain. Such fruit costs too
much ; it is purchased with something more valuable
than current coin.

A (1)

2 BUSH-FRUITS

Contact with nature affords a better tonic and nerv-
ine than the pharmacist can compound. A vacation
in the country brings rest and recuperation to the
business and professional man, but not every one can
take it. If he be so fortunate as to possess a garden
it may afford him a vacation for an hour at any time.
In such a garden bush -fruits may reach their highest
perfection. Every plant and flower becomes a com-
panion and a friend. Flowers then acquire a tint and
perfume and fruits a flavor and piquancy which no
others can equal.

To grow bush -fruits for home use is nearly always
wise. To grow them for market may not be. Many
things must be considered, chief of which are the fa-
cilities for gathering and marketing. To grow berries
where pickers are not easily had is a hazardous under-
taking. Even when help seems abundant it may prove
insufficient. Few people who have not tried it know
what it means to pick berries all day under a scorch-
ing July sun. To do it demands much perseverance,
especially among those who are unaccustomed to out-
door work.

A near-by market is always preferable, for most ber-
ries suffer from shipment, though gooseberries are an
exception. The growing of raspberries for evaporat-
ing is open to the farmer, independent of the prox-
imity to pickers and markets. The farmer should also
study himself before embarking in the commercial
growing of bush-fruits. Not all men are adapted to
the business. A mistake in the man is more serious
than a mistake in the location or the soil.

THE LOCATION 3

THE SITE*

The site or slope of the land may greatly affect the
success of a crop. Most bush-fruits thrive best in
mountainous or hilly regions and prefer a cool northern
exposure, though this is not imperative. The heat of
summer is more detrimental than the cold of winter,
except on the northern limit of their range. Drought
is the great enemy to be avoided, and a location which
will in any way help to counteract its effects should be
sought. This is of paramount importance in the South-
ern states and semi -arid regions of the West. In many
parts of these regions bush -fruits do not thrive in field
culture. Blackberries succeed better in the far South
than raspberries, while red raspberries endure better
than blacks. Neither currants nor gooseberries succeed.
On the Plains black -caps thrive better than either reds
or blackberries. Good results may also be obtained
from currants and gooseberries under favorable condi-
tions. Propagation of black -caps is more difficult in
the Gulf states than at the North and can be success-
fully done only in partial shade.

Most bush -fruits can be grown where partially
shaded by trees, though this is seldom the best place
to grow them. The danger from spring frosts is an
important consideration in the choice of a site. Air-
drainage is as important as soil -drainage. High land

*In the following discussions of the care and treatment of the bush-fruit
plantation only general and summary statements can be made. For more
thorough consideration of some of these subjects the reader is referred to
Bailey's "Principles of Fruit-Growing."

4 BUSH-FRUITS

often escapes frosts when lower land suffers, and is
therefore preferable, so far as this influence is con-
cerned. On the other hand the soil of valleys often
retains moisture better than that of hills; moisture
being imperative, the valley lands are preferable in
this regard. In parts of the country this difference does
not hold, the soil of the valleys being lighter than that
of the uplands. Wind-breaks are of importance in
parts of the country subject to hot, drying winds during
the summer. This is particularly true on the Plains;
the wind velocity is often high, the humidity low and
the temperature great. This combination taxes the
powers of the plant to its utmost. A wind-break at the
south and west greatly modifies the conditions and
reduces the subsequent evaporation, both from soil and
plants.

THE LAND

Bush -fruits are not imperious in their soil-demands.
Land which will produce good corn or potatoes will pro-
duce bush -fruits. It must not be wet and heavy and
must not carry standing water during any part of the
year, yet it must possess drought -resisting qualities.
The keynote of success with these fruits is in being
able to supply moisture when the fruit is growing and
ripening. Irrigation may be employed with advantage
where conditions admit, but is often impracticable.
Whatever can be done, therefore, to secure the same
results should be done. First of all the land should be
deep and have good texture. If not naturally so it can
be improved by underdraining, or to some extent by sub-

THE LAND AND ITS TREATMENT 5

soiling. It should contain an abundance of decaying
vegetable matter. Humus is the great reservoir of
moisture. A soil rich in humus not only admits water
more freely, but retains more of it and gives it up more
slowly. Humus possesses other qualities of advantage
in preventing the loss of nitrogen and in setting free
mineral constituents of the soil. It can be obtained by
the addition of stable -manure or the plowing in of
green -crops, but the process must be gradual. To apply
large quantities of undecayed vegetable matter at one
time may injure rather than improve the condition.

Moist, sandy and clay loams give most universal
satisfaction. The dewberry will thrive on a light
sandy soil, followed in turn by the red raspberry and
blackberry, while a strong clay loam is preferable for
the currant and gooseberry. The stronger soils are
better adapted to varieties of moderate growth, the
lighter soils to the more rampant growers.

Sod land should be avoided, even though in excel-
lent general condition. The sod renders it incon-
venient to furrow and plant and may cause the death
of many plants. Grass may also become established
in the rows and give trouble. Thorough soil -prepa-
ration is imperative ; no amount of after care can
atone for neglect in this. Land which has been thor-
oughly worked for one or two seasons previous to
planting is to be preferred.

In parts of the West where droughts are often se-
vere and where the substratum of the soil is hard and
impervious, subsoiling will often prove advantageous.
It should be done the fall before planting, or even

6 BUSH-FRUITS

earlier, in order that the loosened subsoil may become
saturated with moisture and somewhat compacted.
Plantings immediately following spring subsoiling may
suffer more from drought than those on unsubsoiled
land, because the recently loosened soil dries out more
rapidly. For the same reason fall plowing is to be
preferred in those parts of the country. It is essen-
tial that the soil at planting time shall be moist,
pliable, thoroughly and deeply pulverized, so that the
roots may quickly establish themselves. Soil which is
uniformly fertile by previous culture and manuring is
much preferable to one which has been neglected and
heavily fertilized at planting time. Acidity of soil is
less deleterious with bush -fruits than with many other
crops. Blackberries and black raspberries appear to
thrive as well in acid soils as in others. Red rasp-
berries, currants, and gooseberries are somewhat bene-
fited by liming if the soil is very acid.

FERTILIZERS

Bush -fruits do not demand heavy fertilizing. In-
stances are common where land which has failed to
yield good returns in farm crops has given good yields
of bush -fruits without fertilizers of any kind. It does
not follow that it is best to neglect fertilizing, but I
am convinced that it is easy to waste money in apply-
ing plant -food where it may not be needed. Stable
manure is most largely used, but is not a well-balanced
fertilizer. It gives particularly good results with cur-
rants and gooseberries. Upon strong moist soils it

FERTILIZERS 7

must be used with caution, especially upon red rasp-
berries and blackberries; otherwise it may cause ex-
cessive growth, with consequent lack of hardiness and
diminished fruitfulness. It is best applied in fall or
early winter, that it may become available during the
early part of the growing season. If applied in spring
it may cause a late fall growth, with increased loss
from winter -killing.

Upon the grounds of the Rhode Island Experiment
Station, plots which have received no fertilizer of any
sort since 1890 have in some cases given as good
yields of raspberries and blackberries as plots which
have been given a good dressing of chemicals every
year during that time. Plots treated with mineral fer-
tilizers alone have, in nearly every instance, outyielded
plots where nitrogen was used in connection with them.
These results are tentative only, because while the fer-
tilizer application has been carried on long enough to
give reliable results, only the first season's yields of
bush -fruits are available. The yields and the appear-
ance of the plants growing upon the plots are signifi-
cant. The soil is a light, sandy loam, underlaid with
a gravelly subsoil, and is naturally unproductive.

All growers agree that potash is the most impor-
tant element of fertility in fruit-growing. With the
tree -fruits it often heightens color; whether it is as im-
portant with bush -fruits is not fully determined. From
present knowledge it seems probable that 100 pounds
of muriate of potash per acre, annually, will furnish an
abundance of potash upon most soils. If leguminous
cover -crops are employed they will supply all the

8 BUSH-FRUITS

nitrogen needed, except under unusual conditions.
When necessary, 100 pounds of nitrate of soda or 125
pounds of dried blood per acre should be sufficient.
Dried blood seems to give good results in Rhode
Island. Phosphoric acid may be supplied by thor-
oughly working into the soil 250 pounds of floats,
which is the name applied to finely ground unacidu-
lated Carolina rock, or an equal quantity of ground
bone. In lieu of this preparatory application 150
pounds of acid phosphate or Thomas slag may be
applied annually.

SUGGESTIONS ON PLANTING

Planting may be done in spring or fall. In fall the
work can be done with less haste and the ground need
be worked only when it is in proper condition. If a
mulch of manure or earth is placed over the ground
the plant will generally pass the winter safely and will
be ready to begin growth at once when spring opens.
Unless spring planting is done early, before growth
begins, the plant will receive a check which will se-
riously impede the season's growth. A plant set in
early fall is able to partially repair the damage to its
root -system before the season of growth the following
spring. Planting in early spring does away with the
extra expense of covering and uncovering the plants
and leaves the soil mellow and in good condition for
work during the summer. It is the best method for
black -caps and dewberries, and will generally be found
more satisfactory for other kinds if the work is done

PLANTING 9

properly and in season. Currants and gooseberries
begin growth very early, hence special promptness is
needed when planting them in spring.

For increasing a stock of red raspberries or black-
berries on one's own grounds young shoots of the pres-
ent year's growth may be used with excellent results,
transplanting them like cabbage -plants, any time after
they are four inches high. If much taller than this,
cut off the tops. They will be well established by fall.
All plants, particularly the red raspberries and black-
berries, should be carefully lifted. If carelessly pulled
up the plant will usually break at the connection with
the root from which it sprung, leaving only a straight
stub, poorly equipped for growth.

The individuality of the parent-plant is a point de-
serving of more attention than it commonly receives.
Different plants of the same variety vary widely in pro-
ductiveness and size of fruit. It is reasonable to ex-
pect these differences to appear in the offspring.

The common practice is to plant bush -fruit in rows
six to eight feet apart, with plants two to three feet
apart in the rows. This is not necessarily the most profit-
able method. Many excellent growers prefer to plant in
check -rows, with plants five to seven feet apart each
way, keeping them entirely in hills and doing nearly
all cultivation with a horse. This reduces the cost of
tillage and secures a finer grade of fruit, a plan espe-
cially to be considered when fruit is grown for a dis-
criminating market. In regions of deficient rainfall
extra space must be allotted to each plant in order to
insure it a sufficient supply of moisture. Check-rows

10 BUSH-FRUITS

would seem to be especially desirable under those con-
ditions, though hedge -rows running north and south,
or in line with the prevailing winds, may assist in re-
ducing evaporation. On high-priced land in moist
climates, or under irrigation, close planting may give
better returns, though there is greater danger from
fungous diseases. The suckers, which spring up in
great profusion in old plantations of red raspberries
and blackberries, are more easily controlled by planting
in check-rows. A modification of the check -row sys-
tem is often desirable, the plants being set four feet
apart in the row and lined both ways, so that cultiva-
tion may progress in either direction while the plants
are small and when the old canes are first removed
after fruiting.

Planting methods are simple. The previous soil-
preparation is of the utmost importance. If that has
been thorough it will be easy to put the soil in proper
condition to receive the plants. In this connection a
bit of the author's experience may be of interest as
a warning, not as a guide. When a young country
school-teacher, he decided to plant an acre of black
raspberries. The plants were ordered and appeared
very early in the spring, while the ground was still
cold and wet, but what to do with them he did not
know, heeling -in being to him as yet an unlearned
mystery. A man was hired to plow the ground, which
was too wet to work and was covered with a partial
sod. Without waiting to harrow it other men were set
at work with hoes making little holes and setting the
plants in this most uncongenial home. It is needless

RECEIVING THE PLANTS 11

to say that this field yielded little profit, except in
experience.

The care of young plants when received from the
nursery is an important matter. If ordered from a dis-
tance it will seldom be convenient to plant them at
once. They should be unpacked as soon as received,
the bunches loosened enough to bring all the roots in
contact with earth when heeled -in, which should be
done on the north side of a building or in a cool cellar
in moist earth. A shallow trench should be opened
with one side somewhat slanting, laying the plants
against this side and covering the roots with earth,
which should be closely pressed about them. Tier af-
ter tier may be packed in this way. Plants so treated
will remain in a cool place with safety for some time.
If dry when received dousing the roots in water or thin
mud before heeling -in is advisable. Even burying the
plants entirely in the earth may assist them to recover.

When well fitted the field should be marked and
furrows plowed the desired distance apart. If check-
rows are used the marking should be done in both di-
rections, to facilitate rapidity of planting, though fur-
rows need be plowed but one way. Most workmen will
make a straighter furrow if the land is previously
marked, though a good driver will plow them very
straight by using stakes and ranging with objects in
the fields beyond.

Some successful growers recommend deep planting
for all bush-fruits, urging that plants set deep are
better able to withstand drought, and will stand up
better. The plants are set in the bottom of the fur-

12 BUSH-FRUITS

row, but only moderately covered, allowing the furrow
to be filled in by subsequent cultivation, after the
shoots have started. Deep planting is not always sat-
isfactory, especially with tips. If the subsoil is heavy
and hard the plants will lose more than they gain.
Experiments at the Nebraska Experiment Station gave
uniformly better results from shallow planting of black
raspberries.

In mellow ground the plants are quickly set by
drawing the earth about them with the hands and firm-
ing it with the hands or feet, leaving the furrow to be
filled in with a hoe or by subsequent cultivation. When
two or three persons are planting together one should
carry the plants in water and drop them just in ad-
vance of those who are setting. He should never be
allowed to get ahead of the planters, for every expo-
sure to sun and wind, even though brief, lessens the
vitality of the plant. If one person is working alone,
the plants may be carried in a pail containing some
water.

MANAGEMENT OP THE LAND

Some return may be obtained from the land the
first year by planting hoed crops between the rows.
In many cases nothing will be gained by this practice.
Under intensive culture it can be done with profit, but
with common farm methods what is gained by the
catch -crop is likely to be more than lost in diminished
growth of the fruit -plants.

Cultivation during the first year differs little from
that of other hoed crops. Frequent stirring of the

TILL A GE 13

soil to destroy weeds and preserve a dust-mulch upon
the surface is demanded. The grower cannot afford to
allow weeds to usurp food and moisture which belong
to the plants; neither can he afford to allow the mois-
ture to evaporate from the soil by neglecting to mulch
it with dust. As in every horticultural operation, the
better the tillage the better the growth.

Each succeeding spring tillage should begin early,
using any implement which will loosen the soil thor-
oughly and leave the ground level. The soil immedi-
ately about the plants should be loosened with a hoe or
rake so that the whole surface may be mellow and in
good tilth. If done early this is not a serious task,
but if neglected until the ground becomes hard and the
weeds have started it is difficult and expensive. A
shovel or spade can sometimes be used with advantage
in first turning the soil. Some growers plow between
the rows in spring, but this is undesirable, since it may
injure many of the roots and leave the land in ridges.
Plowing is especially undesirable among currants and
gooseberries.

Most writers recommend that tillage should cease
by July or August to permit the plants to ripen their
wood before winter. Other men of wide experience,
whose opinions carry much weight, believe that tillage
should continue throughout the entire season. It is a
point still open to discussion and one upon which more
light is needed. Much depends upon the locality and
the season. In semi -arid climates, like that of the
Plains, there is little danger of inducing too great fall
growth by continuous tillage. There is more danger

14 BUSH-FRUITS

that the plants may go into winter quarters with a
deficiency of moisture in the soil. In Nebraska con-
tinuous cultivation gives good results.

Mulching to replace tillage is often suggested. In
the home -garden where tillage is often difficult, owing
to the smallness of the plots or the inconvenience of
getting at them with a horse, mulching may be the most
satisfactory, but in field culture no other mulch is so
practicable as that formed by a layer of mellow, fre-
quently-stirred soil. The chief objections to mulching
are the difficulty and expense of obtaining material, the
labor involved in applying it and the fact that mulching
induces surface rooting of the plants. In tilled land
the roots are kept below the part which is stirred and
if neglected this part remains to protect them. With
mulching the roots come close to the surface, where they
are quickly injured if the mulch is allowed to disappear.

On very rich soils in moist climates continuous culti-
vation may induce too rampant wood -growth. Under
such conditions cultivation is sometimes abandoned
after the second year, the ground being seeded to clover,
which is cut when the fruit begins to ripen and left on
the ground for a mulch. A practice in vogue on the
Thayer farms in Wisconsin is to grow clover on other
land, to be cut and spread along the rows, while tillage
is maintained in the spaces between.

Cover-crops have not been largely used among bush-
fruits heretofore, but there is good reason to believe
that they can be employed with advantage. If legumes
are used all the nitrogen which is needed may be thus
obtained. If too much results, non-leguminous crops

COVER- CROPS 15

should be substituted. Where crimson clover thrives it
makes an excellent plant for this purpose, forming a
dense close mat to aid in winter protection of the roots
and in the prevention of heaving. Its chief objection
lies in the fact that it involves extra labor to destroy the
plants in spring.

TILLAGE TOOLS

Few special tools are needed in the bush-fruit planta-
tion. A cultivator is the first and most important
implement. Any kind which will thoroughly loosen
the soil and leave it level will serve the purpose. It
should be one which will do good work when widely
spread, for with full-grown bushes it is impossible to
work close to the plants except with a wide tool, the
wings of which can run beneath the branches. For
suckering varieties it is decidedly advantageous to have
teeth which are square on the end instead of pointed, as
most cultivator teeth are. Square teeth will cut off. the
suckers beneath the surface of the ground, while
ordinary kinds permit most of them to escape. Such
teeth are also useful in cutting off Canada thistles and
other deep-rooted weeds which often escape.

In soil which is free from stones, knives or cutting
blades of steel can be made by a blacksmith and at-
tached to an ordinary cultivator, so that they will fol-
low and either cut or uproot everything which escapes
the teeth. Such a device is used by E. T. Hartley, of
Lincoln. Neb., for cutting off plum-sprouts.

In mellow soil a scuffle -hoe is useful for working
among plants which have become large and spreading.

16 BUSH-FRUITS

The crescent souffle -hoe answers this purpose admira-
bly. If preferred, and the materials are at hand, one
can be made by riveting the outer tines of an old fork
to a piece of bush -scythe, as shown in
Fig. 1.*

In this connection two devices for the
horse which does the cultivating should
be mentioned. One is a wire muzzle, in
the shape of a basket,, which can be
slipped over the nose and buckled into
the bit -rings. With such a device to
prevent the horse from nipping the plants
he will keep his place in the row and do
his work better. The other device is a
leather apron, to be worn on his breast,
which will save him many an ugly
Fig.i Home-made scratcn. It is generally necessary to

scarifer or scraper.

keep the horse close to one row to make
the cultivator reach under the bushes, and this apron
will materially aid in doing it.

PRUNING

The old canes of raspberries and blackberries are
best removed and burned as soon as fruiting is over.
Any insects that may be contained in them are thus
destroyed. The canes can be more easily cut at that
time, for they are still soft, while by spring they be-
come very dry and woody. This early removal offers
a good opportunity to clean up the plantation and culti-

* Other patterns of useful tools are illustrated in « Garden-Making."

IMPLEMENTS

vate close to the bushes. ' Though the fruiting -habit of
currants and gooseberries is different from that of bram-
bles, a similar principle of renewing the fruiting -wood
may be used with advantage. Fruit borne on old wood
becomes deficient in size. It is better therefore to cut
out all parts more than two years old and allow the
younger shoots to take their places. This is preferable
to shortening -in the shoots, for that induces additional
branching and a dense undesirable form of bush.

Some implement is needed for cutting out the old
and superfluous canes. The work can be done with
long-handled pruning - shears, with a corn-cutter or
with an ordinary bush -scythe, but some form of hooked
knife, small enough to work
among the canes easily and cut
one at a time, is more conven-
ient. A good tool of this kind
can be made from a flat file,
properly bent and sharpened,
then firmly driven into a shovel
or manure - fork handle, as
shown in Fig. 2. William A.
Brown of Michigan reports *
that after trying many devices
he prefers a tool similar to this
hook, but made from a piece
of bush -scythe riveted to a flattened shank and driven
into a handle. He also recommends a special rake for
use in gathering up the old canes when through prun-
ing. It consists of a head piece of 4x4 scantling 5

Fig. 2.
Pruning-hook.

Fig. 3.
Pruning-spud.

*Miehigau Horticultural Society Report, 1886, p. 406.

18 BUSH-FRUITS

feet long. Into this are fastened seven teeth of %
inch round iron, 18 inches long. Poles at right angles
to the teeth serve for shafts and a bow is attached to
the head -piece for handling it. By means of such a
tool the canes can be quickly gathered into piles in the
rows, from whence they can be loaded on a hayrack and
drawn away. A spud similar to that shown in Fig. 3 is
often useful in cutting out the canes or in cutting off
soft young suckers. It may also be used with advantage
in putting down the tips of black-caps.

For the spring pruning, which consists chiefly of
shortening -in the laterals, light, quick and easy -working
shears are needed. If the canes are not too large and
woody a good pair of sheep -shears is most convenient.
For nipping back the new growth in summer a long-
bladed knife or sickle with a keen edge will be found
convenient, particularly on young bushes where the
young shoots are so exposed as to allow them to be
clipped readily. On older bushes, where the young
shoots need to be clipped below the height of the older
canes, sheep -shears are better, though the thumb and
finger may be equally good.

It is necessary to go over the plants more than once,
since it is very important that the shoots be pinched
when they reach the desired height. If allowed to
grow taller, then cut back, the laterals will not push
forth so vigorously. If only the tip is removed from
a tall shoot tha resulting bush will be top-heavy and
unable to hold up its load of fruit.

For full discussion of the principles and practice of pruning,
consult "The Pruning -Book."

WINTER INJURIES 19

»
WINTER KILLING

The hardiness of the varieties which he cultivates
is a point of great importance to the grower. The
question of what constitutes hardiness has puzzled
growers much, and is still unsettled. That the con-
ditions of the season and of growth affect in great
measure the ability to endure the following winter
is certain, although if a variety is constitutionally
tender in a given locality, there is little hope that
any kind of treatment will make it hardy. Disease
or the intense heat of summer may so weaken plants
that they are unable to withstand the most favorable
winters, while strong, healthy plants will often endure
the most trying ones unhurt. Raspberry plants taken
up and removed to the forcing house in the fall of
1892 showed all the ordinary symptoms of winter
killing when starting into growth under glass, yet
they had been subjected to only enough cold to
admit of a ball of earth being taken up with them when
transferred to the house. It is generally believed that
after a comparatively dry fall, favoring a slow, well
ripened growth, plants endure the winter best, but
even this theory of well ripened wood is still open
to doubt. It is certain that slender canes pro-
duced during the latter part of the season often
winter -kill less than those of the whole season's
growth. It is unsafe to assert from this, however,
that immature wood is hardier, for canes produced
late are smaller, and may make firmer, better ripened
wood than those of earlier and more vigorous growth.

20 BUSH-FRUITS

There are some very successful berry -growers whose
practice is directly opposite to this theory, for they
believe in thorough and frequent cultivation up to
the time of frost. This tends to favor a late fall
growth, producing at least some wood which cannot
be well ripened when winter sets in.

In many localities winter protection is an essential
feature of berry growing, and many growers find it
profitable even where it is not absolutely necessary.
The increased yield, even in mild climates, often more
than pays the cost of protection, and a crop of fruit
is thereby insured, even though the winter should be
an unusually trying one.

Different methods are employed for laying -down
the canes. Some drive over the rows with a wagon,
and the axle bends the plants all in one direction. If
mulch of any kind is used for covering, like sorghum,
bagasse or coarse manure, it can be thrown from the
wagon on to the plants at the same time. A fence
rail is sometimes used to bend down a section of row
at once, leaving the rail there to hold them down. A
simple and practical way is to remove a little earth
from the side of the hill with a spading or manure
fork, bending the plant down in that direction and
throwing enough earth over the tips to hold it there.
The plants are usually all laid in one direction along
the row, the tips of one lapping over the roots of the
preceding. In very severe climates it is best to en-
tirely cover the plants with earth. This is some-
times done by running a plow along the row, and
throwing the furrow over them after they have been

LAYING-DOWN THE PLANTS 21

laid down. The objection to this plan is that it
injures the roots, and with suckering varieties, causes
more suckers to spring up, so that the time saved
is lost again in fighting the suckers the following
season. Some plow a furrow along the row the first
thing, and turn the plants to the side, but that plan
is open to the same objection.

This laying -down can be done at any time after
growth stops in the fall, but before the ground
freezes. In some instances no injury has followed
covering while yet in full leaf, with several weeks of
mild weather following. The time of taking them
up in the spring, however, is of greater importance,
for if lifted early, with severe weather following, they
are much more apt to be injured than plants which
have not been covered would be by the same tempera-
ture. If left too late, growth may begin while they
are still covered, rendering them very sensitive to
even light frosts when exposed. It is always bet-
ter, if the work can be so timed, that a few days of
mild weather shall follow the date of lifting.

The cost of protecting in this way is variously
estimated. T. T. Lyon reports a large plantation
of Wilson Early blackberries bearing a bountiful crop,
which had been laid down at a cost not exceeding
$1.75 per acre. In Wisconsin, where much of it is
done, the cost of laying -down blackberries and
lifting them again in spring is estimated at about
$5 per acre.

The verdict of all growers who have practiced lay-
ing- down is so unanimously in its favor that there can

22 BUSH-FRUITS

be little doubt that in all regions where the winters
are especially severe or trying, it will certainly pay
to lay down both .raspberries and blackberries. A
writer in American Garden in 1890 makes the state-
ment that he can insure a quart of blackberries a
minute, for the time spent in laying them down.
Some growers advise less vigorous summer pruning,
or none at all, where plants are to be laid down.
Others who practice laying -down very extensively
also prune severely.

Bailey writes* as follows on this subject: "Black-
berries and raspberries are extensively laid down in
cold climates, and it may be well to relate the method
here for the benefit of those who occupy bleak loca-
tions. Late in fall, the bushes are tipped over and
covered. Three men are generally employed to per-
form this labor. One man goes ahead with a long-
handled, round -pointed shovel and digs the earth
away six inches deep from under the roots. The
second man has a six-tined or four-tined fork which
he thrusts against the plant a foot or so above the
ground, and by pushing upon the fork and stamping
against the roots with the foot, the plant is laid over
in the direction from which the earth was removed.
The third man now covers the plant with earth or
marsh hay. Earth is generally used, and if the va-
riety is a tender one the whole bush is covered two
or three inches deep. Hardy varieties may be simply
held down by throwing a few shovelfulls of earth

*« Principles of Fruit-Growing, " 98.

LAYING-DOWN THE PLANTS 23

on the tops of the canes, thus allowing the snow to
fill in amongst the tops. If the grower lives in a
locality where he does not fear late spring frosts, the
bushes should be raised early in the spring; but if
frosts are feared, they may be left under cover until
corn -planting time. If the buds become large and
are bleached white under cover, they will suffer when
exposed to the atmosphere ; and one must watch the
bushes in spring, and raise them before the buds be-
come soft and white. This method of lay ing -down
blackberry plants costs less than $10 per acre, and
the slight breaking of the roots is no disadvantage.
Some growers dig the earth away on both sides of
the row, and still others bend over the canes without
any digging. Whatever method is employed, the
operator must be careful not to crack or split the
canes. The method can be varied with different va-
rieties, for some bear stiff er canes than others."

The ^same author writes* again as follows: "The
tops of plants may be laid down for the winter. Fig.
4 shows a method of laying down blackberries, as
practiced in the Hudson River Valley. The plants
were tied to a trellis, as the method is in that
country, two wires (a, bj having been run on
either side of the row. The posts are hinged by a
pivot to a short post (cj, and are held in position by
a brace (d). The entire trellis is then laid down
upon the approach of winter, as shown in the illus-
tration. The blackberry tops are so strong that they

*" Garden-Making," 62.

BUSH-FRUITS

hold the wires up from the ground, even when the
trellis is laid down. To hold the wires close to the
earth, stakes are thrust over them in a slanting posi-
tion, as shown at n n. The snow which drifts
through the plants ordinarily affords- sufficient pro-
tection for plants which are as hardy as grapes and

Fig, 5. Laying -down trellis-grown blackberries.

berries. In fact, the plants may be uninjured even
without cover, since, in their prostrate position, they
escape the cold and drying winds."

In this connection it should be noted, that severe
cold is not the only cause of winter -killing. In
Nebraska, red raspberries and blackberries are com-
monly killed to the ground if left unprotected, while
black -caps fare only a little better, yet the climate is
no colder than in New York or Pennsylvania, where
protection is rarely given. The winter of 1895-6 was

RAISING SEEDLINGS 25

an exceptionally mild one, the mercury falling below
zero but once at Lincoln, and then only five degrees
below, yet the destruction was as complete as ever.

Young plants of the Taylor blackberry were uni-
formly killed to the ground during this winter, while
plants in adjoining rows, of the same age and in every
way comparable, but which were laid down and cov-
ered, came through perfectly green to the tips. The
following winter, 1896-7, was much colder, but the
preceding summer and autumn had been favorable,
with plenty of rain, and the plants went into winter
quarters with abundant moisture in the ground. Con-
trary to their usual custom, and in spite of much
lower temperature, both raspberry and blackberry
plants came through the winter in good condition with-
out protection. Drought is more disastrous than cold
in Nebraska.

PROPAGATION *

The common methods of propagation consist in a
division or continuation of the parent plant by means
of tips, suckers or cuttings, according to the habit of
the species. Reproduction from seeds, by means of
which new varieties are obtained, is the same in all.
When the fruit is thoroughly ripe the seeds should be
washed out of the pulp in water, and may then be
sown at once, or first dried, like other seeds, and sown
later. There is reason to believe that a larger propor-
tion of the seeds will germinate the first spring after
sowing if put in the soil at once, than if dried and

*For extended discussions of propagation of plants, see "The Nursery-Book."

26 B USH-FR UITS

kept some time before sowing. Certain it is that by
the latter method most of them remain dormant during
one whole season, germinating the second spring.
Unless they are to be sown in very large quantities,
gardeners' flats, about two feet square and five or six
inches deep, will be found most convenient. The soil
used should be rather light and porous, one which will
not bake or pack hard. The seed may be sown in
rows two or three inches apart, or broadcast over the
surface of the ground. Cover lightly about one -fourth
of an inch deep. The boxes can then be put outside
in a protected, shady place, and left till the seeds ger-
minate. If the seeds are the product of crosses or
particularly choice selections, so that they need to be
kept pure, the flat should be covered with a fine screen
to prevent the possibility of birds dropping other
seeds into the same box, as might easily happen,
especially if the box has been placed under trees to
secure the desired shade. The only attention required
from this time on is to see that the soil is not allowed
to dry out enough to injure the germinating power of
the seeds. Weeds should also be pulled out as they
appear. As soon as the plants are strong enough to
bear handling, they should be potted off or reset in
other flats, putting them two or three inches apart
each way. The flats or pots in which these young
plants are growing should be well plunged in the
soil to avoid drying out. This is of especial impor-
tance in getting the plants through the winter safely,
for lack of moisture in winter is as destructive to
plant life as lack of moisture in summer. ' After one

THINNING 27

season's growth the plants may be strong enough to
be set in the open ground, but they need mellow,
well -prepared soil and careful attention, for most of
them will still be small and weak. Growing plants
from seeds is a slow process, and in the majority of
cases the offspring will show nothing superior to the
parent or to other varieties already in cultivation.

THINNING THE FRUIT

Thinning is often advantageous with the larger
fruits, and is easily done with berries by clipping off
a part of each cluster or some clusters entirely. A
limited experiment to test the value of such practice
did not give encouraging results with either raspber-
ries or blackberries. The eye could detect no increase
in the size of the berries on thinned plants, and, since
the principal gain would be in the increased size and
attractiveness of the fruit, it seemed to fail of its
purpose.

As a matter of fact, the thinning is done at the
annual spring pruning, and if the proper balance has
been obtained then, there is no need of further reduc-
ing the number of fruits.

EFFECT OF SPRAYING ON POLLINATION*

It is generally supposed that rainy and cloudy
weather at blossoming time is injurious to the fruit
crop, and the question occurs whether frequent spray-
ing with water at this period would produce any no-

*Fred W. Card, Bull. 57, Cornell Exp. Statioi

OF THE

UNIVERSITY

28 BUSH-FRUITS

ticeable effect. On June 15, 1892, spraying was begun
on Caroline, Cuthbert and Turner raspberries. At
that time the Caroline was well in bloom, while the
others were scarcely beginning to bloom. The spray-
ing was continued until July 1, two to four times
each day when the weather was bright and pleasant,
but omitted when there were rains to take its place.
Showers were frequent during this period, but were
well interspersed with bright weather and sunshine.

The results were entirely negative, showing no ef-
fect whatever from the spraying. The fruits on this
part of the row were just as perfect and abundant,
and the plants appeared to suffer no more from fun-
gous diseases than those not sprayed. It is to be
noted, however, that the conditions were not the same
as those present in continuous cloudy weather, for
during much of this time the weather was bright and
insects were numerous, and continued working among
the blossoms regardless of their being wet, so that
opportunities for pollination were good.

The test is of interest as showing that there need
be no fear of interfering with pollination by spraying
for insects or diseases, even if necessary to do it at
blossoming time. Of course, it should not be done
a-t that time, ordinarily, on account of the bees.

FORCING RASPBERRIES AND BLACKBERRIES*

When the ground began to freeze in the fall of
1892, several strong raspberry and blackberry plants

*Bull. 57, Cornell Exp. Sta.

FORCING BUSH-FRUITS 29

of bearing age were dug about, and, when frozen,
the ball of earth, with the plant, was lifted and trans-
ferred to boxes about twenty inches square in the
forcing -houses. They were placed in a cool or lettuce
house and came on very slowly, the temperature evi-
dently being too low for them, and no fruit ripened
before April. One plant placed in a warmer house
came on much more rapidly. As spring approached,
bringing higher temperature and more sunshine, the
plants began to blossom freely. At first no hand -pol-
linating was done, but it did not take long to see
that no perfect fruit would be formed without it, and
afterwards the flowers were pollinated as they appeared,
with good and perfectly normal fruit as the result.
This can be quickly done by knocking off the pollen
and catching it in a spoon or a small watch-glass set
in a convenient handle of wood, the pistils then
being dipped in this pollen.

With young plants, started in boxes or large pots
in spring, so as to be well established when transferred
to the forcing -house in the fall or winter, there seems
to be no reason why good crops of raspberries and
blackberries cannot be grown under glass. They
appear to require a comparatively high temperature,
however, and demand artificial pollination.

SUGGESTIONS ON PICKING

Always avoid picking when the fruit is wet, unless
made absolutely necessary by continued showery
weather. Fruit put in the baskets wet can seldom

30 BUSH-FRUITS

come out in good condition, and must reach the con-
sumer very promptly in order to avoid molding and
loss. But whatever the condition when picked, it
should be promptly brought to a cool, shady place,
where plenty of air is accessible, and go from there
to market and to the consumer with the least possi-
ble delay. A spring -wagon of some kind is a neces-
sity for transporting it, and good roads over which to
travel add wonderfully to the value of a location.
If very large quantities are to be handled, it may pay
to have a special truck wagon, with springs and a
broad top reaching beyond the wheels, or springs may
be made to fit the bolsters of the ordinary farm
wagon.

With a business of any considerable extent, it is
absolutely necessary to have some systematic method
of keeping account of the amount of work done by
pickers. Several methods are in general use. One
of the simplest is to have printed tickets, which are
given out as the berries are brought in, exchanging
them for higher denominations as occasion requires.
At the end of the day's work these can be surrendered
and the amount credited in a book or billet kept for
the purpose. The tickets are considered the same as
money when given out, and if lost, it is the picker's
loss and not the owner's.

Another plan in use to a certain extent, and which
is very simple and satisfactory, is to fasten a card, by
means of a safety-pin, to the shoulder of each picker,
and then indicate the number of quarts brought in
each time by punching the card, crediting up at the

PICKING 31

end of the day, as before. The cards can then be kept
by the pickers as vouchers on their part, to guard
against errors on the books.*

One of the greatest difficulties in managing a
crowd of pickers is to get the fruit picked clean, and
it is an absolute necessity to have a rigid system of
assignment to rows, with a careful foreman almost
constantly in the field to go over the work frequently
and see that it is well done. The shiftless picker
must be made to go over the row again. From a
limited experience in managing a crowd of city ur-
chins in experimental gardens, where an assignment
of rows was impracticable, I can speak with full assur-
ance concerning the importance of this precaution.

Another precaution nearly always necessary is to
reserve a portion of the price per quart, usually half
a cent, until the close of the season, with the under-
standing that only those who work through to the end
shall receive the full amount. If this is not done, the
amount of "headache" and the number of other ex-
cuses which will develop will be something astonish-
ing, and the outcome will be that a few conscientious
pickers will be left to finish up the poorer picking,
with inconvenience to the grower and injustice to
them. Some overcome the difficulty to a certain ex-
tent by varying the price with the condition of the
picking, but this plan must lead to more or less
confusion.

*Consult Chapter viii., "Principles of Fruit-Gro wine," for further discussion
of these questions.

32 BUSH-FRUITS

PACKAGES AND MARKETING

As the season of marketing approaches, an abun-
dance of packages, of a kind suited to the demands of
the market available, will be needed. Many styles of
crates and baskets are offered, and it is sufficient to say
that some form of the standard thirty -two quart crate,
holding full dry measure quart baskets, is always to
be recommended. If a near-by market can be de-
pended upon to absorb the crop, a good, substantial,
well-made crate is desirable ; one which will make its
lightness and durability of value in the repeated hand-
ling. On the other hand, if fruit must be shipped
some distance, there will be an inevitable loss of crates
and baskets, and it may be found better to use gift
crates altogether, or at least one which is cheap enough
so that the loss of those which never find their way
back will not be seriously felt.

A very cheap and satisfactory crate was fully de-
scribed several years ago by E. W. Reid, of Ohio,* and
is the style universally used in that vicinity. The
material is bought from the planing mill, sawed ready
for nailing together, and put up at home during the
winter. Being in small pieces, much of it can be cut
from cull lumber, which makes the price more rea-
sonable. I copy Mr. Reid's figures, together with the
estimated cost and directions for making. Here is
the cost of one hundred crates at that time in his
locality :

*Popular Gardening, iii. 158.

CRA TES

Lumber, ready to nail $30 00

Nails , . . 3 00

Leather for hinges and fastenings 1 50

1 gross of buckles (144) 80

1 man 4 days, $1 per day, to put together . . 4 00

Total $39 30

The following are the dimensions:

Length

Width

Thickness

End

16 in

in •

1 in.

Side

- . .24% "

< <

i/ «

Strips for side . ) .

. . . 24% "

3
2

< <
< <

and bottom . . 1 q

94 1/ "

3 lx

/ 1 1

i/ <'

In Fig. 5, A shows the solid end, with hand-hole
sawed with circular saw ; J3, the lid, worked on
leather hinges, and
fastened with strap -and
buckles. The three side
strips marked C are
three inches wide, those
marked D are two inches
wide. The bottom strips
are three and one -half
inches wide and one-
half inch thick. F
shows the fastenings
and hinges. The side
and bottom slats are
arranged so that the openings come about the middle
of the baskets in each tier, giving good ventilation,
and holding the baskets firmly in place.

Fig. 5. A useful berry crate.

34 BUSH-FRUITS

The tray used between the tiers of baskets is shown
in Fig. 6, the size of the pieces being as follows:

Length Width Thickness

2 strips . . 22% in. 1% in. % in.

1 " . .22% M 2% " K "

5 rails . . 11 " % tapering to % at bot. 1 "

The outside rails taper on only one side. This
tapering of the cross-pieces is a great advantage, allow-
ing them to rest on the sides of the baskets without
crushing the berries, and since they are an inch high
they make it possible to round up
the baskets as they should be and
still keep the top presentable. It
will be easy to modify the dimen-

I II II II I

M II II I

Fig. 6. Tray used in the sionS and styles to Correspond

crate. to any form, of basket that cir-

cumstances may make advisable, but the figures and
dimensions given will serve as an excellent basis on
which to work.

For nailing up the crates, some kind of form is of
great service. This can be made from a good, solid
box, by cutting slots in the side exactly opposite and
the right distance apart for the end pieces. This will
make it easy to put up each crate true and square,
and it can be done much quicker than without such a
device.

Picking -stands holding four quart baskets each are
a necessary addition to the outfit. They enable the
pickers to keep their fruit safe and clean, preventing
much inconvenience in tipping over and spilling.

PACKAGES FOR BERRIES 35

Carriers exactly like these, but long enough to hold
eight baskets instead of four, are always convenient
to have in gathering up and carrying berries from
the field. They consist of a plain slat frame with
four short legs to raise them slightly from the ground,
and a handle something like those used on grape
baskets. The stands can be bought of dealers in fruit
packages at reasonable prices, or can be put up at
home in winter.

It will seldom pay to buy the quart baskets in the
flat and nail them up at home. In the end they are
pretty sure to cost as much and probably more than
if bought ready for use. Very few workmen have the
knack of systematizing work of that kind, and mak-
ing quick motions that will count to good advantage.
The average man will go at the work with about the
same speed that he would use in shoveling a load of
sand, and the result is that, when night comes, if
the value of his day's wages is divided by the num-
ber of baskets he has made, the chances are that they
will be found to have cost a good round price. The
chief advantage in making at home is to utilize time
of comparatively little value when it is desirable to
keep a steady force of help throughout the season.
For currants, and especially gooseberries, the ordinary
grape baskets are much used, and in many cases will
be found more satisfactory than quart baskets, par-
ticularly for shipping.

Selling the product is one of the most essential
features of the whole business. Many a man can grow
fruits successfully, but fails because he cannot market

36 BUSH-FRUITS

them well. Yet nobody can tell him how to do this
part of the work. It is largely a special problem, to
be worked out for each individual case, and the man
who fails to make a careful study of his conditions and
to devise plans for the satisfactory disposal of his pro-
ducts, will surely fail, and there is no help for it.

REMARKS ON CROSSING BERRIES*

It is only within comparatively recent time that
the necessity of careful, systematic plant -breeding has
been recognized, and the history and development of
horticulture is a conspicuous evidence of the fact.
Animal breeders have long recognized the necessity
of working along definite lines with definite aims in
view. Horticulturists, on the other hand, have for
the most part been content to take what they found
and call it good, at least until something better ap-
peared. In looking over the history of American va-
rieties of fruits, one can hardly fail to be struck by
the almost continuous recurrence of the phrase, "a
chance seedling," "found growing," and the like. The
sooner we begin to work for what we want in ac-
cordance with scientific principles and with a definite
purpose in mind, the sooner will we see the progress
and improvement for which we hope.

To some the terms crossing and hybridizing may
convey the idea of something too scientific and too
difficult for the majority of people to undertake. On

*The whole question of breeding by means of crossing is discussed in Bailey's
" Plant-Breeding".

CROSSING FOR NEW VARIETIES 37

the other hand, there is reason to fear, from the
number and character of many of the so-called crosses
introduced from time to time, that many have far too
loose an idea of what crossing really means. While
there is nothing particularly difficult in the operation,
it is, for the most part, slow and delicate work, and
requires extreme care to insure certainty as to the
purity of the results. We have no right to assert
that a plant is a cross unless we know beyond perad-
venture that no other pollen except that of a given
parent has been allowed to reach the stigma of the
flower which developed the seed from which the plant
in question was produced. The mere fact that pollen
of a given variety has been applied to the stigma of
another variety is no evidence that crossing has taken
place. In order to explain the methods of crossing,
and to show what results may be expected, this record
of experience is inserted.

The methods of crossing vary with the character
and structure of the flower in question, but the essen-
tial feature is the same in all cases. The pollen of
the flower which is to serve as the female parent must
be carefully and completely removed before it ripens,
then the flower must be carefully covered until the
stigma is ready to receive pollen and admit of fecun-
dation. The flowers of the male parent should also
be carefully covered before opening, to prevent the
admixture of pollen from any other plants. At the
proper time this pollen is conveyed to the stigma of
the protected flower on the female plant, and the flower
again covered until it has reached such a stage that

38 BUSH-FRUITS

fecundation is no longer possible. If properly fertilized
by the pollen applied, the stigma very soon withers,
but if not, it may remain in a receptive condition for
several days.

In crossing brambles or groselles, select a cluster
which has several buds nearly ready to open, if such a
one is to be found. Cut off all younger buds, all
which have already begun to open, all flowers and all
fruit which has already set, leaving only the few un-
opened buds which are of about the same age. The
next step is to remove all stamens from these buds.
As the number of stamens is large, to remove each one
separately would be a tedious task. Fortunately, how-
ever, in the rose and saxifrage families, to which these
fruits belong, the stamens are borne on the calyx.
This enables us to get rid of them all by simply cut-
ting away the calyx. This can be con-
veniently done either with fine, sharp-
pointed scissors, or with a spatula made
from a pin stuck in the end of a stick,
then flattened and sharpened at the
edges. Turn the bud (Fig. 7) bottom
side up, and cut a circle around the
stem not far from it. The whole calyx
Fig. 7. Raspberry will then come away, taking the stamens
bemarsec±e' with it (Fig. 8). After all the buds
have been thus treated, care being taken
that no anthers are left, the cluster is covered with a
paper sack. Half or quarter -pound grocers7 sacks
answer the purpose well. If the open end of the
bag is moistened, the paper can be pressed more closely

CROSSING 39

about the stem. Some flat tying material is best for
tying, raffia being most convenient if at hand. At the
same time, a cluster on the variety which is to be used
as the male parent should be covered in the same way,
in order to have pure pollen to apply at the right time.
When first emasculated, a raspberry bud will have
much the appearance of Fig. 8, but usually in about
two days, in warm weather, it will have devel-
oped far enough to be ready for pollination.
It will then have the appearance of Fig. 9 ;
the styles will be extended and spreading, and
the stigmas will have a sticky look, indicating
that they are in a receptive condition. Black-
berries often require several days to sufficiently

develop after emasculation, especially late in tioncom-
the season if the weather is cool.

When the stigmas are ready, uncover the cluster
from which the pollen is to be Obtained, select a
blossom from which it dusts out freely, and apply
it to the ones to be fertilized. The pollen may be
collected and applied with a spatula or camel's -hair
brush, but if in the right condition, applying the
flower direct is the simplest way. The pollinated
cluster must then be at once covered, as before, and
left for a week or ten days. At the end of that
time, if all the stigmas have shriveled away, the paper
sack may be replaced by one of mosquito netting,
which will admit light and air, but still protect the
fruit from birds and boys.

In case of the brambles, the result will often be
an imperfect berry. Only a few of the akenes are

40 BUSH-FRUITS

likely to be fecundated, and there may not be enough
to^fill out all the space on the receptacle (Fig. 10).
When the fruit is ripe the seeds should be planted
and cared for as heretofore
directed for growing plants
from seed, except that es-
pecial care should be used
in all the operations to
avoid mixture, or injury to

pig 9 occuo or young plants. Fig 10 Result of
Reads- to poi- Crossing requires much time, incomplete poi-

linate ^ • -i TIT lination.

and accidents are liable to

occur all along the line, so that the result of a
summer's work may be, in the end, only a few
plants, most or all of which are worthless. Yet
persistent effort in this line should be encouraged,
and in time the results are likely to repay all the at-
tempts made.

During the summer of 1890 considerable work was
done by the writer in crossing different varieties and
species of raspberries and blackberries in the hor-
ticultural gardens at Cornell University. A num-
ber of plants came through to fruiting age. Notes
were taken in the summer of 1894 on all those which
had then begun to fruit. The substance of these
notes is given below, and may prove of interest as
showing some of the tendencies exhibited. In writ-
ing the records of crosses, the seed -bearing parent
is placed first. For example, "Gregg X Shaffer"
means that pistils of Gregg received pollen from
Shaffer.

RESULTS OF CROSSING 41

GREGG X SHAFFER (Eubus occidentalis X R- neglectus)

Five plants from seed of Gregg, fertilized with pol-
len of the Shaffer, were growing and fruiting. Four
of them resembled the Gregg much in character of
plant, and one approached more nearly to the Shaffer.
In character of fruit cluster three were more or less
elongated like Shaffer, and two more closely aggre-
gated like Gregg. The fruit varied in character be-
tween that of the two parents, in one case closely ap-
proaching Shaffer, in others more nearly intermediate
or nearer the Gregg. The color in some of them
was much like that of a black -cap not fully ripe.

FONTENAY X CUTHBERT (Eubus Id(EUS X R" StrigOSUS)

There were five plants of this, four of which did
not germinate till the second spring after sowing the
seed, and were fruiting but little. Three resembled
the Fontenay in character of growth, one the Cuthbert,
and one was intermediate. The little fruit thus far
produced showed no value.

SHAFFER X CUTHBERT (Eubus neglectus X -K- strigosus)

Thirty-one plants of this cross were growing, show-
ing various intermediate stages between the two parents.
The majority thus far seemed to resemble the male
parent in character of plant and in propagation by
suckers. Of the older plants, which were fruiting well,
some produced typical red raspberry fruits as light,
and in some cases possibly even brighter, than Cuth-
bert in color ; others were darker, and resembled Shaf-

42 BUSH-FRUITS

fer more. One in particular bore a large, bright red
berry, resembling Cuthbert in shape and flavor, and
promised well. Another, bearing a smaller, darker
berry, seemed to be productive, and the flavor was
very rich and good, much better than most varieties.

CUTHBERT X SHAFFER (Eubus strigosus X E. neglectus)

Three plants of this cross showed various inter-
mediate characters, but nothing especially promising.

ADA X CUTHBERT (Eubus occidentals X E. strigosus)

Of this cross there were three comparatively weak
plants, none of them yet bearing fruit. All seemed to
resemble the male parent more than the female parent
in character of cane. There was then no indication
as to the method of propagation.

In addition to the above crosses between different
species or types, there were three plants of Cuthbert
X Turner and seven of Turner X Cuthbert. None of
them were bearing sufficiently well to judge of their
value. In general, they showed the same intermediate
gradations which were to be seen in the other cases.

Observations made the following year by E. G.
Lodeman and C. E. Hunn showed nothing of value
among any of these plants. One lesson which the
results of the work as a whole made plain is that
really useful varieties are to be obtained by commin-
gling closely related varieties or types, rather than
those distantly related, a lesson which has been
taught in many other ways before.

PAET II

THE BRAMBLES

CHAPTER II

THE EED RASPBEEEIES

In this discussion of the red raspberry, three types
of fruits are included, — the foreign or European class,
the true American reds, and the hybrid reds or purple-
canes. Types of the first class are Antwerp and Fon-
tenay, of the second, Cuthbert, of the third, Phila-
delphia and Shaffer.

SOIL

Like the other members of the bramble family, the
red raspberry can be made to succeed on almost any
kind of soil, the prime essential being that it shall be
well -drained and retentive of moisture. An upland
sandy or clay loam is likely to give the best results.
The land should be of moderate fertility, rich enough
to produce liberal crops of fruit without being so strong
as to cause an over -vigorous growth of canes. This
over -richness is apt to be the difficulty with bottom
lands, or any other low and moist location. Such rapid

(43)

44 BUSH-FRUITS

growth not only tends in itself to decrease produc-
tiveness, but the wood is usually not sufficiently dense
and well ripened to stand the winter. A stiff, hard
clay is equally unfavorable, and any soil which is wet
and soggy during -any considerable portion of the year
is sure to result in at least partial failure. The rasp-
berry is one of the first of all fruits to suffer from
excessive moisture in the soil. On the other hand, it
quickly suffers from drought at ripening ; hence the
demand is for a soil which, while never surfeited with
moisture, is at the same time sufficiently retentive to
be able to supply it in sufficient quantities throughout
the season.

The variety has something to do with the choice of
soils. The more vigorous the variety in habit of
growth, the lighter and drier the soil 'best adapted to
it, as a rule, and vice versa. The Cuthbert is one of
our most vigorous growers, and usually succeeds well
on upland, while some of the more feeble growers,
like Hansell, may do better on lowlands.

LOCATION

The cooler the spot the larger and finer the berries.
This is the rule with wild berries. Hence a northern
exposure which will, in so far as possible, mitigate the
scorching sun and excessive heat likely to occur at
ripening time, is the one to be sought, particularly in
the mid -continental regions. A location which is too
hot may be much alleviated, however, by thorough-
going tillage.

FERTILIZERS AND PROPAGATION 45

FERTILIZERS

Red raspberries do not need heavy fertilizing unless
grown on very unproductive land. On such soil stable
manure can be used in limited quantities with good
results. Little nitrogen is required, and its application
is apt to be money wasted. It may also induce too
much growth of cane with ill -developed fruit -buds and
deficient fruitfulness. Potash is desirable but is not
needed in large quantities. It may be supplied in
muriate of potash or in wood -ashes. Fifty pounds of
muriate of potash per acre, annually, will supply more
potash than the fruit will remove. It should be remem-
bered, however, that part of what is applied must inva-
riably be lost. If phosphoric acid is needed an application
of two hundred fifty pounds of floats or ground bone,
harrowed in before setting the plants, will supply it.
The grower should carefully experiment upon his own
soil to determine whether commercial fertilizers are
really needed, and if so what. Let the humus -supply
be first considered, the chemicals later.

PROPAGATION

Red raspberries attend to their own propagation
without aid. The grower is more concerned with
destroying the plants which appear than with increas-
ing their production. Most varieties sucker freely, and
these suckers must be kept down to obtain satisfactory
fruit -production. If it becomes desirable to hasten the
propagation of new and desirable varieties they may be

46 B USH-FR UITS

increased more rapidly by disturbing or cutting the
roots and by means of root cuttings, in exactly the
same manner as described for blackberries. As else-
where stated, care should be exercised in taking up
the plants for setting. They should always be lifted
by thrusting some tool beneath the roots and loosening
the earth above. They should never be pulled up
directly, for this is altogether likely to break the shoot
from the root from which it sprang, leaving only a
straight stem, with very few fibrous roots on it, from
which to develop the root system of the young plant.
In this instance, as in every other, good results are to
be expected only when the operator informs himself as
to methods, and then does the best he knows how.

PLANTING

Most of the directions given for planting the black-
berry will apply equally well to the red raspberry, and
like that, it is adapted to either spring or fall planting.
The chief difference between the two, so far as plant-
ing is concerned, is that the red raspberry requires less
room. About the same arguments will apply in both
cases in regard to the time of planting and to the
method, whether in hills or check rows. If in rows,
the usual distance is six feet apart and about three feet
in the row. The young plants will very soon fill in
the intervening spaces, making a solid row unless cut
down. Just this fact, moreover, is a very good argu-
ment in favor of hill planting. So many suckers are
thrown up that the hedge gets denser and broader

PLANTING THE REDS 47

as the plants keep crowding outward and narrowing
the space between the rows. The result is that soon
only weak and spindling canes can be developed, and
the whole plantation is virtually crowded out. Of
course, there is a remedy for this in persistently and
vigorously thinning out, but this is tedious and ex-
pensive work, and is very rarely done as it should be.
While this difficulty cannot be wholly overcome by any
system of planting, still if the plants are in hills and
the cultivator kept going thoroughly in both direc-
tions, it is largely obviated. Five feet apart each way
is about the most satisfactory distance for reds in hills,
though some growers plant them as close as four feet.
This may prove sufficient for the smaller -growing va-
rieties, but for the more vigorous - growing sorts it is
likely to prove too close, though four feet one way
might do. It is sometimes recommended to set the
plants two and one -half feet apart in one direction, on
high-priced land, then tear out every alternate plant
after the first two crops and cultivate both ways, the
idea being to thus utilize the land more fully at the
beginning.

The young shoots of red raspberry plants can be
successfully planted early in the summer, and it is
often a desirable way of doing. Certainly where the
grower can get them from his own fields it is much
better to plant them in the early summer while young,
than to wait till the following spring to set the same
plants, if he is ready to plant and is only being de-
layed by the lack of plants. Such plants become well
established and are ready for a much more vigorous

48 BUSH-FRUITS

growth the following spring than one-year-old plants
just set. They will also bear some fruit without
injury. In fact, a young plant taken up and carefully
reset when a few inches high is to be preferred, on the
whole, to a one-year-old plant which has had to be
shipped some distance from a nursery, and has been
planted in the spring of the same year.

In the hot, dry climates of the West, some shade is
an advantage to these fruits, and if it can be secured
without so close proximity to trees that the moisture
and fertility is already sapped from the ground by
their roots, it is desirable to get it. Ordinarily this is
not an easy thing to do, and the injury is likely to be
as great as the benefit.

POLLINATION

The need of planting different varieties together to
insure proper fecundation of the blossoms has come to
be well recognized in orchard planting, but has not
been thought worth considering in planting bush -fruits.
It has been taken for granted that the varieties commonly
grown are self -fertile. Indications point to the con-
clusion that many of them are not fully so. I have
observed much evidence of imperfect pollination with
Early Cluster and Ancient Briton blackberry, Mayes
dewberry and Fontenay raspberry, when growing alone.
Others may be equally deficient. The Cuthbert bears
an abundance of pollen and is apparently fully self-
fertile. Its blossoming season is long and it is therefore
an excellent sort to plant with other reds.

TILLING 49

The Crimson Beauty is an instance of a variety
which, while possessing many good points, proved a
practical failure over the country at large, mainly owing
to its inability to properly fecundate its own blossoms.

TILLAGE

The cultivation of red raspberries should be such
that it will not only keep the ground loose and friable,
thus diminishing evaporation and unlocking plant -food,
but will also destroy the suckers. To this end a culti-
vator with teeth square on the end instead of pointed,
or with a knife attachment, as explained in the discus-
sion of tools, is of great advantage. Of course this
assumes that the object is fruit, and does not apply to
the man who is growing plants for sale. In spite of
the repetition, perhaps attention ought again to be
called to the very great importance of frequent cultiva-
tion, up to the time of ripening. This alone may easily
add 50 per cent to the quality and quantity of the crop.
As already stated, this is the best substitute for irriga-
tion, and in many cases is nearly equal to it. Late
tillage, up to the time of frost, gives especially good
results with the red raspberry, and no one need fear
to keep the cultivator going until that time in most
localities.

PRUNING

In the pruning of red raspberries, the practice of
growers is widely at variance, especially with regard
to the summer pruning. A few years ago the com-
mon advice, or rather, perhaps, that which appeared

50 BUSH-FRUITS

most frequently, was to treat them the same as black-
caps, by pinching the growing canes in summer and
trimming back the laterals in spring. Individually,
growers all over the country have been coming to
doubt the advisability of this plan, and to omit the
summer pruning. Pinching back the canes in summer
seems to have a tendency to increase the number of
suckers thrown up, which in itself is a disadvantage
unless the plantation is being run for purposes of
propagation. Unless pinched low while still very
young, the plants -do not throw out strong branches,
like the black -caps, possibly owing to the fact that the
energy of the plant is more readily directed in the
line of producing suckers than in the line of develop-
ing branches. The effect of stopping the cane after
it has reached a height of three feet or more, is only
to force into growth lateral buds which might better
remain dormant until the following spring. As a rule,
they make only an imperfect development, do not be-
come well ripened before growth stops, and are apt to
be more or less injured by the following winter. Both
my own experience and the information gathered from
the experience of others, lead me to believe that the
better way to treat the red raspberry is to allow it to
grow unmolested during the whole season, merely cut-
ting the canes back to within three, or in some cases
even two feet of the ground the following spring. If
the canes are to be supported by stakes or trellis, as is
sometimes done in garden culture, they may be left
longer, say four, or even five feet. Treated in this
way, the canes will throw out a sufficient number of

PRUNING RED RASPBERRIES 51

laterals in spring to produce all the fruit which a plant
ought to carry. Moreover, these branches are vigorous
and healthy, and in better condition to develop a fine
crop of fruit than if produced the preceding year,
weakened by the winter and now called upon to throw
out fruit -bearing shoots. The lessened expense of
pruning is an added advantage secured by this method
of training.

An exception to this plan may be advisable in case
of young and vigorous plantations, or an exceptionally
rampant -growing variety. Young plants have not the
root development to start out so stocky a cane, and
.naturally produce a more slender and comparatively
longer growth, so that allowing the main canes to
grow uninterruptedly, and cutting them back to the
desired height the following spring, is likely to remove
too great a proportion of the wood, and leave only the
weaker and poorly developed buds near the base. For
this reason there are some good growers who find it
an advantage to pinch back the plants the first one or
two years, but not after that. Whenever it is de-
sirable to do this, the important point to remember is to
merely pinch off the tip while the plants are young and
only a few inches high. Six to eighteen inches is bet-
ter than higher, provided it is done when the plant
reaches that point, but they should never be allowed
to grow higher and then be cut back to this point. If
stopped at this early age, the main cane will increase
in height somewhat, and will be able to throw out
strong and vigorous branches, -forming a stocky, self
supporting bush, well prepared to endure the winter

BUSH-FRUITS

and produce a good crop of fruit the following year.
Such a bush of the Cuthbert variety is shown in Fig.
11. An undesirable form of training is shown in
Fig. 12.

AUTUMN FRUITING

Certain varieties of raspberries possess a strong ten-
dency to bear fruit in autumn on wood of the present

Fig. 11. Well trained.

Fig. 12. Improperly trained.

season's growth, and it is sometimes recommended to
take out the old canes in spring in order to induce
this habit. A single experiment was made at the Cor-
nell gardens to determine whether our common varie-
ties would yield to this treatment. Plants of Fontenay,
Cuthbert and Shaffer were mowed off with a scythe
in the spring, before the young canes started. The

PICKING 53

results were very definite, but not encouraging. The
young canes made a vigorous growth, but not a single
cluster of flowers appeared on either the Cuthbert or
Shaffer plants. There were two or three fine clusters
of fruit among the. Fontenay plants thus treated, but
this is one of the European varieties, which are charac-
terized by more or less continuous fruiting throughout
the season. Just as good clusters were to be found,
and apparently as many of them, where the plants were
treated in the ordinary manner.

The only advantage in autumn fruiting is the pro-
duction of a small amount of fresh fruit for family
use late in the season, but this trial seems to show
little prospect of inducing tardy fruiting by means
of encouraging a late seasonal growth.

HARVESTING AND MARKETING

Red raspberries ought, if possible, to be picked
every other day, for they deteriorate rapidly when once
they are ripe, a process which is not prevented by their
being allowed to hang on the bushes. Moreover, since
they are a soft, difficult berry to ship, at best, it is
advisable to start them on the way at the earliest pos-
sible moment. The longer they remain after ripening,
the softer, duller in color and poorer in quality they
become. They are best marketed in pint baskets.
These are oblong in shape, and the size is such that
an ordinary bushel crate will just hold sixty of them.
The smaller quantity in each basket enables them to
carry much better than when marketed in quarts. Care

BUSH-FRUITS

should be taken never to pick the fruit when wet. and
to keep it in a cool, well ventilated place until sent to
market. A home market is by far the most desirable.
For evaporating, berries may be batted off (Fig. 13;
and see discussion in next chapter).

USES

The red raspberry is essentially a fruit to be sold
on the market fresh, unless the grower chances to be

Fig. 13. Berry harvester. (See page 74.)

located near a canning factory. There is no difficulty
whatever in evaporating it, but the shrinkage is so great
that it is hard to secure a price for the dried product
which is high enough to yield a fair price per quart of
fresh fruit. A heaping quart basketful of fruit will
weigh about four ounces when dried, varying some-
what with seasons and other conditions, so that one
cannot expect over seven or eight pounds of dried

EVAPORATING THE REDS 55

fruit per bushel of green fruit. Moreover, the true
reds dry to a dull, unattractive color, which must ever
prove a hindrance to their sale. It is difficult to get
people to pay a satisfactory price for a thing which
does not look well. The Shaffer is one of the best va-
rieties for evaporating purposes. It is a prolific, often
an enormous yielder. It is intermediate between the
red and black, rich and of good flavor. Moreover,
when dried it has a much more attractive appearance
than the Cuthbert. There is, therefore, reason to sup-
pose that the cultivation of this for evaporating pur-
poses might pay, though probably not so well as the
cultivation of black -caps. Certain it is that, whatever
the variety, if the market should become glutted at any
time during the season, and facilities for evaporating
are at hand, it should be done by all means, rather
than let them waste. The dried fruit is sure to find a
market, and probably at a price which will yield a
fair return for the crop. If the fresh fruit will sell
at reasonable prices the questi'on of evaporating need
never be considered. The conditions hardly warrant
planting them for evaporating alone ; certainly none
of the true reds, though Shaffer may pay.

DURATION OF PLANTATIONS

Like the blackberries, red raspberries can be made
to continue producing from the same plantation for a
number of years, though it is doubtful whether it ever
pays to do this. There are so many causes tending to
weaken the plants, and render them less productive

56 BUSH-FRUITS

as they grow older, such as disease, reduced fertil-
ity of the soil, over -crowding, etc., that it is almost
impossible for them to yield a good return after
having borne two or three crops. Especially are the
various diseases which affect cultivated crops coming
to be such an important factor that it is necessary
to adopt every feasible precaution to prevent their
ravages. Not only .are the older plantations likely to
become diseased so as to greatly lessen their own pro-
ductiveness, but at the same time they become most
effective breeding grounds for the spread of these dis-
eases, and injurious insects as well, to new and
healthier fields.

Moreover, the continuous production of suckers is
likely to fill the rows or hills so full of plants in a few
years that they are of necessity small and weak unless
vigorously thinned out. Even that does not fully over-
come the difficulty. The rows are almost sure to be-
come filled with weeds, and grass as well, and cannot
be kept clean without too great expense. It is on the
whole, therefore, bette,- to get three or four good crops,
then plow up the field and depend upon another plan-
tation ready for the purpose. The fruit will be larger,
hence more marketable, and the results more satisfac-
tory in every way.

Although persistent, it is not very difficult to rid a
field of the plants by the same treatment recommended
for the blackberry. They may continue to appear for
some time, but they are not so strong but that they may
be easily controlled in whatever way the land is used
afterward.

WINTER INJURY 57

HARDINESS

As a rule the reds do not equal the black -caps in
hardiness, though some varieties are seldom injured in
favorable locations in the middle latitude of the United
States. It seems probable that the lack of hardiness
as frequently comes from want of ability in the leaves
to endure the hot suns of summer as from lack of ability
in the canes to endure the cold of winter. If by any
means the function of the foliage during the growing
season becomes impaired, the vitality of the plant is
lessened, and it goes into winter poorly prepared to
meet the conditions laid upon it during that period.
Hence it seems but reasonable that lack of hardiness
or winter -killing may result from insect or fungous
injury inflicted during summer, as well as from un-
favorable climatic- conditions. It is an interesting
fact that small, late -growing canes generally stand the
winter better than the more vigorous ones of the whole
season's growth. Cuthbert canes produced at the Cor-
nell gardens, after cutting away all young canes July
6, 1892, came through the winter in better condition
than the earlier, undisturbed canes in the other part of
the same row. These later canes were alive to the tip
in spring, and at the time the leaves were opening
they were more uniformly green and farther advanced
than the others. They produced fine fruit J but since
they are smaller than canes of the full season's growth,
the yield might be less. One Iowa grower reports
that in two seasons7 trial, blackberry canes produced
after pulling up all young shoots about the last of

58 BUSH-FRUITS

June, were loaded with fine berries, while older canes
alongside had but few. Although such canes are later
it does not necessarily follow that they are immature.
Starting later, when the conditions do not favor so
vigorous a growth, it is altogether probable that the
wood is firmer and its vitality greater at the beginning
of winter than that of the earlier canes.

YIELDS

The yield of red raspberries is less, as a rule, than
that of any other member of the genus, unless it be the
dewberries, the yield of which is more or less a question
of locality. The average yield of reds, as derived from
the replies of fifty -six growers, is about sixty -nine
bushels per acre. A few growers place the estimated
yield higher than that of black -caps, but this is excep-
tional. Moreover, this smaller yield is distributed over
a longer ripening period, and is for that reason more
expensive to gather and market, so that the reds ought
always to bring one or two cents more per quart than
the black- caps, in order to prove equally profitable.
There can be no doubt that the average yield can be
largely increased by good care and by abandoning the
plantations sooner, for it is the old fields which give
the poor returns.
•

NORMAL PROFITS

Red raspberries are nearly always in good demand.
The grower who lives near a small town, where there
is not too much competition, and who can depend

THE HYBRID REDS 59

upon getting from eight to twelve cents a quart for
his crop, will have no trouble in making red raspber-
ries pay. There is generally less likelihood of glut-
ting the markets with reds than with blacks, but
their smaller yield and poorer shipping qualities tend
to render their profitableness uncertain if the vicissi-
tudes of a city market at any distance from home
must be depended on.

The entire cost of cultivation, rent of land, fertil-
izers, etc., need never exceed fifty dollars per acre.
The cost of picking and marketing will range from
two to four cents per quart, usually, so that if the
crop can be made to net five cents a quart after de-
ducting cost of picking and marketing, there will still
be left a profit of about sixty dollars per acre, with
the average yield mentioned above. It will be readily
seen that this is a very conservative estimate, and by
no means equal to the results often obtained.

NOTE ON THE HYBRID REDS

There are really two classes of plants embraced in
this hybrid group. One of these propagates naturally
almost wholly by tips, like the black -caps. This is the
true Rubus neglectus, or Purple Cane type, and it is to
this class that the old Purple Cane, Shaffer, Colum-
bian and others belong. These demand the same
methods of planting, pruning and care as that given
to the black -caps. The other class propagates chiefly
by suckers, but can be made to root from the tips
with proper care. These are essentially red raspber-

60 BUSH-FRUITS

ries in character, and demand the same care and
treatment as red raspberries. Indeed, some of them
approach so closely to red raspberries that a doubt
arises as to whether they ought not to be classed with
the reds, instead of with Rubus neglectus. To this
class belong Philadelphia, Reliance and a few others.
Caroline is a pinkish yellow berry, belonging to this
category, and thought to be a seedling of Brinckle's
Orange, fertilized by some cap variety.

Many of these are excellent for the home garden,
owing to their great productiveness and rich flavor.
The great objection to them as a market fruit is their
dull, unattractive color and their poor carrying qual-
ity. Some persons who cultivate the Shaffer for mar-
ket overcome this difficulty, in part, by picking them
before they are fully ripe and while they are yet
red. At this time they carry better and look better
in market. In a home market, however, there is but
little difficulty in selling the Shaffer when fully ripe,
dark as it is, if people come to know what it is and
have once tried it. It is one of the best raspberries
grown for canning purposes. It combines something
of the flavor of both the reds and blacks, and the
color after cooking is no longer unattractive.

CHAPTER III

SLACK EASPBERRIES

The black -cap raspberries are more homogeneous
in character than the red varieties. They, are all true
American fruits, being developments from the common
wild black raspberries.

SOIL FOR BLACK -CAPS

Black -caps succeed on a wide range of soils, but
thrive best on one which is rich, deep, moist and well
drained. Sandy or clay loams are preferable. A loca-
tion where water stands for any length of time is never
permissible. Let the grower who has ever gathered
wild black raspberries recall how luxuriantly they
grow in newly- cleared land, abounding in leaf -mold,
and take a lesson therefrom. Virgin soil filled with
leaf -mold is no longer available, but it is possible to
greatly add to the humus in the soil which is to be
used, thereby approximating the conditions found in
the forest clearing. It should not be forgotten that
humus greatly increases the drought -resisting quality
of soils, a point of the utmost importance in berry-
growing. A soil rich in humus will do much toward
supplying the elements of plant-food needed, by
rendering available plant -food which is already in the
soil and preventing its loss. In Kansas, the uplands

(61)

62 BUSH-FRUITS

having a black loam with clay subsoil, are reported
to give the best results. Stony soils may yield just
as good crops, but are even more expensive to work
than when used for crops for which the ground is
plowed every year.

LOCATION

Stronger plants and larger fruit can be obtained
from the strong, moist soils of valleys and bottom-
lands. Such fruit is not equal in flavor, however, to
that of the higher lands, and the plants are more
likely to be injured by the winters or by late spring
frosts. If close to a large body of water, the latter
objection is largely obviated. As is true with all the
other berries, a cool, northern exposure, which will
suffer as little as possible from drought and hot suns,
is to be preferred, though by no means necessary.
A closely bounded basin is always to be avoided, for
in such a situation the extremes of temperature are
likely to be much greater. In the bright days of
summer the sun may pour its rays into such a place
until the atmosphere, owing to lack of circulation,
becomes abnormally hot. At night, on the other
hand, the cold air will settle into such a position,
greatly increasing the danger of untimely frosts, or
of injury from excessive cold. A steep hillside is
always objectionable, both from the difficulty of cul-
tivation and from the loss of fertility and danger to
the plants which may come from excessive washing
of the" soil.

HOW TO APPLY PLANT -FOOD 63

FERTILIZERS

Stable -manure is by far the most popular fertilizer
among growers. It is particularly applicable to black-
caps, since they demand heavier feeding than red rasp-
berries or blackberries and are less likely to respond to
an over -supply by making too vigorous growth, with
consequent lack of hardiness and diminished fruitful-
ness. In replies to questions sent to growers, asking
what fertilizer had been found most satisfactory, stable-
manure was mentioned forty -four times. Wood -ashes
ranked next, being mentioned twenty-four times. This
strong preponderance of opinion in favor of stable-
manure may indicate that it possesses greater value
than its comparative merits warrant. This is the one
material which nearly every grower is likely to have
used, and when properly applied it is sure to give satis-
faction. It does not follow that its application is always
the most economical and satisfactory thing to do.

One wide-awake grower replied that a Planet Jr.
cultivator proved the best fertilizer with him. This is
simply a modified version of the old adage that "tillage
is manure," the full truth of which most of us have not
yet come to appreciate. Such plants as raspberries do
not make heavy drafts upon the soil. If therefore the
physical conditions of the soil can be kept right and the
chemical activities can be augmented, enough plant-food
can be, unlocked from most soils to supply their needs.
Tillage does both of these and also assists to conserve
moisture, without which no plant-food can be available,
since it can only be used by the plant when in solution,

64 B USH - FR UITS

The quality of ordinary stable -manure is very uncer-
tain, owing to differences in methods of feeding and in
treatment which the manure receives after it is made.
It commonly contains an excess of nitrogen. This,
though by far the most expensive element of plant
fertility, and one easily lost by leaching and evaporation,
is required in only limited quantities in the production
of fruit. The chances are, therefore, that in the use
of large quantities of stable -manure this expensive
element is wasted. An excess of organic nitrogen may
also help to deplete the soil of potash. When changed
to nitric acid it combines with potash and other bases
which leach away if not taken up by plants, thus deplet-
ing the soil of basic ingredients. The use of less
manure, supplemented with chemicals containing phos-
phoric acid and potash, is often wiser.

According to the analysis of raspberries published
from Washington* a crop of one hundred bushels of
raspberries would remove only about six pounds of ni-
trogen, twenty pounds of phosphoric acid and fourteen
pounds of potash from the soil. This being true, the
importance of fertilizers may be easily overestimated.
Fifty pounds of nitrate of soda or slightly more of dried
blood, one hundred and fifty pounds of acid phosphate
and fifty pounds of muriate of potash would more than
supply this need. The unavoidable losses in the soil
make it necessary to furnish more than the plants take
away ; yet this may serve as a suggestion regarding
the possible demands. The individual qualities of the

*Year-Book, Dept. of Agr., 1895: 568,

GROWING THE PLANTS 65

soil may modify the validity of calculations of this
sort, since soils differ so much.

One factor in soil -fertility is not supplied by chemi-
cals. That factor is humus, a more important one
than the others. In this stable -manure has the advan-
tage, but the same results may be obtained by the
judicious use of green -crops before planting and of
cover -crops afterward.

PROPAGATION

There is practically but one way of propagating
black -caps, and that is by means of tips. Plants can
be grown from root cuttings or by burying the entire
cane and cutting it in pieces after roots are thrown
out, but these methods are so seldom used that there
is little need of taking them into consideration. These
tips take root naturally, unaided, in sod ground, for
they thread their way amongst the grass roots, and
are thus held in place until established. In culti-
vated ground they are blown about by the wind, and
do not have an opportunity of becoming fastened in
the soil. It is necessary, therefore, to put the tips
down and cover them, in order to secure any consider-
able number of plants. This may be done with a hoe,
spade or any other convenient tool. It is better to
point the tip well downward, so that the end is the
deepest part when covered. This will produce a plant
of much better shape than if the tip is put in nearly
horizontal and covered for a considerable length.

A tool hung somewhat like an adze, but with a

66 BUSH-FRUITS

narrower blade, about as heavy as a good -sized ham-
mer, and which can be readily swung in one hand,
will prove convenient. Such a device is largely used
in planting strawberries by L. J. Farmer, of Pulaski,
N. Y., who was the first, so far as I know, to suggest
it. Perhaps an equally serviceable implement might
be made on the plan of a spade, using a shovel or
spade handle, which could be conveniently grasped
in the hand, combined with a strong, heavy blade
about two inches wide and six or eight inches long.
This could be easily thrust into the soil with one hand,
moved to one side, while the tip is inserted, then re-
moved, and thrust in again at the side to firm the soil
against the tip. A narrow transplanting trowel, like
those used by nurserymen in setting root grafts, would
answer equally well, except for the shortness of the
handle, and consequent stooping required. A cross-
bar on which to put the foot, if necessary in hard
ground, is an advantage. Either of the tools mentioned
can be readily made with the aid of a blacksmith.

The tips should not be covered until they begin to
thicken and assume a leafless "snake-like" appearance,
which will generally be from the middle of August on.

It is always desirable to propagate plants from
young plantations, if possible. They not only root more
readily and freely when young, but more healthy and
vigorous plants are produced, with less likelihood of
the transmission of disease. There are those who argue
that since black -caps have always been propagated
largely from bearing plantations without deterioration,
there is no ground for believing that better plants

SETTING THE PLANTS 67

are produced from young plantations. This is hardly
sufficient evidence for the statement, for there is no
doubt that varieties do deteriorate in cultivation, and
since this mode of propagation is nothing more than a
sub -division of the same individual, the young plant
cannot fail to carry with it to a large degree the
character of the old one. Propagating from old plan-
tations is especially objectionable if the plants are
affected with anthracnose, or any other fungous dis-
ease, as so many old plantations are likely to be.

PLANTING

Spring planting is always to be preferred for
black -caps; yet, if for any reason it is desirable to
secure the plants in the fall, a very good method is
to plant them in shallow furrows and mulch well
through the winter, leaving them in this position un-
til the young shoots have made a growth of several
inches in spring; then set in their permanent place.
This insures the weeding out of any poor plants and
secures a perfect stand in the field. Plant deep ;
careful growers who have given attention to this
point have satisfied themselves that 3 to 4 inches is
none too deep to give best results. The plants should
be set in the bottom of the furrow and covered lightly
at first, gradually filling up the furrow as growth pro-
gresses. Plants thus set appear to stand drought
better, and there is less trouble with the canes blow-
ing down than when planted shallow. In the begin-
ning they may make a less even and vigorous start

68 BUSH-FRUITS

than those planted shallower, for the bottom of a
deep furrow in early spring is of necessity a less
favorable position for the growth of a young and
tender plant than one nearer the level of the surface.
Deep planting will not prove satisfactory where the
subsoil is high and hard.

One point in connection with planting which
should not be neglected is pruning back the plants
closely when set. Experienced growers rarely neglect
this, but in home gardens, at least, plants are often
seen where long canes are left, apparently with the
idea of getting fruit at once. Any fruit obtained the
first year, however, is at the expense of the growth
and vitality of the plant, and will be charged up
against ensuing crops at much more than compound
interest. Plants which are not cut back nearly to the
crown when set do not readily throw up canes from
the root, but branch out from the old stalk. Especial
care should be taken to cut away the whole of the
old canes if they show any spots of anthracnose. There
is every advantage in keeping rid of such diseases and
enemies just as far as possible, rather than allowing
them to first become destructive and then attempting
to fight them. If a large proportion of these tips
have the anthracnose spots when planted, the disease
is transferred and reset with as much certainty and
under as favorable conditions for growth as are the
plants themselves, unless removed and destroyed.
Simply to cut off the tips and leave them lying on
the ground where the new planting is done, is to
miss entirely the end sought. These fungi are plants

UNIVERSITY

DISTANCE OF PLANTING 69

just as truly as are the ones upon which they live,
and their seeds (spores) are just as certain to germi-
nate and grow if given the proper conditions.

If black -cap raspberries are to be planted in rows,
three feet in the row, with rows six feet apart, will
be found satisfactory distances. Some prefer rows
seven feet apart, and for very strong -growing varie-
ties this is no doubt better. If in hills, they should
be not less than five feet apart each way, which may
do for weak and slender -growing varieties, but as a
rule six feet is much better. Black -caps are more
easily kept in good condition in rows than red rasp-
berries and blackberries, but there is the intermediate
space between the plants to be kept clean by hand,
so that it is unquestionably more expensive to care
for an acre thus planted than when in hills far
enough apart- to admit of horse cultivation both ways.
Larger and finer fruit can also be obtained from
hills farther apart, with thorough cultivation on all
sides. The only question is the yield, and those who
have tried it most thoroughly are most confident that
the yield is fully as good in hills as in rows.

TILLAGE

The importance of frequent, thorough cultivation
has been so strongly urged in connection with each of
the other fruits that a repetition is uncalled for here,
although just as applicable to this as to all the others.
Since there are no suckers to be cut out in black -caps,
it matters less what the style of the cultivator is, if it

70 BUSH-FRUITS

only loosens the ground thoroughly and leaves it fine
and mellow. Some growers use a plow at the first cul-
tivation, and perhaps once later in the season. On the
whole, this is not to be recommended. It not only
disturbs and injures the roots, but it leaves the ground
in undesirable shape. If the furrows are turned from
the rows with a ridge in the center, the two furrows
next the bushes leave the roots more or less exposed,
which is undesirable. If the furrows are turned to-
ward the rows this leaves a ridge, with more or less of
a harbor for insects about the plants where the furrows
are thrown together. If cultivation is begun promptly
in spring, before the ground gets hardened, there is no
necessity for plowing, for the soil will work up readily
with any good cultivator. This keeps the ground in
much better shape, both for work among the bushes,
and for the satisfactory growth of the bushes them-
selves.

PRUNING

Young black raspberry canes should be cut back to
cause them to branch and become as nearly self-sup-
porting as possible. One point, already mentioned,
should be again emphasized, and that is that the young
shoots should be nipped back low, when they reach the
desired height, not allowing them to get considerably
higher and then cutting back to the height required.
If pinched low, the plant will at once throw out strong
and vigorous branches near the ground, making a well-
balanced, self-supporting bush. On the other hand, if
it is allowed to grow higher and is then cut back, only

SUMMER PRUNING 71

weak buds are left, and the result is that they do not
develop so rapidly ; only three or four of the upper
ones start at all, producing a topheavy and unsatis-
factory plant. Sheep shears are very convenient for
this summer pruning, or it may be quickly done by
merely pinching out the tip with the thumb and finger.
In a young plantation, where the old canes do not in-
terfere, a large knife, sharpened on both edges, is prob-
ably more convenient than either. With older bushes,
the cutting should be done at a point lower than the
top of the old bushes, so that a knife is not likely to
work so well. With a knife in one hand and shears in
the other, the workman can meet any condition quickly.
Theoretically, a smooth, slanting cut would appear to
be better than breaking them off with the thumb and
finger, leaving an irregular, ragged end. An experi-
ment to test this, however, proved that it makes no
difference, for the canes nearly always die back to the
first bud in either case.

One clipping is sufficient, although it is necessary to
go over the plantation two or three times, for the
shoots do not all reach the desired height at once.
Eighteen to twenty -four inches is about the height at
which to clip the canes, if done when they reach that
height. If allowed to grow too high before clipping,
they should not be cut back quite so close. Clipping
the laterals after they have grown twelve or fifteen
inches, to make them branch again, has been sometimes
recommended, but there is little, if any, advantage in
it, while it makes an added expense in summer, and
also in the spring pruning. It also results in produc-

72 BUSH-FRUITS

ing a mass of small and poorly -developed laterals,
many of which are winter -killed. It is much better
after pinching the main cane to let them alone until the
following spring, when they should be cut back to
twelve to eighteen inches in length.

Now and then a grower is heard from who depre-
cates all pruning as contrary to nature, and, therefore,
argues that plants should be allowed to grow entirely at
their own sweet will. One recent writer in this line
brings forth, in proof of his argument, the statement
that he never takes less than ten crops of fruit from
a plantation, and even then the canes are stronger than
those of many five -year -old plantations he has seen.
This is, no doubt, perfectly true, for a little later he
states that he would be satisfied with a yield much
below that given as the average estimate of a large
number of growers. A machine which does only half
work ought to last longer, and so with a raspberry
plant. But why continue to care for a plantation
year after year by a system of culture which returns
a yield much below that easily obtained, simply be-
cause the plants last longer thereby? Why not rather
force the plants to do their best, and when they fail
let them go, thereby securing better fruits, better
yields, and consequently better profits?

Not more than five young canes to the hill should
be left to develop, and three is probably even better.
Indeed, were it not for the liability of accidents to a
single cane, it is quite possible that we might just as
well get all our fruit from one, if given the whole
strength of the root throughout the season. Samuel

REMOVING THE CANES 73

Miller, of Missouri, reports repeatedly getting two
quarts in a season from single canes.

When the fruit has been gathered, cut out all old
canes, gather and burn them, to destroy all insects
and fungi harboring thereon. The work is easier done
at that time than at any other, and it gives a good
opportunity for thoroughly cultivating and cleaning
out the plantation. The argument that the old canes
serve to protect the younger ones during the winter,
and, therefore, should be left till spring, has little
weight. Whatever protection there may be is un-
doubtedly fully offset by the injuries due to whip-
ping together and consequent wounding in windy
weather.

When it has been decided to discontinue a planta-
tion, it will be found an advantage to the bearing
canes to go through the field and pull or break away
all the young shoots about blossoming time. This
has a slight tendency to hasten the ripening, and may
enable the plants to carry the fruit through in better
shape and increase the yield considerably, especially in
a dry season, when every drop of water that can pos-
sibly be obtained from the soil is needed by the fruit
itself.

There is always a temptation to leave too much
wood and allow the plants to overbear the first year
after setting. They are but partially developed at
that time, and should only be allowed to produce a
partial crop. The canes are usually long and strag-
gling, and need to be severely cut back. If left long
they may produce a comparatively heavy crop, but it

74 BUSH-FRUITS

will always be at the expense of vigor and future
productiveness. In fact, a plantation may be practi-
cally ruined by this first injudicious treatment.

HARVESTING

Gathering the fruit is one of the most troublesome
details connected with berry -growing of all kinds, and
the man who does not live close to a town where plenty
of pickers can be readily had is practically debarred
from entering any line of it where hand-picking must
be employed. Formerly it was the same, whether
growing the fruit to be sold fresh in the market, or
for drying. But the advent of the harvester has made
it possible to grow and evaporate raspberries without
the annoyance of assuming command of a small army
of pickers. This opens the way to any farmer, for
taking up this industry, no matter how remote his
farm may be from towns or railways, and it is in
this fact alone that the chief value of the method lies,
for many growers who are so situated that they can
easily get pickers in abundance still prefer to have the
fruit picked by hand.

This harvester is a simple affair (Fig. 13, page 54),
consisting of a canvas tray some three feet square, there
being only enough wood about it to form a frame -work
and enable it to be moved about. Under the corner
which rests on the ground, there is a sort of shoe of
wood, enabling it to be slid along from bush to bush
easily. In one hand the operator carries a large wire
hook, with which the bushes are drawn over the canvas,

THE BERRY-HARVESTER 75

or lifted up if too low down and in the way. In the
other hand is a bat, resembling a lawn -tennis racket,
with which he knocks off the ripe berries. This bat
is merely a canvas -covered loop of heavy wire fastened
in a convenient handle. In place of this, some use
a wooden paddle, at the risk of bruising the fruit
unnecessarily. In gathering by this method, the ber-
ries are allowed to become very ripe, and the plan-
tation is gone over but two or three times in a season.
Many dry leaves, some stems and a few green berries
are knocked off with the fruit, but the leaves are no
disadvantage, for they help to absorb moisture before
and after drying, and may aid in preventing mold if
the fruit has to stand for some time before going to
the evaporator. The leaves are quickly taken out by
running the fruit through a fanning mill after it is
dried. Some growers fan them out before drying, but
this has the disadvantage of bruising and crushing
more berries. The berries are usually allowed to stand
in the field in boxes for a time after gathering, and
any insects which may have fallen in are likely to
crawl out and disappear.

Growers who have had much experience say that a
man will average eight to ten bushels a day with the
harvester, although much more can be gathered in the
best picking. On one farm visited, two men and two
girls had gathered thirty -one bushels the day previous
in ordinary picking, and one of the men had been in
the field but part of the time. This shows the first
cost of gathering to be less than half a cent per quart.
Running them through the fanning mill costs but a

76 BUSH-FRUITS

trifle ; then before marketing they are picked over by
hand to remove stems, green berries and other litter.
This does not cost over one cent a pound and is some-
times paid for by the pound at that rate, so that the
whole cost may be placed at one cent a quart, as
against two cents usually paid for hand-picking.
There are those, however, who think that in the end
there is not much difference in the expense, whether
gathered with the harvester or picked by hand.
Growers who have had experience with both methods
express the opinion that harvesting yields a better
quality of dried fruit than hand-picking, for the rea-
son that, if picked by hand, they cannot afford to look
them over again after drying, and so they do not go
to market in as clean and nice condition as those which
come from the harvester.

Some extensive and general fruit-growers find it
inconvenient to attend to the matter of looking over
the dried product at the same time that other fruits,
which follow on after the raspberries, are claiming their
attention, and for that reason prefer to pick a large
part of the crop by hand and market it fresh, if they
can get pickers conveniently. In that case, they find
the harvester a great convenience to finish up the last
of the crop. Every grower knows how much dissatis-
faction occurs in keeping the pickers at their work
after the berries begin to get thin. With the har-
vester, the late berries can all be gathered at one time
with a great deal of satisfaction to all concerned.
This plan is also available for those who sell their
fruit fresh. The last of the crop can be gathered

DRYING THE FRUIT OUTSIDE 77

and dried, thus proving a relief to the market and to
the patience of the grower and pickers. This method
of harvesting was invented and introduced by Jewett
Benedict, of Dundee, N. Y., and is extensively used
by the berry growers of that region.

METHODS OF DRYING

Drying Out of Doors. — Various methods of drying
are employed, the simplest of which is to dry on boards
in the sun. This usually takes from three to five days,
and the picture shows the way in which it is ordinarily
done. Platforms or trays about twelve feet long and

Fig. 14. Drying berries out of doors.

three to four feet wide are made of matched boards. A
narrow strip is nailed around the edge of each tray to
prevent the berries from rolling off. The trays rest
upon long horses made of scantling, to hold them at a
convenient height from the ground. A little block is
tacked across each corner of the trays, so that at night
or in case of a shower they can be stacked up on top of
each other and covered with boards or canvas. This
is of necessity a slow way of drying, and the cost of
lumber for trays to handle a large crop would be an

BUSH-FRUITS

item of considerable expense. One of the chief objec-
tions to the method is the large number of flies
which it calls to the scene, the attentions of which do
not tend to render the fruit more appetizing. Indeed,
those who are familiar with the method are often
prejudiced against all dried raspberries. Sun-dried

Fig. 15. Drying berries in a forcing-house.

raspberries are usually quoted about one cent a pound
below evaporated berries, but consumers can never be
sure which they are getting. It is possible that these
trays might be covered with fly netting, but this would
increase the time needed for drying, and would also
not wholly obviate the difficulty, unless the netting
was held above the fruit, for if laid directly upon
it the netting would only aid the flies. A single
attempt to dry blackberries under glass when covered
with netting proved such a failure, inducing so much
more molding than without the netting, that there is

OTHER METHODS OF DRYING 79

much doubt as to whether it would prove satis-
factory.

Drying Under Glass. — Another method employed by
those who have greenhouses for the winter forcing of
vegetables, is to utilize the space under glass during
the berry season for this purpose. Fig. 15 is repro-
duced from a photograph taken in a forcing -house on
the farm of J. W. Corbett, near Watkins, N. Y., in
the summer of 1892, and is an excellent illustration of
this plan of drying. In this situation the berries
usually dry in about three days in bright, warm
weather, and are, of course, less liable to injury from
storms than outside. The plan is, however, open to
the same objection cited in regard to outdoor drying
as to flies. It is advisable to have as much air pass-
ing through the house as possible, hence the door
and ventilators are left open, but by using screen
doors and protecting the ventilators with netting, most
of the flies might be excluded.

Drying with Evaporators. — For a business of any
considerable extent, by far the best way of drying is
by means of some good evaporator. There are many
different makes of these in market, most of which do
good work. The hot air machines were first intro-
duced, and are still very largely in use. Later steam
came to be used, and many of the large machines are
now fitted for steam heating. These being newer, are
said to be superior, and if they can be operated in
connection with a power plant where the exhaust
steam can be utilized, they undoubtedly possess an
advantage. One of the points of superiority for steam

80 BUSH-FRUITS

is the less liability to scorching. From several years7
experience with a large hot air machine, however, I
do not think this point has much weight, for with
any reasonable care no fruit is scorched by either
method. The temperature of the stack should run
from 160° to 180° Fahrenheit. One very essential point
in any machine, whatever the make, is a strong draft
of air through the stack. The amount of vapor given
off by a machine full of hot, green fruit is very great,
and every possible facility is needed for carrying it
away. The difference in the amount of fruit which can
be dried in a damp, cloudy day and in a bright, clear
day when the wind is in the northwest, emphasizes this
point very strongly. In some of the large horizontal
machines, it is necessary to secure this draft by means
of large fans revolved by steam power.

With many of the machines in use, the fruit is
put in at the lower end ; the trays follow one after
the other, and can only be taken out at the opposite
end, necessitating a two -story building if the evap-
orator has an upright stack. This plan has the
advantage of utilizing all the space in the stack, but,
on the other hand, it possesses some decided disad-
vantages. All the trays must be carried down stairs
or let down through the floor each time they are
used, or carried back the length of the 'evaporator if it
is a horizontal machine. Moreover, all the work must
be timed and a tray put in just so often, otherwise
the fruit may reach the top too green, and all opera-
tions must stop and wait till it is dry, or that on
two or three trays must be put together and be sent

COST OF EVAPORATING 81

through the whole length again, with the chances that
it will then be dried altogether too much. If put in too
slow, or if the fruit is not coming in quite fast enough
to keep the business going, it may be too dry when it
reaches the top the first time. This is an especially
disadvantageous point if it happens to be necessary to
dry different kinds of fruit which do not require the
same length of time in the evaporator. In a machine
in which the trays are carried on hangers attached to
an endless chain subject to the control of the operator,
all this difficulty is obviated. The trays are put in
and taken out at the same place, and any tray can be
brought around to the door and examined as often as
desired, and taken out when ready. In putting in fruit,
one tray only is usually placed on a hanger at a time,
so that in the natural course of the work every tray
comes under the eye of the "stackman" as often as it
needs to be examined.

I have no accurate figures as to the cost of evaporat-
ing, but it can be inferred approximately from the price
which operators charge other parties for doing the
work. In some sections this charge is one cent per
quart, in others as low as two cents per pound. Two
and a half cents per pound appears to be a fair price
for drying and cleaning, and as the evaporator owner,
of course, expects to make some profit, the actual cost
must be somewhat below this. The yield varies some-
what in different years, so that one cent a quart may
mean from three to four cents a pound.

The berries are taken from the machine when still so
soft and juicy that to an inexperienced person it does

82 BUSH-FRUITS

not seem that they could possibly be kept from spoil-
ing. They are placed on the floor or in bins in a curing
room somewhere about the building, and are shoveled
over every day for about three weeks. By this time
any excessive moisture will have evaporated, and the
balance become evenly distributed throughout the whole
mass, which is by that treatment rendered soft and
spongy so that it can be readily pressed into the boxes
for shipping, a thing which could not be done if they
were dried down hard at first. The fruit is of much
better quality also, when cured in this way, for it soaks
out more readily, making a better product in every
way.

MARKETING

When sold fresh, black raspberries are usually
marketed in the ordinary quart baskets. They hold up
fairly well in these, and being one of the cheaper ber-
ries, this package meets the demands of most markets
well. The berries would be more attractive and handle
better in pints, if the market would warrant it. This
might be found advisable for the first of the season in
cases where a satisfactory price can still be maintained.

The dried fruit is marketed in boxes holding fifty
pounds, or in barrels which hold about one hundred
and twenty -five pounds. These boxes can be gotten up
at home, but it will generally be found cheaper to buy
them directly from box manufacturers. They can be
had at the same price either in the knock-down or put
together. The freight rates are higher in the latter case,
so that the choice will depend somewhat upon location.

EVAPORATING IN NEW YORK 83

It is essential that they be well built to prevent the
ingress of insects after they are filled. They are lined
with paper before the fruit is put in, in such a way
that it will fold back neatly from the top when opened.
The fruit is usually sold in large lots through com-
mission men, but may sometimes go direct to whole-
salers and dealers with advantage.

THE EVAPORATED RASPBERRY INDUSTRY

Bailey has given an account of the evaporated rasp-
berry industry in western New York, in Bulletin 100
of the Cornell Experiment Station. With permission
of the author, his account of the history of this indus-
try, together with his descriptions of the styles of evap-
orators in most common use, is incorporated here:*

"Western New York leads the world in the production of dried
raspberries. Something like 1,500 tons of the evaporated product
are marketed each year. Of this, about 1,000 tons are produced
in Wayne county, in which the towns of Williamson and Sodus,
which produce nearly or quite half of the amount, are the most
important centers. Marion, in Wayne county, is also a heavy
producer of dried berries. Outside of Wayne county, the region
tributary to Dundee, Yates county, is the most important center
of the dried raspberry industry. The product sold at Dundee is
probably upwards of one hundred and fifty tons each year. Many
berries are also dried south and east of Dundee, in Schuyler
county, round about Watkins. In Niagara county the industry has
become established at Somerset, where about twenty tons are
produced each year. There are also many persons who dry rasp-
berries in other parts of the fruit regions of western New York,
and the industry is gradually enlarging as people come to learn

"Consult, also, Corbett, Bull. 48, W. Va. Exp. Sta.

84 BUSH-FRUITS

that it affords a means of making the grower independent of the
open market.

" Yet the visitor might enquire in vain for dried raspberries in
many of the stores in this western New York country. In other
words, the product is not largely consumed in this state. It is
used mostly west and northwest of Chicago. Probably four- fifths
of the product is consumed in lumber and mining camps, and on
the plains, where fresh fruit is scarce. None of it, so far as I
know, is exported, and there is very little, if any, commercial
dried product in Europe. C. H. Perkins & Co., Newark, N. Y.,
< tried the experiment of exporting some of these goods to France
several years ago, but shipped only two or three cases of them.
The goods are still on hand in France, with no disposition to take
them at any price. ' Easpberries are dried to an important extent
in southern Illinois and in Michigan, and lately also in Arkansas.
These dried raspberries have as much merit in cookery as the
fresh berries, and they are used in the same manner in sauces and
pies.

"Wayne county is the home of commercial fruit evaporation.
In the apple-growing communities, nearly every farm has an
evaporator of one kind or another. It is said that there are
2,200* evaporators in the county, and this estimate is probably
none too high. All this industry is the product of the last twenty-
five years. The beginning of the industry seems to have been the
introduction of a little machine from Ohio (probably the D. Lippy
fruit drier.— Eept. Com'. Patents, 1865, Hi. 378}, by A. D. Shepley
and George Edwards in 1867. The right to use this evaporator
was purchased by Mason L. Rogers, near Williamson, and the
following year, 1868, he planted five acres of black raspberries,
with the expectation of evaporating the fruit — or drying it, as the
operation was then called,— and this began the evaporated rasp-
berry industry. Mr. Rogers made some improvements on the
machine, and about 1875 H. Topping, of Marion, took up its
manufacture, making alterations from time to time. The direct
descendant of this old machine is the Topping portable evapora-

*Statement of Charles Mills, Country Gentleman, April 18, 1895, p. 308.

HISTORY OF THE INDUSTRY 85

tor of the present day (Fig. 18) , which is deservedly popular with
beginners and for family use. The original machine, as sold by
Shepley & Edwards, was made in two sizes, the smaller capable
of drying three bushels of apples in eight to ten hours, and the
larger with a capacity of five bushels! This small beginning
seems incredible when one compares it with the groat establish-
ments of this time, in which scores of hands are employed and
thousands of bushels are consumed annually.

"The beginning of the modern industry, however, and the
introduction of the word < evaporated' to designate the product,
date from 1870, when Charles Alden, of Newburgh, New York,
patented his tower evaporator. The decade from 1870 to 1880 was
prolific in the invention of capacious evaporators and accessories,
some of which determined the course of the evaporating industry.
The Williams evaporator, invented by John Williams, South
Haven, Michigan, was patented in 1873. This was soon followed
by the Culver machine, which was patented after the death of its
inventor (Stephen Culver, Newark, N. Y.,) in 1882, by his ad-
ministrator, Harlan P. Van Dusen, also of Newark. (Filed Sept.
26, 1880; patented Oct. 3, 1882.— See U. S. Gazette of Patents,
xxii. 1171.) As early as 1876, Mason L. Rogers * built and
equipped a Culver evaporator,' as his son writes me. John W.
Cassidy patented his device for lifting trays in 1876. Cassidy was
a resident of Newark, New York, but moved to Petaluma, Cali-
fornia, where he resided when he took 6ut his patents. His
device, combined with Culver's, is the leading lifting arrangement
now in use in western New York. Cassidy took out another patent
in 1880 for a device to dry fruit by exposing it alternately to a
vacuum or partial vacuum, and an inrush of dehydrated air, but
this system is probably unknown in this state. It now needed
only the advent of a bleaching device and improved machines for
paring and ringing the fruit, to establish the evaporating business
upon an enduring basis ; but as these devices are not used in the
making of evaporated raspberries, they need not be further dis-
cussed in this paper.

"1. The Kiln Drier. — The evaporators which are used in west-
ern New York may be arranged in five categories,— the kilns, hori-

86 BUSH-FRUITS

zontal evaporators, towers, steam tray -evaporators, and air-blast
evaporators. The kiln is nothing more than a slatted floor, under-
neath which hot air or smoke pipes or steam pipes are conducted.
The slats are hard -wood, sawed about seven -eighths inch wide on
top and a half-inch wide on the bottom, and they are laid so that
a crack one -fourth inch wide is left on the floor. As the crack is
wider below, it does not clog and fill up. The kiln is used for
curing hops, for drying the skins and cores of apples, and occa-
sionally for drying raspberries, and even for the making of < white
stock,' that is, the commercial grade of sliced evaporated apples.
The smokestack from the furnace usually runs through the room,
and beneath the floor, but not shown in the picture, is one circuit
of a stovepipe carrying hot air. In some floors the slats are close
enough together to allow raspberries to be spread upon it; but
floors which are built for hops or apples are generally covered with
muslin when raspberries are to be dried. Kilns are generally less
efficient in the production of a first quality of dried fruit than the
other styles of evaporators, because the fruit is not so completely
under the control of the operator. The fruit must be shoveled
over from time to time to insure a uniform product. This hand-
ling is itself a menace to good fruit, and when there is any quan-
tity of fruit on the floor it cannot all be dried equally. That
which is dried enough is generally obliged to wait until the least
dried portion is perfected. Yet there are instances in which the
operator exercises sufficient care to turn out a product which is
indistinguishable from the tower-dried fruit. The particular
merit of the kiln evaporator is its cheapness.

"2. The Horizontal Drier. — The horizontal evaporators, in which
the pans or trays of fruit are moved horizontally or obliquely
across the heating surface, are little used in western New York,
and are therefore not discussed in this paper.

"3. The Tower Drier. — The tower or stack evaporators, in
various forms, far outnumber other appliances in this state. The
stack is a chimney-like structure, of wood or brick, resting in the
basement of the building and extending up through the building
and projecting above the roof. A coal or wood furnace— prefer-
ably the former — is placed in its base, and air which is drawn in

UPRIGHT DRIERS 87

from the basement passes over the heated surfaces and ascends
through the shaft, drying the fruit as it rises and carrying the
vapors into the atmosphere. The fruit is placed in the stack on
the first floor, that is, the floor above the basement. It is spread
on trays, and as new trays are put in, those which were first in-
serted are elevated in the tower. The trays finally reach the
second story, by which time the fruit should be finished, and the
trays are removed and emptied and taken back to the first floor, to
be used again. This, in brief, is the principle upon which the
tower evaporators work, but there are endless variations in the
details, to some of which we must now direct our attention.

"The first stacks were built of wood. In 1881, L. E. Rogers,
son of Mason L. Rogers, to whom I have already introduced the
reader, built stacks of brick from the basement to the top of the
drying chamber in the second story. This was on the old home-
stead near Williamson. A year or two after this, W. H. Bush, of
Marion, built brick -stacks from cellar to cupola, and such stacks
are now frequently seen. The advantages of the brick-stacks are
durability and safety from fire. The greatest danger of fire is
inside the stack, and the wooden fittings and trays of these brick
towers could burn out without setting fire to the building. It is
the common practice to build the stack inside the building, chiefly
because it is a prevailing opinion that the wind interferes with the
draft if the stack is built against the building and exposed on
three sides. This opinion is held in respect to brick stacks, in
particular, for it is thought that the air will draw through the
brick walls, and that they will also become damp in stormy
weather, if exposed. This notion appears to be unfounded, how-
ever, for W. H. Bush, of whom I have spoken, has recently
erected a most successful establishment at his new home at Wal-
worth, with three outside brick stacks with four-inch walls. Mr.
Bush has had much experience in the evaporating business, and as
I consider his new outfit to be a model in its way, I shall have
much to say about it later on. (See Figs. 16, 17, 19, 20, 21,
22, 23.)

" The interior of one of these stacks must now be seen. We
will first turn our attention to the basement or foundation of Mr.

Fig. 16. Evaporater stack with Culver-Cassidy
fittings. The diagram looks at the back (o Y s)
and inside of the front (l E W Y) of the stack.

Fig. 17. Shows a front view section.
C is the head-block (L H c o) in Fig.
16.) D is cross-section of head-block.
See pages 89-92.

A NEW YORK EVAPORATOR 89

Bush's three stacks (Fig. 21) . It will be seen that there are three
furnaces, one under each tower or stack. There are two long
openings into each, to admit the air. The smoke pipes from these
furnaces run off across the cellar and discharge into the chimney,
which is plainly shown in Fig. 19. Going up stairs, we find the
aspect of the stack on the first floor to be that shown in Fig. 22.
This is the door through which the trays are placed into the stack.
If we raise this door, F w, and look down to the furnace, we see
a coil of stovepipe, P in Fig. 16, over which the air passes on its
way up the tower. But before we proceed to an examination of
the inside of this tower, let us look more carefully to the arrange-
ments in Fig. 22. The tray is laid upon the frames A A (one of
these is shown at A in Fig. 16), the little door, F, is raised, and
the tray is shoved into the stack, v is a hand-hole, inside of
which a thermometer may be hung, w is a large door, fastened
by a button at x, to be used whenever the stack is cleaned or
repaired. The opening is large enough to admit a man.

" We are now ready to go inside the stack, and we will take
Fig. 16 as our guide. The stack is thirty-eight feet high, over all,
the walls four inches thick with one coat of plaster on the inside,
and the shaft is large enough to admit the regulation size of tray,
which is forty -nine inches square. A stack of this size holds
twenty-five trays. 'The back wall of the stack is the blank space
bounded by the letters o Y s in the diagram A. A side wall is
shown in diagonal section at the left, bounded by the letters
T E w Y. The door through which the trays are inserted, on the
first floor, is at w, and one of the frames on which the trays are
rested when they are shoved in, is at A. (See the same letters in
Fig. 22.) The warming pipes are at P (see also Fig. 21). The.
stack passes into the second story at F, and the upper door, from
which the trays are removed, is at E. Above this point, the stack
serves as draft-chimney, and as a resting place for the lifting
device. Fig. 17 shows a direct front view of a cross -section of
the stack.

" The chief essential in the interior arrangement of a tower is
some apparatus for lifting the trays, to allow of a tray of fresh
fruit to be placed in at the bottom of the stack. Some of these

90 BUSH-FRUITS

apparatus work by means of an endless chain run on a shaft and
moved by a crank, while others work directly by means of a lever.
Various lifting devices, some of them controlled by patents (as
mentioned in the descriptions of them), are in use in western
New York. Some of the most prominent types are mentioned for
the purpose, not of recommending any one of them, but to ac-
quaint the reader with the leading principles in the manual opera-
tion of an evaporating establishment.

" The lifting device by means of which the trays are elevated
in the Bush stack (Figs. 16, 19, 20) may be called the Culver-
Cassidy or Bogers apparatus. The Culver lifting device consisted
of a head -block which was raised by a lever, and it connected
with two columns or runs of notched strips on either side of the
stack. These vertical strips or bars, with the stationary notches,
alternately recede into the recesses of the wall, to allow of the
lifting of the trays by one bar and the engaging or holding of
them in place by the other. The Culver head-block, which is
shown at H c o, and the lever at L in Fig. 16, was at the top of
the stack. Now, the Cassidy lifter worked from the bottom,
raising the trays by means of a chain winding on an iron bar
which was turned by a crank outside the stack. But instead of
resting the trays on stationary cogs or notches, as the Culver
device did, the Cassidy apparatus employed movable dogs. In
1881, L. R. Rogers obtained the consent of the interested parties,
as he informs me, and combined the two machines, using the
head-block of the Culver and the movable dogs of the Cassidy.
This type of lifting device is the most popular apparatus now in
use in Wayne county and adjoining regions, largely because it is
readily adapted to any size or height of tower, and is simple and
direct in operation.

"The lifting 'apparatus in Fig. 16, therefore, consists of two
double runs or columns of dogs on each side of the stack, and a
head-block above. The runs of dogs are shown at N and at Y;
also at s. One line of dogs in each column is stationary and
holds the tray, and the other line is movable and lifts the tray.
One of these dogs is seen in Fig. 23. The dog s E is a piece of
cast-iron, hung on a pivot D. There are two of these dogs, side

LIFTING DEVICES

by side. The side of the tray rests on the projecting portion
above s. One line of the dogs is raised by the head-block and the
tray is lifted with it, the side of the tray as it rises forcing in the
dog above it. As the tray passes the dog, the latter falls out by
its own weight and the tray rests upon it, whilst the head -block is

pping portable evaporator.

let go, and the movable line of dogs falls back to its place. This
is not the form of catch or dog which was used in the original
Cassidy apparatus, for in that the catches evidently worked by
springs and not by gravity. The brief of the original specification
called for < the combination of stationary posts provided with
spring-catches, with vertically -movable posts carrying drying-
frames and provided with similar spring-catches, and with mech-
anism for operating the same.' (See U. S. Gazette of Patents,
ix. 165, 166.)

BUSH-FRUITS

"The movable or lifting Hue of dogs is raised by the head-
block, shown at H o in Fig. 16. This device is secured to a tim-
ber, c, let into the brick-work, and through which the head, H,
plays. The apparatus is moved upwards by means of the lever,
L, which works on a chain fastened just below c. A rope, R (see
also R in Fig. 22), drops from the end of the lever to the opera-
tor's hand on the first floor. The operator, therefore, pulls down

Fig. 19. Evaporator of W. H. Bush, Walworth, Wayne Co., N. Y.

on the rope, moving all the trays up one notch, thus leaving the
lowest notch free for the insertion of another tray. Looked at
from beneath, the head-block presents the outlines shown in dia-
gram c, Fig. 17. The attachment of the block to the lifting-rods
is shown in diagram D (showing a cross section), and also at T in
Fig. 16.

" While this Culver-Cassidy lifting device is the most common
one in western New York, there are still many other styles. The
old Alden evaporator, which is now little used, lifted the trays by

ENDLESS CHAINS

means of an endless sprocket chain working on a shaft at the bot-
tom and top of the stack, and bearing fixed dogs at intervals to
hold the trays. A crank on the lower shaft served to move the
column of trays, and the chain returned on the outside of the
stack.

"The Williams evaporator works endless chains wholly inside
the stack, and the trays are brought back to the feeding door,

Fig. 20. Same as Fig. 19, rear view. Coal shed 'on the left.

where they are removed. This saves running up and down stairs
with the trays, which is a drawback in the towers already de-
scribed, and it allows the operator to inspect any tray of fruit

at will by turning the crank and bringing it back to the door.

* # *

"A tower dryer constructed upon a different principle is the
Automatic, made in Philadelphia. In this machine the trays
themselves fit upon one another and form the stack. The entire

94 BUSH-FRUITS

pile or stack of trays is lifted by a crank and chain, and a new
tray is inserted at the bottom.

" There are other styles of tower driers which have no lifting
devices. The trays slide into slots or rest upon cleats, and they
may be taken out and replaced higher up, or the evaporating may
be controlled wholly by attention to the heat and to ventilating by
opening the doors. Most small evaporators designed for prepar-
ing fruit for family use are of this description. Any person who
is handy with tools should be able, from all the foregoing account,
to make a machine which will evaporate from two to ten bushels
of berries or apples a day, and thus be able to save most of the
fruit about a small plantation which ordinarily goes to waste. A
drier containing ten to twelve trays three feet square, should
handle ten bushels of apples a day with ease. A small stove may
be used for heater, or a brick furnace may be built. Of small,
cheap driers in the market, the Topping, made at Marion, N. Y.,
and shown in Fig. 18, is much used in Wayne county. This can
be had in four sizes, with capacities ranging from five to twenty
bushels of apples a day.

"4. Steam Tray-driers. — Steam is occasionally used in kiln
driers, as we have seen, but it is most efficient when applied in
closed stacks or boxes underneath trays. For a very large output,
steam is probably the most efficient and economical heat, par-
ticularly where light power is also wanted for running parers,
cider presses, carriers, and the like; and it also has the advantage
of being easily carried to all parts of the establishment for
warming purposes. Coils of steam pipe are laid in horizontal
tiers, the space between each two tiers being just sufficient to
allow of the easy insertion of one or two trays. Each tray is,
therefore, independent of all others above or below it, and it may
be allowed to remain in its original position until the fruit is
finished. A narrow horizontal door is provided for each space.
These tiers of steam pipes may reach a total height of five to eight
feet, and several stands of them are usually placed along side,
and the whole is usually boxed in with lumber.

"The use of steam is capable of almost endless modifications
to suit individual circumstances, and it is so completely within

BUSH-FRUITS

the control of the operator, that it must increase in popularity as
competition and co-operation increases.

"5. Air-blast Driers. — The drying of fruit by means of drafts
of heated air has received some attention recently in western New
York, particularly in the Blanchard establishment at Albion, but

&!— N '; X.. J
*^tr~'&±3' — K-
, ~. ^W--- ----

Fig. 22. Feeding door of stack.

as its use is adapted rather more to large establishments than u>
the individual grower, I shall not discuss it here.

« Methods 'and Results.— As in all other industries, there are all
grades of products turned out of the evaporators, the differences
being largely attributable to the care and attention which the
operator gives to his business. In raspberries, however, with

PLAN OF THE BUILDING

which this .paper is concerned, there are fewer differences in
grades than in other evaporated fruits, because the fruits them-
selves do not need any preparation previous to evaporation, and
because even a large number of inferior
fruits may be lost in the mass.

" If one contemplates making a large
quantity of evaporated products from
year to year, he should give particular
attention to the plan of his building as
well as of the evaporator itself.
A basement is handy for coal
and storage, and it contains the \y 0
heating apparatus. The first
floor is the receiving room for
the fruit, the office, and either
this room or a wing contains the paring
machines, bleaching boxes, and other ac-
cessories. The second floor affords stor-
age for the finished fruit. This is stored
in piles on the floor, and the latter should
therefore be made of a good quality of
dressed and matched lumber. Nothing
is more essential to an evaporating es-
tablishment than scrupulous cleanliness,
for the refuse of the fruit soon sours
and decays and makes the place a most
forbidding one, while a well kept evap-
orating establishment has a most attrac-
tive, fruity odor. I am sorry to say that
there is opportunity for great improve-
ment in matters of simple cleanliness in
very many of the evaporating establish-
ments of this state.

"Many of the evaporator buildings Fie>
are remodeled from old dwelling houses,
shops, or other buildings, but they are rarely as handy and
efficient as those which are built for the purpose. It should

98 BUSH-FRUITS

be borne in mind, when building, that the stacks themselves
should occupy a comparatively small part of the establishment;
that is, the room needed for storage and working much exceeds
that needed for the drying towers. The Bush establishment,
shown in Figs. 16, 19, 20, 21, is 24x36 feet, with sixteen-foot
posts, three solid brick stacks thirty- eight feet high, and stone
basements well finished throughout, and cost $1,400. This estab-
lishment has a capacity of about 1,000 bushels of apples a week.

"The tray most commonly used in Wayne county is a frame
four feet one inch square, covered with wire screen which has a
mesh about one -fifth or one -fourth inch wide. Such a tray re-
ceives about sixteen quarts of berries at each filling. A stack of
the capacity of Mr. Bush's holds twenty-five trays, so that the
stack has from twelve to thirteen bushels of berries, measured
when fresh, when it is full. Mr. Hair spreads from twenty-four
to thirty quarts of berries upon his five-by-five foot trays. Under
ordinary conditions, with heat about 200°F. at the bottom tray,
these trays may be moved up — that is, fresh berries inserted —
every ten minutes. A twenty-five tray stack, therefore, would be
discharged in about four to five hours. The operator will soon
find, however, that the time required to finish the fruit varies with
many conditions and with the variety of berry. In moist weather
and with the first pickings, more time is required because the
fruit is plump and juicy. For the later pickings and in dry
times, the evaporation may be completed in half the time re-
quired for the plump berries. The Ohio raspberry also dries
quicker than most other common varieties. It is, therefore, often
necessary to ' strip ' the trays ; that is, to take out five or six or
more trays at once, rather than to wait for each one to come out
in its appointed turn. A test made by myself in one of the best
evaporators of the state, finished Gregg raspberries in four hours.
The trays were filled with twenty-four quarts at 11 A. M., with
bottom heat 175° and top heat (at upper trays) 100°, the outside
temperature being 74°. The fruit came out at 3 P. M., and meas-
ured ten quarts to the tray.

#**•*#•*•*•*•*
"The staple variety of blackcaps for evaporating is the Ohio,

NUMBER OF CROPS 99

although the Gregg is crowding it out— and properly so, I think —
in many of the best berry sections. There are no close com-
petitors of these two varieties for evaporating purposes. The
red varietieties are seldom evaporated, because there is little
demand for the product, they consume much time on the tray, and
too many berries are required to make a pound. Shaffer is more
frequently dried, although it has no conspicuous place in the
industry."

DURATION OF PLANTATIONS

The duration of a plantation has already been
touched upon in connection with the matter of prun-
ing, and, as there indicated, much will depend on the
system of cultivation and care. With ordinary high
culture, it is seldom advisable to harvest more than
four crops, and one of these, being the first crop, is
only a partial one. Of course the plants will continue
to bear much longer than this. It is merely a question
whether the grower can afford to continue the increased
amount of labor needed to keep an old plantation in
condition for the smaller yield of poorer fruit which he
is likely to get in return.

CLEARING THE GROUND

It is a comparatively simple matter to rid a piece
of ground of black raspberry plants, when they are
no longer wanted. Mow, rake together, and burn the
bushes after fruiting, then plow deep and thoroughly,
turning out all the berry stumps, and the work is
practically done. Some of them will throw up shoots
again when not thoroughly uprooted, but it is very

100 B USH-FR UITS

little trouble to keep them in subjection. This first
plowing is heavy and slow work, and many of the
stumps will drag out and interfere in a measure with the
subsequent harrowing, but aside from that, there is little
difficulty. If the land is to be used for small or fine
crops, these stumps will need to be removed, but for
potatoes or corn they will cause very little trouble.
Raspberries seem to leave the land in fine condition
for other crops. One of the finest pieces of corn ever
obtained, in my own experience, was the first crop
taken from the land after plowing under a black rasp-
berry plantation.

HARDINESS OF BLACK -CAP&'

The black raspberries are among the hardiest
members of the family. The Gregg is one of the
most tender varieties, but even this will stand the
winters of most localities without serious injury. Of
course, in very severe climates, it will be found profit-
able to put down the plants for winter protection,
even though not absolutely necessary to prevent the
bush from killing. The increased yield resulting from
the greater vitality and vigor of the plants so pro-
tected is found to much more than repay the cost of
protection. Plants probably "winter -kill" in August
as often as in January, and it is as important to
take every pains to protect them from insect or fungous
injury during summer as to protect them from cold
in winter.

PROBABLE YIELDS PER ACRE 1Q1

YIELDS

In reply to the question, "What do you consider
a fair average yield per acre of black -caps!" figures
were received from fifty -eight growers. Computing
the average from all these replies as accurately as
possible, we have for the answer 2,493 quarts, or
nearly seventy -eight bushels, per acre. The majority
gave the number of quarts or bushels which they con-
sidered an average; others placed their answer in the
form of "from seventy -five to one hundred bushels,"
and two gave what they considered high or maximum
yields, making it a little more difficult to get the
exact average.

The lowest estimate given as an average yield was
576 quarts, the highest 9,600 quarts. Probably neither
of these are extensive commercial growers. The lat-
ter estimate is very interesting as showing what can
be done with the best culture, for it comes from a
very intelligent fruit-grower, mainly interested in
other lines, and who evidently bases these figures on
the yield in his own home garden, as his reply is
given in the form of "sixty quarts to the square
rod." A majority of the estimates range from two
thousand to three thousand two hundred quarts. One
grower, whose answer to the question is "seventy-five
to one hundred and twenty-five bushels," adds: "We
give closer attention to many of the points in berry
culture than most growers, and really average better
than I give you."

These figures are entitled to a large degree of con-

102 BUSH-FRUITS

fidenee, for they come from practical men who are in
the business and know whereof they speak. To be
sure, they are estimates rather than records of yields
obtained, but they are estimates based on practical
experience, not on theory. By some they will be
considered too high, but there are growers who are
constantly marketing larger yields.

The yield in pounds of dried product per bushel of
green fruit varies greatly with different seasons and
parts of the same season. Early in a wet season,
when the fruit has made a quick, vigorous and watery
growth, it may take four quarts to make a pound of
dried fruit. At the end of a .very dry season, on the
other hand, it may take only two quarts. So far as I
have been able to learn, growers expect to average
about ten pounds of dried fruit to the bushel. There
is considerable difference in varieties in this respect.
The Ohio is one of the heaviest yielders, in proportion
to the amount of green fruit, owing largely to the
greater number of seeds. It is one of the poorest in
quality, and possesses less food value per bushel than
other varieties. The Gregg follows it closely in yield
and is a better berry. In some experiments with seed-
lings, Goff found that small and juicy berries yielded
a higher percentage of evaporated fruit than larger
and dryer ones, showing that it does not follow be-
cause a berry is rather dry in texture that it will
give a good yield when evaporated. In point of
quality and food value, the Shaffer ranks among the
best, so that from the consumer's standpoint, at least,
it is one of the most desirable. It is so near a red

EFFFCTS OF DROUGHT 103

raspberry that when evaporated its quality is fully
equal, if not superior, to that of the true reds, while
the yield of dried fruit per bushel is not very far below
that of the black- caps. It is certainly an excellent
berry to dry for the home market, where the price
can be made to conform to the cost of production.
The man who is growing berries to evaporate is not
likely to suffer so seriously from drought as the one
who sells his fruit fresh. Dry weather reduces the
number of quarts per acre much more than the number
of pounds of dried fruit. A long drought, extending
through the early part of the season, does injure the
yield, but dry weather at ripening time only, need
cause no serious loss if the cultivation has been fre-
quent and thorough. In fact, the man who will culti-
vate thoroughly enough is practically independent of
drought.

USUAL PROFITS

Basing an estimate on the above figures for average
yields, we may look for 750 pounds of dried fruit per
acre, with thoroughly good management. Judging from
past experience, this product, through a series of years,
is likely to average from fifteen to twenty cents per
pound, making a gross return of $112.50 to $150
per acre from fields in full bearing. The cost of
harvesting and marketing may be summed up about
as follows: Harvesting at one-half cent per quart,
$12.50 ; evaporating at two and one -half cents per
pound, $18.75 ; cleaning for market at one cent per

104 BUSH-FRUITS

pound, $7.50 ; marketing at one cent per pound,
$7.50. This leaves about $75 to $100 for rent of
land, cost of growing, and profits. On the whole,
raspberry growing for the purpose of making dried
fruit can be recommended with confidence to the gen-
eral farmer who is willing to give it careful attention.

If sold fresh in the market at six cents a quart,
the return will be about the same. Accurate figures
concerning cost of production are hard to get, and
each grower can make his own estimates best. A
crop of potatoes can be grown between the rows the
year of setting, which will usually repay that year's
cultivation, exclusive of the cost of plants, while the
second year's crop of fruit will do the same, and
perhaps more. Plants can be bought at from $6 to
$8 per thousand. If set three by six feet, it re-
quires 2,420 plants to the acre. If set farther apart
than this, the number required is proportionately less.

There are always men who are in constant fear of
over-production, and who hesitate to undertake enter-
prises, because they expect everything to be overdone.
To this class of men the amount of dried raspberries
which are now sold every year would have seemed im-
possible a few years ago, and yet there seems to be no
indication that the limit is reached. The product is
easier sold now than then, and perhaps the price does
not average materially lower. Moreover, since the
business has so greatly increased in extent, the insect
and fungous enemies have become more prominent,
so that more energy and skill are demanded, and
as a consequence the careless and floating class of

OVER-PRODUCTION 105

growers is becoming discouraged and abandoning it.
This is just the condition of affairs which indicates
a favorable opportunity for the energetic man to go
ahead, and he is the one who nearly always succeeds
in his undertakings

CHAPTER IV

THE BLACKBERRIES

As a cultivated plant the blackberry is an American
fruit. All the varieties have been developed from
native wild plants within the latter half of this century.
Like the raspberry, it is, therefore, a new fruit ; but
raspberries have long been grown in Europe, whereas
blackberries have not. It will not be surprising, there-
fore, if we are not yet able to give complete advice on
ail points of blackberry cultivation.

SOIL

Considerable diversity of opinion exists among
growers regarding the soil best suited to the blackberry,
a diversity which is no doubt due, in part at least, to
the fact that a blackberry is hard to kill. It is likely
to make a partial success wherever it may chance to be,
for it possesses a genuine courage which knows no
failure, and bravely sets out to make the best of existing
conditions.

Many hold that only a comparatively light and
poor soil is suitable, in order that the plants may
not make too great a growth of wood at the expense
of fruit production. On the other hand, growers in
the prairie states, where the land is naturally rich, do

SOIL FOR BLACKBERRIES 107

not recommend their poorer soils. A strong, well-
drained clay loam meets with the most general ap-
proval, though light, warm land, having a porous clay
subsoil, may give excellent results. On these stronger
soils, plants have frequently passed the winter un-
harmed when parts of the same field on more sterile
soil were badly winter -killed.

A soil that is retentive of moisture is imperative,
this being the prime essential in blackberry growing.
For this reason a cool, northern exposure is generally
preferable, because such a location will help to mitigate
the severity of drought, the arch enemy of the black-
berry. Deep working of the soil before planting, and
natural or artificial drainage, are essential both to con-
serve the necessary moisture and to prevent over sup-
ply. None of our cultivated brambles can make satis-
factory terms with a wet, heavy soil, and any attempt
to compel them to do so will surely result in failure.
Land with a high and hard subsoil, therefore, should be
tile -drained before planting.

FERTILIZERS

Do blackberries need fertilizers ? Some say no ;
others yes. There muslrbe a reason for this difference
of opinion. On strong, moist soil blackberries may
produce such a rampant growth that they nearly forget
to bear fruit. These overgrown, poorly matured canes
are then likely to suffer from the cold of the succeed-
ing winter, and to be left in a condition to repeat the
same behavior the following season. It is a signifi-

108 BUSH-FRUITS

cant fact, however, that western growers, who may be
fairly presumed to have a stronger soil, are strongest
in their recommendations of liberal fertilizing. The
following statement from O. B. Galusha, as reported
in the Transactions of the Illinois Horticultural Society
for 1880, is worthy of careful consideration : "A gen-
erous feeding of the soil is amply repaid in liberal
crops of fruit. In my older plantation, the soil was
equally manured throughout, and yet on one side it is
naturally considerably richer than the other, and this
side produces fully one -third more fruit than the
other." This same principle will be found to apply
with equal satisfaction to ordinary soils throughout the
country, as a whole. If properly managed and pruned,
the plants will be able to transform a large amount of
plant -food into luscious berries and laughing dollars.
Heavy applications of stable manure to young plants,
which have not yet sufficient wood to carry full crops,
may work injury, especially if on strong, moist soils.
On soils of this character, nothing is needed until the
plants are in full bearing. If additional pi ant -food is
then desirable, commercial fertilizers, with a liberal
proportion of potash, may better fill the need.

PROPAGATION OF THE BLACKBERRY

The propagation of blackberries, as it is most often
done by means of suckers, is a very simple operation.
In fact, the plants attend to that matter themselves,
and all that the cultivator need do is to take care of
the product. Indeed, it is owing to the profusion of

PRODUCING YOUNG PLANTS 109

suckers thrown up by these plants that many failures
occur among those who lack the courage or energy to
vigorously destroy them. Unless wanted for planting
or for sale, these shoots are weeds in the full sense of
the word, and detract as much from the vigor and pro-
ductiveness of the parent plant as any other class of
weeds. The effect on the parent is the same, to be
sure, whether the young plants are wanted or not, and
no plantation can yield as heavy crops of fruit if
called upon to produce plants also. It merely becomes,
then, a question as to which are the more profitable
and desirable, the plants or the berries. In general,
if the plants are needed for planting, or if there is
a market for them at fair prices, they are likely to
prove more profitable than fruit.

If it is desired to produce many plants of a new
and high-priced variety, the number of suckers may
be increased by cultivation which tends to disturb the
roots. Thrusting a spade into the ground in circles
several inches apart about the parent plant will sever
many of the roots, practically making root -cuttings
of them, thereby causing a large number of plants to
spring up. Some careful observers assert that close
pruning also tends to increase the number of suckers
thrown up, wherefore this might also be used as an
aid to rapid propagation.

Plants in large numbers can be cheaply produced
from an old plantation which is to be discarded, by
cutting away the bushes, plowing and cultivating
the ground in spring, and then letting everything
grow. If the land is poor, manuring will increase

110 B USH-FR UITS

the vigor of the plants. Roots have also been found
to throw up more suckers when in contact with
coarse manure.

Although propagation by suckers is by far the most
common method, and answers equally well for practical
purposes, yet root -cuttings are often used, and give
excellent results. This is especially true where a speedy
increase of choice varieties is desired. The blackberry
is particularly well adapted to this method of propaga-
tion, and all the work can be done out of doors. The
cuttings may be made either in fall or spring. All roots
three -sixteenths of an inch or more in diameter may be
used, being cut into pieces two or three inches long.
If taken in the fall, these should be stored in boxes of
moist sand, which should be kept in a cellar during the
winter, or be buried outside on dry ground, where no
water will collect about them. It is well to have holes
or cracks in the bottom of the boxes, to allow the
escape of surplus moisture. The cuttings should be
stratified in the boxes in the same way that seeds and
nuts are, with a layer of sand or soil, then a layer
of cuttings, another of sand, etc.

If the conditions are favorable during the winter,
the whitish granular -looking excrescence from the cut
surfaces, known as the callus, will have formed before
spring, so that the pieces will be in good condition for
planting. For this reason cuttings taken in the fall
and properly treated during the winter, usually give
better success and a more vigorous growth than those
taken in spring. In spring the cuttings are planted out
in loose, mellow soil, in trenches two to three inches

ROOT-CUTTINGS 111

deep, depending upon the comparative heaviness or
lightness of the soil, and about three inches apart in
the furrow. They are covered and the soil firmed over
them, the same as in planting peas, potatoes, or any
other garden vegetable. Mulching the ground with a
light layer of straw, sawdust, or similar material, to
prevent it from drying out, aids in promoting their
growth and insuring a good stand.

For those who have greenhouse facilities, a very
satisfactory way is to take up the roots and make the
cuttings as early in spring as the ground will permit,
stratifying them in boxes of sand as already described,
and placing them under the greenhouse benches.
Later, as other plants go outside and space permits,
these boxes are placed on the benches. By this treat-
ment the cuttings become callused, and are in good con-
dition to go into trenches outside by the last of May.

If a variety is particularly scarce and it is desirable
to increase the stock of it with the greatest possible
speed, the cuttings may be made smaller, one -half to
one inch long, and the whole operation be carried on
under glass. In this case the cuttings had better be
placed just beneath the surface in beds of sand, and
furnished with a gentle bottom heat. The plants are
potted off as soon as buds have been developed and
are well under way, or when leaf -growth has begun.
Sometimes they are sown in shallow boxes of soil after
the callus and buds have developed, and allowed to
remain till several inches high, then potted, or even
set from here directly into the open field, if the weather
and soil are in suitable condition.

112 BUSH-FRUITS

PLANTING

Before considering how to plant, the question of
when to plant should be decided. As already noted in
Chapter I., there are arguments in favor of both spring
and fall planting. In fact, if planted in late fall or
early spring, there is likely to be very little failure in
either case, provided the fall -set plants are protected
with a covering of soil or coarse manure during the
winter. For the great, region of the Plains, which is
subject to winter as well as summer drought, fall plant-
ing is less likely to prove satisfactory than in moister
climates. There is much reason to believe that many
plants of all kinds perish in these regions from lack of
moisture during the winter months. In general, how-
ever, it may be safe to assume that fall planting is
preferable to late spring planting, and if circumstances
are known to be such that the work cannot be done in
proper season in the spring, it had better be done in the
fall ; if the work can be done at the right time, plant
in spring.

It goes without saying that the first essential in
the operation of planting is to insure a proper and
thorough preparation of the soil, a matter which has
already been discussed. That done, the question must
be settled as to the manner of placing the plants
on the field, whether in closely set rows to culti-
vate only one way, or in check rows to cultivate both
ways. This will, of course, be decided by circum-
stances and the individual preferences of the grower.
Like many other questions, it is one on which there

PLANTING THE BLACKBERRY H3

are no records of accurate experiments, comparing the
two methods and giving the resulting yield and profits.
One of the most enterprising fruit growers in the
country, J. H. Hale, of Connecticut, says: "I have
seen the largest yield in quarts, the finest fruit and
the most satisfactory results, from planting blackberries
in hills seven to eight feet apart each way." Nor does
he stand alone in recommending this practice, for there
are many other progressive and enterprising growers
who are adopting the same method. The advantages
of the plan are larger and finer fruit, obtained with less
expenditure of hand labor. With the cultivator run-
ning both ways, little hand -hoeing is required. It
is of especial advantage in growing fruit for a critical
market, and where wages are high, and help hard to
get. The general impression prevails that the yield is
less. If so, it is not so well adapted to high-priced
land, where the greatest possible return per acre must
be had. If, as its advocates assert, however, the
yield is as great, or even greater than by hedge -row
planting, there seems to be no good reason why
the plan should not replace the hedge -row method
entirely.

Having decided upon the method to be employed,
mark out the land to correspond, plowing good, deep
furrows in one direction to receive the plants. In set-
ting, time will be saved if three or four men can work
together. Let one carry the plants in a pail of water,
and drop them at the intersection of the mark and
furrow, while the others set. The roots should be well
spread along the furrow, the soil drawn in over them,

114 BUSH-FRUITS

and firmed with the hands or feet. Ordinarily this is
most conveniently done by working on hands and knees
on the opposite side of the furrow from which the soil
is thrown out, so that it can be quickly drawn in with
the hands. In fine, mellow soil, free from stones, the
planter may walk along the furrow, take the plant in
one hand, and do the covering and firming with the
feet, or at least enough of it to fix the plant in posi-
tion and protect it from drying out, leaving the balance
to be done with hoes. The furrows should be deep
enough to admit of setting the plants a little lower than
they previously grew, and of doing it easily. Filling
in the furrow, beyond what is required to insure satis-
factory conditions of growth for the young plants, can
be left to follow as a matter of course in the future
cultivation.

For row planting, rows eight feet apart, with plants
three feet apart in the row, will be found satisfactory;
this gives 1,815 plants per acre. Occasionally a grower
prefers planting as close as two feet, and others as far
apart as four feet

Intermingling varieties to insure more effectual
pollination has seldom been considered, though an
occasional variety has been known to need the help
of neighboring kinds. Recent observations in experi-
mental plots where varieties were growing somewhat
isolated has convinced me that it is often an impor-
tant factor, even among well-known varieties.

Strawberries frequently do well planted among
blackberries. They are sometimes set in rows and
left till the blackberries smother them out. It is

TILLAGE AND MOISTURE 115

doubtful whether this practice is advisable, though
they may occupy the space between the rows with profit
for one or two years.

TILLAGE AND MULCHING

Little need be said on the subject of cultivation
in addition to what has already been said on the sub-
ject in general (Chapter I.). Some writers have ad-
vised no cultivation for the blackberry, at least after
the second year, on the ground that cultivation pro-
duces a too rampant growth and consequent lack of
hardiness. While this may be true in part, the prac-
tice of letting them go without cultivating is open to
an equally serious if not more grave objection. The
most dangerous enemy to blackberry growing in most
sections of the country is dry weather, especially if
occurring about the time of ripening. Tillage is the
most available means at command, in most cases, for
overcoming this difficulty. A crop may easily be re-
duced one -half by drying up on the bushes and, while
cultivation cannot entirely prevent this loss, it will do
much toward it. Thorough cultivation every ten days
throughout the season is the best known substitute
for irrigation, and should be vigorously maintained
up to the time the fruit ripens, at least.

A cultivator which will cut the suckers below the
surface of the ground is a great aid, unless plants are
to be grown for sale or for further planting. Two
such implements are described in the introductory
chapter. A spring -tooth cultivator, drawn by either

116 BUSH-FRUITS

one or two horses (Fig. 24), is a most useful tool for
blackberry plantations.

Mulching proves very satisfactory where the con-
ditions are favorable. It is especially adapted to the
home garden, where patches are likely to be small
and inconveniently cultivated. There is sometimes a
tendency to induce too late fall growth, and in this
respect it is inferior to cultivation, for a cessation of

Fig. 24. Tilling blackberries with spring-tooth cultivator.

tillage practically removes the soil -mulch, at least if
rains follow soon to pack the surface.

Mention should again be made of the good results
obtained by the system of mulching adopted by M.
A. Thayer, of Sparta, Wis. This consists in growing
clover, in a field by itself, which is cut when in bloom
and applied along the rows, the central space being
kept thoroughly cultivated. Of course this is but one
of the factors which have contributed to the success
attained on the farm mentioned, but the method as a
whole has led to some phenomenal yields.

SUMMER PRUNING 117

PRUNING

Pruning the blackberry is a very simple operation,
if done at the proper time; but if neglected at the
time when it should be done the results can never be
satisfactory. The only summer pruning required is
to pinch the growing cane once, at from eighteen
inches to two feet from the ground. There need be

Fig. 25. Low training of blackberries.

no fear of pinching too low, for the cane elongates
considerably after being clipped, if still young, and
the result is a much better formed bush than if al-
lowed to get three or four feet high before being cut.
I wish to reiterate the caution to pinch back the canes
when they get to the desired height. It makes a vast
difference to the future growth of a bush whether the
tip is clipped off when it gets two feet high or
whether it is allowed to grow to four feet and then
cut back to two feet. Fig. 25 shows a model planta-
tion of Early Harvest blackberries, pinched back to

118 BUSH-FRUITS

less than three feet and supported by a wire. At the
spring pruning the laterals are cut back to from one
to two feet in length. This is an operation demand-
ing much judgment, for it is a fruit- thinning process.
Too close pruning will dimmish the yield, too little
will allow more fruit to set than can be properly ma-
tured. Not all varieties are alike in fruiting -habit.
The Taylor, one of the best all-round varieties in cul-
tivation, does not bear fruit close to the main stem.
Four to eight buds at the base of the branches usually
produce no flowers. Unbranched canes often fail to
develop flowers within two feet of the ground. Close
pruning of this variety, therefore, will take away most
of the fruit. Other varieties under observation bore
flowers within three or four buds of the main stem.
Erie is said to behave like Taylor in this respect and
Early Harvest is said to bear its fruit -buds near the
main stem at times and near the tips at others.
It is, therefore, better to defer spring pruning until
the buds develop, unless the grower is sure of his
ground.

In the West, where moisture is deficient, growers
often prefer to do no summer clipping, merely cutting
back the main canes in spring to three or four feet in
height. The plan is particularly applicable to varieties
which overbear.

As with the 'other brambles, the old canes are
best removed as soon as through fruiting, while
they are more easily cut, thereby disposing of what-
ever fungus spores and insects may be harboring
about them.

GATHERING THE FRUIT 119

HARVESTING AND MARKETING

Despite the thorny character of the bushes, black-
berries are among the easiest gathered of any of the
small -fruits. The fruit when well grown is large,
easily picked, fills up fast, and hence is pleasing to the
pickers. A word of caution in regard to two things
may be needed. The first is never to leave the fruit in
the sun after being picked, as a few minutes' exposure
to hot sunshine will turn it red and render it more or
less bitter and unpalatable. The next point is not to
pick it until ripe. The cultivated blackberry has been
called upon to bear much undeserved slander and dis-
repute, simply because it has a habit of turning black
before it is ripe. The result is, that oftener than other-
wise the berries are picked green, and consumers, sup-
posing them to be ripe because they are black, growl
because they are sour or sometimes bitter. For distant
markets this cannot be wholly avoided, as the fruit
must be picked while still firm, even at the expense of
quality. For home use, however, if left till the bees
begin to eat them, there will be no cause for complaint
at the quality of the cultivated blackberry.

The fruit is marketed either in pint or in quart
baskets, as best suits the fancy of the selected market.
The blackberry is a fruit which usually meets with a
ready sale at good prices, and one which handles well.
Many small inland towns and villages consume very
considerable quantities of this fruit at prices which
are eminently satisfactory to the grower.

120 BUSH-FRUITS

USES

Dried blackberries are nearly always quoted in mar
ket, yet, so far as I have been able to learn,* none
are grown for that purpose, the supply coming almost
wholly from the South, where the wild berries are
gathered and are dried in the sun. They are usually
poor in quality, and quoted at a price which would
render it unprofitable to dry them if there were a
market for fresh fruit. In order to learn something of
their adaptability for this purpose, eight well -filled
quart baskets just as we were selling them fresh, were
taken for experiment. They were made to correspond
in weight, so that each quart, with the basket, weighed
one and one -half pounds. Deducting the weight of the
baskets left five pounds ten and one -half ounces of
fruit in each of two lots of four quarts. Granulated
sugar was freely sprinkled over one lot. Four ounces
of sugar was thus used, one ounce to each quart,
making the weight of this lot plus the sugar five
pounds 'fourteen and one -half ounces. Both lots were
put in the greenhouse to dry August 3, on wire
screens, and covered with mosquito netting to keep
away the flies. After one or two days of sunshine,
there came several cloudy ones, and the berries be-
gan to mold, so that the netting had to be removed.
Those treated with sugar molded less than the others,
and stuck to the screens less in drying. August 12
both lots were taken up and weighed. They appeared

*f ro-1 ^Y. ^-H. Bull. 57, Cornell Exp. Sta.'

DRYING BLACKBERRIES 121

to be as dry as raspberries usually are when put into
the curing room, but quickly began to mold again when
put in a pile together. The four quarts dried without
sugar weighed at this date one pound ten and one -half
ounces. The four quarts dried with sugar weighed
one pound fifteen and one -half ounces. From these
weights, it appears that not over twelve to fourteen
pounds of dried fruit to the bushel can be expected.
The weight of sugar applied seems to be retained, and
possibly increases the weight slightly in addition, by
retaining more of the juices of the fruit. Those treated
with sugar seemed to remain in a softer and better
condition for cooking. Judging from this attempt, the
blackberry dries very slowly, and under present Condi-
tions, at least, there seems to be little promise that it
can be profitably grown for evaporating purposes. The
quality of dried blackberries is low. They seem to be
lacking in sugar and pronounced qualities. Yet the
addition of sugar in drying and the perfection of
methods of evaporating may enable the grower to
utilize the surplus crop to advantage. The chief hin-
drance to such an industry at present is the cheap
and inferior southern product.

Although it seems necessary that the fruit should
reach the consumer while fresh, its value in household
uses is not so fully appreciated as it should be.
Ancient writers were inclined to lay great stress on
the medicinal qualities of all plants and fruits, and
while we are wont to smile at many of the supposed
virtues there recorded, we might well profit by studying
more closely the uses and virtues of the blackberry.

122 BUSH-FRUITS

The value of blackberry wine or brandy in bowel
troubles is well known. It is reported that blackber-
ries preserved in one of these forms were found by
army surgeons to be the only sure and sovereign
remedy against chronic diarrhoea, proving effectual
whenever taken in time, even after all other medicines
had failed. If the previously prepared wine or brandy
is not available, the water from blackberry roots
freshly dug and steeped, will usually serve the pur-
pose equally well. This, though an old-time household
remedy, has lost none of its effectiveness with the
passage of time.

Various recipes are given for the manufacture of
wine> one of which I copy from an early edition of " The
Gardener's Monthly." "Express the juice through
a thick cloth, to prevent any pulp mixing with it. To
one quart of juice add two quarts of soft water (cold)
and three pounds of sugar. Let it then stand in a
wide -mouthed vessel, until fermentation ceases, which
will be sometimes after two months. Be careful while
fermentation is going on to keep the film skimmed
clear from the top of the liquid daily, and to keep the
vessel full to the top. A small vessel of the liquid
should be kept for filling up the large vessels as the
skimmings are removed. When fermentation ceases,
strain the wine into bottles. The wine keeps better
in large quantities, and to that end put it into large
stone jugs, corking and sealing them."

Another recipe adds a quart of boiling water to
every gallon of the crushed fruit, before expressing the
juice, instead of adding cold water afterwards. It also

BLACKBERRY WINE 123

adds the white of eggs beaten to a froth and stirred
into the juice; spices are also enclosed in a cloth bag,
and dropped into it.

Formerly there was a market for good blackberry
wine at $2 to $3 per gallon for medicinal uses, and
if a glut of fresh fruit occurred, it could be turned into
wine to good advantage, but in recent years it seems
to have been largely replaced in practice by other
medicines and stimulants, and there is little demand
for it.

Probably the greatest value of the blackberry,
however, is not so much as a medicine to cure dis-
ease, as in its healthfulness when used as a food.
Perhaps nothing is more conducive to health and
good spirits than fresh, well ripened fruit, and
among all fruits there is none better adapted to ac-
complish this much wished -for end than the bright,
shining, and luscious blackberry. Not a home in
all our land should be without it in abundance.

DURATION OF PLANTATIONS

The profitable duration of a blackberry plantation,
as with all other small fruits, depends much on the
care and management. They generally last longer
than black raspberries, perhaps from five to ten years
on the average, longer in special cases. Attempts to
lengthen the lifetime of a fruit plantation of any kind
are rarely profitable. It is better to force the plants
to do their best, get what can be gotten from them
before they begin to decline, then let them go, to be

124 BUSH-FRUITS

replaced by others. If by one system of management
a plant can be induced to produce as much in three
years as it ordinarily would in five, take the three-
year return every time, no matter if at the end of
that time the plant is exhausted and no longer prof-
itable. Others are ready to take its place, on other
ground, and to continue the high -pressure production.
The greater the yield, within limits, the greater the
profit and the more fun there is in the business.

KILLING THE PLANTS

When a plantation has passed its usefulness it may
become a difficult task to get rid of it. The capacity
of the plants for throwing up shoots from broken
roots is then brought into full play, and they make
a vigorous fight for life. If the cultivator hesitates
or wavers he will surely lose the day. In general, the
most practicable method of exterminating them is to
mow off and burn the bushes, and plow deep, di-
rectly after fruiting. Thorough harrowing with a
spring -tooth harrow will then tear out many of the
stumps. From that time, all shoots should be kept
down by some system of cultivation which will cut
them off below the surface of the ground. Replow-
ing some two months later will often be found a
help. While some shoots may appear the following
year, with this system of treatment they will cause
no serious trouble in the cultivation of any ordinary
crop. If the land is to be used for fine or delicate
crops, the stumps will need to be removed.

RESISTANCE TO CLIMATE 125

HARDINESS

Since the difference between a full crop, with good
profits, and no crop, with utter loss, may depend on
hardiness alone, it is a matter of no little importance.
In the climate of central New York varieties like
Brunton's Early, Topsy, and usually Wilson's Early
and Wilson Junior, are almost sure to kill to the
ground every winter, while Taylor, Agawam, Stone's
Hardy, Snyder, etc., are slightly or not at all injured.

In many sections of the West and Northwest, as
Colorado, Nebraska, Iowa, Minnesota, etc., none of the
varieties prove hardy without winter protection and,
curiously enough, the matter of selection for hardiness
becomes of less import there than in milder climates.
The ability to endure summer heat is there the im-
portant consideration. If plants are to remain un-
protected during the winter, the selection of varieties
should be largely influenced by the question of hardi-
ness. The method of protection is described in the
introductory chapter.

YIELD

The blackberries are undoubtedly the best yielders
among members of the bramble family. Not only do
they yield well when growing wild among the rocks and
woods, and even under worse conditions which may
sometimes pass under the name of cultivation, but they
respond promptly and generously to liberal care and
attention. In answer to a request for an estimate of

126 BUSH-FRUITS

what each considered an average yield per acre of
blackberries, fifty growers in different parts of the
country gave replies varying from 1,280 to 10,000
quarts, the average being 3,158 quarts, or over ninety-
eight bushels per acre. These figures, obtained as they
were from the practical growers themselves, who had no
incentive to misrepresent their estimates, are worthy of
credence. To be sure, some of the estimates are very
high, but others are extremely low, and the average is
considerably below the yield which many good growers
are securing. It is safe to say, therefore, that any
grower whose yields fall much below this average is not
living up to his possibilities, and unless some uncon-
trollable disease or insect is preying upon his planta-
tion, there is something wrong with his system of man-
agement, or his location is unfavorable.

A point which those engaged in all lines of agri-
cultural production need to appreciate more and more,
is that the bulk of any crop is required to defray the
actual cost of production, and that it is only beyond
this limit that any profit lies. As an illustration, sup-
pose that by ordinary methods of cultivation an acre of
blackberries produces seventy bushels, and that sixty
bushels are required to repay the cost of production.
Now, if by judiciously increasing the cost of production
to seventy bushels by more liberal fertilizing or better
cultivation, we can increase the yield to ninety bushels,
the profit is doubled. Nor does this fully express the
difference, for with an additional expense equivalent to
ten bushels, we have secured an additional profit of ten
bushels, and the additional outlay has paid a return of

THE MARGIN OF PROFIT 127

one hundred per cent on the investment, while the first
ten bushels only pay sixteen and two -thirds per cent on
the investment. In other words, one acre under the
second management is much better than two acres under
the first, for it is equivalent to growing the second acre
with an outlay equal to only ten bushels, instead of an
outlay equal to sixty bushels. This reasoning may
sound theoretical and visionary, but it is just the
kind of operations which are being carried on all the
time. It is just this sort of differences,- too, which dis-
tinguishes the man who is making a success of farming
or fruit-growing from the man who only keeps even or
runs behind. We should realize that only in the last
bushels of the crop the profit lies.

PROFITS

Reliable figures as to the cost and profits of farm
crops are very difficult to obtain, for the reason that so
few growers keep any records, or know what their crops
cost them. Of the few who do keep accurate accounts,
not many put the results in print, where they may be
accessible to others. Anything said on this subject,
therefore, must be very largely in the nature of esti-
mates. For ordinary farm conditions the cost of pro-
duction per acre may be roughly estimated somewhat

as follows:

FIRST YEAR

Rent of land $5 00

Plants 15 00

Fertilizers . 20 00

$40 00

128 BUSH-FRUITS

The other expenses of the first year, including set-
ting and care of the plants, should be offset by the
return from the crop which may be planted between the
rows to utilize the ground not yet occupied by the
berry plants. We may at least expect the plantation
to bear four profitable crops of fruit, so that dividing
the first year's expense by four, the cost for subsequent
years, exclusive of picking and marketing, may be
estimated somewhat as follows:

Proportion of first year's expense $10 00

Eent of land 5 00

Fertilizers 20 00

Cultivation and hoeing 10 00

Pruning 5 00 .

Removing old canes 5 00

Add to cover deficiencies . , 10 00

$65 00

The second year, the crop, which is but a partial one,
should about meet expenses. After that, let us place
the yield at the average obtained from the replies
already referred to, which is 3,158 quarts. If these can
be made to net five cents a quart after deducting the
cost of picking and marketing, the net return will be
$157.90, leaving a net profit of a little more than $90
per acre. If they can be made to net only four cents,
the net return will be but $126.32, leaving a profit
of but little more than $60 per acre.

In connection with this, for the purpose of seeing
what can be done by a thorough -going, energetic man,
let us compare the following close estimate made by
M. A. Thayer, of Sparta, Wisconsin:

HOW THAYER DOES IT 129

ONE ACRE— FIRST YEAR

Plowing ground $1 50

Harrowing five times 2 50

Rolling and marking 1 00

2,000 Ancient Briton plants 40 00

Setting plants 7 50

Cultivating ten times 3 75

Hoeing six times 6 00

Laying down for winter 2 50

First year's expense . $64 75

SECOND YEAR

Taking up plants in spring $1 25

400 new plants to replace dead ones 8 00

Setting 400 plants 2 00

60 posts at six cents . 3 60

270 stakes at two cents 5 40

• 380 rods No. 12 wire 12 60

Setting posts and stakes 5 00

Stringing wire 2 50

Cultivating ten times 3 75

Hoeing four times 4 00

Two loads clover mulching 8 00

Placing clover mulching 3 15

Pinching-back 2 50

Laying down for winter 7 50

Use of tools, etc . 6 00

Total for two years $140 00

After the second year the annual expense is esti-
mated as follows:

130 BUSH-FRUITS

Taking up plants in the spring ..... . . $2 50

Cultivating and hoeing ......... . . 8 00

Mulching .................. 12 00

Nipping-back and trimming ......... 5 00

Laying down for winter ........... 7 50

Tools, etc .................. 5 00

$40 00

The estimates for labor are made on the basis of
paying $1.25 per day for men and $2.50 per day for a
man and team. The system of mulching, as elsewhere
explained, consists in growing clover on separate pieces
of ground, cutting and spreading it green along the
rows, and cultivating the center. The expenses of
gathering and marketing, Mr. Thayer places as fol-
lows:

Picking per quart ............. $0

Boxes and cases .............. 01

Packing and selling ............ 01

Total expense per quart ........ $0 03% •

Mr. Thayer admits that these figures show a high
cost of production, but feels confident that any reduc-
tion means diminished profits, therefore is not to be
permitted. This method of treatment gave over 2,000
bushels from ten acres of the Ancient Briton variety in
one year. This is, of course, a remarkable yield, but
the average on those farms is unquestionably far above
that of most growers. Mr. Thayer concludes that
under their conditions at that time, a yield of 200
bushels per acre gave a net profit of nearly $250 per
acre, while 100 bushels per acre would give about

PROBABLE PROFITS 131

$80 profit, and fifty bushels per acre little or no profit
at all.

Instances are common of admirable yields during a
single season. One grower in a small town in central
New York sold $500 worth of fruit from half an acre
in a recent year. It should be firmly fixed in mind that
all such results are exceptional, and no one should use
them as a basis for average profits.

I think it may safely be said, however, that with a
good market, good management, intelligence and skill,
both in growing and marketing the fruit, a profit of
$100 per acre can be expected with a fair degree of
certainty.

CHAPTER V

THE DEWBERRIES

The dewberry as a cultivated fruit has been such
a recent introduction to American horticulture that
as yet it can scarcely be said to have a history.

At the summer meeting of the Fruit -Growers7
Society of Western New York, held June 24, 1863,
James Vick described the dewberries grown by Dr.
Miner, of Honeoye Falls, N. Y., and his method of
training them. This was the same as the present
method of tying the fruiting canes to stakes about
five feet high, and allowing the new growth to run
at will, most of which will root at the tips. He was
growing two varieties, one of which was some ten
days earlier than the other. Mention is made of the
fact that the berries of the earlier variety were some-
times imperfect, "a common fault with the dewberry."
The other variety appeared to bear uniformly perfect
berries.* From a later mention of these varietiest it
seems that they were sent out by Dr. Miner to some
extent, but there is no. evidence that they ever received
varietal names, and therefore they were probably
soon lost to cultivation.

It appears that the Bartel was the first named va-

*Hovey's Mag. of Hort. 1863, p. 319.
tlbid, 1868, p. 286.

(132)

DEWBERRY HISTORY 133

riety introduced. The originator's account of this,
together with directions for its management, were
given in Purdy's Fruit Recorder for 1875, p. 182.
It does not appear to have become very generally
known at that time, for in 1879 the editor of "The
Gardener's Monthly" writes,* "Of true dewberries, no
improved kinds are known under culture." In a pre-
vious number of the same volume, however, N. H.
Lindsay, of Bridgeport, Conn., is reported as having
cultivated two kinds of wild dewberries in a small
way for home use, taking plants from the woods.
It seems that even he did not know how to propa-
gate them, although a nurseryman and presumably an
experienced propagator.

Even as late as 1884 the editor of "The Country Gen-
tleman" says (page 329) : "We are not aware that the
dewberry (or running brier) is cultivated for sale by
any nurseryman. * * * The wild dewberry is often
found along neglected fence -rows or in rocky or sterile
fields, from which, if desired, it may be transplanted
to gardens, and treated like garden raspberries." These
statements serve to show how recent is the cultivation
of the dewberry in anything like a commercial extent.
It was not until the introduction of the Lucre tia, which
was brought into general notice about 1886, that the
dewberry began to occupy any prominent place in
American horticulture.

So much for the history of the dewberry. But what
of its future? Is there a place for it among our garden

*Gardener's Monthly, Vol. 21, p. 150. See Bailey, Bui. 34, Cornell Exp. Sta.
for a sketch of dewberry history.

134 BUSH-FRUITS

fruits; and if so, will it prove equal to the occasion and
able to fill it properly ? Coming, as it does, so early in
the season, before the first blackberries are ripe, the
first question may be fairly answered in the affirmative.
It is to be feared, however, that as we find it, the dew-
berry is unqualified to fill properly the place which its
co -laborers in the garden are ready to accede to it, and
unless it can be induced to correct some of its bad
habits and overcome its failings, the place is even yet
likely to be taken by some young, vigorous and early -
ripening blackberry. One serious though excusable
fault of the dewberry is its rough exterior and uncul-
tured behavior. It will wound a friend upon the
slightest provocation, with no thought of an apology.
Yet, bad as its thorns are, this is not its most serious
failing. Like many other young people, it is not given
to steady, industrious habits. It makes large and
glowing promises, but too often fails to fulfil them. It
must be said in palliation of its shortcomings, however,
that the dewberry has not had fair treatment. The
energetic, industrious and aspiring ones have been
compelled to associate with the idle and thriftless.
While lack of fertilization and consequent production
of imperfect fruit can hardly be denied as a family
trait, it is no doubt true that the more productive mem-
bers have suffered unjustly, owing to the behavior of
the rogues of the household. There is no disputing the
fact that stock of the Lucretia dewberry, as sold about
the country, has been badly mixed. As received and
grown at the Cornell gardens, it comprises two distinct
sorts, one with small blossoms, more delicate growth,

IMPROVEMENT NEEDED 135

and small, imperfect and worthless fruit; the other
with large blossoms, vigorous growth, large, plump and
glossy fruit. The cuts (Figs. 26 and 27) well illustrate
the difference between these two types, which is in itself
a ready explanation of many of the conflicting opinions
regarding the Lucre tia.

By taking the best of what we already have as a
basis for future improvement, there seems to be no
reason why the dewberry may not be brought to such
a state of perfection as shall render its place as-
sured. In the Wilson's Early and Wilson Junior
blackberries we have a type intermediate between the
dewberry and the blackberry. This form may sug-
gest lines of breeding which in time shall produce off-
spring far superior to anything which we now have,
either in the blackberry or the dewberry. We need
more careful and skillful breeders, who shall breed
plants as understandingly as animals are bred, and
who shall give us in the results of their toil the fruit
treasures which ought ere this to have been ours.

SOIL FOR DEWBERRIES

The dewberry is very largely found on poor or
sandy soils the country over. This in itself is a
decided indication that comparatively light, sandy
soils will prove best adapted to its cultivation, and
the general experience of growers throughout the
country seems to substantiate the supposition. It is
true that instances are reported of success from nearly
all kinds of soils, but the best results nearly always

Fig. 26. Lucretia from a good plant. The separate fruit is full size.

SOIL AND LOCATION

137

Fig. 27. Lucretia from a poor plant. One-half natural size.

come from planting on comparatively light, sandy
ground.

LOCATION

The location will probably prove to be fully as im-
portant as with any other fruit, when the culture of

138 BUSH-FRUITS

dewberries comes to be better understood. In parts
of the West, the Windom has been found to give
better results in shady locations, the finest berries
being found even in dense shade. Because of its
habit of growing on dry, sandy ground, location to
avoid drought may not be so important as with the
blackberry, but any location, like a cool northern ex-
posure, which will tend to mitigate the hot, scorching
sun, will undoubtedly prove beneficial.

FERTILIZERS

Thus far the necessity for fertilizers has hardly
been made apparent, and it is doubtful whether at
the time of planting they are ever advisable. Still, if
plants are as productive as they should be, a judicious
application of fertilizers, after they have borne two or
three crops of fruit, can hardly fail to be of advan-
tage. This will be especially true, of course, if they
are growing on light, poor soil. Probably the same
materials will be found satisfactory for them as for
other members of the genus. The kind used, and the
proportion of the different fertilizing elements needed,
as in all cases, can best be determined by individual
experiment. Suffice it to say that a large amount of
nitrogen is not likely to be required.

PROPAGATION

As before stated, the dewberry propagates naturally
from tips, like the black raspberry. If it is desirable
to propagate them to any extent, attention must be

PROPAGATION AND PLANTING 139

given to burying these tips in the ground at the
proper time, which is when they have about completed
their growth. I am not aware that it is ever recom-
mended to cover the whole cane, to induce it to throw
out roots along the entire length, but this could un-
doubtedly be done, and the cane cut into pieces to
form plants, if desirable to propagate as speedily as
possible. The prostrate habit of the plant would
favor such a method, but it is hardly to be recom-
mended in ordinary cases.

Dewberries can also be propagated by root cuttings,
the same as blackberries. The method for doing this
is explained in the chapter on blackberries. Since it
is a general rule, however, that those plants which
naturally propagate by suckers also propagate most
easily by root -cuttings, a little more care may be de-
manded, and a larger percentage of failure may be
expected than with blackberries.

PLANTING

The same general rules given for the planting of
the blackberry will also apply to the dewberry, except
that the furrow to receive the plants need not be quite
so deep. The question of the distance apart at which
they are to be placed will be largely determined by
the method of training to be employed. If to be
trained to single stakes, four feet apart each way will
be found satisfactory; if to wire trellises, six feet by
perhaps three feet in the row will be more convenient.
If to be trained on low, flat, slat or wire trellises, even

140 BUSH-FRUITS

a greater distance between the rows will be needed.
One of the objections to this method is that more
space is demanded for training the plants than is
needed for their maintenance.

The great tendency of the dewberries to fail to set
fruit altogether, or to produce small and imperfect fruit,
is a point which should always be taken into consider-
ation when planting. There is reason to believe that
this is often due to a lack of proper fertilization.
Whether this lack of fertilization comes from insuf-
ficient pollination, or from lack of potency of the
pollen which reaches the stigma, is uncertain. What-
ever the cause, the lack is apparent, and the most
feasible way of overcoming it is by planting different
kinds together in close proximity. It has been con-
clusively shown that the pollen of many varieties of
our larger fruit, notably pears and apples, has not
the powder to properly fertilize the pistils of the same
variety. The same may be true of the dewberries.
At any rate, better results seem to have come from
planting more than one kind together. Even black-
berries planted alongside have seemed to produce a
favorable effect in some cases. One instance is re-
ported* where dewberries blossomed full for several
years, but produced only a few imperfect berries.
Later a block of blackberries was planted beside
them, and when these came into bearing, the dew-
berries began fruiting, and continued to do so regu-
larly. This is an indication, though not proof, that
blackberry pollen may fertilize dewberries.

"Trans. 111. Hort. Soc., 1886: 382.

TILLAGE AND TRAINING 14 J

TILLAGE

Nothing special need be said concerning the tillage
of the dewberry. Some growers even advise letting
them grow entirely without cultivation or care. This
method can hardly recommend itself for any systematic
culture for profit, unless it be on some rough, unculti-
vable and otherwise unutilized piece of ground. As
the season advances, the young canes spread out over
the ground and tend to interfere with cultivation. It
is only necessary to direct them along the row, like
strawberry runners, however, and continue the cultiva-
tion but one way, if the plants are so set as to admit
of cultivation both ways earlier.

PRUNING AND TRAINING

Very little pruning is required. Simply to shorten
the canes when they are tied up in spring, if too long,
is all that is necessary, unless there is a tendency to
produce too many canes, when all but four or five
should be removed. With any careful system of culti-
vation some method of training is essential. Various
plans have been recommended from time to time, only
part of which it will be necessary to mention here.

One plan consists of a low, flat trellis, of greater or
less width, eight or ten inches from the ground, on
which the plants are allowed to run. This may be a
narrow one of wire, made by driving stakes into the
ground, ten or twelve feet apart, and nailing strips of
boards a foot or more long, across the top. On these

142 BUSH-FRUITS

cross -strips wires are drawn tightly, one at each end
and usually two between. Another way of reaching
the same end is to fasten pieces of boards to stakes,
running the boards lengthwise of the row, one on
either side, and nailing slats across between them.
Such a low, flat trellis raises the fruit off the ground
and keeps it clean, but picking is inconvenient and
cultivation is more difficult.

A second plan consists in training to an upright
wire trellis, after the manner of grapes. The young
canes are allowed to run on the ground, and are tied up
to the wires the following spring. This is a very satis-
factory method, although it admits of cultivation only
one way.

A most simple and satisfactory plan is the one
which was recommended by A. J. Cay wood as early
as 1888.* Let his own words explain it:

"I plant them as I do red raspberries, four feet apart
each way, cultivating both ways until the fore part of
June, when the renewals get too long to do so. We
then direct the renewals of each row along the bottoms
of the hills, and cultivate the other way as long as
required, and one man has done the directing of our
patch in a day. The old canes are taken from the
stakes any time after the fruit is off, before tying up in
the spring. The renewals are left on the ground all
winter, which is sufficient protection here, but if it is
necessary to protect them in colder regions, their pros-
trate position facilitates the work.

"In the spring, one draws the entire hill from under

*Popular Gardening, vol. iv., p. 33.

GATHERING THE FRUIT 143

the other hills in the row, and holds them to a stake,
while a boy ties them tightly. This can be done as
rapidly as tying red raspberries. I think my patch was
the first managed on this plan. We have tried the
windrow system, but like staking the plants better."

If the old canes are cut away as soon as through
fruiting, the young ones can then be tied to the stake
until winter, and cultivation go on unimpeded. This
may favor a better development and maturity of the
canes than when they are allowed to run on the ground.

HARVESTING AND MARKETING

Whatever applies to the harvesting and marketing
of blackberries will apply equally well to dewberries,
except that, coming in earlier, they have the market
more nearly to themselves. The vines are viciously
thorny, and the fruit apt to be so concealed within
them as to render the picking difficult and painful.
Training the plants to a stake or trellis will in part
obviate this difficulty.

The fruit carries well, and can be put into market in
good condition. Like many of the blackberries, though
perhaps in a more marked degree, it has the habit of
turning black before it is ripe. If picked then it is
sour and undesirable, so that for home market it should
be allowed to get thoroughly ripe before being gathered.

DURATION OF PLANTATIONS

Dewberries persist well in the soil, — in fact, too
well, for after they have served their purpose, and it

144 BUSH-FRUITS

is desirable to get rid of them, they still persist with
a tenacity worthy of a better purpose. They seem
often to be unproductive for the first two or three
years, afterward coming into more uniform and pro-
lific bearing, and continuing in many cases for a
number of years.

KILLING OUT THE PATCH

When it becomes necessary to rid a plot of ground
of them, vigorous measures must be adopted. \\Thile
they do not propagate naturally by suckers, yet when
the roots are torn and broken, pieces which are left in
the ground have a remarkable ability for bursting forth
into plants. The method advised for destroying the
blackberry is the best that can be recommended for
killing off dewberries ; namely, mowing and plowing
directly after fruiting, frequent cultivation afterwards,
and replowing before winter.

HARDINESS

The inherent hardiness of the dewberry may not
be equal to that of many varieties of the blackberry,
yet its habit of growth tends to afford it protection
which enables it to withstand the cold of winter, in
most cases, as well as the blackberries. If not en-
tirely hardy in some localities, the ease with which it
can be protected in winter is certainly a point in its
favor. The older canes will naturally be cut away
before winter, and in any event the protection of
them is of no benefit. The young canes, which lie

POSSIBLE RETURNS 145

directly on the ground, and which have been trained
along the row in cultivating, are in the most con-
venient position possible for being covered with soil
or mulch. In parts of the country where all kinds
must be protected to give profitable results, this is
really a point in favor of the dewberry which is well
worth considering.

YIELD OF DEWBERRIES

The yield to be expected is one of the moot points
in dewberry culture. There is the greatest possible
diversity in reports, some growers finding it highly
satisfactory in this respect, while others are disgusted
with it. Of thirty -eight growers who have grown
dewberries, and who replied to the question, "Have you
grown dewberries, and, if so, with what success?"
twenty -three report good or fair success and fifteen
poor success. Much of this diversity of opinion, and
much of the failure to secure good results is, without
doubt, due to the mixed and inferior character of many
of the plants which have been sold. Even where they
succeed, however, they have not been grown very ex-
tensively, as a rule, and any reliable estimate of an
average yield can hardly be formed.

PROBABLE PROFITS

With the question of yield so much in doubt, the
question of profit must also be unsettled. It may be
said, however, that those who succeed in obtaining a
good yield nearly always find them profitable, owing to
their season of ripening and consequent high price.

CHAPTER VI

MISCELLANEOUS BRAMBLES

While raspberries, blackberries and dewberries of
the types which we have described in the foregoing
chapters are the only brambles of much commercial
importance in this country, there are nevertheless a
few outlying types to which we may profitably give
attention.

THE ORIENTAL RASPBERRIES

At least four species of oriental or Japanese rasp-
berries have found their way into the United States,
the best known probably being the one reintroduced a
few years ago under the name of Japanese Wineberry.
Unfortunately they have not proved so valuable as
many other Japanese fruits, and have comparatively
little to recommend them, so that they are never likely
to become very popular nor to be grown to any great
extent, though two of them have some value as orna-
mental plants.

The Mayberry (Japan Golden Mayberry). — This
was raised by Luther Burbank, of California, and is
said to have been produced from seeds of Rubus micro-
phyllus, a Japanese species, crossed with the Cuthbert
raspberry. It is claimed to produce a bush six to
eight feet high, bearing numerous large white blos-

(146)

THE STRAWBERRY-RASPBERRY 147

soms, which are followed by "large, sweet, glossy,
golden, semi-transparent berries," which ripen in ad-
vance of strawberries. It appears to have developed
little value as yet. Thus far we have not succeeded
in making it live in Nebraska.

The Strawberry - Raspberry . — This peculiar fruit be-
longs to a species found wild in Japan, China and the
East Indies, and known to botanists as Rubus roscefo-
lius. It has been commonly referred to in horticultural
literature under the name R. sorMfolius, but this ap-
pears to be only a synonym of the older name rosa3fo-
lius. The double form of this same species has been
long known as a greenhouse plant, cultivated for its
flowers, though apparently but little grown. As re-
cently introduced from Japan under the name straw-
berry-raspberry, it is of interest chiefly as a curiosity,
and may be worth growing for that purpose or as an
ornamental plant. It is herbaceous in our climate,
dying down to the ground each winter and springing up
from the roots in spring. It throws up innumerable
suckers, making a perfect mat of bright colored foliage.
The leaves have a central stalk with five to seven oppo-
site narrow leaflets, and are really very pretty. The
mat of plants is so dense that it will keep down nearly
all weeds, and the plants continue to bloom and fruit
throughout the greater portion of the season. The
blossoms are white, pretty and sweet-scented, and the
berries bright and showy, a clump of the plants making
an attractive bed. It is unproductive, and the fruit
in its fresh state is rather unpalatable, varying from
sour and insipid to somewhat bitter. When cooked,

148 BUSH-FRUITS

however, it is said to develop a pleasant flavor midway
between the strawberry and the raspberry, and to give
a brilliant, rich garnet color to the syrup. The illustra-
tion (Fig. 28), life size, is adaped from "The Rural
New-Yorker," 1897, page 257.

The Wineberry (Japanese Wineberry). — This is a
raspberry which is found wild in the mountains of
central and northern Japan. Its botanical name, now
well known, is Rubus phcenicolasius . It forms a bush
three to seven feet high, with somewhat spreading and
rambling canes, which are thickly covered with bright
red hairs and weak prickles, standing out at right
angles to the stem. The leaves are light green and
whitish below. The flowers are very small, white, with
large, hairy, viscous sepals, which close over the fruit
again after blooming and keep it entirely covered until
about ripening time, when they again open. " The
berry is then white, but turns bright red within two
or three days, becoming sweet and agreeable ; said to
be somewhat intermediate in flavor between the red
and the black raspberry. Seeds were sent from Japan
to J. T. Lovett, in- the summer of 1887, by Prof. C.
C. Georgeson, now of Kansas. In 1889 the stock
raised from this seed was sold to John Lewis Childs,
who introduced it under the name of Japanese Wine-
berry.* The berry is of good size, firm and hand-
some, and owing to its peculiar covering is exempt
from insect attacks. It has not proved to be of
any real commercial value in the United States,
being generally tender and unproductive. It is a

*Amer. Gar. 1891, 204.

Fig. 28, The strawberry-raspberry.

150 BUSH-FRUITS

peculiar and attractive plant, and well worth grow-
ing as an ornamental. It had been known in this
country and sold under its true botanical name by
Ellwanger & Barry, and perhaps by other nursery-
men, long before its dissemination by Mr. Childs.
It was described in "The Gardener's Monthly" for
January, 1880, and received soon after by the edi-
tor, Thomas Meehan, under the name Rubus Hoff-
meisteriana.

The Chinese Raspberry (Rubus cratcegifolius) . —
This raspberry possesses very little value as a fruit-
producing plant, but makes a handsome ornamental
shrub, and is well worth growing for that purpose.
Its flowers are inconspicuous, but its foliage and habit
are attractive, and its autumn coloring is often su-
perb. It is more fully described among the orna-
mental species (page 152) and in the botanical section
(Chap. XL).

ORNAMENTAL SPECIES

We are accustomed to think of the members of this
family only as fruit -producing plants, yet many of
them possess considerable attractiveness as ornamentals,
and are well worthy a place in any grounds. Some of
them are beautiful in themselves, especially if grown in
free and natural clumps, but more especially are they
valuable for grouping with other trees and shrubs.
Many of the most desirable species are natives of
America, and possibly because of this are better appre-
ciated in Europe than here. It is a well-known fact
that we are wont to pass by beautiful things growing

ORNAMENTAL RASPBERRIES 151

at our doors for something less desirable which comes
from a tropical or foreign country.

The ornamental qualities of most of these species
have been mentioned in connection with the description
of each under the botanical section (Chap. XI.), so
that, in most cases, a brief mention of them is all
that need be made here.

Rubus odomtus, the Purple -flowering Raspberry,
or Thimbleberry, is so common throughout the greater
portion of the eastern part of the United States that
we scarcely think of it as being ornamental. Yet it is
a very pretty and attractive shrub. It is beautiful both
in flower and fruit, and doubly desirable because it
continues its blossoming and fruiting period over so
long a time. The foliage alone is attractive, regardless
of the blossoms. This species is frequently mentioned
among ornamentals in European journals.

Rubus parviflorus, the Rocky Mountain Thimble-
berry, erroneously called Salmon -berry, is closely re-
lated. It is better known as R. Nutkanus, but since
the former name has been found to be the older it
must now take the preference. This species and its
varieties are found in the region of the great lakes
and westward to the Pacific coast. Its fruit seems to
have been rather more important in the wild state than
that of R. odoratus, but, in general the species is much
the same, except that the flowers are white. Few
attempts seem to have been made to cultivate it.
If it could be made to succeed well, it would un-
doubtedly be a most desirable plant to group with the
eastern species.

152 B USH-FR UITS

By far the most desirable and attractive member of
this section of the genus is undoubtedly Rubus deli-
ciosus, of the Rocky Mountains. This, like the two
species already mentioned, has simple leaves, three to
five-lobed, serrate, but more rounded than in those
species. The flowers are large, pure white and attrac-
tive. So far as reported, it has generally proved suc-
cessful, though it does not flourish under the hot sun
and drying winds in Nebraska. It is unquestionably
well worthy of more general cultivation than it has yet
received. It is somewhat difficult to propagate, which
will naturally render it more expensive and harder to
get than it otherwise would be. There are nurserymen
in the West, however, who make a specialty of collect-
ing these mountain plants, growing them until accus-
tomed to cultivation before offering them for sale, or
even propagating them wholly in the nursery. Plants
from such sources can readily be obtained, and will
generally prove satisfactory.

Rubus cratcegifolius is an oriental species of some
ornamental value which has been grown somewhat in
this country. Its chief merit lies in its foliage. The
flowers are small and inconspicuous, and the fruit small,
though bright red when ripe. The foliage is dense and
bright green, coloring well in autumn, and the bush
is pleasing in its habit of growth, so that it possesses
considerable value as an ornamental plant, although
there is nothing striking about it. It is generally hardy,
and will mass well with other plants and shrubs. In
Nebraska it has proved disappointing in regard to
hardiness, being injured by the winters thus far, even

ORNAMENTAL SPECIES 153

when protected. The rich autumn color developed by
the foliage on the young shoots thrown up from the
root in spring has offset the loss of the older canes,
however.

Rubus arcticus, though a very pretty little spe-
cies, can hardly be expected to succeed in cultivation,
for it is a native of the far north, and only, extends
southward upon the high mountain ranges. It is the
most delicate and one of the prettiest members of the
family, and would be very desirable if it could only
be made to succeed.

Rubus phwnicolasius , the "Japanese Wineberry,"
has been brought more prominently before the public
than most other ornamental species (page 148). Its
chief attraction lies in the peculiar reddish hairy char-
acter of the plant. Except in favorable localities, this
is all there is to recommend it, for the canes are killed
to the ground every winter, and there are consequently
no flowers or fruit. The oddity of the fruit is one of
its attractive features, whenever any is produced. It is
not at all adapted to planting in clumps and masses,
like most of the species previously mentioned.

Rubus spectabilis, the Salmon -berry, is a showy
member of the family, found native from California
northward along the Pacific coast. It is a vigorous-
growing shrub, with leaves made up of three sharp-
pointed, sharply toothed leaflets, or occasionally deeply
three-lobed only. The flowers are red or purple, large
and showy, and the fruit large and good, though prob-
ably not abundant enough to render it worthy of cul-
tivation on that account. It seems to succeed well

154 BUSH-FRUITS

in England, and there seems to be no reason why it
should not do equally well in many parts of our own
country. It propagates rapidly from suckers, so that
means are sometimes needed to keep it in check. It
ought at least to be given a thorough trial, for it is
really a very attractive plant.

Eubus laciniatus, the Cut -leaved Blackberry, has
been brought to notice from time to time as a desir-
able ornamental, and heralded as a wonderful fruit-
bearing plant. Its names have been numerous, in-
cluding Parsley -leaved, Oregon Evergreen, Oregon
Climbing and Sandwich Island. Sometimes it has been
styled a dewberry, and sometimes a blackberry. It
is interesting from the peculiar subdivision of its
leaves, and an occasional plant will prove useful in
certain places, but aside from this feature it possesses
no ornamental qualities worthy of special note. In
this case the order of things is reversed, for this is a
European species, and Americans have given it more
attention than is given to it across the water. In
some sections there, however, it seems to be prized
for its fruit production. As a general rule, at least,
it produces little or nothing in this country, though
it is reported productive in the North Pacific states.
The plant is so desperately thorny that it would be
well-nigh hazardous to attempt to pick its fruit, if
there were any.

The form commonly offered for sale may be de-
scribed as follows: Stems nearly round, more or less
trailing, fertile ones erect, prickles small at the base,
but recurved and strong above, very numerous; leaves

ORNAMENTAL SPECIES 155

much dissected and sharply serrate ; fruit roundish,
black, grains large, sweet, with a peculiar musky
flavor, borne in loose panicles.

The Double White and Double Pink Brambles are
referred to at some length in the botanical section.
(Chap. XI.) These are "also European species, but
they have been long known in this country. The
flowers are said to resemble miniature roses more than
they do those of the other members of the family.
They are reported to be admirably adapted to being
grown as single specimens, and it is only when thus
planted, giving them a chance for full and symmet-
rical development, that their beauty is to be fully
appreciated. These pretty forms have never become
so popular and common as they deserve to be, and
apparently they ought to be better known.

There are several other species, not so well known
as the above, which may in time prove themselves
worthy of being planted for ornamental purposes. One
of these is Rubus trifidus, or Fire Raspberry, the name
applying to the bright red color of the foliage in
autumn. This has been tried at the Arnold arboretum
and recommended for wider planting.

Another very interesting species, which might per-
haps be made to succeed here, is Rubus Henry i, from
China. It belongs to the simple -leaved section of the
genus, and is described as "a tall, climbing shrub, with
deeply three -lobed, thick leaves, glabrous above and
clothed with a white tomentum below ; flowers small,
red, in terminal racemes." It may be that this would
prove more interesting to botanists, owing to its dis-

156 B USH-FR UITS

tinct character, than it would to plant -lovers in general
from any strictly ornamental qualities.

From the above list it will be seen that the genus,
though not considered an ornamental one, is far from
being destitute of ornamental qualities. In addition to
these more strictly so-called ornamental features, the
fruit -producing members of the family possess charms
to the true lover of fruits which are by no means to
be despised. A well grown row of red raspberries, with
the scarlet fruit peeping out from among the green
foliage, or a row of blackberry bushes covered with
clusters of shining black berries, is a sight so attractive
that it will be appreciated by many a person on whom
the charms of a strictly ornamental plant would fall
unheeded, and is not beneath the attention of the
most fastidious.

CHAPTER VII

VARIETIES OF RASPBERRIES

Varieties of most of the bush -fruits have long since
become so numerous that to attempt to describe them in
such a manner as would enable the grower to there-
by determine them is utterly impracticable, even if it
were possible for any one person to have access to
all the varieties. The reader may well ask, therefore,
Why attempt to describe them at all? There are
several reasons why a complete list of all varieties
which are or have been grown in this country, in so
far as it can be obtained, with brief descriptive notes
concerning them, is needed and likely to be of use.
Perhaps the most important of these is the need of
some means to prevent duplication of names and con-
sequent confusion, which must inevitably happen when
varieties become so numerous as they are now and
will continue to be.

Then, too, it is of interest and profit to know
something of the history of varieties, how they have
originated, and the sources from which they have
sprung, in order that we may thereby trace the evolu-
tion of our fruit-growing and the progress which has
been made. Furthermore, a brief description, with a
note concerning its origin and parentage, when these
are known, may at times enable the grower to decide

(157)

OF THE

UNIVERSITY

158 BUSH-FRUITS

whether a certain variety which may give excellent
results in some other region of the country, is likely
to do the same under his conditions. While the
succeeding lists are as full as it has been possible
to make them by a careful search through the litera-
ture available, there are doubtless many omissions.
Any additions or corrections which others can make
will be gladly welcomed by the author.

The varieties in this historical record are arranged
alphabetically under five heads:
I. Black raspberries.
II. Pur pie -cane raspberries.

III. American -type red raspberries.

IV. European -type red raspberries,
V. Unclassified varieties.

I. BLACK EASPBEERIES

Rubus occidentalis

Although the youngest group of raspberries in cul-
tivation, this has come to be the most important one.
Immense strides have been made since Nicholas Long-
worth first transferred the Ohio Everbearing to his door-
yard in 1832. The species adapts itself so readily to
cultivation, and is so uniformly hardy and productive,
ripening its fruit in a comparatively short space of
time, and withal is so good to eat, that the wonder is
not so much that .it has gained in popularity so rapidly,
but that it did not come into cultivation sooner. Its
adaptability to being grown as a farm crop for evap-

BOTANY OF THE BLACK-CAPS 159

orating purposes has also given a great stimulus to its
cultivation in recent years. The future of the black
raspberry is assuredly a promising one.

Very little need be said concerning the botanical
characters of the black -cap, since the species to which
it belongs, Rubus occidentalis , is so distinct from the
other cultivated species of raspberries. The color of
the fruit and method of propagation are alone sufficient
to distinguish it from all the others. There is a western
wild type, however, very closely related to this one,
which has long stood as a species, though apparently
more properly ranked as only a variety of Rubus oc-
cidentalis. This is the form known as Rubus leuco-
dermis, found in the mountains of California and
adjoining states. It is distinguished from Rubus occi-
dentalis chiefly by the color of the fruit, which is yel-
lowish red or wine -colored, by the coarser toothed
leaflets and the stouter and more hooked prickles.

The Ohio Everbearing appears to have been the first
named variety of black -cap introduced into cultivation.
It was found in the state of Ohio, and introduced to
public notice by Nicholas Longworth, of Cincinnati,
who began its culture in 1832. Next came the Amer-
ican Black, also named Joslyn's Black -cap, Joslyn's
Improved, Joslyn's Improved Black -cap, American
Improved, etc., which finally came to be known the
country over as Doolittle. This was found growing
wild by Leander Joslyn, of Phelps, Ontario county,
N. Y., and introduced by H. H. Doolittle, of Oaks
Corners, about 1850. It is said to have owed its
especial prominence and value to the method by

160 BUSH-FRUITS

which it was propagated, only the tips from one-
year-old plants being used. This variety did much to
spread the cultivation of the species throughout the
country, and the impetus then gained has steadily in-
creased, until the fruit has become one of the most
important. Until its immense increase led to a still
more rapid increase and consequent destructiveness on
the part of injurious insects and fungi,, it was one of
the easiest grown and most uniformly successful fruits
in cultivation. The development of the evaporating
industry has done much to add to its importance,
and increase the extent of its cultivation.

Recently the industry has been seriously threatened
by the spread of fungous diseases, notably the anthrac-
nose. Further experience, however, seems to promise
a feasible plan for keeping it in check, so that the in-
dustry need not be crippled..

As this is the youngest member of the raspberry
family, there is good reason to hope for much improve-
ment in it. There is a very marked improvement in
the best varieties of the present day over the wild plants
of the woods, or those first introduced. This improve-
ment seems to be going on rapidly, and there is no rea-
son why it should not continue. We want not only
better size and better quality than we now have, but we
want equally reliable varieties which will come in both
early and late.

VARIETIES OF BLACK RASPBERRIES

Ada.— A chance seedling which originated with Henry Young,
of Ada, Ohio, about 1882 or 1883. Thought by him to be a cross
between Doolittle and Mammoth Cluster. Reported as vigorous,

BLACK-CAP VARIETIES 161

very hardy, productive, and comparatively free from thorns.
Fruit large, jet black, and of good quality. Said to bloom later
than other varieties, thus being more liable to escape frosts.
Season as late as or later than Gregg.

Ak-Sar-Ben. — A seedling accidentally discovered by Ex-Gov.
Robert W. Furnas, of Brownville, Nebraska. From the original
plant three years old Gov. Furnas picked 113 clusters in 1897,
averaging thirteen berries to a cluster. Hardy. Fruit large, of
good color and fair quality. Not yet introduced.

Alden.—A name proposed for the Ohio, to better distinguish it
from the Ohio Everbearing, but never adopted. — Mich. Exp. Sta.,
Bull. Ill: 256.

American Black (Common Black-cap, Black Raspberry, Thimble-
berry, Rubus occidentalis] .— This is the common black raspberry of
the eastern United States. It was described by Downing as fol-
lows: "This raspberry, common in almost every field, with large
rambling purple shoots, and flattened, small, black berries, is
everywhere known. It is frequently cultivated in gardens, where,
if kept well pruned, its berry is much larger and finer. Its rich,
acid flavor renders it perhaps the finest sort for kitchen use, tarts,
puddings, etc. It ripens a little earlier than most of the European
sorts."

American Everbearing. — An everbearing black -cap sent out in
1890, by the Cleveland Nursery Company, of Rio Vista, Va. It was
named and brought to notice by Mr. Hatfield, of Indiana. Said to
be fairly vigorous and hardy, but inferior to some others in pro-
ductiveness, quality and firmness.

American White (Yellow Cap, Golden Cap, White Thimble-
berry). — Similar in all respects to the black-cap, but with yellow-
ish fruit and canes. It is found wild from time to time, and has
often appeared in cultivation, though never very popular.

Arctic. — A variety growing at the New York State Experiment
Station. Described as vigorous, early, not very large, moderately
firm, juicy, and sweet.

August Black. — Produced by Thomas Rivers, England. Down-
ing speaks of the fruit as dark red, which would indicate that it
might be a Purple-cane variety, but Mr. Rivers himself, in the
Gardener's Chronicle for 1897, p. 516, calls it black. Apparently
never cultivated to any extent.

Autumn Black. Another variety produced by Mr. Rivers, and
said by him to propagate only from seed, he evidently not under-
standing the tip -rooting habit of the species.

Babbit. — Originated about 1883 as a chance seedling, near Col-
lege Springs, Iowa. Sent to the United States Department of

162 BUSH-FRUITS

Agriculture, in 1892, by W. E. Laughlin. Said to be very hardy,
vigorous, and productive. Fruit medium size, roundish oblate,
drupes small and rather numerous ; dull black, without bloom,
moderately firm, juicy, and good. — Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 259.

Babcock Nos. 3, 5 and 9. — Mentioned as on trial at the Geneva
(N. Y.) Experiment Station.— Bull. 91: 201.

Barnes.— Mentioned as having nothing peculiar to recommend
it.— 111. Hort. Soc. Kept., 1880: 78.

Beckner. — A chance seedling, which originated in Tippecanoe
county, Indiana, about 1855.

Beebe (Beebe's Golden, Beebe's Golden Prolific).— Originated
in New York about 1886, with James Beebe, of Cassadaga. Said
to be productive, but not different from the common yellow -cap.

Belle.— Sent to The Eural New-Yorker by L. C. Carlow, of
Batavia, 111. Reported to be hardy, vigorous, and productive ;
very early. As large as Gregg, but lacking in flavor. — Mich. Exp.
Sta. Bull. Ill: 260.

Belmont. — Originated by John Scobs, of Barnesville, Ohio, and
introduced in 1879.

Bluffton.—A. seedling raised at Bluffton, Mo. — Mo. Hort. Soc.
Kept., 1886: 48.

Bonanza. — Originated on the grounds of W. C. Freeman, North
Springfield, Mo., about 1888. Said to be large, with a long season.
—Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 260.

Bronze Queen. — A variety cultivated and named by Mr. Holman,
of Missouri. Said to be a strong grower, hardy, productive. Fruit
sweet, of good quality, of a peculiar bronze color. — Mo. Hort. Soc.
Kept., 1886: 182.

Burns.— A. seedling produced by A. M. Burns of Manhattan,
Kans. Fairly productive; medium size, and of good flavor.
Claimed to have great ability to withstand drought and heat.

Canada.— Mentioned by William Parry, in 1869, as no longer
popular.* A variety sold under this name by Prince & Mills, of
Flushing, Long Island, in 1822, and also known as Purple Rose-
flowering, indicates that it may have been Eubus odorcctus.

Carman. — Originated by A. H. Sherwood, Southport, Conn., and
named in honor of E. S. Carman, Editor of The Rural New-
Yorker. Introduced by G. H. & J. H. Hale. An early variety,
ripening about with Tyler, rather more dwarf in habit, but rea-
sonably productive. Fruit of good size, fine quality, and high
flavor. A good extra early variety.

*Gar. Month. 11:237.

BLACK-GAP VARIETIES 163

Carpenter Seedling.— A. seedling originated by Charles Carpen-
ter, of Kelley's Island, Ohio. It closely resembles Beebe's Golden.
Vigorous. Fruit small to medium, ripening early.— Sixth Ann.
Bept. Geneva (N. Y.) Exp. Sta., p. 336.

Centennial. — Samuel Miller speaks of two varieties under this
name: one found by George Husman, near Hermann, Mo., about
1860, and one found by Mr. Grayhill, near Carthage. Both early,
productive, of good quality, and firm. — Mo. Hort. Soc. Bept.,
1884: 296.

Champion. — An early sort, found growing wild in Clark county,
Ohio. Sent out by Frank Murphy, of Donnelsville.— Mich. Exp.
Sta. Bull. Ill: 263.

Chapman. — A chance seedling found on the grounds of Mr.
Chapman, near Cincinnati, and carried to Boss county, Ohio, by
F. B. McLean, about 1864. Thought by Matthew Crawford, Prof.
W. J. Green and others, to be the same as Ohio.

Chesterfield. — Discovered in successful cultivation in 1884, on a
farm in Tidewater, Va. It originated from a wild plant found in
Chesterfield county, that state.— The Bural New-Yorker, 1884: 18.

Conrath. — Discovered in 1886 as a chance seedling near a
patch of Gregg, near Ann Arbor, Mich., by C. H. Woodruff, who
sold the stock to Conrath Bros., for whom it was named. Early,
vigorous, productive, large, moderately firm, coal black, ripening
early, with a long season. A promising new variety.

Corinth.— Mentioned in Bulletin 22 of the Mass. Hatch Ex-
periment Station, as fairly hardy and productiye, late, of medium
quality and size.

Cottier Everbearing. — A variety originating with M. T. Thomp-
son, of Bio Vista, Va. Becommended as especially valuable on
account of its autumn -fruiting qualities.

Crawford. — Mentioned as moderately productive and hardy at
the Mass. Hatch Experiment Station. — Bull. 21: 11.

Cream. — A yellow- cap mentioned by William Parry in 1870.
Mich. Exp. Bull. Ill: 265.

Cromwell (Butler).— Originated by G. S. Butler, of Cromwell,
Conn. Introduced by G. H. & J. H. Hale. Closely resembles
Tyler. A berry of fair size and good color, but rather acid.

Cumberland.— A new black -cap recommended from Pennsyl-
vania. Of very large size. Originated by David Miller, Camp
Hill, Penn.— The Bural New-Yorker, 1896: 624.

Daily Bearing. — Originated with Mr. Griggs, of Perry county,
Ohio, from seed of the Ohio Everbearing, and claimed to be an
improvement on that variety. Canes almost without thorns.

164 BUSH-FRUITS

Davis. — A yellow-cap, said to be a few days earlier than
Golden Queen. Found on the banks of the New River, North
Carolina, some years ago, by an old lady named Davis. It was
brought to notice by L. P. Hodges, of Sands, that state. — Mich.
Exp. Bull. Ill: 268.

Damson (Davison's Thornless). — Said to have originated in
the garden of Mrs. Mercy Davison, of Gowanda, N. Y. Sent out
by Joseph Clinton some time prior to 1866. Probably the earliest
variety grown. This, together with the sweetness of its fruit
and its freedom from thorns, gave it popularity for the home gar-
den. Not a vigorous grower, and deficient in productiveness.

Doollttle (Joslyn, Joslyn's Improved, Joslyn's Black-cap,
American Improved, etc. ).— This was the first variety which
really gave prominence to the black raspberry as a commercial
fruit. It was introduced by H. H. Doolittle, of Oaks Corners,
N. Y. Said to have been found wild by Leander Joslyn, of
Phelps, Ontario county, N. Y. Mr. Doolittle seems to have taken
great interest in selecting and improving this fruit. The start-
ing point may have been from this plant, found by Mr. Joslyn,
or it may have been from wild plants in general. What gave
the American black -cap especial value under this name was,
perhaps, not so much the variety itself, as the improved method
of propagation adopted by Mr. Doolittle, in which only the tips
from one-year-old plants were used. Whether his stock was de-
rived from one original plant, or from various selected sources,
it is certain that the Doolittle raspberry acquired a fixity of
type which made it long the standard cultivated black raspberry.
It is even yet not far behind many more popular varieties.

Doomore. — A seedling found between two rows of Doolittle,
by Gustus Swabley, of Tiffin, Ohio, in 1884. Described by him
as tall, erect, with deep blue canes. Fruit without bloom,
about the size of the Ohio, ripening somewhat earlier; very
productive.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 270.

Dorchester.— Mentioned in Bulletin 27 of the Guelph, Ontario,
Exp. Sta.

Duncan (Kentucky Prolific, Kentucky Mammoth, Kentucky). —
Said to have been a chance seedling found on the farm of Jack
Smith, in Jefferson county, Kentucky, by a man named Duncan.
Apparently a popular variety in Kentucky. Said to be as large as
Mammoth Cluster; better in color, firmer, and a better shipper,
succeeding on all soils. — Country Gentleman, 1876: 175.

Earhart.—A variety of Illinois origin, introduced by Hale
Brothers about 1886. Described as vigorous, hardy, and quite
productive. Glossy black, rather small, ripening very early.
Produces a small second crop in September.

BLACK-CAP VARIETIES 165

Early Cluster. — Mentioned in the Report of the Michigan
Pomological Society for 1875, p. 197, as a new and promising
seedling.

Early Prolific. — Mentioned by Dr. Stayman as "the best early
black -cap that we have seen. It is a very strong grower, nearly
thornless, very hardy, healthy, enormously productive, and of the
best quality. It is as large as Souhegan, and has proved three to
four days earlier."— Missouri Hort. Soc. Eept. 1883: 79.

Ebon Beauty. — Found by F. L. Piers in a piece of woodland in
Indiana, in 1887. Reported inferior to Gregg in every respect,
except hardiness, at the Indiana Experiment Station. — Mich. Exp.
Sta. Bull. Ill: 272.

Ebony (Farnsworth). — Originated as a chance seedling, about
1885, on the farm of W. W. Farnsworth, of Waterville, Ohio.
Said to be vigorous and productive. Medium to large, firm, seedy,
of good quality.

Elsie. — A seedling raised by Samuel Miller, of Bluffton, Mo.,
who described it as very large and excellent. Said to be nearly
identical with Surprise.

Emperor.— Mentioned in the Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill, p. 273.

Eureka.— Said to have been discovered wild on the farm of
Jacob Smith, in Miami county, Ohio, by J. C. Kester, of New
Carlisle. Brought to notice by W. N. Scarff, of the same place.
Said to be equal to Gregg in size. Nearly as early as Palmer.

Everlasting.— Described in The Rural New-Yorker for 1882,
p. 669, as an autumn -fruiting variety, from Lawrence Co., Pa.

Every Day .—Commonly thought to be identical with the Ohio
Everbearing, but considered by Dr. Warder to be a much more
continuous bearer, fruiting almost continuously until frost.

Fadely. —Received at the Pennsylvania Experiment Station
from Joshua Fadely, of Sassafras, Va. Claimed to be everbear-
ing. A single year's test showed no great tendency in that direc-
tion.—Pa. Exp. Sta. Bull. 32: 11.

Fay (Fay's Thornless). — A variety similar to Davison, bearing
few thorns. Fruit of good size, firm, black, with little bloom.

Ferndale.—A chance seedling found by W. B. K. Johnson,
Allentown, Pa., along the Delaware River. Described as vigorous,
with large but not numerous thorns. Productive. Fruit large,
black, with heavy bloom. Drupes large; berry rather close, but
firm, moderately juicy, of good quality and a good shipper, ripen-
ing a little earlier than Gregg.

Florence. — A yellow variety, originating in New Jersey. Intro-
duced about 1881. Said to be hardy and vigorous, with greenish

166 BUSH-FRUITS ±

or yellowish white canes and strong white spines. Of medium
size, orange yellow, moderately firm, juicy and sprightly.
Thought at the time to have been one of the best yellow varieties.

Gault.— Found by W. C. Gault, of Ruggles, Ashland county,
Ohio, growing by the roadside near his place, in 1887, and intro-
duced by him in 1893. Described as medium to large, dull black,
with a slight bloom, moderately juicy, and a good shipper. Sea-
son very late. Tends to produce a second crop in autumn.

General Negley. — Mentioned by Mr. Arnold, before the Ontario
Fruit Growers' Society, as a perpetual bearing black-cap.'55' Un-
der this name Crozier quotesf from Dr. J. A. Warder as follows:
"A seedling, probably from one of the large foreign varieties,
Pilot, Hornet or Franconia, originated by General Negley, of
Pittsburg. It is vigorous, of foreign aspect and foliage. Stood
the past winter well; is productive, rather early. Fruit large,
roundish oblong, juicy, high flavor, and very good."

Golden-cap. — A seedling of the American White -cap, originat-
ing in Cedar county, Iowa ; seems to have received some special
notice under this name.

Golden Thornless.— Introduced from Minnesota, by Purdy &
Johnston, of Palmyra, N. Y., previous to 1869. Described as
moderately vigorous and productive, with few spines. Fruit large,
dull orange color, rather darker than American White. Moderately
firm, juicy, sweet, pleasant. '

Gray.— Mentioned in the Report of the Worcester Horticultural
Society for 1881, p. 24.

Green. — Discovered on the grounds of Green's Nursery Com-
pany, of Eochester, N. Y., about 1890, and described by them as
large, productive and early. — Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 278.

Gregg (Great Western, Hoosier Mammoth, Western Tri-
umph).—Found growing wild in a ravine on the Gregg farm, in
Ohio county, Indiana, in the latter part of June, 1866. It was
most thoroughly tested and widely exhibited before being intro-
duced, and has borne out in a remarkable way the early promises
it gave. It was largely introduced by N. Ohmer, of Dayton, Ohio,
who first saw the fruit on exhibition in 1875. He bought two hun-
dred plants the following spring, propagated them for three years,
then introduced it to the public. Canes large, upright, very vig-
orous, possessing an abundance of bloom and a peculiar clean,
smooth appearance which always makes them noticeable. More
difficult to propagate than many other sorts, owing to its upright,

*Gar. Month. 12: 278.

fMieh. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 277-

BLACK-CAP VARIETIES 167

vigorous habit. Fruit large, roundish oblate, with a very decided
gray bloom. Flesh very firm, only moderately juicy and sweet.
Season late. This is by far the best known and most popular late
variety at the present time. It is uniformly healthy and produc-
tive, though slightly lacking in hardiness, especially on heavy
soils. The plant is slower to attain its full productiveness than
most other varieties, but is also slower to decline, so a plantation
will remain longer in profitable condition. Though not of the
highest quality, it is still a good berry, and its excellent shipping
qualities render it especially adapted to market. It is also an
excellent variety for evaporating, especially where fruit is picked
by hand. It clings so tightly to the receptacle that it is not easily
gathered with the berry harvester.

Hale Early.— Sent out for trial by G. H. & J. H. Hale, of South
Glastonbury, Conn., but not proving valuable, was never intro-
duced.

Hamilton. — Mentioned by Downing as from Shelby Co., Tenn.

Hannibal (Extra Late) .—Described in the Report of the United
States Department of Agriculture for 1892 as a large, fine berry
of excellent quality. Apparently vigorous and productive, being
several days later than Gregg. Originated with W. J. Bradt, of
North Hannibal, N. Y.

Harrison.— Named in honor of President Harrison by Henry S.
Harris, of White Lane, Salem county, N. J., who found it in a
neighbor's garden many years ago. Described as medium to
large, rather dry, firm, black, with less bloom than Gregg ; good,
promising for market. A variety which apparently has never been
in the nursery trade to any extent.

Haskell Yellow. — Taken from Massachusetts to Illinois by Dr.
Haskell, about 1836.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 281.

Hawkey e.— A berry found in Iowa, which is thought to have
come originally from Indiana. Said to be better than Doolittle, as
firm as Gregg, and as large, but earlier.— Iowa Hort. Soc. Eept.
1884: 535.

Hayne Seedling.— A new variety brought to notice by H.
Hayne, of Delphi, Indiana.

Hilborn. — An accidental seedling found in an old raspberry
plantation, and introduced by W. W. Hilborn, of Leamington,
Ont., in 1886. Described as a sturdy grower, very hardy, pro-
ductive. Fruit nearly as large as Gregg, clear, glossy black, rich
and juicy. A favorite variety in many parts of Ohio and Ontario.

Hixon (Hixon's Everbearer) .—Mentioned in the Eeport of the
Kansas Horticultural Society for 1886, p. 290, and appears to have
attained some prominence in that state.

168 B USH-FR UITS

Hoag (Harkness). — According to A. W. Sias, formerly of
Minnesota, this originated with Charles E. Hoag, at Kasson,
Dodge county, Minnesota. Later it was disseminated by J. W.
Harkness. Wyman Elliot, one of the earliest presidents of the
Minnesota Horticultural Society, says that at one time it was
named Harkness by their society, but the name of the originator
was preferred. Said to resemble Gregg, but to have been more
hardy in Minnesota.

Hopkins. — Found wild in the woods, within the present limits
of Kansas City, Mo., in the year 1872. Later brought to notice by
G. W. Hopkins, of Springfield, Mo., and introduced by Frank
Hoi singer, of Rosedale, Kans. Described as similar to Tyler, and
ripening with it. Fruit medium to large, round, black, with little
bloom ; texture soft, flavor mild. A good shipper. Considered a
valuable variety in the region where it originated.

Idaho. — Mentioned by Crozier,* as possibly a variety of Bubus
leucodermis, though he says nothing regarding its color. Said to
have come from the mountains near Lewiston, Idaho. It was sent
out for trial by F. R. Palmer, of Mansfield, Ohio, but did not
prove valuable.

Ideal. — A seedling found near the Gregg plantation, in 1890, by
C. P. Augur, of Connecticut, who described it as nearly as good as
the Sougehan, and larger and better in every way than the Gregg. —
The Rural New-Yorker, 1893: 430.

Indiana. — A black-cap from Indiana, introduced in 1884. De-
scribed as vigorous, hardy, and productive. Fruit of good size and
quality, very firm.

Ironclad (Smith's Ironclad). — A note taken without mention-
ing the reference says that this originated with Mr. Wilson, of
Forest, Ohio, about 1885. Said to be very vigorous, productive,
and healthy. Earlier than Tyler, of good quality. Under the
name "Smith's Ironclad," Crozier records a variety,! brought to
notice in Kansas by a man named Smith, some years ago, he hav-
ing found a single raspberry plant among a bill of trees ordered
from an agent. This was probably some old variety, but still
seems to be known in Kansas under the names mentioned.

Kagy Everbearing.— Mentioned in the Ohio Experiment Sta-
tion Report for 1886, p. 190, as apparently of no value.

Kansas. — Originated as a chance seedling on the farm of A.
H. Griesa, Lawrence, Kans., in 1884. Although he had grow-
ing, at the same time, several hundred other seedlings from
selected stock, this proved more valuable than any of the others.

*Mich, Exp. Sta., Bull. Ill: 284.
tMich. Exp. Sta., Bull. Ill: 309.

BLACK-CAP VARIETIES 169

Described as a vigorous grower, very hardy, and exceedingly
thorny, rooting at the tips with unusual ease. Fruit similar to
Gregg, fully as large, ripening a week earlier, with less bloom;
juicy, of excellent flavor, and firm enough to ship well. One of
the promising newer varieties.

Kellogg.— A. chance seedling, originally found by George J.
Kellogg, of Wisconsin, about 1875. Claimed to be hardy, vigor-
ous and productive. Similar to Doolittle.

Kerr White.— Reported as on trial in Michigan, where it
proved to be large, of moderate vigor and productiveness, with
light yellow, pubescent fruit.

Key Prolific (Johnston's Sweet). — A black-cap found in the
Ozark Mountains, Ark. Grown in Iowa since about 1881. De-
scribed as vigorous, very hardy, productive ; not nearly as large
as Gregg ; jet black, without bloom, medium to late ; of good
flavor, very sweet, and excellent for drying. Eeintroduced by
Eobert Johnston, of Shortsville, N. Y., in 1886, as Johnston's
Sweet.— la. Hort. Soc. 1887: 98.

Kimball.— Reported from Rhode Island in 1885 by Joseph H.
Bourne, of Providence, as a promising new variety, earlier than
Souhegan. Found by him growing wild on the farm of James
Kimball, near Providence. Never introduced. — Mich. Exp. Sta.
Bull. Ill: 287.

Lindsey.—A variety said to have originated in Michigan.
Fruit of medium size, between Doolittle and Gregg, and said to
be better and firmer.— la. Hort. Soc. Rept. 1882: 478.

Little (Little's Black-Cap). Originated with John Little, of
Ontario. Sent to T. T. Lyon, of Michigan, in 1881. Described
as hardy, moderately vigorous, with rather slender, reddish brown
canes, almost without spines, which are purplish white. Fruit
small, roundish, glossy black, firm, seedy, juicy, acid, rich.
Much like Davison's Thornless.— Mich. Hort. Soc. Rept. 1882:169.

Lotto, (Brackett's No. 101). Originated on the farm of G.
C. Brackett, of Lawrence, Kans. A vigorous, hardy and pro-
ductive variety. Fruit large, round, black, with slight bloom;
quality good; as large as Gregg and somewhat earlier. This is
one of the really promising varieties of recent introduction. As
on trial at the Cornell University Experiment Station, it appeared
to lead all others in productiveness.

Lovett.— Found among a lot of wild seedlings on the grounds
of Ezra Wood, of Ohio. Introduced by J. T. Lovett Co., of
New Jersey. Said to be vigorous, productive, and to ripen early.
Fruit firm, of good size, black, with only slight bloom; apparently
thornless. Resembles Tyler in general characteristics.

1 70 B USH-FR UITS

Lum Everbearing (Autumn Black Raspberry, Lum's Fall
Bearing).— Eaised by H. B. Lum, of Sandusky, Ohio. Much
like the Ohio Everbearing, of which it is a seedling.

Lum Yellow Canada. — An everbearing variety, mentioned in
Michigan Experiment Station Bulletin 111: 289.

Macomber.— This name, with numbers or letters appended,
has been applied to various seedlings sent out on trial by J. T.
Macomber and L. M. Macomber, of Vermont, though apparently
not retained as a permanent name of any variety. — Mich. Exp.
Sta. Bull. Ill: 289.

Manwaring No. 1. — Sent out by C. H. Manwaring, of Kansas.
Found by the Geneva (N. Y.) Experimental Station to be small to
medium, black, firm, mildly subacid, of good quality, hardy.

May King. — A variety similar to and ripening about with Sou-
hegan, although recommended especially for its earliness.

McCracken. — Originated by William McCracken, of Sunnydale,
Kans., and distributed under the name Kansas, though not the
same as the better -known variety of that name.

McCormick (Mammoth Cluster, Miami Black- cap, Collins -
ville Miami, etc.). — For many years the leading black-cap in
cultivation. It appears to have originated in Indiana, from the
Old or Small Miami. A thoroughly hardy and very productive
variety ; a vigorous grower, bearing fruit of medium size, but of
a slightly reddish black color. Quality good; season medium.

Miami (Miami Black, Old Miami, Small Miami).— A common
black- cap, originally found growing along the Miami River, in
Ohio. A vigorous, productive variety; of less value than the
McCormick, more brownish red, not quite as sweet nor quite as
late in ripening. — Downing.

Miller Daily (Miller's Daily Bearing). — Apparently a local
variety near Dunreith, Ind. A large, everbearing black-cap;
vigorous, hardy, productive. Fruit large, juicy, excellent.

Mills (Mills No. 15).— Introduced by Charles Mills, of Fair-
mount, N. Y. Raised from seed of the Gregg said to have been
fertilized by Tyler. A strong, healthy, upright grower, moder-
ately productive. Fruit of medium size and excellent flavor.

Mills No. 1. — Of the same parentage as the preceding. De-
scribed as vigorous, fairly hardy. Fruit large, firm, seedy,
moderately juicy, good quality.

Minnesota (Minnesotian). — A western yellow-cap, mentioned
in various places.

Mohler. — Originated by D. H. Mohler, New Paris, Ohio, from
the seed of the Eureka. Canes large, vigorous, very productive.

BLACK-CAP VARIETIES 171

Fruit very large, firm, good, black, early. The name "Mohler"
seems to have been applied to the Eureka at one time, before
the introduction of this variety, which occasioned no little con-
fusion. Discussed in Bulletin 63 of the Ohio Exp. Station.

Moody.— A. white variety mentioned by Samuel Miller, in the
Missouri Horticultural Society Report for 1884, p. 295, as very
productive, of good flavor, good size, and worth having.

Moore Seedling. — Mentioned in the Report of the Ohio Hor-
ticultural Society for 1870, p. 62.

Munger. — Originated with Timothy Munger in western Ohio,
about 1890. Introduced by W. N. Scarff, of New Carlisle, Ohio.
Described as a good shipper, black, of good flavor, large size and
very productive.

Mystery. — A variety sent out from Kentucky as an everbearing
sort. Reported as of little value, bearing no autumn crop in
Minnesota.— Bull. 25.

Nemaha. — Found growing wild by Ex-Gov. Furnas, of Brown-
ville, Neb., along the bluffs of the Missouri River in Nemaha
county, of that state. Transferred by him to his garden, and
later sent out to be tested by prominent small -fruit growers.
Introduced by Green's Nursery Company, about 1883. Very
similar to the Gregg, but claimed to be hardier. Vigorous and
productive. Fruit large, of good quality, and firm. T. T. Lyon
says that it has most of the qualities of the Gregg, with im-
proved flavor and hardiness. Popular in southeastern Nebraska.

New Haven. — A chance seedling which came up on the grounds
of E. E. Clark, of New Haven, Conn., proving better than any
seedlings he had raised. Described by him as large and vigorous.
Fruit juicy, five -eighths to three-quarters of an inch in diameter,
with small seeds. — Report of the Connecticut Board of Agricul-
ture 1866: 184.

Norfolk. — Mentioned as unsatisfactory in Michigan. — Mich.
Exp. Sta. Bull. 122.

Northfield.— Sent out for trial by M. T. Thompson, of Rio
Vista, Va., but found to be of little value and never introduced.
—Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 294.

Ohio (Alden).— The great evaporating raspberry of the pres-
ent day, being far more largely planted for that purpose than all
others 'together. The full history of this variety is recorded by
Bailey in Bulletin 117 Cornell University Exp. Station, p. 362.
Somewhere in the sixties, Hiram Van Dusen, of Palmyra,
N. Y., bought a lot of Doolittle plants of A. M. Purdy, of that
place. When the plantation began to fail, he found one plant
apparently as good as new, which, from previous observation, he

172 B USH-FR UITS

knew to be firmer, more productive, and to ripen later. This
plant became the progenitor of the vast multitudes which now
people the raspberry fields of western New York and other states.
The Doolittle plant mentioned, it was found, came from Ohio,
and Mr. Van Dusen called it the "Ohio" to distinguish it from the
Doolittle. It was introduced by a son and grandson of Mr. Van
Dusen. A. M. Purdy was of the opinion that this was precisely
identical with what he grew at that time as the Miami, obtained
from Ohio, and states that it was so decided by John J. Thomas
and Patrick Barry, who saw them growing on his grounds. This,
like many market fruits, though hardy and productive, is not
of good quality. It is one of the most seedy varieties grown,
and it is partially for this reason, no doubt, that it yields more
pounds of evaporated fruit per bushel than other sorts.

Ohio Everbearing (Monthly Black-cap). — A full account of the
history of this variety is also given by Bailey in Bulletin 117
of the Cornell University Experiment Station. (See also page
159.) The taking up of this variety by Nicholas Longworth
appears to have been the beginning of the cultivation of the
black raspberry in America. It is of especial interest on this
account, although it has never proved a variety of great value.
Its chief distinguishing feature seems to have been its autumn
bearing habit.

Older. — A chance seedling found in the garden of Mr. Older,
of Independence, la., in 1872. It was named in honor of Mr.
Older, after his death, by Mr. Burser, of Warren, 111., and intro-
duced by L. K. Ballard, of the same place. Hardy, strong, vig-
orous, enduring drought well. Fruit large, nearly destitute of
bloom, black and firm, of good quality. Popular in the West.

Onondaga (Mills No. 7).— A seedling raised in 1884 by Charles
Mills, of Fairmount, N. Y., from seed of the Gregg growing near
Tyler. Vigorous, productive, very large, firm, jet black, ripening
with Gregg or a little earlier. Professor Beach, of the Geneva
(N. Y.) Experiment Station, says that as far as tested there, it
appears to be a desirable acquisition on account of its large
size, fine appearance, good quality, and productiveness.

Ontario. — Found on the grounds of E. E. Lord, of Fairport,
N. Y., in 1886, and introduced by him in 1872. Claimed to be
vigorous, perfectly hardy, and very productive, ripening a week
earlier than Doolittle. Fruit large, firm, sweet and rich.

Oregon.— Said to be a native variety of especial value in the
state for which it is named. Not as dry as other black-caps, and
larger than Gregg. Referred to Eubus leucodermis. — Mich. Exp.
Sta. Bull. Ill: 297.

Ozark.—A seedling brought to notice by Mr. Holman, of Mis-

BLACK-CAP VARIETIES 173

souri. Said to be a strong grower, and somewhat like Gregg,
almost as large, ripening after Hopkins.— Mo. Hort. Soe. Bept.
1886: 182.

Palmer (Palmer's No. 1, Acme).— Originated by F. R. Palmer,
of Mansfield, Ohio. Introduced in the fall of 1888. Similar to
Tyler, and ripening with it. Claimed to be unusually hardy,
early, large, of good quality and wonderfully productive. It has
been favorably reported upon from many sections, and is now
quite largely grown, especially in the West.

Pioneer (Progress).— Originated on the farm of Jacob Muhl, of
Hammonton, N. J. Apparently grown by him for some time be-
fore being introduced by the J. T. Lovett Co., who offered it
under the name "Progress." Much like Souhegan, but claimed to
be later, more vigorous and productive.

Poscharsky Nos. 3, 9, 15.— On test at the Geneva (N. Y.) Exp.
Station.— Bull. 91: 202.

Pride of the Market. — The name appeared in L. L. May & Go's,
catalogue.

Pride of the West.— Said to be fairly productive and vigorous,
large, grayish black, of fair quality, ripening with Gregg.

Queen of the West. — A Kansas seedling, ripening a few days
earlier than Souhegan, but larger and more productive. — Mich.
Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 302.

Ransom Everbearing.— Sent out by Stark Bros., of Louisiana,
Mo., in 1890.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 303.

Rex.— A. seedling of the Gregg raised by John W. Perry, of
Covington, Ohio, in 1884 or 1885. Grown largely by his son, with
whom it proves valuable, but has not developed sufficient qualities
at the Ohio Experiment Station to warrant its introduction. — Mich.
Exp. Sta. Bull 111 : 305.

Reyes.— "The sweetest black-cap I have ever tasted." — P. C.
Reynolds, Mich. Hort. Soc. Rept., 1886: 63.

Rocky Mountain Cluster. — Mentioned in the Missouri Horticul-
tural Society Report for 1897, p. 27.

Rundell. — A yellow-cap closely resembling Beebe's Golden.
Found by Charles Rundell, of New Buffalo, Mich. — Mich. Exp.
Sta. Bull. 11: 306.

Saunders No. 60. — A seedling of Gregg, produced by Professor
William Saunders, of London, Ont. Fruit very large, purplish
black, ripening late, but of rather inferior quality. Canes pro-
ductive, fairly hardy. — Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 307.

Savanna.— A variety obtained from the woods in Indian Terri-
tory, near Savanna, and so named by T. V. Munson, of Denison,

1 74 B USH-FR (JITS

Texas, who claimed it to be as large as Tyler, a week earlier, very
prolific, and the sweetest black-cap known by him. Said to en-
dure extremes of climate well. — Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill : 307.

Seneca.— liaised by Mr. Dell, of Seneca county, N. Y., and
brought to notice by Doolittle & Wright, of Waterloo, N. Y., in
1867. A large late variety, very vigorous and productive. Spines
reddish, strong, and numerous. Fruit large, but not a deep black,
and somewhat reddish, with a light bloom.

Sinton Thornless. — Recorded by Fuller, in 1867, as similar to
Doolittle, but a week earlier.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 309.

Smith Giant.— Apparently a seedling of the Gregg, produced by
A. M. Smith, of St. Catharines, Ont., who reported it hardier than
Gregg, and fully equal in quality and productiveness.— Mich. Exp.
Sta. Bull. Ill : 309.

Smith No. 2.— Sent to the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment Station,
by B. F. Smith, of Lawrence, Kans., who found it growing under
an apple tree. Reported medium size, firm, juicy, sweet, good.

Smith Prolific.— A chance seedling found in a strawberry
patch on the grounds of N. G. Smith, of Manchester, N. Y. De-
scribed as unusually vigorous, very productive ; fruit very firm,
extra large, bright black, borne in large clusters, sweet. It ap-
pears not to have maintained its earlier promises.

SouJiegan (Skowhegan) .—Originated in the valley of the Souhe-
gan River, New Hampshire, about 1870, from the seed of the Doo-
little, by J. A. Carlton. Introduced by G. H. & J. H. Hale in 1881.
One of the standard early varieties, widely known and generally
prized. Canes hardy, vigorous, and productive. Berries medium
to large, jet black, without bloom, of good quality.

Spanish Black. — Grown and sold by Henry Geisler, of Water-
vliet, Mich., who reports it popular in his vicinity. It is reported
to be the Gregg re-named.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 311.

Spray Early. — A chance seedling brought into cultivation at
Fort Atkinson, Wis., about 1884. Described as vigorous, with
fruit of medium size, good color, firm, of good flavor and quality.

Springfield. — A chance seedling, found about 1880 on the
grounds of J. W. Adams, of Springfield, Mass. Described as a
thornless variety, very early, prolific, of good quality and perfectly
hardy. Somewhat resembles Davison.

Success (Waters' Success). — Sent out for trial in 1893, by
James N. Waters, Fernhill, Ont. Very promising on the grounds
of The Rural New-Yorker.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 318.

Summit.— A yellow variety from Summit township, Crawford
county, Pa. It was thought to have originated from seed found
in soil excavated at a depth of ten feet. The original plant was

BLACK-CAP VARIETIES 175

found and transplanted by Daniel Supher, but was brought to
notice by A. T. Hobbs, of Randolph, Pa. Canes strong, vigorous,
pale orange -yellow; spines short, slightly hooked, rather nu-
merous. Fruit of medium size, orange color, with pink at the
base of most of the grains. Firm, rather dry, but sweet and rich.

Surprise.— Found wild, and introduced to notice by Charles
Husmann, of Bluff ton, Mo., about 1865. Said to be large, more
conical and darker in color than the common black-cap, with
fewer seeds, and a deep bloom. — Downing.

Surrey.— Introduced by the Cleveland Nursery Co. of Bio Vista,
Va. Seemed to promise well in Virginia, but not in Michigan.—
Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 313.

Sweet Home.— A seedling of Lum's Everbearing, from Illinois.
Introduced about 1880. Spoken of as superior to McCormick, be-
ing very stocky, with a large and firmer fruit, though so similar to
that variety as to be thought by some to be the same.

Thomas (Thomas' Seedling). — Originated by Mr. Thomas, of
Marion, Ind.

Thompson Sweet.— Mentioned in Bulletins of the Mass. Hatch
Experiment Station, as early, unproductive, lacking in hardiness,
vigor and firmness ; small, of good quality.

Townsend No. 2.— On test at the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment
Station. Said to be medium to large, firm, somewhat seedy,
sweet, of good quality, hardy.

Tyler. — An accidental seedling, found growing among McCor-
mick and Seneca plants on the grounds of Nathan Tyler, of
Auburn, N. Y. Five hundred plants were sold to Robert John-
ston, of Shortsville, N. Y., who introduced it under the name
Tyler. An excellent early variety, of good size and quality, jet
black, hardy and productive. It resembles Souhegan so closely
that the two are practically indistinguishable, although they
originated in different parts of the country. It has been thought
to withstand spring frosts better than Souhegan. After the
Doolittle passed the zenith of its popularity, these two varieties
long stood as the representative berries.

Virginia. — A variety controlled by the Cleveland Nursery
Co., of Rio Vista, Va. Said to be large, jet black, round, coni-
cal, moderately firm, of excellent quality, holding out well at the
end of the season.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 317.

Wade.— Found by John Wade, of Veedersburg, Ind., in the
spring of 1884, under a grape trellis where the birds had dropped
the seed the summer before. Described by him as an ironclad
variety, wonderfully productive. Fruit showy black, firm, of
superior quality, ripening about with Souhegan.

176 BUSH-FRUITS

Westchester.—A. chance seedling, found in 1861 in the gar-
den of Levi J. Mabie, of Tarrytown, Westchester county, N. Y.
Advertised quite extensively some years later, but apparently
received little attention.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 318.

Winona. — An Ohio variety, introduced in 1890. Claimed to be
perfectly hardy, vigorous, standing drought well. Fruit large,
early, glossy black, of excellent quality, and a good shipper.

Wonder. — An everbearing variety, originating with J. H.
Bobbins, of Arcadia, Ind. Fruit soft, of good quality, but plants
lacking in vigor and productiveness.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull.
Ill: 319.

Woodside. — Originated in New York, from seed sown in a
garden. Canes light crimson or a dark scarlet. Spines few.
Fruit large, black, with little bloom, sweet and juicy. Produces
a second crop in autumn. — Fuller.

Wragg. — An Ohio variety on trial in Michigan.

Yellow Pearl. — A yellow-cap variety, vigorous, productive,
often producing a fall crop. Fruit dark, with a slight bloom,
sprightly . —Downing.

Yosemite. — Mentioned by William Parry* as too unapproach-
able on account of its wild nature, covered as it is with thorns.
It is a rampant grower, and the berries are large and of poor
quality.— Cal. Hort. Rept. 1885: 233. This statement would
suggest the question of Rubus leucodermis parentage.

RECOMMENDED VARIETIES OF BLACK-CAPS.

Among varieties widely known and most generally
planted, Tyler and Sonhegan are doubtless the best
known early varieties, though now being replaced by
others, especially the Palmer. Gregg is still the
standard late berry, though the Nemaha is preferred
in places, while Ohio is the great berry for evapor-
ating purposes. Other varieties well and favorably
known are Lotta, Older and Kansas. Many of the
newer sorts are promising, and may supersede the
present leaders when better known.

* Rural Affairs 7: 81.

PURPLE-CANE FAMILY 177

II. THE PURPLE -CANE RASPBERRIES
Eubus neglectus

In this group I have endeavored to include all those
varieties which are intermediate in character between
the red and the black raspberry. Not all of these be-
long to the true Purple -cane type. The Philadelphia
and its numerous seedlings are much nearer to Rubus
strigosus than to Eubus occidentalis. They propagate
by suckers, though somewhat sparingly, and are, to all
intents and purposes, red raspberries of a slightly
darker hue, while the true Purple -cane type propagates
by tips, being like black raspberries in habit.

No point in the history of the raspberry is more
interesting than to note the number of varieties of the
Rubus neglectus type, or Purple -cane family, as it was
formerly called, which have come into public notice.
There are some forty varieties which can be definitely
placed in this class. Of a large number which have
received so little notice in print that it is impossible to
classify them, a fair proportion undoubtedly also belong
here. Aside from these there have, no doubt, been
many local varieties which never came into public
notice. I well remember hearing, when a boy, that
black raspberries would turn into reds, and that the
purple forms occasionally found growing wild were
undergoing that change. I remember a bush of this
character growing in the exact spot, as it now seems,
where a black -cap had been growing, and in spite of
all later training and observation, it is hard to get away
from the idea that that bush had changed its politics!

178 BUSH-FRUITS

If all the introduced varieties of this type and all the
forms growing wild are hybrids, a remarkable tend-
ency to hybridization in this genus is certainly shown.
The comparative abundance and productiveness of the
type leads rather to the opinion that it is a distinct
species, but the variation in the habit of propagation
of the different varieties, some being almost entirely
reproduced by suckers, while others propagate princi-
cipally from tips, favors the idea of hybrid origin.

Hybrids are commonly thought to be unproductive,
but the Shaffer is one of the most productive varieties
known. No one can say positively, however, what the
origin has been, and for practical purposes it matters
little. The type has long been in cultivation, and is
certainly valuable. Hybrids are evidently more com-
mon, at least in this genus, than has been supposed.
I am now of the opinion that this type, like the
intermediate type between the blackberry and dew-
berry, is primarily of hybrid origin.

VARIETIES OF PURPLE -CANE EASPBERRIES

Addison.— An apparent hybrid between the red and black rasp-
berry. Originated on the grounds of L. M. Macomber, of North
Ferrisburgh, Vt. Described as vigorous, hardy, and moderately
productive. Canes purplish red, resembling the black-caps in
habit, and rooting at the tips, though rather like the reds in color.
Fruit medium to large, firm, juicy, and very good, with the flavor
of the red raspberry.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 256.

Eabcock. — Sent to the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment Station in
1892, by Daniel W. Babcock. Reported to be productive and vig-
orous, with canes of a peculiar purplish color, thickly beset with
weak prickles. Fruit crumbling.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 259.

Beclffwiih. — An unnamed chance seedling, which originated with
Professor M. H. Beckwith, Newark, Del. Described. by him as a
red berry, and not purple like Shaffer; reproducing by tips. Fruit

PURPLE-CANE VARIETIES 179

resembling the black-caps in shape, aromatic, of excellent quality,
and productive as far as tested.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 260.

Cardinal (Griesa) .—Originated on the grounds of A. H. Griesa,
Lawrence, Kans., in 1888, apparently from the seed of the Shaffer.
A vigorous grower, propagating by tips when young, but throwing
up some suckers as it grows older. Fruits large, soft, juicy, dark;
flavor somewhat musky. Like the Shaffer, it appears to be par-
ticularly susceptible to anthracnose. For this reason the origi-
nator cuts out the old canes in winter or spring, and depends upon
a new growth to produce fruit.

Caroline. — Originated with S. P. Carpenter, New Eochelle,
N. Y., and supposed to be a seedling of Brinckle's Orange, crossed
by Golden-cap. Canes hardy and prolific, but not very vigorous.
Spines numerous. Fruit medium, roundish -oblate, pale salmon,
soft, juicy, subacid, and quality fair. Too soft for market, and
dull and unattractive in appearance when over-ripe. The variety
suckers freely, and may also be propagated by tips, with care.

Catawissa. — This variety was found growing in a Quaker grave-
yard, in the village of Catawissa, Columbia county, Pa. It was
brought to notice by Joshua Pierce, of Washington, D. C. Canes
strong, branching, with dark brown bark and few hooked spines.
Fruit medium, dark reddish purple, subacid, juicy, and moder-
ately good. Vigorous and productive, but tender at the North.
Produced fruit in autumn to some extent. Prof. C. G. Page, of
Washington, D. C., mentions* having one seedling from this variety
which is a facsimile of the black raspberry, two vigorous, orange
colored seedlings of delicious flavor and one real scarlet, simi-
lar in flavor to the wild scarlet raspberry of New England.

Citizen. — A hybrid between Gregg and Cuthbert, produced by
Professor William Saunders, London, Ont. On trial at the experi-
mental farms of Canada. Promising at first, but less so later.
Remarkably productive.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 264.

Colossal.— Sent by I. F. Street, of West Middleton, Ind., to the
United States Department of Agriculture, in 1892. A seedling of
Shaffer, which it closely resembles.

Columbian. — Said to be a seedling of the Cuthbert grown near
the Gregg, on the grounds of J. T. Thompson, Oneida, N. Y. A
variety of the Shaffer type, which it very much resembles. A
strong, vigorous grower, and very productive. Fruit large, moder-
ately juicy, fairly firm, nearly sweet, somewhat darker in color
than the Shaffer, ripening a little later.

Dictator. — Said to be a cross between Shaffer and Gregg, pro-
duced by Luther Burbank, of Santa Eosa, Cal. Canes much like

*Hov. Mag., 1857: 396.

180 BUSH-FRUITS

Shaffer, much shorter, propagating by suckers. Fruit larger than
Shaffer, bright red.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 269.

Duncan. — A hybrid between Gregg and Cuthbert, produced by
Professor William Saunders, of Ontario. Described as having
large, purple fruit, of better quality than the Shaffer, ripening
later, and very productive. Canes strong, vigorous, propagating
both by suckers and by tips.

Early Prolific. — A seedling raised from the Philadelphia by
Oscar Felton, of Camden county, N. J. Crozier states* that it
is several generations removed from the Philadelphia. Hardy,
productive, free from thorns. Fruit firm, of good size, with a
harsh and acid flavor.

Ellisdale.—A. variety of the Purple -cane type, found growing
wild on the Ellisdaie farm, in Iowa, in 1856, by J. E. Johnson.
Introduced by H. A. Terry, of Crescent, Iowa. Canes strong,
light red, smooth, with a few straight spines near the base and
an occasional hooked one on the upper portion; propagating by
tips. Fruit large, roundish oval, light purple, with a whitish
bloom; rather firm, and of good quality. Elsdale, from Nebraska,
mentioned in Hovey's Magazine 1865: 122, is probably this.

Eureka. — A seedling of the third generation from Shaffer,
being larger and brighter red; also said to be more compact in
habit, and more productive. Originated with Luther Burbank.

Ganargua. — Found growing wild by Stephen Katkamier, of
Farmington, Ontario county, N. Y., about 1867. Described as a
vigorous grower, hardy, early, and productive, possessing the
everbearing habit; spines numerous. Fruit large, delicate, and
juicy, reasonably firm, dark red, approaching purplish brown.
Propagates from tips.

Garden (Doolittle's Red Flavored Black-Cap). A variety in-
troduced by H. H. Doolittle, of Oaks Corners, N. Y. The Purple -
cane raspberry was also known under this name. Whether this
is the same, or whether, indeed, it might have been a true black-
cap, it is difficult to say.

Gardiner. — Mentioned as a new variety of unknown origin,
intermediate between the Purple -cane and the black -cap.

Garnet. — A seedling of the Philadelphia, produced in 1885 by
Professor William Saunders, of London, Ont. Described as
hardy, vigorous,, and productive. Fruit of medium size, pur-
plish red, slightly conical, of good quality, rather soft, ripening
late.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill : 276.

Gladstone (Carpenter's No. 2, Erie). A chance seedling, orig-

*Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. 111:271.

PURPLE-CANE VARIETIES 181

mating with Charles Carpenter, of Kelley's Island, Ohio, who
sent it out about 1888, first as Carpenter's No. 2, and then as
Erie. Later it was introduced by Green's Nursery Co., of
Rochester, N. Y., as Gladstone. Described as vigorous and hardy,
producing considerable fruit in autumn. Fruit medium size, dark
red, of excellent quality.

Rildreth. — "Introduced by Isaac Hildreth, of Big Stream Point,
N. Y., as a native sort found near that place. It does not grow
readily from the tips, and produces few suckers. Canes rather
strong, spines purplish, stiff, numerous. Fruit medium, roundish
oblate, dull red or maroon, thick bloom. Half firm, juicy, sweet,
subacid, and similar to Purple Cane in flavor." — Downing.

Hybrid Crimson Mammoth. — Found wild at Adams, N. Y., by
Dr. E. R. Maxson, who brought it into cultivation and described
it in the Horticulturist, but apparently never introduced it. —
Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 284.

Merkel. — Described as perfectly hardy and productive, not
throwing up suckers. Fruit firm, of excellent quality, with
somewhat of a currant flavor. Darker than Cuthbert, resembling
Gregg in shape and size. — John F. Rupp, in American Garden,
1891: 369.

Montclair. — Originated on the grounds of E. and J. C. Wil-
liams, Montclair, N. J., and supposed to be a seedling of the
Philadelphia. Canes strong, vigorous, light red, often branch-
ing. Spines quite numerous at the base, rather slender, pur-
plish. Propagates moderately by suckers. Fruit medium to
large, roundish oblate, dark red or crimson. Flesh quite firm,
juicy, sweet, sprightly, and of good quality. — Downing. Very
near to Bubus strigosus; perhaps it ought to be included there.

Mote Everbearing. — Raised by L. S. Mote, of West Milton,
Ohio. An everbearing variety resembling Catawissa. — Downing.

Mrs. Wood. — Originated with Mrs. Reuben Wood, near Cleve-
land, Ohio. Described as vigorous and productive. Fruit of
medium size, roundish, obtuse, purplish, with a red bloom;
moderately firm, juicy, sprightly, subacid, ripening late.

Muskingum (Shaffer's Sister, Melott's Favorite).— Originated
in the orchard of Mrs. Simeon Ellis, Coshocton county, Ohio,
near the Muskingum River. Named and introduced by James
Madison, of Chili, Ohio. Similar to Shaffer, but not as tall,
vigorous; fruit of about the same color, equally soft. Season
medium to late.

New Rochelle. — Supposed to be a seedling of the Catawissa.
Raised by S. P. Carpenter, New Rochelle, N. Y., and apparently
introduced by E. W. Carpenter, of Rye, N. Y., though the

182 BUSH-FRUITS

Country Gentleman for 1881 speaks of it as having originated
with W. S. Carpenter. Said to be less vigorous, earlier, and
smaller than the Shaffer, propagating only by tips. Fruit round-
ish, obtuse conical, red or dark maroon, with a slight bloom.
Flesh quite firm, juicy and rich.

Norwood (Norwood's Prolific). — A variety originated in Massa-
chusetts. A vigorous grower, propagating by tips. Fruit of
good size, similar to Philadelphia. — Gar. Month. 17: 333.

Percy. — A hybrid between Gregg and Cuthbert, produced by
Professor William Saunders, of London, Ont. Said to be of
large size and best quality, sweeter than Shaffer, but otherwise
much like it.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 298.

Philadelphia. — A chance seedling, found wild near Philadel-
phia, Pa., about 1835, which proved itself to be hardy, pro-
ductive, and well suited to light soils in the southern portions of
the Middle states. Described as vigorous, tall, branching, almost
free from spines. Fruit medium, roundish, dark crimson or pur-
plish red; flesh rather soft, moderately juicy, mild subacid. —
Downing. This variety resembles Eubus strigosus much more
closely than do the Catawissa, Shaffer, and others of the true
Purple-cane type; yet it is evidently intermediate between the
red and black raspberries, and not a true red raspberry. Al-
though propagating by suckers, these are produced but sparingly,
and the fruit is darker in color than the true red raspberries.
Dr. Morse, in the Missouri Agricul. Report for 1886, p. 362, says:
"A year ago I found a Philadelphia rooted at the tip in my
grounds. This year I watched them, and find that there is quite a
tendency to root at the tips. If put in too deeply they damp off.
I think it is a different variety."

Purple Cane (Purple Prolific, English Purple, Red Prolific,
American Red Cane, Garden Raspberry, Huntsville, English Red,
Allen and English Brown erroneously) . — This is probably the
oldest cultivated variety of this type. It was grown about New
York at least seventy -five years ago. It is supposed to have been
a native variety. Described as having strong, tall, recurved
canes, often branching, reddish purple. Spines rather long, stiff,
and moderately numerous. Berries small, purple, good, but too
soft for market.

Purple Dulcet. — Mentioned in the Illinois Horticultural Society
Report, 1875: 268.

Bed Cane. — Probably a synonym of Purple Cane. — Hov. Mag.
1858: 420.

Redfield— Sent out for trial in 1894 by J. Wragg & Sons, of
Waukee, la. First offered for sale by the Iowa Seed Company, of

PURPLE-CANE VARIETIES 183

Des Moines, in the fall of 1895. Discovered on the farm of D. W.
Humphrew, near Redfield, Iowa. Resembles Shaffer in color and
size, but said to be of better quality. Propagates by tips. — Mich.
Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 304.

Reliance. — A descendant of Philadelphia, raised by O. L. Fel-
ten, of N. J. Described as hardy, vigorous and very productive.
Canes strong, branching, with greenish spines. Fruit large,
nearly globular or roundish oblate, dark red or crimson, firm,
juicy, sweet and sprightly, but not of high flavor. Figured in
Gardener's Monthly 1877: 302. Practically a strigosus variety.

Salzer Everbearing Red. — Origin Illinois. Introduced by the
John A. Salzer Seed Co., Lacrosse, Wis., as a cross between the
Shaffer and the Marlboro.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 306.

Sarah. — Originated by Professor William Saunders, London,
Ont., from the seed of the Shaffer. Described as a moderate
grower, suckering freely, and propagating only that way. Fruit
large, round, deep garnet, firm, very juicy, pleasantly acid, and
exceptionally rich, ripening after Cuthbert. — Mich. Exp. Sta.
Bull. Ill: 306.

Saunders Hybrid (No. 53?).— A hybrid between Philadelphia
and Mammoth Cluster, produced by William Saunders, of London,
Ont. Said to be productive, large, dark red, propagating from
tips only.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 303.

Shaffer (Shaffer's Colossal). — This is, at the present time,
.doubtless, the best known variety of this type. It originated in
the garden of George Shaffer, near Scotsville, Monroe county,
N. Y., about 1871. Introduced by Charles A. Green, of Roches-
ter. It is a vigorous, upright grower, and one of the most pro-
ductive raspberries known. Fruit large, dark red or purple, mod-
erately firm, sprightly, subacid. Its color is too dark to be
attractive, but if picked before fully ripe, while yet red, it looks
fairly well in market. An excellent canning variety. It also
dries well, being of more attractive color when dried than true
red raspberries, and producing more pounds of dried fruit per
bushel. In quality it is not far behind the red raspberries, with a
richness not possessed by them.

Shaffer Seedling No. 5. — A seedling of Shaffer, mentioned as
on trial at the Rhode Island Experiment Station.

Smith Purple. — Originated with B. F. Smith, of Lawrence,
Kans. Possesses all the characteristics of the black -cap except in
color of fruit, which is of medium size, good quality, and has the
black-cap flavor.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 310.

Stayman No. 1. — A seedling of Shaffer originated with Dr. J.
Stayman, of Leavenworth, Kans., in 1884. Said to be large, re-

184 BUSH-FRUITS

sembling the Marlboro, but later. Firm, of good quality, and
propagating from tips. — Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 311.

Superb (Churchman's Superb). Originated by John Church-
man, of Burlington, N. J., and supposed by him to be a seedling
of Philadelphia. Plant hardy, moderately vigorous, with large,
stout canes, which bear abundantly and propagate by suckers,
which increase slowly. Fruit large, rich, tart and juicy, dark
scarlet and rather crumbly. Thought by! some to be a cross be-
tween the Philadelphia and some European sort.

Surprise. — Introduced by H. G. Breese, Hoosick, N. Y. De-
scribed as a dark red variety, having the flavor of red raspberries
and firmness of berry and growth of cane of the black-caps; has
a tendency to fruit in autumn. Apparently of little value.

Wetherbee. — Spoken of as a red variety from New York.*
Described as hardy, vigorous, with few spines, and a moderate
bearer. Fruit small, round, purple, with slight whitish pubes-
cence, moderately firm, of sprightly flavor, ripening late.

EECOMMENDED VARIETIES

Shaffer and Columbian are the two best known and
most desirable varieties of the Purple -cane Group.

III. THE AMERICAN RED RASPBERRIES
Rubus strigosus

The native red raspberry of the United States has
been much longer in cultivation than the black rasp-
berry or the blackberry, but is much younger than the
European berry. In spite of its youthfulness, it has
long since outrun its European cousin and gained con-
trol of the commercial red raspberry -growing of the
country. While it may be slightly behind the European
berry in quality of fruit, it is so thoroughly at home,
and adapts itself so readily to cultivation, that it has
become a far more desirable market berry. One great

*Gardener's Monthly 22-. 81.

BOTANICAL CHARACTERS 185

objection to the red raspberry as a market fruit is its
long bearing season, necessitating so many pickings to
secure the crop. The American sorts have the advan-
tage in this regard, although even they ripen too
unevenly. They are hardier, and usually have some-
what more slender canes.

Two species are included in the true red raspberries
of cultivation, — the European red raspberry, Rubus
Idceus, and the American red, Rubus strigosus. Though
similar in general appearance and in their botanical
characters, there are essential points of difference.
For the strictly botanical differences, the reader is
referred to the description of the two species. It
may be said, however, that, in general, the European
plant is rather stouter and less free in its habit of
growth, the leaves are a little whiter beneath, thicker,
and generally somewhat wrinkled, and the canes are
light colored, bearing purple prickles in some varieties.
The prickles on the finer parts are firmer, recurved and
less numerous.

The horticultural differences are more marked than
the botanical differences, the chief one being the habit
of the European raspberry to continue bearing more or
less throughout the greater portion of the season after
ripening begins. This is a feature which, while it may
be desirable in a home berry, is a disadvantage in a
market berry. Another important point of difference
between the two species is in hardiness. Few, if any
of the European varieties can be depended upon to
endure our winters, except in the most favorable locali-
ties, without protection, and even then they are un-

186 BUSH-FRUITS

reliable. It is also probable that our hot, dry summers
are as important a factor in working their injury as the
cold of winter. No better evidence of their lack of
adaptability to our climate is needed than the fact that
while there have been something like one hundred
varieties belonging to this species introduced in the
United States, probably not over five or six are grown
at all at the present time, and these only in a very
small way. The fruit is generally conceded to be of
better quality than our American reds, and if the
plants had proved satisfactory, this species would natur-
ally have been in the ascendency. The following ac-
count of the history of the red raspberries was con-
tributed to The American Garden by the writer.

HISTORY AND FUTURE OP THE KED RASPBERRIES

The history of the European raspberry, Eubus Idceus, runs far
back into the ages. It it mentioned by Cato, who lived before the
beginning of the Christian era, and it appears to have been a natural
product of Roman territory. Pliny the Elder, supposed to have
written about A. D. 45, mentions it as one of the wild brambles
which the Greeks called "Idea," having derived its name from
Mount Ida, in Asia Minor, at the foot of which lay the renowned
city of Troy. In this mountain were said to dwell fabulous be-
ings, who were credited with being the first to work iron and
copper, and with having introduced music and rhythm into Greece.
Perhaps we may infer that in the exercise of the marvelous powers
which they were alleged to possess, they produced this glorious
fruit to appease some angry god, or gladden the eye and delight
the taste of a gracious princess. Although deriving its name from
this locality, where it was particularly abundant, the raspberry is
indigenous over the greater part of Europe and northern Asia. It
is impossible to tell whether the plants were cultivated at this early

«|i The Defcription.

^€ jframbope iSafeinDeof
^emble,tt>l)ofeieaues ant)

nuc id rougi) anD pucbiep 3noj fet uritty
fo man? (Ijarpe pztcUles>3 and t'om times
toif^out pi(cfeies>efpeciaitp tljenexue

bertie ts re&De^bat ot^erwife it i^lpbe

petenevu H;utc

tlje ncpt peere Doo bjing foojt^ teto

fiowcr^anlsfnute,

^^e f rambopeis foimDe m fome

ant) in t^tiS Countnetijeppianteititi
garDen?J , anD it louetlj
placet
notoften*

Fig. 29. Description of -the raspberry by Dodoens, 1578.

188 BUSH-FRUITS

date, and it is not unlikely that the gods, like many mortals of the
present day, were obliged to be content with the precarious supply
to be found growing at will in grove and glade. Palladeus, how-
ever, a Roman writer of the fourth century, mentions the rasp-
berry as one of the cultivated fruits of that time. From a work
written by Conrad Heresbach, entitled "Rei Rusticee," published
in 1570, and afterward translated by Barnaby Googe, it appears
that raspberries were little, attended to during that period. John
Parkinson, in his "Paradisus," published in 1629, speaks of red,
white and thornless raspberries as suitable for the English climate.
Stephen Switzer, in 1724, only mentions three kinds. George W.
Johnson, in his "History of English Gardening," published in
1829, gives the number of cultivated varieties as twenty-three.
From these detached notes it appears that although cultivated at
least as far back as the fourth century, it nevertheless did not
come to be considered a fruit of any importance and demand at-
tention until the close of the sixteenth century, or later.

The raspberry never seems to have been held in such high
esteem for its medicinal properties as the blackberry. Gerard
Dewes, in his translation of "Dodoen's Niewe Herball," or "His-
torie of Plantes," published in 1578, enumerates the following
"vertues:"

w The leaves, tender springes, fruit and roote of this Bramble
are not much unlyke, in vertue and working, to the leaves, shutes,
fruite and rootes of the other Bramble, as Dioscorides writeth.

" The flowers of Easpis are good to be bruysed with hony, and
layde to the inflammations and hoate humours gathered togither in
the eyes, and Erysipelas or wilde fire, for it quencheth such hoate
burninges.

" They be also good to be dronken with water of them that have
weake stomackes."

The illustration (Fig. 29 ) shows a specimen of the text of this
work, giving the description, habitat and time of flowering of the
Framboye, Raspis or Hyndberie, as the raspberry was then called
in French, English and German, respectively. The figure of the
plant (Fig. 30) is reproduced from John Gerarde's "Historie of
Plantes," published in 1597.

Tig. 30. Gerarde's picture of the raspberry, 1597.

190 BUSH-FRUITS

After the settlement of this country the first attempts at culti-
vation, as with other fruits, were with varieties which had been
familiar in England. In the second edition of William R. Prince's
" Pomological Manual," published in 1832, fourteen varieties are
described and six others mentioned as meriting culture. All but
four of these are probably varieties of R. Idceus, although in some
cases it is impossible to decide with certainty. Of these four, at
least three appear to be forms of E. strlgosus from different lo-
calities, while the fourth may belong to the Rubus neglectus, or
Purple -cane type. One of the varieties which appears to be
European may also belong here. The American Pomological
Society, at its second session in 1853, recommended four varieties
for general cultivation, and commended one more as promising, all
of which were foreign sorts. In the catalogue, as recommended
by the last session in 1891, there appear fourteen varieties of
Rubus Idceus, one of which is placed there doubtfully, and six of
which are seedlings of American origin. There are also twenty -
nine native varieties, six of which are classed under R. neglectus,
fourteen under R. occidentalis, and nine under R. strigosus. This,
however, is far from representing the true state of comparative
cultivation of the foreign and native species and varieties at the
present time, for of the fourteen foreign varieties and their seed-
lings still retained, not over five or six are now cultivated to any
extent, and these only in very limited areas.

While the Rubus Idceus type is everywhere acknowledged to be
much superior in the quality of its fruit, it is not able to maintain
itself against summer suns and winter winds, and has had to give
place to hardier sorts, better able to fight their own battles and
emerge from them bearing abundant trophies of fruit, not so ex-
quisite, perhaps, yet more substantial and sure. Moreover, with
the gradual improvement which has gone on, there is at present
little need for foreign varieties. The best of our natives yield
fruit which is doubtless far superior to that which gratified the
gods on Mount Ida in those days of war and wonder. Among
the first varieties of R. strigosus to become prominent were the
Stoever and Brandywine. The former is a form of the American
red, found wild near Lake Dunmore, in Vermont, by Jefferson F.

EVOLUTION OF THE RASPBERRY 191

Stoever, and removed to his garden at Tacony, near Philadelphia,
where it first fruited in 1859. The Brandy wine, or Susqueco, as it
was at one time called (Susqueco being the Iridian name for
Brandy wine), is of unknown origin. It first attracted attention in
the Wilmington market, and was for a time called Wilmington.

We are accustomed to boast of the marvelous progress in all
lines of American development. What advance can we show in
the improvement of the raspberry? Some, to be sure, but most of
it has been mere accident. In looking up the history of varieties
it is the same story over and over again — " a chance seedling
found growing wild, etc." Nearly all of our prominent varieties
have originated in this way. A few men have gone to work system-
atically to breed and develop varieties. The first and most
prominent of these was Dr. William D. Brinckle", of Philadelphia —
a busy physician, who, having a taste for pomology, pursued it as
a means of recreation from other duties. He experimented with
strawberries and pears, as well as with raspberries. So important
was his work in these lines that he seems to be much better re-
membered for that than for his medical reputation, although he
was successful and prominent in this field also. He was president
of the American Pomological Society at its second session, and for
many years vice-president of the Pennsylvania Horticultural
Society, repeatedly refusing its presidency. Unfortunately his
work on raspberries was with the Eubus Idceus species, and most of
the varieties which he produced have suffered the fate of the class
to which they belonged; yet he obtained in Brinckle 's Orange the
variety which has stood as the desideratum to be sought in quality
to the present day. Another who achieved good results in this
line was David W. Herstine, of Branchtown, near Philadelphia,
the originator of the Herstine, Saunders, Ruby and Elizabeth rasp-
berries ; yet these were simply seedlings of the Allen, grown in
alternate rows with the Philadelphia. William Saunders, of
Ontario, has also produced a number of varieties, some of which
are said to be hybrids.

Good as the varieties are which we have, we want further im-
provements. Nothing is good enough to satisfy human demands.
We want back all we have lost in giving up the raspberry of our

192 BUSH-FRUITS

forefathers beyond the sea ; but coupled with that, we want all we
have gained from the hardier species of our own country. We
want a red raspberry as good as Brinckle"'s Orange in quality,
as large and productive as Cuthbert and of brighter color, as hardy
as the Turner, and we want it on a black -cap bush without the
thorns. Will we get it? The Shaffer is our nearest approach at
present. What the possibilities of careful, systematic and pro-
gressive breeding are, only the future can show.

VARIETIES OF AMERICAN RED RASPBERRIES

American Red (Common Red, English Red).— Prince states
in the Pomological Manual published in 1832, that although this is
a native of New York, growing naturally in the Catskill moun-
tains, it is frequently termed English Red. He says the shoots
are of a dark red hue and grow very long. The spines on the
present year's shoots are purplish in color near the base, but
greenish, with brown or purplish barbs or points on the upper
part. The fruit is one of the earliest to mature, of medium size,
fine flavor and greatly esteemed. He comments on the fact that
this is the only variety grown to any extent for the New York
market, and that there were nearly one hundred acres on Long
Island devoted to its culture at that time. Evidently this is a
forerunner of American Red raspberry culture, but undoubtedly
plants from various sources passed under this name. In fact,
from the vague use of the term in early writings, it seems even
possible that the name may have been also applied to plants of the
Rubus neglectus or Rubus Idceus types.

Andrews. — Thought by J. T. Lovett to be identical with High-
land Hardy, while James Smith, of Iowa, is positive that this and
the Highland Hardy are only the Kirtland renamed.

Bagley Perpetual (Bagley's Everbearing). — Originated about
1854, at New Haven, Conn. Introduced in 1858 by A. Bridgeman,
a florist of New York. Said to be hardy, and comparatively
spineless. Fruit medium, nearly round, dark crimson, rather
soft, acid, of poor quality. Bears a second crop in autumn.

Brandywine (Susqueco, Wilmington). — Said to have been found
near Brandywine Creek at Wilmington, Del. It first attracted
attention in the Wilmington market, and was for a time called the
Wilmington. Mr. Edward Tatnell, of that city, undertook to in-
troduce it under the name Susqueco, the Indian name for the
Brandywine. Described as stocky, hardy, with large, reddish

AMERICAN BED VARIETIES 193

colored canes, suckering freely. Fruit medium to large, bright
scarlet, firm, juicy, of inferior quality.

Bristol. — According to William Parry, this is a strong, hardy,
vigorous grower, suckering immoderately. Fruit resembling the
Brandy wine, but not so large nor firm.

Canada Red.— Mentioned by Prince in 1832, as a variety first
noticed by him growing along the roadside a few miles from Mon-
treal, where the plants were to be met with in great abundance.
He describes it as of medium size, resembling the common red in
quality, with a high and rather peculiar flavor.

Carpenter No. 1. — A vigorous grower, early, fairly productive.
Fruit small to medium, bright red.

Coleman No. 1. — Not a very vigorous grower, but fairly pro-
ductive. Fruit small, soft, fine-flavored. — Ninth Annual Report
Geneva (N. Y.) Exp. Sta.

Cole Prolific.— Exhibited at the Chicago Exposition in 1893 by
the Fruit Growers' Association of Ontario. Found growing wild
on the farm of R. D. Cole, of Port Dalhousie, Ontario.

Crimson Beauty. — Found by Dr. Stay man, of Leavenworth,
Kans., in 1875, growing in a patch of Imperial. Introduced by
A. M. Purdy, of Palmyra, N. Y. Described as large, bright,
glossy, scarlet, round to oblong, with a pleasant sprightly flavor,
early, hardy and productive. Deficient in pollen production, and
must be planted near some free pollen -producing sort to bear
well. It has never proved valuable in the eastern states.

Cuthbert (Conover, Queen of the Market, Quinby's Favorite). —
Probably the best known of all red raspberries, and the most
desirable single market sort. It was a chance seedling found by
Thomas Cuthbert in his garden at Riverdale, now in New York
city, about 1865. It is a strong, vigorous, upright grower, some-
times branching; spines short, stout, purplish, rather numerous
toward the base, but often wanting toward the tips. Fruit large,
dark crimson, obtuse conical, grains rather small and compact.
Flesh quite firm, juicy, sprightly, and of fair quality. Its chief
defect as a market berry is its color, which is rather too dark.
Mr. Conover, the asparagus man, seeing its value, spread it in
his neighborhood, giving it undesignedly the name Conover. In
New Jersey it was disseminated by William Parry as Queen of
the Market. As yet, no other variety has displaced it.

Eastern King. — Found by O. A. King, of Deering, Maine, in a
garden in the town of Westbrook, about 1864 or 1865. A dull red
sort, said to be larger, earlier and more productive than the Cuth-
bert, though this claim has not been substantiated in Michi-
gan.—Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. 111:270.

194 BUSH-FRUITS

Golden Queen. — This was found on the grounds of Ezra Stokes,
of Camden, N. J., about 1883, in a twelve -acre patch of Cuthbert.
In fact, to all intents and purposes, it is a Cuthbert with yellow
fruit. Sports in color from this variety are not uncommon. In-
stances are recorded where part of the berries on a shoot have
been yellow and part red, and even the individual fruits have
been variegated. The variety is one of the most satisfactory
yellow- fruited sorts, possessing much the same qualities as its
parent, the Cuthbert. While light colored varieties are not in de-
mand for market, a few plants for home use are always desirable.

Hansell. — A chance seedling found on the farm of Hansell
Bros., near Beverly, N. J., about 1875. Introduced by J. T.
Lovett in 1882. Moderately vigorous, suckering freely, with dark,
reddish green, hairy shoots. Leaves finely wrinkled. Fruit of
medium size, dark red, with slight bloom, rather soft, subacid,
pleasant, not rich. Obtained considerable prominence at one
time as an early variety. Said to be difficult to transplant and to
propagate from root cuttings.

Harris.— Sent out by Z. H. Harris, of Eochester, N. Y., in
1889. Plant fairly vigorous, but of dwarf habit, standing well
without pinching. Fruit large, bright, firm, and of good flavor.
Not quite hardy.

Highland Hardy (Highland Antwerp).— A sport or chance seed-
ling which originated near Highland village, on the Hudson, about
1870. Very early, but fruit medium to small, red, of poor flavor.
Said to be very susceptible to injury from summer heat.

Hudson River Red. — A native red variety. Exhibited before the
Cincinnati Horticultural Society in 1860 by F. W. Slack, of
Kentucky, who was at that time growing it for the Cincinnati
market.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 284.

Imperial Red (Bed Imperial).— A variety grown in New Jer-
sey, where it proved hardy. Fruit medium, roundish, scarlet,
half firm, juicy, pleasant. Found to succeed better in the South
than most varieties.

I. X. L. — A chance seedling discovered by Charles Schlessler,
of Naperville, 111., in 1887. Said to be vigorous; canes purplish.
Fruit light, dull red, of medium size, crumbling, nearly sweet, of
good flavor.

Kenyon.— Introduced by O. A. Kenyon, of McGregor, la., who
found it growing among black raspberries about 1885. Bush of
medium size, quite vigorous and fairly productive. Fruit quite
large, firm, but crumbling a little, deep dark red, with fair flavor.
Clings tightly to the receptacle.

London, — Originated by Frank W. Loudon, of Janesville, Wis.,

AMERICAN BED VARIETIES 195

who states that it is a seedling of the Turner crossed with the
Cuthbert. Canes vigorous, hardy and productive. Berry as large
as or larger than Cuthbert, somewhat conical. Grains large, with a
suture, firm and of a good red color, but not equal to Cuthbert in
quality. One of the promising newer varieties. Introduced by
Charles A. Green, of Rochester.

Marlboro. — A popular variety originated by A. J. Caywood,
of Marlboro, N. Y., who described it as follows:* "A cross of
the Highland Hardy, and a seedling started from English Globe
and the Hudson River Antwerp thirty years ago. It is a larger
grower, with stronger canes than any known variety ; hardy in the
fullest sense; berries averaging three-quarters of an inch in
diameter, and when not retarded by long, severe drought, many of
them will average one inch. It will remain four days on the
bushes after ripe, and is then marketable. It is bright crimson in
color, and does not lose its brilliancy when over-ripe." Its pa-
rentage would indicate a mixture of Rubus Idceus blood, but this is
not apparent in the plant itself. Charles Downing considered
it an improved seedling of the Rubus strigosus type. He says:f
"The growth and habit of throwing up numerous suckers, the
strong, vigorous, upright canes, branching a little toward the top,
nearly smooth, with a few short, scattering spines, and peculiar
reddish color of the new leaves at the end of the new shoot, the
color and flavor of the fruit, all indicate strongly its native
origin." This is one of the best known and most generally
prized early market sorts. Hardy, vigorous, productive, and a
thoroughly good, all-round berry.

Mary. — Raised from seed by Professor William Saunders, of
London, Ont. Fruit light red, as large as Cuthbert, with large
drupes, moderately firm, quality fair to good. Plant productive,
hardy and fairly vigorous.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill : 290.

Meredith Queen. — Discovered growing wild in the town of
Meredith, Delaware county, N. Y., in 1880, by E. J. Brownell,
who sent out plants for trial in 1883. A late variety of moderate
growth. Fairly hardy, and only moderately productive, much of
the fruit being imperfect. Bearing canes dark brown; new
growth purplish green, tips red; suckers freely. Fruit medium
size, of pale orange or reddish salmon color. It is a strictly
native red raspberry except in color, and is of interest from
being a yellow representative of this species.

Michigan (Michigan Early).— Introduced about 1883 by William
Parry, of New Jersey. It was generally supposed to have orig-

"Country Gentleman, 1883: 338.
tMich. Hort. Soc. 1884: 252.

196 BUSH-FRUITS

inated in Michigan, though William Parry, Jr., is under the im-
pression that the first plants came from Tennessee. Plant lack-
ing in vigor and productiveness. Fruit roundish conical, rather
small, of inferior quality. Moderately firm, dark red. Appar-
ently of no real value.

Miller (Miller's Woodland). — A very popular variety in the
Delaware peninsula. Origin same as the Brandywine. De-
scribed as strong, vigorous, not too high, adapted to bear very
large crops without drooping, hardy and productive. Fruit very
large, bright crimson, which it holds well in market; firm,
sprightly, subacid, of excellent quality. Resembles Brandywine
under favorable circumstances, but ripens earlier. Said to give
its largest pickings very early, but its largest berries very late.
It has not succeeded so well in other sections.

Miller Favorite. — Mentioned as on trial at the Michigan Ex-
periment Station in 1887.— Bull. Ill: 291.

Niagara. — A Canada variety which apparently has some good
qualities. Flavor and texture good; color dark. Apparently
vigorous and productive.

Olaihe (Stayman's No. 5). — Originated by J. Stayman, of
Leavenworth, Kans., from seed of Reliance. Canes rather slender,
vigorous, upright, dark red. Fruit large, firm, juicy, of good
quality and color, ripening among the last; productive.

Osceola. — Originated in Osceola county, in northwestern Iowa.
Said to be extremely hardy, but soft in fruit. — Mich. Exp. Sta.
Bull. Ill: 297.

Parry's Nos. 1 and 2. — Originated with William Parry, of
New Jersey, but not considered by him worth naming and in-
troducing. No. 1 is an early variety, of rank growth, dark foli-
age, fairly productive, soft, of good flavor. No. 2 later, more
productive, not so rank a grower, large, firm, of distinct flavor.

Pearl (Red Pearl). — Origin unknown. Cultivated consider-
ably about Philadelphia at one time. The plant is a very short,
stocky grower, seldom over three feet high. Spines numerous,
long, slender, light colored, slightly tinged with purple. Suckers
very numerous. Moderately productive and hardy. Fruit me-
dium, nearly round, bright scarlet, sweet, juicy, moderately firm,
with an agreeable flavor.

Pennsylvanian. — A variety mentioned by Prince, in the Porno-
logical Manual, as obtained from a London nursery under the
name Rubus Pennsylvanicus, but which he had later found to be
identical with plants received from the forests of Maine.

Perfection. — A variety originated by F. W. Loudon, of Janes-
ville, Wisconsin, and said to be a cross between the Cuthbert and

AMERICAN RED VARIETIES 197

the Turner. Described as productive ; fruit large, handsome, of
good color and flavor, juicy, not so firm as the Cuthbert.

Pomona. — Introduced by William Parry about 1887. One of
the most uniformly productive varieties grown at the Geneva
(N. Y.) Experiment Station. Of vigorous growth and fine ap-
pearance. Fruit a pleasing red, large and firm. Season very long.

Queen of the Market. — See Cuthbert.

Eancocas. — Introduced by William H. Moon, of Morrisville,
Pa., in 1884. Originated as a seedling on the farm of J. S.
Hansell, taking its name from the place of its origin, on the
Bancocas Creek. An early variety of weak or only moderate
growth, hardy, and fairly productive. Fruit of medium size,
firm, of good color, but rather poor quality. Yields the bulk of
its crop early in the season.

Re(e)der. — A seedling found near Stevensville, Mich., about
1875. Described as somewhat lacking in vigor. Canes slender,
quite tender. Fruit round, only moderately firm, of good quality.
Apparently never proved valuable.

Bed Queen. — Mentioned by William Parry, in 1869, as no
longer popular. — Gar. Month. 11 : 237.

Royal Church. — Originated on the farm of Eoyal Church, of
Harrisonville, Ohio, near where a lot of Herstine and Philadel-
phia varieties had been grown. Plants vigorous, productive, and
hardy. Fruit very large, dark crimson, moderately firm, of ex-
cellent quality. Rather too dark in color. This may belong
with the Rubus neglectus group.

Scarlet. — Under this name was disseminated a sort found
mixed with the Allen as sent out. It was distributed by John
Crane, of Union county, N. Y.. who simply stated the facts, not
claiming it to be a new variety. Fuller thinks it probable, from
the description, that it was Allen's Prolific.

Scarlet Gem. — A seedling of the Crimson Beauty, originated
by Dr. J. Stayman, of Leavenworth, Kans., in 1876. Described
as early, moderately vigorous, comparatively hardy, of medium
productivenes. Fruit bright red, of medium size, but deficient
in quality and firmness. Like its parent, it needs to be near
other varieties to insure pollination.

Stayman No. 2.— Bed, hardy, equal to Crimson Beauty. —
Samuel Miller, Missouri Hort. Soc. Bep. 1883: 203.

Stoever. — A form of the American Bed, found wild near Lake
Dunmore, Vermont, by Jefferson F. Stoever, who removed and
fruited it near Philadelphia, in 1859. Described as large, roundish
conical, rich crimson color, and of good flavor, with a tendency
to autumn fruiting.— Hov. Mag. 1860: 124.

198 BUSH-FRUITS

Talcott.—Se-ut out for trial by G. H. & J. H. Hale of Connecticut,
in 1883. Much like Turner except in form. Plant lacking in
vigor; fruit small and very early.

Thompson Early Pride.— Sent out in 1888 by the Cleveland
Nursery Co. Described as upright, vigorous, hardy and fairly
productive. Fruit of medium size, firm, juicy and good.

Thompson Early Prolific. — Also sent out by the Cleveland
Nursery Co. A moderate grower, fairly productive. Fruit of me-
dium size, bright crimson, quite firm, ripening early.

Thwack. — Introduced by T. W. Foster, of Louisiana, Mo., as
obtained from T. S. Wilson, of New York, who claimed it to be a
cross between Herstine and Brandy wine. Hardy, vigorous, produc-
tive ; canes stout, brownish green, with few spines. Fruit large,
ovate -conical, bright red, with slight whitish pubescence. Flesh
pale red, rather firm, moderately juicy, mild, not rich. Attained
prominence as a market berry, notwithstanding its poor quality.

Trusty. — A variety of unknown origin, on trial in Canada.
Said to be of medium size, round, dark red, slightly downy, of
good quality, firm, very productive, and late. Canes resembling
Cuthbert, but more hardy.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 315.

Turner (Southern Thornless, Bed Thornless, Southern Red,
Baldwin's Choice, Balding's Choice) .—Originated by Prof. J. B.
Turner, of Jacksonville, 111. A full account of its origin is given
in E. P. Eoe's " Success with Small Fruits." It was for a long
time one of the most popular varieties, and is still much grown.
Very hardy, vigorous; canes of a golden reddish brown color,
overspread with a purple bloom. Almost free from spines. Fruit
large, bright crimson, roundish conical, soft, sweet, and of excel-
lent flavor. The distribution of plants by a man named Baldwin
undoubtedly caused it to receive the name Baldwin's Choice, evi-
dently corrupted to Balding's Choice.

Virginia Red. — A variety mentioned by Prince in the Porno -
logical Manual, published in 1832.

Welsh. — A seedling raised by Isaac Welsh, of Camden county,
N. J. Described as early, of medium size, bright red, firm, not of
high quality. Vigorous, productive, and unusually hardy.

White -fruited. — A white-fruited form of Eubus strigosus was
sent to the Cornell University Experiment Station, by A. S.
Fuller. The plant possesses all the characters of Rubus strigosus,
and has nothing of importance to distinguish it from that species.

Winant. — A seedling raised in New Jersey. Introduced by
Frank Ford & Son, of Eavenna, Ohio. Said to resemble Thwack.
A strong, vigorous, upright grower, perfectly hardy, productive.
Fruit large, clear bright red, firm.

EUROPEAN-TYPE VARIETIES 199

RECOMMENDED VARIETIES

A vote for the most thoroughly tried and generally
satisfactory American red raspberries would probably
result in the election of Marlboro for early and Cuth-
bert for late. To this should be added Golden Queen,
if a yellow variety is wanted. London is younger, but
is pushing rapidly into the field, while Miller seems
to please on the Delaware peninsula.

IV. THE EUROPEAN RED RASPBERRIES
Eubus Idceus

At the beginning of raspberry culture in the United
States the European red raspberry had all the advan-
tage of age and breeding on its side, but with the
climate against it, it has lost the race. This has hap-
pened, too, notwithstanding the fact that there has
been no serious difficulty in growing it here. More
than one hundred varieties have been introduced, many
of them having been seedlings produced in America,
but in spite of that, few are now known or grown to
any extent. Their quality and appearance recommends
them to the amateur's garden, and it is chiefly there
that they are found. The varieties of this class are
usually less hardy, slightly more stocky in growth of
cane, and continue to ripen their fruit through a longer
season. See Section III. for a history of this type.

VARIETIES OF THE EUROPEAN BED TYPE

All Summer. — Introduced by John Lewis Childs, of Floral
Park, N. Y., as having been purchased from Mrs. A. A. Stowe,

200 BUSH-FRUITS

of Hailey, Idaho, who obtained it from California, though the
plants came originally from Mexico. Said to be strong, stocky,
vigorous and prolific, with large rank foliage, hardy in winter
and summer. Fruit large, dark red, and of excellent quality.
Eecommended for its ability to endure extreme heat.

Alpine. — Imported from the Mediterranean with Cretan Red
and Flesh -colored by William E. Prince, who believed them
to be closely related.

Amazon.— Sent out from Edesville, Md., as a new variety, but
thought by those who received it to be the Fontenay.

4rnold Orange (Orange King) . — Originated with Charles
Arnold, Paris, Ont. Canes strong, branching, yellowish brown,
almost smooth, and producing but few suckers. Fruit large,
somewhat shorter than Brinckle's Orange, of a darker orange
color, unsurpassed for flavor. Said to be a yellow-cap crossed
with Rubus Idceus.

Arnold Red. — Origin same as the previous; the best known
of Mr. Arnold's seedlings. Hardy, vigorous, canes dark purple,
somewhat drooping. Spines slightly purple, stout, quite nu-
merous. Fruit large, red, about the size and shape of Phila-
delphia, but of superior flavor. Said to bear a good crop both in
July and in September. Also said to be a cross between the
yellow-cap, Rubus occidentalis, and Rubus Idceus.

Arnold Yellow (Yellow Canada). — Of the same origin and pa-
rentage as the two preceding. Fruit nearly white, large, and fine
flavored but not equal to Brinckle's Orange. Plant of a peculiar
albino appearance, quite vigorous, productive and hardy. Suckers
freely. Bears early and again sparingly in autumn.— Mich. Exp.
Sta. Bull. Ill: 258.

Baker.— A seedling of Merveille des Quatre Saisons. Kaised
by Mr. Parnell, of Cincinnati.

Barnet (Cornwall's Prolific, Cornwall's Seedling, Lord Ex-
mouth, Large Bed, Barnet Antwerp, Barnet Cane). — An old Eng-
lish variety, said by Prince to bear considerable resemblance to the
Red Antwerp, but distinguished from it by its branching canes
and long, slender, reddish prickles. Said to have been raised
from seed by a person named Cornwall, at Barnet, Herefordshire.

Baumforth (Baumforth's Seedling).- Originated in England
from seed of the Northumberland Fillbasket. Said to be stronger,
more productive, larger, and a richer crimson than its parent.

Biggar Seedling .—'Raised by C. A. Biggar, of Drummond-
ville, Ont., from an unknown European variety. Largely used as
a parent variety by Professor William Saunders, of London, Ont.,
in producing his hybrid varieties.

EUROPEAN-TYPE VARIETIES 201

Black (English Black).— Mentioned by Downing as a hybrid
from England. An old variety.

Brentford Cane.— Mentioned by Prince and spoken of toy Fuller
as an old English variety of little or no value. Placed among the
inferior varieties in the nurserymen's catalogues about 1825.

Brentford Red. — Spoken of by Prince in the Pomological
Manual as a variety of excellent quality and high flavor; produc-
tive, and continuing a long time in bearing, often producing a
second crop in August.

Brentford White. — Offered by Prince & Mills, Flushing, N. Y.,
in 1822. Doubtless an English variety, judging from its name.

Bromley Hill. — "An old red, English variety of fair quality,
but not productive."— Fuller.

Burlington (Prosser). — Originated by Benjamin Prosser, of
Burlington, N. J. Downing states that there was some confusion
over this variety, two or three having been sent out under the
name. The one they had he describes as "moderately vigorous
and productive. Spines greenish white with a brown tinge, slen-
der and more numerous than any kind we have ever seen. Fruit
large, roundish conical. Grains rather small, compact, scarlet.
Flesh quite firm, juicy, sweet, good."

Carter Prolific.— An English variety, with strong canes and
purplish spines. Fruit large, roundish obtuse conical, deep
scarlet, with slight bloom. Firm, moderately juicy, sweet and
pleasant.— Downing.

Champlain. — A chance seedling found in the garden of Mr.
Macomber, of Grand Isle county, Vt. Believed to be from seed
of White Antwerp, which it much resembles in the character of
its canes. Introduced by Ellwanger & Barry in 1892. Described
as vigorous and productive, with a tendency for the bark to split
and curl. Thorns numerous and small. Foliage rich green,
much wrinkled. Fruit large, lighter in color and more abun-
dant than the White Antwerp, with seeds smaller, while the
drupes are fully as large. Juicy, melting, and of high flavor.
Too soft for market, but a good family variety.

Charles the Bold. — Mentioned as one of Arnold's hybrids.—
Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 263.

Christine. — A very late red variety of indifferent flavor, sent
out by E. P. Eoe.

Clarke.— Raised by E. E. Clarke, New Haven, Conn. De-
scribed as strong, vigorous and upright. Spines purplish, rather
long and stiff. Fruit large, conical, regular. Grains large, quite
hairy, bright crimson. Flesh rather soft, juicy, sweet and ex-
cellent. Apparently one of the best adapted to our climate of

202 BUSR-FRUITS

the foreign varieties. Said to be capable of enduring more heat
and cold than most varieties. Found to be productive at the
Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment Station*.

Cline. — A chance seedling sent out for trial by G. W. Cline,
Winona, Ont., in 1893. Fruit of medium size, red, firm, sweet,
of poor quality; inferior to Turner, but very early.

Colonel Wilder. — A seedling raised by Dr. W. D. Brinckle, of
Philadelphia, Pa., from seed of the Fastolf, and named in honor
of Marshall P. Wilder. Foliage much crumpled, spines white.
Fruit large, roundish, very delicate yellowish white or cream
color, semi-transparent. One of the finest flavored raspberries,
and very productive. Flesh soft.

Cope (Vice -President Cope). — Originated with Dr. Brinckle, and
named in honor of Caleb Cope, vice-president of the American
Pomological Society for Pennsylvania in 1852. Thomas calls it
a late sub-variety of the Red Antwerp.

Cornish. — An English variety which Fuller speaks of as old
and discarded at the time his book was written.

Cox Honey. — An old English white variety.

Cretan Bed. — Imported from the Mediterranean by Prince,
who says it resembles the Antwerp class in foliage, but with
fewer spines. Thomas describes it as rather late, productive;
canes upright, gray, nearly smooth; leaves light colored; fruit
medium, roundish conical, purplish red, subacid,, good.

Crystal White. — A seedling originated by A. J. Cay wood, of
Marlboro, N. Y. Canes vigorous; foliage deep green. Fruit
light lemon color, which easily stains, and becomes worthless for
market; moderately firm, of good quality and flavor. Possibly
belongs to the Eubus neglectus class.

Gushing. — Raised by Dr. BrincklS, of Philadelphia, and named
in honor of J. P. Gushing, of Watertown, Mass. Described as
large, roundish conical, light crimson, regular in form, juicy,
sprightly, good. Grains small and compact. Spines brownish
purple, stiff and rather numerous. Dr. Brinckle said that in
favorable seasons it would produce an autumn crop of fine berries.

Delaware. — Said to be an American seedling of the Hornet. A
hardy, red variety, reasonably vigorous and productive. Fruit of
medium size, rather soft, but sweet and delicate.

Diadem — Produced by Charles Arnold, of Ontario, by crossing
the American White -cap with Franconia, a seedling of this cross
with White Four- seasons, and the offspring of this by Hornet,
Imperial, and Fontenay, the Diadem being one of the resulting
seedlings. Described as fairly vigorous, hardy, large, red or
pinkish, of good quality. Seems to have been little grown.

EUROPEAN-TYPE VARIETIES 203

Double-Bearing Bed (Perpetual -Bearing, Twice -Bearing, Late
Liberian, Late Cane, etc.). — Mentioned by Prince and by Bridge-
man. Downing says, it was formerly esteemed for its autumn
bearing habit, but was then superseded by better kinds.

Downing. — A seedling of the Orange, by Charles Downing.

Duhring. — A seedling of Hornet originated by Henry Duhring, of
Belmont, near Philadelphia. Little known outside of that vicinity.

Dyack Seedling. — Imported by Robert Buist, of Philadelphia,
about 1840, and known only as a parent of Brinckle"'s Orange. —
Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 271.

Early Prolific. — An old English variety of poor flavor. — Fuller.

Emily. — One of Dr. Brinckle's seedlings which proved unworthy
of attention.

Empire — A seedling of Biggar raised by Prof. William Saunders,
of London, Out. Described as early, productive, fairly vigorous.
Fruit medium to large, conical, bright red, firm and of good
quality.

English Cane (Twice-Bearing). — For sale by Prince & Mills,
of Flushing, L. I., in 1822. Perhaps the same as Double -bearing
or some of the other English varieties.

English Giant. — Imported from Denmark, by W. D. Barnes &
Son, Middlehope, N. Y. On trial at the Geneva (N. Y.) Ex-
periment Station in 1894.

English Globe.— A variety mentioned by Downing.

English White (Old English Yellow[?]).— For sale by Prince
& Mills, of Flushing, L. I., in 1822 at 8 cents each. The
White Antwerp sold at 25 cents each, and the American White at
12% cents each, so this could hardly have been either of those.

Everbearing Bed. — Mentioned by William Parry in 1869 as no
longer popular. Also recorded as a failure in Canada.

Fastolf (Filby) . — One of the best English varieties, which de-
rived its name from having originated near the ruins of an old
castle of that name in Great Yarmouth. First advertised by Yuell
& Co., in the Gardeners' Chronicle in 1843. Eipens about ten days
earlier than Franconia. Figured in Hovey's Magazine 1846: 299.
Crozier* cites a reference which seems to indicate a much earlier
origin.

Flesh-Colored (Frambosier Couleur de Chair). — Said to have
been obtained by William R. Prince from the Mediterranean with
the Cretan Eed, which it closely resembles.

Fontenay (Belle de Fontenay, Belle d'Orleans, Amazon). — A

*Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 274.

204 BUSH-FRUITS

French variety with stocky, vigorous, and somewhat branching
canes, suckering abundantly, especially when young. Fruit large,
roundish conical, purplish red, moderately firm, with a rich,
sprightly flavor. One of the hardiest and most reliable European
varieties. Crozier spells this name Fontenoy -

Four -Seasons Red (Merveille de Quatre Saisons, October
Red). — A French variety having the autumn -bearing habit espe-
cially developed. Thought by many American cultivators to be
the same as Fontenay.

Four-Seasons Yellow (White Four -Seasons, October Yellow) . —
Imported from France in 1863 by Charles Arnold, of Paris, Ont.
Said to be a seedling of the preceding, and similar to it in all re-
spects except color. — Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 275.

Franconia (Abel, Naomi [?]). — Received from Messrs. Vil-
morin, of Paris, many years ago by Samuel G. Perkins. Said to
have been little known in European catalogues except as returned
from this country. It was one of the comparatively well known
foreign varieties on this side of the water.

French (Vice-President French). — Raised by Dr. Brinckle,
from Fastolf crossed with Yellow Antwerp, and named in honor
of B. U. French, vice-president of the Massachusetts Horti-
cultural Society. Described by the originator* as follows: "A
very late variety, which throws up very few suckers, and never
fruits on these until the succeeding year. It is the latest and
most hardy of all my seedling raspberries. It was the result
of a cross between Fastolf and Yellow Antwerp. The seed pro-
duced from this cross was planted, and some twenty or more of
them vegetated. Being desirous of creating new varieties with a
constitution sufficiently hardy to adapt them to the exigencies of
our climate, I subjected them to such severe treatment as to kill
all of them but one. This one bore the hard usage well. The
berry of the French is large, round, and of a deep crimson color."

French Everbearing. — Said to have been recently imported from
France by California nurserymen, where it is becoming popular.

Fulton. — A seedling of the French raised by Dr. Brinckle".
Named in honor of James D. Fulton, of Pennsylvania.

General Patterson. — A seedling of the Colonel Wilder raised by
Dr. Brinckle", and named in honor of General Patterson, of Penn-
sylvania.

Genesee.—A. red variety sent out by Z. H. Harris, of Rochester,
N. Y. Described as a moderate grower. Foliage distinct, large

*Gar. Month. 2: 13&

EUROPEAN-TYPE VARIETIES 205

and wrinkled. Fruit of large size, good color and pleasant flavor,
but soft, and dropping from the plant as soon as fully ripe.

Golden Prague. — Imported from Denmark by W. D. Barnes &
Son, of Middlehope, N. Y. On trial at the Geneva (N. Y.) Ex-
periment Station in 1894.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 277.

Grape (Mason's Seedling Grape). — Raised from seed by Mr.
Mason, a gardener, at Charleston, Mass. Said to have been pro-
duced by crossing the Scarlet Rockingham and Red Antwerp,
and to resemble the Scarlet Antwerp in fruit and plant, but to be a
better bearer, with racemes or bunches of fruits like grapes,
whence its name. This name seems to have appeared in various
places. Quite likely it may have been applied to different plants
at different times.

Heebner. — Described by John Craig, of Ottawa, Canada, as a
large red berry of the Clarke and Hornet type. Of good quality,
but not a good shipper. Not hardy in Ottawa without winter
protection.

Henrietta.— A seedling which sprung up in Connecticut. It
was introduced by G. H. & J. H. Hale, who described it as per-
fectly hardy, remaining green to the tips with a temperature of
twenty-four degrees below zero. Also enduring the heat of sum-
mer well. A vigorous grower, suckering freely. Fruit large, of
high color and firm. Said to be very similar to Fontenay.

Hornet. — A French variety raised by M. Souchet, of Bagnolet,
near Paris. Introduced here by Aubrey & Souchet, of Carpen-
ter's Landing, N. J., about 1859. Figured in the Gardeners'
Monthly 1: 122.

Hudson River Antwerp (New Red Antwerp, North River Ant-
werp) . — Said to have been obtained from England by Mr. Bridge,
of Poughkeepsie, N. Y. E. P. Roe, in "Success with Small
Fruits," gives a most interesting account of the rise and fall of
this variety and the extent which its cultivation reached along the
Hudson in its most successful days.

Huntsman Giant. — A seedling of the Franconia raised by
F. W. Huntsman, of Flushing, N. Y., who grew many seedlings,
hoping to gain a hardy variety equal to the more tender kinds.
This was not claimed to be perfectly hardy, but to be an advance
in this direction, while retaining the good quality of its parent.

Imperial. — A large French variety introduced by Aubrey &
Souchet, of Carpenter's Landing, N. J.

Imperial White. — A variety catalogued by Ellwanger & Barry,
in I860.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 385.

Gillard's Seedling. — An English sort of good quality. — Fuller.

206 B USH-FR (TITS

Jouet.—A French variety introduced here by Aubrey & Souchet,
of Carpenter's Landing, N. J.

King (Thompson's King). — Sent out by the Cleveland Nursery
Co., of Bio Vista, Va., in 1892. Described by H. E. Van De-
man as medium in size, round, light crimson, drupes large,
few, suture plainly marked, moderately firm, juicy, subacid and
good. Professor Beach says* that it shows evidence of Idaeus
parentage.

Knevett Giant. — Imported from England by Marshall P.
Wilder in 1843, having been received as a present from Messrs.
Chandler & Co., of Vauxhall, who stated that the ones they gave
to Mr. Wilder were all they had ever had. They were under the
impression that these were brought in by some person in that
vicinity. The variety became quite popular in this country.

Lady Ann. — A seedling of Biggar Seedling, produced by Pro-
fessor William Saunders, of London, Ont., and now on trial in
Canada. Said to be moderately vigorous, large, firm, and of
good quality.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 287.

Large -fruited Monthly (Bivers's Large-fruited Monthly, Bivers's
New Monthly) . — Said to have been imported from the continent
to England by Thomas Bivers, in 1847, and brought to this
country later. Apparently it never proved valuable here.

Longworth. — One of Dr. BrincklS's Seedlings, which Fuller
describes as large, round, deep crimson.

Lord Beaconsfield. — Mentioned as an English variety on trial at
the Experimental Farm at Agassiz, B. C.

Lost Rubies. — A variety said to have been found growing in
a bed of Naomi by A. M. Purdy, and sent to Charles A.
Green, of Bochester, N. Y., who introduced it. Begarded by
many as identical with Naomi. Whether this be true or not,
the name "Lost Bubies" was very appropriate, for its fruit
proved to be conspicuously absent, most of it being imperfect.

Magnum Bonum. — Introduced from England about 1840. Said
to be similar to, if not the same as, Yellow Antwerp.

Mrs. Ingersoll. — One of Dr. Brinckle's seedlings. Large, yel-
low, and of fair quality.

Mrs. Wilder. — A seedling of the Colonel Wilder, similar in
color. Named by Dr. Brinckle".

Muriel. — A seedling raised from Biggar Seedling by Professor
Saunders. Said to be moderately vigorous, large, dark red,
pointed, rather soft, of best quality, and ripening early.

*Geneva N. Y. Exp. Sta. Bull. 91.

EUROPEAN-TYPE VARIETIES 207

Naomi. — Said to have been produced from seed sown by Mrs.
Governor Wood, of Rockport, Ohio, about 1850. Introduced by
F. R. Elliott. The question of the identity of this variety with
the Franconia was investigated by a committee of the Ohio State
Horticultural Society in 1868. The fact was developed that the
stock sent out from Mrs. Wood's place was very badly mixed.
She grew seedlings from the Red Antwerp and Franconia, and
from the mixture distributed plants. The sort which proved the
best, and thus came to survive as the true Naomi, was doubtless
the Franconia itself, or a seedling of it, which, as may happen
with the offspring of well established varieties, was so nearly
like the parent as to be indistinguishable from it.

Narragansett. — A seedling of Brinckl6's Orange raised by
John F. Jolls, of Providence, R. I., and reported to be large
and productive. Fruit conical, scarlet, of fine flavor.

New Everbearing. — Noticed in the proceedings of the Cincin-
nati Horticultural Society for 1861.

Northumberland Fillbasket. — An English variety introduced
about 1855.

Norwalk. — Introduced in 1879, by Mallory & Downs, of South
Norwalk, Conn. Said to be bright red, fine flavored, and not
crumbly. A superior variety for market and canning. Thought
by Lovett to be the same as Naomi and Franconia.

Nottingham Scarlet. — An old English variety, introduced be-
fore 1850 by Marshall P. Wilder.

Orange (Brinckle's Orange). — This noted variety originated
with Dr. W. D. BrincklS, of Philadelphia, in 1845. It has long
stood as representing the ideal quality to be sought for in the
raspberry. Roe speaks of it as a hybrid between Eubus Idceus
and our native species. It was raised from the seed of Dyack
Seedling, an English variety of deep crimson color, but what the
staminate parent was does not now appear. According to Dr.
Brinckle", it reproduces itself generally from seed. It is described
by Roe* as follows : " It is essentially an Antwerp in character,
and yet it is more vigorous, and adapted to a wider range of
country than the Antwerp. The berry is of a beautiful buff color,
and its delicious flavor is the accepted standard of excellence.
At the same time it is known that it will not thrive under hot
suns or upon light land. It can be raised south of New York
only in cool, moist soils and in shady locations ,• but in the north,
where the conditions of growth are favorable, it produces strong,
branching canes, covered with white spines, and is exceedingly

* Success with Small Fruits.

208 BUSH-FRUITS

productive of large, light colored berries that melt on the tongue.
It always requires winter protection."

Palluau. — A French variety. Described by Downing as strong,
vigorous and upright, bearing large, conical fruit, a little obtuse ;
bright, light crimson.

Papier. — An old French variety. Known also as Le Noire or
Tue-Homme. First introduced about 1820 at Bagnolet, near Paris,
the chief seat of raspberry culture for the Paris market, whence
many of the foreign sorts have been obtained. It is said to have
been soon superseded by other sorts because of its short fruit
stalk, raspberries there being gathered with the stems attached.
Introduced into the United States by Aubrey & Souchet.

Parnell. — Said to be a seedling of Merveille des Quatre
Saisons, raised by Mr. Parnell, of Cincinnati.* Reported to stand
the winter well, but to be easily injured by summer sun. Vig-
orous, productive, medium to large sized, dull red, with slight
bloom, of fair quality.

Patrician. — Said to have been applied by E. P. Roe as a tem-
porary name to a variety imported from France by Mr. Downing,
the name of which had been lost. It was said to be vigorous and
productive, with fruit larger than Cuthbert, and of fine flavor.

Pilate.— A. French variety, introduced into the United States by
Aubrey & Souchet, of New Jersey.

Pride of Kent.— Originated by Mr. Fallstaff, of Kent, England.
Imported about 1887 by Henry King, of Jefferson, Colo., and
introduced to public notice in 1892 by R. S. Edwards, of High-
land, Colo. A typical Ideeus variety. Fruit of fair size, color
and flavor, but showing little evidence of productiveness.

Pride of the Hudson.— A. chance seedling, which originated in
the garden of T. H. Roe, of Newburg, N. Y., about 1872, and
gave most unusual promise. It was propagated and introduced
by E. P. Roe, but in spite of the glowing indications of its
youth, it proved a failure when grown under ordinary conditions.
Though apparently resisting cold without injury, it suffered under
the summer sun, and soon passed out of favor. The account of
its origin and subsequent downfall, as given by Roe in " Success
with Small Fruits," well illustrates the fickleness which these
children of the garden may sometimes show. It was described as
strong, vigorous, with large corrugated leaves, very productive,
of excellent quality, scarlet- crimson, but too soft for market.

Prince of Wales (Cutbush's Prince of Wales).— An English
variety, mentioned by Downing as a strong, upright bush, with
purple spines and large, conical crimson fruit.

*Ohio Hort. Soc. Kept. 1869: 32.

EUROPEAN-TYPE VARIETIES 209

Princess A lice.— Fuller speaks of this as a new English variety,
raised by Cutbush & Son, of Highgate, England.

Prince Globose. — Raised by William R. Prince, of Flushing,
L. I. Described as strong, upright, with long, stout and numer
ous spines, and large, dull red fruit, with a deep bloom. Flesh
coarse, rather dry, and crumbling.

Prolific Red. — Described by Prince in 1832 as more dwarf than
most others. Canes slender, with small, numerous spines. Fruit
large, of good quality, and an autumn bearer.

Bed Antwerp (Old Red Antwerp, Knevett's Antwerp, True Red
Antwerp, Rowland's Red Antwerp, Frambosier £ Gros Fruit, Bur-
ley). — One of the oldest European varieties, probably having been
in cultivation more than a century. It is supposed to have de-
rived its name from the city of Antwerp, in Belgium, though the
plant itself is said to have come from the Island of Malta. It is
one of the best of the European sorts, and is still grown, even for
market, in the United States. Described as having strong, long,
yellowish green canes, slightly glaucous, tinged with purple, cov-
ered with dark brown bristles. Bearing wood vigorous and nearly
smooth. Leaves large, slightly rugose, dark green. Fruit large,
conical, dark red, rich and sweet. Many other varieties have re-
ceived this name at times. It is figured in the Report of the
United States Department of Agriculture for 1866.

Eed Cane. — A favorite market variety at one time in the
vicinity of Hartford, Conn. Introduced there without name, and
was probably some well-known variety like the Hudson River
Antwerp, or true Red Antwerp.— Mich. Ex. Sta. Bull. Ill: 303.

Red Sweet. — Imported from Denmark by W. D. Barnes & Son,
of Middlehope, N. Y. On trial at the Geneva (N. Y.) Ex. Sta.
in 1884.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 304.

Rivers Orange (Large Orange, Rivers's Yellow). — Raised by
Thomas Rivers, of England. Described as strong, branching,
with stout, greenish spines, not numerous. Fruit large, deep or
pale reddish orange.

Russell Eed.— Raised by Dr. G. W. Russell, of Hartford,
Conn., from seed of the White Antwerp, grown near Red Cane.
Bees were kept in the garden, and hence it was thought to be a
cross between these two varieties. It was first exhibited before
the Hartford County Horticultural Society, July 14, 1854. The
account of this, given in Hovey's Magazine, 1858, p. 420, speaks
of this Red Cane as "doubtless the American Red of the books."

Semper Fidelis. — An English variety, mentioned in Hovey's
Magazine as new in 1863.

Sharpe. — A seedling of unknown parentage, produced by Prof.

210 BUSH-FRUITS

William Saunders, of London, Ont. Described as vigorous, fairly
hardy. Fruit large, bright red, soft, good quality, ripening early;
similar to Heebner.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 308.

Silver Queen. — A yellow variety, sent out for trial in 1885 by
Robert Johnston, of Shortsville, N. Y., who obtained it from L.
M. Macomber, of Vermont, under the name "Silver Skin." It
proved of so little value that it never came into cultivation.

Sir John. — A seedling of Biggar's Seedling, produced by Pro-
fessor William Saunders, of Ontario. On trial in Canada. De-
scribed as large, roundish conical, of good quality, but soft, ripen-
ing early.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill : 309.

Souchetti (White Transparent). — Raised by Messrs. Souchet
near Paris, and introduced in the United States by Aubrey &
Souchet, Mr. Souchet of this firm being a son of the originator in
France. Described as long, conical, medium to large. Fruit of a
rich cream color, overspread with white bloom.

Spring Grove. — Mentioned by Fuller as an old foreign variety,
very prolific, but of poor flavor.

Sucre de Mete. — A white, foreign variety introduced by L. Ritz,
of Ohio, in 1869. Said to be productive and to bear autumn crops,
the fruit being of fine quality.— Ohio Hort. Soe. Rept. 1869: 32.

Superb. — Mentioned by Fuller as a poor-flavored, old, foreign
sort. Color red. See also Superb under Purple -cane Raspberries.

Superb d'Angleterre. — Also mentioned by Fuller. Perhaps the
same as the preceding.

Superlative. — Introduced by Ellwanger & Barry, of Roches-
ter, N. Y., in 1892. Described as hardy, with stout canes.
Fruit large, conical, handsome dull red, of very fine flavor. Promis-
ing to be an improvement over other foreign varieties, and pre-
eminently a dessert variety. Apparently like all others, however,
suffering from its foreign parentage.

Surpasse Merveille. — A French variety raised by Simon Louis.
A seedling of the Merveille de Quatre Saisons. Announced in
French catalogues in 1862.

Surprise. — A chance seedling of the Franconia, which origi-
nated in Montgomery county, N. Y. Said to resemble Franconia
in flavor, and to be firm enough to carry well. — Country Gentle-
man 1881: 473. See also Surprise, under Purple-cane raspberries.

Surprise d'Automme. — A white variety of Rubus Idceus, intro-
duced by L. Ritz, of Ohio, about 1869. Claimed to be productive,
of very delicate flavor, and to bear autumn crops, — Ohio Hort,
Soc. Rept. 1869: 32.

Sweet Yellow Antwerp. — Mentioned by Downing as an old Eng-
lish variety, sweet, but unprofitable.

EUROPEAN-TYPE VARIETIES 211

about 1885 on the farm of J. W. Talbot,
of Norwood, Mass., who had been growing Herstine and Fon-
tenay. Described as of medium size, with large grains, soft,
juicy, mildly acid. Canes strong and vigorous.

Taylor Paragon. — Mentioned by Fuller as an old, discarded
European variety of poor flavor.

Thunderer. — Mentioned by Thomas as an English variety re-
sembling Franconia.

Turkish Turban.— Mentioned in Hovey's Magazine, 1842: 368.

Vermont. — A seedling of the Champlain. Originated by L. M.
Macomber, of North Ferrisburgh, Vermont. Said to be vigorous,
hardy and productive. Fruit of beautiful pale yellow color, dusted
with a white down; large, soft, juicy, of best quality.

Victoria (Rogers' Victoria). — Imported by William R. Prince.
Described as a variety of rather dwarf habit, bearing very large
and dark red fruit. Fuller gives this name as a synonym of Fon-
tenay. According to Crozier,* this is referred to by Maynard, of
Massachusetts, under the name Victor. He also speaks of Cornell's
Victoria and Steel's Victoria as two other English varieties not
known in the United States.

Walker. — One of Dr. Brinckle"'s seedlings. Described as large,
round, deep crimson, soft, juicy, of sprightly flavor, and good.
Canes strong, with a few stiff, purple spines. Very productive.
Probably named in honor of Samuel Walker, of Boston.

Williams Preserving. — "An old English variety quoted from
Johnson, in Gardener's 'Farmer's Dictionary,' N. Y., in 1846." —
Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 318.

Wilmot Early Red. — Mentioned by Fuller as an old English
variety of small size and poor quality.

Woodward. — One of Dr. Brinckle"'s seedlings. Small, round,
crimson. Very early, with red spines.

Woodward Bed Globe. — Fuller speaks of this as an old Eng-
lish variety cultivated in England about forty years previous. It
is also mentioned in Hovey's Magazine of Horticulture 1843, p. 332.

Yellow Antwerp (White Antwerp, Double -bearing Yellow.) —
Described as nearly as large as the Red Antwerp, of the same
shape. Flesh yellow, very tender, rich, and very sweet. Canes
yellow, productive. A variety long known.

Yellow Chili (Chili Monthly). — A French variety mentioned by
Fuller as having little value, being inferior to several others of
the same color.

*Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill; 317.

212 B USH-FR UIT8

RECOMMENDED VARIETIES

None of the English varieties can be recommended,
except to the amateur who may wish to try them for
the home garden, and he may as well be left to make
his own selections.

V. UNCLASSIFIED RASPBEEEIES

I have not been able to refer to their respective
classes with any degree of certainty the varieties men-
tioned in the following list. Most of them are little
known, many have passed out of cultivation, others
may be only synonyms for better -known names, and
a few are new.

Allen. — See False Red Antwerp.

Allen Eed Prolific. — Same origin as the Allen. Perhaps also
included under the False Eed Antwerp.

Barter. — 'Reported from California, by Professor E. J. Wickson,
as a large sized, vigorous, productive variety, first grown by Wil-
liam Barter, of Penryn, Placer county, Cal., to whom it was given
as a "foundling." Largely grown in the foot-hill regions of that
.state.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 259.

Beehive. — A variety introduced by Messrs. Winter & Co., of
the Linnaean Botanic Garden, Flushing, N. Y. Fruit large, round,
red, ripe in July. — Amer. Gards. Asst. p. 194.

Bronze Queen. — Mentioned as unproductive and only moderately
vigorous.— Mo. Exp. Sta. Bull. 13 (1891).

Carleton. — Mentioned as on trial at the Experiment Station at
Agassiz, B. C.

Chester — Mentioned by C. S. Malbone, of South Haven, Mich.,
with Brandywine, as the best raspberries. — Fruit Grower's Journal,
April 1, 1893.

Cincinnati Eed Antwerp. — Mentioned as grown in Wisconsin
about 1874.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 263. Perhaps the same
as False Red Antwerp.

UNCLASSIFIED VARIETIES. 213

CooWs Seedling. — Eeported by Dewain Cook, of Windom,
Minn., as exceedingly hardy and very productive. Plant tall and
thrifty. Fruit dark red, quite juicy, small, of inferior quality. —
Minn. Exp. Sta. Bull. 9: 327.

Craig. — A seedling of unknown parentage. Originated by
Professor Saunders, of Ontario, and named in honor of Professor
John Craig. Described as large, rather conical, dark red, of the
season of Marlboro ; fairly firm, and of good quality ; a good grower
and prolific.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 265.

Crimson Cluster. — Described as fairly vigorous, producing suck-
ers close to the old canes. Not very productive, but large, of fine
appearance, and quite firm. — Ninth Annual Eept. Geneva (N. Y.)
Exp. Sta. Possibly a misnomer for Crimson Beauty.

Crimson Queen. — A variety offered by L. L. May & Co.

Early Richmond. — Mentioned in Garden and Forest, 1892, p. 458,
as grown in Cayuga county, N. Y.

Early White. — Mentioned in Hovey's Magazine of Horticulture
for 1837, p. 23, as a valuable variety.

Elizabeth. — One of D. W. Herstine's seedlings, which was ex-
amined and described by a committee of the Pennsylvania Horti-
cultural Society of 1870 as follows : " Plant a very strong grower,
great bearer and suckering moderately. Canes light pea-green.
Foliage dark green, deeply crimped, pearl gray on the under side.
Fruit very large, round, crimson -scarlet. Grains large and strongly
marked. Firm, of delicious flavor, late."

Elm City.— "A hardy sort. Size and flavor much like Philadel-
phia. Eight to ten days later than other varieties. "—Downing. "A
thornless variety, vigorous in growth, hardy and productive. Fruit
large, good color, firm and sweet." — Ohio Hort. Soc. Eept. 1807: 114.

English Red Cane (English Purple, False Eed Cane, Allen). —
Mentioned under this name and synonomy by F. E. Elliott as a va-
riety much grown by market- gardeners in 1865. Described as hav-
ing tall, bluish red canes, with a whitish gray bloom. Hardy and
productive. Fruit medium to large, globular or slightly conical,
dull red, with large grains, moderately firm, juicy, and pleasant,
but not of high flavor.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 273. Possibly
this may have been the same as False Eed Antwerp.

Erwood Everbearing. — On trial on the grounds of The Eural
New-Yorker in 1879, and reported as one of the hardiest red varie-
ties.—Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 273.

Excelsior. — Said to have originated in Wisconsin. A variety of
this name, perhaps the same, is reported as worthless in Ohio.

False Red Antwerp (Allen, Allen's Antwerp, English Eed Cane,
Kirtland). — The history of this variety, as gathered from a writer

214 BUSH-FRUITS

in the Gardener's Monthly, 1862, p. 38, and one or two other
sources, is in substance as follows :

In 1828, or thereabouts, an English gardener brought to Cleve-
land, Ohio, a variety without name. It proved perfectly hardy and
productive, with fruit of good size and flavor. The Red Antwerp
was then the standard variety, and the valuable qualities of this
unnamed sort led to its being called by that name. Later, when
the true Eed Antwerp came to be known, this one took the prefix
"False," and came to be one of the most valuable and popular
market sorts, under the name of False Eed Antwerp. Still later,
there came to be three varieties distributed as this, two of them
probably having originated as seedlings in the original plantation.
They are described in the following words :

" Of these two seedlings, one closely resembles the parent in
fruit, but the canes are slightly more downy and the tendency to
sucker is about double, while, at the same time, its bearing quality
is reduced about one-half. Another has canes more downy; ten-
dency to sucker is increased, while its productive powers are in-
different. In fact, a great proportion of its blossoms are imper-
fect, and without close proximity to some other sort, it sets but
little fruit, or, if it sets, the berry is imperfect.

"In 1850 I think it was," the writer continues, "a gentleman
of Cleveland (F. E. Elliot) sent to W. H. Sotham, then an occu-
pant of lands of Lewis F. Allen, one thousand plants gathered
indiscriminately from a plantation of the False Eed Antwerp rasp-
berry. And now, having obtained and three years tested plants
received by others from Mr. Allen's grounds, that person is pre-
pared to say that the Allen raspberry embraces all the varieties
enumerated under the name False Eed Antwerp." This history
seems to explain very satisfactorily the cause of so much confusion
over the so-called Allen raspberry. The same writer continues :

"And now for a little history of the so-called Kirtland rasp-
berry. Some years since, before nurseries were very abundant
hereabouts, and people found it difficult to procure new and val-
uable fruit, Professor I. P. Kirtland was in the habit of distributing
to his friends and the public, with a free hand, all his surplus
plants of any sort. To Mrs. Follet, of Sandusky, the Professor
some years since gave of the False Eed Antwerp, Fastolf, and
Franconia raspberries, a few plants each, the former being hardy
and the latter tender. After a time the tender sorts died out, while
the hardy one attracted the attention of H. B. Lum, of Sandusky,
who, without knowledge of its character, but knowing that it came
from the garden of Professor Kirtland, named and sent it out as
a seedling of the Professor's, and under his name."

The botanical relationship of the Allen raspberry is a matter
of dispute. Under date of January 1, 1893, Thomas Meehan

UNCLASSIFIED VARIETIES 215

wrote, " I am still of the opinion that the Allen raspberry belongs
to the type of Rubus Idceus. It certainly has no relationship
with Rubus strigosus." On April 25 of the same year A. S.
Fuller wrote, "As for the Allen raspberry there can be no ques-
tion about its being a true R. strigosus, for it came from the
woods, as Mr. Allen himself informed me, thirty years ago."
It is quite evident that more £han one variety must have been
known under this name. If the above history showing its iden-
tity with the False Red Antwerp is authentic, we might expect
it to have been an English variety, appearing as it did in the
hands of an English gardener as early as 1828. On the other
hand, if Mr. Fuller's information was correct, that it was taken
from the woods, it must have been R. strigosus. It is a matter of
interest in connection with its seedlings, Elizabeth, Herstine,
Ruby and Saunders, and these have very generally been thought
to contain some admixture of Rubus Idceus.

French (R. M. Conklin's). — Mentioned by William Parry, in
1869, as declining in favor.— Gar. Month. 11: 337.

Golden Alaska. — Introduced by John A. Salzer, of La Crosse,
Wis., in 1891, and reported to have been found in one of the
valleys of Alaska.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 277.

Grant. — Mentioned in the Gardener's Monthly 1869, p. 123, as a
new variety from Auburn, N. Y. Color red; size large; shape
conical, ripening with Red Antwerp.

Gn-ape Fine. — Sent out in 1878 by William Holland, Plymouth,
Ind., who obtained his original plants from John German, of
Indiana. So named on account of the appearance of the canes
and the large leaves. Ornamental, but of no value for fruit.

Hawkins Orange. — A poor fruit of no value. — William Parry in
Country Gentleman 1878: 151.

Herstine. — This originated with Mr. D. W. Herstine, of Branch-
town, Pa., according to whose statement it was raised from seed
of the Allen raspberry, which had been planted in alternate
rows with the Philadelphia. Plant a good grower, bearing early
and abundantly, suckering moderately. Canes strong, of a pea
green color, covered with white bloom. Spines green and not
abundant. Foliage healthy, of medium size, often lobed. Fruit
large, oblong, with small grains and crimson color. Flavor sub-
acid and very good. Described by William Parry in the follow-
ing words: "As large as Hornet, bright as Pearl, hardy and pro-
ductive as Philadelphia, and delicious as Allen." The origin of the
Allen being obscure, the classification of this variety is left in
doubt. On the grounds of its originator it was a remarkable berry,
but has seldom proved so successful elsewhere. It appears to be
slightly deficient in pollen, which sometimes diminishes its pro-

216 BUSH-FRUITS

ductiveness and causes imperfect berries. A colored plate show-
ing fruit appeared in the Gardener's Monthly for October, 1870.

Hiram.— Sent out by W. J. Bradt, of Hannibal, N. Y. De-
scribed by H. E. Van Deman as very large, sharp, conical. Core
large and rough. Not so firm as Cuthbert, but a fair shipper.
Bather sharp acid, showing traces of Antwerp parentage. Said to
be hardy and productive. Thought to be a cross between Rubus
strigosus and Rubus Idceus.

Howell. — Mentioned by F. E. Elliott in the Transactions of the
Ohio Pomological Society for 1865 as being then in cultivation.

Johnson. — Eeceived from Cincinnati by E. Y. Teas, of Indiana,
in 1875, and reported by him, after a brief trial, to be much like
the Philadelphia.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 285.

Keystone. — Originated with A. L. Felten, of Philadelphia, Pa.
Fuller speaks of it as an excellent variety, although the canes are
tender. Fruit very large, crimson.

Kiriland. — See False Red Antwerp.

Kreigh. — Brought to notice about 1880. Claimed to be of fair
size, productive, hardy, of excellent quality, and firm. — Gar.
Month. 22: 276.

Large White. — Mentioned as a desirable variety in Hovey's
Magazine of Horticulture 1837: 23.

Lindley. — Raised by Joseph B. Lindley, of Newark, N. J.,
early in the sixties. Said to be a hybrid between the Fastolf and
the Native Red. Described as strong, upright, much branched,
tall. Spines greenish, stout, and numerous. Fruit medium to
large, conical, a little obtuse, crimson. Grains medium to large,
compact. Flesh rather soft, juicy, sweet, good.

Linton (Red) .—Mentioned in " Rural Affairs," vol. 7, p. 81.
Also by William Parry, of New Jersey, in 1870, as unsuccessful.

Little Prolific. — A red variety originated with John Little, of
Ontario. Sent out in 1883. Plant hardy, slender and branching,
bearing heavily. Shoots green, without spines. Fruit medium,
roundish, slightly conical, purplish red, firm, juicy, acid and
sprightly. No longer cultivated. Probably Rubus neglectus.

May Orange.— Offered for sale by L. L. May & Co.

Mendocino. — A Pacific coast variety. Said to have originated
in Mendocino county, Cal. , and used by Luther Burbank, of Santa
Rosa, Cal., in the production of some of his seedlings and
hybrids.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 290.

Miller Favorite (Red). — On trial at the Michigan Agricul-
tural College in 1887.

Mohler No. 1. — Mentioned as a red variety on trial at the

UNCLASSIFIED VARIETIES 217

Indiana Experiment Station. Described as moderately vigorous,
hardy and productive. Of good quality, and firm. — Bull. 38: 13.

My Seedling. — Mentioned by George J. Kellogg in the Report
of the Wisconsin Horticultural Society for 1887, p. 241, as val-
uable, having withstood the winter and drought, and paid better
than other varieties.

Nebraska. — Mentioned by William Parry in 1869, as no longer
popular.— Gar. Month. 11: 237.

Newark. — Mentioned as on trial in 1892, at the Oklahoma Ex-
periment Station.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 294.

New Prolific. — Mentioned in the Report of the Kansas State
Horticultural Society for 1884, as satisfactory in that state.

Northern Wonder. — Spoken of as an excellent variety found by
one of the Feltens.— Gar. Month. 13: 246.

Phoenix.— Mentioned in The Rural New-Yorker, 1897, p. 598,
as a very early red variety.

Pullman. — A variety mentioned as on trial at the New York
Experiment Station about 1884.— Mich. Hort. Soc. Rept. 1884: 251.

Queen Marguerite. — A red variety on trial in Michigan about
1885. Reported as hardy, productive, of fine size and fair quality,
but lacking brightness of color.

Bed Cluster. — Described by T. T. Lyon in 1893 as late, of
medium size, red, roundish conical, of good quality, moderately
productive. At the Michigan Agricultural College it is vigorous,
moderately hardy.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 304.

Richardson. — Mentioned as an inferior variety cultivated in the
West.— Gar. Month. 1862: 339.

Eider. — Spoken of by T. T. Lyon as not quite satisfactory in
plant but beautiful and good. — Amer. Pom. Soc. Rept. 1891: 119.

Riley's Early. — Downing speaks of it as a variety from New
Jersey. Of medium size, good flavor, and quite early.

Ruby. — Raised by D. W. Herstine. Described as a free grower
and abundant bearer. Canes strong, of a light green shaded with
purple, covered with white bloom, and with very few spines.
Foliage healthy, light green, pearl gray on the under side. Fruit
large, round, dark crimson, with large grains, somewhat hirsute.
Flavor somewhat acid, excellent.

Saunders. — Originated with D. W. Herstine, of Branchtown,
Pa. , who raised it from the seed of the Allen planted in alternate
rows with the Philadelphia. It was named in honor of William
Saunders, of Washington, D. C. Described as a good bearer,
suckering freely. Canes green, shaded with purple. Spines
numerous, small and light green. Foliage light green and abun-

218 B USH-FR UITS

dant. Fruit very large, round, crimson, with large grains. Flavor
of high character and delicious.

Short-jointed Cane. — Described by Prince, in the Pomological
Manual published in 1832, as almost spineless, with close, jointed
canes. Fruit pleasant, rather larger than the Common Bed, but
not quite equal to the Tall Bed Cane, though superior to it in
flavor; later in ripening than the Common Bed, producing good
crops. Crozier refers it to Rubus strigosus.

St. Louis. — A popular variety in the vicinity of St. Louis,
Mo., about 1867. Said to be hardy, large, bright red, sweet,
and of excellent flavor.

Tall Bed Cane. — Described by William Prince, about 1832, as
productive. Fruit round, of good size and quality, but not of
high flavor. Canes covered at the base and extremities with
numerous fine spines or hairs. It is also mentioned by Bridge -
man in the "American Gardener's Assistant."

Victor (Bed) . — Tender and unproductive, fair to poor quality.

Watson Seedling. — Inquired about in the Gardener's Monthly,
vol. 1, p. 139, but unknown to the editor.

Wauregan. — Mentioned in "Bural Affairs," vol. 8, p. 81. A
failure with William Parry, of New Jersey.

Waterloo. — Mentioned among the varieties planted for trial at
the Mississippi Agricultural College in 1888. — Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull.
Ill: 318.

White Canada. — Baised by Charles Arnold, of Paris, Ontario.
Canes vigorous, upright, brownish yellow. Spines white, quite
stout, numerous. Fruit about the shape of Brinckl6's Orange.
Pale yellow, of decided Antwerp flavor.

White Mountain (Bed). — Tender, late, unproductive, rather
soft, and of poor quality. — Mass. Hatch Exp. Sta. Bull. 21 : 10.

BECOMMENDED VARIETIES

None of the varieties mentioned in this list are of
sufficient prominence at the present time to deserve
recommendation.

CHAPTER VIII

VARIETIES OF BLACKBERRIES AND DEWBERRIES
A. THE BLACKBERRIES

The blackberry family is an exceedingly variable
one, and within the limits of the species to which it
belongs, and those species closely related to it, may be
found an almost endless variety of forms. Many of
these produce fruit of desirable size and quality, and it
is by no means certain that we have as yet secured the
most desirable ones for cultivation. All our common
high blackberries belong to the species known as Rubus
nigrobaccus and R. argutus. In typical forms, the
former is characterized by vigorous, upright, thorny
bushes, bearing numerous glandular -tipped hairs on
the peduncles, petioles and other young parts of the
plant. Forms occur, however, which are almost des-
titute of thorns, or of glands, or of both. Several
botanical varieties belonging to this species have been
n#med, and no one can say how many more might be
recognized with equal propriety if the forms could be
all collected for study. The typical form of the
species bears long or oblong fruit, comparatively sweet
and rather dull in color. Rubus argutus is much like
this common blackberry, but lacks the pubescence.

A closely related, and perhaps equally common
species, at least on high land, is the Mountain Black-

(219)

220 BUSH-FRUITS

berry, Rubus Canadensis (R. Millspaughii, Britt). In
this species the main canes are almost wholly destitute
of thorns, the fruit is apt to be sour, sometimes even
bitterish, and is much shorter and thicker, with larger,
glossy black drupelets. Whether seedlings of this
species can be acclimated to lower altitudes without
acquiring to a degree the objectionable thorny dress
of their lowland neighbors, has yet to be deter-
mined. Indeed, it may be fairly questioned whether
it is worth while to make the attempt, since the fruit
is generally considered inferior to that of the Long
Blackberry. Still, this inferiority is not great, and if,
by crossing this species with our commoner garden
varieties, the thorns can thereby be reduced, the object
is well worth the seeking. The fruit ripens later, but
this is doubtless chiefly due to elevation. This type
reaches its greatest perfection in the high mountains of
the Appalachian system. It is often found in dense
forests, where the canes sometimes reach a height of
fifteen or eighteen feet, and are as thornless and
smooth as a willow twig. In such localities the fruit
is said to be greatly appreciated by the mountain bears,
which are enabled to draw down the smooth canes and
fatten upon the berries for their long hibernating sleep
during winter. Where is the philosopher who is ready
to construct a theory on the disappearance of thorns
as the result of the silken touch of Bruin's breast as
he and his ancestors have yearly sought this autumn
feast !

Still another species which produces fruit of excel-
lent quality is the Sand Blackberry, Rubus cuneifolius,

EVOLUTION OF THE BLACKBERRY 221

of the southern states. The characters of this are in
strong contrast to those of the one just mentioned, for
it is a short, stubby plant, bristling all over with
stout hooked thorns, and with a decidedly woolly coat
on the under surface of its small wedge-shaped leaflets.
In spite of its rugged appearance, it does not endure
our northern winters well, and may never become a
serviceable member of the family except in the sunny
clime of its choice.

Were it not that the legend of the man of won-
drous wisdom, who jumped into a bramble bush and
scratched out both his eyes, doubtless had its origin
in the dim history of the Old World, we might im-
agine this to have been the species concerned, for no
American bramble appears to be better able to ac-
complish such a feat!

The following sketch of blackberry history was once
contributed by the writer to The American Garden:

HISTORY AND FUTURE OF THE BLACKBERRY

The blackberry or bramble of Europe (Rubus fruticosus) does
not appear to enjoy a very high reputation in its native country
for the value and quality of its fruit. It is occasionally spoken of
as being useful for tarts or similar culinary preparations, espe-
cially if liberally supplemented with apples to give spice and
flavor. It is also brought forward as deserving of notice because
it offers a cheap source of food in the shape of jam, etc., for the
poor, either to be obtained for themselves or for the more wealthy
to provide in anticipation of distributing to them as necessity may
demand. The plant, evidently, even to a greater degree than in
our own country, partakes too much of the nature of a trouble-
some weed to become popular with the more fastidious. In addi-

222 BUSH-FRUITS

tion to this fact, the fruit is not equal in flavor and quality to that
of our own species. Several passages in Shakespeare serve to
give a good idea of the social rank of the English blackberry :

Falstaff.—^If reasons were as plenty as Blackberries, I would
give no man a reason on compulsion."

— 1st Henry IV., Act ii., Sc. 4.

.Fatotajf.— "Shall the blessed sun of Heaven prove a micher and eat
Blackberries?"

— 1st Henry IV., Act ii., Sc. 4.

Thersitef.— "That same dog-fox Ulysses is not proved worth a
Blackberry."

—Troilus and Cressida, Act v., Sc. 4.

In its early history, other qualities seem to have been con-
sidered more important than its fruit. According to Pliny, the
ancients were taught by means of the bramble bush how to prop-
agate trees by layers. It was, no doubt, held in greatest esteem,
however, for its supposed medicinal qualities. "The berries,"
says Pliny, "are the food of man, and have a dessicative and
astringent virtue, and serve as a most appropriate remedy for the
gums and inflammation of the tonsils." Both the flowers and
berries were thought by the ancients to be remedies against even
the most venomous serpents. Pliny further states that "the juice
pressed out of young shoots, and reduced to the consistency of
honey, by standing in the sun, is a singular medicine taken in-
wardly, or applied outwardly, for all diseases of the mouth and
eyes, as well as for the quinsy." The roots, boiled in wine, were
esteemed one of the best astringents by Roman physicians, and
used in all diseases of the mouth. The leaves, pounded and
applied to ringworms and ulcers, were said to bring speedy relief.
Boerhave, a renowned physician at the beginning of the last cen-
tury, affirms that the roots, dug in February or March and boiled
with honey, are an excellent remedy against dropsy. In a work
entitled "A Niewe Herball, or Historic of Plantes," first written
by D. Eembert Dodoen, physician to the German emperor, and
afterward translated into French, then from French into English
by Gerard Dewes, in 1578, the "nature" of the blackberry is set
forth as follows: "The tender springes and new leaves of the
Bramble are colde and drie almost in the thirde degree, and

A BLACKBERRY LEGEND 223

astringent or binding, and so is the unripe fruite. The ripe fruite
is somewhat warme and astringent, but not so much as the unrype
fruite." Then are given a long list of " vertues," among which
are the following: "They do also fasten the teeth, when the
mouth is washed with the juyce or decoction thereof. The unripe
fruite is good for the same purpose, to be used after the same
manner." "The leaves be stamped & with good effect are applyed
to the region or place of the stomacke against the trembling of
the hart, the payne & looseness or ache of the stomacke." It is to
be feared that Pliny and others of these old writers do not rank
high as medical authorities at the present day, yet the plant and
fruit of the blackberry are still employed in various ways, with
very gratifying results, in the treatment of disease. According to
legend, the origin of the disagreeably thorny character of the
blackberry, as told by Waterton, was on this fashion : " The Cor-
morant was once a wool merchant. He entered into partnership
with the Bramble and the Bat, and they freighted a large ship
with wool ; she was wrecked and the firm became bankrupt.
Since that disaster the Bat skulks about till midnight to avoid his
creditors, the Cormorant is forever diving into the deep to dis-
cover its foundered vessel, while the Bramble seizes hold of every
passing sheep to make up its loss by stealing the wool."

Perhaps it would be casting discredit on the worthy ancestors
who braved so many dangers in the settlement of our country, to
charge them with undue conservatism, yet it can hardly be
doubted that men who would brave the uncertainties, not to say
terrors, of an ocean voyage on an almost unknown sea, and the
settlement of a new country peopled with savages of unknown
traits and tendencies, rather than surrender ideas which they
cherished, would not be quick to form new ones. Hence we can
readily conclude that the blackberry of America was to them
much what the blackberry of England had been— simply a wild
bramble, to be destroyed when possible and replaced by some-
thing better, and whose fruit was to be gathered at will. More-
over, to cultivate a fruit which was so readily obtained in abun-
dance for the gathering, would have been folly to them, when
many other things conducive to their safety and comfort were so

224 BUSH-FRUITS

much more needed. As time went on, however, this gratuitous
feast of nature, provided for the fostering of " infant industries,"
began to diminish, and the demand of growing cities for increased
quantities of fruit doubtless led to the idea of cultivating the
blackberry among the rest. Just when this state of affairs was
reached it is impossible to say, but evidently not until quite late
in our national development, for the blackberry does not seem to
have begun to receive much notice or to be talked about in the
horticultural journals until about 1850. From Hovey's Magazine of
Horticulture, it appears that Capt. Josiah Lovett, of Beverly,
Mass., figured prominently in introducing it to cultivation. Even
then, as with many other good and useful things, first impressions
were unfavorable. Of course, the first effort would naturally be
to bring plants, which bore the most promising fruit, from the
woods and clearings and set them in the garden. This attempt to
tame the wild proteg6 of the forest did not often prove satisfac-
tory. These plants evidently did not take kindly to the refine-
ments of civilization, and longed for their free • and easy life of
the wood. Capt. Lovett reports repeated failures in trying to get
good berries by this method. He persevered for five years, but
at last gave up in despair about 1840, and surrendered this wild
gypsy of the fruits to its native haunts as untamable. In spite
of these discouraging results he evidently did not abandon the
dream of a cultivated blackberry, for Downing gives him the
credit of having introduced the Dorchester, which in time proved
so valuable, although according to Marshall P. Wilder, as re-
ported in the "Transactions of the Massachusetts Horticultural
Society" for 1883, p. 129, it was brought to notice by Eliphalet
Thayer, who first exhibited it before that society, August 7, 1841.
But these first introductions to cultivation, the Dorchester and
Lawton, were not calculated to bring swift and lasting popularity
to the blackberry as a garden fruit, for although large and attrac-
tive, their habit of turning black before they are ripe nearly
always led to their being gathered and eaten while green, and
their consequent condemnation as sour and poor in quality.
Moreover, their culture, being little understood, led to frequent
failures and unsatisfactory results, while their propensity to per-

TYPES IN CULTIVATION 225

sist and spread, aided by their unmerciful thorns, conspired to
render them a terror to many timid gardeners. In spite of all
this, the blackberry has steadily pushed its way into prominence,
until it is to-day one of our most satisfactory and profitable crops.
Here, as with all other fruits, we are far from attaining perfec-
tion. We have no ideal variety. If we demand the best in point
of hardiness, we must yield in size and quality; if delicacy of
flavor is the desideratum, something else will be deficient. Yet
to stand by a well -grown row of Early Cluster, for example, to see
its glistening sprays of glossy black hanging in such graceful
profusion, to gather its magnificent berries and to test their sweet
and melting quality, just like those finest and ripest ones we
used now and then to chance upon in some wooded nook which
everybody else had missed, is to forget for the time being that
anything further is to be desired in a blackberry. Still we have
reason to hope that the achievements of this energetic and vig-
orous pomological youth are but an omen .of what is yet to come.

There are several distinct types of blackberries in
cultivation, but to properly classify all varieties under
these types is manifestly impossible, since the varieties
themselves are not accessible for comparison, many of
them having already disappeared from cultivation, while
others are yet too new. Descriptions seldom furnish
sufficient data upon which to determine such matters.
Still it may be advisable to carry the classification as
far as possible, as a matter of aid to future study by
those who have opportunity to do it.

This inventory aims to include descriptions of all
varieties of blackberries and dewberries which have
been mentioned as cultivated in North America up to
the close of 1897. They are classified as follows:

I. Long -cluster blackberries.
II. Short -cluster blackberries.

226 B USH-FR UITS

III. Leafy -cluster blackberries.

IV. White blackberries.

V. Loose -cluster blackberries.

VI. Sand blackberries.

VII. Northern dewberries.

VIII. Southern dewberries.

IX. Western dewberries.

I. THE LONG-CLUSTER BLACKBERRIES
Rubus nigrobaccus

The form which has somehow come to represent in
our minds the type of the species to which most of our
blackberries belong is designated by Professor Bailey
(Cornell Univ. Expt. Sta. Bull. 99:428) as the "Long-
cluster blackberry." This is the commonest form of
the wild blackberry found in low lands throughout the
eastern states. The berries are long and cylindrical or
thimble -shaped, with dull black drupelets, rather small
and closely packed on the receptacle. Each berry is
borne on a long, slender stem, which stands out some-
times almost at right angles to the main stem, and the
clusters are long, open and leafless. The leaflets are
rather long -stalked, evenly and finely serrate, and gen-
erally with a very long tapering point.

Probably the best known representative of this class
in cultivation is the Taylor, though the Ancient Briton
and the Early Cluster also belong here.

As a matter of convenience, all varieties which it is
impossible to definitely classify at present are mentioned
here, though many of them, doubtless, belong else-

UNCLASSIFIED VARIETIES 227

where, especially in the "short -cluster" group. Those
which can be definitely referred to the "long -cluster"
class are so marked.

A lien.— Received at the United States Department of Agri-
culture in 1894, from W. B. K. Johnson, Allentown, Pa., and
described in the report of the Pomologist for that year. Said to
be very productive, stronger than Kittatinny, with less thorns.
Fruit medium to large, irregular, oblong or oval, glossy, jet black,
not fading; seeds small, very tender; flesh firm, compact, very
juicy ; shipping quality good ; flavor mild, sweet, with hardly
enough acidity; quality good, ripening about with Early Harvest.

Ancient Briton. (Long-cluster type.) — Much confusion exists
regarding the origin of this variety. According to one report it
was named by Robert Hassell, of Alderly, Wisconsin, who received
it from England. Another report credits it with being a Wis-
consin seedling, found by one A. H. Briton, for whom it was
named, the name later becoming changed to Ancient Briton.
According to Professor Budd, the first mention of the variety is
found in the Report of the Wisconsin Agricultural Society for
1869, p. 475. The plant belongs to an American species of black-
berry, whatever its origin. It has proved one of the most valuable
sorts grown in Wisconsin, being the favorite at the famous Thayer
Fruit-Farm at Sparta. The bush is sturdy, hardy and very pro-
ductive. Fruit medium to large, long, melting, of fine flavor and
ripening about with Snyder. One of the best varieties where it
succeeds. It does not thrive as well in all parts of the country. In
Rhode Island it seems to demand pollination from other varieties.

Bangor. — A variety of Maine origin. It was first propagated
from plants growing on the farm of Henry W. Brown, in New-
bury. It is said to be hardy and a desirable variety. — Agr. of
Maine, 1888:125.

Banton (Seedling). — A variety, said to be from Vermont,
which proves very hardy in Minnesota. Productive, stout and
good.— Minn. Hort. Soc. Rept., 1874:57.

Barnard (Long-cluster type).— Said to be a seedling of the
wild blackberries of Belmont county, Ohio, taken to Allamakee
county, Iowa, and disseminated by Mr. Barnard. A popular va-
riety in northern Illinois and Iowa, where it has proved very hardy.
Not a vigorous grower, throwing up few suckers ; leaves large
resembling wild varieties. Fruit similar to Taylor in size and
form, of fair quality, and ripening late. From the description it
evidently belongs to this group.

Bonanza. — Said to be hardier than the Kittatinny, about as

228 BUSH-FRUITS

large, though scarcely as sweet, and about as productive ; ripen-
ing a little earlier than Kittatinny. Not of great value.

Brandenburg. — Mentioned in Hovey's Magazine, 1868, p. 286.

Cape May. — "Fruit large, black, sweet, quite soft, loses color
soon after gathering, not valuable." — Downing.

Carlo. — A variety growing at the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment
Station, which appeared vigorous, but not productive, much of the
fruit being imperfect. Also lacks hardiness.

Cherry Valley. — A variety which originated near Cherry Valley,
111.— 111. Hort. Soc. Eept. 1882: 284.

Clark. — Mentioned in The Rural New-Yorker for 1897, p.
598, as received from Matthew Crawford the spring previous. The
growth was vigorous and the few berries received were large,
black, glossy, melting and juicy.

Cumberland. — A variety chiefly known about Bridgeton, N. J.
Plant hardy and productive ; fruit of medium size, black, sweet and
good. Early, and matures the whole crop in a short time. — Fuller.

Cutter Mulberry. — Introduced by G. B. Cutter, Newton, Mass.,
about 1859. Fruit long, slender, remarkably sweet, very produc-
tive.—Hov. Mag. 1859: 397.

Dallas. — A Texas variety, found hardy, vigorous, productive and
reliable there, but of little value in the North.

Dehring. — An early variety, about equal to Brunton in hardiness
and productiveness ; fruit small.

Dodge Thornless. — Mentioned in the Secretary's report, Agr.
of Mass., 1868-9, p. 72, as a variety almost free from thorns.

Duncan Falls. — Introduced by J. C. Neff, Duncan's Falls,
Ohio. An upright, very vigorous grower. Fruit large, black,
moderately firm, juicy, sweet. — Downing.

Early Cluster (Long-cluster group). — The original plant was
discovered about 1872, among Missouri Mammoth, on the farm of
Charles W. Starn, in Southern New Jersey, where it attracted
attention from its early and profuse bearing, and was transplanted
and propagated for market. It is a moderate, erect, healthy
grower, hardy and extremely productive. The fruit is medium
sized, short-oblong, shining black, sweet and of fine quality,
without hard or bitter core. The entire crop ripens within a few
days, making it a very desirable early market berry. This is a
variety of ill repute in many sections, but on the grounds of the
Cornell University Experiment Station it is one of the finest
blackberries grown and the most uniformly productive. Either
spurious stock has been sent out under this name, or the variety
is extremely local in its adaptations, as reports from the Geneva

UNCLASSIFIED BLACKBERRY VARIETIES 229

(N. Y.) Experiment Station, only forty miles away from Cornell,
are unfavorable. For myself, I have never seen a more satisfac-
tory blackberry, nor tasted one of finer quality, than the Early
Cluster as grown at Cornell.

Eldorado. — Originated as an accidental seedling in Preble Co.,
Ohio, near a village of that name, and first placed under cultivation
about 1882. Medium to large fruit of excellent quality, oblong,
conical, irregular, with very large drupes and small seeds and
core. Claimed to be hardy and productive.

Excelsior. — Productive, of fair quality, good size, season me-
dium; lacks hardiness. — Mass. Hatch Exp. Sta. Bull. 6:4.

Farley. — Origin unknown. Fruit nearly as large as New
Rochelle, sweet, and ripens two "weeks earlier. — Horticulturist.

Felton. — Introduced by Oscar Felton, Camden, N. J. Bather
spreading in habit of growth ; fruit large, long, slightly conical,
sweet and good. Eipens early and is moderately productive, but
with berries often very defective. — Fuller.

Freed. — A variety originated about 1871 by George Freed, of
Columbiana Co., Ohio. A rank, upright grower, with few spines
and very hardy. Berry small to medium, oblong, juicy, of good
quality, ripening with Snyder. A shy bearer, and not to be
recommended.

Gainor. — Large and productive, but not sufficiently hardy at
Ottawa, Canada. — Kept. Can. Exp. Farms, 1889: 95.

Grape. — Mentioned in the discussion of the American Porno-
logical Society as a variety with strong canes and large fruit. —
Am. Pom. Soc. Kept. 1860: 76.

Haley. — A dwarf variety, found growing along the prairie
ravines of Franklin Co., Kansas. It was first brought under
cultivation byE. Haley, about 1880. Fruit medium size and excel-
lent quality.— Kan. Hort. Soc. Eepts. 1884: 50—1885: 81.

Hoag. — I have the history of this variety from A. W. Sias, of
Pueblo, Colorado, formerly of Minnesota, who says that it origi-
nated many years ago with Charles R. Hoag, who was one of the
original members of the Minnesota Horticultural Society, and
who then lived at Kasson, Dodge Co., Minn. The variety was
named for him by the society. Mr. Sias says that it was very
productive on the grounds of the originator, but did next to
nothing on his more open grounds.

Holcomb. — First brought to public notice at one of the weekly
exhibitions of the Hartford Co. (Conn.) Horticultural Society,
in the summer of 1855, by E. A. Holcomb, of Granby, Conn.
The fine appearance and flavor of some of the berries growing wild
upon a hillside of his farm induced him to transplant some of

230 BUSH-FRUITS

the best of the bushes to his garden. The comparative merits
of the fruit after three or four years' successive exhibition war-
ranted the society in giving it a name. Canes dark brown, mod-
erately stout, long and thrifty, but not rampant; productive and
hardy ; fruit of medium size, oblong, sweet and high flavored,
early, and continuing to ripen for a long time.

Hoosac Thornless. — Found in the Hoosac Mountains of Massa-
chusetts. Its chief recommendation is the absence of thorns.
Fruit not large, but said to be productive and of good quality.
It is quite possible that this variety belongs to the true thornless
group, Eubus Canadensis. Its thornless character and its original
mountain habitat would point in this direction.

Idaho Climbing. — Mentioned in Hovey's Magazine, 1868, p.
285. It may have been the cut-leaved blackberry or a western
dewberry for all we know now.

Jordan. — A variety recently introduced by J. W. Austin, Pilot
Point, Texas, a native of that state. Described as a very strong
grower, hardy, and remarkably productive. Fruit large, of fine
flavor, ripening ten days later than Dallas and Early Harvest.

Knox. — Vigorous, large, about as hardy as Kittatinny, of good
quality but lacking in productiveness.

Lincoln. — A wild plant found about two miles from President
Lincoln's monument, near Springfield, 111. A vigorous, upright
grower, with long spines, hardy, a little later than Snyder. Fruit
large, oblong, glossy, juicy, of good quality; grain and seed large.

Luther. — A new variety sent out by R. D. Luther, Fredonia,
N. Y. Said to be vigorous, hardy and promising.

Mason Mountain. — Introduced by R. O. Thompson, of Ne-
braska, about 1865. Fruit large, conical, black, sweet, rich,
resembling Lawton. — Hov. Mag. 1865: 122.

Maxwell. — Introduced by A. C. Maxwell, Chanute, Kansas.
Described as very large, sweet, rich, luscious, melting, and very
productive, ripening with Early Harvest. Bush a low, strong,
stocky grower. Not hardy in Pennsylvania.

McCracken. — Found in an Illinois wood by Mr. McCracken.
Hardy, early and of good quality, but small. Of little value.

Missouri Mammoth. — Disseminated from Northern Missouri. A
moderate, upright grower, not entirely hardy, and a shy bearer,
not all blossoms setting fruit, and some imperfect. Berry large,
oval, of fair quality; grain and seed large. A little later than
Snyder. Of little value.

Mountain Rose. — Mentioned in the report of the Kansas Horti-
cultural Society for 1886, p. 297.

UNCLASSIFIED BLACKBERRY VARIETIES 231

Nevada. — Said to be about equal to Minnewaski in hardiness,
quite productive, of fair size and excellent quality. Has not
proved valuable in Michigan.

Ohmer. — A seedling found by N. Ohmer, of Ohio. Said to be
hardy, healthy and productive. Fruit large, firm, no core, and
sweet before it becomes soft. Ripens with Taylor.

Ozark. — "Better than either Snyder or Taylor, and more pro-
ductive."—Mo. Hort. Soc. Eept. 1883: 79.

Parker Early. — Mentioned in Hovey's Magazine, 1868, p. 286.

Parnell. — A variety originated by Mr. Normand, of Marshville,
Louisiana. — La. Exp. Sta. Bull. 3, 2d series.

Piasa.— Sent out by E. A. Riehl, Alton, 111.

Bed Hybrid. Mentioned in * ' Experiments and Public Work of
the Colorado Agr. College," 1884, p. 15.

Eeyner. — Plants rather large and vigorous, producing large,
greenish canes with few prickles. Fruit above medium, roundish
or oblong, with large grains, sweet, of good flavor and quality. —
Geneva (N. Y.) Exp. Sta. Bull. 81: 582.

Role Early. — Mentioned in the report of the Kansas Hort.
Soc. for 1887-8, p. 482.

Sable Queen. — Introduced by J. W. Manning, Reading, Mass.,
and described by him as equal to Dorchester or New Rochelle in
size, beauty and fruitfulness. — Downing.

Sadie. — Sent out from Iowa under the claim that its cells
were so arranged as to resist very low temperatures. Matthew
Crawford reports that it made a very poor growth, and produced
no fruit.— Ohio Hort. Soc. Rept. 1888.

Sinclair.— Mentioned in Hovey's Magazine, 1868, p. 285.

Stayman Early. — Introduced by A. J. Stayman, Leavenworth,
Kansas, who speaks of it as very early, of excellent quality and
productive. It has not proved valuable in the eastern states.

Taylor (Taylor's Prolific). (Long-cluster type.)— Introduced
by Mr. Taylor, of Spiceland, Henry Co. , Indiana, about 1867. It
has peculiar greenish yellow, round canes, which are somewhat
slender and trailing in young plants. It is very hardy, vigorous
and productive. The fruit is large, roundish -oblong or thimble
shaped, soft in texture, juicy, very mild and rich. It ripens
late, about two weeks after Snyder. All in all this is one of
the best varieties I have known. With Early Cluster to open,
and Taylor to close the season, there is little left to be desired
in regions where these varieties succeed.

Tecumseh (Long-cluster group). — A variety of the Taylor
type which originated in Western Ontario. It proved to be less

232 BUSH-FRUITS

hardy than Taylor and not of sufficient value to insure its con-
tinuance in cultivation.

Texas Early (Crandall, Crandall's Early). — Said to be large,
fine flavored and firm, ripening two weeks earlier than Lawton,
and less, seedy. Has not proved valuable at the North.

Truman Thornless. — Received at the office of the United
States Pomologist in 1892, from G. P. Peffer, Pewaukee, Wis-
consin, and mentioned in the report of that year, p. 264. Said
to be nearly thornless, as hardy as Snyder, earlier and better.
Fruit medium to large, oval, dull in color, firm, sweet, good.

Wachusett. — Found growing wild on Monadnock Mountain, in
Massachusetts. A slow grower, upright at first but drooping
later, spines few and small. Fruit clusters few and small ; berry
small, round, moderately firm, of good quality. The plant is
such a shy bearer that it has no practical value. This variety
was figured in Tilton's Journal of Horticulture, Vol. IV., p. 220,
but the drawing is not sufficiently accurate to determine its
parentage. The leaves are peculiarly wrinkled at the edge, a
character quite distinct. It may possess an admixture of Rubus
Canaderisis blood.

Wallace. — Introduced by Mr. Wallace, of Wayne Co., Indiana,
about 1862. The plant is of stocky, upright growth, with broad
round leaves resembling those of Snyder, ripening a week later,
hardy and productive. Fruit as large as Lawton, of excellent flavor.

Warren. — Fairly hardy and quite productive. Berry about like
Snyder in quality and size. Ohio Exp. Sta., Vol. II., Bull. 4, p. 108.

Wapsle. — An Iowa variety, mentioned as on trial and proving
very hardy thus far.— Kept. Ohio Hort. Soc. 1888:192.

Washington.— Raised by Prof. C. G. Page, Washington, D. C.
Fruit large, black, sweet and good. — Downing. Mentioned as
new in Hovey's Magazine, in 1859.

Weston. — Originated with Adrian Durkes, of Weston, Mo., who
considered it more productive than Newman or Lawton. — Gar.
Month. 12:371.

II. THE SHORT-CLUSTER BLACKBERRIES
Rubus nigrobaccuSj var. sativus

This class includes the commonest form of culti-
vated blackberry. It differs from the other class
chiefly in the fact that the fruits are shorter and

SHORT-CLUSTER VARIETIES 233

thicker, while the drupelets are larger, not so closely
packed nor so evenly arranged, and are more glossy
black in color. The clusters contain fewer fruits,
these being more closely crowded toward the top, and
borne on stems which are more oblique and stouter.
The leaflets are broader, not so long -pointed, coarsely
and unevenly serrate or even jagged. There is a ten-
dency among varieties of this class to produce a few
late fruits on young shoots thrown up from the root.
The form is found wild in open, dryish places, mak-
ing a low bush some two or three feet high.

Agawam. — Found growing wild in a pasture about 1865 or
1870, by John Perkins, of Ipswich, Mass. Plant hardy, vigorous,
and productive. Fruit oblong, of medium size, large, black, sweet,
and melting to the core, ripening early, or in mid- season. A
popular variety, which is not only hardy, but resists drought.

Black Chief.— On trial at the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment
Station. Received from J. H. Haynes, Delphi, Ind.

Erie (Uncle Tom). — A seedling which came up in a small
vineyard belonging to L. B. Pierce, of Tallmage, Ohio, in 1876.
A patch of Lawton and Kittatinny grew near by, and it probably
came from seeds of these, carried by birds. Its resemblance to
the Lawton indicates that as its parentage. The variety was sold
to Matthew Crawford, in 1884, he in turn selling it to J. T. Lovett,
who offered it for sale in 1886. Mr. Lovett first announced it
under the name of Uncle Tom, but this name was so strongly ob-
jected to by Marshall P. Wilder that it was dropped, and the
name Erie substituted, which is the only one under which it was
ever offered for sale. A strong, spreading grower, very thorny,
productive, but lacking in hardiness in some sections. Season
intermediate. Fruit large, roundish oval, of good quality.

Ford No. 1. — On trial at the Geneva Experiment Station.

Fruitland. — A new variety from Ohio. Canes strong, upright,
grooved, with greenish red bark. Fruit medium, nearly round,
with medium large grains, sweet, good. — Geneva (N. Y.) Exp.
Sta. Bull. 81.

Kittatinny. — Found in the town of Hope, N. J., near the base
of the Kittatinny Mountains, and introduced by E. Williams about

234 BUSH-FRUITS

1865. Plant fairly hardy and productive. Fruit large to very
large, roundish conical, rich glossy black, moderately firm,
juicy, sweet, and well flavored, ripening early and continu-
ing long in bearing. Very susceptible to attacks of red rust.

Lawton (New Rochelle, Seacor's Mammoth) . — Found by Lewis
A. Seacor, in New Rochelle, N. Y., and brought to public notice
largely by William Lawton, of the same place, about 1848. Vig-
orous, hardy and productive, with strong spines. Fruit very large,
oval, and intensely black when fully ripe. It is then juicy, soft,
and sweet, with an excellent flavor, but when gathered too early,
very sour and insipid. This was the second blackberry introduced
into cultivation, and it did much to popularize the fruit.

Lovett. — Described as remarkably hardy, vigorous and produc-
tive. Fruit large, mostly globular, drupes large, quite firm,
though juicy, rather sweet than sour. Not very early.

" Mersereau. Originated with J. M. Mersereau, Cayuga, N. Y.
It resembles the Snyder, but is larger, of better quality and less
likely to turn red after being picked. Very promising.

Minnewaski. — Originated and introduced by A. J. Caywood, of
Marlboro, N. Y. A good grower, erect, branching, strong. Canes
grooved, and thickly covered with long, straight spines. Hardy
and productive. Fruit clusters large; fruit very large, long, dull
in color, and somewhat hairy in appearance, of fair quality. This
variety did well in its original home, but was often disappointing
elsewhere. There has been much discussion over the name of this
variety. The introducer insisted that it be spelled as above.

Sanford. — A new variety received from New York. Not yet
fruited.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. 118: 17.

Snyder. — This is the best known of all blackberries. What the
Baldwin is to the apple in the Eastern states and the Ben Davis
in the West ; what the Concord is to the grape ; what the Lombard
is to the plum, the Snyder is to the blackberry. It originated
as a chance seedling, on or near the farm of Henry Snyder,
near La Porte, Ind., about the year 1851. It is a vigorous,
strong, upright grower; very hardy and productive. Fruit of poor
quality, medium size, nearly globular, of good appearance and a
good shipper. The berries have a strong tendency to turn red
after picking, especially if exposed to sunlight.

Stone Hardy. — An Illinois variety of spreading habit, with its
fruit mostly hidden beneath the foliage. Hardy, maturing its
Wood early on suitable soils. Fruit rather small, roundish, black,
soft, very juicy, mild, and very pleasant in flavor. Often over-
bears, and needs vigorous pruning.

Success. — Very productive, plants moderately vigorous, canes of

LEAFY-CLUSTER VARIETIES 235

a greenish color, grooved, bearing abundant prickles. Berries
medium to large, roundish, with medium to large grains, good in
flavor and quality.— Geneva (N. Y.) Exp. Sta. Bull. 81: 582.

Western Triumph. — A chance seedling found upon the open
prairie, in Lake county, Illinois, in 1858, by Mr. Biddle, of
Muskegon, 111. Fruit medium to large, very abundant, roundish,
elongated, obtuse in form, granules coarse, large, apparently firm,
yet very rich and sweet, carrying well, and without any harshness
of core, like Lawton. Leaf broad and thick, irregularly and
coarsely serrate; spines abundant, stiff and strong. — Tilton's Jour,
of Hort. 4:44. (From F. B. Elliott, in The Rural New-Yorker.)
Lacking in hardiness, and inclined to overbear.

Woodland. — Plants thrifty, productive, with abundant small
prickles. Fruit medium or above, roundish, with large to very
large grains; flavor and quality good. — Geneva (N. Y.) Exp. Sta.
Bull. 81: 582.

III. THE LEAFY-CLUSTER BLACKBERRIES
Bubus argutus

This was the first type of blackberry to be brought
into general cultivation, since it is to this class that
the old Dorchester belongs. The type is characterized
chiefly by the fact that the leaves extend up the stem
into the cluster, there becoming small and narrow and
consisting of a single leaflet. The plant is usually
small and upright in habit of growth. The leaflets
are rather small and firm, narrow, and coarsely toothed,
often nearly smooth, and persisting late in the fall.
The fruit is early, roundish, of medium or small size,
with large grains. Although first in the racej, this
type has not been able to maintain the advantage
thus secured. No variety of the 'class can be said to
occupy a prominent position in the blackberry fields
of to-day.

236 BUSH-FRUITS

Americus. — Received at the office of the United States Pomolo-
gist in 1894, from J. H. Langille, Kensington, Md. , and de-
scribed in the report for that year. Thought to be a seedling of
the Early Harvest. A stout, strong grower, with flowers in rather
short, erect, downy spikes. Fruit medium to large, irregular,
oval or oblong-conic, jet black, moderately firm, melting, juicy
and of good quality, ripening soon after Early Harvest.

Boston High Bush. — Mentioned in the report of the California
Horticultural Society of 1886, p. 234. From the connection it is
probably Dorchester.

Brunton Early. — An early variety which originated in Illinois*
Similar to Early Harvest in habit of growth. It appears to be
deficient in pollen production, or self -sterile, and unproductive
when planted alone ; not very hardy. Of little value.

Dorchester (Improved High Bush). — A seedling introduced by
Eliphalet Thayer, of Dorchester, Mass., who first exhibited it
before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, August 7, 1841.
It was largely brought to public notice by Capt. Josiah Lovett, of
Beverly, Mass. Capt. Lovett had previously made unsuccessful
attempts to transplant the best of the wild bushes to his garden,
but after obtaining this variety, turned his best attention to it.
Samuel Downer, of Dorchester, Mass., also seems to have been
connected with its introduction. This variety is of special
interest as being the advance guard of all the blackberries now
in cultivation, since it was the first cultivated variety. It is a
very upright grower, vigorous, and viciously thorny. Indeed,
its strong recurved thorns remind one of the Sand Blackberry,
(Rubus cuneifolius). Fruit large, oblong, conic, deep, shining
black, nearly as large as Lawton; longer, with rather smaller
drupelets. It may be an admixture between the argutus and
nigrobaccus types.

Early Harvest.— An early variety, found growing wild in Illi-
nois. A moderately vigorous, upright grower, fairly hardy,
though often quite tender. Canes greenish, with comparatively
few thorns. Fruit small, roundish to oblong, greenish black, soft
in texture, juicy, mild and pleasant. Very early, prolific, and
valuable where it succeeds, owing to its season.

King (Early King). — Plant rather small, erect, stiff, with
several small canes from each stool, making a thick clump ;
spines large. Berry of medium size, oval, irregular, of best
quality; core soft, ripe as soon as black. A week earlier than
Snyder, fairly productive, and of medium hardiness. Too soft
for market.

See Early. — So much like Brunton 's Early that it may be
the same.— 111. Hort. Soc. 1878:125.

WHITE VARIETIES 237

IV. THE WHITE BLACKBERRIES
Rubus nigrobaccus, var. albinus

Although not an important class commercially,
many varieties of this type have been introduced. As
the name indicates, the chief distinguishing character
is the color of the fruit, which is pinkish cream or
amber colored. The canes are round, yellowish green,
and the leaflets are mostly three, even on the young
canes. Otherwise it is like the Long -cluster type.

Adair Claret. — Originated with D. S. Adair, Hawesville, Ky.
Plant not quite hardy. Fruit medium size, claret color, soft,
with a mild, pleasant flavor —Downing.

Albion. — A wilding found and introduced by John B. Orange,
of Albion, 111. Described as vigorous and productive. Fruit
large, oblong, clear pink, sweet and good. Downing, however,
reported it unproductive, of only fair size, imperfect, and with-
out flavor.

Alger. — Originated at Cleveland, Ohio. Of good size, oblong
in form. Of a deep claret color ; sweet and rich.

Colonel Wilder. — Introduced by John B. Orange, and named
in honor of Marshall P. Wilder. Described as very productive,
of a bright cream color, large size, oblong, almost pointed, of
superior flavor and quality. Mr. Orange regarded this as the most
valuable of his white varieties. — Hov. Mag. 1864:360.

Crystal White (Orange's Crystal). — Originated and introduced
by John B. Orange. A vigorous, upright grower, with strong,
green spines, lacking in hardiness, and suckering freely. Fruit
large, roundish oval, a clear, rich white when fully ripe, sweet,
of good flavor, ripening early, but, like the other white varieties,
of no value except as a curiosity. It was claimed by the origi-
nator to be very productive when grown near other varieties, but
to be unproductive when grown alone.

Doctor Warder. — Originated and introduced by John B.
Orange. Fruit rather shorter and thicker than the Albion. Nearly
as large, color dark ruddy red, quality good.

Kentucky White— Introduced by D. S. Adair, Hawesville, Ky.
Plant tender ; fruit medium size, oblong, oval, light dirty white,
imperfect. — Downing.

238 BUSH-FRUITS

Needham White. — Introduced to notice by J. Shed Needham,
of Massachusetts, sometime about 1850. Described as of lilac
color, similar to the black varieties in shape, though not quite
so large. Of good flavor. Canes light green and thickly covered
with short, stiff, green hairs. Though said to be immensely pro-
ductive, Fuller later speaks of it as unproductive and not worth
cultivating. Mentioned in the Transactions of the Ohio Hort.
Soc. for 1869, p. 69, as of little value.

Parish Pink. — Another white variety of no more value than
the rest.

Texas Hybrid (Texas Pink Hybrid). — Described as vigorous
and prolific, earlier than Snyder, of medium size, delicate pink
color, sweet and nearly free from seed. Found to be of no
value in Ohio.

V. THE LOOSE -CLUSTER BLACKBERRIES
Eubus nigroboccus X villosus

These are hybrids between the blackberry and the
common dewberry of the eastern states. Their dis-
tinguishing feature is to be found in the intermediate
character between the two parents. The bushes are
low and more or less reclining, the leaflets are broad
and jagged, usually three, both on young shoots and
bearing canes. The fruit is short and roundish,
borne in few- to many -flowered clusters, interspersed
with numerous simple broad leaves. The type is com-
mon in the wild state where the two species are found
growing together.

Eureka. — In 1876 William Parry selected the best and most
perfect berries of Wilson's Early, grown by the side of the Dor-
chester, planted them, grew the seedlings together for four years,
then selected the best, which was named Eureka, the others being
destroyed.— Mich. Hort. Soc. Eept. 1886: 407.

Mammoth (Thompson's Early Mammoth). — Said to be like the
Wilson in size and general habit of growth, a few days earlier,
and of rather better quality, large and good. Others pronounce
it no improvement over the Wilson.

LOOSE-CLUSTER VARIETIES 239

Maynard. — A variety found growing on the farm of C. C. May-
nard, at Kincaid, Kans., between the Lucretia dewberry and the
Early Harvest blackberry, and sent out for trial by him as the
Maynard dewberry. Berry round, composed of a few very large,
jet black drupelets, ripening with the blackberries ; many berries
in a cluster. Claimed to be large, sweet and productive, succeed-
ing better on poor than on rich soil. At the Nebraska Experiment
Station the fruit has so far been too small to be of value.

Newman Thornless. — Discovered by Joseph Newman, Ulster
county, New York. Canes of moderate growth, and thornless.
Fruit rather large, oval, of very good flavor. According to one
grower, it produces few thorns and fewer berries. It is placed in
this class on the statement of the Gardener's Monthly, Vol. II,
p. 281, that it belongs to the dewberry section. Perhaps it is a
true dewberry.

Rathbun.—Sent out by A. F. Eathbun, of Smith's Mills, N. Y.
Said to be a good grower, hardy, of large size, fine flavor, juicy,
and attractive.

Sterling Thornless. — A chance seedling, found on the farm of
John F. Sterling, Benton Harbor, Mich., in a field where Wilson
and Lawton had been growing. The canes resemble those of
Wilson in size, shape, and color, but are comparatively thornless.
The fruit is borne in cymose clusters, with long pedicels, like the
dewberries. Size medium to large, round, oblong; possessed of
large, rather loosely set, round drupes. Moderately firm, juicy,
and sweet, with a trace of dewberry flavor.

Wilson (Wilson's Early). — This variety was discovered by John
Wilson, of Burlington, N. J., about 1854. The bush partakes of
the habit of both the low and the high blackberry, some of the
shoots being erect and branching, like the Lawton, and others
without branches, slender, and trailing on the ground like the low
blackberry, and indicating a hybrid between that and the high
bush species. The trailing shoots sometimes take root at the
tips. Wood downy. The fruit is very large, good specimens
measuring an inch and a quarter in length by about an inch in
breadth, while the largest are an inch and a half long. Firm,
somewhat irregular, tapering toward the apex ; grains mostly
large, but with some small ones mixed in. Flavor quite acid
until ripe, when it is rich and sprightly. — Tilton's Journal of
Horticulture, 1869: 284. Has been a popular variety in New
Jersey. It demands close pruning in order to prevent overbear-
ing, and must be covered for winter protection in most sections.

Wilson Junior. — William Parry, in 1870, selected plants of
Dorchester and Wilson and planted them together, far away from
any others to mix with, trusting that the pollen of one kind might,

240 BUSH-FRUITS

perhaps, mix with the other. In 1875 he selected some of the
best Wilson varieties for seed. After watching the other seedlings
tot four vears, the largest and best was selected, and this is
Wilson Junior.— Gar. Month. 27: 208. The plant is so like its
parent, the Wilson, as to be indistinguishable from it.

VI. THE SAND BLACKBERRY
Bubus cuneifolius

This is the species which grows in sandy land in
the southern Atlantic states. It is very little known in
cultivation, and there is little to induce its introduction,
for its formidable thorns brook no unwarranted fa-
miliarity. It is a low, stocky plant, with somewhat
wedge-shaped leaves, which are more or less downy
beneath. The fruit is borne in loose, leafy clusters,
being round, loose -grained, very black and of excellent
quality.

Topsy (Childs's Tree Blackberry). — Canes stout, upright and
viciously thorny, but not hardy; fruit large, late, soft, of good,
but not high quality. Of no real value in cultivation.

RECOMMENDED VARIETIES OF BLACKBERRIES

Few varieties in the preceding lists are of particular
interest to the commercial grower. Many have long
since passed out of cultivation, while others are yet
too new to be depended upon. Among the most im-
portant are Agawam, Ancient Briton, Snyder and
Taylor, with Early Cluster and Early Harvest for early
varieties, though both of these are to be received with
caution unless known to succeed in the locality. Other
varieties, to be sure, are valuable, especially in certain

UNIVERSITY

THE DEWBERRIES 241

regions, as the Dallas in Texas, 'the Wilson in New
Jersey and the Minnewaski in limited areas of New
York.

B. THE DEWBERRIES

Like their near relatives, the blackberries, the dew-
berries are exceedingly variable in character, and many
different forms are -found, both wild and in cultivation.
At least four different species of the genus Rubus are
commonly known as dewberries, three of which,
together with several botanical varieties, are found
in cultivation. Most of the cultivated varieties be-
long to the common eastern species, Rubus villosus
(Rubus Canadensis of writers), or some of its bo-
tanical varieties, though in the Pacific states varie-
ties of the Coast dewberry, Rubus vitifolms, are more
common.

The dewberries are distinguished from the blackber-
ries chiefly by their trailing habit of growth, their
early ripening, the character of the flower cluster, and
the method of propagation. The true dewberries bear
but few flowers in each cluster, the clusters are cymose,
the center flower opening first, and the flowers are few
and scattered, generally borne on long and ascending
pedicels, or stems, which tend to raise both flowers
and fruit well toward the end of the shoot. In the
blackberries the opposite of these characters is found.
The clusters are corymbose or racemose, the outer flow-
ers generally opening first, and the flowers are borne
in rather dense clusters, the pedicels being shorter, as
a rule, and standing more nearly at right angles to the

242 BUSH-FRUITS

main stem of the cluster. The dewberries propagate
by means of tips, while the blackberries propagate by
suckers, a point of much practical importance, in cul-
tivation, at least. Despite these characters, there are
forms found, both wild and in cultivation, which are so
intermediate in character as to make it a matter of
considerable doubt as to whether they should be called
blackberries, dewberries or hybrids. These intermedi-
ate forms are of special interest, and illustrate in a
remarkable way the possibilities of admixture in the
genus. Many of them are very productive, in apparent
defiance of the pronouncements of science, which are
that hybrids should be deficient in fruitfulness.

Of the four species commonly known as dewberries,
Rubus hispidus, generally known as the running
swamp blackberry, although sometimes found on dry,
sandy ground also, may first be mentioned. It is a
delicate little plant, running on the ground, bearing
stiff, shining leaves, which frequently remain green all
winter. The flowers are few and small, and the fruit of
little or no value. It is simply as a wild form that we
need consider it, since there seems to be no reason for
attempting to cultivate it.

The most important species, from a horticultural
standpoint, is Rubus villosus (but universally known as
Rubus Canadensis) , or the Northern dewberry, since it
is from this species and its botanical varieties that most
of our cultivated sorts have come. This is the spe-
cies which most nearly approaches the common black-
berry in character of plant and fruit. Hybrids between
the two are common in regions where both abound.

DEWBERRY TYPES 243

The specific type of Eubus villosus is represented in
cultivation by Windom, Geer and Lucretia's Sister.
The sub- type known as variety roribaccus is repre-
sented by Lucretia ; the type designated as Eubus
invisus by Bartel, General Grant and Never Fail.

Eubus trivialis, or the Southern dewberry, is some-
what similar to Eubus villosus (E. CanadensisJ, but
distinguished from it by having the main canes thickly
beset with stout prickles, which are sometimes dark
purple in color. The leaves are firm, smooth and prac-
tically evergreen, usually bearing stout prickles on the
petioles and midribs. It is common throughout the
southern states, and often very productive, bearing at-
tractive and desirable fruit. Several varieties belonging
to this species have been introduced into cultivation,
among which are Manatee, Bauer, and Wilson's White.
None of these have become prominent.

Eubus vitifolius, or the Western dewberry, which is
the dewberry of the Pacific slope, is a very peculiar
species, bearing some slight resemblance to Eubus vil-
losus (E. CanadensisJ , especially in the young growth.
The canes are long and slender, however, and the
fruiting branches entirely different, the leaflets being
broad, coarsely toothed, light green and pubescent
both above and beneath, while the other parts are more
or less densely covered with straight bristles and glan-
dular tipped hairs. As explained in the botanical sec-
tion, this is an exceedingly variable species, and many
forms are likely to appear should it become prominent
in cultivation. The varieties known as Aughinbaugh,
Washington Belle, and Skagit Chief belong here. One

244 BUSH-FRUITS

of the obstacles to the successful cultivation of this
species is the variable sexual character of its blos-
soms. If pistillate varieties are introduced, they
must of necessity be planted with perfect or staminate
plants to insure fruit production. It is doubtful, also,
whether even the perfect -flowered sorts would prove
fully self -fertile in a species with such a strong ten-
dency to separate sexual development. Until these
points are more fully determined, it appears to be a
wise precaution, if this species is to be planted at all,
to plant more than one variety together.

VII. THE NORTHERN DEWBERRIES
Eubus invisus, E. villosus and Varieties*

Bartel (Eubus invisus). — This was the first named variety of
dewberry. It was brought to notice sometime in the 70's by
Dr. Bartel, of Huey, Clinton county, 111. The plants are said
to have appeared in an old cornfield on his farm, and the large
size of the fruit led him to offer them for sale. The fruit is
described as large, rich, juicy, slightly acid, but not so sour as
the blackberry, and sufficiently solid to bear shipping well.

Colossal. — A sort offered by L. L. May & Co., St. Paul, Minn.

Geer (Eubus villosus). — A variety discovered by F. L. Wright,
in a wood-lot belonging to a Mrs. Geer, of Plainfield, Living-
ston Co., Michigan. It was first brought under cultivation in
1887. Said to be productive, though small in fruit.

General Grant (Eubus invisus). — Introduced by Charles A.
Green, of Rochester, N. Y., in 1885 or 1886. It came from M.
W. Broyles, somewhere in Tennessee. It possessed little value,
and never became prominent.

Latimer Seedling. — Mentioned as on trial at the Geneva
(N. Y. ) Experiment Station. Received from J. W. Latimer,
Pleasanton, Kansas.

*A full account of the eastern dewberries is given by Bailey in Bulletin 34
of the Cornell University Experimental Station, which is freely drawn upon in
making up the following list.

NORTHERN DEWBERRY VARIETIES 245

Lucretia (Eubus villosus var. roribaccus). — This is the best
known of all the dewberries. Found by a soldier in the Civil War,
who, being stationed near Beverly, W. Va., "during most of his
service, returned there after the war in search of a wife, and
acquired this dewberry as a perquisite to the plantation owned by
her. He transplanted some to his garden, and later sent plants
to his father in Ohio. These fell into the hands of B. F.
Albaugh, of Covington, Ohio, who named the variety and intro-
duced it to the trade. As sent out, this variety has been greatly
mixed, but the true type is a large fruit, productive, of good
quality, and gives satisfaction wherever the dewberry succeeds.

Lucretia' s Sister (Eubus villosus. )— Introduced by J. B. Treed-
way, of Brandt, Ohio, about 1886. Seems to possess little value.

Mammoth. — Two varieties appear to have been sold under
this name, one being Eubus invisus and the other Eubus villosus.
The former Professor Bailey considers to be the same as Bartel.
The other he has been unable to trace. — Cornell Univ. Exp. Sta.
Bull. 34: 306.

Hayes (Mayes Hybrid, Austin's Improved). — (Eubus villosus
var. roribaccus [?]). — Found growing wild in Texas, on the farm
of John Mayes, some time about 1880, mingled with both the
native Texan, now called Dallas, and the common dewberry,
Eubus trivialis, and thought to have been a hybrid between the
two. This account of its origin would indicate that it belongs
among the southern dewberries, but herbarium specimens seem
to agree much more closely with the Lucretia type, and I there-
fore place it there provisionally. Mr. Mayes began cultivating
the variety, and found it to improve under cultivation. Later
it was sent out by J. W. Austin, of Pilot Point, Texas, as
Austin's Improved. The plant is trailing in habit when young,
but is said to become stronger and somewhat upright with age.
It propagates by tips or root -cuttings. The fruit is very large,
of fine appearance, and the plants are prolific. Young plants
at the Nebraska Experiment Station were much more promising
than those of Lucretia. Unfortunately these were destroyed by
the erection of a building in midsummer, so thaj: their further
behavior cannot be reported upon. It seems to be one of the
most promising varieties now grown.

Never Fail (Eubus invisus). — A variety mentioned by Bailey
(1. c.) as known to him only from a specimen and notes received
from F. L. Wright, Plainville, Mich., who obtained it from
central Indiana, though it is supposed to have originated in
central Ohio. Mr. Wright's statement regarding its qualities
is that "it never fails to produce an abundance of wood, but
always fails to produce fruit. I never had a perfect berry."

246 BUSH-FRUITS

Sanford. — A new variety mentioned as on trial at Geneva
N. Y.— Exp. Sta. Bull. 81: 585.

Window, (Cook's Hardy), (Rubus villosus). — This variety was
first brought to public notice in 1887 by the Seedling Commis-
sion of the Minnesota State Horticultural Society. It was dis-
covered and brought into cultivation by Dewain Cook, of that
state, who found it to be hardy, productive, of fair size, and
good flavor.

VIII. THE SOUTHERN DEWBERRIES
Rubus trivialis

Bauer. — A variety sent out from Bauer's nursery, Judsonia,
Ark. It was said to be a vigorous grower, with fine fruit, but
apparently unproductive.

Fairfax. — Bailey refers this variety doubtfully to this group.
It was sent out by C. A. Uber, of Fairfax county, Virginia, who
found it wild on a stony, unproductive hillside in that county.
There the vine was vigorous but not rampant, and the berry large
and fine flavored, but when transferred to garden soil it developed
excessive growth, with but few and imperfect berries, notwith-
standing its proximity to a number of varieties of blackberries,
which might have been expected to furnish sufficient pollen.

Manatee. — Introduced by Reasoner Brothers, Oneco, Fla., in
1889. They report it to be only a selected strain of Rubus trivi-
alis, but say that it succeeds much better in that state than any
other variety, having proved very productive, ripening its fruit in
April, and being a good shipper. It is also reported as succeeding
in California.

White Dewberry. — White dewberries appear to be well known
in Texas. One is mentioned in the Gardener's Monthly for 1877,
p. 174, as being known among the horticulturists of that state.
What is very likely the same thing was received from Colorado
county, of that* state, and introduced by Samuel Wilson, of Penn-
sylvania, in 1890, under the name Mammoth White, or Wilson's
White. The natural inference is that the Albino White of Parry
and the Crystal White of Childs belong to the same type, and,
perhaps, have come from the same source, though I have no proof
of this. The variety introduced by Mr. Wilson is said by him to
be hardy in Pennsylvania, productive, of large size and excellent
quality.

WESTERN DEWBERRY VARIETIES 247

IX. THE WESTERN DEWBERRIES
Rubus

Aughinbaugh. — This is one of the best known varieties of the
Western dewberry, and is especially noteworthy as being the pa-
rent of the Loganberry which has attracted so much attention of
late. It was propagated and sold by a man named Aughinbaugh,
about 1875. The blossoms are pistillate, which means that it
should be planted with other varieties to furnish pollen. The fruit
is said to be of excellent quality, but the plant is a weak grower
and unproductive.

Humboldt.—A writer in The Rural New-Yorker for 1896, p.
574, mentions this as having been selected from the wild black-
berry of California, and describes it as a rampant grower and
abundant bearer, ripening with Hansell raspberry, a month before
the Early Harvest blackberry. Fruit jet black, one and one-half
inches long by one inch thick, in selected specimens. Flavor
"marvelous, delightfully spicy, with a wild-wood aroma."

Loganberry (Rubus vitifolius X Idceus [?] ). — This berry orig-
inated on the grounds of Judge J. H. Logan, of Santa Cruz,
California, in 1882, from seed planted by him the preceding year.
A full account of its origin, as given by Judge Logan himself,
appears in Bulletin 45 of the Rhode Island Experiment Station.
It seems that he had for some time been interested in raspber-
ries and blackberries, and had growing together the Texas Early
blackberry, the Aughinbaugh dewberry, and an old but unknown
variety of red raspberry, resembling the Red Antwerp. In August
of 1881 he planted seeds of the Aughinbaugh, expecting to get a
cross between it and the Texas Early. He raised about fifty
seedlings. One of these, the Loganberry, was very similar in
every respect to the parent, but much larger and a stronger grower.
At the time the seed was sown Judge Logan did not think it pos-
sible to cross the Aughinbaugh with the raspberry, but the char-
acters developed by this seedling have convinced him that it is
almost certainly a hybrid between them. One remarkable fact
stated by him is that out of thousands of plants grown from seeds
of this variety, not one has ever shown, so far as he is aware,
any of the distinct characteristics of either parent, not one has
gone back to the original type of either the raspberry or the
Aughinbaugh, though most of them are inferior to the original
plant. He also states that he has never succeeded in crossing the
Loganberry with either of its parents, nor with seedling crosses
between the Aughinbaugh and the Texas blackberry, Fig. 31 is
used, by permission, from Bull. 45 of the R. I. Exp. Sta.

248

BUSH-FRUITS

In the characters of the plant, and in the shape and conforma-
tion of the fruit the variety is essentially like the Aughinbaugh,
propagating entirely by tips, though by artificial methods they
may be grown from hard wood cuttings. The core remains with
the jfruit, like the blackberry, its principal resemblance to the

Fig. 31. The Loganberry.

raspberry being in color and flavor, although the dewberry dom-
inates in flavor. Judge Logan says : " As to the fact of the plant
being a hybrid between the blackberry and the raspberry, of
course there is no absolute proof. The color, with the distinct
raspberry flavor of the fruit, and the circumstances under which it
originated, I think render the fact of such a cross almost cer-
tain."

The other plants in this lot of seedlings Judge Logan thinks to
have been crosses between the Aughinbaugh and the Texas, as he

WESTERN DEWBERRY VARIETIES 249

expected, though they resemble the Aughinbaugh in most of their
characteristics. These he also considers valuable, the fruit ripen-
ing early, being shining black and very long, some specimens
having measured as much as two and one -fourth inches. The
Loganberry appears to promise well in the Eastern states. In
Rhode Island it passed the winter perfectly when covered, though
those left uncovered were killed. The fruit ripened with the
raspberry and, while not high flavored, was improved by cooking,
and made a desirable sauce. The plant propagates slowly.

Mammoth. — The American Agriculturist, 1897, p. 494, prints a
picture of this fruit, natural size, in which individual berries are
two and one-fourth inches long and about an inch wide; and it
has the following account: "The Mammoth blackberry was orig-
inated by Judge J. H. Logan, the originator of the now famous
Loganberry, descriptions and illustrations of which have appeared
in former numbers of this journal. Judge Logan informs us that
the Mammoth is a cross between the wild blackberry of California
(Rubus ursinus)* and the Texas Early, the former a species of the
dewberry type, while the latter has more the shrubby habit of the
high blackberry. The most remarkable feature about this new
blackberry is that while the fruits of both parents are below
medium in size, a cross between the two should produce berries of
the largest size, specimens measuring two and three-eighths inches
in length being not unusual. When fully ripe, the berries are
sweet and of excellent flavor, and for cooking or canning they are
unrivaled. Unlike the high blackberry, the Mammoth does not
throw up sprouts from its roots, and cannot be propagated from
root -cuttings. Instead, its canes run from twenty-five to thirty
feet in one season, and strike roots at their ends or tips, like
Black- cap raspberries. So far this interesting novelty has not
been sufficiently tried outside of its original locality to establish
its value for general cultivation, the results of which are eagerly
looked for by progressive fruit-growers."

Primus. — A variety produced by Luther Burbank, of Santa
Rosa, California, and said by him to be a cross between Rubus
vitifolius and R. cratcegifolius. The plant is said to be a strong
grower and productive, having in part the trailing habit of the
pistillate parent. It is thickly covered with short, blunt prickles,
and propagates by tips, though with some difficulty. Fruit large,
long, blunt, conical or oval, juicy, subacid, aromatic, resembling
the raspberry in flavor, adhering to the core and ripening with the
Hansell raspberry. A colored plate, together with a description,
appears in the report of the United States Pomologist for 1892.

*R. mttfolius.

250 B USH-FR UITS

Skagit Chief. — A variety sent out from the state of Washing-
ton in 1891.

Washington Belle. — Sent out from the state of Washington with
the Skagit Chief. Neither variety appears to have attracted much
attention in the Eastern states. As observed by the writer at
Cornell, while the plants were still young they appeared to pos-
sess the imperfect blossoms characteristic of this species in many
cases, which would naturally tend to interfere with their success.

RECOMMENDED VARIETIES OF DEWBERRIES

Apparently but three varieties need be mentioned
here, the Lucretia for the Eastern states, the Mayes for
the West and Southwest, and the Loganberry for the
Pacific Coast. How far these will succeed in the other
regions it is yet impossible to say. The Bartel is also
successfully grown by some persons in Wisconsin and
Iowa.

CHAPTER IX

INSECTS AFFECTING THE BRAMBLES

The insects attacking the genus Rubus are many,
and to attempt to adequately discuss them all would
far exceed the limits of space which can profitably be
allotted to the subject. Nevertheless, it seems wise to
list, in so far as possible, all which are known to attack
plants of the genus in any way, and to give a few of
the more important and most easily accessible refer-
ences to literature on the subject as an aid to those
who may have occasion to study any of the species
mentioned. To make original observations concerning
any considerable number of these species would have
been impossible even for an entomologist. In the case
of those species considered really injurious, the aim
has been to collect and present in condensed and con-
venient form the more important facts already known
about them, together with the methods which at pres-
ent seem most feasible for combating them. WhHc
it is to be hoped that these brief statements will,
in most cases, be sufficient to aid the busy man who
must meet the insect and meet it at once, the refer-
ences will doubtless prove far more helpful to any
who may wish to make a more careful study of the
subject. Original illustrations of the species of great-
est economic importance are added. These are drawn

(251)

252 B USH-FR UIT8

and engraved on wood from the insects themselves,
by Anna Botsford Comstock.

THE MORE IMPORTANT INSECTS

THE SNOWY TREE -CRICKET
(Ecanthus niveus, Serv.*— Order Orthoptera: Family Gryllidre

Saunders, Insects Inj. to Fruits. 308.

French, Trans. 111. Hort. Soc. 1881:199.

Comstock and Slingerland, Bull. Cornell Exp. Sta. 23:124.

Webster, Bull. O. Exp. Sta. 45:206.

The work of this insect is well known, and it has been
frequently mentioned, both in entomological and horticultural
literature. The insect is a delicate, greenish white cricket, with
broad and transparent wing-covers, through which the folded
wings can be seen. These wing- covers are crossed by oblique
thickenings, or ribs, part of the musical apparatus of the insect.
The female appears much narrower than the male, the wing-
covers being closely wrapped about the body.

The chirp of this insect is a familiar and prominent nocturnal
sound during late summer and early autumn, all the males in
the immediate vicinity chirping in unison. The sound may be
imagined to bear a faint resemblance to the words Katy-did,
Eaty-did, but is very unlike that of the true Katy-did.

The only injury to plants, worthy of mention, is that caused
by the female in depositing her eggs in autumn; these are most
frequently placed in berry canes, but are also found in grape
vines and on twigs of various trees and bushes. Their location
is shown by a long, ragged wound, and if the cane is split open
there will be found inserted in the pith, at close intervals, a
series of yellowish, oblong, cylindrical eggs, about one -eighth of
an inch long.

*For the sake of uniformity with other parts of the volume and of the series of
which it forms a part, a comma is inserted after the specific name, and the latter
begins with a capital when derived from a proper noun. This practice, though
common among European entomologists, is not so general in the United States.

THE TARNISHED PLANT-BUG 253

Remedy. — The eggs are laid late in autumn, but do not hatch
till the following summer, so that cutting out and burning the
wounded portions at the annual pruning is the only remedy
necessary. As the young insects are carnivorous, feeding largely
on plant lice, the benefit which they render the fruit-grower
probably exceeds the injury, unless at times when they are
unusually abundant.

THE TARNISHED PLANT-BUG (Fig. 32)
Lygus pratensis, Linn.— Order Hemiptera: Family Capsidse

Weed, Ins. and Insecticides. 93.

Webster, Bull. O. Exp. Sta. 45:213.
Lygus lineolaris (P. Beauv.).

Forbes, 111. Rep. 13:115.

Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 147.
Capsus oblineatus, Say.

Riley, Amer. Ent. 2:291.

This species is one of the true bugs, a class of insects
destitute of jaws, but provided with a sucking beak for draw-
ing the juices from plants. It is very abundant in nearly all
parts of the United States, subsisting upon
a great variety of plants. Although not re-
garded as specially injurious in a general way,
it sometimes proves very destructive, espe-
cially to strawberries, attacking the young fruit,
and causing an imperfect development, in the
form of "nubbins" or "buttons." It also at-
tacks young blackberries, and perhaps rasp-
berries, in a similar way, in addition to feed-
ing on other tender parts of the plant. Fig. 32. Tarnished

The following brief account is taken from plant-bug,
the summary of Forbes's excellent article on Lygu& pratensis.
this species:

" The old bugs winter under rubbish upon the ground, emerge
early in spring, cluster upon the unfolding buds of fruit trees,
the fresh foliage of strawberries and other early vegetation, and
there lay their eggs, which hatch, and old and young together

254 BUSH-FRUITS

drain the sap of these succulent growing parts. The effect is to
arrest the development of the leaves, or even to kill them, and
in the case of the strawberry, to interfere with the growth of
the fruit; sometimes, at least, causing what is known as the
"buttoning" of the berry. Later in the season, the buds and
leaves of flowering plants and vegetables, especially the cabbage
and potato, are attacked.

"There are at least two broods in a year, one maturing in
May and June, the other in July and August, while it is possible
that there is still another intermediate.

"Although a few of these insects are devoured by birds, no
natural enemies are known to have any positive effect upon
their numbers. There is some evidence, however, that wet
seasons are injurious to them."

Remedies. — Obtaining their food by sucking the juices as
they do, the arsenites are of no value in preventing their depre-
dations. Pyrethrum has proved most satisfactory where the
expense is not too great. Kerosene emulsion also kills them,
and collecting them with insect nets during the cooler parts of
the day has sometimes proved practicable.

THE BRAMBLE FLEA-LOUSE
Trioza tripunctata, Fitch.— Order Hemiptera: Family Psyllidse

Psylla tripunctata (Fitch).

Fuller, Amer. Ent. 3:62.

Thomas, 111. Ent. Rep. 8:18.
Psylla rubi, Walsh and Riley, Amer. Ent. 1:225.

Thomas, 111. Ent. Rep. 8:17.

Strong, Fruit Cult. 179.

This insect belongs to a family closely related to the Aphides,
differing in the veining of the wings, and in having antennee
knobbed at the end. They jump as readily as a flea. The fol-
lowing account of their injury was given by Charles Parry, of
Cinnaminson, New Jersey, in 1869:

"The suckers upon which this insect occurs in the spring
commence to twirl around, and, when not interfered with, make

THE BRAMBLE FLEA-LOUSE

255

a complete revolution before they resume their usual course.
The leaves curl up, and become matted around the curl, so as to
make a safe harbor for the lice -like larvae, which during the
summer appear on the under surface of the leaves. I presume

Mistletoe of the blackberry.

we can get clear of this insect, after the larvae are produced
by cutting off the curls and burning them."

In 1880 A. S. Fuller calls attention to the rapid increase of
this insect, and to the great injury to blackberry plantations
caused by it. It is also mentioned by W. C. Strong, in his work
on fruit culture, as doing great damage in some localities. The

256 B CTSH-FR UITS

injury caused by it has been mistaken for a fungous disease at
times, and in parts of Delaware it is known as "Mistletoe."
(See Fig. 33, from Bull. 117, Cornell Exp. Sta.)

Remedies.— Thorough work in cutting out and destroying the
infested tips, taking care that none of the insects escape, would
doubtless prove effectual. Mr. Strong recommends strong to-
bacco water. Kerosene emulsion may prove to be the most
efficient and practicable remedy.

THE BUD MOTH

Tmetocera ocellana, S. V. — Order Lepidoptera: Family
Grapholithidse

Harris, Ins. Inj. Veg. 249 (Flint Ed.).
Saunders, Ins. Inj. Prts. 95.
Fletcher, Ent. Rep. Ont. Dept. Agr. 1885: 24.
Fernald, Bull. Mass. Exp. Sta. 12.
Slingerland, Bull. Cornell Exp. Sta. 50.

This insect has recently proved very destructive to apples, and
has also been observed on blackberries. It appears early in
spring, as soon as the buds begin to open, eating into them and
devouring the inner portions. It is a European species, which
first appeared in this country in Massachusetts, about 1841, and
has now become widely distributed over the northeastern portion
of the United States and parts of Canada.

Some excellent results of observations upon this insect were
published by M. V. Slingerland, in Bulletin 50 of the Cornell
University Experiment Station, from which many of the follow-
ing statements are taken.

"The central leaves and flowers are tied together with silken
threads, and when the pest needs more food it draws in and
fastens an outer leaf or L flower. In a short time some of the
partly eaten leaves in this nest turn brown and become detached
from the branch, thus rendering the work of the pest quite con-
spicuous."

The larva lives most of the time within a tube formed by roll-

THE BUD MOTH 257

ing the edge of the leaf down, fastening it, and sparsely lining
the interior with silk. It comes forth from this tube to feed, but
quickly retreats into it again when disturbed. Pupation occurs in
a cocoon formed in a similar manner. The moths, which in New
York appear in the latter part of June, fly mostly at night, re-
maining quiet on the trunk and limbs of trees during the day, and
are so similar to the bark in color as not to be easily seen.

The eggs are generally laid singly on the under surface of the
leaves, and are so nearly transparent that they closely resemble
fish scales or minute drops of water. They hatch in from seven
to ten days, and these summer larvae soon make themselves a tube
of silk mingled with bits of excrement. They feed on the epi-
dermis and inner tissue of the leaf, not eating through it, and
spin a protecting web over their entire feeding ground. After the
third moult, when they have attained a length of about 4 milli-
meters, they leave their tubes, and make for themselves a little
silken cell in some crevice or roughness of the bark, where they
pass the winter, in readiness for the opening buds the follow-
ing spring. Their injuries at that time are particularly exas-
perating, because they apparently destroy as many leaves and
flowers as possible by eating only a part of each. There is nor-
mally but one brood in northern latitudes, though since the larvae
hibernate when half -grown, two different generations appear dur-
ing the same season.

Remedies. — The following is Slingerland's summary concerning
the treatment of this enemy:

" It is not practicable to try to check this pest in either the
adult or egg stages, or while it is in hibernation as a half -grown
larva. Undoubtedly it can be checked somewhat by spraying in
July, when the larvae are at work on the under side of the leaves.
But the best time to combat the pest the most profitably and suc-
cessfully is in the spring, when a little poison can be easily
sprayed upon the opening buds ; and thus the little larva, hungry
from its long winter's fast, will be quite certain to get the fatal
dose at its first meal."

It is preyed upon by several hymenopterous parasites, a large
predacious wasp, Odynerus Catskillensis, and by birds.

258 BUSH-FRUITS

THE BRAMBLE CROWN-BORER. (Fig. 34)

Bembeda marginata, Harris.— Order Lepidoptera: Family

Sesiidse

Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 303.
Smith, Spec. Bull. N. J. Exp. Sta. N. 9.
Jack, Gar. and For. 1892: 426.
Webster, Bull. Ohio Exp. Sta. 45: 159.
JEgeria rubi, Biley, Mo. Rep. 6: 111.

French, 111. Rep. 7: 175. Trans. 111. Hort. Soc. 1881: 193.
Weed, Ins. and Insecticides, 103.

This insect is a near relative of the peach -borer, being so simi-
lar in all its transformations that it has at times been mistaken
for that insect by growers. The adult
insects are clear-winged moths, appear-
ing much like wasps or hornets, for
which they may be readily mistaken
when seen in the open field. The body
of the insect is rather more than half
an inch in length, black and prettily

Fig. 34. c7own-borer. ^nded with golden yellow, with a tuft
Sembeda marginata. of yellow hair near the base of the ab-
domen. The wings are narrow, trans-
parent, with a bronze or reddish brown margin, the front wings
having also a narrow cross -band toward the tip. They measure
about an inch across when expanded.

~~ I quote the following points concerning its life history from
John B. Smith:*

"The moths make their first appearance in the fields late in
August and early in September, and soon after begin ovipositing.
A single egg only is laid on the cane near the surface of the
ground, or even a little below. The young larva, when hatched,
immediately eats through the bark and begins work at the base of
the stalk, where it joins the crown or main root, confining itself
largely to the sap-wood. The egg has not been observed by me,

*Special Bulletin N., N. J. Exp. Sta.

THE BRAMBLE CROWN-BORER 259

nor do I know the duration of this stage. The young larva is yel-
lowish white, usually with a faint reddish tinge. It attains a
length of from one -quarter to one -third of an inch during the
fall, and has at that time eaten about half through the cane,
sometimes entering the pith and boring up into the stem for a
short distance. It is likely that this is not an unusual habit, but
it is by no means general, and of the many specimens taken, only
two were found in the stem early in the season. In very few of
the infested canes did I find burrows, old or recent, in the
center."

The injury is done by girdling the canes at the base of the
main root. In one field in New Jersey, nearly 50 per cent of the
canes were infested. As the season advances the larvae appear to
leave the old wood and attack the young shoots, causing them to
wilt and die.

Smith observed larvae of two distinct sizes, and further obser-
vation of their transformations led him to the conclusion that the
insect remains two years in this state.

Much of the work of this pest has been attributed to winter-
killing, from the fact that many of the canes attacked in the latter
part of the season remain alive till winter, and fail to leaf out the
following spring.

Remedies. — The habits of the species place it beyond the reach
of any insecticide, so far as known, and the only practical means
of combating it is by removing and burning the infested canes,
taking care that no larvsB escape. All dead canes which are
visible after growth starts in spring should be examined, and if
their death is due to this cause, the borer is pretty sure to be
found at the base. Their attacks on the young canes in summer
offer an especially favorable opportunity for their destruction,
since these tender shoots show the effects of their presence at
once, and there is more certainty of discovering the depredator.
Thorough work on this plan will almost wholly prevent the devel-
opment of the perfect insect, and its consequent reproduction and
spread. Especially is this true since the larva carries on its work
for two years before reaching that state.

260 BUSH-FRUITS

THE RASPBERRY GEOMETER

Synchlora glaucaria, Guen. — Order Lepidoptera: Family
Geometridse

Comstoek, Man. of Ins. 288.
Aplodes rubivora, Riley, Mo. Rep. 1: 139.
Synchlora albolineata, Pack.
Eunemoria gracilaria, Pack.
Synchlora, rubivoraria, Pack. Mon. Geom. 382.

French, Trans. 111. Hort. Soc. 1881: 196.

Saunders, Ins. Inj. Prts. 316.

This small caterpillar feeds on the leaves and fruit of the
raspberry and blackberry, especially the fruit, and is more con-
spicuous for its unwelcome presence there than for the amount
of injury which it does. It is particularly troublesome because
it has the ability to so thoroughly disguise itself that it is diffi-
cult to detect. It does this by fastening to the thorny prickles
on its body bits of dried berry, seed, pollen, leaves and other
debris which, added to its habit of looping itself into a small
ball, renders the disguise complete.

Confining itself principally to the ripe fruit, no practical
remedy seems to be available.

THE RASPBERRY -CANE MAGGOT

Phorbia sp. — Order Diptera: Family Anthomyidre

Slingerland, Bull. Cornell Univ. Exp. Sta. 126: 54.

This is the larva of a true fly, grayish black in color, closely
resembling the common house-fly, though not quite as large.
The larva is a slender, white, footless maggot, found burrowing
in the tips of raspberry canes. It is closely related to the radish
and onion maggot. The eggs are laid early in spring, very soon
after the young canes start, in the fork at the base of the tip
leaves. The young larva burrows into the cane near the point of
hatching, works its way downward in the pith a short distance,

THE RASPBERRY-CANE MAGGOT 261

then proceeds to girdle the cane inside the bark. The part above
the girdle soon wilts, turns to a dark blue color and dies. The
effect is usually to kill the entire shoot also. The larva continues
to bore downward in the dead or dying cane, transforms to a pupa
near the base, and there remains until the following spring, when
it emerges as the adult fly.

Although often a serious pest, the insect may readily be over-
come. If the wilting tips are gathered and burned as soon as
noticed, which will usually be during May, the work of those
larvre will be forever ended. Professor Slingerland also found*
that many of the pupse were destroyed by a hymenopterous para-
site, Idiasta incomplete!,. •

THE PALE BROWN BYTURUS (Fig. 35)
Byturus unicolor, Say.— Order Coleoptera Family Dermestidre

Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 310.

French, Trans. 111. Hort. Soc. 1881: 198.

Fitch, N. Y. Rep. 14: 358.

Jayne, Proc. Amer. Philosoph. Soc. 1882: 345.

This insect is a doubly troublesome one, on account of the
injury and annoyance which it causes both in the perfect and in
the larval state. The mature insect is a small beetle about three -
twentieths of an inch long, of a yellowish brown
or pale reddish color, and densely covered with
fine, pale yellow hairs. In this form it is injur-
ious to raspberries and blackberries by eating into
the flower buds and destroying the sexual organs.
A hole in the side of the bud will show where
the beetle has entered. When the injury is com-
plete, the buds usually wither and fail to open: , Flg' 35t.

' turns unicolor.
if only partial, the flower may expand, but only

to develop an imperfect, worthless berry. It also attacks the
open flowers, partially hiding at the base of the stamens. It

* Local citation.

262 BUSH-FRUITS

works chiefly in the morning and evening, seldom being seen in
the middle of the day.

Its offspring next makes its presence unpleasantly noticeable
as a small, soft, tarnished white worm, remaining on the fruit of
the red raspberry when it is gathered. It is usually found within
the cup or cavity of the berry, and is difficult to detect. This
can only be done by carefully examining the berries one by one,
though even then many of the smaller worms are likely to evade
the keenest search.

When full grown, the larva drops to the ground, often with the
berry, no doubt, hides under any convenient rubbish, forms a little
cell in the earth, and changes to a hairy pupa of a pale, dull
yellowish color. Here it remains during the winter, transforming
to the perfect beetle about the middle or latter part of May,
and emerging in time to carry on its destructive work in the
blossom buds.

Remedies. — Spraying with Paris green, not too strong, using as
much lime as Paris green, just as the buds are developing, will
probably check its ravages to a great extent.

THE BED-NECKED CANE-BORER (Figs. 36, 37)

Red-necked Agrilus. — Gouty -gall Beetle
Agrilus ruficolis, Fabr. — Order Coleoptera: Family Buprestidre

Walsh and Riley, Amer. Ent. 2: 103, 128.

Saunders, Rep. Ent. Soc. Ont. 1873: 8. Ins. Inj. Frts. 307.

Lintner, N. Y. Rep. 6: 123.

Smith, Spec. Bull. N. J. Exp. Sta. N: 4.

Horn, Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc. 18: 289.

Hopkins, Bull. W. Va. Exp. Sta. 15. Ann. Rep. 3: 160.

Webster, Bull. Ohio Exp. Sta. 45: 191.

In winter and spring the canes of raspberries and blackberries
often show one or more comparatively small and regular swellings,
an inch or more in length, the outer portions being roughened with
brownish slits and ridges. They are rarely more than one -third
thicker than the normal cane, and are caused by the work of a

THE RED-NECKED CANE-BORER

263

small borer, which is very similar in appearance and which be-
longs to the same family as the flat-headed apple-tree borer.
This swelling, which is a pithy gall, has been named by Dr.
Riley the Raspberry Gouty -gall
— Rubi podagra— although there
seems to be no good reason for
applying a special name to the
gall so long as the insect which
produces it is equally well
known. The galls are usually
confined to the main canes, and
may be near the base, or two
or three feet above ground,
though sometimes even the
more vigorous laterals are at-
tacked. The injured canes may
put forth leaves and blossoms,
but the fruit seldom ripens, and
the cane dies before the end of
the season.

The larvae burrow in a spiral
direction, confining themselves,
in the early stages of their ex-
istence, wholly to the sap wood,
and by this means girdle and
kill the cane. According to
one observer, this habit of
girdling the cane in order to
kill it the first season seems
to contribute to the safety of
the larvse, which otherwise
freeze and perish, perhaps owing to the greater quantity of sap
which surrounds them in living canes. They are said to be
more frequently destroyed in this manner in blackberries than
in raspberries. Like the crown-borer, it often escapes detec-
tion by reason of the belief that the injury is due to winter-
killing.

Fig. 36. Agrilus
ruJicoUs.

Fig. 37. Work of
red-necked Cane-
borer.

264 BUSH-FRUITS

The larva reaches its full size toward the latter part of April,
bores into the middle of the cane, where it will be more secure
from insect foes, forms a smooth, oval cell, and transforms into a
white pupa, showing quite plainly the marks of the future beetle.
It gradually darkens, and assumes more and more the form of the
perfect insect. The mature beetles begin to emerge about the last
of May, and are usually most abundant in June. It is during this
period that the eggs are laid.

John B. Smith, who has examined large numbers of the very
young larvee, finds that the egg is laid at the base of a leaf -stalk,
generally near the ground. He says : " The beetle probably does
not lay more than one egg at the same point, and one larva at a
leaf-stalk is the rule; but sometimes different specimens may
choose the same point for oviposition, and in one case three
larvae had started together, burrowing under the bark, each for
himself, in distinct channels. There seems to be no rule as to the
direction in which the girdling is done, some starting to the right
and some to the left. Sometimes, when eggs are laid at the base
of a leaf from which a vigorous lateral starts, the young larva will
run up the lateral rather than the main stem. Early laterals are
sometimes as badly infested as the main shoots."

The insect is thought to prefer raspberries to blackberries,
as a rule, but in New Jersey the Wilson blackberry suffers most
of all. Professor Smith observes that although it attacks black
raspberries, there are no galls formed and no injury is done, the
larva apparently confining its work to the center of the cane.

Remedies. — A knowledge of the life history of the insect at
once reveals the remedy. As the perfect insect does not emerge
from the cane till late in spring, it is only necessary to attend to
the spring pruning promptly, taking especial care to watch for and
remove all galls. This may often necessitate cutting away whole
canes, but the value of the treatment depends entirely on the
thoroughness with which it is done. All wood cut away should be
carefully collected and burned, for removing it from the root in no
way hinders the development of the beetles. It is important that
growers cooperate and do the work thoroughly, for one neglected
patch will serve as a breeding ground for a whole neighborhood.

THE ROSE-BUG 265

If its habit of work on the black -cap, which prevents the forma-
tion of galls, is general, this may form a barrier to its destruction
because more difficult to detect. It has usually proved more
destructive in the southern than in the northern states.

THE ROSE CHAFER (Fig. 38)

Macrodactylus subspinosus (Fabr.) — Order Coleoptera: Family
Scarabseidae

Harris, Ins. Inj. Veg. 35 (Flint Ed.).

Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 280.

Riley, Ins. Life, 2: 295.

Smith, Ins. Life, 3: 220.

Horn, Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc. 1876: 183.

This insect is one of the most dreaded enemies of the horti-
culturist wherever it occurs. It seems to be created on a plan
which renders it proof alike against arsenites, pyrethrum, and all
known insecticides. It can be scalded to death, but this is not a
practical treatment on a large scale.

Their favorite breeding places appear to be open fields of light,
sandy soil. In New Jersey, where they are particularly destruc-
tive, Professor Smith states that they breed in the whole of
the sand district of South Jersey, the larvae being abundant
everywhere in the brush lands, even down to the shore. In July
the female beetle lays about thirty whitish, nearly globular eggs
about one -thirtieth of an inch in diameter, which are placed one
or two inches beneath the surface of the ground.
The eggs hatch in about twenty days, and the young
larvse feed on the roots of grasses and other plants
until the approach of cold weather, when they work
their way deeper into the ground, passing the winter
in a torpid state. In spring they- approach the surface
and form an oval cell of earth in which to pupate, and
from which they emerge in great numbers, all at
once, a habit common to other beetles of the class F. 3g jjose.
to which they belong. This occurs about the time bus.

266 BUSH-FRUITS

that grapes are in blossom. The favorite food of the mature
beetle consists of flowers, especially those of the rose, grape,
spira3a, sumach, magnolia, etc. ; but the foliage of nearly all
plants also suffers. In one report of their ravages in New
Jersey, Professor Smith says: "Of the small fruits, the black-
berries seemed very attractive. They were on each blossom, and
ate the petals but left the green forming fruit. Last year they
ate the leaves as well, and left only the canes. This year they
left the leaves. Raspberries were totally destroyed."

Although occurring throughout the greater portion of the
northern half of the United States east of the Rocky Mountains,
it appears to be more or less local in its habits, for in parts of
central New York and northern Pennsylvania it is seldom or never
seen. In the Gulf states the species is replaced by the closely
allied one, M. angustatus, and in the extreme southwest by M.
uniformis. These are very similar in appearance, differing only
in the character of the prosternal process and the pubescence,
but have not thus far proved so injurious.

Remedies. — When occurring in such vast numbers as they fre-
quently do in some sections, nothing avails against them, and the
cultivator is utterly helpless before their march. Where their
numbers are limited, kerosene emulsion, pyrethrum, and coating
the vines with whitewash to which crude carbolic acid has been
added, have been found useful, and sometimes really satisfactory.
Mechanical devices for knocking them off and catching them have,
in some cases, proved more practicable than any other plan. At
one time it was thought that hot water would prove effective
against this insect, but notwithstanding the apparent simplicity of
such a remedy it was found to be impracticable for general use.
The temperature required is about 130 degrees Fahrenheit, but the
range is very narrow. If much above this temperature the plants
are injured, if much below it the insects suffer no harm. To
maintain the right degree of heat' in field operations is not feasi-
ble. Even if the water as it leaves the nozzle has the right tem-
perature, it may not have when it touches the insect.

THE GIANT ROOT-BORER

267

THE GIANT ROOT-BORER (Fig. 39)
Prionus laticollis (^Dru.).— Order Coleoptera: Family Cerambycides

Riley, Mo. Rep. 1: 124. -2: 87.
Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 227.
Thomas, 111. Ent. Rep. 6: 147.
Smith, Spec. Bull. N., N. J. Exp. Sta.

The following statements concerning this species are quoted
from Professor John B. Smith's bulletin on blackberry insects:
"Besides the crown-borer, the black-
berry also harbors in its roots an
enormous beetle larva between two
and three inches in length, white in
color, with strongly marked constric-
tions at the segments, a distinct en-
largement anteriorly, and a small,
smooth, brown head, with stout, dark-
brown jaws. The parent of this larva
is a long-horned beetle, and most
probably Prionus laticollis, Dru. Dr.
Eiley found this larva injuring roots
of grape and apple in Missouri more
than twenty years ago, and it has
been found also in other trees. So
far as I am aware, it has not been

heretofore recorded as a blackberry pest. Dr. Eiley, from obser-
vations made by him, concluded that the larva required three
years to come to maturity, and with this conclusion my own ob-
servations agree.

" The pupa is formed in June or early in July, and the beetle
makes its appearance at about the middle of the latter month. It
is rarely seen, even where not uncommon, and flies principally at
night. Fortunately this borer is comparatively scarce ; but where
it does occur, signs of its work are readily observable. It lives in
the large, woody portion of the main root, in which it bores huge
channels, and the sudden dying off of several canes in a hill is a

Fig. 39. Root-borer.— Prionus
laticollis.

268 BUSH-FRUITS

certain indication of its presence. Barely only a single cane will
be affected, and then if a crown-borer is not found, the presence
of this insect in the main root is almost certain."

Remedies. — "Whenever signs of its presence are noted, it
should be at once sought for and destroyed. It is more common
in old, carelessly kept fields, and, where numerous in such places,
it will be better to grub out and burn all suspected stocks, and
replace them by new plants. This should be done before the
middle of June, to prevent the maturing of the beetles."

THE RASPBERRY -CANE BORER (Fig. 40)
Oberea bimaculata (Oliv.) — Order Coleoptera : Family Cerambycidte

Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 305.

Lintner, N. Y. Rep. 5: 231.

Comstock and Slingerland, Bull. Cornell Exp. Sta. 23: 122.
Saperda tripunctata, Fabr.

Harris Ins. Inj. Veg. 114 (Flint Ed.).
Oberea tripunctata (Fabr.).

Bethune, Canad. Ent. 9: 226.

Saunders, Rep. Ent. Soc. Ont. 1873: 9.
Oberea perspicillata, Hald.

Riley, Mo. Rep. 6: 111.

The larva of this species is a footless
grub, similar to the round-headed apple-
tree borer in form, found boring in both

. , , , T. . , Fig. 40. Cane-borer,

blackberry and raspberry canes. It is best Oberea Mmaculate.

known as a raspberry insect, but in Bulletin

23 of the Cornell University Experiment Station, from which
the following quotations are taken, an instance is recorded of
serious injury to blackberries. In this case the boring larvae
were found only in the bearing canes, while in raspberries they
attack the young shoots.

"The mature insect is a long-horned, slender-bodied beetle
about half an inch in length. It is of a deep black color, except
the segment next the head, the prothorax, which is yellow.
There are usually two or three black spots on the upper part of
this segment, but frequently these are wanting.

THE RASPBERRY-CANE BORER 269

"The eggs are laid in the early summer, usually during the
month of June. They were not observed in the blackberry; but
when the insect infests raspberries, the first indication of the
injury noticed is usually the withering and drooping of the ends
of the young shoots. If these be examined, there will be found
at the base of the wilted portion two rows of punctures encircling
the cane about half an inch apart, and between them a small hole
in which an egg has been deposited. This double girdling of the
cane is done by the beetle with her jaws at the time she lays her
egg. It has been suggested that the purpose served by this gir-
dling is the arresting of the circulation of the sap in this part of
the cane ; and in this way the prevention of the crushing of the
tender egg by a vigorous and rapid growth of the tip of the
cane." The larvae bore downward in the pith of the cane, prob-
ably reaching the root in autumn, where they transform and pass
the winter. "The burrows are about one-eighth of an inch in
diameter ; they wind from side to side of the pith, and at frequent
intervals penetrate the woody part of the cane. In some of the
cases where the woody part of the cane is penetrated, an opening
is made through the bark. These openings occur at intervals of a
few inches throughout the length of the tunneled portion of the
canes ; they are small, being about one -third of the diameter of
the burrow ; and their object is to enable the larva to deposit its
excrement outside of the burrow."

Remedies. — "The methods of combating this insect are simple,
but they require prompt attention. As soon as the tips of the
canes begin to droop they should be cut off below the point where
they are girdled. In this way the larva can be destroyed before it
has begun to bore into the lower portion of the cane, and thus
only the tip of the cane will be lost. When, however, the first
indication of the presence of this pest is the dying of the entire
cane, caused by the boring of the larva, the infested canes should
be promptly cut out and burned. These canes can be readily
recognized by the dying of the leaves and by the small holes in
them described above. They are most likely to be observed at the
time of the blackberry harvest. It is of the utmost importance
that the cutting and burning of these canes should be done

270 BUSH-FR HITS

promptly. For if it be delayed till autumn, the larvse will have

penetrated the ,roots and will then be beyond the reach of the
pruning shears."

THE STRAWBERRY WEEVIL (Fig. 41)

Anthonomus signatus, Say. — Order Coleoptera: Family
Curculionidse

Chittenden, Ins. Life, 5: 167.
Hamilton, Can. Ent. 24: 41.
Anthonomus musculus, Say.

Rikjy, Rep. U. S. Dept. Agr. 1885: 276.
Fletcher, Rep. Can. Exp.LFarms, 1890: 178.
Beckwith, Bull. Del. Exp. Sta. 18.

This insect, which was first noticed as injurious to the straw-
berry in 1871, is at the present time coming to be a most serious
pest, not only to strawberries, but to blackberries as well. It is a
small curculio, or snout-beetle, about one-tenth of an inch long,
with black head and convex shining wing -covers variable in color.
Its injury to strawberries has been so great that a series of special
investigations were carried on during the season of 1892 by F. H.
Chittenden, of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, the results of
which appear in Insect Life, Vol. V, p. 167, which is freely quoted
here. The principal damage is done by the adult beetles punctur-
ing the pedicel or flower- stem a short distance below the flower -
buds. Concerning its work on blackberries, Mr. Chittenden says:
"A blackberry patch at Falls Church, of the variety known as
Early Harvest, was visited June 3, and although the bushes were
covered with white blossoms, betokening, un-
der normal conditions, a rich crop of berries,
it was soon seen that the insect had been at
Fig. 41. Weevil. work, but not in the same uniform manner
Anthonomus signatus. as on the strawberry, some plants being
noticeably more injured than others. An esti-
mate of the total damage done to the patch is about 20 per cent.
Badly damaged sprays selected at random showed an average of

THE STRAWBERRY WEEVIL 271

five or six injured buds to each flower cluster. On one large
spray over two -thirds had been killed."

It was found that the work of the insect on the blackberry did
not differ materially, either in appearance or ultimate injury, from
that on the strawberry. In the strawberry, however, the punc-
tures were nearly always plainly seen, both on the bud and the
stem beneath, while in the blackberry only a small proportion of
the blighted buds showed the punctures plainly. Sometimes the
wounded spot in the calyx had healed up or grown over, so as to
be nearly invisible, and in other cases the punctures had been
made between the sepals.

"Raspberries of the black-cap varieties appear to be exempt
from the attack of the strawberry weevil, but whether or not the
red raspberry enjoys the same immunity has not been ascertained.
On Mr. Sprangle's place, at Falls Church, a patch of black-caps,
which is located between the infested strawberry bed and black-
berry bushes previously referred to, was repeatedly examined for
traces of the attack of this insect, but most careful search failed
to show any signs of injury, and no beetles were found, even with
the aid of a beating net.

The wild plant, Rubus villosus (that is, R. nigrobaccus) is prob-
ably the natural food -plant of this species. Dewberries, Rubus
Canadensis (that is, R. villosus) were examined and a number of
injured buds were found, but on close inspection proved to contain
only Dipterous larvsB. It is still somewhat doubtful whether this
species is attacked or not, but it certainly is not to any great
extent."

The following is Chittenden's summary of the life-history of
the species: "The insect undergoes true hibernation, i. e., in the
adult state, and in April individuals of this hibernating brood
begin to crawl forth from their winter quarters, fly to the nearest
flowers, and commence feeding. They probably continue to issue
from their hiding-places for a month after the first arrivals make
their appearance.

"Blackberries are invaded at the time that the [plants begin
blooming, or about four or five weeks later than the strawberry.
Wild blackberry is visited still later, and the beetles continue on

272 BUSH-FRUITS

this plant for some time. The injury to these plants is done by
the female in the course of bviposition, and is produced by punc-
turing the stems just beneath the buds, causing the death of the
plant above the point of attack. A single egg is deposited at this
time in each flower-bud. The larvae are believed to hatch within
from three to five or six days after the egg is deposited in the bud,
and probably attain their full growth three or four weeks there-
after, when they transform to pupse. The pupal stage lasts from
about five to eight days, according to thermometric conditions,
and the first mature insects of the new brood begin to issue from
the strawberry buds toward the end of May, continuing through
the month of June, and in exceptional cases into July. The
beetles are so seldom seen after the middle of July that they are
believed to begin to hibernate at this time. Our observations
indicate only a single annual generation. All of the earlier stages
of the insect are passed in the bud. It never attacks the fruit.

The larva, which in general appearance resembles the grubs or
"worms" found in plums, cherries and nuts, feeds at first on pollen
and the stamens and pistils of the unopened flower, but if these
are consumed before it completes its growth, the receptacle is
attacked. Pollen is thought to furnish the greater portion of the
food of the adults also, a fact which accounts for the greater in-
jury to staminate varieties of strawberries, and .especially those
which are the most prolific pollen bearers.

Remedies. — Four species of parasites have been bred from the
insect, and these will doubtless aid in checking their multiplica-
tion to a certain extent. Few practical remedies seem thus far to
have been tried, and the most that is offered is in the line of
suggestions. Kerosene emulsion and pyrethrum, applied when the
beetles are at work, may be found satisfactory. The planting of
very early staminate varieties as a decoy or trap crop for the
hibernating brood, and wild bergamot or horse-mint for the new
brood, is suggested. The beetles are said to fairly swarm on this
plant when in bloom, and can be readily captured with a sweeping
net or reached with insecticides.

Mr. Chittenden's investigations show the insect to be averse to
working or feeding in shady places, and he suggests a protecting

THE RASPBERRF SA W-FLT 273

screen of muslin, netting or paper, as affording certain immunity
from attack on small patches where available.

THE RASPBERRY SAW-FLY

Monophadnus rubi (Harris.) — Order Hymenoptera : Family
Tenthredinidro

Selandria rubi, Harris.

Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 311.
Thomas, 111. Rep. 6: 61. 10: 67.
Webster, Bull. Ohio Exp. Sta. 45: 154.
Norton, Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc. 1: 249.

This is a four -winged fly which appears soon after the rasp-
berry leaves unfold. It is thus described by Professor Saunders:

"The wings, which are transparent, with a shining surface and
metallic hue, measure, when expanded, about half an inch across :
the veins are black, and there is also a streak of black along the
front margin extending more than half way towards the tip of the
wing. The anterior part of the body is black, the abdomen dark
reddish. In common with some other species of Selandria, these
flies have a habit of falling to the ground when disturbed, espe-
cially in the cool of the morning, and remaining inactive long
enough to enable one to catch them ; but with the increasing heat
of the day they are much more lively, and take wing readily when
approached.

" The eggs are buried beneath the skin of the leaf, close along-
side of the ribs and veins, placed there by means of the saw-like
apparatus with which the female is provided, where it swells some-
what and produces a slight discoloration of the cuticle on the
upper surface. The skin covering the surface of the swelling is
so thin and semi-transparent that the movements of the larva may
be observed a day or two before hatching, by the black spots on
the side of the head showing through. The larva escapes through
an irregular hole made on one side of the swelling.

"The young larva is about one-twelfth of an inch long, with a
large greenish white head, having a black eye -like spot on each
B

274 BUSH-FRUITS

side; the body nearly white, semi-transparent, and thickly cov-
ered with transverse rows of white spines." As its age increases it
assumes a close resemblance to the color of the leaf on which it
feeds. When full grown it leaves the bush, enters the ground and
constructs a little oval earthy cocoon mixed with silky and glu-
tinous matter, from which the fly emerges the following spring.

Remedies. — Spraying or dusting with hellebore proves an effi-
cient remedy.

THE LESS PROMINENT INSECTS

While the preceding list aims to include all species
which are sufficiently injurious to possess real eco-
nomic importance, it is obvious that no strict dividing
line can be drawn. In some cases insects included in
the following list have done much more injury than
many of those already mentioned. Much depends upon
local conditions and environment. If special condi-
tions favor an unusual development of any particular
species, the food supply of its parasites is thus in-
creased, thereby inducing an increase of the parasites,
and enabling them to reduce the species to normal
conditions. Thus nature's balance-wheel prevents the
undue increase of any class of her children and con-
sequent destruction by them.

To all having access to entomological literature, the
references given here will be of aid in quickly ob-
taining information upon any of these species which
may chance to manifest unusual development and con-
sequent injury. Many of those mentioned can never
prove injurious, and to know this fact may at times
be even more welcome than to find methods of com-
bating them as foes.

BRAMBLE INSECTS 275

CLASS AKACHNIDA (Spiders and their relatives)
Order Acarina

Tetranychus telarius (Linn.). The Red Spider.— Attacks rasp-
berries under glass, doubtless also in the field in dry climates,
as it does many other plants.

Bryobia pratensis, Garman. The Clover Mite. Riley and Marlatt,
Ins. Life 3:45. Rural New-Yorker 1894: 568. On Taspberries.

CLASS MYRIAPODA (Centipedes and Millipedes)
Order Chilognatha

lulus impressus, Say. Webster, Bull. O. Exp. Sta. 45:216. — Ins.
Life 2:258. Found in raspberry fruit after being harvested.

CLASS HEXAPODA (Insects)

Order Or fhop tera
FAMILY

Melanoplus spretus (Thomas). Comstock, Man. Ins. 110. [Calop-
tenus spretus, Thomas. Riley, Mo. Rep. 7:159.] Nearly omniv-
orous; injures blackberries more than raspberries.

FAMILY LOCUSTID^E.

Orchelimum glaberrimum, Burm. ,Riley, Mo. Rep. 5:123. — Fruit
Recorder, 15:180 (1883). Webster, Bull. O. Exp. Sta. 45:205. De-
posits its eggs in the canes and other pithy stems.

Order Physopoda

Thrips tritici. Fitch, N. Y. Rep. 2:304. Lintner, Rep. N. Y. Agr.
Soc. 1881-82:192, Webster, Bull. O. Exp. Sta. 45:207. On flow-
ers of raspberry and blackberry.

Order Hemlptera
FAMILY

Nysius angustatus, Uhler. Lintner, N. Y. Rep. 5:321. Riley, Rep.
U. S. Dept. Agr. 1884:315. [Nysius destructor, Riley. Nysius
raphanus, Howard.] On raspberry fruit ; a general feeder.

FAMILY PENTATOMID^E.

Cosmopepla carnifex (Fabr.). Lintner, N. Y. Rep. 2: 144. Webster,
Ball. O. Exp. Sta. 45:212. [Cimex carnifex, Fabr.] On leaves
and stems of blackberry and potato, fruit of currant, etc.

Euschistus variolarius, Pal. Beauv. Townsend, Ins. Life, 2:44.
Reported as injuring red raspberry fruit.

276 BUSH-FRUITS

FAMILY CORIMEL^ENID^E.

Corimelcena pulicaria, Germar. (Fig. 42.) Bethune, Canada Farmer,
Aug. 1,1870. Riley, Mo. Rep. 2:33. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts.
317. French, Trans. 111. Hort. Soc. 1881:200. [Thyreocoris puli-
carius (Germar.). Forbes, 111. Rep. 13:106.] Piercing raspberry
fruit and injuring it by the "bed-bug aroma" imparted by its
presence.

FAMILY CICADID^E.

Cicada septendecim, Linn. Packard, For. Ins. 95.
Riley, Rep. U. S. Dept. Agr. 1885: 223. -Bull.
U. S. Div. Ent. 8. Comstock, Man. Ins. 150.
Eggs deposited in berry canes, twigs of trees, etc.

FAMILY CERCOPID^E.

Aphrophora quadrangularis, Say. Walsh and Riley,
Fig. 42. Cori- Amer. Ent. 1:228. Lintner, N. Y. Rep. 5:245.

melcenapuli- Morse, First Book Zool. 97. (1875 ed.) A spittle

cariat insect; a general feeder, often found on black-

berry.
FAMILY JASSID^;.

Typhlocyba tricincta (Fitch). Forbes, 111. Rep. 14:115. [Erythro-
neura tricincta, Fitch, N. Y. Rep. 3:392.] On raspberry, currant
and grape leaves.

FAMILY APHIDID^E.

Aphis rubicola. Oestland, Geog. and Nat. Hist. Surv. Minn. Bull.

4:60. On leaves of red raspberry.
Macrosiphum rubicohim. Oestland, Rep. Geog. and Nat. Hist. Surv.

Minn. 14:27. — Bull. 4:78. On twigs and leaves of red raspberry.
Pemphigus rubi. Thomas, 111. Rep. 8:147. French, Trans. 111. Hort.

Soc. 1881 : 200. On leaves of black raspberry.
Sipha rubifolii. Thomas, 111. Rep. 8:121. On blackberry leaves.
Siphonophora rubi, Kalt. Thomas, 111. Rep. 8:64. French, Trans.

111. Hort. Soc. 1881 : 200. On raspberry and blackberry.

FAMILY ALEYRODID^E.

Aleyrodes sp.? Observed on leaves of Rubus odoratus at Ithaca,
N. Y., in the summer of 1893.

FAMILY COCCID^E.

Lecanium Fitchii, Signoret, Essai, 404. Comstock, Rep. Cornell
Univ. Exp. Sta. 2: 133. On raspberry and blackberry.

Mytilaspis pomorum (Bouche\). Comstock, Rep. U. S. Dept. Agr.
1880:325.— Rep. Cornell Univ. Exp. Sta. 2:118. Saunders, Ins.
Inj. Frts. : 40. [Aspidiotus pomorum, Bouche".] On raspberry in
common with other plants.

Aulacaspis rosce (Bouche".). [Diaspis rosce (Sandberg). Comstock,
Rep. U. S. Dept. Agr. 1880:312.] On rose, raspberry and black-
berry.

BRAMBLE INSECTS 277

Chionaspis furfurus (Fitch.). Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. : 44. Comstock,
Eep. U. S. Dep. Agr. 1880: 315. — Rep. Cornell Univ. Exp. Sta.
2:103. [Aspidiotus furfurus, Fitch, N. Y. Rep. 3: 352. Aspidiotus
cerasi, Fitch, N. Y. Rep. 3: 368. Diaspis Harrisii, Walsh. Riley,
Amer. Nat. 15:487.] On black raspberry, apple, pear and other
trees.

Order Lepidoptera
FAMILY MEGALOPYGID^.

Megalopyge crispata (Pack.). Comstock, Man. Ins. 218. [Lagoa
crispata. Packard, Amer. Nat. 19:714.— For Ins: 139. Lintner,
Ent. Corres. 2: 138. -Rep. N. Y. Cab. Nat. Hist. 4:138.] On leaves
of blackberry, raspberry plum, apple, and other trees.

FAMILY EUCLEID^;.

Empretia stimulea, Clemens. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 113—353.
Packard, For. Ins. 146. Webster, Bull. O. Exp. Sta. 45:168. A
general feeder.

FAMILY PTEROPHORID^.

Oxiptilus tenuidactihis, Fitch. [Oxiptilus nigrociliatus, Zell. Saun-
ders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 314. Oxiptilus delavaricus, Zell. Forbes, 111.
Rep. 14: 91.] On leaves of raspberry and blackberry.

FAMILY GRAPHOLITHIDJE.

Eudemis botrana (Schiff. ). Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 299. [Penthina
vitivorana, Pack. Riley, Mo. Rep. 1: 113. Walsh and Riley, Amer.
Ent. 1:177.] On blackberry blossoms, and within the fruit of
grape.

Exartema permundana, Clem. (Fig. 43.) Clemens,
Proc. Phila. Acad. Sci. 1860:356. Comstock,
Rep. U. S. Dept. Agr. 1880:267. [Eccopsis
permundana (Clem.). Packard, For. Ins. 312.—
Rep. U. S. Dept. Agr. 1885:330. Saunders, Ins. pig 43 Exar-
Inj. Frts. 324.] On leaves of raspberry, black- tema permun.
berry, strawberry, and other plants.

Phoxopteris comptana, Frol. Saunders, Ins. Inj.

Frts. 323. Forbes, 111. Rep. 13: 87. [Anchyloptera fragarice,
Walsh & Riley, Amer. Ent. 1:89. Riley, Mo. Rep. 1:142.] On
leaves of strawberry, raspberry and blackberry.

FAMILY TORTRICID^E.

Caccecia rosaceana (Harris). Packard, For. Ins. 505. Saunders,

Ins. Inj. Frts. 90. [Laxotenia rosaceana, Harris, Ins. Inj. Veg.

48 ( Flint ed. ) . Thomas, 111. Rep. 1 1 : 10. ] On leaves of rose, apple,

raspberry, blackberry, etc.
Caccecia rosana, Linn. Comstock and Slingerland, Bull. Cornell

Exp. Sta. 23:119. Webster, Bull. O. Exp. Sta. 45:180. Comstock,

Man. Ins. 244. A general feeder.
Lophoderus velutinana, Walk. Forbes, 111. Rep. 14:88. Packard,

For. Ins. 196. On blackberry, oak, balsam-fir and maple.

278 B USH-FR UIT8

Loxotcenia musculana, Hub. Fernald, Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc.
10:13. On Rubus, and many other plants.

FAMILY NEPTICULID^:.

Nepticula rubifoliella, Clemens, Tineina N. Amer. (Stainton), 152.
— Proc. Phila. Acad. Sci. June, 1860. Mining in leaves of black-
berry.

Nepticula villosella, Clemens, Tineina N. Amer. (Stainton), 164-174.
—Proc. Ent. Soc. Phila. 1: 84. Mining in blackberry leaves.

FAMILY LITHOCOLLETID^!.

Tischeria cenea, F. & B. Chambers, Bull. U. S. Geol. and Geog.
Surv. 4:99-113. [Tischeria malifoliella , Clemens, Proc. Phila.
Acad. Sci. 12: 208. Tineina N. Amer. (Stainton), 141. Weed, 111.
Rep. 15 : 45.] Mining in leaves of Rubus. Now considered distinct
from the apple-leaf miner.

FAMILY SESIID.S;.

Sesia hemizonice (Hy. Edw. ). [^Egeria hemizonice, Hy. Edwards,
Papilio, 1: 198. Rivers, Papilio, 3: 26.] Boring in the pith of cul-
tivated raspberries.

FAMILY NOTODONTID^E.

Apatelodes torrefacta (Sm. & Abb.). Hy. Edwards, Bull. U. S. Nat.
Mus. 35: 67. A rare southern moth, known to feed on Rubus.

(Edemasia concinna (Sm. & Abb.). Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 62.
Packard, For. Ins. 457. Webster, Bull. O. Exp. Sta. 45:167.
f Notoaonta concinna, Sm. & Abb. Harris, Ins. Inj. Veg. 425.]
On apple, blackberry, and other plants.

Schizura ipomece, Doub. Packard, For. Ins. 155. Dyar, Ins. Life,
3: 62. [Ccelodasys biguttatus, Pack.] On oak, maple and black-
berry.

Schizura unicornis (Sm. & Abb.). Packard, For. Ins. 269. [Noto-
donta unicornis, Sm. & Abb. Harris, Ins. Inj. Veg. 424. Fitch,
N. Y. Rept. 3:363. Ccelodasys unicornis. Saunders, Ins. Inj.
Frts. 80.] A general feeder.

FAMILY ENNOMID^:.

Cingilia catenaria (Cramer). Comstock, Man. Ins, 279. [Zerene
catenaria, Cram. Packard, Mon. Geom. 218. — For. Ins. 783.
Caterva catenaria (Cram). Coquillet, Papilio, 1:56.] On black-
berry and several other plants.

FAMILY GEOMETRID^:.

Aspilates coloraria, Fabr. Packard, Mon. Geom. 206. [Aspilates
atropunctaria, Walk.] On leaves of Rubus.

Eucrostis chloroleucaria (Guen). Packard, Mon. Geom. 370.
[Nemoria chloroleucaria, Guen.] On red raspberry.

Eupithecia implicata, Walk. Var. interrupto -fasciata, Pack.
[JZupithecia interrupto -fas data. Thomas, 111. Rep. 11:23. Saun-
ders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 352. Coquillet, Papilio, 1:56.] On fruit of
currant and raspberry ; also on flower of clover and other plants.

BRAMBLE INSECTS 279

Microgonia limbaria, Haw. [Nematocampa filamentaria, Guen.
Packard, Mon. Geom. 471. — For. Ins. 182. Saunders, Ins. Inj.
Frts. 167. Forbes, 111. Rep. 13:79.] On raspberry.

FAMILY CYMATOPHOBID^.

Thyatira scripta (Gosse). [Habrosyne scripta, Gosse. Thaxter,
Papilio, 3:10.] Eggs found on raspberry leaves.

FAMILY NOCTUID^!.

Acronycta Americana, Harris. French, 111. Rep. 7: 200. [Apatela

Americana (Harr.). Harris, Ins. Inj. Veg. 436. Packard, For.

Ins. 397. Hulst, Ent. Amer. 4:85.] On blackberry ; a general

feeder.
Acronycta brumosa, Guen. French, Trans. 111. Hort. Soc. 1881:194.

[Apatela brumosa (Guen). Coquillet, Papilio, 1:56. Saunders,

Ins. Inj. Frts. 313.] On raspberry leaves.
Acronycta oblinita, Sin. & Abb. [Apatela oblinita (Sin. & Abb.).

Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 325.] A general feeder.
Acronycta spinigera, Guen. [Apatela spinigera (Guen.). Thaxter,

Psyche, 2:121.] On blackberry ; a general feeder.
Acronycta xyliniformis , Guen. [Acronycta xylinoides, Guen. Riley,

Mo. Rep. 5:126. Apatela xyliniformis (Guen). Thaxter, Papilio,

3:17.] On blackberry ; a general feeder.
Amphipyra pyramidoides, Guen. Saunders, Canad. Ent. 7:14.

Comstock, Man. Ins. 302. [Pyrophila pyramidoides (Guen).

Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 274. French, Trans. 111. Hort. Soc.

1881:195. Webster, Bull. O. Exp. Sta. 45:177.] On grape, rasp-
berry, plum and other plants.
ffydrcecia nitela (Guen). [Gortyna nitela, Guen. LeBaron, 111. Rep.

3:141. Smith, 111. Rep. 7:112. Lintner, N. Y. Rep. 1: 110. Saun-
ders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 334. Webster, Bull. O. Exp. Sta. 45:176.]

Boring in the stems of cereals and many other plants.
Hyppa xylinoides (Guen.). Lintner, N. Y. Rept. 4:138. [Hadena

xylinoides, Guen. Saunders, Canad. Ent. 2:33.] A general feeder ;

taken on raspberry.

Mamestra picta, Harris. Lintner, N. Y. Rep. 4:16.— 5:206.
' [Ceramica picta (Harris). French, 111. Rep. 7:226.] A general

feeder ; reported on raspberry and currant.
Noctua fennica, Tausch. Webster, Bull. O. Exp. Sta. 45:175.

[Agrotis fennica (Tausch.). Fletcher, Ins. Life 3: 247.] A general

feeder ; primarily on clover.
Prodenia ornithogalli, Guen. [Prodenia lineatella, Harv. French,

Trans. 111. Hort. Soc. 1881:195. — Canad. Ent. 13:24.] Feeds on

raspberry in confinement.
Pyrrhia umbra (Hiibn.). Forbes, 111. Rep. 14:88. [Heliothis ex-

primens (Walk.). French, III. Rep. 7:233. Pyrrhia exprimens,

Walk. Edwards and Elliott, Papilio, 3:135.] On Desmodium,

smartweed, rose and blackberry.
Scopelosoma sidus, Guen. Packard, For. Ins. 116. [Scopclosoma

vinulenta, Grote. Thaxter, Canad. Ent. 16:32.] On blackberry.

280 BUSH-FRUITS

FAMILY

Haploa Lecontei (Boisd.). [Callimorpha Lecontei, Boisd. Forbes,

111. Rep. 15:2. Var. fulvicosta, Clem. LeBaron, 111. Rep. 2:47.

Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 197. J On buds and leaves of raspberry,

peach and other plants.
ffyphantria cunea, Dru. Comstock, Man. Ins. 32. Riley, Rep. U. S.

Dept. Agr. 1886: 518. Packard, For. Ins. 244. [ffyphantria textor,

Harris. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 71.] The Fall Web-worm; feeds

on more than 100 different species of plants.
Pyrrharctia Isabella, Sin. & Abb. Comstock, Man. Ins. 322. Web-

ster, Bull. O. Exp. Sta. 45:162. Harris, Ins. Inj. Veg. 355. A

general feeder.

FAMILY SPHINGIDJE.

Paonias exccecatus (Sm. & Abb.). [Smerinthus exccecatus, Sm. &
Abb. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 85. Beutenmuller, Ent. Amer.
l:196.-Can. Ent. 23:14. Dimmock, Psyche, 4:282. Packard, For.
Ins. 487.] A general feeder.

FAMILY BOMBYCID^:.

Bombyx vnori, Linn. Comstock, Man. Ins. 340. [Sericaria mon
(Linn). Edwards, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. 35:67. Jaeger, Life N.
Am. Ins. 146.] The silk worm. It has been reported, though not
on the best of authority, that it will feed on Rubus.
Euproctis chrysorrhwa (Linn). Fernald and Kirkland, Special Bull.
Mass. Hatch. Exp. Sta. 1897. [Bombyx chrysfarhoea, Linn.] A
general feeder, preferring the pear.

FAMILY CITHEBONIID^;.

Anisota senataria (Smith & Abb.). Packard, For. Ins. 124, Lintner,
N. Y. Rep. 5:192. [Dryocampa senatoria (Sm. & Abb.). Riley,
Amer. Ent. 2:26.] On oak ; eggs reported on raspberry, but per-
haps accidental.

FAMILY SATURNIID^C.

Automeris io (Fabr.). Comstock, Man. Ins. 351. [ffypercheria io

(Fabr.). Goodell, Canad. Ent. 11:78. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts.

209. — Rep. Ent. Soc. Ont. 10:75. Riley, Mo. Rep. 5:133.] A

general feeder.
Samia cecropia, Linn. Comstock, Man. Ins. 356. [ Attacus cecropia

(Linn.). Dimmock, Psyche, 4:276. Webster, Bull. O. Exp. Sta.

45:170. Platysamia cecropia (Linn.). Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts.

73. -Rep. Ont. Ent. Soc. 1874: 22.] A general feeder, over thirty

different genera being included among its food plants.

FAMILY LASIOCAMPID^;.

Clisiocampa Californica, Packard, For. Ins. 119. Stretch, Papilio,

1 : 64. On oak and blackberry.
FAMILY NYMPHALID^E.

Polygonia comma (Harris). Comstock, Man. Ins. 404. [Vanessa
comma, Harris. Ins. Inj. Vig. 300. Grapta comma (Harris).
Packard, For. Ins. 241. Webster, Bull. O. Exp. Sta. 45:158.] On
elm, nettle basswood, etc. ; also reported on blackberry.

BRAMBLE INSECTS 281

Order Diptera
FAMILY CECIDOMYID^;.

Cecidomyia sp.? Webster, Bull. O. Exp. Sta. 45:188. In canes of
Rubus hispidus, forming galls.

Lasioptera farinosa, O. S. Smith, Spec. Bull. N. J. Exp. Sta. N:13.
Webster, Bull. O. Exp. Sta. 45:188. Osten Sacken, Mon. Dip.
N. A. 1:204. [Cecidomyia farinosa (O. S.).] Forming galls on
midrib of the leaves and tips of young canes of blackberry.

Dipterous Larva, undetermined. Feeding within buds of Rubus
odoratus, at Ithaca, N. Y., destroying the floral organs and pre-
venting many of the buds from opening.

Order Coleoptera
FAMILY COCCINELLID.E.

Anatis 15-punctata (Oliv.). [Coccinella 15-punctata, Oliv. LeBaron,
111. Rep. 5: 183.] On fruit of raspberry.

FAMILY NITTDULID^E.

Carpophilus brachypterus, Say. Webster, Ins. Life, 2:258. — Bull.
O. Exp. Sta. 45: 191. In fruit of raspberry.

FAMILY ELATERID^;.

Limonius auripilis, Say. Webster, Ins. Life, 2:258. Say, Amer.

Entomology, 2:112. On ripe raspberry fruit.
Melanotus communis, Gyll. Walsh, Pract. Ent. 2:119. On ripe fruit

of raspberry.
Monocrepidius vespertinus, Fabr. Walsh, Pract. Ent. 2:119. On

ripe raspberries.

FAMILY SCARAB^EIDJE.

Anomala binotata, Gyll. Thomas, 111. Rep. 6:105. Webster, Bull.

O. Exp. Sta. 45:197. On flowers of blackberry.

Cotalpa lanigera, Linn. Packard, For. Ins. 274. Forbes, 111. Ent.
Rep. 13:146. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 155. Fletcher, Rep. Ent.
Soc. Ont. 1879: 70. Lockwood, Amer. Nat. 1869, 186, 441. A gen-
eral feeder, the beetle attacking the leaves and the larvae the roots
of plants.

FAMILY CHBYSOMELID^E.

Bassareus mammifer, Newm. Beutenmuller, Ent. Americana, 6:175.

On blackberry.
Chelymorpha argus, Leich. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 315. Webster,

Bull. O. Exp. Sta. 45:204. A general feeder.
Chlamys pli'cata, Fabr. Riley, Mo. Rep. 6:128. Packard, Guide, 510.

Webster, Bull. O. Exp. Sta. 45:200. On blackberry and other

plants.
Cryptocephalus binomis, Newm. Beutenmuller, Ent. Amer. 6:175.

On blackberry.
Cryptocephalus quadruplex, Mim. Webster, Bull. O. Exp. Sta.

45:201. On blackberry.

282 BUSH-FRUITS

Cryptocephalus venustus, Fabr. Beutenmuller, Ent. Amer. 6:175.
On blackberry.

Diabrotica 12-punctata, Oliv. Eiley and Howard, Ins. Life 1:58.
Riley, Ins. Life 4:104. Garman, Psyche, 6: 28. Webster, Bull. O.
Exp. Sta. 45: 202. The Southern Corn Root-worm. On raspberry.

Crepidodera cucumeris (Harris). Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 317.-364.
Comstock, Man. Ins. 578. [Haltica cucumeris (Harris). French
Trans. 111. Hort. Soc. 1881:198. Thomas, 111. Ent. Rep. 6:167.
Epitrix cucumeris , Harris. Horn, Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc. 16: 245.]
The Cucumber Flea-beetle. On raspberry, vegetables, etc.

Pachybrachys carbonarius, Hald. Webster, Bull. O. Exp. Sta. 45: 202.
On blackberry.

Paria 4-notata, Say. Webster, Bull. O. Exp. Sta. 45:202. On rasp-
berry and blackberry.

Tymnes tricolor, Fabr. Beutenmuller, Ent. Amer. 6:176. On black-
berry.

FAMILY RHYNCHITID^E.

Rynchites bicolor, Fabr. LeConte, Rhynchit. of Amer. 7. Cassidy,
Bull. Colo. Exp. Sta. 6:18. Comstock, Man. Ins. 591. On rose and
raspberry.

FAMILY OTIOBHYNCHID^E.

Otiorhynchus singularis, Linn. Hamilton, Trans. Amer. Ent. 21: 402.
[Otiorhynchus picipes, Fabr. Packard, Rep. Ins. of Mass. 2:14.
Riley, Amer. Ent. 3:127.] Destructive to raspberry and other
plants in England. Reported in America by Packard, 1. c.

Order Hymenoptera
FAMILY TENTHREDINIDJE.

JBlennocampa paupera (Prov.). Webster, Bull. O. Exp. Sta. 45:152.
[Selandria paupera, Provancher, Faun, Ent. Can. 2: 742.] On
raspberry.

Fenusa rubi (Forbes). Webster, Bull. O. Exp. Sta. 45:152. [Metal-
lus rubi, Forbes. 111. Rep. 14:87.] Mining in leaves of black-
berry.

Harpiphorus varianus, Nort. (?). Webster, Bull. O. Exp. Sta. 45:153.
Riley and Howard, Ins. Life. 2:239. Larvae thought to be this
species were found by Professor Webster on leaves of blackberry.

FAMILY UROCERID^E.

Phyllcecus trimaculatus , Say. Smith, Rep. N. J. Exp. Sta. 1892:464.
Norton, Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc. 2:345. Boring in the pith of
raspberry and blackberry canes.

FAMILY CYNIPID^E.

Diastrophus Bassettii, Beutenmuller, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.

4:248. Forming galls on canes of Hubus Canadensis.
Diastrophus cuscutceformis , Osten Sacken, Proc. Ent. Soc. Phila.

2:39. Walsh and Riley, Amer. Ent. 1:188. Saunders, Ins. Inj.

Frts. 319. Forming seed-like galls on canes of blackberry.

BRAMBLE INSECTS 283

Diastrophus Kincaidii, Gillette, Canad. Ent. 25:110. Forming galls
on twigs of JRiibus parviflorus.

Diastrophus nebulosus, Osten Sacken, Proc. Ent. Soc. Phila. 2:36.
Riley, Amer. Ent. 2:159. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Prts. 318. Forming
elongated pithy galls on canes of blackberry.

Diastrophus radicum, Bassett, Canad. Ent. 2:98. Ashmead, Trans.
Amer. Ent. Soc. 14: 134. Forming galls on the roots of blackberry.

Diastrophus turgidus, Bassett, Canad. Ent. 2:99. Ashmead, Trans.
Amer. Ent. Soc. 14:134. Forming galls on the canes of red rasp-
berry.

Rhodites radicum, Osten Sacken, Proc. Ent.l Soc. Phila. 2:42-46.
Riley, Amer. Ent. 2:181. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 304. Forming
galls on the roots of rose, raspberry and blackberry.

Rhodites rosoe, Linn. (?) Beutenmuller, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat.
Hist. 4:248. Forming woolly galls on stems of rose and black-
berry.

Cynipid Leaf Gall, undetermined. Webster, Bull. O. Exp. .Sta.
45:157. Forming galls on the leaves of blackberry.

FAMILY MYRMIOID^.

Solenopsis fugax (Latr.). Webster, Ins. Life, 2:257.— Bull. O. Exp.
Sta. 45 : 157. A yellow ant, burrowing in ripe blackberries.

FAMILY PEMPHBEDONID^;.

Stigmus fraternus, Say. Webster, Bull. O. Exp. Sta. 45:158. Pack-
ard, Proc. Ent. Soc. Phila. 6: 387. Burrowing in dead canes of
raspberry.

FAMILY CBABRONID^;.

Crabro sexmaculatus (Say). Couper, Canad. Ent. 1: 77. A sand
wasp, burrowing in canes of raspberry.

FAMILY ANDRENID^;.

Prosopis sp., Smith. Kingsley's Stand. Nat. Hist. 2: 536. Boring in
the stems of bramble.

FAMILY APID^E.

Ceratina dupla, Say. Webster, Bull. O. Exp. Sta. 45:158. Corn-
stock, Man. Ins. 669. Burrowing and nesting in pithy stems of
bramble and other plants.

CHAPTER X

DISEASES OF THE BRAMBLES

How to control the diseases which prey upon plants
is an important question in all branches of agriculture,
and in berry -growing there is particular need of
this inquiry. Cultivators far and near are being
driven out of the business by certain of these dis-
eases, yet no one is able to offer positive remedies.
The reasons are various, one being, the nature of the
plants and fruits themselves, neither of which can
be treated with remedies or preventives during a con-
siderable portion of the active season of depredation,
without injuring the fruit or rendering it unfit for
use. Another and more potent reason is the lack
of a sufficient number of skilled men to study the
complete life -history of the maladies, with a view
to ascertaining their weak points and the means of
meeting them. Few people not engaged in the work
can appreciate the amount of careful, accurate work
often required to trace out these things. Further-
more, only a trained specialist, who can interpret and
understand what he sees, can expect to cope with
them. It is to be hoped that careful study and field
experiments may in time make it possible to undertake
berry -culture without fear that these enemies will
thwart the best efforts of the grower.

(284)

RED RUST 285

This book can add little to what is already known
concerning the numerous fungous enemies of bush-
fruits. The aim of the present chapter is to present
in brief form the more important facts known about
those which prove most serious, together with a few
of the most accessible references to what has been
written concerning them.

THE IMPORTANT FUNGOUS DISEASES
RED RUST, YELLOWS

Puccinia interstitialis (Schlecht.) Tranzschel, Hedwigia, 1893:257.

Cceoma inter stitiale, Schlecht. Mddium, nitens, Schw. Cceoma (jEcidium)
luminatum, Link. Uredo interstitialis, Schlecht. Uredo lucida, Dietr.
Puccinia Peckiana, Howe, Rep. N. Y. Mus. 23: 57. Puccinia tripustu-
lata, Peck, Rep. N. Y. Mus. 24: 91.

Order Uredinere.

Saccardo, Syll. Fung. 7: 699, 866 and 9: 331. Burrill, Par. Fung. 111. 178,
220. Newcombe, Jour. Myc. 6: 106. Clinton, Bull. 111. Exp. Sta. 29:
273-300.

On leaves of Bubus nigrobaccus (villosus), B. villosus (Cana-
densis), E. occidentalis, B. cuneifolius, B. strigosus, B. triflorus,
B. trivialis, B. hispidus, B. saxatilis and B. arcticus.

This fungus was first described by Schlechtendal in 1820 as
Cceoma interstitiale. The relationship between the mature and
immature forms was independently established by Tranzsehel in
Germany, and by Clinton in the United States, in 1893.

The appearance of this disease is well known, both on wild
and cultivated plants. The orange -red color of the under surface
of the infested leaves is due to the abundance of sori, which
produce the orange -red spores by means of which the disease
may be spread from plant to plant. These are connected in
chains, and form a waxy layer over the affected portions. The
mycelium of the fungus, which corresponds to the roots of
higher plants, is perennial, living throughout the winter in the
canes and roots, and a plant once attacked is doomed. Its
vitality is sapped, and its condition is soon manifest by the
numerous small, weak canes which spring up.

286 BUSH-FRUITS

Treatment. — Diseased plants should be rooted up and burned
as soon as discovered, to prevent the spore formation and con-
sequent spread of the disease. This, if promptly done, is a prac-
tical remedy. Spraying can only be of use in pre-
venting new infection. If employed against the
anthracnose, it will also be of use against red rust
spores, if they exist.

ANTHRACNOSE (Fig. 44)

Glceosporium Fenetum, Speg.

Olceosporium necator, Ell. and Ev. Jour. Myc. 3: 129.
Order Melanconieae.

Saccardo, Syll. Fung. 3: 706, and 10: 450. Burrill, Agr.
Review, 1882: Nov. Galloway, Rep. U. S. Dept. Agr. 1887:
357. Paddock, Bull. New York State Exp. Sta. 124: 261-274.

This is unquestionably one of the most serious ene-
mies to raspberry and blackberry culture now known.
The disease was first described by an Italian botanist,
M. Spegazinni, from leaves of Eubus Chamcemorus .
Its first mention in this country was in the Agri-
cultural Eeview for November, 1882, by T. J. Burrill,
who referred to it as the Easpberry Cane Bust. In
1887, Messrs. Ellis & Everhart, in The Journal of
Mycology, Vol. Ill, p. 129, described the disease as
a new species under the name Glceosporium necator.

The gray discolored spots caused by this fungus
are well known to all berry growers. They are found

- on a11 parts of tne plant albove ground. On the leaf
citing knotty surface, however, they are not easily distinguished
growth on red from those of Cylindrosporium and Septoria. They
raspberry. often become so numerous that they destroy a large
part of the living cane and greatly weaken or even kill it. The
disease is especially liable to work injury just at the ripening
period. On red raspberries its presence sometimes incites a
warty growth like that shown at Fig. 44.

The mycelium, creeping between the plant cells, causes their
destruction and the consequent appearance of the dead spots.

ANTHRACNOSE 287

Only the bark and cambium layer are affected as a rule, the my-
celium rarely entering the wood to any extent. Near the center
of the spots the mycelium threads unite to form a dense tuft,
made up of the slender club-shaped basidia on which the spores
are borne. These basidia are formed beneath the surface, but
soon rupture it and form a minute globule outside, being covered
with a clear, gelatinous substance which holds the spores in place.
When brought in contact with water, this substance readily dis-
solves and allows the spores to float away. These germinate
readily in water, and many of them soon find lodgment in healthy
portions of tissue and form new centers of infection. If the
water which sets them free from the inclosing mass soon evapo-
rates, they are readily distributed by the wind.

Treatment. — Experiments at Washington have shown that the
spores germinate most readily in pure water. It has also been
observed that the spread of the disease is more rapid in wet
weather than in dry weather. For these reasons it has been
recommended that the plants be so set and trained that they
shall have plenty of sunlight and air. I have frequently ob-
served neglected plantations, or others in which no pinching
of the tips had been done to induce branching, which were very
free from this disease. How much of this may have been due
to the fact of the long, slender growth of canes and consequent
absence of shade and moisture, I cannot say. Old wood should
be removed and burned as soon as fruiting is over. The removal
of diseased wood in autumn or spring will also aid, but this is
seldom a feasible plan, for the fungus is so indiscriminate in
its attacks that to remove all diseased wood would often be to
remove nearly all prospect of fruit. Experiments at the Ohio,
Minnesota and New York State Experiment Stations have all shown
that the disease may be controlled by spraying with Bordeaux
mixture. The New York experiments,* while showing beyond
question that the disease may be controlled, did not show a suffi-
cient increase in fruit to cover the expense. It is often recom-
mended to treat the bushes with a strong solution of copper sul-
phate early in spring, before the leaves start, but their results

*Bull. 124.

288 BUSH-FRUITS

seem to indicate that this is unnecessary. In setting a new plan-
tation, care should be used to secure plants free from the disease.
If not wholly free, cut the old wood away as close as possible.
Spraying the young shoots when they have reached a height of
six or eight inches, and once or twice thereafter, will prove an
additional precaution, and the cost at that time will be slight. If,
then, the plantation is given good care, it is not likely to seriously
suffer until after it has produced its best crops. The longer the
bushes remain, the more troublesome is the disease likely to be-
come. It will, therefore, generally be more satisfactory to remove
the plants after they have borne their third crop. If spraying is
resorted to, it should be remembered that |the mycelium remains
alive in the canes during the winter, and that spraying can in no
way cure the disease. It can only prevent, if thoroughly done,
the germination of spores as they are produced.

Glceosporium Rubi, Ell. and Ev. Jour. Myc. 4: 52. Saccardo, Syll.
Fung. 10: 450.

Found on leaves of Rubus nigrobaccus, associated with Pucdnia
interstitialis, by Prof. S. M. Tracy, at Starkville, Miss.

Although closely related to the preceding species, it seems to
be less common and of less importance. It is not easily dis-
tinguished from the other, and both should be treated alike.

LEAP -SPOTS

Septoria Rubi, West.— Order Sphaeropsidese : Family Sphserioideee.

Saccardo, Syll. Fung., 3: 486. Martin, Jour. Myc., 3: 73. Goff, Rept.
U. S. Dept. Agr., 1890: 399.

On leaves of most species of the genus.

The following varieties have been named:

Septoria Rubi pallida, Ell. and Howl. Martin, Jour. Myc.

3: 73; on leaves of Rubus hispidus.
Septoria Rubi alba, Peck. Rept. N. Y. Mus. 34: 57; on

Rubus nigrobaccus, R. villosus, and R. trivialis.

Ihis is one of the commonest species affecting the genus, and
when abundant is without doubt injurious to the plant, owing to
the amount of leaf tissue which is killed by it and thus prevented

LEAF-SPOT DISEASES 289

from performing its natural function. The small brown or light
colored spots on the leaves caused by this and Cylindrosporium
RuU are familiar to all.

Treatment. — Few experiments with fungicides have yet been
made, and these are somewhat conflicting. Treatment with the
Bordeaux mixture in Mississippi in 1889 was reported successful,
but experiments made by Goff, with Bordeaux mixture and a mix-
ture consisting of equal parts of ammoniated copper sulphate and
ammonium carbonate, were on the whole unsatisfactory. This was
used in the proportion of 12 ounces of the mixture to 22 gallons
of water. Professor GofPs conclusions are quoted, here:

"The foliage of the raspberry is delicate, and cannot endure
applications of a corrosive nature. The foliage of the black-
berry, though more resistant than that of the raspberry, is more
susceptible to injury than that of the apple. None of the treat-
ments given are to be recommended for the raspberry, and of
the materials used, only the copper carbonate solution can be
pronounced beneficial in the case of the blackberry,"

Cylindrosporium Rubi, Ell. and Morgan. — Order Melanconiess.
Ellis & Everhart, Jour. Myc. 1: 129. Saccardo, Syll. Fung. 10: 500.

On leaves of cultivated raspberry and blackberry.

This species is very similar to Septoria RuU in many of its
characters; it differs from it chiefly in that the spores of Septoria
are borne within a more or less thick-walled and dark-colored
conceptacle, while in Cylindrosporium there is no surrounding
conceptacle. The two species are often associated, and cannot be
distinguished by the naked eye.

Peronospora Rubi, Eabenh. — Order Phycomycetese. Family Pero-
nosporaceae.

Rabenhorst, Fung. Europsei, 2676. Saccardo, Syll. Fung. 7: 263. Halsted,
Bot. Gaz. 15: 179, 323.— Amer. Garden 1890: 688.

On leaves of raspberries and blackberries.

Although a common fungus in Europe, this species was first
reported in the United States by Professor Halsted, in 1890, from
New Jersey, and later from Long Island. It develops on the
under surface of the leaves, and is difficult to detect upon rasp-

290 BUSH-FRUITS

berries, so closely does it resemble the tomentum of the leaf.
Upon the blackberry its appearance is marked, causing a red dis-
coloration of the upper surface of the leaf, as if it were ripening.
Halsted calls attention to the fact that this is liable to cause
serious trouble to our berry growers, and suggests the advisability
of appropriations to stamp out such dangerous species while still
confined to limited areas.

LEAF- BUSTS

Phragmidium EuU (Pers.) Winter.— Order Uredineae.

For synonymy, see Sacc. Syll. Fung. 7: 745. Winter, Die Pilze, 1: 230.
Burrill, Parasitic Fung., 111., 1: 208.

On leaves of R. nigrobaccus, and in Europe on E. fruticosus,
E. CCBSIUS, E. saxatilis and E. arcticus.

The uredospore form appears like a coarse dusting of light -
colored powder on the under surface of the leaves; the teleuto-
spore stage appears in the form of black dots raised above the
surface. Although this never seems to have been reported as
seriously injurious, the abundance with which it is sometimes
found seems to indicate that it might become so. Its position on
the under side of the leaves would render it difficult to combat,

Phragmidium Eubi-idcei (Pers.) Karst.

For synonymy, see Saccardo, Syll. Fung. 7: 748. Winter, Die Pilze, 1: 231.
Burrill, Par. Fung. 111. 207.

On leaves, petioles and peduncles of Eubus Idceus, E. strigosus,
E. odoratus, E. parviflorus, E. occidentalis, and E. cuneifolius.

This is closely related to the preceding species, and is the same
in outward appearance; it occurs on raspberries, however, while
the other is found chiefly on blackberries.

Sphcerotheca Humuli (D. C.) Burrill.

Burrill, Par. Fung. 111. 2: 400. Ellis and Everhart, Pyren. 5. [Erysiphe
Humuli, D. C., Flore Francaise, 6: 106. Sphcerotheca Castagnei, Lev.
in part. Saccardo, Syll. Fung. 1: 4.]

Order Pyrenomycetese. — Family Perisporiacese.
Known to occur on leaves of Eubus odoratus, E. trlflorus,
E. strigosus, E. hispidus, and other species of Rosaceee.

Treatment. — Although not often mentioned as a disease of

LEAF-RUSTS

291

Fig. 45. Double-blossom, a disease of the blackberry.

economic importance, Burrill states that it sometimes does con-
siderable damage to raspberries. It is one of the powdery
mildews, and if abundant may be treated with fungicides.

DOUBLE-BLOSSOM (Fig. 45)

Fusarium (?) RuU (Wint.) Sacc.

Saccardo, Syll. Fung. 10: 220. Fusisporium Rubi, Winter, Hedw. 24: 258
Seymour, Rep. Minn. Hort. Soc. 14: 220. Ellis and Everhart, N. A. F
1645. Seymour and Earle, Econ. Fung. 25.

Order Hymenomyceteae : Family Tubercularieae.

On blossoms of cultivated blackberry.

This fungus was first worked out by F. S. Earle, from Cobden,

292 BUSH-FRUITS

111. He sent 'specimens of it to Dr. Winter, of Germany, who
described it as a new species, referring it provisionally to the
genus Fusisporium. It is well known to growers in certain sec-
tions under its common name "Double -Blossom." It has been
especially troublesome on the Wilson Early blackberry, and in
portions of New Jersey has caused immense damage, often
ruining entire fields.

Treatment. — Few, if any, experiments have been made in trying
to combat it with fungicides, and it will probably be found diffi-
cult to control in that manner. In fact, until a careful study of
its life history has been made, any attempt to suggest a remedy
can be little more than guess work.

BROWN EOT
Monilia fructigena, Pers.

Saccardo, Syll. Fung. 4: 34. Arthur, Kept. N. Y. State Exp. Sta. 3: 254.
Smith, Jour. Myc. 5: 123. Galloway, Kept. U. S. Dept. Agr. 1888: 349.
Humphrey, Bot. Gaz. 18: 85.

Order Hyphomycetese. Family MucedineeB.

On fruit of apples, peach, plum, cherry, etc.

This is the well-known brown rot of the stone fruits. Al-
though injurious chiefly on this class of fruits, Professor Arthur
has induced it to grow on ripe blackberries, and it may be one of
the forms which hasten their destruction when over-ripe.

OTHER IMPORTANT DISEASES

BACTERIAL DISEASE (Fig. 46)

In addition to the fungous diseases mentioned, there are one or
two maladies whose natures are not so well understood, but which
promise to be serious enemies. The first of these is a bacterial
disease affecting the canes. Its presence is shown by the ap-
pearance of dark purplish spots which have a comparatively regu-
lar outline and vary much in size, sometimes extending until a
single spot wholly encircles the cane. They are perfectly smooth
at first, but Mer the epidermis within the spots often becomes
ruptured and slitted. Burrill has suggested that this may be
identical with pear blight. As yet it is uncertain how much
damage it may cause.

Fig. 46. Bacterial disease of raspberry. Fig. 47. Root-gall of raspoerry.

294 BUSH-FRUITS

CROWN-GALL (Fig. 47)

Woodworth, Bull. 99, Cal. Exp. Sta. Smith, Jour. Myc. 7:376. Bailey,
Bull. Cornell Univ. Exp. Sta. 74: 383; Bull. 117. Card, Bull. Nebr. Exp.
Sta. 39: 131. Selby, Bull. Ohio Exp. Sta. 79: 110; 92: 208; 104: 211. Hal-
sted, Kept. N. J. Exp. Sta. 1896: 413; 1898: 354. Toumey, Bull. 33, Ariz.
Exp. Sta.

This disease is characterized by a rough, knotty growth about
the stem at the surface of the ground or on the roots beneath.
The knots or galls have a granular appearance, somewhat resem-
bling, when young, the callus growth at the end of a cutting.
When old, they look something like the black-knot of plums, but
are not so dark in color. In Germany the disease is known as
"Wurzelkropf." On the Pacific slope it has ruined thousands of
trees, for its injury extends to fruit-trees as well as to brambles.
It has there been given the name Crown- Gall, which is probably
the best name to retain, though the trouble is not confined to the
crown of the plant. Although a widespread disease, its cause has
been discovered but recently. The trouble has often been attrib-
uted to the work of the gall-fly, Ehodites radicum, but the galls
made by that insect are very different. Nematodes, or eelworms,
have been so frequently associated with the galls that some have
been led to think them the cause of the trouble.

Professor Toumey carried on an extended and careful series of
studies at the Arizona Experiment Station which led him to the
belief that the disease is due to the presence of a specific organ-
ism belonging to the slime-molds or Myxomycetes. Although
many species of slime-molds are known in America, but one has
heretofore been known to be parasitic, and that one was doubt-
fully placed in the group. As a class, the slime-molds belong to
a very low order of plant -life and exist chiefly on decaying vege-
table matter. The one responsible for the crown-gall is so unlike
the others that Professor Toumey thinks it should be placed in an
entirely new genus from any yet described. He, therefore, erects
a new genus and species, giving the organism the name of Dendro-
phagus globosus.

Professor Tourney's experiments prove, as have experiments
made by others, that the disease is readily transmitted from one
plant to another. When minced galls were mixed with the soil in

BLACKBERRY CANE-KNOT

295

which almond, peach and apricot plants were grown, large num-
bers of the young trees contracted the disease. Making incisions
in the root or stem near the surface and inserting a particle of
gall also communicated the disease. Seeds taken from diseased
trees and planted in uncontaminated soil produced none of it

Treatment. — A paste consisting of two parts
bluestone, one part copperas and three parts
quicklime largely prevented the spread of the
disease. When trees have become affected the
galls at the crown can be removed and the
wound painted with this preparation. By this
means orchards have been kept in bearing
which otherwise would have failed. Great care
should be taken not to introduce the disease
into a plantation. It may be readily spread
by water, especially with irrigation, by the
wind and by tillage. If plants which show
galls are received from a nursery, Professor
Tourney considers it insufficient to simply re-
move the ones which are diseased. He recom-
mends destroying the entire lot.

CANE-KNOT. (Fig. 48.)

Bailey, Bull. Cornell Exp. Sta. 99: 427.

This is a disease of the same insidious,
treacherous habit as the one just described.
It is most common on blackberries, though
perhaps not confined to them alone. It is
manifest by numerous rough, warty knots upon
the canes. These knots somewhat resemble the
black- knot of plum in appearance, but with
small, whitish eruptions surrounding the central knot. It is not
common, but seems to be widespread, and in a few cases, at
least, has wrought serious injury. A similar diseased condition
is sometimes to be observed upon the canes of red raspberries,
as a result or accompaniment of anthracnose.

The only treatment that can be recommended at present is to

Fig. 48. Cane-knot
of blackberry.

296 BUSH-FRUITS

avoid all plants showing indications of the disease, or to eradicate
them at once, if found growing in the field. To combat a dis-
ease with the cause unknown is to fight an enemy in the dark.
Yet many such problems confront the grower, for the solution of
which he must look to the student and the specialist.

LESS PROMINENT DISEASES

In addition to the species mentioned in the pre-
ceding pages, many others have been reported upon
different Rubus hosts. The greater part of these are of
little or no economic importance. The following enu-
meration is designed as a mere reference list for the
benefit of the student. The species are arranged ap-
proximately in systematic order, according to Sac-
cardo's classification, with the most available refer-
ences to the literature of each. The hosts given are
simply those upon which the species is known to have
been found. Though as full as practicable to make
it, no claim is made to completeness in the enumer-
ation, either of species or of hosts. Since the genus
Rubus is so largely a European one, and since this
work aims to deal with it only as found in North
America, only those species reported from North
America are included.

Little attempt has been made to decide questions
of nomenclature or synonymy. That battle is left
for those better able to fight it. The nomenclature
follows Saccardo's "Sylloge Fungorum," since that can
be taken as a standard throughout, while most other
works deal only with special groups, and hence are
but fragmentary so far as this list is concerned.

FUNGI FOUND ON BRAMBLES 297

Order Pyrenomycetece
FAMILY PERISPORIACE^:.

Sphoerotheca pannosa (Wallr.) Lev. Saccardo, Sylloge Fungorum

1 : 3. Ellis and Everhart, North American Pyrenomycetes 6. On

leaves of different species of Eosa and Rubus.
Asterina rubicola, Ell. and Ev. Proc. Phil. Acad. 1890: 219.— Pyren.

35. Saccardo, Syll. Fung. 9:384. On leaves of Rubus strigosus

and R. occidentalis.

Asterella Pearsoni, Ell. and Ev. Saccardo, Syll. Fung. 9: 395. [As-
terina Pearsoni, Ell. and Ev. Jour. Myc. 1:92, 135.— Pyren. 42.

Saccardo, Additamenta 10.] On canes of cultivated blackberry,

Vineland, N. J.
Meliola tnanca, E. and M. Am. Nat. 17: 1284. Ell. and Ev. Pyren.

47. Saccardo, Syll. Fung. 9:419.
Meliola sanguinea, Ell. and Ev. Jour. Myc. 2:42. Saccardo, Syll.

Fung. 9:420. The two preceding species on leaves, stems and

petioles of R. trivialis, Louisiana, and R. nigrobaccus, Alabama.
Oapnodium elongatum, Berk and Desm. Saccardo, Syll. Fung. 1: 75.

Ell. and Ev. Pyren. 50. On leaves of many different plants.

FAMILY SPH^RIACEJE.

Valsa Rubi, Fuck. Peck, Rep. N. Y. Mus. 28:72. Saccardo, Syll.
Fung. 1 : 109.

Valsa ceratophora, Tul. Ell. and Ev. Pyren. 461. The two preced-
ing species on branches of Rubus Canadensis and other plants.

Falsa subclypeata, C. and P. Peck, Rep. N. Y. Mus. 27: 109. Sacc.
Syll. Fung. 1: 126. Ell. and Ev. Pyren. 485. On leaves of Rubus
mllosus.

Valsa syngenesia, Fr. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 1:130. [Diatrype Fran-
gulae (Pers.) Cooke, Handbook 2:816. Diaporthe syngenesia
(Fr.) Fuck. Symb. 204. Ell. and Ev. Pyren. 442. J On branches
of Rubus.

Valsa sepincola, Fuck. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 1: 134. On dry branches
of Rubus.

Gnomoniella melanostyla (DC.) Sacc. Syll. Fung. 1:419. [Sphceria
melanostyla, DC. Fl. Fr. 6:129. Gnomonia melanostyla (DC.)
Ell. and Ev. Pyren. 328. J On Rubus odoratus (Farlow and Sey-
mour). Usually found on elm.

Physalospora eriostega glabrata (C. and F.) Sacc. Syll. Fung. 1:443.
[Botryosphceria fuliginosa (M. and P.) Ell. and Ev. Pyren. 546.]
On branches of Rubus Idceus, New Jersey.

Venturia Kunzei, Sacc. Syll. Fung. 1: 588. On the upper surface of
Rubus leaves yet living.

Diaporthe [Chorostate] obscura (Peck.) Sacc. Syll. Fung. 1:627.
Ell. and Ev. Pyren. 441. [ Valsa obscura, Peck. Rep. N. Y.
Mus. 28: 73.] On dead stems of Rubus strigosus, New York.

Diaporthe [Tetrastaga] gallophila, Ellis, Bull. Torr. Bot. Club,
8:90. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 1:667. Ell. and Ev. Pyren. 457. On
dead canes of Rubus nigrobaccus, Ne*v Jersey.

298 BUSH-FRUITS

Diaporthe Tetrastaga rostellata (Fr.) Nits. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 1:667.

Ell. and Ev. Pyren. 456. On branches of Rubus nigrobaccus,

R. idceus, R. parviflorus and R. vltifolius.
Didymosphceria Manitobensis , Ell. and Ev. Pyren. 732. Sacc. Syll.

Fung. 11:313. On raspberry leaves.
Leptosphceria Doliolum (Pers.) DeNot. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 2:14.

Ell. and Ev. Pyren. 355. Common on dead stems of herbaceous

plants ; also reported on Rubus.
Leptosphceria fuscella (B. and Br.) Ces. and DeNot. Sacc. Syll.

Fung. 2 : 30. Ell. and Ev. Pyren. 353. On dead stems of R. strigosus.
Clypeosphceria Notarisii, Fuck. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 2:90. Ell. and

Ev. Pyren. 736. Common on stems of Rosa, Rubus, etc.
Clypeosphceria Hendersonia (Ell.) Sacc. Syll. Fung. 2% 91. Ell. and

Ev. Pyren. 410. [Sphceria Hendersonia, Ell. Grev. 5: 14. Sphceria

melantera, Peck, Rep. N. Y. Mus. 29: 62.] On dead canes of black

and red raspberry.
Metasphceria anisometra (Cooke and Hark). Sacc. Syll. Fung. 2: 163.

Ell. and Ev. Pyren. 381. [Sphceria anisometra, Cooke and Hark.

Grev. 9:86. JEndophlcea anisometra (Cooke and Hark.), Cooke,

Grev. 17: 89.] On twigs of Rubus, Eucalyptus, Dracaena, and

other plants.
Metasphceria sepincola (Fr. ?) Fuck. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 2:164. Ell.

and Ev. Pyren. 380. [Sphceria sepincola, Fr. Syst. Myc. 2:498.]

On dead stems of Rosa and Rubus.
Sphceria rubincola, Schw. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 2:380. [ Valsa rubin-

cola (Schw.). Ell. and Ev. Pyren. 473.] On branches of Rubus,

Bethlehem, Pa.
Sphceria ccespitulans , Schw. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 2:406. Ell. and Ev.

Pyren. 748. On branches of cultivated red raspberries.
Sphceria obtusa, Schw. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 2:423. Ell. and Ev

Pyren. 753. On dead canes of R. nigrobaccus.
Sphceria Ruborum, Schw. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 2:423. Ell. and Ev.,

Pyren. 752. Common on dead canes of Rubus.

FAMILY HYPOCREACEJE.

Hypocrea rufa (Pers.) Fr. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 2:520. Ell. and Ev.

Pyren. 78. [Sphceria rufa, Pers., Syn. Fung. 13.] Common on

decaying wood and bark.
Gibberella Saubinetii (Mont.) Sacc. Syll. Fung. 2:554. Ell. and

Ev. Pyren. 120. On dried stems of many plants.

FAMILY LOPHIOSTOMACE^:.

I/ophiotrema prcemorsum (Lasch.) Sacc. Syll. Fung. 2:681.
[Lophiostoma prcemorsum (Lasch) Ell. and Ev. Pyren. 233.
Lophiostoma Scrophularice, Peck, Rep. N. Y. Mus. 28:76.] On
dead stems of Rubus and many herbaceous plants.

Lophiostoma bicuspidatum, Cooke, Handbook Brit. Fung. 2:848.
Sacc. Syll. Fung. 2 : 707. Ell. and Ev, Pyren. 233. On decorti-
cated twigs of Rubus odoratus.

FUNGI FOUND ON BRAMBLES 299

FAMILY HYSTEBIACE^;.

Glonium macrosporum, Tracy and Earle. Underwood and Earle,

Ala. Fung. 197. On Rubus nigrobaccus.
Hysterium angustatum, Alb. and Schw. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 2:744.

Ell. and Ev. Pyren. 693. [Hysterium pulicare, var. angustatum

(A. and S.) Fr. Syst. Myc. 2:580. ffysterium Eucalypti, Phil.

and Hark. Grev. 13:23.] On branches and bark of Rubus, Pirus,

and other plants.
Hysterium confluens, Schw. Sacc., Syll. Fung. 2: 756. Perhaps only

a form of Hypoderma commune (Fr.). Ell. and Ev. Pyren. 711.

On Rubus canes, Bethlehem, Pa.
ffypoderma virgultorum, DC. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 2:786. Ell. and

Ev. Pyren. 711. [Hysterium Rubi, Pers. Obs. Myc. 1:84.] On

dead canes of Rubus.
ffysterographium Ruborum, Cooke. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 9:1123.

[Hysterium viticolum, C. and P. Disc. U. S. 33. Grev. 4, t. 68.

Hysterographium Mori viticolum, C. and P. Ell. and Ev.

Pyren. 704. Hysterographium viticolum Rtiborum, Cooke. Sacc.

Syll. Fung. 2:782.] On canes of Rubus nigrobaccus.

Order Sphceropsidece
FAMILY SPH^RIOIDE^.

Phyllosticta Ruborum, Sacc. Syll. Fung. 3:8. On weak leaves of

Rubus strigosus and others.
Phyllosticta bicolor, Peck, Rep. N. Y. Mus. 43: 26. -Jour. Myc. 6: 134.

Sacc. Syll. Fung. 10: 110. On leaves of Rubus odoratus.
Phyllosticta variabilis, Peck, Rep. N. Y. Mus. 35:138. Sacc. Syll.

Fung. 10:110. On leaves of Rubus odoratus.
Phoma lethalis, Ell. and Martin. Farlow and Seymour, Host. Ind.

198. Now thought to be the pycnidial stage of Clypeosphceria

Hendersonia. On Rubus villosus.
Phoma herbarum, West. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 3:133. On herbaceous

stems in general.
Vermicularia compacta, C. and E. Grev. 5:54. Sacc. Syll. Fung.

3:222. On branches of Rubus, grape, and dahlia.
Vermicularia effusa, Schw. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 3:222. On badly

decayed Rubus stems.
Cytospora Rubi, Schw. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 3:252. On young twigs

of red raspberry.
Sphceropsis rubicola, C. and Ell. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 3:294. On canes

of red and black raspberry.
Diplodia Ruborum (Schw.) Sacc. Syll. Fung. 11:518. [Sphceria

Ruborum, Schw. Syn. Am. Bor. 1677. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 2:423.

Diplodia Rubi, Fr. (?). Sacc. Syll. Fung. 3:339.] On canes of

Rubus strigosus.
Ascochyta Rubi, Lasch. Farlow and Seymour, Host Index 36. On

Rubus villosus.

300 BUSH-FRUITS

Darluca Filum (Biv.) Cast. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 3:410. On Uredinese

growing on Rubus and many other plants.
Hendersonia platypus, Ell. and Ev. Torr. Bot. Club 1884:73. Sacc.

Syll. Fung. 3:420. On twigs of Rubus nigrobaccus and R.

Hendersonia sarmentorum, West. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 3:420-10:321.

On branches of Rubus and many other plants.
Hendersonia Rubi, West. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 3: 424. — 10: 321. On

branches of Rubus vitifolius.
Rhabdospora Rubi, Ell. Jour. Myc. 3:90. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 10:388.

On canes of Rubus strigosus.

FAMILY LEPTOSTROMACE^E.

Leptothyrium vulgare (Fr.) Sacc. Syll. Fung. 3:633. On stems of

Rubus and other plants.
Leptostroma virgultorum rubinum, Karst. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 3:639.

On stems of Rubus arcticus and R. Chamcemorus.
Discosia Artocreas (Tode) Fr. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 3:653. On leaves

of Rubus and many other genera.

Order Melanconiece

Myxormia atro-viridis , B. and Br. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 3:734. On

Rubus canes in Alabama.
Libertella Rosce, Desm. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 3:745. [Ncemospora

Rosce (Desm.) Fr. S. M. 3: 479.] On weak or dead canes of Rubus

vitifolius and other Rosaceae.
Melanconium griseum, Schw. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 3: 750. On branches

of cultivated red raspberries.
Coryneum microstictum, B. and Br. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 3:775. On

weak or dead branches of Rubus and other plants.

Order Hyphomycetece
FAMILY MUCEDINE^;.

Botrytis patula, Sacc. and Berlese. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 4: 125. Keller-
man, Jour. Myc. 1:106. On dead branches of Rubus strigosus,
willows, etc.

FAMILY DEMATIEJE.

Cladosporium herbarum (Pers.) Link. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 4:350.

On all parts of different plants the world over.
Cercospora rosicola, Pass. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 4:460. On leaves of

roses and blackberry.
Cercospora Rubi, Sacc. Syll. Fung. 4:461. On leaves of Rubus

trivialis and R. cuneifolius.
Macrosporium punctiforme, Berk. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 4:531. On

dead canes of Rubus occidentalis.
Macrosporium Rubi, Ellis, N. A. F. 544. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 10:673.

On leaves of Rubus hispidus

FUNGI FOUND ON BRAMBLES 301

Septosporium prcelongum, Sacc. Syll. Fung. 4:544. On twigs of
Hubus occidentalis.

FAMILY

Sporocybe parasitica (Peck) Sacc. Syll. Fung. 4:605. [Periconia

parasitica, Peck, Rep. N. Y. Mus, 33:28.] On decayed branches

of Hubus strigosus.
Graphium pruinosipes (Peck) Sacc. Syll. Fung. 4: 614. [Stilbum

pruinosipes, Peck, Rep. N. Y. Mus. 33:28.] On dead branches

of Hubus strigosus.
Graphium gracile, Peck, Rep. N. Y. Mus. 34: 50. Sacc. Syll. Fung.

4:616. On leaves of Hubus strigosus.
Isariopsis Grayiana, Ellis, Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, 1882:98. Sacc.

Syll. Fung. 4:631. On old branches of Hubus nigrobaccus.

FAMILY TUBERCULABIE^:.

Tubercularia decolorans, Peck, MSS. [Tubercularia carpogena,
Peck, Rep. N. Y. Mus. 43:31. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 10:705. Not
Tubercularia carpogena, Corda.] On ripe blackberries, discolor-
ing the affected drupes, making them red, like itself, hence
easily overlooked.

Tuberculina persicina (Ditm.) Sacc. Syll. Fung. 4:653. Parasitic
on Red Rust and other fungi (Uredineae), found on the leaves
of many different plants.

Hymenopsis nigra (Fr. ) Sacc. Syll. Fung. 4:746. On stems of dead
plants in general.

Order Hymenomycetece
FAMILY TELEPHOBE^;.

ffypochnus Sambuci (Pers.) Fr. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 6:656. On dry
branches of Sambucus and Rubus.

FAMILY CLAVARIE^E.

Typhula rubicola, B. and C. N. A. F. 304. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 6: 750.
On dead Rubus canes.

Order Uredinece

Phragmidium gracile (Farl.) Arthur, la. Ured. 161. Sacc. Syll.
Fung. 7:749. Peck, Rep. N. Y. Mus. 29:50. [Phragmidium
incrassatum gracile, Farlow, N. A. F. 282.] On leaves of Hubus
odoratus.

Coleosporium Vernonice, B. and C. N. A. F. 569. Sacc. Syll. Fung.
7: 755. On leaves of H. nigrobaccus (?).

Chrysomyxa albida, Kuhn. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 7: 761. Tracy and
Galloway, Jour. Myc. 4:62. Stone & Smith Rept. Mass. Hatch
Exp. Sta. 9:74. [Coleosporium Hubi, Ell. and Holw. N. A. F.
1878. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 7: 759.] On leaves of Hubus occidentalis
and H. nigrobaccus in America and of H. fruticosus in Europe.

302 BUSH-FRUITS

Uredo speciosa (Peck) Sacc. Syll. Fung, 7:860. [Lecythia speciosa,
Peck, Bot. Gaz. 1878:34.] On leaves of Rubus deliciosus.

Lecythea tripustulata, Peck. Rav. Fung. Am. 491. On R. nigro-
baccus. Resembles Chrysomyxa albida in external appearance.

Order Discomycetece.
FAMILY

Pezizella vulgaris (Fr. ) Sacc. Syll. Fung. 8:278. On dry branches

of Eubus and other plants.
Peeicula rhabarbarina (Berk.) Tul. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 8: 311. On de-

caying branches of R. nigrobaccus and several European species.
Pyrenopeziza Rubi (Fr.) Rehm. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 8:361. On dead

branches of Rubus in Europe and America.
Pyrenopeziza lacerata (C. and P.) Sacc. Syll. Fung. 8:361. [Peziza

lacerata, C. and P. Grev, 1:6.] On twigs of Rubus odoratus.
Lachnella rufo-olivacea (A. and S.). Sacc. Syll. Fung. 8: 398. [ Velu-

taria rufo-olivacea, A. and S. Fuck. Symb. Myc. 300.] On dead

but moist branches of Rubus.
Trichopeziza subochracea (C. and P.) Sacc. Syll. Fung. 8:408.

[Peziza subochracea, C. and P. Grev. 1:6.] On stems of Rubus

odoratus.
Dasyscypha bicolor (Bull.) Fuck. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 8:439. On

branches of Rubus and many other shrubs and trees.
Dasyscypha acutipila (Karst.) Sacc. Syll. Fung. 8:447. On Rubus

parviflorus, stems of grasses, etc.
Dasyscypha clandestina (Bull.) Fuck. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 8:457. On

fallen and decaying wood of Rubus and other shrubs and trees.
Dasyscypha scabro-villosa (Phill.) Sacc. Syll. Fung. 8:458. [Peziza

scabro-villosa, Phill. Grev. 7:22.] On canes of Rubus parviflorus.

FAMILY DERMATE^E.

Tympanis conspersa, Fr. Sys. Myc. 2:175. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 8:578.
On weak or dying branches of different trees and shrubs.

FAMILY BULQARIEJE.

Orbilia vinosa (A. and S.) Karst. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 8:622. On fallen
and naked branches of Rubus and many other shrubs and trees.
FAMILY STICTE^E.

Stictis Rubi, Schw. Syn. Am. Bor. 179. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 8:694.
On old canes of Rubus nigrobaccus.

FAMILY PHACIDIEJE.

Coccomyces Rubi (Fr.) Karst. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 8: 751. [Phacidium

Rubi, Fr. Syst. Myc. 2: 578.] On leaves of Rubus parviflorus.
Rhytisma Blakei, M. A. Curtis. Farlow and Seymour, Host. Ind. 37.

On Rubus hispidus.

FAMILY PATELLARIEJE.

Durella compressa (Pers.) Tul. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 8: 790.

CHAPTER XI

THE BOTANY OF THE BRAMBLES

In order that the student and the experimenter
may gain a proper view and perspective of what has
been done in the amelioration of the bramble fruits,
and of what may be expected from further effort, a
descriptive inventory is here made of all the species
and marked natural varieties of the genus Rubus, which
are either native to North America (north of Mexico)
or are in cultivation here. A discussion of this sub-
ject from the view -point of the historian and plant-
breeder, together with a revision of the blackberries
and dewberries, is contained in Bailey's "Evolution
of our Native Fruits."

RUBUS, LINN.— BRAMBLE

Calyx persistent, 5-parted, without bractlets ; tube short and
open. Petals 5, deciduous. Stamens numerous. Achenes usu-
ally numerous, with 2 collateral suspended ovules in each cell,
one of which is abortive, becoming small drupes. Styles nearly
terminal, stigma simple or obtuse. Receptacle spongy or suc-
culent, convex, persistent or deciduous. Perennial herbs or
somewhat woody, erect or trailing, often prickly, leaves simple
or 3 - 5 foliolate, with stipules adnate to the petioles; flowers
mostly white, reddish in a few species, solitary or in clusters;
fruit usually edible, black, red or yellowish.

The genus is supposed to derive its name from the Latin word
ruber, meaning red. Although represented by many species in

(303)

304 BUSH-FRUITS

North America, it is much more abundant in the Old World,
where the botany of the subject becomes exceedingly complex,
owing to the endless variety and frequent intermixture of forms.
The following list includes only species native to North America
north of Mexico, and such European and Asiatic species as are
known to be in cultivation in the United States.

A. Fruit somewhat hemispherical, concave beneath, parting from
the receptacle when ripe ; drupelets sometimes few in
number, falling away separately (Raspberries).
B. Leaves simple; flowers large; prickles none; fruit and

receptacle flat and broad.

0. Stems ascending, soft-woody. Nos. 1, 2, 3.
cc. Stems above ground nearly or quite herbaceous; plants

low and delicate. 4, 5, 6.
BB. Leaves simple; flowers small; stems more or less prickly.

c. Stems frutescent, low and trailing. 7.
cc. Stems upright, shrubby. 8, 9.

BBB. Leaves compound, of 3-5 pinnate or pedate leaflets.
c. Stems annual, herbaceous; fruit usually of few grains.

D. Unarmed. 10, 11, 12.

DD. Armed with minute slender prickles. 13.
cc. Stems biennial and woody, prickly ; receptacle oblong.
D. Fruit hemispherical; petals small, erect, white.

14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19.

DD. Fruit oblong; petals large, red. 20.
BBBB. Leaves pinnate, evergreen: flowers double. 21.
AA. Fruit, or collective drupelets, adhering to the juicy pro-
longed receptacle, mostly ovate or oblong and black;
flowers white.
B. Stems upright ; plant propagating by suckers. 22, 23,

24, 25, 26.

BB. Stems trailing; plant propagating by tips. 27, 28, 29,
30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35.

1. RUBUS ODORATUS, Linn. — Purple -flowering raspberry. Thimble-
berry, Mulberry (erroneously).

Stem shrubby, erect, 3-5 feet (9-15 decimeters) high,
branched; leaves large, cordate at base, 3-5 lobed, the middle
one often prolonged, mucronately serrulate -toothed; stipules
nearly free, deciduous, peduncles and calyx densely clothed with
purplish, very clammy, glandular hairs, extending to upper parts
of stem; peduncles many-flowered, compound; flowers very
large, - sepals tipped with a long appendage, as long as the

ROCK? MOUNTAIN THIMBLEBERRY

305

segment, and sometimes dilated; petals broadly obovate, pur-
plish rose-color, longer than the sepals; fruit broad and flat,
red, well -flavored. ( Fig. 49.)

Original distribution. — Nova Scotia to Florida and west to
Michigan.

A form with oblong- lanceolate leaf lobes, smaller and more
compact inflorescence, and smaller fruit of a "more decided

Fig. 49. Eulut odoratus

musky taste," was described from West Virginia by Millspaugh
as var. Columbianus, in 1892. (Bull. 24, W. Va. Exp. Sta.)

For the position which this species holds in cultivation, see
Chapter VI.

2. E. PARVIFLORUS, Nutt. — Eocky Mountain Thimbleberry. R.
Nutkanus, Mocino. E. Calif ornicus, O. Kuntze.

Stems erect or drooping, 3-8 feet (1-2.5 meters) high; bark
green and smooth, or more or less glandular pubescent, becom-
ing brown and shreddy; leaves palmately 5-lobed, lower lobes
smaller or equal, cordate at base, unequally serrate, 4-12 inches

BUSH-FRUITS

Fig. 50. Rubus parvtforus (X%)

(10-30 cm.) broad; the lobes acute or acuminate, glabrous or
somewhat tomentose, the veins beneath, also the petioles and
peduncles, usually more or less hispid with gland-tipped hairs,
stipules lanceolate, acuminate; flowers commonly few, white,
1-2 inches (2.5-5 cm.) broad; calyx glandular pubescent or
tomentose; sepals acute, terminating with a glandular linear
cusp, about as long as the petals; carpels numerous, tomentose;
fruit red, large, hemispherical, sweet and pleasant. (Fig. 50.)

Pound in shaded places from Monterey to Alaska and east-
ward to New Mexico and Lake Superior.

A ROCKY MOUNTAIN BRAMBLE 307

In California it becomes more tomentose, especially on the
under side of the leaves (var. velutinus [Hook & Arn.] Brewer).

This is practically a white -flowered E. odoratus, its general
character being otherwise much the same. In Europe it has been
sometimes mentioned in gardening journals as R. odoratus var.
alba. It is an attractive shrub, well worthy of cultivation. Al-
though found in severe climates, it has not proved hardy at the
Arnold Arboretum.* It was there grown from seeds collected in
a mild climate, which may have rendered the plants tender. This
is called Salmon-berry in Gray's Botany of California, but that
name appears to belong properly to B. spectabilis of the Pacific
coast.

3. E. DELICIOSUS, uames. E. Neo Mexicanus, Gray.

Stem woody, 3-4 feet (9-12 decimeters) high, branched, erect,
smooth, or with bark loosened and shredded ; petioles and young
shoots red ; leaves reniform- orbicular, slightly rugose, very mi-
nutely glandular, somewhat 3-5 lobed, unequally and oftener
finely serrate, 1-2 inches (2.5-5 cm.) broad; peduncles, petioles
and calyx slightly pubescent, but not glandular ; stipules lanceo-
late, acuminate ; peduncles mostly one-flowered ; flowers white,
1-2 inches (2.5-5 cm.) broad ; sepals oval or ovate-lanceolate,
appendage linear or slightly dilated, shorter than the segments ;
petals obovate, nearly twice the length of the sepals; fruit pur-
plish or dirty wine-colored, hemispherical, drupes large and soft,
resembling a red raspberry (Fig. 51).

Original distribution.— Sources of the Missouri and canons of
the Colorado.

The fruit of this beautiful Rocky Mountain species was origi-
nally described as "delicious," but later observers do not concur
in the opinion. The seeds are large, covered with only a thin
pulp, and the flavor is insipid. It was originally discovered by
Professor James, in 1822, and has long been known in England,
where it appears to be appreciated. Excellent figures have ap-
peared in English horticultural and botanical journals. Garden-
ers there report success in propagating it by seeds, root-cuttings
and stem -cuttings. It has been thoroughly tested at the Arnold
Arboretum and found perfectly hardly, although it seldom bears
fruit. It does not throw up suckers from the root, and is difficult

*Garden and Forest, 1:261.

308 BUSH-FRUITS

to propagate ; seeds or stem cuttings are recommended as the
most satisfactory means, although the latter do not take root
readily.* On the Plains it suffers from the summer sun and dry-
ing winds.

4. R. CHAMJSMORUS, Linn.— Cloud-berry. Baked-apple Berry.

Low, monoscious, or sometimes dioecious; stem simple, herba-
ceous, arising from a frutescent, creeping or subterranean one,
2-3-leaved, 1-flowered ; leaves roundish reniform, somewhat
5-lobed, lobes rounded or obtuse, irregularly serrate, wrinkled;
calyx pubescent; sepals oval, obtuse, with a very slight point;
petals obovate, white, longer than the sepals ; fruit of few
grains, amber-colored (Fig. 52).

Widely distributed throughout the arctic regions of both hemi-
spheres. It occurs in the Atlantic and Rocky Mountain alpine
regions, but not in the Pacific alpine regions.

This species is interesting and widely known. In England it
is popularly known as "Averon" or "Mountain Bramble," and in
Scandinavia as "Grapes of the North." The male and female
flowers are borne on separate stems, which are usually, though not
always, connected at or beneath the ground with a trailing stem
or rootstock. In Northern Denmark and Sweden its fruit is im-
portant, large quantities being gathered and sold in the markets.
In Scotland it is found on the Grampian Hills, and it was the badge
of the MacFarlane clan. Prize essays concerning it have appeared
in the transactions of the Highland society. Attempts have been
made to cultivate it in Europe, but with poor success.

5. B. LASIOCOCCUS, Gray.

"Between E. pedatus and R. Chamcemorus. Stems herbaceous,
dwarf, ashy- puberulent; stipules ovate, subscarious; leaves round-
cordate, 3-5-lobed, the lobes slightly trisected, lobes and segments
very obtuse, somewhat doubly dentate; peduncles branching,
short, few leaved, bearing 1-2 terminal flowers; calyx segments
ovate, acuminate, entire; petals obovate,. white, shorter than the
sepals; ovaries few (5-9), drupelets fleshy and tomentose." — Gray,
Proc. Amer. Acad. 17: (1882) 201.

Described from Oregon, near Mt. Hood.

Resembles R. pedatus, but is less slender, with thicker leaves,
which are seldom divided, flowers little larger, petals broader.

* Garden and Forest, 1: 225-3: 336.

Fig. 51. Rubus deliciosus (X%). Fig 52. RuMis Chamcemorus (XI).

310 BUSH-FRUITS

The canescent, dense tomentum of the ovaries is seen, even on the
mature drupelets.

6. E. STELLATUS, Smith.

Stem herbaceous, simple, 1 -flowered, leaves cordate, rugose,
deeply 3-lobed or 3-parted, often compound, serrate; stipules
ovate, acute or obtuse; peduncles short; segments of the calyx
linear-lanceolate or linear, sometimes slightly spatulate ; petals
oblong, erect.

Distribution.— Eehrmg region, Wrangel Land, Aleutian Islands.

7. R. NIVALIS, Dougl.

Low, not more than 6 inches (1.5 decimeters) high, from a
long, trailing, frutescent stem; spines rather stout, recurved;
leaves cordate, 3-lobed, very rarely almost compound, very sharply
toothed, glabrous, the petioles and veins armed with recurved
prickles, stipules ovate, acute, prominent, often toothed; pe-
duncles short, 1- or 2-flowered; calyx lobes lanceolate, pubescent;
petals small, lanceolate, very acute; fruit red, sour; seeds few,
large and wrinkled.

Distribution. — In the Bitter Root Mountains and northward on
high ridges of the Rocky Mountain system ; also, in the Cascade
Mountains.

This bears some resemblance to B. vitifolius, out may be dis-
tinguished from that species by the simple leaves, sharp petals,
lack of pubescence, and especially by the simple inflorescence.
Professor Piper writes that "In deep woods it never fruits, but on
open, rocky places bears an abundance of sour red berries. The
plant is prostrate, like E. vitifolius."

8. R. CRAT^EGIFOLIUS, Bunge. Chinese Raspberry.

Stems shrubby, upright or drooping, 3-6 feet (1-2 meters) high,
armed with few straight prickles; leaves glabrate, cordate, ovate,
acute, 3-5 lobed, lower one smallest, middle lobe long, acuminate,
often narrower at base, lateral lobes oblique, all doubly serrate,
petioles and veins beneath armed with scattering, minute, re-
curved prickles ; stipules linear, scarious, leafy shoots terminating
in a several -flowered, cymose cluster; flowers white, nearly half
an inch broad, inconspicuous; calyx slightly pubescent, lobes
triangular, acuminate, bearing glandular tipped hairs along the
margin; petals small; fruit orange -scarlet, nearly hemispherical
(Fig. 53).

Original distribution. — Manchuria, Northern China and Japan.

A further account of this species appears in Chapter VI

MATBERRT

311

Fig. 53.
cratcegifolius (X%).

9. R. MICROPHYLLUS, Linn, f . B. palmatus, Thunb. Mayberry.

Spreading bush, 4 or 5 feet (12-15 decimeters) high, with short
stout prickles; leaves small, dark green above, somewhat lighter
beneath, silky pubescent on the veins beneath, 3-5 -cleft, the
lobes very narrow, acuminate, doubly and sharply serrate, central
lobe much longer than the lateral ones; flowers three fourths of
an inch (20 mm.) broad; sepals narrow, acuminate; petals
broadly ovate; fruit small, of little value.

Japan. — Said by Luther Burbank to have entered into hybrids
which he considers valuable ; but otherwise unknown in this coun-
try. The fruit is occasionally eaten by the Japanese,

312

BUSH-FRUITS

10. R. ARCTICUS, Linn.

Stem low, herbaceous, sometimes dioecious, slightly pubescent,
mostly erect, 1-2-flowered; leaves trifoliolate ; leaflets rhombic-
ovate or obovate, coarsely and often doubly serrate, slightly petio-
late; flowers rose - colored, %-l inch (12-25 mm.) broad; calyx
slightly pubescent, sepals lanceolate, sometimes slightly dilated at
the tip, nearly as long as the petals; petals obovate to oblanceo-
late; fruit amber- colored, pleasant (Fig. 54).

VAR. GRANDIFLORUS, Ledeb. Stem shorter, leaflets more

Fig. 54.
Rubus arcticus (XI).

rounded, lateral ones sessile; petals larger, obovate, oblong;
sepals narrower, often much elongated.

Distribution. — Northern countries of the three continents. In
America it occurs in the Eocky Mountain and Pacific, but not in
the Atlantic alpine region.

PACIFIC COAST RASPBERRY

313

This pretty little plant was a favorite of Linnaeus, who called
it a "beneficent plant," and said that he would indeed be "un-
grateful did he not give a full description of it, since the vinous
nectar of its berries frequently recruited his spirits when almost
prostrate with hunger and fatigue."
11. E. PEDATUS, Smith.

Stems slender, pubescent, creeping or filiform; leaves smooth
or sparingly villous ; leaflets cuneate-obovate, not exceeding an

Fig. 55. Rubus pedatus (X%).

inch in length, incisely toothed, the lateral ones often parted to
the base; stipules ovate -oblong, scarious, persistent; peduncles
long and slender, bearing two bracts which are sometimes midway
between base and tip; mostly 1- flowered; flowers white %-%
inch (12-20 mm.) broad: sepals ovate -'lanceolate, entire or incised,
about as long as the petals, at length reflexed; petals sessile, nar-
rowly obovate ; fruit consisting of 3-6 large red, pulpy drupelets
(Fig. 55).

Pacific coast from San Francisco to Alaska, and in the Rocky
Mountains between latitude 52° and 56°.

The fruit of this plant lacks the protuberant receptacle com-
mon to other species of Eubus, thus approaching the genus Dali-
barda.

314 BUSH-FRUITS

12. R. AMERICANUS (Pers.), Britton.— Dwarf Raspberry. E.

triflorus, Richardson.

Stems ascending, 6-12 inches (1.5-3 decimeters) high, or trail-
ing, suffruticose at base, smooth or minutely pubescent, sterile
ones sometimes rooting at the tips; leaves 3- (rarely pedately 5)
foliolate, on long slender petioles; leaflets thin, glabrate, or
pubescent beneath, rhombic ovate or ovate-lanceolate, acute at
both ends, often acuminate, coarsely and somewhat doubly ser-
rate; the terminal one petiolate; stipules ovate or oblong,
entire ; peduncles mostly terminal, 1-3 flowered ; pedicels and
base of calyx bearing glandular tipped hairs; sepals ovate -
lanceolate, acuminate, tomentose toward the tips, at length
reflexed; fruit small, red (Fig. 56).

Labrador to New Jersey, and west to Colorado.

This is a pretty little plant of eastern woods.

13. R. SAXATILIS, Linn.

Stems pubescent, sparsely beset with minute prickles; sterile
shoots, long, slender, creeping, terete, often rooting at the tip
in autumn; flowering stems erect, mostly simple, 4-12 inches
(1-3 decimeters) high; leaves 3-foliolate, on long petioles, both
sides green and slightly pubescent; leaflets ovate or rhombic -
ovate, obtuse at both ends or acute at the apex, coarsely den-
tate, middle one long, lateral ones short-petiolate ; stipules of
flowering stems ovate, of sterile ones linear; inflorescence
cymose, 3-10 flowered, peduncles terminal and axillary; pedicels
prickly; calyx pubescent, especially within, but not glandular;
sepals ovate or lanceolate, acuminate, commonly no longer than
the petals, at length reflexed; petals small, erect, spatulate,
white; fruit of 1-6 large grains, not coherent, deep red; seeds
large, slightly wrinkled.

Found in Greenland, and widely distributed in Europe, but
apparently does not occur on the American continent proper.

A French work entitled Traite des Plantes Fourragdres men-
tions this as a good forage plant, either fresh or dry.

14. R. ID^US, Linn. European Raspberry.

Plant usually stiff, erect, and light colored, the main stems
bearing nearly straight, slender prickles; flowering shoots, peti-
oles, veins, pedicels and calyx finely pubescent, but not glandular,
and sparsely beset with firm, recurved prickles; leaves of bearing
wood 3-foliolate, of new canes mostly 5-foliolate, thicker than in
R. strigosus, whitened -downy beneath, and usually somewhat
wrinkled; middle leaflet ovate, petiolate; lateral ones ovate-lan-
ceolate, sessile, cut-serrate; inflorescence sub -corymbose; pedi-

316

BUSH-FRUITS

Fie. 57. Rubus Idceus (X%).

eels short, ascending, aggregated above ; calyx tomentose ; sepals
ovate-lanceolate, acuminate, longer than the petals, at length
recurved; fruit dark red or yellow, produced more or less con-
tinuously throughout the season (Fig. 57).

Original distribution.— Common throughout Europe and western
Asia.

This is the parent of the older garden varieties which were
imported from Europe, and which ushered in raspberry growing in

AMERICAN H ED RASPBERRY

317

America. For a discussion of the characteristics of the species
from the standpoint of the fruit-grower, see Chapter VII.
15. R. STRIHOSUS, Michx. American Bed Raspberry.

Stems more slender and flexible than in Rubus Idceus, usu-
ally brown or reddish brown, somewhat glaucous; beset with stiff,

Fig. 58. Rubus strigosus (X%).

straight prickles; flowering shoots, pedicels, calyx and petioles
hirsute, with glandular-tipped hairs in the wild type, though
largely disappearing in cultivation; leaves of bearing canes 3-
foliolate, of young canes mostly 5-foliolate ; middle leaflet ovate,
petiolate, lateral ones ovate-lanceolate, sessile, cut-serrate ; in-
florescence racemose, peduncles usually scattered, mostly slender
and drooping ; calyx slightly pubescent or hirsute ; fruit light red,
produced less continuously than in Rubus Idceus (Fig. 58) .

318 B USH-FJR HITS

Original distribution. — North Carolina to New Mexico and far
northward. Northeastern Asia, Japan to Altai and the Himalayas.

This species is closely related to R. Idceus, though wild forms
can be readily separated by botanical characters. In cultivation
these characters largely disappear. For the position of the species
in the pomological world, see Chapter VII.

A white variety of R. strigosus occurs rarely, and plants of it,
received from A. S. Fuller, are growing in the Cornell University
gardens. The form is also represented in cultivation by the
variety known as Meredith Queen. The fruit is small, soft,
amber-white, with prominent grooved drupes.
16. EUBUS NEGLECTUS, Peck. Purple -cane Kaspberry.

Habit various, but with the stem typically long and rooting at
the tip, glaucous, more or less armed with prickles ; leaves of
bearing canes 3-foliolate, of young canes 3-5-foliolate, coarsely
and irregularly serrate, middle leaflet petiolate, lateral ones sessile;
inflorescence racemose -cymose; peduncles mostly erect, armed
with firm, mostly recurved prickles, and in wild forms more or
less hirsute with glandular hairs when young, lower ones mostly
unequally branched; blooms usually somewhat aggregated at the
tip, sepals ovate, acuminate, scarcely longer than the petals;
fruit varying from dull purple to dark red, or even yellowish.

Original distribution. — Probably quite generally distributed with
the two species which it connects.

To this form belong the Purple -cane raspberries of cultivation.
By many the form is thought to be of hybrid origin, while others
regard it as a distinct species. From specimens before me I have
been able to arrange a series from wild plants and another from
cultivated forms, each representing an almost perfect gradation
from R. strigosus to R. occidentalis, and I am led to believe that
all are of hybrid origin. A further discussion of the group, as
found in cultivation, will be found in Chapter VII.

R. STRIGOSUS X OCCIDENTALIS Var. LEUCODERMIS.

Flowering shoots, petioles, pedicels, and calyx hirsute, with
glandular tipped hairs, also beset with long, slender, straight or
recurved prickles; leaves of bearing canes 3-foliolate, middle
leaflet petiolate, lateral ones sessile, mostly ovate, sharply cut-
serrate; inflorescence racemose, somewhat aggregated; calyx
somewhat pubescent and hirsute, reddish purple within, as are
also the base of the styles.

THE BLACK RASPBERRY 319

This form holds the same position between the western repre-
sentatives of the red and black raspberry that R. neglectus does
between the eastern ones. It was found growing with R. occiden-
talis var. leucodermis and R. strigosus at Sicamous, B. C., in 1889,
by Professor J. M. Macoun, who writes that it very much resem-
bles R. neglectus, the fruit being abundant, purplish in color,
lacking in firmness, but pleasant.

17. R. OCOIDENTALIS, L. Black Raspberry, Thimbleberry.

Canes long, recurved, at length rooting at the tips, conspicu-
ously glaucous, armed with strong recurved prickles; leaflets 3,
both on bearing canes and young shoots (rarely 5 on the
latter), ovate, pointed, coarsely and doubly serrate, whitened-
downy beneath, the lateral ones mostly somewhat stalked; inflo-
rescence cymose; peduncles mostly aggregated in a close cluster
at the tip, short, stiff, erect, bearing stiff recurved prickles,
rarely with straight bristles also ; petals shorter than the sepals ;
fruit depressed, firm and dense, black, rarely yellow.

Original distribution. — Mountains of Georgia westward to Mis-
souri and the sources of the Oregon, and far northward into
British America.

This is to-day the most important raspberry of cultivation.

Var. LEUCODERMIS (Dougl.).— R. leucodermis, Dougl.

Leaflets coarsely dentate -serrate, often approaching incised -
serrate ; prickles strong and more hooked ; fruit reddish black,
with a gray bloom (Fig. 59).

Found in the mountains of Arizona, California, Oregon, Wash-
ington and northern Utah.

This has long stood as a distinct species, but forms of R.
occidentalis occur which show the same coarse serration of leaves,
and there is an eastern yellow- fruited form which has as strong
and prominently hooked prickles. Professor Piper writes: "I
agree with Focke in considering this merely a variety of R. occi-
dentalis. I have never seen it with r yellow' fruit, as described
in Botany of California. The fruit is dark wine-red, nearly
black, and of excellent flavor."

18. R. HESPERIUS, Piper.

"Habit of R. leucodermis; 1-2 meters high; young stems
glaucous, older ones brownish and shining, densely beset with
strong prickles, which are straight on the larger branches

Fig. 59. Rubus ocddentalis var. leucodermis (X%).

JAPANESE WINEBERRT 321

but more or less recurved on the smaller ones; leaves trifo-
liolate, or on young, vigorous shoots pedately 5-foliolate; leaf-
lets 5-8 cm. long, ovate, acuminate, thickish, coarsely and
doubly serrate, perfectly green and glabrous on both sides, not
shiny, armed on the midrib beneath, and even on the lateral
veins, with recurved or straight prickles ; lateral leaflets on
very short, 1-2 mm. long petioles; terminal leaflet sometimes
3-lobed; petioles stout, usually glaucous, 2-5 cm. long, armed
with stout recurved prickles; stipules setaceous, about 8 mm.
long; flowers in terminal corymbs, or a few in the axils of the
upper leaves, these solitary .or in clusters of two or three;
peduncles and pedicels stout and more densely armed than the
branchlets; sepals in fruit green, glabrous, deltoid-lanceolate,
long-acuminate, 12 mm. long; petals and stamens not seen;
fruit nearly black, without bloom, dry and rather tasteless;
young carpels neither glaucous nor tomentose; seeds large.

"Closely related to E. leucodermis, Dougl., and E. occidentalis,
Linn., from both of which it is readily distinguished by the
entire absence of pubescence on the under side of the leaves.
It is also much more strongly and densely armed than either.

"The plant occurs sparingly in Snake River canon, and
Wawawai and Almota, Whitman county, Washington. It grows
usually along stream banks, but occasionally in crevices of moist
cliffs." — Piper.

19. R. PHCENICOLASIUS, Maximowicz. Japanese Wineberry, Jap-
anese Raspberry. R. occidentalis, Thunb.

Stems 3-5 feet (9-15 decimeters) high, densely hirsute with
reddish, glandular-tipped hairs, and occasional long straight
prickles, which become recurved on the petioles and veins be-
neath the leaves; leaflets 3, broadly ovate, acuminate, incised-
serrate, whitened -downy beneath, the middle one often somewhat
3-lobed, petiolate, and much the larger, the lateral ones sessile;
inflorescence paniculate, pedicels short, erect, calyx very hairy,
closely clasping the fruit till nearly mature, when it becomes
horizontally withdrawn; sepals lanceolate, awl-pointed, stamens
withdrawing with the calyx; petals minute, obovate; fruit small,
red, acrid, drupes small, weakly coherent; seeds small, smooth,
easily crushed.

Original distribution. — Upon the Islands of Yezo and Nipon,
in Japan.

The species was described in 1872, and in 1880 was figured in
the Botanical Magazine* from plants grown at Kew. Frequent

*t. 6479.
u

322 BUSH-FRUITS

mention of it is found in both English and American horticultural
journals since that date. For a discussion of its horticultural
qualities, see Chapter VI.

20. R. SPECTABILIS, Pursh. — Salmonberry.

Stems rather robust, 5-10 feet (15-30 decimeters) high, spar-
ingly armed with straight or ascending prickles; leaves 3-
foliolate, or occasionally simple, thin, glabrate beneath; leaflets
petiolate, ovate, acute or acuminate, doubly incised -serrate, and
often 2-3-lobed, the veins beneath, also the petioles and peduncles
sparingly villous- pubescent; stipules linear; flowers solitary or in
pairs, red or purple, large and showy; sepals broadly ovate, acute,
or with a short acumination, much shorter than the petals ; fruit
large, sub-conical, red or yellow; styles long, persistent (Fig. 60).

Original distribution. — The Pacific coast from California north-
ward to Alaska.

Professor C. V. Piper, of the Washington Agricultural College,
writes: "This is the < Salmonberry, ' and not B. parviftorus, as per
Botany of California. There are two varieties, one with salmon-
colored berries, whence the name; the other with dark wine-red
berries. The former are better flavored, the latter having a bitter
aftertaste. Both occur growing together, and are not to be dis-
tinguished save by the color of the fruit. The plant is confined to
swamps and stream banks."

A more or less densely tomentose and silky form is also re-
corded— Var. Menziesii (Hook), Watson.

This plant was introduced in England in 1827, and has been
frequently referred to in the horticultural journals of that country.
According to the Journal of Botany* it has become naturalized in
Kent, where it is locally known as "Woodman's Rose." For fur-
ther mention of it, see Chapter VI.

21. R. ROS^FOLIUS, Smith. — Rose -leaved Raspberry. "Strawberry-

Raspberry." B. sorbifolius, Maxim. (See Fig. 28, p. 149.)
A low plant 1-2 feet (3-6 decimeters) high, forming dense
clumps from the numerous suckers produced ; stems and branches
covered with recurved prickles; leaves evergreen in its native
habitat, pinnate, leaflets 5-7, or 3 at the ends of the flowering
shoots, sessile or the end one petiolate, • lanceolate, acuminate,
sharply and doubly serrate, the under side green, with scarcely

*Vol. 19, p. 251.

ROSE-LEAVED RASPBERRY

323

Fig. 60. Rubus spectabilis (X%).

visible soft glandular hairs or dots; flowers 1-3 in terminal clusters,
double in the cultivated form, white, rose-like, 1-2 inches
(25-50 mm.) broad, borne in succession; fruit of the wild form red
or yellow, about an inch in diameter, made up of many small
carpels.

Original distribution. — Japan, China and the East Indies.

For an account of E. roscefolius in cultivation, the reader is
referred to Chapter VI.

324 BUSH-FRUITS

22. R. NIGROBACCUS, Bailey. R. villosus, authors, not Ait. Com-
mon or High Blackberry. Long Blackberry.*

Stems shrubby, 1-8 feet (3-25 decimeters) high, furrowed or
terete, upright or reclining, armed with stout curved prickles;
young branches, peduncles, stipules, petioles and veins beneath
the leaves pubescent, and bearing numerous glandular tipped
hairs; leaflets mostly 3 on fruiting canes, 5 on young canes, ovate
or oblong, pointed, unequally and sharply serrate, the terminal
one petiolate, the lateral ones sessile or short petiolate; inflores-
cence racemose, elongated, nearly or quite leafless; flowers nu-
merous, conspicuous; bracts short; sepals glandular, ovate, with
a long, linear point, which is often dilated; petals obovate- oblong,
longer than the sepals ; fruit narrow, varying from nearly globular
to long- oblong, dull color, sweet; drupelets small, closely packed.

Original distribution.— Common throughout the eastern portion
of the United States and far northward in British America.

Var. SATIVUS, Bailey.

Clusters fewer flowered; pedicels oblique; fruit short and
thick, glossy black, sour until very ripe; drupelets fewer, large,
soft, loosely and irregularly placed.

Found in dry, open places. The type most common in culti-
vation, as represented by Snyder, Kittatinny and Agawam.

Var. ALBINUS, Bailey. White Blackberry.

Canes terete, yellowish green; leaflets mostly 3, even on young
canes; fruit pinkish cream or amber colored, sweet. Other char-
acters closely resembling the specific type.

Sparingly found wild, associated with the species. Though in-
troduced into cultivation at times, it has never proved valuable.
R. NIGROBACCUS X VILLOSUS. Blackberry -Dewberry hybrid.

Stems decumbent or ascending, rarely rooting at the tip,
terete, sparingly armed with short, straight prickles; peduncles
and petioles pubescent but rarely glandular. Leaflets usually 3,
both on young and fruiting canes, simple in the flower cluster,
oval, acuminate, very deeply, sharply and irregularly incised, the
lateral ones sessile; inflorescence cymose, 4-8 flowered, inter-
spersed with numerous simple, broadly oval or ovate leaves ; sepals
ovate, acuminate, rarely expanded at the tip, slightly tomentose
within and on the margin ; petals longer than the sepals ; fruits
globular or slightly oblong, good, bright black; drupelets large
and prominent.

*The nomenclature of the blackberries and dewberries is taken from Bailey's
monograph in "Evolution of our Native Fruits."

SLA CKBERR T-DE WBERR Y

325

Fig. 61. Snyder.— Rubus nigrobaccus var. sativus.

More or less commonly associated with the two parent species,
at least in New York and Pennsylvania.

At first sight this type appears like a variety of B. nigrobaccus,
but it is apparently found only where both E. nigrobaccus and
B. villosus are growing. This, with its habit of occasionally
rooting at the tips, and the fact that various gradations between
the two species often occur, seems to be convincing proof of its
hybrid origin. The type occupies the same ground between the
blackberry and dewberry that B. neglectus does between the
black and red raspberry. In cultivation it is represented by the
Wilson, Wilson Jr., Thompson Early Mammoth, and others.
This plant was in cultivation in Europe early in the century, and
was called Bubus heterophyllus by Willdenow.

326 BUSH-FRUITS

Forms of Rubus setosus often look as if they might be hybrids of
R. nigrobaccus and R. strigosus. One of these forms, growing in a
dryish tamarack bog at Lansing, Mich., was once thought by Pro-
fessor Bailey and others to be such a hybrid. It is as follows :

Stems upright, 2-3 feet (6-9 decimeters) high, terete, sparingly
armed with long, slender, straight or slightly reflexed prickles;
peduncles and petioles very slightly pubescent ; leaflets of bearing
shoots 3, all sessile, of young shoots mostly 5, the three upper
ones petiolate, broadly oval or obovate, acute or obtuse, sharply
and irregularly serrate; inflorescence cymose, few-flowered, leafy,
sepals small, ovate, acute, slightly tomentose at the margins, and
bearing few minute glandular hairs; petals obovate, twice as long
as the sepals ; fruit globular oblong, of few grains, adhering to
the receptacle.

23. E. ALLEGHENIENSIS, Porter. R. villosus var. montanus, Por-

ter. R. montanus, Porter.

Similar to R. nigrobaccus, plant smaller and more slender,
somewhat less prickly, branches commonly reddish, the younger
parts very glandular; leaves and inflorescence like nigrobaccus;
fruit rather dry, with a somewhat spicy flavor, small, long, thimble -
shaped, narrowing toward the tip; drupelets small and numerous.

Found upon the mountains and higher lands of New York,
New Jersey, Pennsylvania and North Carolina.

24. R. ARGUTUS, Link. R. frondosus, Bigel. R. villosus var.

frondosus, Torr.

Plant lower and more bushy than R. nigrobaccus, younger parts
pubescent, but sometimes scarcely at all glandular; leaves
thicker, rather more numerous and persisting longer in the fall ;
leaflets coarsely, sharply and irregularly serrate, both on young
and fruiting canes; inflorescence shorter, more corymbose, the
lower pedicels subtended by leaves which are mostly simple and
smaller toward the tip, giving the cluster a leafy or frondose ap-
pearance ; flowers smaller ; sepals broader, less attenuate ; petals
roundish.

Original distribution. — Occurs with the type, and northward.

Represented in cultivation by the Early Harvest and by the
Dorchester, which was the first blackberry ever introduced.

Var. FLORIDUS, Bailey. JR. floridus, Tratt.

A form with very large flowers in very short clusters, and
leaves on the flowering shoots short, broad and nearly or quite
obtuse. New Jersey to Alabama. Probably not |in cultivation.

SAJTD BLACKBERRY 327

Var. EANDII, Bailey.

"Low and diffuse, 1°-2X° (3-8 decimeters) high, the canes
bearing very few and weak prickles, or often entirely unarmed,
very slender and soft, sometimes appearing as if nearly herba-
ceous ; leaves very thin and nearly, or quite smooth beneath and
on the petioles, the teeth rather coarse and unequal ; cluster stout,
with one or two simple leaves in its base, not villous, and very
slightly if at all pubescent ; flowers half or less the size of those
of R. nigrobaccus; fruit small, dry and seedy."

Original distribution. — Woods, Mt. Desert, Me., New Bruns-
wick and Lake Superior.

25. E. CANADENSIS, L. Thornless or Mountain Blackberry. R.

Millspaughii, Britton.

Stems upright, 3-10 feet (1-3 meters) high, more or less
deeply grooved, reddish brown, perfectly smooth and unarmed,
except for a few weak prickles toward the top and on the smaller
branches, petioles and mid-veins; branches and petioles of the
young canes glabrous, those of the flowering canes, together
with the pedicels, pubescent, but not glandular; leaflets of young
canes 5, the three uppermost with long and slender leaf-stalks,
glabrous above and beneath, narrowly ovate, mostly rounded at
base, long -acuminate, leaflets of bearing canes 3, glabrate, often
broader, more deeply and coarsely serrate and less acuminate ;
stipules of young canes very long and slender, scarious ; inflores-
cence racemose, pedicels oblique, the lower ones axillary, the
upper subtended by f oliaceous bracts, % inch or more in length ;
sepals broadly ovate, whitened -downy within, acumination short;
fruit ripening late, roundish, jet black, with large and promi-
nent drupelets and a rather hard core, sour and sometimes even
bitterish, at least until very ripe.

Found in mountainous parts of the Atlantic states, but con-
fined chiefly to high elevations, especially southward. Usually
abundant wherever it occurs.

The species often crosses with R. nigrobaccus, forming vari-
ous gradations, where the two meet on the mountain sides.

26. R. CUNEIFOLIUS, Pursh. Sand Blackberry.

Shrubby, 1-3 feet (3-9 decimeters) high, upright, armed with
numerous stout, recurved prickles; branchlets and lower side
of the leaves whitish woolly, partially disappearing with age ;
leaflets 3 on the bearing canes, 5 on the young ones, obovate-
cuneate, acute or obtuse, thickish, entire at base, serrate toward
the apex, often coarsely so on fruiting canes ; inflorescence
cymose, peduncles few-flowered ; sepals oblong, mucronate,
woolly within and without; petals large, narrowly obovate; fruit
roundish, of excellent quality (Fig. 62).

328

BUSH-FRUITS

Distribution.— Sandy woods from southern New York and Penn-
sylvania, south to Florida, and west to Louisiana and Missouri.
This is represented in cultivation by the "Topsy," or "Child's

Tree Blackberry."

The Kew Index also rec-
ognizes a European species
under the name E. cuneifolius
Merc., but it was published
since R. cuneifolius, Pursh.,
therefore cannot stand. In
fact, the European name has
already been replaced by R.
sphenoides, Focke.

27. E. VILLOSUS, Ait. — Low
Blackberry. Dewberry.
R. Canadensis, authors,
not L.

Main stems shrubby, long,
trailing, rather sparsely and
lightly prickly; leaflets 3,
on both fruiting and young
canes (rarely pedately 5-7) ;
oval or ovate -lanceolate,
acuminate, or obtuse at base
of fruiting shoots, thin,
slightly roughened, sharply
and usually singly cut -ser-
rate, petioles and veins be-
neath often prickly; in-
florescence cymose, scarcely
extending beyond the leaves,
few-flowered ; peduncles
slightly pubescent but not
glandular; sepals tomentose
within, often 3-lobed at tip,
the central lobe being long,
expanded and leaflike.
Distribution. — Newfoundland to Virginia, and west to eastern
Kansas and central Minnesota.

This species, with its varieties, forms the foundation type
to which the northern dewberries belong.

Fig. 62. Rubus cuneifolius (XI).

NORTHERN DEWBERRY 329

Var. RORIBACCUS, Bailey.

"Plants larger and stronger; leaflets broad below, usually tri-
angular-ovate, doubly serrate with small teeth, and more or
less notched or jagged; peduncles longer, straighter, stouter,
and more erect, habitually more numerous and more conspic-
uously overtopping the leaves ; flowers very large, sometimes two
inches (5 cm.) across; sepals uniformly larger, some of them
much prolonged and leaf-like and conspicuously lobed (some-
times becoming an inch long and wide) ; fruit much larger and
longer as a rule." — Original description.

This variety is represented in cultivation by the Lucretia. It
was found in West Virginia, though evidently not common there.

Var. MICHIGANENSIS, Card.

Stems woody, trailing in sand and more or less subterranean,
sparingly armed with comparatively weak, reflexed or recurved
prickles, which become stronger on the petioles of the present
year's growth; upright shoots or peduncles nearly herbaceous,
more pubescent, with but few slender prickles and with a greater
diameter than in the species; stipules long, prominent, often 1
inch (25 mm.) long on young wood, with a distinct midrib; leaflets
of flowering shoots 3, mostly ascending, giving the shoots a leafy
appearance ; leaflets of new wood pedately 5-7, larger than in the
species, more deeply and irregularly incised, somewhat pubescent
above and beneath; pedicels numerous, pubescent, but not glan-
dular, upper one short, scarcely exceeding the leaves; flowers
small, sepals densely tomentose within, reflexed, with a slightly
expanded acumination; petals small, obovate, about as long as the
sepals; fruit large and good.

Collected by L. H. Bailey, near South Haven, Michigan.

This resembles var. roribaccus, but appears to be more strictly
trailing, less woody, more pubescent, leaflets more incised and
not so broad at base, pedicels not so long and straight, prickles
fewer and more slender, stipules longer and flowers much smaller.

28. R. INVISUS, Bailey. — R. Canadensis var. invisus, Bailey.

Stems stout and stiff, often partially ascending, sparingly
armed with reflexed straight prickles; leaflets much larger than
in the species, broad and thin, glabrate above and beneath, the
teeth usually very large, often rounded and terminating in a
minute point; peduncles or flower stems long and straight,
glandular in the wild type ; young flower buds commonly bear-
ing a prominent tip formed by the connivent ends ot the sepals,
which often become foliaceous later; flowers generally larger
than in the species and overtopping the leaves; fruit globular-
oblong, of good size.

330 BUSH-FRUITS

Found wild at Ithaca, N. Y. ; probably widely distributed.
Represented in cultivation by Bartel, Gen. Grant and Neverfail.

29. E. ENSLENII, Tratt.— E. Baileyanus, Britton. R. villosus

var. humifusus, Torr. & Gray.

"Procumbent or ascending, pubescent or nearly glabrous, the
stem slender, sparingly prickly, the upper leaves almost invaria-
bly unifoliolate, and the racemes but 1-few-flowered. The leaf-
lets are broadly ovate or oval, acute or more commonly obtuse,
thin, the terminal ones usually cordate, or all of them rounded
or obtuse at the base; fruit small. The plant appears to be
always a dry wood species."

30. E. TRIVIALIS, Michx. Low Bush Blackberry, Southern Dew-

berry.

Stems shrubby, procumbent, terete, beset with strongly re-
curved or reflexed prickles, glaucous or hirsute with glandular
tipped hairs and bristles; leaves evergreen, coriaceous, glabrate,
mostly 3-foliolate on bearing canes, 3-5-foliolate on young canes;
leaflets ovate-oblong or lanceolate, sharply serrate; veins, peti-
oles and peduncles bearing numerous stout, recurved or reflexed
prickles; inflorescence cymose, 1-4-flowered; sepals ovate, acumi-
nate or mucronate, slightly pubescent, but not prickly; petals
obovate, twice as long as the sepals; fruit oblong, black, good.
(Fig. 63.)

Original distribution. — Sandy soil, Virginia to Florida, and
west to Texas and Missouri.

This is the common dewberry of the southern states. It is
represented in cultivation by the Manatee and Wilson's White.

31. E. VITIFOLIUS, Cham & Schlecht. Pacific Coast Dewberry

or Blackberry. R. ursinus, Cham & Schlecht. R. macro-
petalus, Dougl.

Hermaphrodite plant. — Stems becoming woody, weak or trail-
ing, 5-20 feet (1.5-6 meters) long, terete, glaucous; fruiting
branches numerous, armed with straight, rather slender prickles,
mostly pubescent; leaves 3-foliolate, rarely 5-foliolate on young
canes, often simple and 3-lobed on flowering branchlets; leaflets
ovate to oblong, coarsely toothed, smooth or somewhat tomen-
tose; veins, petioles, peduncles, and often the calyx, aculeate,
with slender prickles; stipules oblanceolate to linear, sometimes
long and toothed; sepals ovate or ovate -lanceolate, acuminate,
sometimes foliaceously tipped, then exceeding the petals ; fruit
oblong, black, sweet (Fig. 64) .

Pistillate plant. — Leaves all 3-foliolate, narrower, more
sharply serrate, thinner and less pubescent, flowers smaller.

Fig. 63. Rubus trivialis (X%).

332

BUSH-FRUITS

Fig. 64. Rubu* t>WoMw*.-Skagit Chief dewberry (X%).

Original distribution. — The coast ranges of California, Oregon
and Washington, the valley of the Willamette, and also in Idaho.

This is an exceedingly variable species. Different specimens
of it were originally described on adjoining pages by the same
authors as two species under the names R. vitifolius and R.
ursinus. Later the pistillate form was described by Douglas as
E. macropetalus. Some forms are hermaphrodite, others stami-

PACIFIC COAST DEWBERRY

333

nate, with abortive pistils, and still others pistillate, with only
rudimentary stamens. Some forms are wholly trailing, while
others have strong and nearly upright stems. The staminate

Fig. 65. Rubus hispidus (X%).

forms are said to be the stouter. The Aughinbaugh and others
belong here. Professor Piper writes that it is "abundant in west-
ern Washington, especially in old 'burns,' and fine flavored berries

334 BUSH-FRUITS

are gathered each year in great quantities. It is locally called
blackberry, although it is really a dewberry."

32. E. HISPIDUS, L. — Running Swamp Blackberry.

Stems slender, scarcely woody, long and trailing, bearing
numerous small reflexed prickles; stipules linear, conspicuous;
leaflets 3, rarely pedately 5, smooth, thickish, mostly persistent
during winter, obovate, obtuse, coarsely serrate, entire toward the
base; flowering shoots mostly glabrous, often bristly, and even
glandular above when young, several flowered; flowers small,
sepals ovate, mucronate, half the length of the obovate, white
petals; fruit of few grains, dark red or purplish (Fig. 65).

Distribution. — In low woods or swampy ground from Nova
Scotia to Georgia, and westward to eastern Kansas and Minnesota.

A pretty species, of interest to botanists only.

33. E. SETOSUS, Bigelow. E. hispidus var. setosus, Torr. & Gray.

B. hispidus var. suberectus, Peck.

Stem erect or recurved, somewhat woody, densely beset with
stiff bristles and long recurved prickles, which extend to the
petioles and midrib of leaflets in young shoots, upper portions of
plant glandular even on young shoots. Leaflets of bearing wood
3, oblong -obovate, obtuse or often acute and long-pointed at base,
serrate towards the tips, sometimes nearly entire at base ; leaflets
of new shoots mostly 5, sharply serrate, acute or acuminate, veins
prominent; branchlets and pedicels bristly and glandular, several
flowered ; flowers small, sepals ovate, mucronate, half the length
of the oblanceolate white petals; fruit black, rather larger than
in B. hispidus.

Distribution. — 'Swampy ground, and even in dry pastures in
New York and New England.

34. E. LACINIATUS, Willd.— Cut-leaved, or Parsley- leaved Black-

berry.

Stems procumbent, terete, glaucous, armed with strong re-
curved prickles, sometimes perennial at base ; leaves pedately and
pinnately foliolate, much parted and divided, sparingly villous,
especially at the margins, persistent and evergreen when pro-
tected; petioles pubescent but not glandular; inflorescence cy-
mose ; pedicels bearing very short stalked glands, calyx somewhat
pubescent and aculeate with slender prickles; sepals ovate -lan-
ceolate, with a long foliaceous tip, exceeding the white obovate
petals ; fruit black, large, of good quality.

This is generally supposed to be a form of the European black-
berry, but its origin is in doubt. It was found in the Botanic

WHITE AND PINK BRAMBLES 335

Garden at Berlin and described and figured by Willdenow, in Wat-
son's Dendrologia Britannica, 1825. It was imported to the
United States from France by Charles More, of Yorkville, N. Y.

35. E. ULMIFOLIUS var. BELLIDIFLORUS hort. E. lellidiflorus hort.
E. fruticosus flore plena hort.

Stem recurved -prostrate or climbing, strong, angular and fur-
rowed, finely pubescent above, but not glandular; prickles large,
strongly reflexed, from a large, dilated, compressed base; leaves
3-5-foliolate, partially persistent; leaflets broadly oval or obovate,
acute or cuspidate, coriaceous, slightly rugose above, with very
fine close white felt beneath; petioles prickly ; panicles upright,
terminal, felted, with prominent angles and large-based strongly
recurved prickles, which are more numerous on the pedicels,
lower branches of the panicle axillary, the upper subtended by
linear- lanceolate bracts, which are more or less deeply 3-cleft at
the apex ; flowers double, red or white ; sepals broadly ovate, cus-
pidate, finely white-felted, reflexed in flower; outer petals par-
taking somewhat of the felty character of the calyx; stamens and
styles similar to the petals in color.

Cultivated both in Europe and America, the parent form a
native of southern and western Europe and northwestern Africa.

This plant was found plentiful and well established at Freder-
ick, Maryland, by A. Commons, in 1876. It is there known
as "Blackberry Rose," owing to its comparatively double and
showy flowers. The white -flowered form was received at the
horticultural department of Cornell University, from Berlin,
under the name E. spectabilis, although in no way resembling
the true E. spectabilis of the United States.

These appear to be the forms which have long been known as
Double White and Double Pink Brambles. Downing describes
them* as follows: "They are beautiful climbing shrubs of re-
markably luxuriant growth, which may be trained for a great
length in a season, and are admirably adapted for covering walls
and unsightly buildings. The flowers are like small double roses,
and are produced in numerous clusters in June."

The foregoing list includes the important species
which have found a home in the United States, but

*Fruits and Fruit Trees of America, 446.

336 BUSH-FRUITS

still others have been introduced, chiefly from Japan.
In the American Horticultural Annual for 1871,
p. 93, A. S. Fuller mentions Rubus Armeniacus and
R. Kwfmeisterianus, though the latter may have been a
misprint for Hoffmeisterianus. The plant referred to
was apparently the one better known as Grape-vine
Raspberry. The same author mentions* R. Japonicus
as having been sent out by the U. S. Department of
Agriculture. These long ago passed out of cultivation.

Among the newer ones may be mentioned R. trifidus,
Thunb., known as the "Fire Raspberry." This Japa-
nese species is described by Professor Georgeson,t as
follows: "The canes are very stout, seven to ten feet
high, upright, cylindrical, smooth, no prickles; leaves
large, palmately veined, mostly seven-cleft, serrate,
dark green above and but slightly lighter below;
berry of good size, scarlet; drupes pointed. It ripens
gradually through July."

The Kew Index mentions R. decumbens, Thunb.,
R. longipetalus , Dougl., and R. tetraphyllus, Willd., as
recognized North American species. Of these, R. longi-
petalus is given as a name only, while R. tetraphyllns
is apparently a misprint, for at the place referred to
the name is R. heterophyllus . R. decumbens I have
not been able to trace. R. nanus, mentioned in
Heller's Catalogue of North American Plants, was
collected on the Island of Ascension, and is not an
American species.

*Small Fruit Culturist, 116. tAmer. Garden, 1891, p. 204.

PAKT III

THE GROSELLES*

CHAPTEE XII

CURRANTS

The currant, though less extensively cultivated than
some of the other small fruits, fills an important
place in the pomology of our country. Its sprightly
and healthful qualities render it desirable to the con-
sumer, and its staple character makes it a compara-
tively safe crop for the producer. As before inti-
mated, it is almost wholly a northern fruit, having
no commercial importance in the southern states.
Neither currants nor gooseberries receive notice in
"Florida Fruits," by Helen Harcourt, though other
small fruits do. It does not prosper in hot and dry
climates. Even in Nebraska it does not succeed well.
The plants thrive and look healthy, but are com-
paratively unproductive, so far as I have been able to

*I find no English word in use which includes both currants and gooseberries.
Since there is an evident need for such a term, I have adopted the word groselle.
This is a modification of the old French word groiselle, or groisselle, which was
used for both these fruits before a separate term was employed to designate the
currant. The present French word groseille, meaning a gooseberry, also formerly
included both.

V (337)

338 BUSH-FRUITS

observe them. The fruit is but little seen in market,
which is probably the result of unfavorable experience.

Figures in regard to the extent and value of the
crop are not readily available, but something of its
importance can be estimated from the number of
acres devoted to the production of plants by nursery-
men, as shown by the census report of 1890. The
returns at that time showed 2,020 acres devoted to
currants in the nurseries. Of this number 1,316 acres
were in one-year-old plants and 704 acres in two-
year -old plants. Ohio leads in the production, with
451 acres, followed by New York with 405 acres and
Illinois with 383 acres. But 23 acres are reported
from the south Atlantic division, which includes New
Jersey, 7 from the south central, and 11 from the
western division. The total acreage is less than half
that of either strawberries, raspberries, blackberries or
grape vines. About twenty -five thousand plants are
grown on each acre. The estimated cost of producing
one-year-old plants is about $1 per hundred. The
average selling price reported in the north Atlantic
division is about $1.85, and in the north central
division $2.08 per hundred. The estimated cost of
two -year -old plants is about $1.50 per hundred, and
the average wholesale selling price $3 in the north
Atlantic and $2.60 in the north central division.

These figures show plainly the region of adaptation
of the currant, though the small acreage in the ex-
treme western portion may be due to a want of sat-
isfactory markets rather than to a .lack of .adaptation
in climate.

SOIL FOR THE CURRANT 339

There seems to have been a boom in currant cul-
ture about 1856, and American nurserymen were not
able to keep pace with the demand,* but in recent
years there has been little fluctuation, the demand
having been steady with the markets seldom glutted.

SOIL AND LOCATION

Currants will thrive and bear some fruit on almost
any soil, but, as their natural habitat indicates, in
order to produce really satisfactory and profitable
crops they need a cool and moist soil. Experience
has fully demonstrated this fact. The best results
are, therefore, to be expected from strong clay loams.
Even a stiff clay, under good culture, will be found
satisfactory. Strong, moist, sandy loams, if not too
light, are also good. In the selection of a site, the
natural habitat of the plant will point to a cool
northern exposure. A proper site may in part offset
the disadvantage of an unfavorable soil. Low, moist
ground, with some reduction in the intensity of the
sun's rays, will be found advantageous. For this rea-
son the currant often thrives well in orchards. This
is most satisfactory in those regions approaching the
limit of its adaptability to culture. For family use,
it may be planted on the north side of buildings or
fences. Mulching tends to accomplish the same end,
since it keeps the soil shaded and cool.

Regions somewhat elevated are generally more sat-

* Horticulturist, 1856:210.

340 BUSH-FRUITS

isfactory than lower altitudes, especially toward the
southern limits of its range. It is stated* that in
Pennsylvania better fruit is produced at an elevation
of 1,000 feet than on plateaus near the sea, the
leaves falling earlier on the lower lands, and the fruit
being smaller in consequence the succeeding year.

FERTILIZERS

The currant is a rank feeder, and needs a rich
soil, with liberal fertilizing. Yet the roots are small
and fibrous, and do not extend far for their food. It
must be supplied in liberal quantities and close at
hand. While no fruit will live and apparently thrive
under greater neglect than will the currant, it is
equally true that no fruit will more quickly or fully
respond to liberal treatment. Too often it is relegated
to the fence corners, without care or culture, there to
battle with sod and currant worms from year to year.
Little wonder that the returns are sour and small!
Liberal applications of stable manure, preferably in the
fall, supplemented with the addition of wood ashes or
potash in the form of commercial fertilizers in the
spring, are always in order. Currants containt 0.13
per cent of phosphoric acid and 0.27 per cent of
potash, while stable manure contains only about one-
third more potash than phosphoric acid, which shows
the need of additional potash. There is little danger

*Gardeners's Monthly, 1887:208.
tExp. Sta. Handbook, p. 402.

PROPAGATION 341

of too rank growth or of diminished fruitfulness
from an excess of stable manure. Observations at
the Massachusetts State Experiment Station* show
that the desirable qualities of the fruit were in-
creased in every case by the. application of potash
fertilizers. A comparison of sulphate and muriate
of potash at the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment Sta-
tion showed no practical difference in favor of either. t
To sum up, fertilizing for the currant does not differ
from that required for other fruits, except that it
needs to be more liberal than in most other cases,
if satisfactory returns are to be obtained.

PROPAGATION

Currants are readily propagated from hard -wood
cuttings made from well -ripened shoots of one sea-
son's growth. The cuttings may be taken and planted
either in fall or in spring, but the common custom
among nurserymen is to take them in early autumn,
as soon as the leaves mature. The leaves commonly
begin falling as early as August, but they are fre-
quently stripped a week or so before the cuttings
are taken, which is usually done the last of August
or first of September. They may then be planted at
once, or tied in bundles and buried upside down with
two inches of soil over the butts. In this position
they may callus, and even form roots, before winter.

*Mass. Agr. Kept. 1884:444. Exp. Station Bull. 7.
t Annual Kept. 1890:283.

342 BUSH-FRUITS

They may be taken up and planted later, removed to
a cellar and buried in sand during the winter, or be
given an additional covering and be left where they
are until spring. If planting is deferred until spring,
it must be done very early, as they begin growth at
a low temperature, and must receive attention at the
earliest possible moment. The commoner practice is
to plant in nursery rows soon after the cuttings are
taken. They are said to root more quickly if packed
in damp moss a week or two before planting. The
cuttings are ordinarily made from six to eight inches
long, though the older writings recommended them to
be a foot long. The base should be formed with a
alean, square cut just beneath a bud. The top is
commonly a slanting cut some distance above the
uppermost bud. Planting may be done by means of
a spade, but is more conveniently and rapidly done
by plowing furrows and setting the cuttings against
the land -side of the furrow. One or two buds only
are left above the surface of the ground,' and the
earth should be firmly packed about the base of the
cuttings. If set early in September, many of the
plants will form roots and establish themselves before
winter, being in condition to begin growth immediately
in spring. As freezing weather approaches, a shovel
plow is sometimes run through the rows, in order
to throw the earth toward but not over the cuttings.
This leaves a depression along the rows, and the
plants are then easily protected by covering with
straw or coarse manure. Mulching in some form is
essential during the winter, if currant cuttings are

CUTTINGS 343

planted in the fall. Rich land should be selected,
and heavy dressings of well -rotted manure are useful.

G. A. Marshall, of Arlington, Nebr., gives the fol-
lowing method of propagating the currant. As soon
as the leaves fall, which is about September first, the
cuttings are made, nine inches long, much of the suc-
cess of the operation depending upon long cuttings
in the dry climate and light soil of Nebraska. They
are then buried with the butts up and about three
inches beneath the surface of the ground. About the
first of November they are taken up and planted in
nursery rows, and a ridge of earth thrown over them
so that they are covered about two inches deep.
In the spring this covering is raked away, so that
the tips are left just below the surface of the ground.
This method is interesting, because it shows some-
thing of the modifications demanded by a dry climate.

Single -eye cuttings under glass, or green -wood cut-
tings may be used, but are less satisfactory than hard-
wood cuttings, and are only used under special cir-
cumstances. Plants may also be grown from layers,
and even from tip layers, like the black raspberries,
but these methods have little to recommend them.
It was formerly advised to cut out all the lower buds
in planting cuttings, in order to insure, a tree form
of growth, but this is seldom practiced now. Plants
so grown are of interest as curiosities or novelties,
but are not satisfactory in field culture.

New varieties are grown from seeds, which should
be taken as soon as the fruit is ripe. They may be
washed from the pulp and dried like vegetable seeds,

344 BUSH-FRUITS

but it is better to sow or mix them with sand at once,
and not allow them to dry. If mixed with sand, they
should be buried or kept in a cool, shady place, and sown
very early in spring. They may be sown, not over half
an inch deep, in flats or in the open ground, in fine, rich
and mellow soil. Partial shade and a light mulch of
fine manure will aid in retaining moisture and prevent
the ground from baking. The seeds germinate at a
low temperature, and are likely to start too early unless
kept in a shaded place. If sown at once in flats, the
flats can be kept in a cool, shaded place during the
winter, and given partial exposure in spring. Plung-
ing them in the soil will aid in preserving uniform
conditions of moisture, and covering with a wire
screen will insure safety from destruction by mice or
other animals. If a greenhouse is available they may
be brought inside toward spring, where the seeds will
germinate quickly. The young plants may be potted
off when two or three inches high, and planted out
when well established.

PLANTING

The first essential in planting fruit is a thorough
preparation of the soil. For currants, the land
should receive a heavy dressing of well -rotted stable
manure, be plowed deep, and, if the underlying layers
are hard and impervious to roots and moisture, sub-
soiled. One may choose almost any distance apart
to set the plants, and find it recommended some-
where in horticultural literature. The distances ad-

PLANTING THE CURRANT 345

vocated vary from three -by -four feet to five -by -eight
feet, with every possible intermediate combination. It
will generally be found satisfactory to place the rows
six feet apart, with the plants four feet apart in
the rows. If the design is to cultivate both ways,
five feet apart each way may be better. Cross -cultiva-
tion is commonly only needed at intervals, and the
wider row should be in the direction most conven-
ient for cultivating.

The land should be in fine, mellow tilth as deep
as plowed. It should then be marked both ways,
with furrows in one direction. It will be all the bet-
ter if these furrows are made deeper than necessary
to receive the plants, in order to insure their being
set in a well -fined bed. The setting is easily done
by placing the plants against the land- side of the
furrow and drawing the earth about them, packing it
firmly about the roots with the feet. No one point
is more essential than this thorough firming of the soil
about the roots. A layer of loose, fine soil should
be left at the surface, to act as a mulch and prevent
the packed soil beneath from drying out. The re-
mainder of the furrow may be left to be filled in
as cultivation progresses later on. One-year-old
plants, if vigorous and well grown, are quite as sat-
isfactory and cost less money. They are easily set,
meet with little check in transplanting, and make a
better growth than if left in the crowded nursery
row during the same time.

The earliness of the currant in starting into growth
in spring is a point in favor of fall planting. This

346 BUSH-FRUITS

depends so much upon climate, however, that it is
unsafe to lay down a general rule. Throughout the
western plains, where the winters are dry and open,
fall planting is always uncertain, though with care-
ful protection it may succeed. Whatever the location,
if the planting is done early enough in spring there
is nothing to fear. If neglected until the plants have
started into growth, the check must always seri-
ously affect the first season's results.

SUBSEQUENT TILLAGE

Cultivation of the currant should be shallow. The
roots run near the surface, and are likely to be in-
jured by plowing, or even by the ordinary cultiva-
tor. Frequent stirring of the soil with a light --har-
row-tooth cultivator or a spring -tooth cultivator hav-
ing the teeth set well back, is most desirable. It
may be owing to this habit of shallow rooting, that
both the currant and the gooseberry succeed especially
well with mulching. Any refuse material like straw,
weeds, wild grass, or even coal ashes, may be used.
The mulching not only replaces cultivation in keeping
down weeds and retaining moisture, but helps to keep
the fruit clean as well. This is a good way to grow
currants for family use, especially if they occupy
small or inaccessible corners of the yard or garden,
where cultivation is inconvenient or must be done by
hand. In the well arranged fruit -garden, where the
plants occupy definite rows, and also in field culture,
cultivation is far more practicable than mulching.

PRUNING THE CURRANT

347

PRUNING

Pruning the currant is often neglected, yet pro-
ductiveness largely depends upon it. Plants will pro-
duce some fruit no mat-
ter how treated, and
hence are likely to be
treated very indiffer-
ently. The fruit is
borne both on old and
young wood, the best
and most of it appar-
ently near the base of
the one-year-old shoots
and on short one year-
old spurs from the older
wood. Consequently,
most of the young wood
may be cut away, or the
old wood may be cut
out, leaving young
shoots, and fruit will
still be produced. The
younger the wood the
finer the fruit, as a
rule, but the plants are
likely to be less produc-
tive unless a fair supply

of wood more than one year old is left. Yet this
older wood soon becomes weak, and produces small
and inferior fruit.

Fig. 66. Tree-form currant.

348 BUSH-FRUITS

The older plan of training to a tree form (Fig. 66),
by removing the lower buds from the cuttings when
planted, is now practically discarded. The plants are
less productive, and if attacked by the currant borer,
the whole plant is destroyed instead of a single stalk,
as when grown in the bush form. If the tree form is
desirable for novelty or ornament, six or eight shoots
are selected, as the bush develops, to form permanent
branches. These are cut back to four to six inches
every year till the bush is full grown, and afterward
to only two or three buds. All lateral shoots are cut
to within an inch of the old wood each year.

For practical field culture, from four to eight main
stems are allowed, and these should be frequently
renewed. It is safe to say that wood over three years
old should not be allowed to remain. Some expert
growers of long experience say that none over two
years old should be left. Superfluous young shoots
should also be cut away, but the buds at the base of
these may well be left, as they develop into fruit -bear-
ing spurs. A difference of opinion exists in regard
to cutting back the young growth. The longer the old
wood is left the greater will be the demand for cut-
ting back. This method may give increased produc-
tiveness, but finer fruit will result from frequent renew-
ing. In any event, the more vigorous shoots should be
shortened -in, to prevent the bush from becoming strag-
gling and to preserve its balance. Since the greater
part of the fruit is borne near the base of the shoots,
shortening these may tend toward a better develop-
ment of the fruit spurs, especially if the shoots are

THINNING AND TRAINING 349

nipped back in summer, when they have reached suf-
ficient height. In common practice, a liberal and judi-
cious thinning out of old wood and superfluous young
wood in early spring will be all that is required.

Experiments in thinning the fruit, made in New
Jersey,* showed that when the outer half of the flower
cluster was removed with a pair of scissors there were
15 per cent more berries to the cluster, and the berries
were 7 per cent heavier. The quality also seemed to
be better.

Various fancy methods of training are resorted to
by those with a taste for oddities. Sometimes they
are trained in "pillar" form, one upright shoot being
tied to a stake and the side branches kept very short.
They may also be readily trained against a wall, and
it is said that specially fine fruit may be obtained on
a north wall. They have even been grafted, from
time to time, in order to secure standard or tree
forms, Ribes aureum being most commonly employed
as a stock for this purpose. These methods were
chiefly in vogue early in the horticultural develop-
ment of our own country, but are now little used.

GATHERING AND MARKETING

The currant, like all other fruits, should be picked
only when dry. Although a firm fruit, which stands
shipment well when properly treated, it will readily
spoil if gathered and packed when wet. Much care

*Garden and Forest, 3:19.

350 BUSH-FRUITS

is needed to prevent pickers from crushing the berries
or tearing them from the stems. It is so much easier
to grasp a cluster and give it a pull than it is to care-
fully sever the stem, that only the strictest vigilance
will insure proper care in the work. This is written
with a very distinct remembrance of the work of some
Irish girls, who thought it much more convenient to
strip the berries from the clusters and throw them
in loose than to pick the stems at all, especially in
the middle of the baskets, where less likely to be
detected. All such berries will quickly spoil, the juice
which exudes from them will soon render the others
wet and sticky, and a general collapse of the whole
package is likely to result. Varieties like the Fay,
which have more clear space of stem at the base of
the clusters, have a distinct advantage in this regard,
for they may be more readily picked without crushing
any of the fruits. For shipping purposes, the fruit
must be picked while still hard and firm, in order to
carry well, but for home use or near market it should
not be picked too soon, especially for dessert use.
If left on the bushes until thoroughly ripe and soft,
they make an admirable dessert fruit. For this
purpose the White Grape is one of the best,
being less acid than most varieties. The fruiting
season may be prolonged until autumn, if the fruit
is protected by covering the plants with light cheese-
cloth or netting.

The fruit is commonly marketed in quart baskets,
put up in bushel crates like other berries, but of late
years the grape basket has been gaining in favor as

USES OF THE CURRANT 351

a package, and is now very largely used. The nine-
pound basket is the size preferred by most markets.
This is a convenient size for the consumer, especially
if purchased for jelly or preserving.

USES

The paramount use of the currant is in making
jelly, for which purpose it is unsurpassed. The red
varieties are preferred owing to their higher color,
but it is said that if white currants are scalded before
pressing, they make a rich, red jelly, not as dark as
that from red varieties, but very handsome. The
fruit, either green or ripe, makes excellent pies or
sauce. It is especially satisfactory when used in
combination with fruits which lack sprightliness or
acidity. With a few currants added, even the Rus-
sian mulberry becomes a most appetizing fruit,
and the juneberry seems to be all that one could
wish. The currant supplies the requisite acidity, and
these fruits furnish the richness of flavor which the
currant lacks. In canning it preserves its qualities
intact, so that it is nearly as available in winter as
in summer. Currant shrub is a pleasant summer
drink, made from the ripe fruit crushed and com-
pounded like lemonade. The juice is said to be
very useful in soothing fevers. At one time the
fruit was reported* as having a steady demand in St.
Louis for use as a flavoring in soda water.

"Illinois Hort. Soc. 1890:157.

352 BUSH-FRUITS

DURATION OP PLANTATIONS

The length of time during which plantings will con-
tinue productive will depend much upon the care and
treatment which they receive. Downing advised* re-
newing them every six or eight years, as finer fruit,
with less trouble, can be had from young bushes. He
was then recommending the tree form of culture, how-
ever, and these fail sooner than when a number of
stalks are grown and renewed as fast as they become
weak. As against this view, it does not occur to the
ordinary farmer that they need to be renewed at all.
To him a currant bush, once planted, should take care
of itself, and last indefinitely, or at least as long as
an apple tree. That is just what the plant ordinarily
does under the conditions to which the farmer too
often subjects it. It looks out for itself, but does
not devote any great amount of energy to the pro-
duction of a high grade of fruit. So, too, with
good care, liberal fertilizing and frequent renewing,
bushes may be kept in a profitable condition for
many years. Practical growers, however, seem to
find it advisable to replant after eight or ten years
of service. The cost of replanting is slight, and
the advantage of young and vigorous plants will
more than repay it. If for any reason it is found
desirable to rejuvenate old bushes in the home garden,
cutting them off close to the ground and working
manure into the soil will infuse new life into them.

*Pruits and Fruit Trees of America, 488.

HARDINESS AND YIELD 353

HARDINESS

The question of ability to endure cold hardly enters
into consideration in connection with the currant. It
endures the most severe winters, in the extreme north-
ern limits of the United States at least, and comes
out in spring with every bud unharmed. The question
of hardiness here centers not on ability to endure
cold, but on ability to endure heat, and in this it
fails, as already shown by its distribution and its
more or less complete failure in warm climates.

YIELD

Perhaps no fruit is grown in which the yield varies
more than with the currant. This is largely owing to
the fact, already indicated, that it will grow and pro-
duce something under almost any kind of treatment.
It is doubtful whether, taking the currant fields of
the country as they run, the yield per acre would
be over fifty bushels. Yet there are growers who
report as high as 250 bushels. With good care
they ought to yield from 100 to 150 bushels per acre.
Yet it should always be remembered that there are
many drawbacks to the production of all kinds of
fruit, and while this may seem very easy to obtain,
when compared with the exceptional yields occasion-
ally reported, it will be found that only by high cul-
ture and the most careful attention to details will
even these yields be reached. In garden culture,
from two to four pounds per bush may be expected.

354 BUSH-FRUITS

As instances of exceptional yields, five and one -half
tons from one and one -fourth acres, or 220 bushels
per acre, is reported* as the best yield on the Hud-
son previous to 1871. W. W. Farnsworth reported a
crop in 1889 1 which averaged six quarts per bush, or
320 bushels per acre. Sixteen tons from three acres
was reported by J. S. Stickney, of Wisconsin, the
same yearj. Let no one mistake these for probable
yields, however, in forming estimates of the results
which are likely to follow prospective planting.

PROFITS

Profits vary greatly, not only with methods of cul-
ture, but also with conditions of the market. There
have been periods at which they have proved unprofit-
able, and again they have yielded large returns, but
this fluctuation is no greater than with other fruit.
The larger 'markets are frequently filled and the price
low, but Doctor Hoskins is authority for the state-
ment§ that the New England market is never over-
stocked, and that they are more profitable than straw-
berries or raspberries. To the skillful grower who is
near a market or has exceptionally good facilities for
shipping, the currant will prove profitable, while to
the ordinary farmer, unaccustomed to their care, and
remote from market, they will prove unprofitable.

Horticulturist, 1871:368.
fPopular Gardening, 4:111.
jElinois Hort. Soc. Kept., 1880:21.
gRural New-Yorker, 1896:234.

BLACK CURRANTS 355

At six cents per pound or eight cents per quart, they
should prove a satisfactory crop. Canning factories
use them in large quantities at about four cents
per pound, and they weigh about forty pounds per
bushel, making the equivalent of $1.60 per bushel.
This, with a convenient location and good culture, to
insure a yield of not less than one hundred bushels
per acre, will yield a fair return, provided pickers
are readily obtainable in sufficient numbers, so that
enough can be grown to make it an object.

BLACK CURRANTS

The treatment of the black currant does not differ
materially from that of the red. The bushes grow a
little taller, and may require a little more room. This
can be easily given under ordinary circumstances, for
in most localities one bush will supply the demand
of the whole community. A convenient method of
pruning the black currant is quoted from the Garden
by the Canadian Horticulturist, 1896, page 198. It
consists in cutting out the bearing branches when the
fruit is ripe, carrying them to a shady place and there
picking the fruit at ease. The annual renewing thus
given is said to produce well-ripened wood and fine
fruit, since fruit borne on old wood is much inferior.

Notwithstanding the lack of popularity of the black
currant in America, we might do well to cultivate it
more than we do. It undoubtedly possesses more
value than we accord to it. It is stated by Prof.

356 B USH-FR UITS

Budd* that if the fruit is scalded for a few minutes
in boiling water, then put into fresh water for cook-
ing, the peculiar flavor of the skin will be wholly re-
moved, and that when canned it is much like cran-
berry sauce in flavor and color. The fruit is credited
with some medicinal qualities, especially in alleviat-
ing inflammation or soreness of the throat. Jelly from
the fruit, mingled with water, or the parts of the plant
steeped, are said to be useful in bowel and summer
complaints. People accustomed to its use certainly
relish it, especially for jam and jelly. Fuller statest
that the people of Siberia use the leaves for making a
drink the same as we use tea. London sayst that the
dried leaves so much resemble green tea in flavor
that a very small portion of them added to black tea
will communicate that flavor so effectually as to com-
pletely deceive the taste. From London's statements
it appears that the fruit, either dried or in the form
of jam or jelly, is very widely used throughout
Europe against affections of the throat.

*Bull. 16, la. Exp. Sta., p. 364.
tSmall Fruit Culturist, p. 188.
I Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum, 2:985.

CHAPTER XIII

GOOSEBERRIES

The gooseberry is one of the lesser lights in the
pomological firmament of the United States. It is ap-
parently prized and appreciated less than almost- any
other fruit. It is extremely sour, and the custom of
using it only in the green state prevents its better
qualities from becoming known. Many people do not
care for it, and the demand is much less than for the
berry fruits, while the supply is usually more than cor-
respondingly less. In spite of this apparent indiffer-
ence, it has many good qualities to commend it. In
the green state, as generally sold, it bears shipment
exceedingly well, reaching the consumer, when prop-
erly handled, with no waste, and in as good condition
as when it left the plants.

Some idea of the extent to which the gooseberry
is cultivated may be gained from the census report
of 1890, which shows 1,009 acres of plants to have
been growing in the nurseries of the United States.
This is only half the acreage devoted to currants,
while the average number of plants produced from
an acre is given as 14,000, as against about 25,000
currant plants per acre. This indicates that the plant-
ing of currant bushes is over three and one-half
times as great as the planting of gooseberry bushes,

(357)

358 BUSH-FRUITS

Like the currant, the gooseberry is a northern
plant, and refuses to be content in a hot climate. It
proves a complete failure in the southern states and
along the Gulf coast. In Nebraska it seems to thrive
better than the currant. It loses its leaves early, and
the fruit is decidedly smaller than in the eastern
states, yet the plants make a good growth, appear
healthy, except in the early loss of leaves, and are
fairly productive. The English varieties produce an
occasional fruit, but so far as tested may be termed a
practical failure. It should be remembered that the
summers are here hot and dry, consequently unfavor-
able to these fruits. Frequently, however, the early
part of the season is favorable, so that the fruit
has an opportunity to mature before severe heat and
drought affect it. The chief injury in that case is
undoubtedly in the early loss of leaves and conse-
quent enfeebled condition of the bush the succeeding
year.

SOIL AND LOCATION

The gooseberry is much like the currant in its soil
demands. A cool, moist, strong and rich soil, deeply
worked, is the requisition which it makes, and the
more unfavorable the location in the way of climate,
the more closely will this demand in the way of soil
need to be met. Well to the north, in high alti-
tudes or cool northern exposures, it will succeed well
on sandy or even gravelly loam, though the rule is
that the lighter the soil the less satisfactory the crop.
Still, the opposite extreme is not advisable. A muck

SOIL AND FERTILIZERS 359

soil will produce a strong growth but diminished pro-
ductiveness, while a heavy, cold clay is hard to work,
and may cause the bushes to heave. A strong clay
loam, not liable to injury from drought, but well
drained, well enriched, deeply worked and subsoiled,
is the ideal. A cool northern exposure is desirable,
if it can be had. Partial shade may be an advan-
tage, but the plant does not appear to thrive under
the shade of trees as well as the currant. For home
use, the north side of a fence or of buildings is a
good location. Proper selections of soil and location
will do much to preserve a healthy condition of the
bush, retain the foliage and prevent mildew.

FERTILIZERS

Growers of long experience agree that no fertilizer
is better for gooseberries than well -rotted cow ma-
nure, very liberally applied. The plants are gross
feeders, and a heavy top-dressing every autumn will
be profitably utilized. This may be supplemented with
a dressing of wood ashes, or potash in some other
form, early in spring, especially if the supply of stable
manure has been deficient. The soil must be rich, to
insure good results.

PROPAGATION

The propagation of the gooseberry is much the
same as that of the currant, though it does not root
so readily from cuttings. The wood does not mature
as early in the fall as that of the currant, so that

3 60 B USH-FR PITS

planting is oftener delayed until spring, though the
cuttings may well be taken in fall, and be buried outside
or placed in a cellar for winter, as directed for cur-
rants. If left until spring, they must be taken very
early, as they push into growth at the first touch of
warm weather. Cuttings are made from six to ten
inches long, using only well -ripened wood of the cur-
rent season 's growth. Formerly the lower buds were
cut out before planting, in order to prevent suckers
from springing up, thus securing a tree form of
growth. This is no longer followed in commercial
growing, though it may be desirable where attractive
bushes are wanted for the garden. The soil should be
pressed firmly about the base in planting, and only
one or two buds be left above the surface of the
ground. Thorough mulching is imperative, if the
cuttings are planted in the fall.

Some varieties, like Houghton, root readily from
cuttings, but Downing and other strong, vigorous
growers do not, consequently layering is oftener re-
sorted to. It is generally believed that stockier and
better plants are obtained from cuttings. Bent lay-
ers root readily, but this is too slow, and the number
of plants produced is too small for commercial work,
so that mound -layering is the method followed. For
this purpose the plants are cut back severely in au-
tumn, to induce many shoots to grow the succeeding
spring. About July 1, when these have made their
principal growth, earth is mounded up about and
among them, leaving only their tips exposed. Ameri-
can varieties will root readily, and may be removed

PROPAGATING THE GOOSEBERRY 361

the same autumn, but English varieties are left in
this position for two seasons. The last of October, or
before the ground freezes, the soil is thrown back, and
the shoots are cut away and trenched or buried in the
cellar for spring planting. In commercial work two
grades are commonly made. In spring they are
planted in nursery rows and cultivated for one year,
when they are ready to go on the market. Some
roots will have formed during the process of lay-
ering, and the plants will be in condition to make
a much better growth when planted out than cut-
tings taken without previous layering.

Spring is a busy season with the nurseryman
and fruit-grower, and the gooseberry is so impatient
at the approach of warm weather that the layers are
often planted in nursery rows when removed from
the parent plants in fall, and mulched during winter.
In favorable climates this will prove satisfactory, but
where the winters are dry and open, as on the
plains, the loss of plants is likely to be large, unless
they are wholly covered with earth. If bushes are to
be managed principally or exclusively for the produc-
tion of plants, they should be set in rows eight feet
apart and close together in the row. This will facili-
tate the work of mounding and removing the soil in
layering, as much of it can be done with a plow.

For home use, the suckers which spring up about
the base of the old plants may be removed and
planted. They commonly have some roots attached,
and grow readily. The older writers warn us against
their use, but apparently for the reason that they, too,

362 BUSH-FRUITS

are likely to throw up suckers from the roots, and
when the fashion was to grow the plants only in
tree form this was considered a serious fault. Bent
layers may be employed in a small way. By this
method, the branches are held beneath the soil by a
forked peg and the tip allowed to grow upward. A
slit is made on the under side of the arched portion
which is buried in the ground, in order to induce
more rapid rooting, by checking in some degree the
flow of sap from the parent plant. Layering the
tips, like black raspberries, is also said to succeed,
though not a common method.

A writer in the Gardener's Monthly for 1885, p.
49, says that the readiest and quickest way to propa-
gate the English gooseberry is by pieces of its own
roots. Old bushes are dug up in spring, the roots
chopped in pieces three to four inches long, and
planted in nursery rows three or four inches deep.
He says that they will grow more in one year than a
cutting will in two or three. This method is cer-
tainly not in common use, and I cannot vouch for its
success. Two trials in the greenhouse early in spring,
embracing both English and American varieties, have
resulted in complete failure.

New varieties must come from seeds, which should
be treated as directed for currants. It is not diffi-
cult to grow plants by this method. There is likely to
be little retrogression, and in rare cases there may be
an advance in valuable qualities. A French article
which appeared in the Horticulturist in 1849,* trans-

*Horticulturist, 3:557.

PLANTING 363

lated from the Revue Horticole, states that seed-
lings withstand the heat of French summers much
better than cuttings, and recommends propagation by
seeds rather than by other methods.

Grafting is easily done, the Missouri currant being
the stock oftenest used. According to Robert Man-
ning,* the best results are obtained by side -grafting
under the bark in August, the top being cut down in
spring and the snag removed afterward, as with
budded trees. Although quite extensively practiced at
one time in the production of standard bushes, and
as a supposed remedy for the mildew, the fad soon
died out.

PLANTING

The methods of planting recommended for the cur-
rant are equally applicable to the gooseberry. If
rows are placed six feet apart in the direction most
convenient for cultivating, and the plants four feet
apart in the opposite direction, in order to afford
opportunity for cross cultivation when the plants are
young, and at intervals thereafter, they will have
room enough for proper development, with convenient
space for their care and for gathering the fruit.

The same arguments as with the currant will apply
in regard to the choice of season for planting. These
fruits drop their leaves so early that fall planting may
be done much earlier than with most other fruits,
even in September, allowing the plants to become

*Trans. Mass. Hort. Soc. 1879:37.

364 BUSH-FRUITS

well established before the advent of cold weather.
This is one of the hardiest fruits, but the grower
who withholds the proper care in planting will inevi-
tably reap the recompense for his ill doing.

AFTER TREATMENT

Since the gooseberry is subject to greater injury
from drought than the currant, there is the more
urgent need of complete and thorough cultivation.
As with the currant, it should be shallow but fre-
quent. Hardness and dry ness of the soil are espe-
cially injurious. The better the cultivation, the cooler
and moister can the soil be kept, and hence the nearer
will be the approach to the normal conditions under
which the gooseberry is happy and its fruit grows fat.
Like the proper selection of soil and location, suitable
cultivation will materially aid in preserving the health
of the plants and preventing mildew, though by no
means a remedy for that disease. Mulching also suc-
ceeds well, preserving the soil in a cool and moist
condition even better than cultivation. •

PRUNING

Left to itself, the gooseberry soon becomes a
tangled thicket, the fruit in consequence being small
and difficult to pick. It produces much more wood
than ought to remain for each year's fruiting. It
is imperative that this be reduced, if the best results
are to be hoped for. The particular manner in which

PRUNING THE GOOSEBERRY 365

it is done is of far less importance. Berries are pro-
duced from all parts of the bush except the present
year shoots and the very old wood, but the finest
fruits are borne on one-year-old branches. After two
or three years in bearing the wood begins to fail,
and the fruit borne from it likewise declines. The
principle, therefore, should be to carefully, guard the
vigorous young wood, allowing it to replace that
which is older before the latter has a chance to fail.
The weak young shoots should be cut away, or per-
haps be 'cut back to two or three buds, if the bush
is still thin, the vigorous ones moderately cut back,
and as much old wood cut away as can be spared
without interfering with the productiveness of the
bush. Benj. G. Smith states* that he prunes as
carefully as he does grape vines, some on the spur
system and some with long shoots, with equal suc-
cess. This is significant, in showing that the method
is of minor importance. The essential thing is to so
renew that the bearing wood shall always be strong
and vigorous, and the amount of such wood not
greater than the bush is able to support and fill with
well - developed fruit. In northern localities an open
top is desirable, but where the summers are hot a
thicker growth, with more shade, may be better.
Shortening -back the lower branches severely will aid
in keeping the fruit up from the ground.

In the tree form of pruning, from six to ten main
branches are allowed to grow, and all suckers are
cut away. These main branches may be allowed

*Trans. Mass. Hort. Soe. 1883:123.

366 BUSH-FRUITS

to divide as the bush gets older. They are an-
nually shortened to a few inches of new growth
and the side shoots cut back to from one to four
buds.

In practical culture, thinning is all done by the
amount of wood removed. In the production of prize
berries, as practiced by English growers, thinning is
an absolute necessity. The largest fruit can only be
produced by closely limiting the number which the
plant is allowed to carry. Thinning is no less impor-
tant in commercial work, because done by removing
wood, instead of individual fruits.

Various methods of training have been reported.
In some cases they have been trained as single stems
and tied to stakes; in others they have been made to
cover arbors by carefully training up shoots at given
distances apart. Some very remarkable bushes have
been reported. In the tree form they have been said*
to reach a height of sixteen feet, and others have
been trained as standards with clear stems five feet
high. In the Transactions of the London Horticul-
tural Society, Vol. V, p. 490, a plant is reported
which was forty -six years old, measuring twelve
yards in circumference and which had produced
several pecks of fruit annually for thirty years.
Another, thirty years old, was trained to a build-
ing, and measured 53 feet 4 inches from one ex-
tremity to the other. This bore four or five pecks
of fruit annually.

*Tilton's Journal, 9:378.

GATHERING THE FRUIT 367

GATHERING AND MARKETING

Picking gooseberries looks more attractive than it
is. I well remember the longing eyes with which a
crowd of inexperienced pickers watched the goose-
berry rows, when working on currants, and with
what eagerness they pounced upon them when at last
the currants were done. The fruit looked so much
larger than the currants, and so nice to pick! But
experience brought a great change. They had for-
gotten to reckon with the thorns, and soon longed
for currants again. The Downing, our best well-
tested variety, is one of the worst in this respect.
The thorns are always ready, and apparently never
fail to get in their work. This feature does much
to check increased cultivation of the gooseberry. Vig-
orous pruning, to keep the bushes thin and open,
will materially aid in the matter, and the picker
soon learns to avoid too careless contact. Another
method of circumventing the difficulty is possible,
from the fact that the berries are marketed when
green and hard. This consists in wearing thick
leather gloves and in stripping the berries from the
branches. They are then run through a fanning
mill to drive out the leaves. This method is
most satisfactory in commercial work. It will not
answer for ripe fruit, which is too easily crushed.
Pickers are paid about 1% or 1% cents per quart,
and will average from sixty to one hundred quarts
per day.

At the present time the market calls for green

368 BUSH-FRUITS

gooseberries only. In this stage the fruit will carry
almost any distance in first-class condition, and need
not be sold the day it arrives. Ten -pound grape
baskets are the most satisfactory packages for shipping
and general market purposes, though the quart berry
baskets are still much used. It is a pleasure to pack
this fruit for shipment. It is so clean and solid, and
there is a feeling of security that it will remain so
until it reaches the consumer. The markets are sel-
dom overstocked, though P. T. Quinn stated before
the Pennsylvania Fruit Growers7 Association in Phila-
delphia, in 1872,* that he had seen 1,000 barrels
thrown overboard for want of a market. To this
Charles Downing added that they ought to be all
dumped into the river, which shows that the goose-
berry was not a favorite with him.

USES

The fruit is commonly used in pies, stewed, canned
or for jelly. That it makes a good jelly is evidenced
by an ingenious process of imitating it reported by
the Gardener's Monthly for 1884, page 204, which
states that gooseberry jelly is made from seaweed,
the color being given by fuchsine or similar material,
and the flavor by a mixture of acetic ether, tartaric
acid and other substances.

The good qualities of the gooseberry are not con-
fined to the green state, and there is a growing

"Horticulturist, 1872:112.

KEEPING THE FRUIT 369

appreciation of its value when ripe. The flavor of
a ripe gooseberry is hardly to be surpassed among
fruits. When fully ripe and sweet it makes a fine
table fruit, to be eaten with sugar and cream. Dr.
T. H. Hoskins is authority for the statement* that
ripe Houghtons are an excellent substitute for cran-
berries, as a sauce for meat. So close is the re-
semblance that at his table it is often necessary to
explain that they are not cranberries. They are
cooked enough to burst the skins, then put up in
fruit cans, but not sweetened till wanted for use.
Since they are much cheaper than cranberries, and
can be grown anywhere, this is a strong point in
their favor.

A method of keeping green gooseberries which
seems to have been in vogue before the process of
canning was known, consists in filling a jug or bot-
tle with sound fruit, taking care that no bruised or
crushed ones go in, then filling with cold spring or
well water, corking tightly and putting away in a
cool cellar. Doctor Hoskinst makes the statement
that they can be so preserved perfectly the year
round, without sealing, though it is generally recom-
mended to seal them. This method is certainly very
simple and, if as satisfactory as it is said to be,
makes fresh gooseberry pie available at all seasons of
the year. Another method of keeping, recommended
by the Prairie Farmer, J is to put them into bottles

*Rept. Michigan Hort. Soc. 1884:262.
tlbid: 277.

^Horticulturist, 3:132.
X

370 BUSH-FRUITS

when perfectly dry, then cork the bottles tight, cover
the corks with sealing wax, and partially cover the
bottles with sand or earth in the cellar.

DURATION OP PLANTATIONS

In the older method of pruning to tree form, the
plants began to fail after six or eight years, and soon
became unprofitable, generally bearing their best fruit
about the fourth or fifth year from planting. In bush
training, they remain in vigorous conditions much
longer. Plantations twenty or twenty -five years old,
and still profitable, are not uncommon. Much depends
on the thoroughness with which the renewing process
is carried on. Liberal fertilizing and good culture will
also aid greatly. Generally it will be found more
profitable to discard them after ten or twelve years,
for replanting is not expensive, and the younger
plants will be more vigorous and bear finer fruit.
A slight difference in the quantity and quality of
crops will soon offset the cost of replanting. No
rule as to number of years can be valid, for of two
plantations of the same age, one may still be perfectly
satisfactory and the other wholly unprofitable, owing
to differences in treatment and conditions. In com-
mercial work, a safe rule will be to replant as soon
as the first trace of waning vigor can be detected.
It is not a question of how long they will continue
to bear well, but of which will prove the more pro-
fitable, the old planting, with its regular care, or a
new one, with the added expense of another plant-

HARDINESS AND YIELD 371

ing. If these points were carefully weighed, replant-
ing would doubtless be much more frequent than it
now is.

HARDINESS

Cold has apparently no eifect on the gooseberry,
at least such temperatures as are likely to be reached
anywhere in the United States, and even far to the
north. It stands unprotected through our severest
winters without the loss of a bud, but if moved
southward it soon becomes uncomfortable. It can-
not endure scorching summer suns.

YIELD

Average yields of any fruit are hard to give, for
results vary so widely. Full grown plants, vigorous
and well cared for, ought to yield from five to eight
quarts per plant, or, roughly speaking, from 300 to
500 bushels per acre, with plants four by six feet
apart. One grower from Canada reports* one -half
bushel per plant, set at this distance. This is excep-
tional, and should not be considered as a basis for
estimates. At the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment Sta-
tion, in 189 l,t plants gave an average of over ten
pounds of fruit each, or about eight quarts. This
would make about 450 bushels per acre with plants
set four by six feet apart. Fuller! says that from

*Popular Gardening, 2:145.
t Annual Rept. 1891:474.
tSmall Fruit Culturist, p. 222.

372 BUSH-FRUITS

200 to 400 bushels per acre of native sorts can be
grown.

PROFITS

On the whole the gooseberry is one of the most
reliable and generally one of the most profitable small
fruits grown. The price per quart is not high, but the
yield is large and the loss little. The average price
in the New York market seems to be about $2 per
bushel, though fine fruit sometimes reaches double
that price. A. S. Fuller once said* that at $1.75
per bushel they paid him well, and there is no reason
why they should not. Although one of the most
satisfactory fruits for shipping, they often pay
unusually well in the home market. If people could
be accustomed to the use of the ripe fruit, there is
no reason why the consumption of the gooseberry
should not be immensely increased, with correspond-
ing benefit both to growers and consumers.

ENGLISH GOOSEBERRIES

Although frequent mention has been made of the
English varieties, it may be well to say a word
further regarding their culture in the United States.
Like all European fruits, they have been tried again
and again, yet they have only succeeded here and
there, when meeting peculiarly favorable conditions.
Benj. G. Smith, of Cambridge, has successfully cul-
tivated them for years, and occasionally other growers

^Horticulturist, 1873:112

ENGLISH GOOSEBERRIES 373

have succeeded, but the general fact remains that the
English gooseberry is not a success in America. It
may produce a few good berries when young, but is
almost sure to fail later. It is said to thrive well in
Washington,* the climate of the northwest coast be-
ing more like that of England. In 1884, a motion
was made at the meeting of the American Pomologi-
cal Society to strike all English varieties from their
list, but it was barely lost.

The reason for this failure of the large and fine
English Gooseberries in the United States is that they
are constantly attacked by mildew.

Any number of remedies have been suggested
against the mildew in times past, the most common
practice being to mulch the ground with manure,
stones, tin cans, old boots, or other strange material
which might be thought to possess especial virtue.
Salt applied to the soil was vainly tried, and at one
time grafting the plants on the Missouri currant was
thought to be a remedy. Any of these things which
afford a nearer approach toward the ideal conditions
demanded by the gooseberry will aid in preventing
the mildew, but none of them are infallible. Yet
recent experiments show that under favorable con-
ditions we can grow the English gooseberry by giv-
ing it the proper attention. Thorough and vigorous
treatment with potassium sulphide or with Bordeaux
mixture, as directed under the discussion of this
disease, will hold it in check and admit of satisfactory
crops being obtained. No slovenly or careless work

*Gardener's Monthly, 1886:271.

374 BUSH-FRUITS

will answer; the work must be thorough, and done
at ths right time, or the enemy will still gain the
mastery. Whether the English gooseberries are worth
growing, especially for home use, is a fair question.
Their only advantage is in their size and appear-
ance, which of course commend them for market grow-
ing. Most varieties are inferior to our own in
quality. The reader will find another account of
gooseberries, by Beach, in Bulletin 119, New York
Experiment Station.

CHAPTER XIV

VARIETIES OF CURE ANTS

So far as fruit -producing species are concerned, the
botany of the currant is simple, for the currant culture
of the United States is practically confined to a
single species, Eibes rubrum. It is to this species that
all our red and white varieties belong. In its wild state
the species is found both in Europe and America, and
seems to be equally well adapted to the cooler portions
of either hemisphere. It is in all cases a northern
plant, found in cool, damp situations, and it objects
to any radical change from these conditions. In culti-
vation, it has become somewhat variable in character of
fruit and foliage. Instances are reported* in which
both red and white fruits have been produced upon the
same branch. In one caset three red, three white and
one striped fruit were found in the same cluster.

The black currant of the garden is a European
species, Ribes nigrum. Although not found in America
in the wild state it seems to have had no trouble in
adapting itself to American conditions. The American
people, on the other hand, have not been so successful
in adapting their tastes to the peculiar flavor which it
has to offer, and the species has never become popular.

*Darwin, Animals and Plants under Domestication 1: 400.
tGardener's Chronicle 26: 268.

(375)

376 BUSH-FRUITS

The closely related American species, R. Americanum,
seems to possess all the good qualities of the European
one, and is more ornamental. It might well receive
attention from plant breeders. An American species
much oftener seen in cultivation is R. aureum, better
known as the flowering currant. This, though a black
currant, is very different from the two preceding. Its
fruit is often large, but produced in few- flowered clusters
and ripens singly, so that it must be picked one by one.
Its flavor, though peculiar, has not the disagreeable
twang of the true black currants, but it lacks the quali-
ties necessary to a good culinary fruit. Its most recent
boom as a fruit -producing plant has been under the
name Crandall.

Ribes aureum, R. sanguineum, and a hybrid between
the two, known as R. Gordonianum, are frequently cul-
tivated for ornament, the last two being more beautiful

but less known than the first.

•

HISTORY

The currant is thought to have been unknown to
the Greeks and Romans, as no mention of it is found
in any of their writings. It seems to have first come
prominently into cultivation about the middle of the
sixteenth century, and according to Sturtevant,* re-
ceived its modern improved form within fifty years
following. The early English names "corans" and
"currans" are thought to have been derived from the
resemblance of the fruit to the little Corinth grapes or

*History of the Currant, Trans. Western New York Hort. Soc., 1887: 55.

HISTORY OF THE CURRANT 377

raisins, these in turn taking their names from Corinth.
In England, at times, currants were known as "red
gooseberries" and "beyond -sea gooseberries." An
equivalent to the latter name, "groseilles d'outre mer,"
was also applied to them in France. These names indi-
cate that, if not native to these countries, the cultivated
forms, at least, were received from elsewhere. The
Dutch name "over -zee" indicates the same thing.
Doctor Sturtevant thinks that the currant was first
brought into culture from the northern countries
through the Danes and Normans, though DeCandolle
appears to doubt this.* The greatest improvement,
however, seems to have been in the low countries.

All the principal types of the cultivated currants
are found in the wild plants, and were reported at an
early date. Improvement has only been within a
limited range. Culture and fertility often appear to
have a greater influence on this fruit than parentage.
There are growers who still believe that the old Red
Dutch variety is superior to any of the more recent in-
troductions. It is undoubtedly true that with good
culture it will surpass the newer ones under neglect.
Thos. Andrew Knightt was of the opinion that by
repeated growth from seed the currant would become
sweeter, and perhaps in time, even insipid. The ma-
jority of seedlings grown by him from white crossed
by red currants were red, but many first turned a color
similar to the White Dutch, and then became brighter
in color when ripe. He expressed himself as sur-

*0rigin of Cultivated Plants, 277.
tTrans. London Hort. Soc. 3: 86.

378 BUSH-FRUITS

prised at the range of variation which appeared, it
being much greater than he had expected. Nearly all
were mild and sweeter than the red parents, some
were insipid, and some even showed a medicinal fla-
vor. Experience does not seem to bear out his expec-
tations in regard to an increasing sweetness, as the
newer varieties are many of them more acid than
older ones. D. S. Marvin* reports less tendency to
sport among currant seedlings than in any other fruit
with which he has had experience. He also adds that
there is little or no tendency to reversion, nearly all
seedlings being as good as the parent, except in case
of the Fay, seedlings of which commonly bear smaller
fruit than the parent, nearly half of them being white.
Perhaps through its long sojourn in the low countries
the currant has inherited something of the staid Dutch
qualities of the inhabitants, and does not readily depart
from long established customs. Yet no fruit, however
stable, can long resist the influences of persistent and
systematic breeding, and the currant has received too
little attention in this line. There is no need that
the currant should depart widely from the present
types, for there is nothing wrong with them. A
steady improvement along these same lines, with
perhaps a limited reduction in acidity, is all that is
needed, and there is no reason why this should not
go on as long as horticulture exists.

The lists in this chapter and the next are intended
to catalogue all the varieties of currants and gooseber-
ries known in this country up to the close of 1897,

*Amer. Garden, 11: 716.

VARIETIES OF CURRANTS 379

RED AND WHITE CURRANTS

(Eibes rubrum)

Attractor. — A variety from France. Plant moderately vigorous,
with remarkably deep-lobed, sharply and deeply serrated leaves.
Fruit medium to large, yellowish white. Bunches short.

Bertin Seedling.— Appears in the catalogue of the American
Pomological Society for 1869.

Boston Lady. — Mentioned as a white variety, with fruit unusually
large, bearing profusely, a quart having been picked from twelve
inches of a single stem.— Gar. Month. 1860: 250.

Bronze. — Mentioned in Hovey's Magazine for 1861, p. 101, as
having been under discussion at the meeting of the American
Pomological Society.

Buist Long-bunched. — Originated by Robert Buist of Phila-
delphia, Pa. Described as a strong, vigorous grower, very pro-
ductive. Fruit large, deep red, similar to Red Dutch in flavor.
Bunches long and tapering. Leaves large and very thick.

Caywood Seedling. — A seedling received at the Geneva (N. Y.)
Experiment Station from A. J. Caywood & Son, of Marlboro, N. Y.
Described as a moderate grower, with spreading or drooping
branches, very productive. Fruit more acid than the White
Grape, of good quality, attractive, translucent, tinged with pale
greenish yellow. Bunches of medium size, about two and one-half
inches long. Berries large.

Champagne (Pheasant's Eye, Grosellier a Fruit Couleur de
Chair). — Of foreign origin. Described as vigorous and productive.
Fruit large, acid, not rich, of a delicate reddish pink, like a cross
between the red and white, though the wood, foliage, and growth
place it at once among the reds. Bunches medium, loose, slightly
tapering. Ripens late.

Champion. — A white variety, described as tall, vigorous, and up-
right, with bunches of medium length. Berries a shade lighter
than White Dutch, uneven in size, averaging below medium. In-
ferior to White Dutch in appearance, flavor, and quality.— Geneva
(N. Y.) Exp. Sta. Bull. 95: 427.

Cherry.— This variety was obtained from Italy by M. Adrienne
Seneclause, a distinguished horticulturist of France. He received
it among a lot of other currants known there under the name Eibes
acerifolium. He gave it the name inconsequence of the extraordi-
nary size of the fruit. It was fruited at the Museum of Natural
History in 1843, and from the plants there grown was figured in
the "Annales de Flore et de Pomone" for Feb. 1844. (Roe says

380 BUSH-FRUITS

1848.) It was brought to the notice of fruit-growers in the United
States by Dr. William W. Valk, of Flushing, L. I., in 1846.* It
was figured in the Horticulturist as a frontispiece to the volume for
1854 ; also in Hovey's Magazine, 1855, p. 425. This is one of the
best known varieties at the present day, being largely planted both
for market and home use. It is described as vigorous, stocky, and
compact when young, but becoming spreading with age. It
tends to produce a single stock, not suckering as freely as other
kinds. The buds, at or near the ends of the shoots, are often im-
perfect or wanting, differing in this respect from the Versaillaise.
Its fruit is borne in short-stemmed clusters close to the wood,
which renders it somewhat difficult to pick. Fruit averaging
large, though not uniformly so, juicy, and fine flavored. Color
bright red. Season early.

Climbing. — One of the most interesting variations in character
of plant is a climbing currant reported from Chautauqua Co.,
N. Y.f The plant was found growing wild in a thicket when quite
young, and transferred to the garden. After its climbing propensity
became evident it was planted near the house and trained
against it, reaching a height of twelve feet or more. It proved to
be very productive, the fruit being of excellent quality. It is
really not a climber, but produces long and weak branches, which
may be secured to a trellis or wall. The fruit is large and red,
nearly or quite the size of Fay. (Fig. 67.)

Dana White. — A white variety raised in Massachusetts.
Bunches long and tapering, with berries as large as Varsaillaise,
resembling the White Grape in color and quality. Fuller says that
he obtained, from what he supposed to be a reliable source, five
distinct varieties under this name.

Dr. Brete. — A French variety imported and cultivated by Wil-
liam S. Carpenter. Spoken of as a prolific bearer, with a long
stem and short bunch. Fruit large, of excellent quality. Illus-
trated with a full page engraving in the Horticulturist for 1870,
p. 45.

Eclipse. — Received at the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment Station
from H. S. Anderson, of Union Springs, N. Y. Described as a
vigorous, upright grower, with bunches of medium length. Fruit
varying from small to large, comparatively mild, acid, of good
color, somewhat lighter than Fay.— Geneva (N. Y.) Exp. Sta.
Bull. 95 : 419.

Fay. — Said to be a seedling of Cherry or Victoria, which origi-
nated in 1868 with Lincoln Fay, in Chautauqua county, N. Y. It

"Horticulturist 1: 439.
tAmer. Garden 12: 575.

RED AN,D WHITM CURRANTS

381

was introduced about 1883, and became widely known and very
generally prized, although receiving adverse mention from some
quarters. Described as vigorous, though not as strong as Cherry,
somewhat spreading, with the lower branches often trailing on the
ground. Clusters long, with a good stem between the branch and
the fruit, making it easy to gather. Fruit varying from medium
to large, uniform in size, of good quality, darker than Eed Dutch.

* $S3^

Fig. 67. Climbing currant.

Pulp less acid than the Cherry. The comments on this variety,
made at different times and places, afford interesting reading.
Witness the following:

One of the few new fruits which justify the rosy promises of the advertiser.—
E. Williams, Garden and Forest, 1: 283. Additional commendation.— Ibid, 356.

More productive than other sorts, with fruit as large and as good, possessing
one fault, and that being that the plants tend to develop a trailing habit, the
lower branches lying on the ground, curling up at the end.— Ibid, 3: 405.

Gooxl size, but not productive enough in Indiana.— Ibid, 6:347.

No larger than Cherry and Versaillaise, less productive, and much inferior in
quality.— American Garden, 1888: 300.

382 BUSH-FRUITS

Has not been over-praised.— T. Greiuer, American Garden, 1889: 47.

Widely successful, but sometimes condemned.— T. H. Hoskins, Ibid, 212.

Fay, Red Dutch, and White Grape the only profitable ones.— Ibid, 294.

Not very satisfactory at Ithaca, N. Y.-Ibid, 310.

Good on light soil. Better with age.— Ibid, 349.

Largest and most prolific currant we have seen growing.— Pop. Gar., 11 : 36.

Somewhat deceiving. Has the largest berries, but these contain less pulp and
juice than other varieties, hence makes less jelly than smaller currants. Its size
largely due to seed development. Strong shoots from the bottom often become
loosened by wind or handling.— D. S. Marvin, American Garden, 11: 716.

The downward or spreading propensity is natural to this variety, and a decided
objection to it.— E. S. Carman. Amer. Gar., 13: 447.

One grower holds it up with sticks and slats.— Ibid, 687.

A general failure in Michigan. Occasional bushes do well in sheltered places
when protected from spring frosts.— Ibid, 378. (From Mich. Hort. Soc. Kept.)

The largest, finest and most prolific variety, but blooms too early and suckers
badly. The suckers brittle and easily broken.— 111. Hort. Soc. Kept., 1890: 146.

Claimed by the originator to be as large as Cherry, with a longer bunch, and
producing five times the amount of berries of the Cherry. Had measured berries
two inches in circumference.— la. Hort. Soc. Kept. 1880: 414.

John Burrows uprooted his plantation of Fays.— la. Hort. Soc. Kept, 1892: 75.

The leading favorite, and worthy of all that is said of it.— Annual Kept. Ge-
neva CN. Y.) Exp. Sta. 1880: 283.

Far ahead of Cherry on light soils, the latter nearly as good on heavy soils.—
Ibid. 1891: 472.

Especially liable to attacks of the Twig Borer.— T. T. Lyon, Mich. Expt. Sta.
Bull. 118:20.

Gloire de Sdblons. — Described as upright, vigorous, and only
moderately productive. Bunches short. Fruit small, white,
striped or splashed with red. Of interest chiefly on this account.

Gloucester Bed. Probably an English variety which may never
have been introduced in the United States. Described in Tilton's
Journal of Horticulture for 1871, p. 188.

Gondoin Red (Red Provence).— Said to have been named from
the town in France where it originated. Described as of good
size, red, later than Red Dutch. By some this is regarded as the
same as Red Provence, and is apparently mentioned by Prince
under this name in the Horticulturist, Vol. 2, p. 266. In the
Gardener's Monthly for 1876, p. 209, the editor, Thomas Meehan,
mentions Raby Castle, May's Victoria, and Imperiale Rouge as
synonyms.

Imperial Yellow (Imperial Jaune, White Imperial).— Said to be
practically identical with White Grape.

Knight Early Red.— A. variety originated by Thomas Andrew
Knight, of England.

Knight Large Red.— Another of Mr. Knight's seedlings. De-
scribed as large, bright red, with large bunches, and 'very pro-
ductive.

Knight Sweet Red. — Described as large, dark red, bunch long,
tapering. Similar in quality to the Red Dutch but less acid. A
vigorous, upright grower, with thick, dark green leaves.

RED AND WHITE CURRANTS 383

La Hative (Hative de Bertin, La Fertile) . — A French variety
mentioned by Downing as a failure. Described as vigorous and
productive, resembling the Cherry in fruit and cluster, but
smaller and not quite so acid. In the Gardener's Monthly for 1876,
p. 209, the editor, Thomas Meehan, gives this as a synonym of
Eed Dutch.

Lakewood. — A new red variety on trial in Michigan. Said to be
a good grower, but not productive. — Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. 118: 20.

London M arTcet.— Mentioned as an English variety imported in
1878. Described as having racemes of moderate length, thickly
set with large, light crimson berries, somewhat resembling Fay,
though more delicate in texture, with seeds large and numerous.
Firm, transparent, rather sharp acid. — U. S. Dept. Agr. Kept.
1891:395.

London Eed (Short -Bunched Red). — Described as vigorous,
upright, and very productive. Clusters with a very short stem.
Fruit medium to large, similar to Red Dutch in quality and color.—
Geneva (N. Y.) Exp. Sta. Bull. 95:418.

Long-Bunched Holland (Long-Bunched Red[?], Red Dutch
Long- Bunched [?]) . — A popular variety in many parts of the West.
Described as an upright grower, the young wood reddish in color ;
productive. Bunches long and full of fruit; ripening late, of
moderate size and fair quality, somewhat resembling Victoria.
Retains its foliage and fruit later in the season than most varieties.

Magnum Bonum. — Mentioned as a red variety, not particularly
distinct.— Horticulturist, 1854 : 11.

Marvin Seedling . — Received at the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment
Station from D. S. Marvin, of Watertown, N. Y. Described as a
moderately vigorous, upright grower. Bunches of medium length.
Fruit mild, larger than the White Grape, being one of the largest
of the white currants. Resembles White Grape in color, but more
acid. Controlled by J. C. Vaughan, of Chicago. — N. Y. Exp. Sta.
Bull. 95 : 427.

Mills No. 20.— On trial at the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment Sta-
tion. Received from Charles Mills, of Fairmount, N. Y. De-
scribed as vigorous, somewhat spreading. Bunches of medium
length. Fruit medium to large, rather uniform, color fine, later
than Cherry and darker than Prince Albert, less acid than Red
Dutch. Said to be a seedling of the Versaillaise crossed by Red
Dutch.— N. Y. Exp. Sta. Bull. 95:421.

Mills No. 22.— Qi the same origin and parentage as the above.
Described as moderately vigorous, somewhat spreading. Fruit of
good quality, later than Fay, variable in size, less acid than Red
Dutch.— Ibid.

384 BUSH-FRUITS

Mills No. 28. — Of the same origin and parentage as the pre-
ceding. Clusters of good size. Fruit of medium size, dark red,
mild flavor.— Ibid.

Mills No. %9. — Same origin and parentage. Described as vig-
orous and upright, with short clusters. Fruit variable, though
averaging large, somewhat darker, though better in color than No.
22 ; of good flavor and excellent quality.— Ibid.

North Star. — An accidental seedling, introduced by the Jewell
Nursery Company of Lake City, Minn. Described as vigorous,
upright, or somewhat spreading. Bunches of medium length.
Fruit of good color, much like Red Dutch, variable in size, com-
paratively mild acid. Reports as to its value vary much.

Palluau (Fertile de Palluau). — Mentioned by Downing and
Fuller as a French variety of vigorous, upright growth, and pro-
ductive. Fruit large, bright red, resembling Red Dutch. Thomas
Meehan* gives this as a synonym of Red Dutch.

Palmer Sweet E&d. — Mentioned in the Horticulturist for 1824,
p. 161, as a fine, long-bunched, large-berried variety of vigorous
growth, and productive.

Pitmaston Sweet Bed. — Mentioned in the same place as the
sweetest of all red currants, having short bunches, and small
fruit. Said to have been raised by Mr. Williams, of Pitmaston.

Pomona. — An Indiana variety, introduced by Albertson &
Hobbs, of Bridgeport, Indiana. Claimed to be more prolific,
with fewer seeds, and sweeter than any other currant ; clear,
bright red, about the size of Victoria, easily picked, and hangs
a long time on the bushes.

Prince Albert.— Described as vigorous, even more upright than
Red Dutch, and a very heavy yielder, though a weak grower when
young. Bunches short to medium. Fruit medium to large, rather
pale red, of poor quality, ripening late. One of the most profit-
able varieties, and popular at canneries. Said to retain its foliage
late like the Long-Bunched Holland.

Red Cross.— Received at the Geneva (N. Y.) Exp. Station from
Jacob Moore, of Attica, N. Y., who states that it is a cross be-
tween Cherry and White Grape. Described as vigorous and up-
right. Bunches of medium length. Fruit medium to large, of
good color, somewhat lighter than Cherry, milder, though more
acid than White Grape. Season somewhat later than Cherry.
Controlled by the Green Nursery Company of Rochester, N. Y.

Eed Dutch (Large -Bunched Red, Long -Bunched Red, Morgan's
Red, Groseillier Rouge a Grosse Fruit).— Meehan* also gives the

*Gar. Month. 1876: 209.

RED AND WHITE CURRANTS 385

following list as synonyms of this variety: Fertile, Fertile
d'Angleterre, Fertile de Palluau, Fertile de Bertin, La Hative,
Hative de Bertin, Bertin No. 9, Belle de St. Gilles, Chenonceaux,
Grosse Rouge de Boulogne, Queen Victoria, and Bed Grape. One
of the oldest and best known varieties. It is still retained by
some growers in the West, and perhaps elsewhere, as more valu-
able than any of its younger competitors. A strong grower,
rather tall, upright, with comparatively slender shoots, productive.
Fruit of fine color and sprightly flavor, but not large.

Bed Grape. — Mentioned by Fuller as having foliage not shining,
as with the Red Dutch.

Ruby. — Raised by Jacob Moore, the originator of the Brighton
Grape, from seed of the Cherry believed to have been crossed by
White Grape. Described as not equal to Versaillaise or Cherry in
size, but with larger bunches and better fruit; productive. Pro-
fessor Troop, of Indiana, reports it as decidedly the best currant
they have.

Select. — Said by T. T. Lyon to lack in vigor and productive-
ness.—Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. 118: 20.

Short- Bunched Red. — Mentioned by Downing as much like Red
Dutch, with shorter bunches.

Stewart ('s Seedling). — A Minnesota variety, mentioned as not
having received its share of notice. Said to be the handsomest in
bush and berry of any variety grown in that state. A vigorous,
upright grower, prolific and hardy. Fruit somewhat hidden by the
leaves, large, borne in good sized bunches, remaining a long time
after ripening without injury.— Ann. Rept. Minn. Exp. Sta.
1888:235.

Storrs fy Harrison Co.'s No. 1. — Received at the Geneva (N. Y.)
Experiment Station for trial from Storrs & Harrison Company.
Described as moderately vigorous, upright. Bunches of medium
size. Fruit small to medium, much like Red Dutch in color, but
less acid.— Bull. 95:422.

Striped Fruited (Silver Striped). — An old German variety.
Mentioned by Downing and Fuller as being distinctly striped, but
small, a poor bearer, and of no value except as a curiosity.

Transparent (Transparent White, Transparent Blanc). — A
French variety mentioned by Downing and Fuller. Said to be a
seedling of the White Grape, and to resemble that variety so
closely as to be practically identical.

Versaillaise (La) (Versailles, Macrocarpa, Fertile d'Angers,
La Caucase, Caucasian). Originated by M. Bertin, of Versailles,
from seed of the Cherry currant, and so similar to that variety
that it has frequently been confounded with it. As grown at the

386 B USE -PR UIT8

Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment Station, it is less productive than the
Cherry, with rather darker fruit, though generally regarded as
more productive. The tendency of the shoots to "go blind," that
is, to lack either the terminal buds or those near the tip, is said to
be less common with this variety than with the Cherry. This is
one of the best known market currants, and very generally prized.
E. P. Powell says* that the true Versaillaise is not unlike Fay in
size and color, a rather more upright grower, with a long, fine
stem, enormously productive. Flavor almost like Fay.

Victoria (May's Victoria, Goliath, Raby Castle, Red Grape,
Houghton Castle, Wilmot's Red Grape). Said to have been known
in Hexham and New Castle as the Houghton Castle currant. Sent
from there to Raby Castle, whence it was procured by Mr. May, of
Learning Lane, and advertised by him as May's Victoria. One of
the most reliable red currants known. Described as a very strong
grower, upright, very productive. Professor Beach sayst: "The
buds have a peculiar grayish color, quite characteristic of this
variety, as is also the cluster of well formed buds at the end of
the shoot." Foliage rather pale green. Fruit bright red, medium
or above in size, mildly acid, late in coloring, but will keep on
the bushes in good condition later than either Cherry or Red
Dutch. Less liable to attacks of the currant borer than most other
sorts. This variety, the Long- Bunched Holland and Prince Albert
seem to belong to a somewhat distinct class, being able to retain
their leaves and fruit better than most sorts.

Warner's Bed Grape, Warrior's Grape, — English varieties men-
tioned in Tilton's Journal of Horticulture, Vol. 9, p. 188. Per-
haps synonyms of other sorts.

White Dutch (White Crystal, White Clinton, Reeves' White,
Morgan's White, White Antwerp, White Leghorn, Clarke's Sweet,
White Holland, White Pearl). Very similar to Red Dutch in
habit. Bush vigorous, upright and productive. Fruit variable in
size, translucent, slightly darker than White Grape, mildly acid ;
quality excellent, very rich and sweet. A well known old sort.

White Grape (White Antwerp, Imperial White [?], Imperial
Blanc). — Probably the best known and finest white currant grown.
Described as moderately vigorous, rather slender, somewhat
spreading, productive. Bunches long, berries quite uniformly
large, translucent, whitish, -attractive, mild in flavor and of fine
quality. E. P. Powell says* that it was long before he secured
the genuine White Grape. This he considers to be absolutely the

*Gar. and Forest 7: 188.

tGeneva (N. Y.) Exp. Sta. Bull., 95: 424.

RED AND WHITE CURRANTS 387

finest white currant grown. The fruit is large, handsome, clear in
color, entirely unlike the creamy color of the more common so-
called white currants.

White Imperial. — A variety strongly recommended by S. D.
Willard, of Geneva, N. Y. Said to be by far the sweetest currant
known, the difference in that respect being like that of the sweet
and sour cherry. Clusters and berries of good size.

White Pearl. — Mentioned and described, in Hovey's Magazine,
Vol. 17, p. 217, as raised by Remi Wilquet near Brussels. Per-
haps not introduced in America. Fuller gives this name as a
synonym of White Dutch.

White Provence. — Mentioned by Downing, Prince, and Fuller.
Said to be a strong, upright variety, with leaves more or less
silvered at the edge. Fruit large, yellowish white. Not so pro-
ductive as White Grape, though one of the most vigorous white
varieties grown. •

White Versaillaise. — Said to have been raisen by M. Bertin, of
Versailles, France. At the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment Station it
is vigorous, upright, easily picked. Bunches long ; berries large,
slightly darker than White Grape.

Wilder.— A seedling of the Versaillaise which originated about
twenty years ago with E. Y. Teas, of Irvington, Ind., who named
and disseminated it to a limited extent. Later the stock was sold
to S. D. Willard, of Geneva, N. Y., who catalogued it as "Presi-
dent Wilder." Said by him to be the most productive currant
which he has tried. Described as vigorous, upright. Fruit large,
but not so uniform as Fay, of fine color, lighter than Fay, remain-
ing bright and attractive until very late in the season. Flavor
mild, quality good. Very promising, giving evidence of coming
to be a standard (Fig. 68).

Many of the varieties mentioned in this list doubt-
Jess should be placed as synonyms. Others may have
only received mention or have been little known in
the United States. No attempt has been made to in-
clude European varieties unless they are known to
have received attention here. The following were
mentioned as English varieties in Tilton's Journal
of Horticulture, Vol. 9, p. 220: Bang Down, Lander's
New Red, Great Eastern, and Garibaldi.

388

BUSH-FRUITS

b'ig. 68. Wilder. ("Natural size, medium cluster. )

EUROPEAN BLACK CURRANTS

(Eibes nigrum)

Baldwin. — Described as moderately vigorous and productive.
Fruit variable, averaging medium. Flavor milder than that of the
Common Black, ripening several days later.

Bang Up. — Mentioned by Downing as a variety similar, and in
no way superior, to the Black English.

Black Grape (Ogden's Black Grape) . — A vigorous grower, but
unproductive. Fruit variable, strong flavored.

Black Naples. — One of the best known English sorts. Vigor-
ous, moderately productive. Fruit variable, strong flavored.
Downing says it blooms earlier than the Common Black, but
ripens later (Fig. 69).

BLACK CURRANTS

389

Brown- Fruited (Green -Fruited, Russian Green). — An English
variety having the wood, foliage and growth of the Common
Black, with greenish brown fruit when ripe. Berries dry, hard,
rank flavored and worthless.

Champion. — Described as of dwarf, upright habit, fairly produc-

tive. Fruit of large size, borne in short clusters, mild flavored,
and more desirable than the Common Black.

Common Black (Black English). — Described as vigorous and
productive, of spreading habit. Fruit medium to large, the clus-
ters ripening evenly. Pulp rather acid and strong flavored.

Dwarf Rlack. — Mentioned in the Horticulturist for 1854, p. 162,
as of more dwarf habit than the other blacks, with bunch and
berry equal to Black Naples.

Lee (Lee's Prolific). — Bush dwarfish, moderately vigorous, pro-
ductive. Fruit rather brighter in color than most kinds, but not
much of an improvement, if any, over the Black Naples.

Prince of Wales. — Origin Ontario. Bush vigorous and produc-

390 BUSH-FRUITS

tive, giving the highest yield of all black currants at Geneva,
N. Y. Fruit variable in size, milder in flavor than the Common
Black, nearly sweet when fully ripe.

Saunders. —Originated by William Saunders, of Ontario. De-
scribed as vigorous and productive. Variable in size, rather mild.
Fairly well disseminated and promising in Canada. Another
variety originated by Professor Saunders, and received at the
Geneva (N. Y.) Exp. Station as Saunders's No. 2, is reported to
have little value.

t
THE GOLDEN OR BUFFALO CURRANT

(Ribes aureum)

Crandall. — The best known variety of this species at the present
time, although the plants sent out under that name differ so much
that they are supposed to have been only seedlings. Like the
forms found in unnumbered door-yards, and every where known
as the Flowering Currant, this is a tall, vigorous, upright bush.
Although apparently productive, the average yield per bush at the
Geneva (N. Y. ) Experiment Station for three years was less than
one pound. The fruit has a tough skin and such a pecuiiar flavor
that it is little prized.

Deseret. — Another named variety of this species. Mentioned by
Fuller, who says it is highly valued by the Mormons of Salt Lake
City, whence he received it.

Golden. — Apparently a variety of the western representative of
this species, Ribes tenuiflorum, since it is described by Fuller as
"large, round, deep golden yellow, very acid, and slightly bitter.
Flowers yellow. Of no value for its fruit, but might be improved.
Native of the Eocky Mountains and a variety of Ribes aureum."

Jetty. — Received at the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment Station
from R. H. Blair & Company, Kansas City, Mo., being selected
plants of this species obtained in western Kansas. Found to be of
larger size and more productive than Crandall.

This species has often been known under the name Missouri
Currant. It has also appeared at times under other names, such
as Utah, Utah Hybrid, etc.

THE AMERICAN BLACK CURRANT
(Ribes Americanum)

This species is almost unknown in cultivation, yet Fuller men-
tions one variety under the name Sweet-fruited Missouri, which
he describes as large, black, roundish ovoid. Bunches small,

VARIETIES TO PLANT 391

containing few berries of sweet, musky flavor. He says that it is
a slight improvement upon the common wild black currant, which
may be fonnd in almost any low, moist woods.

RECOMMENDED VARIETIES

For a general -purpose currant, the Victoria is prob-
ably most popular. The Red Dutch is too small,
but succeeds well on the Plains. Cherry and Versailles
are standard varieties for large size. Fay is to be
recommended when given extra good care. Prince Al-
bert is very productive, and excellent for jelly and can-
ning; very sour. Wilder is one of the most promising
recent varieties. White currants are little grown for
market. For dessert use, White Imperial is best, but
White Grape is the most popular variety.

Beach makes the following summary of varieties of
currants : *

"The yields of the red currants at this station that
are in full bearing may be compared by consulting the
following table, which shows the average yield per
plant in pounds for the last three seasons combined:

Average yield
Name per plant

Cherry 5.15

Fay 4.70

Gloire des Sablons 2.07

London Eed 7.14

Prince Albert 8.86

Victoria 6.25

"It appears from this table that for this locality, at

*Bull. 25, N. Y. State Exp. Sta.

392 BUSH-FRUITS

least, the Cherry is superior to Fay in productiveness,
and it still holds its place as one of the most desirable
of the large -fruited red currants for the commercial
grower. Fay yields the longer bunches, more uniformly
large fruit, and its fruit is more easily picked than
Cherry, but it does not make as satisfactory a bush nor
give as satisfactory a yield. Both these varieties need
to be marketed comparatively early. They will not
remain on the bushes in good condition for shipping as
late as will Victoria, Prince Albert or Wilder. As to
the comparative value of different varieties for jam and
jelly, Curtice Brothers Co., Rochester, N. Y., who
operate a very extensive establishment for preserving
and canning fruits, write us that Cherry currant is
preferred for jam because it is thin-skinned and juicy;
but not so for jelly making, for the reason that it is
necessary to evaporate away more of its juice to pro-
duce jelly than it is with some other varieties. The
currant that is preferable, they say, is the largest one
that has a thin skin and is filled with rich juice or pulp,
and they believe this is true of Fay and Prince Albert
above other varieties. London Red, also called Short
Bunched Red, is objectionable, on account of its
short clusters and fruit close to the wood, but has the
merit of being one of the most productive of the red
kinds that have been tested here. It ripens about with
Red Dutch. The Red Dutch was not included in the
above list, because the bushes under test were unsatis-
factory. It is one of the best of the mid -season, me-
dium-sized red currants. Prince Albert and Victoria
are both valued as productive late currants. The

VARIETY SUMMARY 393

former, when well grown, will pass for a large currant.
The fruit is paler and less attractive than Cherry.
Victoria is a good late currant, but it ranks only me-
dium in size. Prince Albert was the most productive
during the last three years of all the kinds thus far
tested, having an average yield during the last three
years of 8.86 pounds per bush. White Dutch was the
most productive of the white, and Prince of Wales the
most productive of the black kinds tested. Individual
varieties in the different classes vary much in produc-
tiveness, but the most productive black currants do not
equal in yield the most productive red or white kinds.
It is estimated that on account of their being less pro-
ductive, one would need to realize from one and a half
to two cents per pound more for the black as a class,
than for the red or white currants."

CHAPTER XT

VARIETIES OF GOOSEBERRIES

The gooseberries cultivated for fruit nearly all
belong to two closely related species, Ribes grossularia
of Europe and Ribes oxyacanthoides of North America.
These species are so much alike that if we were accus-
tomed to take a broader view of the plants of the world
and the influences which affect them, we might easily
consider them a single species, and their differences due
to climate and location rather than to inherent charac-
teristics. As elsewhere stated, the horticultural differ-
ences are more marked than the purely botanical dif-
ferences. The European species has been long in cul-
tivation and its fruit greatly improved, at least in size
and appearance, while the American, being young in
cultivation, is far behind in size, though superior in
quality. The English varieties all have a thick, rough
skin, that detracts from their value, and they are even
more sour than our own. The susceptibility of Eng-
lish varieties to mildew, which has been the chief
cause of their failure in the United States, is really
the most prominent distinction between the two spe-
cies at the present time. The European type is essen-
tially a stocky and close grower (Fig. 70), whereas
the American type is a slender and open grower
(Fig. 71).

(394)

Fig. 70. Industry, the European type.

Fig. 71. Pale Red, the American type.

396 BUSH-FRUITS

HISTORY AND FUTURE

Like the currant, the gooseberry appears not to have
been known to the ancients, and it is uncertain when
it first began to receive garden culture. Although long
common among the hedges and woods of England, it is
thought by most authors not to have been indigenous.
It is reported, as first mentioned by British authors,
about the beginning of the sixteenth century. Geo. W.
Johnson* states that Tusser, in his "Five Hundred
Points of Good Husbandry," published during 1557,
mentions the gooseberry as then among garden fruits.
Johnson's edition of Gerarde's Herbal, published in
1636, says: " There be divers sorts of the gooseberries,
some greater, others lesse; some round, others long,
and some of a red color. * * * The sorts of goose-
berries are these: the long greene, the great yellowish,
the blew, the great round red, the long red, and the
prickly gooseberry." The further statement is made
that "These plants doe grow in London gardens and
elsewhere in great abundance." Under the heading of
names, the statement is that "this shrub hath no name
among old Writers, who as we deeme knew it not, or else
esteemed it- not; the later writers call it in Latine,
Grossularia, and oftentimes of the berries, Uva Crispa,
Uva spina, TTva spinella, and Uva Crispina; in French,
Groiselles; in English, Gooseberry, Gooseberry bush
and Fea- berry bush in Cheshire, my native country."
This latter name was also known in other parts of Eng-
land, being abbreviated into Feabes or Fapes in some

*The Cucumber and Gooseberry, p. 103.

HISTORY OF THE GOOSEBERRY 397

localities. Most authors have thought that the name
gooseberry was derived from the fruit having been first
used as a sauce with "green goose." Others doubt this.
Geo. W. Johnson says:* "It is somewhat unfortunate
for this derivation that it has never been so used. It
seems to me more probable to be a corruption of the
Dutch name Kruisbes, or Gruisbes. Kruisbes, I be-
lieve, was derived from Kruis, the Cross, and Bes, as
Berry, because the fruit was ready for use just after
the Festival of the Invention of the Holy Cross; just
as Kruis-haring, in Dutch, is a herring caught after
the same festival. "t

Loudon states t that the first marked improvement
in size was made by the Dutch. But its present re-
markable development has been brought about largely
by the efforts of the Lancashire weavers. The pro-
duction of new varieties, and the increase in size, has
been greatly stimulated by the annual shows or " goose-
berry prize meetings," at which liberal prizes are offered
for the largest fruits. The results of these are pub-
lished in the Gooseberry Annual, now forming an ex-
tensive set. At the beginning of the century the
largest fruits seldom exceeded 10 dwts. in weight, but
in recent years they frequently exceed 30 dwts. Size
is not the only quality sought; some sorts are prized
for their flavor, some for their beauty, and others for
their productiveness. There is also a wide diversity
in the season of ripening among different sorts.

*1. c. 109.

tAn excellent early account of the gooseberries, with colored plates, is Thory's
"Monographic on histoire naturelle du genre Groseillier," Paris, 1829.— L. H. B.
t Arboretum et Fruiticetum, 2: 973.

398 BUSH-FRUITS

The history of the American gooseberry in cultiva-
tion began with the Houghton, which was raised from
seed of a wild plant by Abel Houghton, of Lynn,
Mass., in 1833. It is significant that the most reliable
American sort, and the one most generally cultivated at
the present time, is but one generation removed from
this, being a seedling of it.

What the gooseberry of the future will be no one
can say, but it is certain to be largely what we
make it. It seems safe to predict that it will not
come from England. Adaptability to climate, with
consequent resistance to disease, and quality of the
fruit, are in favor of American species. We have
given the gooseberry too little attention, and much of
that has been on the wrong basis in trying to develop
seedlings of the English varieties. The gooseberry as
now grown is objectionable on account of its thorns.
Yet there are forms comparatively free from these
uncomfortable additions, and careful, persuasive treat-
ment ought to induce the plants to relinquish them
altogether. An English variety has been recently
introduced which is said to be thornless. The fruit
of our species is, in most cases, perfectly smooth,
while that of the English gooseberry is roughly
pubescent, if not hairy or prickly also.

There are at least three other species, Ribes Cynos-
bati, R. rotimdifolium and R. gracile, which might well
receive attention in the way of selection and crossing,
with a view to future development. All have good
points to recommend them. The fruit of Ribes Cynos-
bati is commonly much larger than that of R. oxya-

VARIETIES OF GOOSEBERRIES 399

canthoides, in the wild state, and while generally
prickly, is often smooth. The fruit of R. rotundi-
folium is small but agreeable, and the plants are very
productive, while R. gracile is found all over the Plains,
and is, therefore, well adapted to that region.

AMERICAN GOOSEBERRIES

Chiefly Ribes oxyacanthoides

The American varieties have vigor, hardiness, ease
of propagation, and superior quality to recommend
them, being inferior only in size, which must steadily
improve as selection and breeding go on.

Apex.— A variety from Oregon. Said to be a native seedling,
though somewhat resembling the European type in growth and
general appearance.— T. T. Lyon, Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. 118:23.

Champion. — Said to have originated with O. Dickinson, Salem,
Oregon. Plant upright, prolific. Fruit large, uniform, transparent,
with tender skin. Said to endure neglect well, and to be an excel-
lent shipper. Popular in Indiana.

Downing. — The great American gooseberry. More widely grown
and more generally prized than any other known sort. Originated
by Charles Downing at Newburg, N. Y., from seed of the Hough-
ton. Pure seedlings of this variety grown at the Geneva (N. Y.)
Experiment Station, while not generally closely resembling the
parent, seem, in some cases, to indicate a mixture of foreign blood,
so that Professor Beach is led to consider this a hybrid between
the American and European gooseberry. Downing describes it as
upright, vigorous and productive. Fruit somewhat larger than
Houghton, roundish oval, whitish green, with the rib-veins dis-
tinct. Skin smooth ; flesh rather soft, juicy, very good. Excel-
lent for family use. It has seldom mildewed in the United States,
and succeeds over a wide area. Houghton is said to be sometimes
sold for this variety because more easily propagated. The fruit
must be picked very soon after reaching full size, for it ripens
quickly and becomes too soft for handling or shipment. In quality
it is superior to the European varieties, and surpassed by few, if
any, native sorts.

400 B USH-FR UITS

Excelsior. — Received at the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment Station
from J. H. Haynes, of Delphi, Indiana, with whom it originated.
A strong grower ; fruit light green, roundish, smooth.

Hobbs Seedling.— A variety mentioned by Downing. Thought
to have been originated by O. J. Hobbs, of Randolph, Pa. De-
scribed as light pale green, roundish, slightly oval, of medium
firmness, a good keeper, and nearly one -half larger than Hough -
ton.

Houghton.— Grown from seed in 1833 by Abel Houghton, of
Lynn, Mass., who planted Crown Bob, White Smith, White Rock
and Red Champion, with a native plant from the woods in the cen-
ter. One plant only was saved, the Houghton. This was the first
American variety introduced, and is still one of the best flavored,
most hardy and productive, though too small. It is generally re-
garded as a pure native, but the account of its origin, and experi-
ments made at Geneva, N Y. , by growing seedlings from two of
its seedlings, Smith and Downing, indicate that it is a hybrid be-
tween the American and European species. The bush is rather
slender and drooping in habit. The fruit small, handsome, dark
red, with a whitish bloom, thin skinned, smooth, juicy, sweet, and
of excellent quality.

Hudson. — Raised by Joseph H. Ricketts, and said to be of fine
quality, larger than Downing, free from mildew. Its style of
growth and freedom from mildew led him to think it was an
American or a cross-bred variety. Foliage thick and glossy, but
liable to drop some before the fruit is past. Hard to propagate. —
Gar. Month. 1880:303.

Jewett. — Received at the United States Division of Pomology
from George H. Andrews, Clarkson, N. Y. A chance seedling
found in a pasture. Described as large, oblong, whitish green,
changing to blotched and stippled red. Seeds numerous, large,
light brown. Flesh purplish. Pulp moderately firm, juicy, sub-
acid, rich ; season early. — Report of the United States Pomologist
1894:27.

Orange (Engle's Yellow ?).— Said to ripen seven to ten days
earlier than other sorts. Described as a strong grower on almost
any soil, but needs heavy pruning. A good bearer. Fruit about
the size of Houghton, rich golden yellow, fine flavored and very
sweet.

Pale Red (American Red, American Seedling, Robert's Sweet-
water, Ohio Seedling, Dutch Joe, Ohio Prolific, St. Clair [Ameri-
can] Cluster.) — A variety of unknown origin which has long been
in cultivation. Frequently known as Cluster or American Cluster.
It appears to be of pure Ribes oxyacanthoides parentage. The
bush is a strong grower, with slender wood, very productive.

AMERICAN GOOSEBERRIES 401

Fruit small or medium, darker in color than Houghton, tender,
sweet and good. One of the oldest cultivated varieties.

Pearl. — Originated with Professor William Saunders, of Lon-
don, Ont., who gives its parentage as Downing crossed with an
English variety known as Aston 's Seedling. This latter name,
however, appears to be a synonym of Red Warrington. The
variety resembles Downing so closely, both in bush and fruit, as
to be practically indistinguishable, although at Geneva, N. Y., it
has proved less productive.

Red Jacket.— A. variety originated more than twenty years ago
by Professor William Saunders, of London, Ont. Named and
introduced by George S. Josselyn, of Fredonia, N. Y., who thinks
that it was a seedling of Houghton crossed by Red Warrington,
which would make it a hybrid between Ribes oxyacanthoides and
Ribes Grossularia. It is a strong grower and productive, somewhat
larger and a better shipper than the Pearl, though not quite so
good a cropper, The fruit is large, roundish or elongated, reddish
green shading into red, smooth, quite transparent when ripe ; skin
rather tender. Flesh juicy, rich, fragrant, of good quality.

Smith.— Originated by Dr. Smith, of Windsor, Vt., from seed
of the Houghton. Professor Beach, of Geneva, N. Y., says* that,
like that variety, it shows indications of being a hybrid between
the American and European species. Seedlings of Smith crossed
with Pale Red, which is thought to be a pure American variety,
have occasionally shown marked European characteristics, while
none of the pure seedlings of Pale Red have ever given such
indications . It is described as a vigorous grower, with somewhat
curving canes and slender branches. Foliage firmer and more
leathery than that of Downing, with a more glossy surface. Fruit
dull, pale green, sometimes spotted with red, and having a light
bloom. Skin smooth, thin. Pulp sweet and good.

Strubler. — Seedlings originated by Phil. Strubler, of Naperville,
111., have been sent out under this name, with different numbers
attached. Nearly all of them are seedlings of Downing or Smith.
They are described by Professor Beach, in Bull. 114 of the Geneva
(N. Y. ) Experiment Station, and have also been mentioned in re-
ports of the United States Pomologist.

Tree. — A variety mentioned by T. T. Lyon, in Mich. Exp. Sta.
Bull. 118:23, as apparently a native. Vigorous, healthy, with red
fruit.

Victoria. — Mentioned in the Gardener's Monthly for 1870, p.
156, as a small, smooth variety. Thorns not numerous, but sharp,

*Bull. 114:19.

402 BUSH-FRUITS

inclined to bend over. This description would seem to indicate
an American variety.

HYBRIDS OR UNCLASSED VARIETIES

Cedar HilL—A. variety mentioned in the report of the U. S.
Pomologist for 1891, p. 394, as received from Dr. A. W. Thornton,
West Ferndale, Washington, with whom it originated. Described
as a large, oval berry, with long, adhering flower parts, and a few
scattering prickles. Skin thin. Pulp quite rich. Said by its
originator to be an upright grower, of good size, very prolific, as
much so as Champion or Houghton. Perfectly mildew proof in
Washington. The clause "with long, adherent flower parts, and a
few scattering prickles" would seem to indicate that this may be a
seedling of some western species.

Crystal. — Received at the Geneva (N. Y. ) Experiment Station
from J. M. Ogle, of Puyallup, Wash. Professor Beach says* that
this variety appears to be a hybrid between the European goose-
berry and some American species, possibly Biles Cynosbati, its
European parentage being indicated by the general appearance
and character of the fruit, which is pubescent, like the European
varieties. Its canes, however, are tall and slender, and the leaves
thin, the buds, too, being shorter than those of Ribes Grossularia.
He reports it as the most productive variety on their grounds dur-
ing a period of four years, but hardly desirable, owing to its dull
green color and poor flavor. The fruit is slightly larger than
Downing, but rather soft when ripe.

Hale Golden. — Mentioned in The Rural New-Yorker, 1897, p.
646, as on trial at the Rural grounds.

Mountain. — A variety which originated with the Shakers, of
Lebanon, N. Y. Bush tall and productive, with slender, sprawl-
ing branches, which need close pruning. Fruit dull, brownish
purple, somewhat larger than Downing, oblong, smooth, with a
thick skin, moderately juicy and sweet. Professor S. A. Beach
saysf that this variety is of special interest, as being the only
known representative of Ribes Cynosbati which has found its way
into cultivation, being clearly a hybrid between this and a Euro-
pean species. The long, slender, solitary spines, the tall canes,
sprawling branches, dull brown purplish color of the fruit, and
the very dark green pulp are like Cynosbati, as are also the beauti-
ful brown and red color of its autumn foliage which is quite unlike
the yellow or occasional brown tints of the European kinds. The

*Geneva (N. Y.) Exp. Sta. Bull. 114:16.
tGeneva (N. Y.) Exp. Sta. Bull. 114:18.

ENGLISH GOOSEBERRIES 403

fruit is very large for an American variety, and its thick, smooth
skin indicates foreign parentage, the fruit of Cynosbati having a
thin skin usually beset with prickles The glossy upper surface,
and somewhat leathery texture of the foliage, and comparative
short, thick, buds are also inherited from the European parent,
Cynosbati having slender buds, with soft, pubescent leaves, neither
leathery nor glossy.

Newell Seedling. — A variety mentioned in the Report of the
Illinois Horticulture Society for 1890, p. 59, as on exhibition in a
preserving solution. Said to be large, of fine appearance, hardy,
and free from mildew. Nothing is given which would indicate its
parentage.

Oregon Jumbo. — A variety offered by the J. T. Lovett Company,
of New Jersey, and described as "monstrous, and excelling all
others. Superb in appearance and flavor. Vigorous, productive,
hardy, and reliable. Fruit smooth, pale green, of high quality."
This description does not make clear its parentage.

Stein. — Mentioned in The Rural New-Yorker, 1897, p. 646, as "a
cross between Houghton and an old German variety."

ENGLISH GOOSEBERRIES

Eibes Grossularia

The subjoined list includes only those English va-
rieties which are, or have been, most prominently
known in the United States, following chiefly those
which are mentioned by Professor S. A. Beach, of
the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment Station, in his Bull-
etin No. 114, as most promising. Gooseberries, and
especially the English varieties, have received much
attention at this station. The opinions of Professor
Beach are, therefore, worthy of especial considera-
tion. Lindley's "Guide to the Orchard," published in
1830, enumerates nearly one thousand varieties, and
many more have been produced since then. Some of
these have found their way across the water and have
appeared in the United States, usually only to sue-

404

BUSH-FRUITS

cumb to that inveterate enemy, mildew, and pass into
oblivion. To attempt to describe all these varieties
would be as futile as useless.

Blucher. — Grown at the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment Station,
and described as very large, dark red, oblong or roundish oblong,
nearly smooth,* with thin skin, sweet, of very good flavor. Bush

l^Sff^ff i

Fig. 72. Chautauqua gooseberry

a strong grower, apparently productive, with but little mildew.
Worthy of trial.

Chautauqua. — Introduced by Lewis Roesch of Fredonia, N. Y.,
being a chance seedling found in a garden in Dunkirk, N. Y.
Said to be a vigorous grower and generally healthy, though some-
times mildewing. Fruit large, roundish oblong, smooth, pale
green, of best quality. A promising variety for home use, though
somewhat lacking in productiveness (Fig. 72).

*The term "smooth," as used in describing English gooseberries, should be
understood to mean free from hairs, for the skin of these varieties has a
roughness to the touch quite different from that of the American varieties.

ENGLISH GOOSEBERRIES

405

Fig. 73. Columbus gooseberry.

Columbus. — Introduced by Ellwanger & Barry, of Rochester,
N. Y. A strong grower, comparatively free from mildew. Fruit
large, oblong or roundish oblong, white or greenish yellow, sweet,
of best quality. Possibly the same as Triumph (Fig. 73).

Crown Bob. — A variety long known in England as desirable
either for home use or market. Bush dwarfish, but vigorous and
productive. Fruit medium to large, nearly round, dark red,
nearly smooth, almost sweet, of good quality, similar to Industry
in color, but somewhat smaller ; quite subject to mildew, less

406 BUSH-FRUITS

vigorous and less productive than Industry. It was figured in
Volume I of the HorHculturist, p. 449.

Dominion.— Received at the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment Sta-
tion from E. C. Pierson of Waterloo, N. Y. Described as vigor-
ous and promising. Fruit large, pale greenish white, nearly
transparent, with a thin skin for fruit of this class, sweet, and
of good quality.

Excellent.— Promising at the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment Sta-
tion. A strong grower, somewhat subject to mildew. Fruit
medium to large, round and nearly smooth, light red, sweet,
very good.

Frontenac.— Received at the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment Sta-

* tion from H. S. Anderson, of Union Springs,

• N. Y. Said to be a strong grower. Fruit

m large, oblong, smooth, pale green, sweet,

good.
i)^»|^^ Gracilla. — Mentioned in The Rural New-

Yorker, 1897, p. 646, as a promising variety
ish

of the English type received from L. H.
Hoysradt, Pine Plains, N. Y., in the spring
of 1895.

Hedgehog (Improved Early).— A vigorous
grower, productive, comparatively free from
mildew. Fruit below medium size, nearly
round, somewhat hairy, yellowish green,
sweet, of fair quality.

Huntsman.— Said to be a strong grower,

™. 7,^7^ and apparently productive, comparatively

free from mildew. Fruit medium to large,
oblong, smooth, pale green, sweet, good.

Industry (Whinham's Industry) . — One of the best known and
generally successful European varieties. Vigorous, productive,
somewhat subject to mildew. Fruit medium to large, varying
from pear shape to roundish oblong, smooth, or with very few
minute prickles, dark red, mild subacid or sweet, of good flavor.
Said to be very hard to propagate in the United States. George
S. Josselyn says:* "All the Industry plants I have ever seen were
started in Europe." This, he thinks, is a strong indication that
it is not adapted to our climate. (Fig. 74.)

Jolly Angler. — Vigorous, and apparently productive. Fruit
medium to large, oblong or roundish oblong, smooth, light green,
sweet, good.

*The Rural New-Yorker, 1896:575.

ENGLISH GOOSEBERRIES 407

Keepsake. — A strong grower, promising to be productive, some-
what subject to mildew. Fruit medium or above, nearly round,
smooth, greenish white, sweet or nearly so, very good.

Lady Popham. — A moderate grower, productive, comparatively
free from mildew. Fruit medium to large, oblong, smooth, yellow,
very sweet, good. A good variety for exhibition purposes.

Lancashire Lad. — A strong grower, comparatively free from
mildew. Fruit medium to large, nearly round, dark red, almost
wine color, slightly hairy, of good quality, subacid or nearly sweet.

Leveller. — A moderate grower, mildewing but slightly, and
promising to be productive. Fruit medium to large, oblong,
smooth, yellowish, slightly acid, good.

Lord Beaconsfield. — A good grower, promising to be productive,
somewhat subject to mildew. Fruit below medium size, nearly
round, green, smooth, sweet and good.

Matchless.— A strong grower, promising to be productive, mil-
dewing but slightly. Fruit large, oblong, green, slightly hairy,
sweet, very good.

Portage.— A variety received at the United States Division of
Pomology from A. H. House, Mantua Station, Ohio. Described in
the report for 1891, p. 395. Also described, and illustrated by a
colored plate, in the report for 1894. Said to be a chance seedling
found in 1874. Fruit solitary, evenly distributed, large to very
large, oblong oval ; surface moderately smooth, dull, slightly
downy, with an occasional prickle. Color yellowish green, with
bronze dots near stem, and a long suture on some specimens.
Flesh translucent, greenish, quite firm ; pulp melting, moderately
juicy. A good shipper. Flavor mild subacid, rich, quality good.

Puyallup (Puyallup Mammoth). — The original bush is said to
have been dug in 1881, at an old Indian camp on the bank of the
Puyallup River, one mile below the town of that name, by W. M.
Lee and his wife, of Tacoma, Wash. Introduced by J. M. Ogle, in
1887. Said to be a fairly strong grower, rather late in ripening.
Fruit large, pale green, smooth, sweet, of good quality. Men-
tioned in the Report of the U. S. Pomologist for 1891, p. 395, as
apparently identical with Triumph, but Prefessor Beach considers
this an error.

Queen of the Whites.— A. strong grower, comparatively free from
mildew. Fruit of medium size, nearly round, smooth, pale yellow-
ish green, sweet, good.

Red Champagne.— A strong grower, comparatively free from
mildew. Fruit small to medium, nearly round, slightly hairy,
dark red, sweet, and good. This variety was recommended by the
American Pomological Society in 1850.

408 BUSH-FRUITS

Red Jacket. — An English variety, entirely distinct from the
American Red Jacket. Not a strong 'grower, but promising to be
productive and comparatively free from mildew. Fruit large to
very large, and often narrowed toward the stem.

Red Warrington (Aston Seedling). — A strong grower, compara-
tively free from mildew. Fruit medium to large, oblong, delicate
pale red, hairy, sweet, of best quality. Recommended by the
American Pomological Society in 1850. Also mentioned in the
Horticulturist, Vol. II, p. 341, as the best kind, both in Canada and
in England. Said to ripen late and to hang long on the bushes
without injury.

Smiling Beauty. — A good grower. Fruit medium to large,
nearly round, greenish yellow, sweet, of best quality.

Spineless. Recently introduced in the United States, by C.
H. Joosten, of New York City. It is figured in the Gardener's
Chronicle for July 27, 1895, which says : "They are spineless
varieties obtained from seed. The first spineless gooseberry,
according to the Revue Horticole, 1892:180, was obtained as a
chance seedling by M. Billard about 1860. About 1884, M. Ed.
Lefort sowed the seeds of this variety, from which he obtained a
race of spineless varieties, several of which are described in the
Revue Horticole, as above cited. The^variety we figure is a dwarf
form, very productive, and with fruit of good flavor. It is the
form described and figured by M. Carriere and Madame Edouard
Lefort. The varieties are grafted upon Ribes aureum, but the
scions soon become free." Whether this desirable novelty will
achieve any degree of success in the United States remains to be
seen.

Stockwell. — A moderate grower. Fruit medium to large, oblong,
smooth, light green, sweet, good.

Succeed. — A fair grower, promising to be productive, and com-
paratively free from mildew. Fruit medium to large, oblong,
smooth, yellowish green, sweet, good.

Sulphur (Early Sulphur,).— A strong grower, comparatively free
from mildew. Fruit of medium size, round, nearly smooth, fine
yellow color, sweet, good. Placed on the list of the American
Pomological Society in 1850.

Sunset. — A strong grower, comparatively free from mildew.
Fruit medium to large, oblong, nearly smooth, yellowish green,
sweet, of best quality.

Tally Ho.— A strong grower, comparatively free from mildew.
Fruit medium to large, pear-shaped, pale green, nearly smooth,
sweet, good.

ENGLISH GOOSEBERRIES

409

Thumper —A moderate grower, promising to be very produc-
tive. Fruit medium to large, oblong, smooth, light green, sweet,
good.

Triumph. — A strong grower, comparatively free from mildew,
productive. Fruit large, oblong or roundish, pale yellow, sweet,
smooth, good. This variety has received strong commendation
from various sources. Mentioned at the meeting of the Western
New York Horticultural Society in 1892, as very promising, a
stronger grower than Industry and equally productive. In the

Fig. 75. Whitesmith.

report of .the American Pomological Society for 1889, p. 120, E.
Williams says that it is a great improvement on any other variety
that will grow in our climate.

Wellington Glory.— The most productive European gooseberry
grown at the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment Station. A strong
grower, comparatively free from mildew. Fruit attractive in ap-
pearance, medium to large, oblong, smooth, with slight bloom,
pale yellow, nearly white, sweet, of very good quality.

White Eagle.— Bush a moderate grower, promising to be pro-
ductive. Fruit medium to large, oblong, pear-shaped, smooth,
greenish wrhite, sweet, good. This variety was exhibited before
the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society in 1853.

Whitesmith (Woodward's).— A strong grower, somewhat sub-
ject to mildew, productive. Fruit medium to large, nearly round,

410 BUSH-FRUITS

smooth. Skin thin and tender for an English sort, pale yellowish
green. Pulp sweet, very good. This variety has been long known
in the United States. It was recommended both by the New York
Agricultural Society and the American Pomological Society in
1850. It was figured in the Horticulturist, Vol. I, p. 448, where it
is said to be quite as good among the whites as Crown Bob among
the reds (Fig. 75).

ENGLISH VARIETIES MENTIONED, BUT LITTLE KNOWN
IN THE UNITED STATES

The following varieties, though for the most part
little known in the United States, have received men-
tion in American literature, and have doubtless all
been grown here at one time or another. Both Down-
ing and Fuller mention additional varieties of promise
which had apparently not been tried on this side the
water. No doubt others, not included in this or the
preceding list, have also been brought to America
without attracting general attention:

B. Atlas (Hort. 2:410), Bendelon (Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. 118:
22), Bennet's Eureka (Rept. U. S. Pomologist, 1891:394), Bobby
(on sale by Fred. E. Young, Rochester, N. Y.), Companion (Hort.
1854:142), Conqueror (Fuller, Small-Fruit Culturist, p. 223), Dr.
Woolley (for sale by Fred. E. Young, Rochester, N. Y.), Early
Kent (Gar. Month. 1875:207), Echo (Hort. 1854:142), Green
Globe (Fuller), Green Willow (Hort. 1854:142), Hunt's Tawny
(Fuller), Irish (E. P. Powell's best gooseberry for 60 years.— Gar.
and For. 7:278), Jolly Printer (Hort. 2:410), Large Crystal
(Fuller), Late Emerald (Gar. Month. 1877: 275.— Roe, Success
with Small Fruits), Red Walnut (Fuller), Roe's Seedling (Gar.
Month. 1876:240.— 1877:274), Royal George (Fuller), Royal Sov-
ereign (Fuller), Westerman's Favorite (Gar. Month. 1869:271),
White Dutch (Fuller), White Walnut (Fuller), Yellow Amber
(Recommended by B. G. Smith as one of four best English
varieties. —Mass. Hort. Soc. Rept. 1883: [Parti] 125).

Described by Downing, Fruits and Fruit Trees of America. —
Bonny Lass, Bright Venus, British Crown, Bunker Hill, Cheshire

ENGLISH GOOSEBERRIES 411

Lass, Duck Wing, Early Green Hairy, Glenton Green, Golden
Drop, Golden Fleece, Golden Gourd, Green Gage (Amer. Pom. Soc.
List, 1850; Hov. Mag. 16:305; Fuller), Green Laurel (Amer. Pom.
Soc. List, 1850; Hov. Mag. 16:305), Green Ocean, Green Prolific,
Green Walnut (Fuller; recommended by N. Y. Agr. Soc.; also
by Amer. Pom. Soc. in 1850), Greenwood, Heart of Oak, Jolly
Tar, Keen Seedling, Lady of the Manor (Hov. Mag. 16: 427), Miss
Bold, Rifleman, Roaring Lion ( exhibited before the Massachusetts
and Buffalo Horticultural Societies in 1852, and before the Penn-
sylvania Horticultural Society in 1853; Hov. Mag. 1852:41, 519.—
1853:378), Rockwood, Sheba Queen (Hov. Mag. 16:427), Top
Sawyer, Viper, White Honey, White Lion, Yellow Ball, Yellow
Champagne (Fuller).

Grown at the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment Station. — Described in Bul-
letin 114. — Alderman, Alice, Antagonist, Apology, Auburn (Mich.
Exp. Sta. Bull. 118:22), Beauty, Berry Early Kent, Bollin Hall,
British Queen, Briton, Broom Girl, Bull Dog, Bury Lane, Candi-
date, Careless, Catherine, Cheerful, Clayton, Countess of Ams-
dale, Crank, Cremore, Criterion, Cypress, Dagwell No. 1, Dan's
Mistake, Diadem, Drill, Du'ck Wing, Duke of Sutherland, Duster,
Faithful, Falstaff, Fascination, Flextonia, Flora, Forester, Fo-
worius, Foxhunter, Freedom, Galopin, Garibaldi, General, George
Ridley, Gipsy Queen, Golborne, Golden Drop, Golden Prolific
(Pop. Gar. 4:166), Governor, Great Rock, Greenock, Green Wal-
nut (Fuller; recommended by N. Y. Agr. Soc.; also by Amer.
Pom. Soc. in 1850), Gretna Green, Harriet, Helpmate, Hereof the
Nile, Highlander, High Sheriff, Hit or Miss, Hue and Cry, Iron-
monger (Fuller; Amer. Pom. Soc. List 1850; Hov. Mag. 16:305),
Italy, Jem Mace, Jerry, Jessie, John Anderson, John Hall, Jolly
Sailor, Keen Seedling, King of Triumphs, Lady Houghton, Lady
Stanley, Largo, Lavinia, Leader, Leviathan, Lion's Provider, Liz-
zard, London, Long Barney, Lord Leigh, Lord Rancliffe, Lord
Scarborough, Lowton, Major Hibbert, Marlboro, Mary Ann, Miss
Chester, Mitchell, Mitre, Monarch, Monument, Mount Pleasant,
Mrs. Bowcock, Mrs. Whittaker, Nailor, Nancy, Napoleon le Grand,
Nottingham, Overseer, Overall, Peru, Peto, Pilot, Plowboy, Post-
man, President, Pretender, Priscilla, Queen Anne, Queen of Tri-
umphs, Queen Victoria, Red Robin, Ringer, Roaring Lion (exhib-
ited before the Massachusetts and Buffalo Horticultural Societies
in 1852, and before the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society in 1853;
Hov. May. 1852:41, 519—1853:378), Rough Red, Rover, Rumbul-
lion, Shiner, Sir George Brown, Slaughterman, Snowdrop, Speed-
well, Sportsman, Stella, Telegraph, Thatcher, Thomas Williams,
Thompson Seedling, Tichborne, Transparent, Try Me Oh, Unity,
Veteran, Village Green, Viper, Visit, Wakeful, Watson, Weather-
cock, White Hare, William Watson, Wonderful, Yaxley Hero.

412 BUSH-FRUITS

RECOMMENDED VARIETIES

The Downing is the one gooseberry to be generally
recommended at the present time. Houghton may be
able to endure more trying conditions, and is often more
productive, but is smaller.

The English varieties are to be recommended only to
those who are willing to inaugurate a vigorous spraying
campaign against the mildew. To such the Industry,
Wellington Glory, Columbus and Chautauqua are
worthy of consideration.

Beach makes the following summary remarks about
varieties of gooseberries:* "So far as we are able to
judge at present, Industry, Crown Bob and Lancashire
Lad are among the best of the large European kinds to
grow for marketing green fruit. Wellington Glory has
made an excellent record here, and Whitesmith is also
generally considered good and productive, but has not
done as well as Wellington Glory. Among the Ameri-
can-grown seedlings of the European class which have
been fruited here, Dominion and Triumph deserve
especial mention as worthy of extended trial. The best
of the American class of gooseberries are unexcelled in
flavor, quality, hardiness and productiveness. They do
not have the objectionable thick, tough skin which is
common to varieties of the European class, but are
inferior to them in size. Downing has long been con-
sidered the standard of excellence in the American
class. Among the recently introduced varieties of this

*Bull. 114, N. Y. State Exp. Sta.

ORNAMENTAL GROSELLES 413

class, the American Red Jacket, Champion and Pearl
deserve especial mention."

ORNAMENTAL CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES

The best known species in this role is the Flowering
Currant, Ribes aureum (known also as R. fragrans) ,
so common in eastern gardens. This is a most attrac-
tive plant early in spring. It forms a graceful, droop-
ing shrub, well adapted to masses or groups. In the
early months of summer few plants are more attractive
than this, regardless of its bloom, for its foliage is
bright and glossy, and the form of the plant perfect.
Yet before the middle of August its leaves are mostly
gone. Were it not for this defect, few plants would
deserve a higher rank for ornament.

The most showy plant of the genus is the Fuchsia-
flowered Gooseberry, Ribes speciosum, of the Pacific
coast. Its flowers are long, bright red and showy, and
its foliage small, firm and glossy. Whether good
in habit of plant or not, I do not know, nor whether it
will thrive well outside the clime of its choice, but its
flowers are certainly more attractive than those of many
plants far more widely grown for the beauty of their
bloom.

A plant which has received much more attention for
its flowering qualities is the Red -flowered Currant,
Ribes sanguineum. It has been frequently grown both
in the United States and in Europe, and seems to be
everywhere prized. The flowers are rose- colored or
reddish purple, borne in long, leafless racemes and

414 BUSH-FRUITS

produced in great profusion. Unfortunately, it is
not entirely hardy in the northern states, needing some
protection, which the beauty of its bloom will well
repay.

A hardier plant is the hybrid between the preceding
species and Ribes aureum, which is commonly known
under the name Ribes Gordonianum. This is not so
hardy as Ribes aureum, but will stand more exposure
than Ribes sanguineum. It is intermediate in character
between the two parents, resembling R. sanguineum in
shape of flower, though the flowers are lighter in color
and nearly odorless, while the character of bush is
more like R. aureum. Although not a common plant,
it has been well known, both here and abroad, and fre-
quently mentioned in horticultural literature.

Several species of the Menziesii group have large,
attractive flowers, particularly R. amictum, and R. Cali-
fornicum ; also, R. Lobbii. Whether they would prove
attractive in habit of plant and sufficiently well adapted
to cultivation to give them value, I am unable to say.

The common gooseberries may well play a part in
systematic ornamental planting for the production of
easy and graceful spring effects. Were it not for the
habit of early losing their leaves, there would be few
plants more useful. R. oxyacanthoides and R. gracile
are especially desirable.

The native black currant, Ribes Americanum, also
forms a pretty and graceful shrub, and its flowers are
large enough to add to its beauty.

CHAPTER XVI

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GROSELLES

Like all other economic plants, the groselles are
subject to attack from insects of divers character,
appearance, and habits. Some only take a passing
bite, like the schoolboy who devours beech leaves,
"sweetbrier," birch, etc., to appease his ceaseless crav-
ings in the long hours from meal to meal. Others,
indifferently feeding upon whatever plant is available,
may at times eat more than we wish. Still others, on
evil bent, assiduously seek out our cherished bushes
and settle down to a steady diet of groselles with all
the persistence characteristic of their race. The list
immediately following comprises those most likely to
work serious injury.

THE LEADING PESTS

THE FOUR- LINED LEAF-BUG
Pcecilocapsus lineatus (Fabr.). -Order Hemiptera. Family Capsidre.

Lintner, N. Y. Rep. 1: 271. Saunders, Ins. Inj. to Fruits, 350 (2nd edition).
Cook, Bull. Mich. Exp. Sta. 76 : 10. Slingerland, Bull. Cornell Exp.
Sta. 58: 207-239. Pcecilocapsus 4-vittatiis (Say). Riley, Bull, U. S. Div.
Ent. 13:7. Webster, Bull. U. S. Div. Ent. 13 : 54. For complete synon-
ymy, see Slingerland, 1. c.

This is a native insect which was first described by Fabricius
in 1798. It came into notice as injurious to dahlias, currants and
other plants seon ajfter the middle of the present century, and has
never ceased its evil ways from that day to this. Its food plants
embrace esculent and ornamental plants and a few weeds.

(415)

416 BUSH-FRUITS

The insect appears about the middle of May in northern lati-
tudes, and takes up its abode on the tenderest leaves at the tip of
the twigs. It is then too small to be readily seen, but by means
of its proboscis, a perpetual self-acting pump, it immediately
begins to drain the leaf of its sap. At first its work is not con-
spicuous, but soon becomes manifest by the appearance of small,
dark spots, which later turn brown and die, the soft part of the
leaf within having been sucked out. These spots, which at first
are not larger than the head of a pin, may become much larger
and even run together, causing the death of the entire leaf.
The shoot itself may be checked in growth, or even killed.

The nymphs, or immature forms of the insect, are at first very
small, but easily recognized by the shining vermilion-red color of
the body, marked by blackish spots on the thorax. The mature
insect is a bright orange-yellow colored bug, three-tenths of an
inch long, with four black stripes extending down the back.

The eggs are laid in clusters in slits near the tips of twigs of
the present year's growth of currants, gooseberries, and other
shrubs. They are deposited late in June, and remain in this
position until the nymphs hatch the following spring. These
undergo five moults before reaching the adult form. The adults
disappear early in July, there being but one brood a year.

Remedies. — Since the insect feeds by sucking the sap of the
plant from the inner tissues of the leaf, the application of poisons
like Paris green can do no good. Kerosene emulsion, diluted with
not more than five parts of water, if very thoroughly applied
while the insects are still young, will prove effective. The egg
clusters are not difficult to find, and since they remain over win-
ter, trimming off and burning five or six inches of infested twigs
is a practicable remedy, at least on a small scale.

THE CURRANT PLANT-LOUSE

Myzus riUs (Linn.). — Order Hemiptera. Family Aphididse.

Lintner, N. Y. I&p. 9 : 370. Weed, Ins. and Insecticides, 100. Aphis ribis,
Linn. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Fruits, 351.

•
This is a small, yellowish plant-louse, appearing on the under

surface of currant leaves toward midsummer, causing them to

THE CURRANT PL ANT-LOU SMI 417

curl and present a blistered and generally a reddish appearance on
the upper surface. This, like other plant -lice, may be destroyed
by kerosene emulsion, but is so protected within the curled leaves
as to be very difficult to reach. Success depends on applying the
remedy very promptly before the leaves become much curled. In
the home-garden, hand-picking will doubtless prove simpler. The
larvse are often destroyed in great numbers by the two -spotted
lady-bug. They are also subject to attack from a small hymen -
opterous parasite, which often does good service in depleting their
numbers.

THE SAN JOSE" SCALE

Aspidiotus perniciosus, Comstock. — Order Hemiptera. Family
Coccidse.

Comstoek, Rep. U. S. Dept. Agr. 1880 : 304. Howard, U. S. Div. Ent. Circu-
lar 3, 2d series. Riley, Rep. U. S. Dept. Agr. 1893 : 215.

This insect first made its appearance in California about 1870,
and is supposed to have been introduced from Chili. It was de-
scribed by Professor Comstock in 1880, and since then has received
attention from numerous writers. It has worked serious injury in
California, and although not reported east of the Missouri River
until 1893, it has become widely scattered throughout the eastern
states. The insect is a near relative of the oyster-shell bark-
louse, and appears as a round, flat scale about an eighth of an
inch in diameter, resembling the bark in color, but with a black
speck in the center. It attaches itself to the fruit and branches
of pear, peach, apple, raspberry, gooseberry, currant, and other
plants. It is thus distributed both on fruit and nursery stock, a
fact which accounts for its rapid and widely scattered distribution.
The females are wingless, but when young can crawl short dis-
tances before becoming fixed in their position.

Remedies. — The San Jose" scale is not easily baffled. It has
recently caused much excitement in the pomological world. An
avalanche of literature and legislation has been hurled against it,
and remedies without number have been tried. The treatment
recommended by the Division of Entomology at Washington con-
sists in thorough spraying with whale-oil soap and water in the
proportion of two pounds to the gallon, when the trees or plants
are dormant, preferably toward spring, since early spraying has

418 BUSH-FRUITS

been found to reduce the amount of bloom. Infested nursery
stock can be most effectively treated by hydrocyanic acid gas, but
this is a dangerous insecticide, which should be used only by those
who know perfectly well how to do it.* Late experiments at Cor-
nell and in New Jersey show that the pest is easily destroyed in
summer by a spray of kerosene and water. At Cornell, one part of
kerosene to four of water gave efficient treatment.

THE GOOSEBERRY FRUIT -WORM

Zopliodia grossularice (Pack.). — Order Lepidoptera. Family
Phycitidse.

Pempelia grossularice, Pack. Riley, Mo. Rep. 1:140. Myelois convolutellq,
Zell. Thomas, 111. Rep. 7:251. Dakruma convolutella. (ZelL), or
(Hiibn.). Saunders, Ins. Inj. Fruits, 357. Weed, Ins. and Insect!., 101.

The larva of this moth works within the fruit of the gooseberry,
and sometimes of the currant. The moths appear early in spring
and deposit their eggs on the surface of the very young fruit.
The larva bores into the fruit and eats out its contents. When
one berry is disposed of another is fastened to the now empty
shell, and the worm bores its way into that one. Several fruits
may be thus destroyed. The larva commonly reaches maturity by
the first of July, when it is a pale green caterpillar, about three -
fourths of an inch long, with a small, pale brown, horny looking
head. It then descends to the ground and spins a thin cocoon
among fallen leaves and rubbish, within which it changes to a
chrysalis, remaining in this condition until the following spring.

Remedies. — Infested berries color prematurely, and can be
hand-picked, taking care that the very active worms do not
quickly leave the fruit. If chickens are allowed in the field
after fruiting time, they will consume many of the chrysalids.

THE IMPORTED CURRANT BORER

Sesia tipuliformis (Linn.).— Order Lepidoptera. Family Sesiidse.

Comstoek, Man. of Ins., 261. JEgeria tipuliformis, Linn. Saunders, Ins.
Inj. Frts. 336. Cook, Rep. Mich. Hort. Soc. 1890 : 106. TrochiUum
tipuliforme (Linn.). Fitch, N. Y. Rep. 3 : 423.

This is a slender, rapid-flying, wasp-like, dark blue moth, half

See The Nursery-Book as to use of hydrocyanic acid gas.

THE IMPORTED CURRANT BORER 419

an inch long and three-fourths of an inch broad, having three
yellow bands across the body and a yellow collar. It appears
toward the end of May or the first of June, and deposits its eggs
upon the stems near a bud. When hatched the larva eats its way
directly to the center, thence upward and downward in the pith.
Here it remains until the following year, meanwhile eating out a
tunnel from six to twelve inches in length. When full grown, the
larva is about half an inch long, white, with a brown head and a
few hairs scattered over its body. Like many other immigrants in
the insect world, this species appears to prosecute its work with
renewed energy in the home of its adoption, far outstripping the
native currant borer in the success of its undertakings. It pre-
fers the red currant, but it is not too fastidious to accept the black
currant or gooseberry as a substitute when occasion demands.
Remedies. — The method of treatment, which is the same for all
species of borers attacking these plants, consists in pruning away
and burning all infested canes, late in winter or early in spring,
before the moths emerge. With several canes allowed to grow,
and all wood cut away after it has borne one or two crops, this
result will be accomplished with little extra trouble.

THE CURRANT SPAN-WORM

Diastictis ribearia (Fitch). — Order Lepidoptera. Family En-
nomidse.

Comstock, Manual, 279. Abraxas ribearia, Fitch, N. Y. Rep. 3 : 427. Eu-
fitchia ribearia (Fitch). Riley, Mo. Rep. 9 : 3. Cook, Bull. Mich. Exp.
Sta., 73 : 9.

This is the larva of a native pale yellowish moth, marked with
several dusky spots, and measuring about an inch and a quarter
across. The larva when full grown is about an inch long, of a
whitish color, with broad yellow stripes running down the back
and sides, and with a number of black spots on each segment. It
is a "measuring worm," moving by arching its body in the center.
When disturbed, it drops from the leaf and remains suspended in
the air by a web. It is most commonly found upon the gooseberry
or black currant, appearing soon after the leaves expand. It at-
tains its full growth within three or four weeks, descends to the
ground and transforms to a pupa, hidden by rubbish, or just be-

420 BUSH-FRUITS

neath the surface of the ground. The moth emerges about two
weeks later. The eggs are laid singly on the twigs, which they
resemble in color, and are therefore hard to detect. Here they
remain until spring, there being but one brood a year. It thus
happens that the sale of plants affords a ready means for the
spread of the insect.

Remedies. — This is commonly not a serious enemy, but when it
does become numerous, is more difficult to destroy than the ordi-
nary currant worm. Hellebore, if used, must be much stronger
than for the imported currant worm. Paris green will prove more
effective whenever the fruit does not prevent its use. Disturbing
the bushes and gathering up the worms as they hang suspended
from Jtheir webs, is sometimes recommended. Several parasites
prey upon them and do good service in thinning out their ranks.

THE CURRANT FRUIT-WORM

Eupithecia implicata, Walk. Var. interrupto fasciata, Pack. Order
Lepidoptera. Family Geometridse.

F-upithecia interrupto- fasciata, Pack. Thomas, 111. Rep. 11: 23. Saunders,
Ins. Inj. Frts. 352.

This is a span-worm which attacks the fruit of the currant by
eating a hole into the side of the berry, and devouring a portion
of the interior, spoiling more fruit than it actually consumes. It
is easily distinguished from the gooseberry fruit -worm by having
only ten legs, while the latter has sixteen.

Remedies. — While seldom causing serious injury, it may, under
favorable conditions, develop sufficient numbers to work much
harm. It appears at the same time as the common currant worm,
and the ordinary treatment with hellebore may also keep it in
check. Pyrethrum, and probably air-slaked lime, applied when
the dew is on, would doubtless prove effective.

THE GOOSEBERRY MIDGE

Cecidomyia grossularice, Fitch. — Order Diptera. Family Ceci-
domyiidss.

Fitch, N. Y. Rep. 1:176.-3:150. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts., 359.
This insect is a small, yellowish fly, scarcely one-tenth of an

THE CURRANT FLY 421

inch in length. The eggs, which are deposited beneath the skin
of the young fruit, hatch and develop into small, bright yellow,
oval maggots, resembling those of the wheat midge. These
change to pupse within the fruit, and emerge as perfect flies in
midsummer. Further than this the life history seems to be un-
known. Their presence causes the fruit to turn prematurely red
and become soft and putrid within.

Remedies. — The only remedy thus far known to be effective is to
pick and destroy all fruit which turns prematurely.

THE CURRANT FLY
Epochra Canadensis (Loew.). — Order Diptera. Family Muscidee.

Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts., 352. Harvey, Maine Agr. Exp. Sta. Ann. Kept.
1895 : 111.— Also Bull. 35. Trypeta Canadensis, Loew, Mon. Dip. N.
Am., 3 : 235. Gillette, Bull. Colo. Exp. Sta., 19 :18.

This insect is a yellow or orange -colored fly, about the size of
the common house-fly, with greenish iridescent eyes and smoky
patches or bands across its wings. It punctures the skin of the
young currant or gooseberry, depositing its egg just beneath. This
soon develops into a small white grub which measures about one-
third of an inch in length. Its presence causes the fruit to turn
red and fall to the ground prematurely. After becoming full
grown, the maggots leave the fruit and enter the ground, where
they change to pupae, emerging as perfect flies early the following
summer.

Although not usually considered a serious enemy, it has been
found very destructive in Colorado, and also in Maine, causing the
loss of 75 per cent of the fruit at times.

Remedies. — No very practicable remedy seems yet to have been*
found. The insect spends about eleven months of the year safely
buried in the ground. No way of destroying the mature flies
seems feasible, and the egg is deposited beneath the skin of the
fruit beyond the reach of insecticides. The only weak point in its
campaign appears to be that part of the infested fruit drops pre-
maturely and the larvse remain in it for a time after it falls.
Hence, frequently gathering and burning the fallen fruit will de-
stroy many. If all the insects thus fell with the fruit, this would

422 BUSH-FRUITS

be an effective, though somewhat expensive remedy, but unfortu-
nately some larvae escape from the fruit before it drops. One
grower thinks that allowing young chickens among the bushes till
picking time, and older fowls later, proved effective. The pupse
transform within an inch of the surface, so that thorough culti-
vation would disturb many of them, and might expose them to
subsequent injury during winter, or favor their being picked up by
birds. Eemoving an inch of soil would carry them with it. The
flies are thought to be so weak that a heavy mulch placed about
the plants while the pupae are in the ground, and allowed to re-
main, would prevent many of them from emerging.

THE AMERICAN CURRANT BORER

Psenocerus supernotatus (Say).— Order Coleoptera. Family Ce-
rambycidae.

Fitch, N. Y. Rep. 3 : 416. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts., 337. Cook, Rep. Mich.
Hort. Soc. 1890 : 106.

This insect, though very similar in its habits to the imported
currant borer, belongs to an entirely different order. When ma-
ture, instead of being a moth, it is a small, narrow, brownish
beetle, nearly cylindrical, and varying in length from one-eighth
to one -fourth of an inch. The larva is a small, white, round and
wrinkled grub without feet. The life history is practically the
same as that of the imported insect, and larvae of both are some-
times found together in the same stalk.

Remedies. — Cutting out and burning infested stalks will prove
effective.

THE IMPORTED CURRANT WORM

Pteronus ribesii (Scop.). — Order Hymenoptera. Family Tenthre-
dinidse.

Marlatt Revis. Nematinas of North Amer., 61. Nematus ventricosus,

Klug. Riley, Mo. Rep. 9 : 7. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts., 339. Weed,

Ins. and Insds., 97. Nematus trimaculatus, St. Fargeau. Fitch, N. Y.
Rep. 12 : 909. For full bibliography, see Marlatt, 1. c.

This most familiar inhabitant of the currant and gooseberry
bushes is a four- winged saw- fly, about the size of the common
house fly . It first appeared in the United States in the vicinity of

THE CURRANT WORM

423

Rochester, N. Y., about 1857, being mentioned in "The Rural
New-Yorker" of July 24, 1858, p. 239. The male is black, with
some yellow spots, glossy wings and yellow legs. The female is
larger than the male, bright honey yellow, with a black head. It
is not in this dress, however,
that we best know the insect.
Its eggs are deposited in rows
on the under side of the leaves,
along the principal veins (Fig.
76) , in early spring. Dr. Lint-
ner observed a female de-
posit thirty eggs on a single
currant leaf within one hour.
These hatch in a few days, and
open the season's campaign
by eating small holes in the
leaf. The eggs are laid in
rows, and the young larvse at
first feed in companies (Fig
77), but later, as size and
appetite increase, they scatter
to all parts of the bush.

The insect is fastidious in
its dress during the larval
stage. It first appears in a

modest garb of dull white, which it soon exchanges for green,
to which many black spots are added later, these in turn giving
place to a plain green tinged with yellow, as it approaches ma-
turity. When full grown, it measures about three-quarters of
an inch in length. It then forms a silken cocoon, hidden by rub-
bish on the ground, just beneath the surface, or occasionally
attached to stems and leaves above ground. The winged insect
emerges the last of June or first of July, to repeat the same
cycle, there being two broods a year, the last one passing the
winter in the pupa state. The separate broods do not emerge all
at once, hence there is a practical continuation of hostilities
throughout the season.

Fig. 76. Eggs of the currant worm.

424

BUSH-FRUITS

Remedies. — A history of the remedies which have been em-
ployed against this insect since its advent in this country would
afford spicy reading, with no lack of variety. It is interesting to
note that the use of kerosene emulsion seems to have had its be-
ginning in fighting this insect, about 1870.* The following brief
mention will show something of the range of ammunition brought
into play against this enemy. Salt and water, Gardener's
Monthly, 1881:17. Tobacco water, Ibid, 1881:241. Sulphur
sprinkled on the bushes when wet, Ibid, 1882 : 148. Smudge with
burning leather and sulphur under the bushes, Ibid, 1862 : 213.
Red currants untouched if black currants are planted among them,
Tilton's Journal, 8 : 35. Copperas dissolved in water, Ibid, 8 : 23.
Carbolate of lime, Ibid, 9 : 149. Tansy decoction, Ibid 9 : 246.
Wood ashes applied when leaves are wet, Ibid 9 : 309; also "Ru-
ral New-Yorker," 1897 : 375. Carbolic acid, Horticulturist,
1870 : 221. Picking off leaves at base of bushes where most eggs

are deposited before they
hatch, or immediately after.
Coal tar dissolved in turpen-
tine, with slaked lime and
water added, Ibid, 1870 : 222.
Knocking off the worms to
let them fall on the hot
ground when the sun is bright^
Ibid, 1871 : 159. Howe Cave
fertilizer, Grafton mineral
fertilizer and Colburn's cur-
rant-worm exterminator men-
tioned as ineffectual, Ibid,
1873 :172. Mixing wood ashes
Fig. 77. First work of currant worm. with the soil, Ibid, 1873 : 192.

Mulching with tobacco stems,

"Popular Gardening," 2:129. Mulching with coal ashes, Ibid,
6 : 220. Air-slaked lime and tobacco dust, Insect Life, 1 : 17.
Alum, Ibid, 1:229. Decoction of foxglove, Gar. Month., 1874:

"Tilton's Journal, 8: 23, 176.— 9:213. Gardener's Monthly, 1874: 149.

CURRANT WORMS 425

254. Soot, also rue and chamomile planted among the bushes,
Tilton's Jour., 4:233. Decoction of elder leaves and tobacco
water, Ibid, 7:187. Young chickens, Hovey's Mag., 1854:527.

In 1869, the Massachusetts Horticultural Society offered a prize
of twenty -five dollars for "a safe, certain and economical
method, better than any now known, of destroying the currant
worm, or preventing its ravages."

It is easily controlled by the application of white hellebore,
half an ounce or a teaspoonful to a gallon of water, as soon as the
worms appear. The eggs of the first brood are laid chiefly on the
tufts of leaves at the base of the plant, and Paris green or LondoL.
purple may be used for the first application, while the larvae are
yet on these leaves. The work should be thorough, for if the
bushes are defoliated, even after the fruit is off, the crop of the
succeeding year suffers in consequence. At the Ohio Experiment
Station, the cost of spraying twice and completely protecting the
plants was found to be but $5 per acre.

THE NATIVE CURRANT WORM

Pristiphora grossularice, Walsh. — Order Hymenoptera. Family
Tenthredinidse.

Walsh, Pract. Ent., 1 : 123. Riley, Mo. Rep., 9 : 23. Saunders, Ins. Inj.
Frts., 343. Walsh and Riley, Amer. Ent., 2 : 22. Pristiphora rufipes,
St. Fargeau. Fitch, N. Y. Rep., 12 : 908. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts., 344.

This is a saw-fly closely related to the imported currant worm,
though smaller in size, and belonging to a different genus. The
larva is solid green in color, never having black spots like the
other. The life history is much the same, except that the second
brood emerges from the pupal stage in autumn, and deposits its
eggs upon the branches, where they remain during the winter,
hatching the following spring. The young larvse do not feed in
groups. This insect seldom causes serious injury. It is men-
tioned chiefly on account of its relationship to its European
cousin, by whom it is so far outstripped in the work of life set
apart for a currant worm to do.

Remedy.— The same remedy employed against the other insect
is effective against this one.

426 BUSH-FRUITS

THE CURRANT STEM-GIRDLER

Janus integer (Norton). — Order Hymenoptera. Family Uroceridre.

Slingerland, Bull. Cornell Univ. Exp. Sta., 126 : 41. Oephus integer, Nor
ton, Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., 8 : 224. Janus flaviventris , Fitch,
N. Y. Rept.. 7 : 12. Lintner, N. Y. Kept., 4 : 47.— 8 : 166. Phyllcecus
flaviventris (Fitch). Marlatt, Ins. Life, 6 : 296.— 7 : 387.

This, too, is a native saw-fly, but the larvae, instead of feeding
on the leaves, like the others, burrow in the pith of the currant
stems. The egg is laid within the pith of the young shoots a few
inches from the tips. After depositing the egg the female fly
moves upward and proceeds to girdle the stem at a point from half
an inch to an inch above where the egg was placed. The cane
may be entirely severed by this girdling, or may still cling by a
small portion, but quickly wilts, and generally soon falls away.
The larva, which is nearly half an inch long at maturity, burrows
downward, eating out the pith as it goes, and leaving its channel
filled with dark brownish refuse. Toward autumn it eats a pas-
sage way to the outer bark, wraps itself in a thin silken cocoon
and passes the winter in the lower end of its burrow. In the
spring it changes to a pupa, and thence emerges as a perfect in-
sect in May. It is then a shining black fly, with the hind part of
the body and front of the abdomen yellow, measuring about half
an inch in length by three -fourths of an inch in breadth, with the
wings extended.

Remedies. — Cutting out and burning all injured tips is an effi-
cient and practical remedy. The larvae rarely get more than six
inches below where the egg is laid, and this being only an inch
or so below the girdle, cutting away eight inches of the stem at
any time during the summer or winter, will destroy the insect.
If done soon after the girdle is made two or three inches will
suffice. The larvae may readily be found by splitting open the
cane. Many eggs fail to develop, and the young larvae often
perish before attaining their growth. This checks their increase,
but does not affect the injury for the current year. The larvee
are subject to attack from hymenopterous parasites. In one
case Professor Slingerland (loc. cit.) saw five tiny parasites
(Bracon apicatus, Prov.) emerge from a single cocoon.

GROSELLE INSECTS 427

THE LESS IMPORTANT ENEMIES

The foregoing list includes those species which
have either proved themselves, or which promise to
be, seriously injurious. Many other species have been
found upon these plants which seldom do harm. Many
of these are general feeders, and in other cases the work
is of such a nature as to affect the plant but little. No
sharp line can be drawn between those which do much
and those which do little injury, for under special con-
ditions the ones which are normally of little impor-
tance may become unusually destructive.

CLASS ARACHNIDA (Spiders and their relatives)
Order Acarina

Tetranychus telarius (Linn.). Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 355. The

Red Spider, which occasionally attacks the black currant in dry

weather.
Bryobia pratensis, Garman. The Clover Mite. Riley and Marlatt

Ins. Life, 3:45. Observed on wild gooseberry, Ribes gracile, at

Lincoln, Nebr.

Tyroglyphus ribis, Fitch. N. Y. Rep. 3:424. On diseased currant
stems.

CLASS HEXAPODA (Insects)

Order Orthoptera
FAMILY ACRIDID^E.

Melanoplus femur-rubrum (DeG.). [Caloptenus femur-rubrum
(DeG.). 111. Ent. Rep. 14 (Gen. Ind. Supplement).] The com-
mon red-legged grasshopper. A general feeder.

FAMILY LOCUSTID^E.

Amblycorypha oblongifolia (DeG.). [Phylloptera oblongifolia,
DeG. Riley, Amer. Ent. 2:182.] Eggs occur on currant and
other woody stems.

428 B USH-FR UIT8

Order Hemiptera
FAMILY COREID.S!.

Leptoglossus phyllopus, Linn. Ins. Life 4:79. On currant leaves;
normally predaceous.

FAMILY PENTATOMID^;.

Cosmopepla carnifex (Fabr.). Lintner, N. Y. Rep. 2:144. Attacking
currant fruit.

FAMILY FULGORID^E.

Poeciloptera pruinosa, Say. Fitch, N. Y. Rep. 3:436. Saunders,
Ins. Inj. Frts. 357. Riley, Mo. Rep. 5:122. On leaves and young
shoots of many plants.

FAMILY JASSID^E.

Typhlocyba obliqua (Say). [Erythroneura obliqua (Say). Fitch,
N. Y. Rep. 3: 435.] On currant leaves.

Typhlocyba tricincta (Fitch). Forbes, 111. Rep. 14:115. [Erythro-
neura tricincta, Fitch. N. Y. Rep. 3: 392.] On leaves of currant,
raspberry, grape and elm.

Empoasca albopicta (Forbes). [Empoa albopicta, Forbes, 111. Rep.
13:181. -14:117. Weed, Rep. O. Exp. Sta. 1888: 152. -Ins. and
Insecticides 99.] On leaves of apple, currant, gooseberry and
other plants. Remedy, pyrethrum.

FAMILY APHIDID-S;.

Nectarophora lactucce (Kalt.). [ Siphonophora lactucce, Linn. Thomas
111. rep. 8: 60.] On lettuce, Ribes and many other plants.

FAMILY COCCIDJE.

Pulvinaria innumerabilis (Rath von). Comstock, Rep. Cornell Univ.
Exp. Sta. 2:137. Lintner, N. Y. Rep. 6:141. Saunders, Ins. Inj.
Frts. 241. Piper, Bull. Wash. Exp. Sta. 7:123. [Coccus innu-
merabilis (Rath von). For complete synonomy, see Comstock, 1. c.]
On many plants, including currant.*

Lecanium cynosbati, Fitch. N. Y. Rep. 3: 436. Comstock, Rep.
Cornell Univ. Exp. Sta. 2:133. On wild gooseberry stems.

Lecanium ribis, Fitch. N. Y. Rep. 3: 427. Comstock, Rep. Cornell
Univ. Exp. Sta. 2: 135. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 338. On currant
stems.

Aspidiotus ancylus, Putnam. Comstock, Rep. U. S. Dept. of Agr.
1880:292. Rep. Cornell Univ. Exp. Sta. 2:58. Beckwith, Rep.
Del. Exp. Sta. 7: 168. On currant.

*A western form of this species has proved quite destructive to currants in
Washington state. Prof. Cockerell proposes the variety-name occidentalis for
this form. It is referred to in Meehan's Monthly, 1896:37, under the erroneous
name P. ribis.

UNIVERSITY

GROSELLE INSECTS 429

Aspidiotus nerii, Bouche. Oomstock, Rep. U. S. Dept. of Agr. 1880:

301. Rep. Cornell Univ. Exp. Sta. 2:63. Lintner, N. Y. Rep.

5: 279. On oleander and a great variety of other plants.
Mutilaspis pomorum (Bouche). Corastock, Rep. U. S. Dept. of Agr.

1880:325. Rep. Cornell Univ. Exp. Sta. 2:118. Saunders, Ins.

Inj. Frts. 40. On apple, occasionally elsewhere.
Chionaspis furfurus (Fitch). Comstock. Rep. U. S. Dept. Agr.

1880: 315. Matlack, Ins. Life 1: 324. [Aspidiotus furfurus, Fitch,

N. Y. Rep. 3:352. Aspidiotus cerasi, Fitch, N. Y. Rep. 3:368.]

On apple, pear, currant and others.
Diaspis ostreceformis (Curtis). Comstock, Rep. U. S. Dept. Agr.

1880: 311. Rep. Cornell Univ. Exp. Sta. 2: 94. [Aspidiotus circu-

laris, Fitch, N. Y. Rep. 3: 426. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 338.] On

apple, pear and currant.

Order Lepidoptera
FAMILY EUCLEID^:.

Empretia stimulea, Clemens. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 113 and 353.
Packard, For. Ins. 146. Comstock, Man. Ins. 225. A general
feeder.

FAMILY GRAPHOLITHID.E.

Exartema exoleta (Zeller). [Eccopsis exoletum, Zell. Forbes, 111.
Rep. 14:117.] On currant and gooseberry.

FAMILY TORTBICIDJB.

Caccecia rosana, Linn. Comstock and Slingerland, Bull. Cornell

Univ. Exp. Sta. 23:119. Comstock, Man. Ins. 244. On currant.
Caccecia argyrospila, Walk. Packard, For. Ins. 192. Gillette, Bull.

Colo. Exp. Sta. 19: 3. A general feeder.
Caccecia rosaceana (Harris). Packard, For. Ins. 505. Saunders,

Ins. Inj. Frts. 90. A general feeder.

FAMILY SKSinxac.

Alcathoe' caudatum (Harris). Jack, Gar. and For. 1891:496.
[JEgeria caudata, Harris. French, 111. Rep. 7:172. Trochilium
caudatum (Harris). Fitch, N. Y. Rep. 3:424.] On the root of
black currant and clematis.

FAMILY LIPABID^.

Orgyia antiqua, Linn. Perkins, Vt. Agr. Rep. 1877: 148. Packard,
For. Ins. 447.

FAMILY GEOMETRIDJB.

Angerona crocataria (Fabr.). Thomas, 111. Rep. 7: 243. Forbes, 111.
Rep. 13: 81. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 348. On currant, gooseberry
and strawberry leaves.

430 BUSH-FRUITS

Endropea armataria (H. Sch.). Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 354. Pack-
ard, For. Ins. 501— Mon. Geom. 510. On leaves of maple, birch,

black and red currant.
JBiston cognataria (Guen.). Comstock, Man. Ins. 280. [Amphidasys

cognataria, Guen. Lintner, N. Y. Rep. 2:97. Bowles, Canad.

Ent. 3:11. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 349. Packard, For. Ins. 405.]

A somewhat general feeder.
Microgonia limbaria, Haw. [Nematocampa filawientaria , Guen.

French, 111. Eep. 7:242. Packard, For. Ins. 182. Saunders, Ins.

Inj. Frts. 167.] On leaves of currant, strawberry, oak and maple.
Eustroma prunata, Linn. [Petrophora prunata, Linn. Edwards,

Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. 35:109.] On Ribes in Europe. Introduced

in America.
Prochoerodes transversata (Drury). [JEJutrapela transversata (Drury).

Packard, For. Ins. 181.] On maple, currant, oak and a few others.
Tetrads trianguliferata, Pack. French, Canad. Ent. 18:105. On

Ribes aureum.
Thamnonoma quadrilinearia, Pack. Gillette, Bull. Colo. Exp. Sta.

19: 23. On currant and gooseberry leaves.
Thamnonoma flavicaria, Pack. Gillette, Bull. Colo. Exp. Sta. 19: 23.

On currant and gooseberry leaves.

FAMILY NOCTUID^E.

Hydrcecia cataphracta (Grt.). [Gortyna cataphracta, Grt. Fletcher,

Ins. Life 5:125.] On gooseberry fruit; unusual.
Hydrcecia nitela (Guen.). [Gortyna nitella, Guen. Smith, 111. Rep.

7:112. Lintner, N. Y. Rep. 1:110. Boring in the stems of many

plants.
Mamestra picta, Harris. Lintner, N. Y. Rep. 4:16.-5:206. [Ce-

ramicapic ta (Harris). French, 111. Rep. 7: 226. J A general feeder;

reported on currant.
Noctua clandestina (Harris). [Agrotis clandestina, Harris. French,

111. Rep. 7:95, 213. Riley, Rep. U. S. Dept. Agr. 1884:293.

Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 108.] A general feeder.
Xylophasia arctica (Boisd.). Smith, Bull. U. S. Mus. 44: 137. [Ha-

dena arctica, Boisd. French, 111. Rep. 7:96, 217. Hadena ampu-

tatrix, Fitch, N. Y. Rep. 3: 425.] A general feeder.

FAMILY ARCTIID-SB.

Hyphantria cunea, Drury. Packard, For. Ins. 244. [Hyphantria

textor, Harris. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 71.] The Fall Web-worm.

A general feeder.
Spilosoma virginica (Fabr.). French, 111. Rep. 7:80. Packard, For.

Ins. 340, 489. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 271. A general feeder.

FAMILY SPHINGIDJE.

Deilephila lineata (Fabr.). Packard, For. Ins. 271. A general
feeder.

GROSELLE INSECTS 431

FAMILY BOMBYCID^.

Euproctis chrysorrhoea (Linn.). Fernald and Kirkland, Special Bull.
Mass. Hatch Exp. Sta. 1897. A general feeder, preferring the
pear.

FAMILY SATURNID^:.

Automeris io (Fabr. ). Comstock, Man. Ins. 351. \Hypercheria io

(Fabr.). Packard, For. Ins. 394. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 209.]

A general feeder.
Samia cecropia, Linn. Comstock, Man. Ins. 356. [Attacus cecropia

(Linn.). Thomas, 111. Rep. 10:126. Platysamia cecropia (Linn.).

Packard, For. Ins. 401.] A general feeder.

FAMILY LASIOCAMPID^;.

Clisiocampa, sp. Schwarz, Ins. Life 4:75. Reported as injuring
currants and gooseberries in Utah, by webbing up the leaves to
form its cocoon.

FAMILY NYMPHALIDJE.

Easilarchia astyanax (Fabr.). Packard, For. Ins. 128. Comstock,

Man. Ins. 406. [Limenitis ursula, Fabr. French, 111. Rep. 7:154.

Middleton, 111. Rep. 10:87. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 217.] A

general feeder, including gooseberry.
Polygonia comma (Harris). Comstock, Man. Ins. 405. [ Vanessa

comma, Harris, Ins. Inj. Veg. 300 (Flint, ed.). Grapta comma

(Harris). Packard, For. Ins. 241. Fitch, N. Y. Rep. 3:433.] On

currant and hop.
Polygonia faunus (Edw. ) . Comstock, Man. Ins. 404. [ Grapta faunus,

Edw. French, 111. Rep. 7:152.] On gooseberry, beech and willow.
Polygonia progne (Cramer). Comstock, Man. Ins. 405. [Vanessa

progne, Cramer. Le Baron, 111. Rep. 1: 59. Harris, Ins. Inj. Veg.

301. Grapta progne (Cramer). Fitch, N. Y. Rep. 3: 428. Packard,

For. Ins. 241. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 346.] On Ribes and elm.

Order Coleoptera
FAMILY CERAMBYCID^.

Hyperplatys asperus (Say.). Gillette, Bull. Iowa Exp. Sta. 11 : 494.

In stems of cottonwood, chestnut and currant.
Hyperplatys maculatus, Hald. Cook, Rep. Mich.Hort. Soc. 1890:109.

Reported as a new currant borer.

FAMILY CHBYSOMELIDJE.

Doryphora decemlineata, Say. Thomas, 111. Rep. 6:162. The Potato
Beetle; known to eat currant leaves.

Odontota nervosa, Panz. [Odontota rosea (Web.). Saunders, Ins.
Inj. Frts. 120. Hispa rosea, Web. Harris, Ins. Inj. Veg. 120.
Uroplata pallida, Say. Fitch, N. Y. Rep. 3:434.] Mining in the
leaves of apple, black currant and other plants.

432 BUSH-FRUITS

Systena frontalis (Fabr.). Lintner, N. Y. Rep. 9:343. Saunders,
Ins. Inj. Prts. 283. On grape and gooseberry leaves.

FAMILY OTIORHYNCHID-S:.

Epiccerus imbricatus (Say.). Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 35. Weed,
Ins. and Insecticides 173. A general feeder.

FAMILY CURCULIONID^E.

Anthonomus Tielvolus, Boh. [Anthonomus rubidus, Le Conte.
Fletcher, Rep. Can. Expt. Farms, 1887:36.]

Order Hymenoptera
FAMILY ANDRENID^:.

Prosopis affinis, Smith. Riley, Amer. Ent. 2:214-307. Eggs
deposited in pith of currant stems.

CHAPTER XVII

DISEASES OF THE GEOSELLES

The number of fungi known to attack the genus
Bibes is very large, yet comparatively few are suffi-
ciently destructive to demand consideration, from an
economic stand -point. The one which is best known,
and which has created far more discussion than any
other in American horticultural literature, is the goose-
berry mildew. This disease alone, like the phylloxera
of the grape, has forced the development of varieties
from native species, which doubtless would not have
been done had the English varieties proved successful
in this climate. The following list includes those
diseases which are most important.

THE MOST IMPORTANT DISEASES
GOOSEBERRY MILDEW (Fig. 78)

Sphcerotheca mors-uvce (Schw.), B. and C. — Order Pyrenomycetero.
Family Perisporiacese.

Halsted, Rep. U. S. Dept. Agr. 1887:373 (Illus.). Humphrey, Rep. Mass.
Exp. Sta. 10 : 240 (1892) (Illus.). Arthur, Rep. N. Y. State Exp. Sta.
6: 349. Beach, West. N. Y. Hort. Soc. 37: 512. Close, N. Y. State Exp.
Sta. Bull. 133.

Chiefly found on the English gooseberry, rarely on American
sorts.

As before stated, this is one of the most widely known of the
diseases affecting the genus Kibes. It first appears on the young
leaves and tender tips of the growing shoots. The young fruits

BB (433)

434

BUSH-FRUITS

are soon attacked in the same way and partially or entirely
checked in their growth, being rendered wholly unfit for use in
most cases. It first appears as a patch of cob web -like threads,
which soon form a dense mat and become white and powdery
from the development of white conidial or summer spores. These
are produced in immense numbers, and are readily blown about
by the wind, to contribute to the further spread of the disease.
A few weeks later the winter spores, or ascospores, begin to

'Fig. 78. Mildew on a young shoot.

develop. These are contained within chestnut -colored perithecia,
which give a dirty brown appearance to the affected parts. These
spores remain over winter within the protecting perithecium and
germinate in spring, thereby spreading the species the succeed-
ing year.

This disease, unlike many other fungi, seems to develop best
in dry, hot climates, and for this reason causes much more
trouble in America than in England. It is less serious in the
northern portions of the United States and in Canada than
farther south. Many English varieties or their seedlings have

GOOSEBERRY MILDEW 435

been introduced as mildew proof, only to suffer the same injury
as previous sorts after a few years of general trial. The Ameri-
can varieties are not wholly exempt from its attacks, but are
much less susceptible, and seldom suffer serious injury.

Remedies. — Numberless remedies against the disease have
been suggested. No less than fifteen of these have come under
the writer's observation, most of which were reported successful
in greater or less degree. Among them, mulching with sea
weed, salt hay, green grass, tan bark, stones, tin cans, boards,
etc., is most frequently mentioned. This does aid in many
cases, as it helps to keep the soil cool, but it cannot be depended
upon to afford immunity. There is now a perfectly satisfactory
remedy known, and it is possible for anyone who is willing to
give the matter proper attention to grow the English goose-
berries in this country. Experiments inaugurated by Professor
Arthur, while connected with the Geneva (New York) Experi-
ment Station, and since carried on by others, have proved that
potassium sulphide (liver of sulphur), used at the rate of half
an ounce to a gallon of water, will hold this disease completely
in check. Experiments with Bordeaux mixture indicate that it
is also effective, though not equal to potassium sulphide. The
potassium sulphide is cheap, effective, easily applied, and does
not injure the plant nor render the fruit poisonous, hence is a
very satisfactory remedy. It is best dissolved in hot water,
then diluted to the required strength. The first application
should be made when the leaves begin to unfold, and be
repeated at intervals of two to three weeks, or after each heavy
rain thereafter. As the injury to the plant seriously inter-
feres with its growth, thereby lessening the succeeding crop, a
thorough treatment just after the fruit is gathered is likely to
prove of great value.

ANTHRACNOSE f
Glceosporium Ribis (Lib.), Mont, and Desm. — Order Melanconieee.

Saccardo, Syll. Fung., 3 :706. Kirchner, Krankheiten und Beschadigungen,
339, 344. Ellis and Everhart, Jour. Myc., 1:110. Dudley, Bull. Cor-
nell Exp. Sta.,15:196.

On Ribes rubrum, R. nigrum, R. aureum, R. prostratum, and
others.

436 BUSH-FRUITS

The characters of this disease are less prominent than those of
the gooseberry mildew, and it has attracted far less attention.
The currant crop suffers serious injury by the premature falling of
the leaves, which may be due to several species of fungi, this
being one of them. This defoliation not only injures the fruit
then on the bushes by preventing its proper development, but
also materially shortens the crop of the succeeding year by pre-
venting the proper completion of wood growth.

The spots appear on the upper surface but within the tissues
of the leaves, in June or early in July. The infected parts are
dull brown in color, the leaves soon turn yellow and fall, so that
the bushes may be wholly denuded by the middle of August.

Remedies. — Definite reports from spraying for this particular
disease are not at hand, but there is good reason to believe that
thorough spraying with Bordeaux mixture will overcome all the
diseases which cause the premature fall of currant leaves.

THE CURRANT TUBERCLE

Tulercularia vulgaris, Tode.— Order HyphomycetesB. Family
Tuberculariese.

Saccardo, Syll. Fung., 44:638. Durand, Bull. Cornell Univ. Exp. Sta.,
125 :23-38. For synonymy, see Sacc., 1. c.

On living curr&nt stems and many kinds of dead wood.

This is the imperfect form of a fungus which in its perfect
stage is known under the name Nectria cinndbarina (Tode), Fr.
It is very common upon dead and decaying wood of different
kinds. Recently it has proved itself an injurious parasite upon
living currant bushes in New York and New Jersey. Its presence
is first manifest by wilting of the leaves and premature coloring
of the fruit. The clusters are usually small and straggling, and
both fruit and leaves soon shrivel and fall. This is m turn fol-
lowed by the death of the barren canes. In some eases the entire
plant dies; in others, some canes may partially escape. Some-
times the plants die even before the leaves unfold.

Remedies. — This threatens to be a difficult enemy to fight. As

THE CURRANT TUBERCLE

437

with the red rust of the raspberry and blackberry, there is a per-
ennial mycelium, living within the tissues of the plant. There is,
therefore, no cure. To dig and burn the affected bush at once is
the only sure preventive against further spread. Mr. Durand
finds* that the mycelium may show no indication of its presence

Fig. 79. Leaf-spot.

until long after entering the plant, and that the disease may
therefore be transmitted in apparently healthy cuttings. This,
being true, it follows that cuttings should not be used from a
field known to be infected. Since the fungus develops so readily
in dead wood, the refuse from pruning should not be left in the field.

*Loc. cit.

438 BUSH-FRUITS

CURRANT LEAF -SPOT (Fig. 79)

Septoria RiUs, Desm.— Order Spheeropsideae. Family Sphserio-
idese.

Saccardo, Syll. Fung., 3 :491. Peck, Rep. N. Y. Mus., 38 :97. Martin,
Jour. Myc., 3 :73. Pammel, Bulls. Iowa Exp. Sta., 13 :45, 67.—
17 : 420.— 30 :289.

On Ribes rubrum and R. nigrum.

This disease produces a brown spotted appearance of the
leaves, followed by their premature fall.

Professor Pammel 's experiments at the Iowa Experiment Sta-
tion have demonstrated conclusively that it can be controlled and
the foliage retained by thorough spraying with Bordeaux mixture.
Five sprayings, beginning May 10 and ending July 22, proved
wholly effective.

Cercospora angulata, Wint. — Order Hyphomycetese. Family
DematieaB.

Saccardo, Syll. Fung., 4 : 459. Winter, Jour. Myc., 1 : 124. Pammel, Bull,
la. Exp. Sta.. 13 : 45.— 17 : 420.

Professor Pammel reports this species on both red and black
currants, associated with Septoria Ribis, and yielding to the same
treatment.

GOOSEBERRY CLUSTER-CUP

Mtidium grossularice, Schum. — Order Uredinese.

Sacc. Syll. Fung.,7 :792. Humphrey, Rep. Mass. Exp. Sta., 10 (1892) :241.

On leaves and fruit of Ribes grossularice, R. rubrum, R. alpi-
num, R. nigrum, R. aureum and R. rotundifolium.

This disease varies much in frequency. Ordinarily it causes no
damage, but occasionally seems to develop with unusual rapidity,
and work serious injury. It is difficult to combat, for when the
cluster-cups appear so that the disease is noticed, the harm for
that year is already done. Picking off and destroying the in-
fected leaves will tend to prevent damage the succeeding year,
but this is hardly necessary and seldom practicable. Perhaps
spraying for the gooseberry mildew may prevent the earliest
infection.

FUNGI FOUND ON GROSELLES 439

OTHER INJURIOUS FUNGI

Many other fungi have been found on plants of
this genus. Some of these may at times prove to be
real enemies, but most of them can do little injury.
A large number have been reported from Europe, but
unless recorded as occurring in North America, are
excluded from this list, though many of them will
doubtless appear in this country sooner or later.

Order Pyrenomycetece
FAMILY PERISPORIACEJE.

Sphcerotheca Castagnei, Lev. Saccardo, Syll. Fung. 1:4. Ellis and
Everhart, Pyren. 8. Anderson, Jour. Myc. 5:83. On Ribes
Americanum.

Phyllactinia suffulta (Reb.) Sacc. Syll. Fung. 1:5. Ell. and Ev.
Pyren. 20. On Ribes and many other plants.

Micro sphtera Grossularice (Wallr.), Lev. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 1:12.
Ell. and Ev. Pyren. 24. Anderson, Jour. Myc. 5:194. Kirchner,
Pflanzenkrankheiten 338. [Alphitomorpha penicillata Grossu-
larice, Wallr.] On R. rotundifolium, JR. Americanum and R.
nig rum.

Capnodium salicinum (A. and S.), Mont. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 1:73.
Ell. and Ev. Pyren. 49. Kirchner, Pflanzenkrankheiten 338, 410,
342. On gooseberry leaves, willows, poplars, etc.

FAMILY SPH^RIACE^E.

Valsa ribesia, Karst. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 1:117. Ell. and Ev. Pyren.

466. [ Valsa agnostica, Cooke and Harkness. Sacc. Syll. Fung.

9:450.] On branches of Ribes in California.
Valsa ribicola, Ell. and Ev. Proc. Phil. Acad. 1894:340. Sacc. Syll.

Fung. 11:273. On dead branches of R. aureum.
Eutypa subcutanea (Wahl.). Sacc. Syll. Fung. 1:165. On Ribes and

willow.
Eutypa flavo-virescens (Hoffm.), Tul. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 1:172. On

wood and bark of Ribes and many other genera.
Sphcerella Grossularice (Fr.), Auersw. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 1:486.

Ell. and Ev. Pyren. 266. Pammel, Bull. Iowa Exp. Sta. 13:70.

On R. nigrum and R. Grossularia.
JDiaporthe ( Chore state) strumella (Fr. ), Fuck. Symb. Myc. 205.

Sacc. Syll. Fung. 1:613. Ell. and Ev. Pyren. 425. On dead

stems of different species of Ribes.

440 BUSH-FRUITS

Diaporthe (Chorostate) concrescens (Schw.), Cooke. Sacc. Syll.

Fung. 9:703. Ell. and Ev. Pyren. 445. [Sphceria concrescens,

Schw. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 2: 378.] On dead stems of Ribes aureum.
Leptosphceria vagabunda, Sacc. Syll. Fung. 2:31. Ell. and Ev.

Pyren. 358. On dead wood of Ribes and all sorts of shrubs and

trees.

Melanomma pulvis-pyrius (Pers.). Fuck. Symb. Myc. 160. Sacc.
'Syll. Fung. 2:98. Ell. and Ev. Pyren. 181. On many kinds of

wood and bark. ,

Cucurbitaria Ribis, Niessl. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 2:322. Ell. and Ev.

Pyren. 242. On decorticated stems of Ribes.
Fenestella vestita (Fr.). Sacc. Syll. Fung. 2:329. Ell. and Ev.

Pyren. 544. On dead branches of Ribes and many other genera.
Sphceria ribesia, Schw. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 2:370. [This is Diatry-

pella ribesia (Schw.). Ell. and Ev. Pyren. 591.] On dead stems

of Ribes rubrum.

Sphceria recondita, Schw. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 2:376. [This is Dia-
porthe recondita (Schw.). Ell. and Ev. Pyren. 448.] On dead

stems of JR. Americanum.
Sphceria penicillata, Schw. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 2:404. Ell. and Ev.

Pyren. 748. On fallen branches of R. aureum.

FAMILY HYPOCREACE.^

Nectria cinnabarina (Tode), Fr. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 2: 479. Ell. and
Ev. Pyren. 93. Durand, Bull. Cornell Univ. Exp. Sta. 125: 23-38.
On dead branches of many kinds of shrubs and trees. [This is
the perfect stage of Tubercularia vulgaris, Tode, which see.]

Nectria Ribis (Tode), Rabenh. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 2:480. Ell. and
Ev. Jour. Myc. 2 : 79. On branches of currant and gooseberry.

Pleonectria Berolinensis , Sacc. Syll. Fung. 2: 559. Ell. and Ev. Jour-
Myc. 2:123.— Pyren. 115. Durand, Bull. Cornell Univ. Exp. Sta-
125 : 34-37. On dead stems of Ribes.

FAMILY DOTHIDEACE^.

Plowrightia ribesia (Pers.). Sacc. Syll. Fung. 2:635. [Dothidea

ribesia (Pers.), Fr. Ell. and Ev. Pyren. 611.] On dry stems of

various species of Ribes.
Homostegia Kelseyi, Ell. and Ev. Proc. Phil. Acad. 1890:248. Sacc.

Syll. Fung. 9:1050. Ell. and Ev. Pyren. 616. On dead stems of

JR. rotundifolium .

Order Sphceropsidece
FAMILY SPH^ERIOIDE^E.

Phyllosticta Grossularice, Sacc. Syll. Fung. 3:17. Kirchner, Pflanzen-
krankheiten, 339,425. Martin, Jour. Myc. 2:15. On gooseberry
leaves.

FUNGI FOUND ON GROSELLES 441

Phoma hyalina (B. and C.). Sacc. Syll. Fung. 3:88. [Sphceropsis

hyalina, B. and C. N. A. F. 409.] On branches of R. tubrum,

Viburnum dentatum, and Fraxinus Americana.
Asteroma ribicolum Ell. and Ev. . Jour. Myc. 5:148. Sacc. Syll.

Fung. 10: 219. On living leaves of R. Americanum.
Sphceropsis ribicola, C. and Ell. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 10:255. On

branches of Ribes.
Diplodia Dearnessii, Ell. and Ev. Proc. Phil. Acad. 1891:79. Sacc.

Syll. Fung. 10: 279. On decorticated twigs of Ribes.
Septoria aurea, Ell. and Ev. Proc. Phil. Acad. 1893:163. [Septoria

aurea destruans, Ell. and Ev. 1. c. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 11: 541.] On

leaves of R. aureum.
Rhabdospora ribicola (B. and C.). Sacc. Syll. Fung. 3: 579. Martin,

Jour. Myc. 3: 90. [Septoria ribicola, B. and C. N. A. F. 444 bis.]

On whitened stems of R. rotundi folium.

Order Melanconiece

Glaosporium ribicolum, Ell. and Ev. Proc. Phil. Acad. 1893:167.

Sacc. Syll. Fung. 11 : 563. On fruit of the English gooseberry.
Marsonia ribicola, Ell. and Ev. Erythea, 201. Sacc. Syll. Fung.

11:574. On lea^s of R. aureum.

Order Hyphomycetew
FAMILY DEMATIE^B.

Coniosporium Fumago (Schw.). Sacc. Syll. Fung. 4:242. [Fusi-

dium Fumago, Schw. Syn. Am. bor. 2995. ] On leaves of Ribes.
Cladosporium cubisporum, B. and C. N. A. F. 652. Sacc. Syll.

Fung. 4 : 355. On twigs of Ribes.
Cercospora ribicola, Ell. and Ev. Proc. Phil. Acad. 1894:379. Sacc.

Syll. Fung. 11: 626. On leaves of Ribes sanguineum.
Stemphylium macrosporoideum (B, and Br. ). Sacc. Syll. Fung.

4:519. On dead stems of Ribes and Acer.

FAMILY STILBE^E.

Graphiothecium parasiticum, Sacc. Syll. Fung. 4:624. On weak or
decaying leaves of Ribes and other plants.

FAMILY TUBERCULARIE^E.

Tubercularia confluens, Pers. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 4:641. Farlow and
Seymour, Host. Ind. 43. On Ribes and other woody plants.

Order Hymenomycetece
FAMILY POLYPORE.E.

Fomes Ribis (Schum.), Fr. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 6:184. [Polyporus
Ribis (Schum.). Kirchner, Pflanzenkrankheiten, 341 and 403.]
On stems of gooseberry and currant.

442 BUSH-FRUITS

FAMILY, THELEPHORE^E.

Thelephora ribesina, Fr. (?). Farlow and Seymour, Host. Ind. 43.

On Ribes.
Corticium lacteum, Fr. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 6: 610. On wood and bark

of different plants.
Corticium incarnatum (Pers.), Fr. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 6:625. Farlow

and Seymour, Host. Ind. 200. On bark and wood of different

plants.

Order Phycomycetece
FAMILY PERONOSPORACE^.

Plasmopora ribicola (Schroet. ), Sacc. Syll. Fung. 7:243. [Perono-
spora ribicola, Schroet. Farlow and Seymour, Host. Ind. 200.
Kirchner, Pflanzenkrankheiten, 343, 379.] On JR. oxyacanthoides
and R. rubrum.

Order Uredinece

Melampsora epitea (Kunze and Schm.), Thiim. Kirchner, Pflanzen-
krankheiten, 339, 399. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 7: 588. Plowright, Brit.
Ured. and Ust. 239. On leaves and fruit of currant and goose-
berry. •

Puccinia pulchella, Peck, Rep. N. Y. Mus. 25:111. Sacc. Syll. Fung.
7:701. On leaves of R. prostratum.

Uredo (Cceoma)confluens (Pers.), Schroet. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 7:864.
Plowright, Brit. Ured. and Ust. 260. [Cceoma Ribis-alpini, Wint.
Tracy and Galloway, Jour. Myc. 4: 61. Uredo ribicola, C. and E.
Grev. 6: 86. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 7: 859. Uredo Jonesii, Peck, Bull.
Torr. Bot. Club 12 : 36. ] On R. aureum in America and other
species in Europe.

Order Discomycetece
FAMILY DERMATEJE.

Godronia Urceolus, A. and S. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 8: 601. Onbranches
of Ribes and other plants.

FAMILY BULGARIEJE.

Orbilia vinosa (A. and S.), Karst. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 8:622. [Pe-
ziza vinosa, A. and S. Farlow and Seymour, Host. Ind. 43.] On
fallen branches of various trees and shrubs.

CHAPTER XVIII

THE BOTANY OF THE GROSELLES

In order that the student may have the fnll range of
the subject in mind, an attempt is here made to classify
and describe all the species of Eibes which are native to
the United States and Canada or which are cultivated
here. If so great progress has been made in the amelio-
ration of a very few species, what may not the future
hold for the plant -breeder!

In the following account I have attempted to give my
impressions of the botanical relationship of the plants
of the genus. The view obtained has of necessity been
limited and doubtless oftentimes distorted. It has been
confined for the most part to herbarium material, and
this, useful as it is for purposes of study, will some-
times mislead. In some cases not even this source of
aid was available. More complete study will doubtless
change many of the opinions expressed, dropping some
forms here classed as species and admitting others not
here recognized. In general I have little sympathy with
the present tendency to accept species which are based
on slight differences, and I have endeavored to avoid
recognizing such, if the material and information at
hand would admit. Yet as the study has progressed, I
have felt like attaching less and less importance to the
question of species. The oneness of t-he vegetable king-

(443)

444 BUSH-FRUITS

dom has become more and more apparent. It is easy to
describe species so long as single specimens from widely
different localities are available, but not easy when the
material is more abundant, is drawn from intermediate
localities, and represents more varying forms. Then the
transitions from east to west, from north to south, from
valley to mountain -top and from species to species be-
come more apparent. At best it is but passing in
review a brief section of Nature's progressive line of
march, and it matters little where our lines of division
are drawn. If the botanist refuses to enter the garden
to see the work of evolution in progress, he may discover
the same process by a careful study of a single group of
plants like the one in question.

A single phytogeographical hint brought out by this
study may be of interest. In the genus Ribes the flow-
ers are for the most part white and rather inconspicuous
throughout the eastern portion of the country and on
the Plains, with perhaps a slight tinge of color along the
eastern coast. In the Rocky Mountains white but
somewhat larger flowers are common, while toward the
northwest coast large purple flowers become the rule.
This color tendency may be only accidental with this
genus, for I find no mention of such a tendency among
other plants, but Professor Lawrence Bruner tells me
that he has noticed a similar color variation in the
wings of grasshoppers.

RIBES, LINN.— CURRANT— GOOSEBERRY

Shrubs with simple, alternate, palmately veined leaves, some-
times with narrow stipules united with the base of the petiole.

KEY TO THE GROSELLES 445

Flowers 5 -parted, except in a single species, in which they are
commonly 4 -parted. Calyx tube coherent with the ovary, often
extending beyond it; lobes commonly colored like the petals.
Petals small, borne on the throat of the calyx, alternating with the
stamens. Ovary 1-celled, with 2 parietal placentae, and 2 distinct
or united styles. Fruit a berry, crowned with the shriveled re-
mains of the calyx.

Name of uncertain origin, thought by some to be from riebs, a
German name used for the currant.

The genus is primarily a North American one. Of the thirty
species mentioned by Dippel,* sixteen are North American, eleven
are natives of the eastern hemisphere, and one is found in both,
while two to which he gives specific names are probably hybrids.
While of especial importance as a fruit -producing genus, some of
its species have decided value as ornamentals.

A. Stems with 1-3 thorns below the clusters of leaves, often
with numerous scattered prickles on the branches, some-
times upon the berry also. Leaves plaited in the bud.
(Gooseberries.)
B. Flowers red and showy, mostly 4 -parted; stamens long,

exserted; berry small, currant-like. No. 1.
BB. Flowers 5-parted; calyx mostly recurved or reflexed at
flowering time, later erect; stamens more or less or
not at all exserted. Berry many seeded,
c. Calyx tube campanulate or cylindraceous ; peduncles

few- flowered.
D. Anthers sagittate, mucronate- pointed. Nos. 2, 3,

4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10.
DD. Anthers oval or roundish, blunt.

E. Stamens much longer than the petals

p. Flowers conspicuous; calyx lobes broad and

showy, dark purple -red. No. 11.
FF. Flowers inconspicuous; calyx lobes small
and slender, white, greenish white, or
sometimes purplish. Nos. 12, 13, 14, 15,
16.
EE. Stamens little or no longer than the petals.

F. Ovary and berry unarmed and glabrous. Nos.

17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23.

FF. Ovary and berry armed with prickles, or rough
and glandular hairy. Nos. 24, 25, 26, 27. f

* Handbuch der Laubholzkunde 3 -.281-308.

446

BUSH-FRUITS

cc. Calyx tube saucer -shaped, expanding immediately

above the ovary; peduncles racemosely 5-15

flowered; berry small, currant-like, beset with

glandular -tipped hairs. Nos. 28, 29.

AA. Thornless and prickless ; leaves plaited in the bud ; racemes

few to many -flowered; stamens short. (Currants.)
B. Calyx dilated immediately above the ovary.

c. Leaves without resinous dots beneath. Nos. 30, 31,

32, 33, 34.
cc. Leaves bearing resinous dots on the under surface.

Nos. 35, 36, 37, 38, 39.

BB. Calyx prolonged above the ovary into a campanulate or
cylindrical tube,
c. Flowers in leafy clusters, somewhat corymb-like;

leaves with rounded lobes. Nos. 40, 41.
cc. Flowers in leafless racemes. Nos. 42, 43, 44, 45, 46,

47, 48.

AAA. Thornless and prickless ; leaves convolute in the bud ; racemes
several -flowered; calyx tube much elongated. No. 50.

Fig. 80. Ribes speciosum (X%).

1. EIBES SPECIOSUM, Pursh. Fuchsia-flowered Gooseberry.

(Fig. 80.)

Stem thick and woody, 6-10 feet (2-3 meters) high, the
smaller branches covered with fine prickles and glandular -tipped
hairs ; thorns long and slender, commonly in threes : leaves small,

THE FUCHSIA-FLOWERED) GOOSEBERRY 447

thick and shining, nearly evergreen in its native habitat, three -
lobed, with coarse rounded serrations, roundish or wedge-shaped
at base. Flowers borne on slender, hanging peduncles, 2-4 on
each, drooping, petiole and calyx tube densely covered with short
grandular tipped hairs; calyx cylindraceous %-% of an
inch (12-20 mm.) long; stamens extending % of an inch
(20 mm.) beyond the calyx, both bright red, giving some
resemblance to a fuchsia; anthers very short, berry prickly, dry,
few seeded.

Original distribution. — The Pacific coast region, extending from
California into British Columbia.

This species is distinct from all other members of the genus,
owing to its long red flowers. It seems to have renounced the
quiet dress of its ancestors and to have become imbued with the
spirit of display so common among plants in the region of the
Golden Gate. In spite of its beauty it has received little recog-
nition as an ornamental. It deserves a place in ornamental col-
lections wherever it will thrive.

2. R. MENZIESII, Pursh. (Fig. 81.)

Stems 5-10 feet (15-30 decimeters) high, branches naked
or densely covered with fine slender bristles, grandular-tipped
when young, young twigs and petioles also pubescent; thorns
usually triple, very long and slender pointed, the central one
reaching % of an inch (20 mm.) in length. Leaves soft pubes-
cent beneath, seldom or never viscid, 3-5 lobed, the lobes crenu-
late toothed and incised; peduncles 1-2 flowered; calyx purplish
red, %-/£ inch (10-13 mm. ) long, pubescent on the outside, its
lobes exceeding the funnel-shaped tube, recurved or spreading at
maturity; petals thickish, truncate involute, whitish, reaching
the base of the white anthers; berry % of an inch (10 mm.) in
diameter, densely covered with long and slender straw-colored
bristles.

Distribution. — Northern California and Oregon.

The species has little to recommend it for cultivation. The
fruit, though of good size, is said to be dry, and is too prickly to
be of value.

3. K. SUBVESTITUM, Hook. & Arn. (Fig. 82.)

Tall, open shrub, 5-10 feet (15-30 decimeters) high,
branches rather stiff and upright, sparsely beset with slender
prickles and short glandular -tipped hairs, thorns triple or even
quadruple, long and slender; leaves roundish, less deeply lobed
than in the preceding species, bearing short stalked glands both

Fig. 81. Ribes Menziesii (X%).

WESTERN GOOSEBERRIES

449

on the upper and under surface, very viscid and heavy scented ;
peduncles 1-3 flowered; calyx tube broadly companulate, lobes
purple-red, narrow, twice as long as the tube, reflexed in flower;

Fig. 82. Ribes subvestitum (X%).

petals white, waxy, truncate, entire ; strongly involute ; stamens
well exserted; anthers sagittate, minutely pubescent; berry large,
dark red, insipid, very densely covered with short grandular-
tipped prickles or hairs, which extend to the pedicels; gummy,
with a strong resinous odor.

Common in the coast ranges of California.

This is not B. subvestitum, Hook., as figured in Bot. Mag. t.
4931. The species has little interest from a horticultural stand-
point.

450 BUSH-FRUITS

4. B. AMARUM, McClatchie.

"Shrub 3-8 feet (1-3 meters) high, rigid stems and branches
beset with yellowish brown (commonly triple) spines, often
setose -hispid; leaves, inflorescence and young branches glandular-
pubescent and bitterish fragrant, leaves thin, %-!%" inches (15-
40 mm.) broad, 3-5 lobed and incised; peduncles 1- or 2-flowered,
3-5 lines (6-12 mm.) long; pedicels each with a round-ovate
2-4 (usually 3) lobed bract, about three lines (6 mm.) long;
flowers 3-4 inches long, calyx-tube oblong -campanulate, 3 lines
(6 mm.) long, segments purplish red, reflexed, 4 lines (8 mm.)
long, tips greenish, especially on back; petals pinkish white,
red-streaked near base on inside, 2 lines (4 ram.) long, strongly
involute, suborbicular when flattened out, rounded and erose-
toothed at summit; pinkish filaments equaling or slightly exceed-
ing1 the petals; anthers sagittate, ovate-oblong, mucronate,
purplish, ovary densely grandular hairy ; mature berry /£-% inch
(12-20 mm.) in diameter, densely covered with glandular bristles
which produce a very bitter secretion; pulp sweet." — McClatchie,
Erythea, 2, 79.

This is very closely related to B. subvestitum, Hook. & Arn.
Described from southern California. Found in shaded canons.

5. B. CALIFORNICUM, Hook. & Arn. (Fig. 83.)

Shrub 2-4 feet (6-12 decimeters) high, with rigid, zigzag,
glabrqus branches, thorns slender, brownish red like the branches,
mostly single; leaves small, % inch (12 mm.) in diameter, 3-5
lobed, roundish, not viscid nor heavy scented, glabrous when
mature; peduncles short, 1-3 flowered, pedicels short, each with
a persistent, small, round-ovate bract at the base; calyx lobes
lurid purple, petals white, thick, strongly involute, truncate and
irregularly toothed at summit, reaching the base of the anthers;
anthers ovate-oblong, purple-red, prominent; ovary glandular-
hispid; berry large, prickly, not gummy.

Found in California on bleak hills, blooming earlier than
other species, with a pleasant flowery odor.

G. E. EOEZLI, Eegel.*

Low, much-branched shrub, branches glabrous, twigs pubes-
cent; leaves, 3-5 lobed, glabrous on both sides, lobes rounded,
doubly and coarsely dento-crenate toward the apex, petiole
pubescent, setose -ciliate at the base; spines 1-3, slender, spread-
ing; peduncles 1- to 2-flowered, puberulent, pedicels subtended
by a broad truncate bract, which is pubescent at the margins,

*Gartenflora 1879 : 226. Tafel 982.

WESTERN GOOSEBERRIES

451

Pig. 83. Bibes Calif ornicum CX%).

Fig. 84. Bibes Victoria (X%).

enwrapping the pedicel; ovary and calyx-tube densely pubes-
cent but not glandular; calyx reddish brown, tube sub-cylindri-
cal, longer than the ovary; lobes broad-oblong, obtuse, recurved
in flower, about as long as the tube; petals white, oblong, the
margins involute, truncate, dentate at the apex, one-third as
long as the calyx lobes ; filaments exceeding the petals, glabrous ;

452 BUSH-FRUITS

anthers elliptical -oblong, very glabrous and smooth, dorsal base
sagittate, ventral base rounded; style much longer than the
stamens, 2-cleft; leaves 2-2^ centimeters in diameter,
flowers nodding; calyx, including ovary, about 1% centimeters
long, minutely pubescent.

Northwestern North America.

The original description and figure show this to be very close
to E. Calif ornicum; perhaps it should be referred to that species.

7. E. AMICTUM, Greene.

Shrub with the aspect of E. Menziesii; branches upright,
smooth, straight or zigzag, thorns mostly triple, shorter than in
E. Menziesii; leaves small, %-l inch (12-25 cm.) in diame-
ter; peduncles 1- or 2 -flowered; pedicels short, subtended by
large, deciduous, lobed bracts, which envelop the ovary; flowers
dark purple, %-% inch (10-20 mm.) long, tube narrowly
companulate, much longer than in E. Menziesii, lobes reflexed in
flower, linear-lanceolate, acuminate, exceeding the sagittate,
whitish anthers; petals white or pinkish, % inch (3 mm.) long;
ovary ciliate- prickly; berry prickly but not densely so.

California and Oregon. Closely related to E. Calif ornicum.

If attractive in habit and adapted to cultivation, this would
be a desirable flowering shrub. Its flowers are scarcely less
striking than those of E. speciosum.

8. E. WILSON: ANUM, Greene.*

"Eigid and low shrub, with smooth branchlets and 1-3
spines at each node; growing parts and leaves more or less
villous with a short pubescence; leaves small, rounded, 5-lobed,
the lobes and teeth acute ; peduncles rather slender, mostly
3-flowered; bracts persistent, broadly ovate, acuminate-cuspidate,
villous ; ovary short -prickly, scarcely villous ; calyx dark red,
the cylindric or slightly funnel-form tube 3 lines (6 mm.) long;
segments acute, about as long; petals scarcely a line long,
thinnish white with red veins, cuneate- quadrate, nearly truncate
and scarcely erose at apex, and with narrow and abruptly inflexed
margins; filaments scarcely equalling the petals; anthers con-
nivent, with prominent cusp bent outwards."

This species was founded on a single specimen Deceived and
grown at the Botanic Garden at Berkeley, Cal. I have not seen
specimens. It was first referred to E . amictum by its author in
Flora Franciscana, hence must be very similar to that species.

*Erythea 3 :70.

WESTERN GOOSEBERRIES 453

9. B. VICTORIS, Greene. (Fig. 84.)

Shrub 5 feet (15 decimeters) high, branches covered with short,
slender prickles and glandular -tipped hairs; leaves and young
twigs pubescent and viscid, pedicels short, subtended by 1 or 2
green, persistent bracts; flowers greenish, %-% inch (12-20
mm.) long; calyx tube short, campanulate, lobes greenish, glan-
dular pubescent; petals white, thinnish, involute, acute, more or
less toothed at apex; anthers white; berry glandular hispid.

Found in the coast range north of San Francisco, and in the
Vaca Mountains, California.

10. B. HESPERIUM, McClatchie.

"Shrub 5-10 feet (15-30 decimeters) high, with spreading
branches; stems smooth, beset with dark colored spines, which
are commonly single, but occasionally double or triple ; leaves,
inflorescence and young branches puberulent; leaves thin, /£-
1% inches (15-45 mm.) broad, 3-5 lobed, the lobes incised;
peduncles 1-2 flowered, 2-3 lines (4-6 mm.) long; pedicels about
3 lines (6 mm.) long; bracts broad, fan -shaped, with ciliated
membranous pinkish margin; flowers about % inch (10 mm.)
long; calyx tube campanulate, slightly inflated, about one line
(2 mm.) long; segments from greenish white to greenish red, 3-4
lines (6-8 mm.) long; petals white, tinged with red, about half
the length of the sepals, cuneate-oblong, 2- or 3 -toothed, slightly
involute; filaments about half longer than petals; anthers ovate -
oblong, mucronate, greenish; ovary densely echinate, bristles
greenish red, mature berry very prickly, %-% inch (12-20 mm.)
in diameter."— McClatchie, Erythea, 2 : 77.

Described from southern California. Found in shady canons.
I have not seen specimens, but it appears to agree with this section
in the mucronate anthers, though perhaps lacking the sagittate
base.

11. B. LOBBII, Gray. (Fig. 85.)

Shrub 2-5 feet (6 to 15 decimeters) high; branches rigid, zig-
zag, without prickles, somewhat resembling those of R. Californi-
cum. but the younger ones glandular pubescent, the older dark
brown, with scaly bark; thorns slender, mostly triple, varying in
color with the bark of the branch from which they emerge ; leaves
less than an inch (25 mm.) in diameter, round -cordate, 3-5 -cleft,
the roundish lobes obtusely toothed, minutely pubescent and
glandular on both sides ; peduncles long and slender, 1-2 flowered ;
pedicels short, nearly enclosed by the broad bract; flower pendu-
lous, half an inch long beyond the ovary ; calyx lobes lurid purple,
pubescent on the outside; petals white, wedge-shaped, irregularly

Fig. 85. Ribes Lobbii (XI).

THE GOOSEBERRY OF THE PLAINS

455

toothed at the summit, reaching half way to the base of the an-
thers; style commonly 2-cleft, glabrous, together with the stamens
about equaling the calyx lobes in length; anthers double, short,
broad and blunt ; ovary and berry densely covered with very short,
fine, glandular-tipped prickles or hairs, which extend to the
peduncles, petioles and other young parts of the plant.

Found on the Pacific coast from northern California northward.

In general appearance this species closely resembles E. sub-
vestitum, Hook. & Arn., and is the plant figured under that name
in Bot. Mag. t. 4931. E. Lobbii is distinguished by the absence of
prickles from the stems, its long filaments and short, blunt an-
thers, and the shorter and finer, stiff, glandular hairs which cover
its fruit.

E. Marshallii, Greene, as originally described,* seems to corre-
spond so closely to this species that without access to specimens
there does not appear to be suffi-
cient reason for giving it specific
rank.

12. R. GRACILE, Michx. (Fig. 86.)

Low shrub, the old stems gen-
erally smooth and shining, the
young shoots densely covered
with prickles, which scale off
with the bark as they grow older.
Thorns mostly single, sometimes
triple, stout, straight, reddish,
%-% inch (6-10 mm.) long;
branches with occasional small,
slender prickles ; leaves thin,
rather sharply toothed, %-lX
inches (2-4 cm.) in diameter;
peduncles mostly 2 -flowered, long
slender and drooping, smooth,
or barely showing a trace of
pubescence ; flower finely divided
and fragile ; calyx tube narrow, almost cylindrical ; lobes long and
narrow, often widely extended when in flower, whitish, or greenish
white; petals thin, obovate, or wedge-shaped, reflexed.at the

Fig. 86. Rites gracile (X%).

*Pittonia 1:31.

456 B USE-PR UITS

margins; stamens several times as long as the petals; filaments
slender, slightly pubescent; style 2-cleft, smooth, like the sta-
mens, projecting beyond the calyx lobes; berry smooth, of me-
dium size, dark purple or brownish.

Michigan to Tennessee, and westward to Texas and the Eocky
Mountains.

This is the common species of the Plains. It is readily dis-
tinguished by the finely divided, fragile appearance of the flower.
Although not in cultivation, its adaptibility to the Plains might
render it of especial value for that region if improved.

13. E'. CURVATA, Small.

Low, diffusely branched shrub, the older parts covered with
loose, papery bark, the younger branches small, wiry, smooth and
shining, reddish or purplish in color; thorns slender, obliquely
recurved, %-/£ inch (3-6 mm.) long; leaves small, %-% inch
(10-20 mm.) in diameter, suborbicular ; lobes rounded, not deeply
cut, thick and beset with resinous dots; petioles rather slender
and villous; peduncles slender, commonly one, sometimes two-
flowered ; flowers finely divided and fragile ; calyx-tube very short ;
segments long and narrow, reflexed, white or greenish white;
petals minute ; filaments long and slender, pubescent or somewhat
villous; style villous, slightly 2-cleft; ovary smooth; berry round,
smooth and small.

Described from Stone Mountain, Georgia.

This is evidently the southeastern representative of B. gracile.
It differs from that species in its smooth, shining branchlets,
smaller recurved thorns, smaller, thicker and less sharply cut
leaves, which bear resinous dots.

14. E. NIVEUM, Lindl.

Shrub 4-6 feet (12-18 decimeters) high, with slender, upright
twigs and branches, and single to triple thorns; leaves roundish,
entire at base, 3-5 lobed, somewhat pubescent when young, gla-
brous when older ; petioles long and slender ; peduncles slender,
drooping, 1-4 flowered, the very slender pedicels subtended by
small, broad bracts; calyx-tube smooth, short, bell-shaped;
lobes long? lanceolate, at first upright, later reflexed, white and
glabrous; petals white, wedge-shaped, much shorter than the
calyx lobes; stamens slightly longer than the calyx lobes, fila-
ments hairy; .style 2-cleft, villous; ovary smooth; berry round,
smooth, bluish black, about the size of a black currant. Lindley

BOTANY OF THE GOOSEBERRIES 457

described it* as having a "rich, subacid, vinous, rather perfumed
flavor, which is extremely agreeable."

Found in the northwestern portion of North America.

15. E. DIVARICATUM, Dougl. (Fig. 87.)

Stems clustered, branches widely spreading, 5-12 feet (15-35
decimeters) long, nearly glabrous; thorns stocky, mostly single;
leaves shining, minutely pubescent, roundish, 3-5 lobed, the lobes
incisely toothed on long slender petioles ; mostly less than 1 inch
(25 mm.) in diameter; peduncles long, 2-4-flowered; pedicels
slender and drooping, half an inch (12 mm.) long, with a small,
broad bract at base; flower %-% inch (10-13 mm.) long; calyx
livid purple, [slightly greenish without; petals white or purple -
tinged, fan-shaped, the margins convolutely overlapping; fila-
ments and 2-cleft villous style longer than the calyx lobes; an-
thers very short and broad, mostly in pairs; ovary smooth; berry
small, glabrous, dark purple or black, agreeable.

Found from California to British Columbia, the variety extend-
ing eastward to the Eocky Mountains.

This species might well receive attention from horticulturists.
The bush is comparatively free from thorns, the fruit of good
size, fine flavor and perfectly smooth.

Covillef bases a variety E. oxyacanthoides var. saxosum, Hook.,
on the following characters: "Petioles usually with a few long,
spreading, large, but rather flexuous, bristle-like hairs on the
margins near the base, otherwise glabrous; leaves with a broad
but well-marked sinus at the base, glabrous on both sides." This,
I think, is a form of JR. divaricatum.

16. E. ROTUNDIFOLIUM, Michx. (Fig. 88.)

Low shrub, much resembling R. gracile; branches commonly
straight, with light colored bark; thorns mostly single, but very
short, gray, like the outer bark; leaves wedge-shaped, deeply 3-5
lobed, smooth or slightly downy, ciliate on the margins and veins,
petioles pubescent, the hairs sometimes glandular-tipped when
very young, peduncles short, 2-3-flowered, rather slender like the
pedicels ; calyx lobes narrow or oblong, greenish or dull purplish,
much shorter than in B. gracile, apparently seldom reflexed ; petals
obovate, small, filaments longer than the calyx lobes, style 2-cleft,
villous; berry small, smooth, agreeable.

In the U. S. National Herbarium there occurs a small-leaved

*Bot. Reg. Aug., 1834. fCont. U. S. Nat. Herb., 4:100.

Fig. 88. Ribes rotundifolium (X%)

Fig. 87. Ribes divaricatum (X%).
(Fruit X%.)

Fig, 89. Kibes leptanthum (Xl%).

BOTANY OF THE GOOSEBERRIES 459

form, with brown, irregular, thornless branches, rounded leaves
10-15 mm. in diameter, and small flowers with reflexed calyx -
lobes. The leaves correspond much better to the name rotundi-
folium than do those of the more common form referred to this
species. The plant seems to approach R. curvata.

Western Massachusetts and New York, southward to North
Carolina along the Alleghanies.

This appears to be unknown in cultivation, owing, no doubt,
to the small size of its fruit.

17. E. LEPTANTHUM, Gray. (Fig. 89.)

Sturdy, much branched, rigid shrub, 1-4 feet (3-12 decimeters)
high, with grayish bark, and no prickles, thorns long, slender,
single or triple, like the bark in color; leaves roundish, very
small, %-% inch (6-15 mm.) in diameter, 3-5-cleft, the lobes
crenately toothed or incised, finely pubescent above and beneath ;
peduncles very short, 1-2 -flowered; flower small, yellow or
yellowish, calyx pubescent, outside tube cylindrical, long and
narrow, equaling the lobes in length; petals broad, half the length
of the calyx lobes; stamens just equaling the petals in length;
anthers oval-oblong; style undivided, glabrous; exceeding the
stamens; ovary glabrous; berry smooth.

Found in the Rocky Mountains of Colorado and New Mexico
and mountains westward.

Judging only from the description* and a single specimen,
there appears to be little reason for separating E. quercetorum,
Greene, from this species. The form so described is found in
California, and is said to have fragrant flowers, with yellow fruit.

18. R. COGNATUM, Greene. t

Described as follows : " Shrub evidently large and the branches
not rigid; younger branches stiffly and densely setose -hispid,
the 1-3 subaxillary spines short, not very stout; leaves, and
especially the long and slender petioles, villous- pubescent; flowers
3-5, at the ends of long and slender pendulous peduncles;
calyx salver form, the long cylindrical tube villous-pubescent,
twice the length of the oblong segments, the whole apparently
flesh-color; petals spatulate-obovate, truncate or retuse, not
equaling the calyx segments; bracts of the raceme rounded or
subreniform, glandular -ciliate; ovaries glabrous.

"River banks at Pendleton, Oregon, May 17, 1896, Thomas
Howell. R. leptanthum is the nearest relative of this."

*BuU. Cal. Acad. Sci. 1:83.
tPittonia 3:115.

460 BUSH-FRUITS

19. B. BRACHYANTHUM (Gray). E. leptanthum var. brachyan-

ihum, Gray. R. velutinum, Greene.

Low, rigid, much -branched shrub with grayish or hoary bark,
destitute of prickles; spines slender, sometimes nearly absent;
leaves small, rounded, tomentose, and often glandular; peduncles
short, commonly 1 -flowered; flowers yellowish; calyx hirsute
without, tube short, enlarged above the ovary, narrowing to the
base of the lobes, lobes narrowly spatulate, reflexed in flower;
ovary, and at least the young fruit, finely but densely pubescent.

Rocky Mountains and mountains westward.

This form long stood as a variety, but has evidently much
better claim to specific rank than many other recognized species.

According to Coville* this plant is distinct from R. velutinum,
Greene, and that opinion may be correct. Whatever the dispo-
sition made of them, they are apparently representatives of the
same form, perhaps modified by geographical position.

20. E. LASIANTHUM, Greene.

Described as follows:! "Stout, low, widely spreading and intri-
cately branched, the height seldom exceeding 2 feet, branches
glabrous; infrastipular spines commonly 3, rather slender, straight;
rounded leaves %-% inch (13-20 mm.) broad, short-petioled,
pubescent, cleft to the middle into 3 terminal lobes, with 2-4
more shallow and less distinct lateral or basal ones, all these
3-lobed at apex, the sinuses closed; flowers 3 or 4, in very short-
peduncled racemes, yellow; calyx about 5 lines (10 mm.) long,
the hirsute tube much dilated above the ovary, thence tapering
gradually to the spreading spatulate lobes; petals also spatulate,
shorter than the calyx lobes; young ovaries hairy; fruit un-
known.

"An almost alpine species, flowering in the latter part of
July, near the receding snow-drifts in the mountains of Cali-
fornia above Donner Lake, toward Castle Peak."

Judging from the description only, this differs from R. 'brachy-
anthum chiefly, if not wholly, in the size of the flowers. In
this connection it would be interesting to know whether altitude
has any tendency to induce increase in size or lengthening of
the floral parts.

21. R. IRRIGUUM, Dougl. (Fig. 90.) JR. leucoderme, Heller.
Shrub 3-10 feet (1-3 meters) high, branches sometimes nearly

*Cont. U. S. Nat. Herb., 4:100.
tPittonia, 3:22.

BOTANY OF THE GOOSEBERRIES 461

smooth but often densely covered with fine, straight, setose prick-
les; thorns generally 3, commonly long, slender, and somewhat
ascending; bark for the most part gray or whitish, at least on
younger branches; leaves deeply cordate, 3-5-lobed, coarsely
and somewhat obtusely serrate, slightly pubescent, both above and
beneath, commonly beset, especially on the under surface, with
numerous minute resinous dots, which tend to disappear with
age, %-l% inches (2-4 cm.) broad; petioles pubescent, some-
what glandular and slightly ciliate, equaling or exceeding the
leaves in length; peduncles 2- or 3-flowered, pubescent, pedicels
short, subtended by short, rounded green bracts, which are com-
monly ciliate, with glandular-tipped hairs; flowers greenish white,
narrowly campanulate, %-% inch (8-12 mm.) long, exclusive of
the ovary; calyx lobes as long as the tube; petals obovate, white,
half as long as • the calyx lobes, stamens equaling or slightly
exceeding the petals; fruit smooth, spherical, juicy, with a pleas-
ant flavor.

From the northwest coast of the United States ; eastward to the
Rocky Mountains. Common in Washington.

Douglas says of this species, in connection with the original
description:* "Of all the species which came under my observa-
tion during my journeys in America, this is the finest in the flavour
of its berries, as well as in their size." Judging from this state-
ment, and the apparent vigor of the plant, it is a species which
might well receive attention from the horticulturist.

22. R. SETOSUM, Lindl. (Fig. 91.)

Branches commonly covered with slender prickles, which later
scale away with the bark ; thorns often several in a whorl ; leaves
cordate, 5-7-lobed, the lobes incised, together with the petioles
minutely pubescent; calyx tube cylindrical, about % °f an inen
(3 mm.) long, exclusive of ovary and lobes; petals as long as the
stamens; style commonly 2-cleft, villous; berry dark purple, sour,
sometimes hispid.

Northwestern Nebraska, west and northward to Ontario.

This appears to be the gradation species between R. oxyacan-
thoides and E. irriguum. Though the typical form is very distinct,
it is so gradually approached by JR. oxyacanthoides on the Plains
that it is at times difficult to separate them.

23. R. OXYACANTHOIDES, Linn. (Fig. 92.) Common Gooseberry.
Low shrub, 2-4 feet (6-12 decimeters) high, branches slender,

* Trans. London, Hort. Soc. 7:516.

Fig. 90. Ribes irriguum (XI).

Fig. 92. Ribes oxyacan-
thoides (X%).

THE CULTIVATED GOOSEBERRIES

463

reclined, but often crooked, reddish brown, covered with scaly
gray bark when young, commonly smooth, but sometimes with
scattered prickles, thorns single or triple, rather slender and very
finely pointed, %-% inch (6-10 mm.) long, sometimes nearly or
quite wanting; leaves thin, roundish, varying from cuneate to
cordate, deeply 3-5-lobed, the lobes in-
cised and coarsely toothed, finely pu-
bescent above and beneath, but com-
monly glossy when growing ; peduncles
very short, 1-2-flowered; calyx greenish
white, smooth or pubescent without,
tube campanulate, lobes oblong or ob-
ovate, thin and petal -like, generally
equaling or slightly exceeding the sta-
mens in length; petals broadly ovate
or spatulate, reaching half way to the
anthers; style single or 2 -cleft, villous
below, slightly longer than the sta-
mens ; ovary glabrous; berry round,
perfectly smooth, but with a delicate
bloom, small or medium sized, yel-
lowish green or reddish when ripe.

Original distribution: -Newfoundland
to New Jersey and westward to the
Rocky Mountains.

Koehne* retains the name B. hirtel-
lum (Michx.) for the more common
eastern form, with mostly single thorns,
rounded leaves and longer stamens,
reserving the name oxyacanthoides for
what appears to be a more common
northwestern form, with somewhat
heart-shaped leaves, more numerous
thorns, and longer calyx tube. Those
who adhere to a close conception of
prefer this classification.

R. oxyacanthoides may not be the most promising native goose
berry, but to-day it stands preeminent in American horticulture.

24. E. GROSSULARIA, Linn. European Gooseberry. (Fig. 93.)
E. uva crispa, Linn.

Bush stocky, rigid; branches thick, the fruiting ones without
* Deutsche Dendrologie, 199.

Fig. 93. Ribes grossula-
ria (XI).

species will doubtless

464 BUSH-FRUITS

prickles; thorns mostly triple, heavy and thick at the base, the
central one %-/£ inch (10-13 mm.) long; leaves thick and very
glossy, pubescent; petioles sometimes sparsely beset with glandu-
lar-tipped hairs'; peduncles short, 1-2 -flowered, pubescent or
glandular; calyx strongly pubescent, greenish, tube broad, bell-
shaped; lotees broadly ovate, thickish and leaf-like; petals obo-
vate, reaching to the base of the anthers; stamens shorter than
the calyx lobes; style commonly 2-cleft, villous at base; ovary
pubescent or glandular; berry generally oval, large, green, yel-
lowish green or red, minutely but roughly pubescent, often with
scattered prickles or glandular -tipped hairs also.

Original Distribution. — Europe, northern Africa and western
Asia. Linn6 applied the name uva crispa to the smooth-fruited
form.

Botanically, the American and European gooseberry differ but
little. The above characters appear to separate wild forms, but
may not be constant in cultivation. Horticulturally the two spe-
cies differ much. This is the parent of the English gooseberries.
It is widely cultivated throughout Europe, and endless varieties
have been produced. Thory* describes and illustrates by colored
plates no less than fifteen forms which he ranks as botanieal
varieties.

25. R. CYNOSBATI, Linn. (Fig. 94.)

Compact shrub, 2-4 feet (6-12 decimeters) high; branches
commonly smooth, sometimes beset with fine, slender, reflexed
prickles; thorns commonly single, slender, fine pointed, &-f inch
(5-10 mm.) long; leaves 3-5-lobed, coarsely and bluntly toothed;
petioles long and slender, pubescent, and bearing glandular-tipped
hairs; peduncles long, filiform, 1-2 -flowered, pubescent and glan-
dular; flowers small, greenish, calyx tube broadly bell-shaped;
lobes narrow, oblong, acute, half as long as the tube; petals
minute, half as long as the calyx lobes ; stamens shorter than the
calyx; style single or 2-cleft, slightly longer than the stamens;
ovary glandular-hispid; berry large, generally prickly, reddish
purple.

New Brunswick to the mountains of North Carolina and west-
ward to the Eocky Mountains.

This is a promising species. As found wild, its fruit is larger
than that of E. oxyacanthoides, often reaching half an inch in
diameter. Though generally prickly, plants with smooth fruit

"Monographie ou Histoire Naturelle du Genre Grosseillier.

BOTANY OF THE GOOSEBERRIES

465

often occur. Reports from the Arnold Arboretum* state that in-
dividual plants raised from seed collected from the same plant
may produce either smooth or prickly fruit. The berries are
rather thick skinned when mature, but sweet and pleasant. The

Fig. 94. Ribes cynosbati (Xl%).

Fig. 95. Ribes lacustre (XI).

plants are generally prolific, and are less prickly than those of
B. oxyacanthoides , being almost free from thorns in some cases.

26. B. WATSONIANUM, Koehne, E. amUguum, Watson, f not Maxi-

mowicz.

Young branches somewhat thick and soft, sometimes sparsely
beset with weak prickles, which cleave away with the bark ; spines
commonly three or more in a whorl, slender, yellowish, the center
one longer than the others, young parts glandular pubescent and
villous; leaves 1-2 inches (2%-5 em.) in diameter, roundish
heart-shaped, deeply 3-5-lobed, bearing short hairs both above
and below ; petioles long, slender, prominently ciliate ; calyx tube
broadly campanulate or hemispherical, shorter than the lobes,

*Garden and Forest, 7:315.

tProc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sciences, 18:193.

466 BUSH-FRUITS

greenish white, exceeding the stamens; stamens roundish, blunt,
as long as the petals ; ovary and fruit densely covered with very
long slender prickles, as in R. Californicum.

Mountains of northern California and Washington.

This species is the western representative of R. cynosbati, but
its fruit appears to be more densely covered with longer and more
slender spines.*

27. E. PINETORUM, Greene. t

Bush 5-6 feet (15-25 decimeters) high, sparingly branched and
few-flowered; branches somewhat zigzag, smooth, thorns slender,
1 to several in a whorl; petiole long and slender; leaves thin,
smooth or barely pubescent; peduncles short, erect, mostly
1-flowered; flowers greenish or reddish yellow, %-% inch
(12-16 mm.) long; calyx tube cylindrical, about as long as the
lobes ; lobes spatulate, reflexed, longer than the stamens ; petals
and stamens equal in length ; anthers short and blunt ; style gla-
brous, undivided; ovary and berry thickly beset with prickles;
berry large and well flavored. Flowers in April ; fruit ripens in
September.

Described from New Mexico.

28. E. LACUSTRE (Pers.), Poir. Lake or Swamp Gooseberry.

(Fig. 95.)

Upright shrub, the twigs and branches beset with straight,
slender prickles; thorns weak, single, or several in a whorl, espe-
cially on young growth; leaves heart-shaped, 3-5-parted, with the
lobes deeply cut, especially on young shoots; petioles long,
slender, glandular pubescent; peduncles long, filiform; pedicels
short, calyx open, flat, the tube nearly wanting, lobes broad,
greenish white ; petals fan-shaped, reddish, nearly as long as the
calyx lobes ; stamens short, anthers very short, each half divided ;
pistil cleft at summit; ovary glandular hairy ; berry small, bristly,
unpleasant.

From New England, through Michigan, Minnesota and the
Eocky Mountains to northern California and far northward.

Westward the species becomes smaller. In the Eoeky Moun-
tain region it is commonly glabrous (var. parvulum, Gray), and
toward the Pacific the leaves become downy pubescent and glan-

*In Fascicle 2 of «A Flora of Northwest America," which has just appeared,
the author, Thomas Howell, describes a form found in the Siskiyou Mountains
under the name It. montanum. This name cannot stand should the species prove
valid, since it has already been applied to a South American species.

tBot. Gaz. 6:157.

BOTANY OF THE CURRANTS 467

dular (var. molle, Gray) . This pubescence in some cases becomes
so pronounced and viscid as to stain the collecting sheets (var.
lentum, Jones,). This is an interesting type, because intermediate
between the currants and gooseberries, but it appears to possess
no horticultural merit.

29. R. MONTIGENUM, McClatchie. JR. nubigenum, McClatchie.
"Shrub 1-2 feet (3-6 decimeters) high, with numerous rigid,

spreading branches, armed with strong triple spines below the
leafy fascicles, 3-5 lines (6-10 mm.) apart; outer bark smooth
and light brown on 1- or 2-year-old branches, but becoming
loose and silvery with age ; leaves and inflorescence hirsute,
some of the hairs bearing glands; leaves /£-% inch (6-12 mm.)
broad, deeply 5-parted, the lobes incised and toothed; racemes
3-6-flowered, bracts cordate, acuminate; calyx about /£ inch
(6 mm.) broad, its rounded lobes spreading from place of inser-
tion on ovary; petals minute; stamens less than a line (2 mm.)
long; anthers broader than long, deeply lobed; red berries, glan-
dular, hirsute, 2-3 lines (4-6 mm.) in diameter, containing 1-3
large seeds."— McClatchie, Erythea, 2:80.

Described from the summit of Mt. San Antonio, southern
California, at an altitude of 10,000 feet. It is evidently closely
related to R. lacustre. The plant is very thorny and rugged,
with the thorns in whorls.

30. E. MULTIFLORUM, Kit.

Shrub 3-4 feet (9-12 decimeters) high, with upright, spread-
ing branches; younger twigs, petioles and peduncles pubescent,
bearing scattered glandular-tipped hairs; leaves long-petioled,
roundish, mostly 5-lobed, dark green and glabrous above, whitened
downy beneath ; racemes long, dense, pendulous ; flowers small,
green or reddish green; calyx tube broadly bell -shaped, short;
stamens and 2 -cleft style longer than the reflexed calyx lobes;
fruit dark red, as large as a good-sized pea.

Original distribution. — Southeastern Europe.

This species has long been in limited cultivation in Europe,
but is little known in the United States. It is grown at the Arnold
Arboretum* and reported as a handsome and interesting shrub,
worthy of more general culture.

31. R. PROSTRATUM, L'Her. Fetid Currant. (Fig. 96.)

Stems long, prostrate, trailing and rooting; branches erect,

*Garden and Forest, 1:189.

468

BUSH-FRUITS

greenish gray or brownish; leaves heart-shaped, 5-7-lobed; peti-
oles long, slender; racemes erect, slender; bracts small; flowers
small ; calyx flattish ; lobes obovate or roundish, greenish white

or purplish ; petals spatulate
or fan-shaped, small, together
with the anthers often purple,
shorter than the calyx lobes;
stamens slightly longer than the
petals, and stout, 2 -cleft style;
filaments thick; ovary, pedicels
and peduncles covered with
glandular -tipped hairs ; berry
glandular, hispid.

From Labrador to the moun-
tains of North Carolina,
and westward to the
Pacific Ocean; also in
northeastern Asia, upon
the islands of Saghalien
and Yesso.

West of the Eocky
Mountains the flowers
become somewhat larger
and more commonly purple,
with broader fan -shaped petals.
Both the plant and fruit emit a
disagreeable odor when bruised.
Thomas Howell, in "A Flora
of Northwest America," erects anew spe-
cies, under the name B. ciliosum, to cover
a form found in marshy ground at the
base of Mount Hood.
32. E. ERYTHROCARPUM,Coville & Leiburg.
This plant is described* as follows:
"Shrub trailing upon the ground, devoid
of prickles, the stems rooting and giving
rise to ascending branches commonly 10-
20 centimeters in height, the herbage
and inflorescence clothed with short
glandular hairs; leaves angulate- orbicular in outline, rugose,
commonly 2-3.5 centimeters in diameter, on petioles nearly

Fig. 96. Ribes prostratum

*Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash., 10:132.

THE GARDEN CURRANT 469

as long, 3-5-lobed, the sinuses extending one-half to two-thirds
the way to the base, the lobes coarsely crenate and the crenatures
unevenly but finely dentate -serrate; racemes erect, commonly 10-
20-flowered, the bracts herbaceous, lanceolate to obovate, com-
monly 2-4 millimeters long, persistent ; flowers erect, contiguous,
when expanded 6-8 millimeters in diameter, on pedicels equaling
the bracts; ovary beset with short glandular hairs; calyx not pro-
duced into a tube, the spreading lobes oblong, obtuse or broadly
acute, yellow minutely dotted with red, therefore appearing sal-
mon-colored, sparingly and minutely pubescent without, glabrous
within; petals broadly spatulate, glabrous, one-third to one-half
the length of the calyx lobes and similar in color; filaments
glabrous; style glabrous, 2-parted; fruiting racemes erect or
sometimes declined by the weight of the berries ; fruit on erect
pedicels, scarlet, subpyriform to spherical, commonly 8-10 mil-
limeters in length, provided with short glandular hairs, the flesh
white or translucent, insipid."

Collected in the vicinity of Crater Lake, Oregon.

The authors state that the plant appears, from the structure of
its flowers, to be most nearly related to E. laxiflorum, from which it
is distinguishable by its creeping habit and its glandular pubes-
cence. In the latter character and in general appearance it resem-
bles E. viscosissimum, though possessing the rank odor of E. pros-
tratum and E. Hudsonianum, which is quite distinct from the cit-
ronella-like smell of E. viscosissimum.
33. E. RUBRUM, Linn. Garden Currant. (Fig. 97.)

Stems straggling or reclined; branches thick and stocky;
leaves somewhat heart-shaped, pubescent when young, becoming
glabrous, moderately 3-5-lobed, the lobes roundish, serrate, the
teeth mucronate; petioles broadened at the base, pubescent,
commonly with scattered, short, glandular-tipped hairs; racemes
drooping, produced from lateral buds distinct from the leaf -buds ;
flowers small, yellowish green or purplish ; calyx-tube broad,
saucer -shaped; lobes roundish; petals minute; stamens and
style very short, the latter 2-cleft; fruit round, shining, thin-
skinned, bright red, yellowish white, or even striped.

Original distribution. — New England, west to Minnesota and far
northward; also in northern and middle Europe, the Orient and
Caucasus, Siberia, Manchuria and northern Japan to Kamschatka.

Slight geographical variations occur, and all native North
American forms have been referred to a separate variety (var.
subglandulosum, Maxim.), but apparently without sufficient rea-
son. In cultivation, numerous variations occur, both in character

470

BUSH-FRUITS

Fig. 97. Eibresrubrum(X%).

of fruit and foliage. The species is the parent of all our red and
white currants, and appears to thrive equally well in either hemi-
sphere.

34. R. ALPINUM, Linn. Tasteless Mountain Currant. E. saxatile,

hort., not Pall. (Fig. 98.)

Low shrub, 2-3 feet (6-9 decimeters) high; branches upright,
whitish; leaves 3-5-k»bed, the lobes coarsely incised serrate, acute,
slightly hairy on the upper surface, the petioles commonly bear-
ing short, scattered, glandular -tipped hairs; flowers small, yel-
lowish green, dioacious, staminate clusters long, 20-30 flowered,
pistillate clusters shorter, 5-10-flowered; pedicels short; bracts

TASTELESS MOUNTAIN CURRANT 471

longer than the pedicel and flower, like the peduncle, bearing
short, glandular-tipped hairs; calyx flat, lobes ovate; petals very
minute; fruit smooth, scarlet, insipid or
sweetish.

Original distribution. — Mountains of
Europe and the Orient, in Siberia, Turk-
estan, Manchuria and Japan.

Said to be in limited cultivation for
fruit in parts of Europe, improved form?,
with both red and black
fruits, being known. It
has been grown at the
Arnold Arboretum, and is
reported* to possess some
ornamental value.

35. R. VIBURNIFOLIUM,

Gray. (Fig. 99.)
A straggling bush,
altogether unlike other
members of the genus ;
bark grayish, cracking
away in rings; twigs,
peduncles, petioles and
under surface of the

Fig. 99. Ribes viburnifolium

leaves beset with bright
yellowish, resinous dots;
FiK.98. Ribes alpinum (Xl). leaves broadly ovate or

roundish, obtuse, scarcely

or not at all 3-lobed, sparsely crenate or dentate, the teeth
mucronate, thick, with a peculiar pebbled, leathery appear-

"Garden and Forest, 6 : 245.

472 BUSH-FRUITS

ance; petioles pubescent; racemes upright, corymbose; pedi-
cels long filiform, the lower ones compound; flowers small; calyx-
tube flat; lobes ovate or oblong, rose colored, several times as
long as the tube; petals minute; stamens and 2 -cleft style very
short; berry apparently smooth or leathery.

Northern part of Lower California and islands of southwestern
California.

36. E. LAXIFLORUM, Pursh. R. Howellii, Greene. R. acerifolium,

Howell.

Stems ascending, 3-8 feet (9-24 decimeters) long, unarmed;
leaves 2-3 inches (5-7.5 cm.) in diameter, cordate, or sometimes
truncate, mostly 5-lobed; lobes doubly and somewhat finely and
sharply incised, bearing very minute resinous dots beneath;
petioles long and slender, dilated and ciliate with glandular-
tipped hairs at the base ; shoots subtended by prominent scarious
bracts; racemes, ovary and calyx glandular pubescent; bracts
slender, as long as the pedicels; petals minute, red, spatulate;
calyx-tube broad, saucer -shaped; lobes broadly obovate or spatu-
late; anthers very short and broad; filaments flattened; style
deeply 2-cleft; fruit purple or black, sparingly glandular bristly.

Oregon and Washington.

This is apparently a western ally of R. prostratum, differing
from that species chiefly in the longer bracts, larger calyx- lobes,
and the resinous dots on the under surface of the leaves.

37. EIBES HUDSONIANUM, Rich.

Upright shrub, 3-4 feet (9-12 decimeters) high; branches erect,
thick, the bark scaling off in thin, papery layers; leaves large,
coarsely incised or serrate, nearly glabrous above, with minute
resinous dots beneath; petioles long, broadened toward the base,
minutely pubescent ; racemes erect, long, narrow, many-flowered;
pedicels short; bracts minute, deciduous; calyx-tube short; lobes
lanceolate -oblong, pubescent, whitish, resinous dots extending
from the outer surface of the lobes to the peduncles, being
thickest on the ovary and pedicels; petals small, obovate, one-
fourth as long as the calyx-lobes ; stamens as long as the petals ;
style single or 2-parted; fruit round, black, glabrous.

Hudson's Bay to the Eocky Mountains, Oregon and northward.

In the mountains of Oregon the calyx becomes nearly gla-
brous and the racemes longer (var. B., Hook.). This species re-
sembles R. nigrum in its fruit and the odor of the plants.

38. E. BRACTEOSUM, Dougl.

Tall, upright shrub, 4-10 feet (12-30 decimeters) high, almost
glabrous, at least with age, the smaller parts sprinkled with

EUROPEAN BLACK CURRANT

473

resinous dots; leaves large, 3-9 inches
(8-25 cm.) in diameter, 5-7 cleft, the
lobes ovate or narrower, acute or acumi-
nate, coarsely and doubly serrate, the
upper side rough, hairy, with scattered
resinous dots, under side smooth, with
dots numerous ; petioles long ;
racemes erect or ascending,
sometimes terminal, many-
flowered, 4-8 inches (10-20
cm.) long, in fruit often much
longer and loose ; bracts per-
sistent, filiform to spatulate,
or the lower foliaceous and
petiolate, sometimes passing
into leaves; pedicels erect,
pubescent ; flowers greenish
white or yellowish purple,
inconspicuous ; calyx-lobes
roundish or oval; stamens
short; style 2 -cleft; berry
black, resinous, dotted, %
inch (8 mm.) in diameter, re-
sembling B. nigrum in flavor.
Northern California to Sitka.

39. E. NIGRUM, Linn. Euro-
pean Black Currant.
(Fig. 100.)

Upright shrub, with thick,
grayish branches; leaves heart-shaped,
3-5-lobed, or incised, coarsely serrate,
the teeth mucronate, sometimes broader
than long, the under side sprinkled with
minute bright yellow resinous dots ; pet-
iole long, slender, minutely pubescent;
racemes drooping, 5-10-flowered, bracts
minute; pedicels short; flowers greenish
white, short and broad ; calyx -tube
broadly urn-shaped, pubescent and res-
inous dotted; lobes small, oval, thick
and greenish ; petals and stamens nearly

as long as the calyx lobes ; ovary pubescent and resinous dotted ;
berry round, black, larger than red currant, mawkish flavor.

Original distribution. — Middle and northeastern Europe, through
northern Asia to Manchuria and northern China.

Fig. 100. Ribes nigrum

474

BUSH-FRUITS

The species varies widely, and numerous botanical varieties are
noted based on characters of fruit or foliage. Forms occur in
which the leaves are deeply slit, or parted to the midrib. In
others, the fruit is yellowish green or whitish.

Extensively cultivated in Europe. The plant emits a strong,
peculiar odor when wounded.
40. R. CEREUM, Dougl. (Figs. 101, 102.)

Upright, much-branched shrub, 1-3 feet (3-9 decimeters) high;
stem and older branches smooth, gray or brownish; smaller
branches short, minutely pubescent, commonly glutinous, becom-
ing rough or warty; leaves roundish or kidney shaped, X~l inch

Fig. 101. Ribes cereum (X%).

(12-25 mm.) in diameter, somewhat 3-5-lobed, crenately toothed,
firm in texture, with minute white waxy dots on one or both sides ;
petioles pubescent; racemes short, drooping, compactly 3-5-flow-
ered, pubescent, and beset with glandular-tipped hairs which
extend to the bracts and ovary; pedicels very short; bracts oval
or broad and leaf-like, incised at the tip, closely covering the
pedicel and ovary; flowers small; calyx-tube narrow, %-% inch
(6-12 mm.) long, somewhat angular, pubescent, nearly white, or
pinkish at the base; lobes short, ovate, reflexed; petals minute,
orbicular; stamens concealed within the calyx-tube; style slightly
exceeding it, 2-parted at the tip; berry of medium size, bright
red, somewhat glandular, sweet, but not agreeable.

From New Mexico northward through the Rocky and Sierra
Nevada Mountains to British Columbia.

The flowers are commonly almost sessile, but a form from
Montana has slender pedicels, longer than the bracts (var. pedi-
cellare, Gray).

BOTANY OF THE CURRANTS 475

41. E. VISCOSISSIMUM, Pursh. (Fig. 103.)

Large, branching bush, 2-6 feet (6-18 decimeters) high, stem
and older branches smooth, dark red, young shoots pubescent and
viscid-glandular; leaves round- cordate, 1-3 inches (2.5-8 cm.)
wide, distinctly 3-5-lobed, lobes roundish, doubly crenate, some-
what incised, more or less rugose and veiny, glandular pubescent
above and below, emitting a peculiar scent, likened to old apples,

Fig. 102. Eibes cereum (XI).

when touched; petioles long; racemes erect, covered with viscid
glandular pubescence, which extends to the calyx tube; bracts
linear-oblanceolate, entire or slightly incised at tip, as long as the
pedicels; pedicels commonly %-% inch (6-12 mm.) long; flowers
large, fragrant; calyx yellowish or whitish green, tube broad,
campanulate or ventricose, lobes oblong, nearly as long as the
tube, spreading but not reflexed ; petals ovate, white, shorter than
the calyx lobes; stamens and pistil hidden within the flower; fruit
ovoid, black, rough, glandular -hairy or rarely smooth, flavor
unpleasant.

High altitudes of the Rocky and Sierra Nevada Mountains in
the northern portion of the United States and southern British
America.

Douglas says* that the berries are so musky or mawkish that
two or three will produce vomiting, though it has since been pro-
nounced edible.

* Trans. Lon. Hort. Soc. 7:511.

476

BUSH-FRUITS

42. B. SANGUINEUM, Pursh. Bed -flowered Currant. (Fig. 104.)

An erect, branching shrub, 2-12 feet (1-4 meters) high- with
red, smooth branches; young twigs and petioles pubescent or
glandular -hairy; leaves round -cordate, 2-4 inches (5-10 cm.)

Fig. 103. Ribes viscossissimum (X%).

broad, 3-5-lobed, doubly serrate, minutely pubescent above, downy
or smooth beneath, petioles long, dilated and ciliate at base;
racemes long, pendulous; bracts obovate, red or whitish, mem-
branous, usually as long as the pedicel; calyx tube campanulate
or short cylindrical, lobes obovate, broad, about as long as the
tube, purple-red or rose-colored; petals spatulate, commonly
white, somewhat shorter than the calyx lobes, equaling the

THE RED-FLOWERED CURRANT

477

stamens; style 2-cleft at apex, glabrous, slightly exceeding the
stamens ; ovary beset with short, glandular-tipped hairs, which
extend upward to the calyx and downward to the peduncles ; fruit
bluish black, generally rough, glandular- hairy, tough, dry and
bitterish. A variable species.

Var. VARIEGATUM, Watson.

Described as low, nearly glabrous; racemes short and dense,
ascending, barely glandular; calyx tube broadly campanulate, not
longer than the lobes, rose color, with the petals white, the whole
flower only 3 lines (6 mm.) long. Available specimens in fruit

Fig. 104. Ribes sanguineum (X%).

indicate a slightly thicker and more leathery leaf, decidedly downy
beneath, a somewhat loose, erect, few-flowered cluster, with
deciduous bracts. This form is well marked, and perhaps ought
to stand as a separate species, being so recognized by some, under
the name R. Nevadense, Kellogg.

What appears to be the eastern representative of the same form
was described from Colorado by Rothrock,* under the name JR.
Wolfii. Judging from the description only, this differs somewhat
from the western form, and perhaps ought to be recognized as a
separate variety, or possibly even as a distinct species.

Original distribution. — From southern British Columbia, through
California, eastward to the Rocky Mountains, in the form Wolfii,

*Amer. Nat. 8:358.

478

BUSH-FRUITS

Fig. 105. Ribes Gordonianum (X%).

and southward along the mountains of the Pacific coast through

Mexico and South America.

Numerous forms appear in cultivation, some of which have

received varietal names among horticulturists. The most impor-
tant are var. albidum,
with whitish, dirty yel-
low, or yellowish red
flowers, and even white
fruit;* var. atrorubens,
with dark, blood -red flow-
ers, and var. flore pleno,
with dark, clear, double
flowers.

This is a handsome
currant, and is generally
prized for ornament, both

in Europe and America. An excellent colored plate appears in

the Transactions of the London Horticultural Society, Vol. vii, p.

509. In its native habitat, the woods are gay with its bloom in

springtime.

43. R. GLUTINOSUM, Benth.

Young growth more glandular and less pubescent than R. san-
guineum; leaves large, 2-6 inches (5-15 cm. ) broad, not deeply
lobed, somewhat resembling the leaves of fiubus odoratus, not
downy; racemes long, many -flowered; calyx tube narrowly bell-
shaped, lobes thin, membranous, much longer than the stamens;
ovary glandular, but apparently becoming nearly smooth when
mature; fruit as large as a gooseberry.

California and the Pacific coast.

According to Prof. E. L. Greene, this species blooms in Jan-
uary, and sanguineum in March.

44. R. GORDONIANUM. (Fig. 105.)

This is a hybrid between E. sanguineum and E. aureum, which
is said to have been raised in England many years ago. It is
intermediate between the two in character. The flowers resemble
those of R. sanguineum in shape, but are lighter colored, somewhat
like faded ones of that species; they are produced in showy

* Popular Gardening 4:10, Figure.

BOTANY OF THE CURRANTS 479

racemes, and are yearly odorless. The bush resembles that of
R. aureum, and is generally fruitless. It is intermediate between
the two species in hardiness, being commonly injured at the
Arnold Arboretum,* though reported perfectly hardy at Rochester,

N. Y.t

45. E. MALVACEUM, Smith. CFig. 106.)

More rigid and compact than B. sanguineum, 3-6 feet (1-2
meters) high, all young parts, including the peduncles and flowers,
villous-tomentose and beset with short, glandular -tipped hairs;
leaves thick, 1-2 inches (2.5-5 cm.) broad, rugose, .the upper
side hispid, with short, glandular-tipped hairs, under side white
tomentose, somewhat 3-5-lobed, finely and doubly serrate; petioles
short, but slightly dilated or ciliate at base, sparingly beset with
short, glandular hairs, which extend to the veins beneath; racemes
short and dense, the flowers small, nearly sessile, yellowish white
or flesh colored; bracts ovate-lanceolate, tomentose and glandular;
calyx tube narrow, cylindrical, and broadest just above the ovary,
lobes small, short, not over half as long as the tube ; petals minute,
white, roundish, or subreniform; style shorter than the stamens,
undivided, villous; berry oval, % of an inch (8 mm.) long, pur-
ple, glaucous, pulp soft and sweet.

On the coast ranges from San Francisco Bay southward.

Although resembling B. sanguineum, it is less ornamental than
that species, the flowers being much smaller, with less color and
borne in shorter and denser racemes.

46. E. TORTUOSUM, Benth.

Small, much branched shrub, flowering before the leaves
appear; branches short, often tortuous, with smooth, ashy gray
bark; leaves few and small, cordate at base, 5-lobed, the younger
puberulent; bracts minute, half as long as the pedicels; racemes
terminal, Jf-1 inch (12-25 mm.) long, 8-15 -flowered, minutely
puberulent, subtended by persistent brown scales; pedicels spread-
ing, 2-4 millimeters long; calyx tube cylindrical, glabrous, about
4 millimeters long; lobes ovate, reflexed, half as long as the
tube; petals ovate, half as long as the calyx lobes; stamens as
long as the petals; style slightly 2-cleft at apex; fruit small,
apparently glandular, black and dry.J

Confined to southern California.

* Garden and Forest 6:245.
t Horticulturist 1854 : 142.

^Described from an imperfect specimen, supplemented by description given
by Walpers, Repertorium, 5:822.

Fig. 106. XibesmalvaceUm(X%). Fi«. 107. Ribes Americanum (X%\

THE AMERICAN BLACK CURRANT 481

B. Palmeri, V. & E., may belong here. I have neither had
access to the description nor specimens, but imperfect specimens
th the herbarium of the Missouri Botanic Garden, labeled Pal-
meri, have been referred to tortuosum.

47. R. AMERICANUM, Mill. -B. floridum. L'Her. Wild Black

Currant. (Fig. 107.)

Bush low and spreading, 2-5 feet (6-15 decimeters) high;
branches long and somewhat drooping, slightly angular; leaves
sharply 3-5-lobed, the lobes acute, coarsely and doubly serrate,
bearing bright yellow resinous dots, few on the upper, many on
the lower side, scarcely pubescent except the petioles and veins
beneath; racemes long, pendulous, many-flowered; peduncles,
bracts and pedicels downy-pubescent without glandular-tipped
hairs, bracts linear, longer than the pedicels; flowers greenish
white or yellow, /£-% inch (6-10 mm.) long; calyx tube bell-
shaped or gradually broadening, barely pubescent, but not resinous,
dotted; lobes large, obovate, pubescent, but thin, petal-like;
petals and stamens nearly as long as the calyx lobes; ovary
smooth; fruit medium sized, roundish oval, smooth, black, simi-
lar to the European black currant in flavor.

Nova Scotia and New England, south to Virginia, and west-
ward to Colorado and Manitoba.

This species is seldom cultivated, but apparently deserves to
be. It forms a graceful, spreading bush, with luxuriant light
green foliage and long drooping racemes. Dippel,* under the
name E. intermedium, describes a hybrid between this species
and B. nigrum, which has long been in cultivation in Bohemian
gardens.

48. R. MOGOLLONIGUM, Greene.

This is described as follows :f "Glabrous and sparingly glandu-
lar, 6-10 feet (18-30 decimeters) high; leaves 1-3 inches (2.5-
7.5 cm.) wide, 5-lobed; the lobes triangular, doubly serrate;
petioles one inch long; racemes few-flowered, subcapitate, on
erect peduncles which surpass the petioles; bracts rhombic -ovate,
the lowest somewhat spatulate, their margins glandular; flowers
small; ovaries clothed with stalked glands; calyx-tube very short;
sepals ovate -oblong, campanulate- spreading, greenish and marked
with dark green or purplish veins; petals white, spatulate, very
small; berry smooth, black, edible."

*Handbuch der Laubholzkunde, 3:296.
fBull. Torrey Bot. Club, 8:121.
EE

482

BUSH-FRUITS

Collected on the Mogollon Mountains, New Mexico.
This is plainly the western representative of R. Americanum.
It appears to differ chiefly in the shorter and more erect racemes,

Fig. 108. Ribes aureum (XX) . Fig. 109. Ribes aureum t enuiflorum ( X%) .

and in the glandular character of the ovaries and margins of the
bracts.

49. R. AUREUM, Pursh. Missouri, Flowering, Golden, or Buffalo

Currant. (Fig. 108.)

Free-growing shrub, 4-6 feet (1-2 meters) high, sprouting from
the roots; branches graceful and drooping; young shoots very mi-
nutely pubescent ; leaves firm, smooth and shining, densely covered,

THE FLOWERING CURRANT 483

when very young, with brown or yellow resinous beads which dis-
appear with age; leaves of young shoots sharply and deeply 3-5-
lobed, the lobes coarsely and somewhat sharply toothed, truncate,
or very broadly wedge-shaped at base, 1/^-2 inches (4-5 cm.)
broad, resembling maple leaves in form ; leaves of bearing shoots
smaller and narrower at base, commonly 3-lobed, the lobes often
short, broad and entire; peduncles short, few-flowered, emerging
from clusters of leaves ; bracts large, leaf -like, commonly exceed-
ing the pedicels; flowers spicy-scented, yellow and showy; calyx -
tube %-/£ inch (10-12 mm.) long, narrow and glabrous, lobes
spreading, broad, obovate or oblong, obtuse, one -third as long as
the tube; petals obovate, erose, red, %-/•£ as l°ng as the calyx-
lobes; stamens spreading and alternating with the petals; style
longer, undivided; fruit round or oval, dark brown or black,
commonly with a bluish bloom, flavor peculiar.

Var. TENUIFLORUM* (Lindl.), Torrey. (Fig. 109.)

Taller, leaves thick, light green, broadly 3-5- lobed, racemes
longer and more loosely flowered; flowers scentless; berries
amber colored, approaching a pale cherry-red when fully mature,
acidulous, without aroma.

Original distribution. — From the Mississippi Valley westward to
the Kocky Mountains. The variety from somewhat east of the
Eocky Mountains to the Pacific coast.

For the position of Ribes aureum in cultivation, see Chapters
XIV and XV.

Many synonyms for the preceding species are to be
met with in horticultural and botanical writings. The
following are added, either on account of having been
mentioned in American horticultural literature, or be-
cause not easily found elsewhere.

R. acerifolium, hort.=rubrum.
JR. Beatonii, hort.=Gordonianum.
R. dikuscha, Tisch.= nigrum.

*Professor Greene considers this western form a distinct species, but Professor
Piper, of Washington, writes that he has seen forms with red fruit, with yellow
fruit, and with black fruit growing close together, and that all had distinctive
flavors. The form described iby Rydberg (Flora of Nebraska, Part 21:71) as var.
chrysococcus, probably belongs to this variety.

484 B USH-FR UI TS

E. flavum, Colla = aureum.

E. leiobotrys, Koehne = aureum.

E. Loudoni, hort.= Gordonianum.

E. migratorum, Suksdorf = rubrum.

E. Missouriense, hort.=Americanum.

E. odoratum, hort.= aureum.

E. resinosum, Pursh.= orientale.

E. Eusbyi, Greene, in Nat. Herb.= pinetorum.

E. saxatile, hort.= alpinum.

HYBRIDS

Numerous hybrids have been produced in the genus
Ribes, the best known being the one 'known as R.
Oordonianum (R. aureumXsangnineumJ. Focke* men-
tions two forms of R. nigrum X sanguineum; also a
probable hybrid between R. aureum and R. Ameri-
canum.

Prof. William Saunderst has produced hybrids be-
tween the black currant and gooseberry, also between
the black and white currant.

*Die Pflanzen-Mischlinge, p. 151.

t Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, 1894:139-142.

PAET IV

MISCELLANEOUS TYPES

CHAPTEE XIX

OTHER SPECIES OF BUSH -FRUITS

Although the foregoing pages describe all the bush-
fruits which have any commercial importance in culti-
vation, there are certain other types which are either
coming into domestication or which are occasionally
seen in private gardens. To these we shall now give
attention.

BUFFALO BERRY

LEPARGYRJEA ARGENTEA (Nutt.), Greene. Shepherdia argentea,

Nutt.

The buffalo berry is a thorny, deciduous shrub, growing from
5-20 feet high, with a whitened or silvery appearance throughout.
Its leaves are narrow, !-!/£ inches long, pointed at the base,
entire, and silvery white on both sides. The flowers are small,
yellow and dioacious. The fruit is round or ovoid, scarlet, or
more rarely yellow, with a single smooth seed, and a sprightly acid
and agreeable flavor. It is borne in very compact clusters in the
axils of the small branches, ripening in July, but remaining on
the bushes till frost, or later. The plant occurs throughout the
Plains, westward to the Sierra Nevada Mountains, and from the
Saskatchewan southward to the mountains of New Mexico.

The name buffalo berry is said to have been derived from the

(485)

486 BUSH-FRUITS

custom of eating the berries as a sauce with buffalo meat. It has
also been known as rabbit berry and blood berry, while Crozier
states* that it has even been improperly called cornelian cherry.
A writer in the Gardener's Monthlyt speaks of it as the Nebraska
currant.

The buffalo berry has enjoyed the distinction of remaining a
new fruit for a very long time. In 1841 William Oakes, in dis-
cussing the advance of spring in eastern Massachusetts, mentions
the buffalo berry, and incidentally states that it was then fre-
quently cultivated. This was the same year that our earliest cul-
tivated blackberry made its first appearance on the exhibition
tables of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, and some years
before either the black raspberry or the blackberry came into
general cultivation. Yet we are still talking about the buffalo
berry as a new fruit which ought to be introduced. Fuller, in his
"Small Fruit Culturist," published in 1867, gives a full account of
it. The fruit possesses good qualities, and the plant is useful in
ornamental planting, but it is not likely to reach a wide sphere of
usefulness as a fruit -producing plant, unless it should be in
localities where other garden fruits fail. Professor N. E. Han-
sen, of South Dakota, writes that he considers it of promise only
where the currant does not do well. Attempts to establish it in
Nebraska have thus far met with indifferent results. The fruit is
abundant, but its large seed and the thorny habit of the plant are
against it. Plants vary in the latter regard, and careful selection
might develop forms comparatively free from thorns. The berries
vary much in size, commonly being about the size of currants,
though sometimes as large as small gooseberries. It commonly
occurs along the borders of streams, which indicates that it may
need a moist soil. It is sometimes found on loose, dry sand, but
with available moisture beneath. Its early-blooming period may
subject it to injury from spring frosts, hence a cool northern
slope would be desirable.

Plants are propagated from suckers, cuttings or seeds. The

*Amer. Garden, 11:650.
t!873:23.

THE BUFFALO BERRY 487

suckers are produced but sparingly, but are readily separated
whenever found. From the fact that a large number of plants
produced from suckers proved to be all staminate, Professor S. B.
Greene was lead to infer* that perhaps the staminate plants pro-
duce more suckers than the pistillate. He still thinks that this
may be true, though he writes that later observations have not
enabled him to settle the point definitely. It is said to grow
readily from cuttings taken in autumn and treated like grape and
currant cuttings. Seeds should be planted when the fruit is ripe,
or mixed with sand and planted the following spring. Fuller
statest that the best way is to plant at once in rows, one or two
inches deep, transplanting into nursery rows when one year old.
He says that they will usually bloom the third year from seed,
when the staminate and pistillate plants can be readily marked
or separated.

In planting, it is important to see that both sexes are placed
together; otherwise no fruit can be produced. Failure has often
resulted from inattention to this detail. Professor L. C. Corbett
has pointed outt that it is unnecessary to leave the young plants
until they flower to determine their sex. He says: "There is
another and easier way of distinguishing the staminate from the
pistillate plants; *. e., by bud characters while in a dormant con-
dition. With care and experience one can readily separate the
two." In the pistillate plants the buds are smaller, more slender,
and arranged in less compact clusters.

The buffalo berry is worth planting as an ornamental shrub
or small tree. Its silvery foliage is distinct and attractive, and
its loads of fruit, if not taken by birds, render it a showy object
throughout the closing months of the year. It appears to be
perfectly hardy in the northern states when once established.

The fruit has a sprightly, agreeable flavor, which makes it
pleasant to eat from the hand. It dries, but keeps indefinitely.
Fruit which has laid in my desk for several years still retains its

*Bull. 18. Minn. Exp. Sta., p. 129.
tSmall Fruit Culturist, 252.
jAmer. Gardening, 1895:45.

488 BUSH-FRUITS

sprightliness. Frost is said to greatly improve its quality, and it
may be gathered from the bushes at any time during winter, if
not previously taken by birds. It makes a very good jelly, and
is said to be gathered in quantities by the Navajo Indians, who
probably dry it.

The plants appear to be very productive, for they are loaded
with berries, yet Dr. Hoskins reports* that with him they yield
about one -fourth as much as barberries, and that the fruit is
not very good. It may prove less fruitful in cultivation than in
its native haunts.

THE GOUMI (Fig. 110)
EL^AGNUS LONGIPES, Gray.

The goumi is a low, bushy shrub, with dark gray or rusty
brown branches, commonly unarmed, though sometimes bearing
spines. The leaves are green above, silvery beneath, and
sprinkled with dark colored spots. The flowers are small, yel-
lowish within, silvery and roughly scurfy on the outside, often
dark-dotted like the lower surface of the leaves. They appear
by the middle of May, and are borne at the base of short side
shoots of the current season's growth. The fruit is oval, blunt,
or slightly flattened at the ends, half an inch or more in length,
cinnabar-red or orange colored, and covered with silvery white
dots. It ripens in July, and is juicy and fine looking, but at
first very astringent, leaving a disagreeable taste in the mouth.
This quality disappears to some extent when the fruit is fully
ripened.

The plant grows wild in eastern Asia, from Himalaya and
Nepal, north to China and Japan. It appears to have been first
brought to notice in England in 1873, having been exhibited
before the Royal Botanical and Eoyal Horticultural Societies that
year. William Falconer reports! that in August, 1889, Ellwanger
& Barry had but a single plant of it. Eeports differ as to the

*Rural New-Yorker, 1895:826.
tAmerican Garden, 11:119.

490 BUSH-FRUITS

edible quality of the fruit. William Falconer, in the note above
referred to, says that it is cooked and used as a sauce with
meat, especially chicken, and "it is one of the most delicious
sauces that ever tickled the human palate." Others do not speak
so favorably of it, saying that cooking increases its disagreeable
astringent qualities. Professor Bailey says* that he enjoys eat-
ing the fruit from the bushes when fully ripe, but has not tried
it for culinary purposes. It is too acid for dessert, being better
adapted to uses like those of the cranberry. It is also recom-
mended for jelly.

The plant is perfectly hardy in the eastern states, and im-
mensely productive. Its close relation to the so-called Russian
olive, Elceagnus angustifolia, which is a very reliable tree through-
out the northwest, indicates that it may also prove hardy in that
region. It is said to succeed well in California on various soils.
In regard to propagation, Professor Bailey says:* "The goumi
grows readily from seeds. These should be sown or stratified in
summer, before they become dry, and allowed to freeze the fol-
lowing winter. The next spring they should germinate freely.
Cuttings of the half-ripened wood strike readily in June or July,
if handled in frames."

The goumi is certainly a promising ornamental plant. Its
fruit is attractive while it lasts, and the foliage contrasts well
with that of other plants. In nurseries the plant is sometimes
known as Elceagnus edulis, and in various places it has received
mention under the name Elceagnus pungens.

A closely related species, Elceagnus umbellata, also known
under the name "Silver Thorn," has been sometimes sold for
Elceagnus longipes, and in other cases sold under its right name.
This is larger, more open and more thorny than the goumi, with
lighter colored branches, and its fruit, which is smaller and
possesses no value, ripens later. The plant possesses about
the same ornamental qualities as E. longipes, but according to
Dippel,t is less hardy in Germany.

*Bull._117, Cornell Univ. Exp. Sta., p. 383.
tHandbuch der Laubholzkunde, 3 : 207.

THE HUCKLEBERRY FAMILY 491

HUCKLEBERRIES

The huckleberries belong to the Heath family, or Ericaceae,
which includes a great many delightful wild wood plants, such as
the wintergreen, the trailing ajbutus, the heather, the mountain
laurel, and the rhododendrons. In spite of the beauty and
attractive graces displayed by so many of these plants, they belong
to a modest and retiring family. They seldom mingle among the
crowds of the open country, but withdraw to the quiet, shaded
nooks of moist woods and mossy swamps, or climb to bare and
rocky heights, where the solitude is even more impressive. So
marked is this inherent shyness that most members of the family
do not take kindly to cultivation. They pine for their woodland
glens or rocky crags, no matter how tender the care bestowed upon
them. Hence it happens that the huckleberries, though among
the finest of fruits, and among the most important- in the wild
state, are almost unknown in cultivation.

There are several causes which have prevented them from
receiving more attention. In the first place, the fruit grows wild
in abundance over large portions of the country. Added to this
has been the uncertainty of success in transplanting, which with
some species is considerable, and which is evidently supposed to
be much greater with all than it really is. But the greatest draw-
back has undoubtedly been the difficulty experienced in propagat-
ing. The spread of any plant in cultivation is largely dependent
upon the nurserymen, and one which they find it hard and expen-
sive to propagate is not likely to become widely cultivated.

The wild berry fields are yearly growing less, and while many
mountainous tracts are doubtless worth more as huckleberry
patches than for any other purpose, unless it be to produce
forests, it is evident that on most of this land the huckleberry
must give place to something else as time goes on and civilization
and agriculture improve. But the huckleberry is too fine a fruit
to lose, and it is a source of gratification to note that there are
wide-awake and far-seeing men who are learning to grow it, who
are seeking to improve it by careful selection, and who are finding
out its merits as a garden plant. The future of this fruit ought

492 BUSH-FRUITS

to be assured, for it certainly is a promising one. Though modest
and retiring, it has far more graces than most of our garden fruits,
and no menacing thorns stand ready to repel the caress of its
admirers.

Commercially, the huckleberry is a fruit of very considerable
importance, being gathered and shipped into the city markets in
large quantities. The receipts in New York city are said to
exceed 2,000 bushels per day in the height of the season, while
the entire quantity sold is estimated to be ten times that of any
other berry.* The annual huckleberry crop of Wisconsin has
been estimated at 20,000 bushels, valued at between $60,000 and
$80,000.

So little has been done with this fruit that not much can be
said of the soil and location best adapted to its culture, other than
that the nearer the approach to the normal conditions of the spe-
cies in hand, the more likely are the results to be satisfactory.
With the high -bush or swamp varieties, a moist, sandy loam or
mucky soil would seem to be desirable. They have been found to
transplant readily when grown in deep, sandy soil. With the low
blueberries, which grow upon high, rocky mountains, often with
but a few inches of mould and broken stones covering the solid
rock beneath, a near approach to these conditions would seem to
offer the best chance of success. The high varieties, at least,
seem to be benefited as much as other fruits by a dressing of well-
rotted manure.

As before intimated, the difficulty of propagation is the chief
hindrance to extensive cultivation of these fruits, yet with care
and skill the operation becomes entirely feasible. On this point
there is probably no better authority in the United States than
Jackson Dawson, and we cannot do better than take his direc-
tions. He says:f

"The growing of huckleberries and blueberries from seed
requires close attention, and can hardly be carried on success-
fully without a greenhouse or frame. The best soil to use for
them is sand and loam in equal parts, care being taken that the
sand is free from clay or iron. Shallow earthen pans are better

*Amer. Gar. 12:18,565.
tGarden and Forest, 1:183.

PROPAGATING HUCKLEBERRIES 493

for the seed than boxes, as there is less danger from fungi, but
after the first transplanting boxes may be used. As soon as the
fruit is received, it should be macerated in water for several
days, so as to separate it from the pulp, and then washed clean.
If early in the season, seeds of the early varieties may be sown
at once, and will come up in a few weeks, but as the plants will
make little growth, they will need careful handling to keep them
over the first winter. It is better to wash out the seed and mix
with fine, moist sand, and keep in a cool pit or frame until the
days begin to lengthen, say about the middle of January. Then
prepare the seed pans or pots and insure free drainage by using
sphagnum or coarse sif tings of peat. Firm the soil well and
give a gentle watering with a fine hose. When the soil has set-
tled, scatter the seeds thickly and evenly over the surface, and
give the lightest possible covering. Ttien add a layer of fine
sphagnum, syringe lightly, and set the plants in a temperature of
60° to .65°. After sowing, if the seed is not allowed to become
dry, it will usually come up in from five to six weeks, although I
have known it to lie in the ground a year and then germinate.
The pans should be examined now and then, and as soon as the
seed shows signs of germination the coarsest of the moss should
be removed. When the plants have made the first rough leaf,
they should be pricked off thickly in shallow boxes and fresh
soil, prepared and drained as for seed. They should be syringed
every day and kept growing in a high temperature and moist
atmosphere. As soon as they have covered the ground they
should be again transplanted. After the third pricking out, if
everything has been carefully attended to, they will be growing
strongly, and will neted more air and less moisture, to harden
them off gradually. The frequent transplanting in fresh soil each
time keeps the plants from damping off and encourages good
root -growth. About the first of September they can be removed
to a coldframe or pit in some sheltered situation, where they
should have plenty of air every pleasant day, but should be cov-
ered at night to keep them from frost as long as possible, so that
they may become ripened before going into winter quarters. As
winter sets in, they should be covered with moss and shutters,
and will only need airing once or twice a month for a few hours
to guard against fungus, which will start even in a coldframe if
kept long without air. About the first of May they can be
planted in prepared beds of peaty soil or a light, sandy soil of
good depth. If dry weather sets in they will require a good syr-
inging toward evening, as the plants are not deeply rooted yet,
and delicate rootlets are soon destroyed if allowed to dry. After
the middle of August the syringing may be discontinued, so that
the plants may ripen well. When freezing weather comes, the

494 BUSH-FRUITS

beds should be mulched with pine needles, oak leaves, or other
similar material, to keep the plants from heaving. After the
second year they are transplanted to the nursery, and need only
ordinary care. When finally removed they will be found to trans-
plant with the greatest of ease and no perceptible loss.

"The huckleberries and blueberries can also be propagated
from cuttings of the underground stems or stolons which are
found on many varieties. These can be taken up in the autumn,
cut in lengths of two or three inches, planted in boxes of sandy
peat or loam, and kept in a cool pit or house, away from severe
frost, until about the 1st of February. They then require a gentle
heat and moisture until they start. When they have made a good
growth, they should be hardened off and treated as other hard-
wood plants, but, like other members of the Heath family, they
cannot endure saturation while growing under artificial treatment.

"These plants can also be grown by layers, by bending down
the branches and tonguing, as with other hard -wood plants. A
good moist mulch of moss around the young layers will accelerate
the rooting. I have not as yet propagated them from cuttings or
grafting, but I see no reason why this should not be done with
cuttings of the young wood, just as other ericaceous plants are
propagated."

While some satisfactory method of propagation is absolutely
essential, if this fruit is ever to become widely grown or greatly
improved, it is not necessary that the farmer or householder should
follow these methods in order to grow huckleberries in his own
garden. In many parts of the country the wild bushes are easily
accessible, and may be transferred to the garden. Bushes growing
in dry soil or open pastures should be selected in preference to
those found in swamps. Mr. Dawson prefers small bushes, not
over a foot high, and takes them up early in September. They
are immediately planted thickly and firmly in a well prepared bed,
in which a liberal proportion of sand and peat is mingled with
loam, and protected with a heavy mulch. They remain in this
bed during the following summer, being well watered when the
weather is dry, and the ground kept well cultivated. Under this
treatment they have an abundance of fine roots by the second
spring, and can be transplanted where they are to remain with
perfect ease and safety. Mr. Dawson states that he has handled
thousands of them in this way with perfect success. His reason
for transplanting early in September is that new roots are then.

SUCCESS WITH HUCKLEBERRIES 495

formed before winter, and if well mulched, they are ready for a
strong start in spring.

Others prefer to remove the plants in spring. A. S. Fuller
states* that there is no risk in moving plants from high ground
with a ball of earth attached, early in spring, and that not a plant
had failed out of many hundreds so handled. Joseph Meehan also
reports successt in transplanting them from the woods in spring,
by cutting back one -half. Nearly all the plants bore fruit the
following year. Mr. Fuller was a firm friend of the huckleberry,
and greatly lamented the neglect which it has suffered. In his
work on small fruits, and in various other places, he urged the
importance of bringing it into more common cultivation. He
states that with ordinary care a plantation will last a lifetime.

Although so little known in cultivation, enough instances of
success with the high-bush blueberry, Vaccinmm corymbosum, are
on record that it seems perfectly safe to recommend it. In an
article in American Garden, Vol. XIII, p. 287, Jackson Dawson
says: "A number of growers in Massachusetts are becoming
interested in the cultivation of this plant, and are on the lookout
for large varieties, so we may soon expect to see blueberries as
large as cherries. Mr. Huntington, of Lynn, has now more than
a dozen well-marked varieties of good size, some being one -half
to three-quarters of an inch in diameter. Mr. Hervey, of Hing-
ham, Mass., has also been growing blueberries as garden fruits for
several years. He considers them a success, and would not be
without them for twice their cost. Benjamin Smith, of Cambridge,
secretary of the Pomological Society, has grown them a number of
years, and says a few bushes give his family plenty of berries dur-
ing the season. From a small row transplanted last spring, my
boys gathered 8 to 10 quarts of fruit during the summer."

The following letter written to the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment
Station:}: by W. J. Scott, of Bridgewater, Oneida county, N. Y.,
gives another instance of success. He says: "About fifteen years
ago I planted a quantity of huckleberry bushes on my farm, tak-

*Amer. Garden, 1888:186.
tPopular Gardening 6:41.
tAnn. Kept. 1883:287.

496 B USH-FR UITS

ing them from a cold, wet swamp. My soil is dry and gravelly —
good corn land. The plants were of both the high -bush and the
low kind. They have borne abundantly, and we now have huckle-
berries by the bushel a good part of the season. The bushes grow
taller and better than those in the swamp, and the berries are a
great deal larger on both the high and low bushes." Attempts to
grow it at the Station have proved less satisfactory. Under date
of August 18, 1896, Professor S. A. Beach writes: "The heavy clay
soil upon which our small fruits are grown at this Station does not
appear to be at all favorably to the huckleberry, None of the
plants which are mentioned in the reports of 1882-3-5 are now
alive. We have made several attempts to grow this fruit from
seed and from rooted plants, but so far the results have not been
encouraging."

The best success in growing the low blueberries, like Vaccinium
Pennsylvanicum, has apparently been, not with ordinary garden
culture, but by transferring clumps of the plants to open pastures
or a similar location, mulching, and aiming to provide them with
nearly natural conditions. This is said to have been done to a
limited extent in New England. As found wild, the low blue-
berries are much benefited by occasionally burning over the
ground. The most rational system of management may therefore
be a systematic burning of these wild tracts, as often as needed,
with some care in aiding the plants to take full possession of
the ground.

There seems to be no reason why systematic treatment of
natural huckleberry land should not yield as good returns as any
other horticultural operation. An interesting instance of this kind
is reported from Michigan.* A farm of eighty acres, having ten
or fifteen acres of huckleberry swamp on it, changed hands at a
lower price than otherwise, by reason of this "waste" tract. After
a vigorous campaign against berry-pickers, to establish his rights
of proprietorship, the owner, in 1880, sold fruit to the amount of
$700, and nearly as much in 1881. In other words, this ten or
fifteen acres of land, which was supposed to be a detriment to the
place, had yielded more money than all the rest of the farm. Such

*Mich. State Hort. Soc. Kept. 1881:231.

BOTANY OF THE HUCKLEBERRIES 497

swamps might be easily improved by supplementary planting
when the stand of bushes is imperfect.

On the whole, there seems to be no reason why the huckleberry
should not acquire a prominent place among the cultivated fruits
of our gardens, and in its natural habitats become a source of
very considerable profit. Its successful culture will doubtless
be chiefly confined to the eastern half of the country, principally
to the Allegheny region and Atlantic coast. The possibilities in
the cooler Eocky Mountain regions, or on the moist north Pacific
slopes, are unknown. So far as reported, all trials to grow the
huckleberry on the Plains have resulted in failure.

The name huckleberry is applied as a generic term to cover
the fruit of all species of the two genera, Gaylussacia and Vaccin-
ium. In a restricted sense, it is used locally to designate one or
more species of the former genus, the name blueberry being then
applied to fruit of Vaccinium species. In other cases the term
huckleberry is applied to black-fruited species of either genus.
The more general custom is to apply the name huckleberry to
the fruit of all.

The most important difference between these two genera is that
in Gaylussacia the fruit is ten-celled, each cell containing a single
seed, or properly a little stone, while in Vaccinium there are sev-
eral seeds in each cell, these being small, and the fruit forming a
pulpy berry. The seeds of the former, while less numerous, are
far more troublesome than those of the latter. The leaves and
branchlets of Gaylussacia are clammy with resinous dots when
young.

Many species belonging to these two genera are known, chiefly
in America, but only a few need be considered here. The follow-
ing are most important as fruit -bearing plants, with possible
adaptibility to garden culture.

GAYLUSSACIA FRONDOSA (L.) Torr. & Gray. Blue Tangleberry or

Dangleberry.

This is a shrub growing from 3 to 5 feet high, with slender,
divergent branches, which in the new growth are reddish yel-
low, while the older wood is covered with ashy gray bark. Its
leaves are pale and glaucous or white beneath. The flowers are
borne in long, loose, drooping racemes. The fruit is large, sweet,

498 BUSH-FRUITS

and pleasant, with a slight acidity, dark blue with a bluish white
bloom, and ripening late.

The species is found along the Atlantic coast from New Eng-
land to Florida and westward to Kentucky and Louisiana. In New
England it is said to occur only near the coast. By some this is
considered very promising for cultivation. It grows more readily
under culture than the following species, but at the Arnold Arbor-
etum, and in that locality generally, it is said to be unproductive.*

GAYLUSSACIA RESINOSA (Ait.), Torr. & Gray. Black Huckleberry.

This is a much branched, rigid shrub, from 1 to 3 feet high.
Its flowers are dull, reddish yellow, and borne in short, one-
sided racemes or clusters. The fruit is sweet, crisp and firm,
shiny black, without bloom. A white-fruited variety is occasion-
ally found, and others are reported having pear-shaped berries,
bluish fruit, or that which is covered with a bloom.

This species is found in open woods, on dry, rocky hills, and in
swamps, from Newfoundland to Georgia, and westward to Minne-
sota and the Saskatchewan. It is the common black huckleberry
of the market, and is well adapted to commercial purposes, owing
to its firmness and consequent shipping qualities. It is more diffi-
cult to start and transplant than some of the other species, which
is a serious disadvantage to the cultivator. Another objection to
the fruit of this genus is found in the little, hard, sharp -edged
nutlets, which give the fruit a seedy character. The smaller the
fruit the more noticeable this becomes, since there are ten of these
stone -like seeds in each fruit. I am told that this species is often
greatly injured by insect Iarva3 working within the fruit, especially
late in the season.

VACCINIUM PENNSYLVANICUM, Lam. Low or Dwarf Blueberry.

This is a low -growing, shrubby little plant, seldom over a
foot in height, with green, angular or warty branches. The
leaves are bristly serrulate, smooth and shining on both sides,
and the flowers are white or pale pink. The fruit is sweet and
fine flavored, commonly blue with a glaucous bloom, though forms
with nearly black fruit sometimes occur.

This is the earliest of the huckleberries to ripen, and one of
the finest. It is not so firm as the preceding species, but with
careful handling may be carried long distances, and is exten-
sively sold in market. It is found upon dry, rocky hillsides and
mountains from New Jersey to Illinois, and northward to New-
foundland and the Saskatchewan. It has not yielded readily to
the demands of cultivation. The best results have ordinarily
come from simply improving its natural conditions.

* Garden and Forest 7:328.

BOTANY OF THE HUCKLEBERRIES 499

VACCINIUM CANADENSE, Richards. Canadian Blueberry.

This is a low shrub, 1 to 2 feet high, with light green wood, and
much resembling V. Pennsylvanicum. Its leaves are broader,
entire, and downy on both sides, the crowded branchlets being
also downy. The fruit is blue-black, ripening later than that of
V. Pennsylvanicum.

The species occurs in swamps and moist woods from New-
foundland to the mountains of Pennsylvania, and westward to
Minnesota and the Bocky Mountains. It is primarily a northern
species, and not common in the United States except in northern
New England. From there and the Canadian provinces it is
sent to the Boston market in considerable quantities after the
home supply of the preceding species is exhausted.

VACCINIUM VACILLANS, Kalm. Low or Pale Blueberry.

This is a low, glabrous shrub, from 1 to 3 feet high, with yel-
lowish green stem and branchlets. The leaves are smooth and
very pale and glaucous, at least on the under side. The berries
are large and sweet, generally with a blue bloom, though some-
times black, ripening from the last of July to September. The
fruit is borne in clusters at the end of leafless branches of the
previous season's growth, and the plants are very prolific.

The species occurs chiefly in dry and sandy soil, from New
England to Michigan and Iowa, and southward to Missouri and
North Carolina. Growing as it does in dry soils, being a pretty
little shrub for ornamental purposes, and a prolific bearer, with
fruit of fine quality, it is one of the species which would seem
to be most promising for cultivation.

VACCINIUM CORYMBOSUM, Linn. Swamp Blueberry. High Huckle-
berry. (Fig. 111.)

A tall, handsome shrub, from 4 to 10 feet high, with yellowish
green branches which turn to a light gray with age, the bark on
old stems becoming rough and peeling off in shreds. The leaves
are narrow, mostly egg-shaped, either smooth or downy. The
flowers are large, and borne on the extremities of the previous
year's growth, as in the preceding species. The fruit ripens
from August to the latter part of September, and is widely
variable in shape, size, color and flavor.

The species varies greatly, and several botanical varieties have
been described. It grows chiefly in swamps and moist woods,
though sometimes found in dry, open pastures. It has a wide
distribution, occurring throughout the eastern half of North
America, from Newfoundland to Louisiana. It is probably the
most promising of all the huckleberries for cultivation. Experi-
ence has proved that it can be readily transplanted to garden

Fig. 111. High-bush huckleberry or blueberry. Vaccinium corymbosum.

JUNEBERRIES 501

soil, and will continue to thrive and fruit. Being so variable ID
the wild state, it offers the best of opportunities for improvement
and selection. Jackson Dawson says: "I chanced upon a bush
in East Foxboro last summer which was 12 feet high, loaded with
berries of a beautiful blue, rich, juicy, and half an inch in
diameter, while some were even larger. In this swamp ten or
twelve good forms of fruit might have been found, and by care-
ful selection and hybridization there is no reason why the High
Bush Blueberry should not become an excellent and abundant
fruit, as it is more easily cultivated than any of the others." It
is said not to get wormy, like the Black Huckleberry.

JUNEBERRIES

The Juneberry has received but little attention in cultivation,
though not from any difficulty in growing it, as with the huckle-
berry. The greatest impetus to its culture came with the intro-
duction of the variety known as Success. This was brought to
notice by H. E. Van Deman, then chief of the Division of Pomol-
ogy of the United States Department of Agriculture. It was
found by him in Kansas,! having been brought from Illinois,
where it had been grown from seeds gathered in the mountains
of Pennsylvania. Mr. Van Deman gave it the name Success, and
began selling plants about 1878. Some ten years later the stock
was sold to J. T. Lovett, of New Jersey.

The Juneberry has often been confused with the huckleberry
in parts of the West. It was grown for a number of years by
Dr. James Hall, of Davenport, Iowa, who, under the name huckle-
berry, recommended its extensive planting as especially adapted
to that region. On the strength of these recommendations many
wild blueberry plants are said to have been sold throughout the
state, much to the dissatisfaction of the purchasers. The true
huckleberries or blueberries have never succeeded in this region,
and only those who were deceived, and got the Juneberry instead,
obtained any real value for their investment. On the strength of
these misrepresentations, the Iowa State Horticultural Society
passed resolutions of censure, cautioning all persons against buy-

*Garden and Forest, 1:184.

t Annals of Horticulture, Bailey, 1891:51.

502 BUSH-FRUITS

ing or planting any blueberry or huckleberry plants.* The Massa-
chusetts Horticultural Society awarded a silver medal to Benjamin
G. Smith for introducing the dwarf Juneberry into that state, t
and it is interesting to note that his plants were obtained from
Davenport, Iowa, whence it was being so widely boomed as huckle-
berry or blueberry. The Juneberry itself thrives well throughout
the West, especially the western species, Amelanchier alnifolia.

It is hard to prophesy regarding the future of the Juneberry,
but it will probably rank much higher in the estimation of growers
than at present. It thrives throughout the entire country, being
especially promising upon the Plains, where many of our bush
fruits do not well succeed. One point of great importance is its
ability to endure late spring frosts without injury. On this point
one grower saysrj "Frosts that killed potato tops to the ground
had no effect in destroying even a portion of this wonderful
plant's product, even though the frost came as late as the middle
of May." The fruit is mild, sweet and pleasant. It lacks char-
acter and sprightliness as a table fruit, but this defect is readily
overcome by adding a few currants, cherries or gooseberries,
which are available at the same season of the year. To be at its
best it should be used when perfectly fresh, for it suffers much in
flavor by standing. This may prevent it from becoming popular
as a market berry. In fact, it ought to be primarily a home
berry. It is so easily grown, and the plants themselves are so
attractive that it may well find place in any home garden, how-
ever small.

One grave obstacle stands in the way of its successful culture.
Every bird in the region will be there to help harvest the fruit.
Only two remedies are apparent — either grow more Juneberries
than the birds can hold, or plant but few, in close clumps, and
protect them with netting. Benjamin G. Smith reports § having
been able to keep the birds away by scarecrows, which were
changed in position two or three times a day. Experience with

* Trans. Iowa Hort. Soc., 1877:203.
tGardener's Monthly, 1878 : 306.
jNebr. State Hort. Soc. Kept., 1896:197.
^Gardener's Monthly, 1878:306.

JUNEBERRIES 503

other fruit leads to the conclusion that very lively scarecrows
would be needed to interfere with the work of Nebraska birds. In
Europe, cheap netting is used for protecting cherries and similar
fruits, and this method could be adopted for a few clumps of June-
berries with slight expense.

The productiveness of the dwarf varieties is beyond dispute.
The plants are covered with a mass of fruit until ripe enough for
the birds to consider it worth their attention. In Nebraska it
ripens from June 10 to July 4, in New York somewhat later. It
will thrive upon any soil, as it is found from the lowest swamps
to the highest mountain tops, and when once established will care
for itself, if necessary, though it is, of course, benefited by good
cultivation and attention. It is absolutely hardy, and a planta-
tion will continue to thrive and bear fruit almost indefinitely.

The Juneberry is said to propagate from seeds as readily as
apples. It is more commonly multiplied from the sprouts which
spring up around the base of the plants. One Iowa grower
recommends root-grafting it on apple seedlings.* It has been
recommended as a satisfactory stock upon which to graft the pear.f
It has also been reported from Illinois as a particularly suitable
stock for the quince, t causing the fruit to mature earlier and
endure the winter better.

Enemies will doubtless appear, should the Juneberry come to
be generally cultivated. Already it has been notedg that the plum
curculio is frequently found among the bushes, and many of the
fruits are stung by them. The berries were also found to be
injured by a coleopterous larva, not determined.

The different species are so variable in the wild state that
varieties would doubtless multiply rapidly were they to come into
general cultivation. Already several have been named. The one
named Success, previously referred to, is doubtless the most
widely known, but Professor Budd refers to four forms of Amelan-

*Trans. Iowa Hort. Soc., 1880:130.
tGardener's Monthly, 1861: 229, 300 and 361.
jTrans. Iowa Hort. Soc.. 1879 :440.
glnsect Life, 3:219.

504 BUSH-FRUITS

cliier alnifolia,* which have been given varietal names according
to the source from which they have come. "Alpina" is the name
given to a dwarf form received from the mountains of Colorado ;
" Gardener " and " Williams " were named for the parties from
whom they were received, and the name "Greene" was applied to
a variety received from Greene county. He reports all of these
more satisfactory in Iowa than either the eastern United States or
European species.

The genus Amelanchier, to which the Juneberries belong, is
closely related to the genus Pyrus, which includes the apple and
pear. The species are not numerous, and all are closely related.
The following are of most interest from a horticultural stand-
point :

AMELANCHIER CANADENSIS (Linn.), Medic. Shad-Bush Juneberry.

This is the best known form in the eastern part of the country.
It often reaches a height of forty feet, with a tall straight trunk
and small spreading branches, forming a narrow, oblong, round-
topped tree. It occurs from Newfoundland to Florida, west to
Louisiana and eastern Nebraska, and farther northward to the
Rocky Mountains. Though a desirable ornamental tree, its large
size is against it as a fruit -bearing plant. Many of the trees
growing wild appear to be sterile. The hills are dotted with their
white bloom in early springtime, but comparatively few fruiting
trees are found in summer.

A. BOTRYAPIUM (L. f.), D. C. Dwarf Juneberry. A. Canadensis
var. oblongifolia, Torr. & Gray.

This is a low plant, from two to five feet high, bearing smaller
flowers than the preceding species. It is found from Quebec and
New Brunswick to Virginia, and west to Missouri and Minnesota,
and is one of the most promising forms for cultivation. The
variety known as Success belongs here.

A. OLIGOCARPA (Michx.), Roem. Northern Dwarf Juneberry.

This is another dwarf form, two to four feet high, found in
cold swamps and mountain bogs from New York and Northern
New England northward to Labrador and Newfoundland. It is
highly recommended as an ornamental plant and the fruit is said
to be large, dark blue-purple, with a heavy bloom, often nearly

*Popular Gardening, 6:2.

BOTANY OF THE JUNEBERRIES

505

Fig. 112. Amelanchier .alnifolia.

twice as long as broad, sweet, with a more decided flavor than
that of the other Juneberries.

A. ALNIFOLIA, Nutt. Western Service Berry or Shad Bush.

(Fig. 112.)

This is a low shrub, usually only a few feet high, though
rarely becoming a slender tree. The leaves are broad, oval or

506 BUSH-FRUITS

nearly circular in outline, and the fruit ripens from June to Sep-
tember, according to location. It is dark blue, or sometimes
nearly black, covered with a glaucous bloom, very sweet and
juicy, and is said to reach from half an inch to nearly an inch in
diameter. The species is widely distributed over the western half
of the continent, extending eastward as far as the western shores
of Lake Superior and the northern peninsula of Michigan. It is
one of the most promising species as a fruit -producing plant. Its
great productiveness and the large size and good quality of its
fruit are likely to place it in the lead for the western half of the
country, at least.

THE TREE CRANBERRY (Fig. 113)

The so-called tree cranberry or cranberry-tree is not a cran-
berry in any sense of the word. It has received this name owing
to a superficial resemblance of its fruit to that of the cranberry.
Though round and red like the cranberry, in structure and flavor
it is entirely different. The plant belongs to the Honeysuckle
family, the species being Viburnum opulus, Linn. It is a tall and
nearly smooth shrub, with gray bark, scaly buds and large, three
to five-lobed leaves, the lobes pointed and commonly few -toothed.
The flowers are white, borne in broad, flat clusters, and are fol-
lowed by the bright -colored fruit which is carried on the tips of
the branches, well above the leaves. The species is much better
known in the modified form in which it commonly appears in
cultivation, which is the guelder rose or snowball tree so fre-
quently planted upon lawns. In that form it has become entirely
sterile, by the culture adopted to bring out the spherical head of
bloom. In the wild type only the marginal florets are neutral.

The species is found wild in the northern parts of Europe, Asia
and North America, and is in many respects a more desirable
ornamental plant than its modified descendant. Although pleas-
ing in habit and foliage, it is especially attractive in fruit. About
the last of July the berries take on a greenish yellow or orange
hue, tinged with bright red on the side toward the sun. From
that time until spring, unless taken by the birds, which com-
monly do not molest it when other food is abundant, the fruit is
always attractive. When ripe in autumn it becomes a brilliant

THE TREE CRANBERRY

507

Fig. 113. Tree Cranberry, Viburnum opulus.

deep scarlet and remains so until severe frosts, which cause it to
become somewhat duller, though it will remain conspicuously
bright all winter if allowed to hang. This renders the plant
attractive throughout the greater portion of the year. Its flowers,
too, are as graceful as those of the sterile form.

The plant deserves all the praise it is likely to receive as an
ornamental, but as a fruit-producing plant it is of doubtful value.
The fruit is said to be very sour, but more agreeable than the true
cranberry. It is used to some extent as a substitute for it, and
makes good sauce or jelly, though too astringent to suit some

508 BUSH-FRUITS

palates. A very serious objection appears in the large size of its
seeds, though different plants vary somewhat in this respect.
Were it not for this defect it might become a fruit-producing
plant of considerable importance. Its name, tree cranberry,
is a standing temptation to smooth-tongued agents to recommend
the plant as a satisfactory substitute for the cranberry, suited to
upland soils and regions in which the cranberry does not succeed.
In such cases it must prove a disappointment, though deserving
the highest praise for the purposes to which it is adapted. The
plant is perfectly hardy, so far as cold is concerned, and can be
grown in almost any soil or location. It may be propagated by
layers, by hard-wood cuttings, or by seeds, though the latter
require two years for germination.

{THE BARBERRY

Unlike many of the fruits which we have been considering, the
barberry has once been popular and has since declined in favor.
It may, therefore, be appropriate to substitute for a modern
description of the plant that given by Gerarde in 1597. He says:
" The barberry plant is an high shrub or bush, having many young
straight shoots and branches very full of white prickly thorns, the
rind whereof is smooth and thin, the wood itself yellow: the
leaves are long, very greene, sleightly nicked about the edges,
and of a soure taste: the flours be yellow, standing in clusters
upon long stems: in their places come up long berries, slender,
red when they be ripe, with a little hard kernell or stone within,
of a soure and sharp taste : the root is yellow, disperseth it self
far abroad, and is of a wooddy substance. Wee have in our London
gardens another sort, whose fruit is like in forme and substance,
but one berry is as big as three of the common kinde, wherein
consisteth the difference. We have likewise another without any
stone, the fruit is like the rest of the Barberries both in substance
and taste."

In regard to its distribution, Gerarde says: "The barberry
bush grows of it selfe in untoiled places and desart grounds, in
woods and the borders of fields, especially about a gentlemans

THE BARBERRY 509

house called Mr. Monke, at a village called Iver two miles from
Colebrooke, where most of the hedges are nothing else but Bar-
berry bushes. They are planted in most of our English gardens."

Among " The Vertues " ascribed to the plant, the following are
of special interest. " The leaves are used of divers to season meat
with, and instead of a sallad, as be those of Sorrell." After
enumerating various medicinal " vertues " he adds : " A conserve
made of the fruit and sugar performeth all those things before
remembered, & with better force and successe."

Philips, writing in 1822,* quotes from another author as fol-
lows: "Barberries are of an agreeable, cooling, astringent taste,
which creates appetite." He further says: "Pickled barberries
make a handsome garnish for all white dishes, where acids can be
introduced: this fruit is also used for making syrup, lozenges, &c.
We have now several varieties of barberry -shrub cultivated in
England, one of which was brought from Candia in 1759, and
another from Siberia in 1790, but it possesses no advantage over
our native kin4 of this fruit."

This common barberry of Europe, Berberis vulgaris, has
become naturalized in New England, and is more or less widely
planted elsewhere. Downing gives it a brief noticef and Fullert
enters into a somewhat extended discussion of it, mentioning a
number of species and varieties.

It is chiefly planted for ornament, rather than fruit, and for
this purpose another species, B. Thunbergii, or purple-leaved
barberry, which has inferior fruit, is generally preferred.

Downing says that "The barberry is too acid to eat, but it
makes an agreeable preserve and jelly, and an ornamental pickle
for garnishing some dishes." It comes into use later than the
currant and probably fills about the same place that the buffalo
berry might, were that more generally cultivated. Dr. Hoskins, of
Vermont, who has both growing, reports it far more productive
than the buffalo berry. He writes that although his plants were
set on the lawn for ornament, a good market has been found for

* Pomarium Britanicum, p. 62.

t Fruits and Fruit Trees of Amer., p. 442.

J Small-Fruit Culturist, p. 20.

510 BUSH-FRUITS

the fruit, and he thinks it would pay to plant them on a larger
scale.

Plants may be propagated by seeds, which should be sown or
stratified in the fall, or by separating the suckers which spring up
about the main stem. They may also be grown from cuttings of
one or two-year-old wood, taken in the fall, or treated like
currant and gooseberry cuttings, though they do not root so
readily as these plants.

The merits of the barberry as an ornamental plant need not
be further discussed, but as a fruit -producing plant it may
teach a lesson. We talk much of the improvement of wild
fruits, and are almost led to believe that we can take anything
that is edible, no matter how small, hard, sour, puckery or
thorny it may be, and by careful selection and hybridizing, pro-
duce from it a fruit which shall delight the taste and swell the
purse of coming generations. Does not the history of this fruit
suggest that, after all, there may be some things which are not
worth trying to improve?

THE SAND CHEERY

I cannot bring myself to close this discussion of miscellane-
ous bush fruits without a brief mention of the western sand
cherry, although its relationships might more naturally classify it
among the stone fruits. This plant is known botanically as Prunus
Besseyi, Bailey.* It is a graceful, somewhat spreading shrub,
3 to 4 feet high, with slender, ascending or slightly drooping
branches. At flowering time the leaves are small, narrowly
oblanceolate, and slightly whitened beneath, but at maturity they
become oval or elliptic, very bright and shining on both sides.
The flowers are borne in axillary clusters all along the younger
branches, so that at blossoming time these are one mass of
bloom. The fruit ranges from three -eighths to five -eighths of
an inch in diameter, and is usually very dark purple or blackish
in color. In flavor it resembles the improved forms of the east-

*For a fuller account of the species, see Cornell University Experiment
Station Bulletin, 38 : 58-65, and 70 : 260-262.

THE SAND CHERRY 511

era choke cherry, Prunus Virginiana, occasionally found in cul-
tivation, but is larger.

The species is found wild from Manitoba to Kansas and
westward to the mountains of Colorado and Utah. Its value as
a fruit-plant has been urged from time to time, and it was in-
troduced from Colorado as the improved dwarf Rocky Mountain
cherry. Plants received under this name have been growing
in the grounds of the Nebraska Experiment Station for several
years, and although white with blossoms in springtime, none
of the fruit matured until wild plants were set in the same gar-
den, probably owing to a lack of proper fecundation.

Similar lack of fruitfulness sometimes occurs when wild plants
are removed to the garden, though as a rule they are immensely
productive. Wild plants set in the spring of 1895 were loaded
with fruit in 1897. The size varies much on different plants,
showing abundant opportunity for selection. It ripens after other
cherries, from the middle to the last of July, in Nebraska. The
largest fruits are about equal in size to the Early Richmond and
English Morello, as grown here. Although* somewhat astringent,
it is rather pleasant to eat out of hand, and rapidly disappeared
from our plants, which are near to the farm buildings. It should
be left until fully ripe, for this astringency is then less notice-
able. Any eastern housewife who has known the value of the
better forms of the eastern choke cherry, though such are few,
for that species is little known in cultivation, will be able to
appreciate the merits of the sand cherry as a fruit. Many western
housewives know it already. It makes excellent sauce and
admirable jelly, and is, no doubt, equally good for pies.

Those familiar with the cultivated choke cherry find that
when its fruits are fully ripe their astringency may be almost
wholly removed by rolling them in a sack or shaking them in a
closed dish. When so treated they make an excellent dish, eaten
raw with sugar and cream. Perhaps a similar treatment might
improve the sand cherry.

Whatever value the sand cherry may have as a fruit-produc-
ing plant in the future pomology of the country, its position as
an ornamental shrub is assured, and it is chiefly to this use that I

512 B USH-FR UITS

wish to call attention in the present notice. I know of no shrub
more useful for ornamental planting on the Plains than this. It
is perfectly hardy and adapted to the region, and is a rapid and
vigorous grower.

As a low -growing shrub, or as a foreground for larger groups,
it can hardly be surpassed. In the plantings on the campus of
the University of Nebraska, it has been used more extensively
than anything else.

None of the broad-leaved evergreens, such as rhododendrons,
mahonias and kalmias, succeed in the dry and trying climate of
the Plains, but this plant is a very satisfactory substitute during
more than half the year. It is one of the first to awaken in spring
and one of the last to hold its leaves in the fall, being unharmed
by the first frosts, which ruin the effect of many ornamental
shrubs. Its bright, clean, glossy foliage closely approaches that
of the broad-leaved evergreens in effect. It has also the very
desirable quality of presenting beautiful autumn tints, as a part-
ing picture to be held in remembrance during the dreary days of
winter, a quality all too rare among the plants of the Plains, but
one which is fully appreciated by all who recall the naming hill-
sides of an eastern October day.

APPENDIX

AMERICAN BOOKS ON BUSH-FRUITS

There ai-e no American books devoted to bush-fruits alone,
except the present volume. There are a few books on small -
fruits in general, however, and these are recorded below.
Books devoted wholly to the strawberry or the cranberry are
omitted. The general fruit manuals contain chapters on the
various bush-fruits, and a list of these books may be found
in "Principles of Fruit-Growing." Much historical information
will be found in "Evolution of Our Native Fruits." The fol-
lowing are the books in the editor's library which give spe-
cial attention to bush -fruits:

ABBOTT, FRANCIS B.

HAND-BOOK OF SMALL FRUITS. Illustrated. Chicago, n. d. [n. c.]
Pub. by the author, in the eighties, pp. 36. 5%x3%.*

BIGGLE, JACOB.

BIGGLE BERRY BOOK; a condensed treatise on the culture of berries.
With leaves from the experience of many practical berry-growers in
all parts of the United States. Illustrated. Philadelphia, 1894.
[c. 1894.] Wilmer Atkinson Co. pp. 126.

FULLER, ANDREW S.

THE SMALL-FRUIT CULTURIST. Beautifully illustrated. New York.
n. d. [c. 1867.] Orange Judd Co. pp. iv-j-276. 7%x5.—
[Translated into Germen by Heinrich Maurer as A. S. Fuller's
Kultur der Fruchtstraucher, als der Erdbeeren, Hirnbeeren, Brom-
beeren, Johannisbeeren, Stachelbeeren, Kornelkirschen, Preiszel-
beeren, Heidelbeeren, Berberitzen, Zwergkirschen, etc., etc.
Nebst einer Anleitung zum Eidsammeln, zur verpackung und
versendung der Friichte. Mit. 27 Tafeln, enthaltend 103 Abbil-
dungen. Weimar. 1868. [n. c.] Voigt. pp. ix-f 142 -f 27 plates.

— Same, new, rewritten, and enlarged edition. 1881. fc. 1881.1 pp.

287. 7^x5.
-Same, third ed. 1897. [c. 1887.] pp.298.

*Size of book, in inches.

(513)

514 APPENDIX

GALUSHA, O. B.

Luscious FRUITS; How to grow Strawberries, Raspberries, Black-
berries, Grapes, Currants and Gooseberries in abundance and
economically, on a small scale. Farm Library, Vol. I, No. 5. Mar.
1, 1882. Chicago. [c. 1882.] Pub. by E. H. Libby. pp. 24.
7K x 4%.

GREEN, CHARLES A., ED.

GREEN'S FRUIT-GROWER; special issue of, devoted to Strawberry
culture, Grape culture, Apple and Pear culture, Plum and Cherry
culture, Raspberry and Blackberry culture. Illustrated. Rochester,
July and October, 1886; April, July and October, 1887. [c. 1888.]
pp. 81. 9% x 6. [Five issues under one cover.]

GREEN, C. A.

GREEN'S Six BOOKS, devoted to Apple culture, Pear culture, Plum
and Cherry culture, Raspberry and Blackberry culture, Grape cul-
ture, Strawberry, Currant, Gooseberry and Persimmon culture.
Illustrated. Rochester, N. Y., 1896. fc. 1894.] Green's Nursery
Co., N. Y. pp. 142. 9x6. [New edition of 1896.]

HILLS, WILLIAM H.

SMALL FRUITS; their propagation and cultivation, including the
Grape. Containing practical directions for the selection of soil and
its preparation; the use of manures and fertilizers; crossing,
hybridizing, and growing new varieties from seed; transplanting,
pruning, and training; gathering, packing and marketiug fruit;
descriptions of varieties, their origin, diseases, and insect enemies.
Illustrated with numerous engravings. Boston. 1886. [c. 1886.]
Cupples, Upham & Co. pp. 138. 9x6.

PARDEE, R. G.

A COMPLETE MANUAL FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE STRAWBERRY;
with a description of the best varieties. Also, notices of the
Raspberry, Blackberry, Cranberry, Currant, Gooseberry, and
Grape. With directions for their cultivation, and the selection of
the best varieties. With a valuable appendix, containing the obser
vations and experience of some of the most successful cultivators
of these fruits in our country. New York. 1854. [c. 1854.] C. M.
Saxton. pp. viii-fl44. 1% x 5. B.

— Same. Third revised edition. Illustrated. New York. 1856. [c.
1856.] C. M. Saxton & Co. pp. vi+157. 7% x5.

-Same. Sixth edition. New York. 1858. [c. 1856.] A.O.Moore.
pp. xii-fl57. IV* x 5.

— Same. New and revised edition. New York. n. d. [c. 1856.]
Orange Judd & Co. pp. xii-f-157. 1% x 5. [Contains a "preface to
the tenth edition," dated January, 1865.]

PARRY, WILLIAM.

FIFTY YEARS AMONG SMALL FRUITS. Telling what and how to plant.
Illustrated. Parry N. J. n. d. [1885.] Pub. by the author
pp.64. 9x6.

APPENDIX 515

FITRDY, A. M.

SMALL-FRUIT INSTRUCTOR. New edition. Illustrated. Palmyra,
N. Y. 1887. [c. 1887]. Pub. by the author, pp. 128. 9x5%.

ROE, EDWARD P.

SUCCESS WITH SMALL FRUITS. Illustrated. New York. 1880.

[c. 1880.] Dodd, Mead & Co. pp. 313. 9% x 7%. [The Illustrated

quarto edition.]
-Same. 1886. [c. 1881. J pp. xvi-f-319. 9x6%. [The illustrated

quarto edition, with narrower margins. Has a "preface to the new

edition," dated 1886.]
-Same. n. d. [c. 1881.] pp.388. 7%x534. [New edition;

preface dated 1886.]

INDEX

Abraxas ribearia, 419.
Accounts with pickers, 30.
Acronycta Americana, 279.

— brumosa, 279.

— oblinita, 279.

— spinigera, 279.

— xyliniformis, 279.

— xylinoides, 279.
^cidium nitens, 285.

— grossularise, 438.
Algeria caudata, 429.

— hemizoniw, 278.

— rubi, 258.

— tipuliformis, 418.
Agrilus ruficolis, 262.
Agrostis clandestina, 430.

— fennica, 279.
Air-blast driers, 96.
Alcathoe caudatum, 429.
Aleyrodes sp., 276.
Alphitomorpha penicillata grossu-

lariffi, 439.

Amblycorypha oblongifolia, 427.
Amelanchier, species of, 504.
American black currant, 390, 481.

— books on bush-fruits, 513.

— current borer, 422.

— gooseberries, 399.

— red raspberries, 184.

recommended varieties, 199.

varieties of, 192.

raspberry, 317.

Amphipyra pyramidoides, 279.
Amphydasis cognataria, 430.
Anatis 15-punctata, 281.
Anchyloptera fragarise, 277.
Angerona crocataria, 429.
Anisota senataria, 280.
Anomala binotata, 281.

Anthonomous helvolus, 432.

— musculus, 270.

— rubidus, 432.

— signatus, 270.
Anthracnose, gooseberry, 435.

— raspberry, 286.
Apatela Americana, 279.

— brumosa, 279.

— oblinita, 279.

— spinigera, 279.

— xyliniformis, 279.
Apatelodes torrefacta, 278.
Aphis ribis, 416.

— rubicola 276

Aphrophora quadrangularis, 276.
Aplodes rubivora, 260.
Ascochyta rubi, 299.
Aspidiotus ancylus, 428.

— cerasi, 277, 429.

— circularis, 429.

- furfurus, 277, 429.

— nerii, 429.

— perniciosus, 417

— pomorum, 276.
Aspilates atropunctaria, 278.

— coloraria, 278.
Asterella Pearsoni, 297.
Asterina Pearsoni, 297.

— rubicola, 297.
Asteroma ribicolum, 441.
Author's experience in planting, 9.
Attacus cecropia, 280, 431.
Aulacaspis rosas, 276.
Automatic evaporator, 93.
Autoineris io, 280, 431.

Autumn fruiting of red raspberries, 52.

Bacterial disease, 292.
Bailey, L. H., quoted, 22,

(517)

518

INDEX

Baked-apple berry* 308.
Barberry, 508.
Basilarchia astyanax, 431.
Baskets, making, 35.
Bassareus mammifer, 281.
Bernbecia marginata, 258.
Berberis Thunbergii, 509.

— vulgaris, 509.
Berry-baskets, making, 35.
Berry-crate, directions for making, 32.
Berry-harvester, 74.

Biston cognataria, 430.
Blackberries, 106. 219.

— botanical affinities, 219.

— distinguished from dewberries, 241.

— drying, 120.

— duration of plantations, 123.
- fertilizers for, 107.

— forcing, 28.

— hardiness of, 125.

— harvesting and marketing, 119.

— laying down in Hudson river valley,

— leafy-cluster, 235. [23.

— long-cluster, 226, 238.

— medicinal qualities of, 121.

— planting, 112.

— profits of, 127.

— propagating, 108.

— pruning, 117.

— recommended varieties, 240.

— short-cluster, 232.

— soU for, 106.

— tillage and mulching, 115.

— types of, 225.

— uses of, 120.

Blackberries, varieties of — Adair i
Claret, 237; Agawam, 233, 240; Al- |
bion, 237; Alger, 237; Allen, 227; I
Americus, 236: Ancient Briton, 227, j
240; Bangor, 227; Banton, 227;
Barnard, 227; Black Chief, 2C3;
Bonanza, 227; Boston High Bush,
2S6; Brandenburg, 228; Brunton
Early, 236; Cape May, 228; Carlo,
228 ; Cherry Valley, 228 ; Child's
Tree Blackberry, 240 ; Clark, 228;

Colonel Wilder, 237; Crandall, 232;
Crystal White, 237; Cumberland,
228; Cut-leaved," 154; Cutter Mul-
berry, 228; Dallas, 228, 241; Dehring,
228; Doctor Warder, 237; Dodge
Thornless, 228; Dorchester, 224,236;
Duncan Falls, 228; Early Cluster,
225, 228, 240; Early Harvest, 236:
240; Early King, 236; Eldorado, 229;
Erie, 233; Eureka, 238; Excelsior,
229; Farley, 229; Felton, 229; Ford
No. 1, 233; Freed, 220; Fruitland.
233; Gainor, 229; Grape, 229; Haley,
229; Hoag, 229, Holcomb, 229; Hoo-
sac Thornless, 230 ; Idaho Climbing,
230 ; Improved High Bush, 236 ;
Jordan, 230; Kentucky White, 237;
King, 236 ; Kittatinny, 233 ; Knox,
230 ; Lawton, 234 ; Lincoln, 230;
Lovett,234; Luther, 230; Mammoth,
238; Mason Mountain, 230; Maxwell,
230; Maynard, 239 ; Mersereau, 234;
McCracken, 230; Minnewaski, 234,
241; Missouri Mammoth, 230; Moun-
tain Rose, 230; Needham White, 238;
Nevada, 231; Newman Thornless,
239; New Rochelle, 234; Ohmer, 231;
Orange's Crystal, 237; Ozark, 231;
Parish Pink, 238; Parnell, 231;
Parker Early, 231 ; Piazza, 231 ;
Rathbun, 239; Red Hybrid, 231;
Reyner, 231; Role Early. 231; Sable
Queen, 231; Sadie, 231; Sanford,234;
Seacor's Mammoth, 234; See Early,
236, Sinclair, 231; Snyder, 234, 240;
Stayman Early, 231; Stone Hardy,
234; Sterling Thornless, 239; Suc-
cess, 234; Taylor, 25, 231, 240;
Tecumseh, 231; Texas Early, 232;
Texas Hybrid, 238; Texas Pink
Hybrid, 238 ; Thompson's Early
Mammoth, 238; Topsy, 240; Truman
Thornless, 232; Uncle Tom, 233;
Wachusett, 232; Wallace, 232; Wap-
sie, 232; Warren, 232; Washington,
232; Western Triumph, 235 ; Weston,

INDEX

519

Blackberries, varieties of—

232; Wilson, 239, 241; Wilson Junior,

239; Woodland, 235.
Blackberries, white, 237.
Blackberry, 324.

— cut-leaved, 154.

— dewberry hybrids, 135, 324.

— future of, 221.

— history of, 221.

— legend, 223.

— mountain, 219.

— plants, killing. 124.

— raspberry hybrid, 326.

— sand, 240.

— wine, 122.
Black caps, 61.

— duration of plantations, 99.

— fertilizers for, 63.

— hardiness of, 100.

— harvesting, 74.

— location for, 62.

— marketing, 82.

— planting, 67.

— profits, 103.

— propagation of, 65.

— pruning, 70.

— soil for, 61.

— tillage for, 69.

— uprooting plantations, 99.

— yield in dried fruit, 102.

— yields of, 101.
Black currants, 355, 375.

Blac.k Currant, American, 390, 481.
European, 388, 473.

— huckleberry, 498.

— raspberries, 61, 158.

history of, 158.

pollination, 114.

recommended varieties, 176.

varieties, 160.

— raspberry, 319.
Blennocampa paupera, 282.
Blueberry, 498, 499.
Bombyx ehrysorrhoea, 280.

— mori, 280.

Books on bush-fruits, 513.

Botanical relationship of the black-
berry. 219.
Botauy of the brambles, 303.

groselles, 443.

huckleberries, 497.

Botryospheeria fuliginosa, 297.
Botrytis patula. 300.
Bramble crown-borer, 258.

— diseases, 284.

— flea-louse, 254.

— insects, 251.
Brambles, 43.

— botany of, 303.

— crossing, 38.

— double white and pink, 155.

— miscellaneous, 146.

— ornamental, 150.
Breeding currants, 377.
BrincklS, William D., 191.
Brown rot, 292.

Bryobia pratensis, 275, 427.
Bud moth, 256.
Buffalo berry, 485.

— currant, 390, 482.
Building for evaporating, 97.
Bush, W. H., evaporator of, 87.
By turns unicolor. 261.

Cacoecia argyrospila, 429.

— rosaceana, 277, 429.

— rosana, 277, 429.
Caelodasis biguttatus, 278.

— unicornis, 278.
Cseoma interstitiale, 285.

— luminatum, 285.

— ribis-alpini, 442.
Callimorpha Lecontei, 280.
Caloptenus femur-rubrum, 427.

— spretus, 275.
Canadian blueberry, 499.
Cane-knot, 295.

Canes, cutting out, 73.

— number to the hill, 72.
Capnodium elongatum, 297.

— salicinum, 439.
Capsus obliueatus, 253.

520

INDEX

Care of plants when received, 10.
Carpophilus brachypterus, 281.
Carriers, 35.
Caterva catenaria, 278.
Caywood, A. J., quoted, 142.
Cecidomyia farinosa, 281.
•— grossularise, 420.
Cecidomya>p. , 281.
Cephas integrer, 426.
Ceramica pieta, 279, 430.
Ceratina dupla, 283.
Cercospora angulata, 438.

— ribicola, 441.

— rosicola, 300.

— rubi, 300.

Chelymorpha argus, 281.
Chinese raspberry, 150, 310.
Chionaspis furfurus, 277, 429.
Chittenden, F. H., quoted, 270.
Chlamys plicata, 281.
Chrysomyxa albida, 301.
Cicada septendecim, 276.
Cimex carnifex, 275.
Cingilia catenaria, 278.
Cladosporium cubisporum, 441.

— herbarum, 300.
Clisiocampa Californica, 280.

— sp.t 431.
Cloud-berry, 308.
Clover, use of, 14.
Cluster-cup, gooseberry, 438.
Clypeosphreria Hendersonia, 298, 299.

— Notarisii, 298.
Coccinella 15-punctata, 281.
Coccomyces Rubi, 302.
Coccus innumerabilis, 428.

Cold not the cause of all winter-kill-
ing, 24.
Coleosporium rubi, 301.

— Vernonise, 301.

Comstock and Slingerland, quoted,
268.

— Anna Bot?*ord, engravings by, 252.
Coniosporium Fumago, 441.
Corimeloena puliearia, 276.
Corticium incarnatum, 442.

Corticium lacteum, 442.
Coryneum microstictum, 300.
Cosmopepla carnifex, 275, 428.
Cost of evaporating berries, 81.

laying down plants, 21, 23

Cotalpa lanigera, 281.
Crabro sexmaculatus, 283.
Cranberry, Tree, 506.
Crates, 32.

Crepidodera cucumeris, 282.
Crossing, remarks on, 36.
Crown Gall, 294.
Cryptocephalus binomis, 281=

— quadruplex, 281.

— venustus, 282.
Cucurbitaria Ribis, 440.
Cultivating blackberries, 115.

— black-caps, 69.

— dewberries, 141.

— red raspberries, 49.
Cultivation, 12.
Cultivators, 14.

Currant borer, American, 422.
imported, 418.

— botanical description of, 469.

— botany of 444.

— cuttings, 341.

— extent of cultivation, 337.

— fly, 421.

— fruit-worm, 420

— history, 376.

— hybrids, 484.

— leaf-spot, 438.

— plant-louse, 416

— shrub, 351.

— span-worm, 419.

— stem-girdler, 426.

— tubercle, 436.

— worm, imported, 422.

native, 425.

Currants, 337.

— acres in nurseries, 338.

— black, 355, 375.

— breeding, 377.

— duration of plantations, 352.

— fertilizers, 340.

INDEX

521

Currants, gathering and marketing, 349.

— hardiness, 353.

— ornamental, 413.

— planting, 344.

— profits, 354.

— propagation, 341.

— pruning, 347.

— recommended varieties, 391.

— soil and location, 339.

— thinning, 349.
- tillage, 346.

— training, 348.

— uses of, 351.

— variation in, 375, 378.

Currants, varieties of — Attractor, 379;
Baldwin, 388; Bang Up, 388; Belle de
St. Gilles, 385; Bertin No. 9, 385;
Bertin Seedling, 379; Black English,
389; Black Grape, 388; Black Naples,
388; Boston Lady, 379; Bronze, 379;
Brown-Fruited, 389; Buist Long-
bunched, 379; Caucasian, 385; Cay-
wood Seedling, 379; Champagne, 379;
Champion, 379, 389; Chenonceaux,
385; Cherry, 279,391; Clarke's Sweet,
386; Climbing, 380; Crandall, 390;
Common Black, 389; Dana White,
380; Deseret, 390; Dr. Brete, 380;
Dwarf Black, 389; Eclipse, 380; Fay,
380, 391; Fertile, 385; Fertile d'An-
gers, 385; Fertile d'Angleterre, 385;
Fertile de Bertin, 385; Fertile de
Palluau, 384, 385; Gloire des Sablons,
382,391; Gloucester Red, 382; Golden,
390; Goliath, 336; Gondoin Red, 382;
Green-Fruited, 389; Grosellier a Fruit
Couleur de Chair, 379 ; Groseillier
Rouge a Grosse Fruit, 384; Grosse
Rouge de Boulogne, 385; Hative de
Bertin, 383, 385; Houghton Castle,
386; Imperial Blanc, 386; Imperial
Jaune, 382; Imperial White, 386 ; Im-
perial Yellow, 382; Jelly, 390; Knight
Early Red, 382 ; Knight Large Red,
382; Knight Sweet Red, 382; La
Caucase, 385; La Fertile, 383; La

Hative, 383, 385; Lakewood, 383;
Large-Bunched Red, 384; La Ver-
saillaise,385; Lee, 389; London Mar-
ket, 383; London Red, 383,391; Long-
Bunched Holland, 383; Long-Bunched
Red, 383, 384; Macrocarpa, 385; Mag-
num Bonum, 383; Marvin Seedling,
383; May's Victoria, 386; Mills' No.
20,22,28 and 29, 383,384; Morgan's
Red, 384 ; Morgan's White, 386 ; North
Star, 384; Ogden's Black Grape, 388;
Palluau, 384; Palmer Sweet Red, 384;
Pheasant's Eye, 379; Pitmaston
Sweet Red, 384; Pomona, 384; Prince
Albert, 384, 391; Prince of Wales,
389; Queen Victoria, 385; Raby Cas-
tle, 386; Red Cross, 384; Red Dutch,
377, 384, 391; Red Dutch Long-
Bunched, 383; Red Grape, 385, 386;
Red Provence, 382; Reeves' White,
386; Ruby, 385; Russian Green, 389;
Saunders, 390; Select, 385; Short-
Bunched Red, 383, 385; Silver Striped,
385; Stewart, 385; Storrs & Harrison
Co.'s No. 1, 385; Striped Fruited, 385;
Transparent, 385; Transparent Blanc,
385; Transparent White, 385; Ver-
saillaise, 385, 391: Versailles, 385;
Victoria, 386, 391; Warner's Red
Grape, 386; Warrior's Grape, 386;
White Antwerp, 386; White Clinton,
386; White Crystal, 386: White
Dutch, 386; White Grape. 386, 391;
White Holland, 386; White Imperial,
382, 386, 387, 391; White Leghorn,
386; White Pearl, 386, 387; White
Provence, 387; White Versaillaise,
387; Wilder, 387, 391; Wilmot's Red
Grape, 386.

Currants, yield, 353.

Cut-leaved blackberry, 154, 334,

Cuttings, currant, 341.

— gooseberry, 380.

Cylindrosporium Rubi, 289.

Cynipid leaf gall, 283.

Cytospora Rubi, 299.

522

INDEX

Dakruma convolutella, 418.
Dangleberry, 497.
Darluca filum, 300.
Dasyscypha acutipila, 302.

— bieolor, 302.

— clandestina, 302.

— scabro-villosa, 302.
Dawson, Jackson, quoted, 492.
Deilephila lineata, 430.
Depth of planting, 11.
Dewberries, 132, 241.

— distinguished from blackberries, 241.

— duration of plantations, 143.

— fertilizers for, 138.

— hardiness of, 144.

— harvesting and marketing, 143.

— history and future, 132.

— killing plants, 144.

— location for, 137.

— northern, 242, 244.

— planting, 139.

— pollination of, 140.

— profits of, 145.

— propagation of, 138.

— pruning and training, 141.

— recommended varieties, 250.

— soU for, 135.

— southern, 243, 246.

— tillage for, 141.

— western, 243, 247.

— yield of, 145.
Dewberry, 328.

Dewberries, varieties of —Albino White,
246 : Aughinbaugh, 247; Austin's Im-
proved, 245; Bartel, 132, 244; Bauer,
246; Colossal, 244; Cook's Hardy,
246; Crystal White, 246; Fairfax,
246; Geer, 244; General Grant, 244;
Humboldt, 247; Latimer Seedling,
244 ; Loganberry, 247; Lucretia, 134,
245, 250; Lucretia's Sister, 245; Mam-
moth, 245, 249; Mammoth White,
246; Manatee, 246; Mayes, 245, 250;
Never Fail, 245; Primus, 249; San-
ford, 246; Skagit Chief, 249; Wash-
ington Belle, 250; White Dewberry,

246: Wilson's White, 246; Windom,

246.

Dewes, Gerard, quoted, 188.
Diabrotica 12-punctata, 282.
Diaporthe (Chorostate) concrescens,

— (Tetrastaga) gallophila, 297. [440.

— (Chorostate) obscura, 297.

— recondita, 440.

— (Tetrastaga) rostellata, 298.

— (Chorostate) strumella, 439.

— syngenesia, 297.
Diaspis Harrisii, 277.

— ostreaeformis, 429.

— ros80, 276.
Diastictis ribearia, 419.
Diastrophus Bassettii, 282.

— cuscutaeformis, 282.

— Kincaidii, 283.

— nebulosus, 283.

— radicum, 283.

— turgidis, 283.
Diatrype Frangulse, 297.
Diatrypella ribesia, 440.
Didymosphseria Manitobensis, 298.
Diplodia Dearnessii, 441.

— rubi, 299.

— ruborum, 299.
Dipterous larva, 281.
Discosia artocreas, 300.
Diseases of the brambles, 284.

groselles, 433.

Distances apart, 9.

Dodoen's description of raspberry, 187.
Dodoen, quoted, 222.
Doryphora decemlineata, 431.
Dothidea ribesia, 440.
Double-blossom, 291.

— pink brambles, 155, 335.

— white brambles, 155, 335.
Drought, influence on black-caps, 103.
Drying blackberries, 120.

— raspberrierries, 77.
Dryocampa senataria, 280.
Duration of plantations, blackberry,

— black-cap, 99. [123.

currant, 352,

INDEX

523

Duration of plantations, dewberry, 143.

gooseberry, 370.

— red raspberry, 55.

Durella compressa, 302.
Dwarf blueberry, 496, 498.

— raspberry, 314.

Eccopsis exoletum, 429.

— permundana, 277.
Elseagnus edulis, 490.

— longipes, 488.

— pungens, 490.

— umbellata, 490.
Empoa albopicta, 428.
Empoasca albopicta, 428.
Empretia stimulea, 277, 429.
Endophlcea anisometra, 298.
Endropia armataria, 430.
English gooseberries, 372, 403.
varieties, 403.

little known, 410.

Epicaerus imbricatus, 432.
Epitrix cucumeris. 282.
Epochra Canadensis, 421.
Erysiphe humuli, 290.
Erythroneura obliqua, 428.

— tricincta, 276, 428.
Euchistus variolaris, 275.
Eucrostis chloroleucaria, 278.
Eudemis botrana, 277.
Eufitchia ribearia, 419.
Eunemoria gracilaria, 260.
Eupithecia implicata, var. interrupto

fasciata, 278, 420.

— interrupto fasciata, 278, 420.
Euproctis chrysorrhoea, 280, 431.
European Black Currant, 388, 473.

— gooseberry, 463.

— raspberries, 199.

recommended varieties, 212.

varieties of, 199.

— raspberry, 314.
Eustroma prunata, 430.
Eutrapela transversata, 430.
Eutypa flavo-virescens, 439.

— subcutaneata, 439.

Evaporated raspberry industry, 83.
Evaporating red raspberries, 55.

— time required, 98.
Evaporator buildings, 97.
Evaporators, drying with, 79.
Exartema exoleta, 429.

— permundana, 277.
Exposure, 4.

Fall planting, 7.

— plowing, 6.

Farmer, L. J., mentioned, 66.
Fenestella vestira, 440.
Fenusa Rubi, 282.
Fertilizers, 6.

— for blackberries, 107.

black-caps, 63.

currants, 340.

dewberries, 138.

gooseberries, 359.

red raspberries, 45.

Fetid currant, 467.
Fire raspberry, 155.
Flowering currant, 413, 482.
Fomes ribis, 441.
Forbes, quoted, 253.
Forcing-house, drying berries in, 78.

— raspberries and blackberries, 28.
Form for making berry crates, 34.
Four-lined leaf -bug, 415.
Fuchsia-flowered gooseberry, 446.
Fusarium (?) Rubi, 291.
Fusidium Fumago, 441.
Fusisporium Rubi, 291.

Future of the blackberry, 221.

dewberry, 133.

gooseberry, 398.

red raspberry, 186.

Galusha, O. B., quoted, 108.

Garden currant, botanical description,

469.
Gathering blackberries, 119.

— currants, 349.

— gooseberries, 367.

— the fruit, 29.

524

INDEX

Gaylussacia, 497.

— frondosa, 497.

— resinosa, 498.

Geographical variation in Ribes, 444.
Gerarde, John, picture of raspberry,
Gerarde's Herbal, quoted, 396. [189.
Giant root-borer, 267.
Gibberella Saubinetii, 298.
Gloeosporium necator, 286.

— ribicolum, 441.

— Ribis, 435.
- Rubi, 288.

— Venetum, 286.
Glonium macrosporum, 299.
Gnomonia melanostyla, 297.
Gnomon iella melanostyla, 297.
Godronia urceolus, 442.
Goff, Professor, quoted, 289.
Golden currant, 390, 482.
Gooseberries, 357.

— acres in nurseries, 357.

— American, 399.

— botany of, 444.

— duration of plantations, 370.

— English, 372.

varieties little known, 410.

— extent of cultivation, 357.

— fertilizers for, 359.

— gathering and marketing, 367.

— grafting, 363.

— hardiness of, 371.

— history and future, 396.

— keeping, 369.

— ornamental, 413.

— planting, 363.

— profits, 372.

— propagation of , 359.

— pruning, 364.

— recommended varieties, 412.

— regions of adaptation, 358.

— root-cuttings, 362.

— soil and location for, 358.

— thinning, 366.

— tillage, 364.

— training, 366.

— uses of, 368.

Gooseberries, varieties of — American
Cluster, 400; American Red, 400;
American Red Jacket, 413 ; American
Seedling, 400; Apex, 399; Aston
Seedling, 408 ; Blucher, 404 ; Cedar
Hill, 402 ; Champion, 309, 413 ; Chau-
tauqua, 404, 412 ; Cluster, 400 ; Colum-
bus, 405, 412 ; Crown Bob, 405, 412 ;
Crystal, 402; Dominion, 406, 412;
Downing, 399, 412; Dutch Joe, 400;
Early Sulphur, 408 ; Engle's Yellow,
400 ; Excellent, 406 ; Excelsior, 400 ;
Frontenac, 406; Gracilla, 406; Hale
Golden, 402 ; Hedgehog, 406 ; Hobb's
Seedling, 400; Houghton, 398, 400,
412; Hudson, 400; Huntsman, 406;
Industry, 406, 412 ; Jewett, 400 ; Jolly
Angler, 406; Keepsake, 407; Lady
Popham, 407; Lancashire Lad, 407,
412; Leveller, 407; Lord Beacons-
field, 407; Matchless, 407; Mountain,
402 ; Newell Seedling, 403 ; Ohio Pro-
lific, 400 ; Ohio Seedling, 400 ; Orange,
400 ; Oregon Jumbo, 403 ; Pale Red,
400; Pearl, 401, 413; Portage, 407;
Puyallup. 407; Queen of the Whites,
407; Red Champagne, 407; Red
Jacket, 401, 408; Red Warrington,
408; Robert's Sweetwater, 400;
Smiling Beauty, 408; Smith, 401;
Spineless, 408 ; St. Clair, 400 ; Stein,
403 ; Stockwell, 408 ; Strubler, 401 ;
Succeed, 408; Sulphur, 408; Sunset,
408; Tally-ho, 408; Thumper, 409;
Tree, 401 ; Triumph, 409, 412 ; Vic-
toria, 401 ; Wellington Glory, 409, 412 ;
Whinham's Industry, 406; White
Eagle, 409; Whitesmith, 409, 412;
Woodward's Whitesmith, 409.

Gooseberries, yield, 371.

Gooseberry, ancient names, 396.

— fruit- worm, 418.

— botanical description, 461.

— cluster-cup, 438.

— midge, 420.

- mildew, 373, 433.

INDEX

525

Gortyna cataflhracta, 430.

— nitela, 279.
Goumi, 488.
Gouty-gall beetle, 262.
Grafting gooseberries, 363.
Graphiothecium parasiticum, 441.
Graphium gracile, 301.

— pruinosipes, 301.
Grapta comma, 280, 431.

— faurnis, 431.

— progne, 431.
Groselle diseases, 433.

— fungi, less important, 439.

— insects, 415.

less important, 427.

Groselles, 337.

— botany of, 443.

— crossing, 38.

Habrosyne scripta, 279.
Hadena amputatrix, 430.

— arctica, 430.

— xylinoides, 279.
Hale, J. H., quoted, 113.
Hallett, E. A., Quoted, 13.
Haltica cucumeris, 282.
Haploa Lecontei, 280.
Hardiness, 19.

— of blackberries, 125.

black-caps, 100.

currants, 353.

dewberries, 144.

gooseberries, 371.

red raspberries, 57.

Harpiphorus varianus, 282.
Harvester, berry-, 74.
Harvesting blackberries, 119.

— black-caps, 74.

— dewberries, 143.

— red raspberries, 53.
Heat, injury by, 4.
Heliothis exprimens, 279.
Help, necessity for, 2.

— retaining, 3.
Hendersonia platypus, 300.
- Rubi, 300.

Hendersonia sarmentorum, 300.
Herstine, David W., 191.
High blackberry, 324.

— huckleberry, 495, 469.
Hispa rosea, 431.

History of the blackberry, 221.

black raspberry, 158.

currant, 376.

dewberry, 132.

gooseberry, 396.

purple cane raspberry, 177.

red raspberry, 186.

Homostegia Kelseyi, 440.
Horizontal drier, 86.
Huckleberries, 491.
Hybrid reds, 59.
Hybrids, 178.

— blackberry and dewberry, 238.

— currant and gooseberry, 484.
Hydraecia cataphracta, 430.

— nitella, 279, 430.
Hymenopsis nigra, 301.
Hypercheria io, 280, 431.
Hyperplatys asterus, 431.

— maculatus, 431.
Hyphantria cunea, 280, 430.

— textor, 280, 430.
Hypocnus Sambuci, 301.
Hypocrea rufa, 298.
Hypoderma commune, 299.

— virgultorum, 299.
Hyppa xylinoides, 279.
Hysterium angustatum, 299.

— confluens, 299.

— eucalypti, 299.

— pulicare var. angustatum, 299.

— Rubi, 299.

— viticolum, 299.
Hysterographium Mori viticolum,

— Ruborum, 299.

— viticolum Ruborum, 299.

Imported currant -borer, 418.

worm, 422.

Insects, bramble, important, 252.
less important, 274.

526

INDEX

Insects, groselle, 415.

— groselle, less important, 427.
Isariopsis Grayiana, 301.
lulus impressus, 275.

Janus flaviventris, 426.

— integer, 426.

Japanese raspberries, 146, 321.

— wine-berry, 148, 153, 321.
Japan Golden Mayberry, 146.
Juneberries, 501.

Keeping green gooseberries, 369.
Killing blackberry plants, 124.

— black raspberry plants, 99.

— dewberry plants, 144.
Kiln-drier, 85.

Lachnella rufo-olivacea. 302.
Lagoa crispata, 277.
Land for bush-fruits, 5.

— management of, 12.

— preparation of, 6.
Lasioptera farinosa, 281.
Late growth, 19.
Laxotenia rosaceana, 277.
Layering gooseberries, 360.
Laying down plants, 20.
Leaf-rusts, 290.

spot, currant, 438.

spots, 288.

Leafy-cluster blackberries, 235.
Lecanium cynosbati, 428.

— Fitchii, 276.

— ribis, 428.
Lecythia speciosa, 302.

— tripustulata, 302.
Legend, blackberry, 223.
Lepargyraea argentea, 485.
Leptoglossus phyllopus, 428.
Leptosphffiria Doliolum, 298.

— fuscella, 298.

— vagabunda, 440.

Leptostroma virgultorum rubinum, 300.
Leptothyrium vulgare, 300.

Libertella rosaa, 300.
Lifting devices, 89.
Limenitis Ursula, 431.
Limonius auripilis, 281.
Location, 3.

— for black-caps, 62.

currants, 339.

dewberries, 137.

gooseberries, 358.

red raspberries, 44.

Long blackberry, 324.

— cluster blackberries, 226.
Loose-cluster blackberries, 238.
Lophiostoma bicuspidatum, 298.

— przemorsum, 298.

— Scrophulariae, 298.
Lophiotrema praemorsum, 298.
Lophoderus velutinana, 277.
Lovett, Capt. Josiah, mentioned, 224.
Low blackberry, 328.

— blueberry, 496, 498.

— bush blackberry, 330.
Loxoteenia musculana, 278.
Lygus lineolaris, 253.

— pratensis, 253.

Lyon, T. T., reported, 21.

Macrodactylus angustatus, 266.

— subspinosus, 265.

— uniformis, 266.
Macrosporium punctiforme, 300.
- rubi, 300.

Macrosiphum rubicolum, 276.
Mamestra picta, 279, 430.
Management of land after planting,

12.

Market, bush-fruits for, 2.
Marketing, 32.

— blackberries, 119.

— black-caps, 82.

— currants, 349.

— dewberries, 143.

— gooseberries, 367.

— red raspberries, 53.
Marsonia ribicola, 441.
Mayberry, 146, 311.

INDEX

527

Medicinal quality of blackberries, 121.
Melagopyge crispata, 277.
Melampsora epitea, 442.
Melanconium griseum, 300.
Melanoma pulvis-pyrius, 440.
Melanoplus femur-rubrum, 427.

— spretus, 275.
Melanotus communis, 281.
Meliola manca, 297.

— sanguinea, 297.
Metallus rubi, 282.
Metasphaeria anisometra, 298.

— sepincola, 298.
Microgonia limbaria, 279, 430.
Microsphsera grossulariee, 439.
Mildew, gooseberry, 373, 433.
Miscellaneous brambles, 146.

— bush-fruits, 485.
Missouri currant, 482.
Mistletoe of blackberry, 255.
Monilia fructigena, 292.
Monocrepidius vespertinus, 281.
Monophadmus rubi, 273.
Mountain blackberry, 219, 327.
Mulberry, 304.

Mulching, 13.

— blackberries, 116.
Myelois convolutella, 418.
Mytilaspis pomorum, 276, 429.
Myxormia atro-viridis, 300.
Myzus ribis, 416.

Ntemospora rosse, 300.
Native currant worm, 425.
Nebraska, experiments in, 11, 24.

— winter-killing in, 24.
Nectarophora lactucae, 428.
Nectria cinnabarina, 436, 440.

— ribis, 440,

Nematocampa filamentaria, 279, 430.
Nematus trimaculatus, 422.

— ventricosus, 422.
Nemoria chloroleucaria, 278.
Nepticula rubifoliella, 278.

— villosella, 278.
Noctua clandestina, 430.

Noctua fennica, 279.
Northern dewberry, 242, 244.
Notodonta concinna, 278.

— unicornis, 278.
Nysius angustatus, 275.

— destructor, 275.

— raphanus, 275.

Oberea bimaculata, 268.

— perspicillata, 268.

— tripunctata, 268.
Odontota nervosa, 431.

— rosea, 431.

Odynerus Catskillensis, 257.
CEcanthusIniveus, 252.
CEdemasia concinna, 278.
Orbilia vinosa, 302, 442.
Orchelimum glaberrimum, 275.
Orgyia antiqua, 429.
Oriental raspberries, 146.
Ornamental brambles, 150.

— currants and gooseberries, 413.
Otiorhynchus picipes, 282.

— singularis, 282.
Over-production of black-caps, 104.
Oxiptilus delavaricus, 277.

— nigrociliatus, 277.

— tenuidactilus, 277.

Pachybrachys carbonarius, 282.
Pacific coast dewberry, 330.
Packages and marketing, 32.
Pale blueberry, 499.

— brown byturus, 261.
Paonias excaacatus, 280.
Paria, 4-notata, 282.
Parry, Charles, quoted, 254.
Parsley-leaved blackberry, 334.
Pempelia grossulariae, 418.
Pemphigus rubi, 276.
Penthina vitivorana, 277.
Periconia parasitica, 301.
Peronospora ribicola, 442.

— rubi, 289.
Petrophora prunata, 430.

528

INDEX

Pezicula rhabarbarina, 302.
Peziza lacerata, 302.

— scabro-villosa, 302.

— subochracea, 302.

— vinosa, 442.
Pezizella vulgaris, 302.
Phacidium- rubi, 302.
Phoma herbarum, 299.

— hyalina, 441.

— lethalis, 299.
Phorbia sp., 260.
Phoxopteris comptana, 277.
Phragmidium incrassatum gracile, 30]

— gracile, 301.

— rubi, 290.

— rubi-idiei, 290.
Phyllactinia suffulta, 439.
Phylloecus flaviventris, 426.

— trimaculatus, 282.
Phylloptera oblongifolia, 427.
Phyllosticta bicolor, 299.

— grossularise, 440.

— ruborum, 299.

— variabilis, 299.

Physalospora eriostega glabrata, 297.
Pickers, management of, 31.
Picking blackberries, 119.

— stands, 34.

— suggestions on, 29.
Pinching young shoots, 18.
Planting, author's experience in, 9.

— blackberries. 112.

— black-caps, 67.

— currants, 344.

— depth of, 11.

— dewberries, 139.

— gooseberries, 363.

— red raspberries, 46.

— suggestions on, 7.

Plants, care of when received, 10.
Plasmopora ribicola, 442.
Platysamia cecropia, 280, 431.
Pleonectria Berolinensis, 440.
Pliny, quoted, 222.
Plowrightia ribesia, 440.
Poecilocapsus 4-vittatus, 415.

Poecilocapsus lineatus, 415.
Poeciloptera pruinosa, 428.
Pollination, hand-, 29.

— effect of spraying on, 27.

— of blackberries, 114.

— of dewberries, 140.

— of red raspberries, 48.
Polygonia comma, 280, 431.

— faunus, 431.

— progne, 431.
Polyporus ribis, 441.
Preparation of the land, 6.
Prionus laticolis, 267.
Pristiphora grossulariae, 425.

— rufipes, 425.

Prochserodes transversata, 430.
Prodenia lineatella, 279.

— ornithogalli, 279.

Profits from blackberries, 127.

black-caps, 103.

currants, 354.

dewberries, 145.

gooseberries, 372.

red raspberries, 58.

Profit in the last bushels, 126.
Propagation, 25.

— of blackberries, 108.

black-caps, 65.

currants, 341.

dewberries, 138.

gooseberries, 359.

red raspberries, 45.

Prosopis affinis, 432.

— sp.,283.
Pruning, 16.

— blackberries, 117.

— black-caps, 70.

before planting, 68.

— currants, 347.

— dewberries, 141.

— gooseberries, 364.

— red raspberries, 49.

— hook, 17.

— spud, 17.
Prunus Besseyi, 510.
Psenocerus supernotatus, 422.

INDEX

529

Psylla rubi, 254.

— tripunctata, 254.
Pteronus ribesii, 422.
Puccinia interstitialis, 285.

— Peckiana, 285.

— pulchella, 442.

— tripustulata, 285.
Purple-cane raspberries, 59, 177, 318.

history of, 177.

recommended varieties, 184.

varieties of, 178.

— flowering raspberry, 151, 304.
Pulvinaria innumerabilis, 428.
Pyrenopeziza lacerata, 302.

— rubi, 302.

Pyrophila pyramidoides, 279.
Pyrrharctia Isabella, 280.
Pyrrhia exprimens, 279.

— umbra, 279.

Rake for gathering canes, 18.
Raspberries, black, 158.

— drying, 77.

— forcing, 28.

— Japanese, 146.

— oriental, 146.

— purple-cane, 177.

— red, 43.

— results of crossing, 40.

— unclassified, 212.

Raspberries, varieties of— Abel, 204;
Acme, 173; Ada, 160; Addison, 178;
Ak-sar-ben, 161; Alden, 161, 171;
Allen, 182, 213; Allen Red Prolific,
212; All Summer, 199; Alpine, 200;
Amazon, 200, 203; American Black,
161; American Everbearing, 161;
American Improved, 164; American
Red, 192; American Red Cane, 182;
American White, 161; Andrews, 192;
Arctic, 161; Arnold Orange, 200;
Arnold Red, 200 ; Arnold Yellow, 200 ;
August Black, 161 ; Autumn Black,
161 ; Autumn Black Raspberry, 170 ;
Babbit, 161; Babcock, 178; Babcock
Nos. 3, 5 and 9, 162 ; Bagley Perpet-

ual, 192; Baker, 200; Balding's
Choice, 198; Baldwin's Choice, 198;
Barnet, 200 ; Barter, 212 ; Baumforth,
200 ; Beckner, 162 ; Beckwith, 178 ;
Beebe, 162 ; Beehive, 212 ; Belle, 162 ;
Belle de Fontenay, 203 ; Belle d'Or-
leans, 203 ; Belmont, 162 ; Biggar
Seedling, 200 ; Black, 201 ; Bluffton,
162; Bonanza, 162; Brackett's 101,
169; Brandywine, 192; Brentford
Cane, 201; Brentford Red, 201;
Brentford White, 201; Brinckle's
Orange, 207; Bristol, 193; Bromley
Hill, 201: Bronze Queen, 162, 212;
Burley, 209 ; Burlington, 201 ; Burns,
162; Butler, 163; Canada, 162;
Canada Red, 193; Cardinal, 179;
Carleton, 212; Carman, 162; Caro-
line, 179 ; Carpenter No. 1, 193 ; Car-
penter No. 2, 180; Carpenter Seed-
ling, 163 ; Carter Prolific, 201 ; Cata-
wissa, 179 ; Centennial, 163 ; Cincin-
nati Red Antwerp, 212 ; Citizen, 179 ;
Champion, 163; Champlain, 201;
Chapman, 163; Charles the Bold, 201 ;
Chester, 212 ; Chesterfield, 163 ; Chili
Monthly, 211; Christine, 201; Church-
man's Superb, 184; Clarke, 201;
Cline, 202 ; Coleman No. 1, 193 ; Cole
Prolific, 193; Colonel Wilder, 202;
Colossal, 179; Columbian, 179; Com-
mon Black, 161 ; Common Red, 192 ;
Conover, 193 ; Conrath, 163 ; Cook's
Seedling, 213; Cope, 202; Corinth,
163; Cornish, 202; Cornwall's Pro-
lific, 200 ; Cottier Everbearing, 163 ;
Cox Honey, 202; Craig, 213; Craw-
ford, 163; Cream, 163; Cretan Red,
202 ; Crimson Beauty, 193 ; Crimson
Cluster, 213; Crimson Queen, 213;
Cromwell, 163; Crystal White, 202;
Cumberland, 163; Cushing, 202; Cuth-
bert, 44, 193, 199 ; Cutbush's Prince
of Wales, 208; Daily Bearing, 163;
Davis, 164 ; Davison, 164 ; Delaware,
202: Diadem, 202; Dictator, 179;

530

INDEX

Raspberries, varieties of —
Doolittle, 159, 164; Doolittle's Bed-
flavored Black-cap, . 180 ; Doomore,
164 ; Dorchester, 164 ; Double-bearing
Red, 203 ; Double-bearing Yellow, 211;
Downing, 203; Duhring, 203; Dun-
can, 164, 180 ; Dyack Seedling, 203 ;
Earhart, 164; Early Cluster. 165;
Early Prolific, 165, 180, 203; Early
Richmond, 213; Early White, 213;
Eastern King, 193; Ebon Beauty, 165 ;
Ebony, 165; Elizabeth, 213; Ellis-
dale, 180 ; Elm City, 213 ; Elsie, 165;
Emily, 203; Emperor, 165 ; Empire,
203; English Black, 201; English
Brown, 182 ; English Cane, 203 ; Eng-
lish Giant, 203 ; English Globe, 203 ;
English Purple, 182, 213; English
Red, 182, 192 ; English Red Cane, 213;
English White, 203; Erie, 180;
Erwood Everbearing, 213 ; Eureka
165, 180 ; Everbearing Red, 203 ; Ever-
lasting, 165 ; Every Day, 165 ; Excel-
sior, 213 ; Extra Late, 167 ; Fadely,
165 ; False Red Antwerp, 213 ; False
Red Cane, 213; Farnsworth, 165;
Fastolf, 203; Fay, 165; Ferndale,
165 ; Filby, 203 ; Flesh-colored, 203 ;
Florence, 165 ; Fontenay, 203 ; Four-
Seasons Red, 204 ; Four-Seasons Yel-
low, 204; Frambosier & Gros Fruit,
209 ; Frambosier Couleur de Chair,
203 ; Franconia, 204 ; French, 204,
214; French Everbearing, 204; Ful-
ton, 204 ; Ganargua, 180; Garden, 180;
Garden Raspberry, 182; Gardiner,
180 ; Garnet, 180 ; Gault, 166 ; Gen-
eral Negley, 166; General Patterson,
204 ; Genesee, 204 ; Gillard Seedling,
205 ; Gladstone, 180 ; Golden Alaska,
215; Golden Cap, 161, 166; Golden
Prague, 205; Golden Prolific, Beebe's,
162; Golden Thornless, 166; Grant,
215; Grape, 205; Grape Vine, 215;
Gray, 166; Green, 166; Gregg, 166,
176; Griesa, 179; Hale Early, 167;

Hamilton, 167 ; Hannibal, 167 ; Han-
sell, 44, 194; Harkness, 168; Har-
ris, 194; Harrison, 167; Haskell
Yellow, 167; Hayne Seedling, 167;
Hawkeye, 167 ; Hawkins Orange,
215; Heebner, 205; Henrietta, 205;
Herstine, 215; Hilborn, 167; Hil-
dreth, 181 ; Highland Antwerp, 194 ;
Highland Hardy, 194; Hiram, 216;
Hixon,167; Hoag,168; Hopkins, 168;
Hornet, 205; Howell, 216; Howland's
Red Antwerp, 209; Hudson River
Antwerp, 205; Hudson River Red,
194; Huntsman Giant, 205; Hunts-
ville, 182; Hybrid Crimson Mam-
moth, 181; Idaho, 168; Ideal, 168;
Imperial, 205; Imperial Red, 194;
Imperial White, 205; Indiana, 168;
Ironclad, 168; I. X. L., 194 ; Johnson,
216; Johnston's Sweet, 169; Joslyn,
164; Jouet, 206; Kagy Everbearing,
168 : Kansas, 168, 176 ; Kellogg, 169 ;
Kentucky, 164; Kenyon, 194; Kerr
White, 169; Key Prolific, 169; Key-
stone, 216 ; Kimball, 169 ; King, 206 ;
Kirtland, 213; Knevett Giant, 206;
Knevett's Red Antwerp, 209 ; Kreigh,
216; Lady Ann, 206; Large-fruited
Monthly, 206; Large Orange, 209:
Large Red, 200; Large White, 216;
Lindley, 216 ; Lindsey, 169 ; Linton,
216; Little, 169; Little Prolific, 216;
Longworth, 206; Lord Beaconsfield,
206; Lord Exmouth, 200; Lost Rubies,
206 ; Lotta, 169, 176 ; London, 194, 199;
Lovett, 169 ; Lum Everbearing, 170 ;
Lum Yellow Canada, 170; Macom-
ber, 170; Magnum Bonum, 206;
Mammoth Cluster, 170 ; Manwaring
No. 1, 170 ; Marlboro, 195, 199; Mary,
195; Mason's Seedling Grape, 205;
May King, 170; May Orange, 2165
McCormick, 170; McCracken, 170;
Merkel, 181 ; Mendocino, 216 ; Mere-
dith Queen, 195 ; Merveille de Quatre
Saisons, 204 ; Miami, 170 ; Michigan,

INDEX

531

Raspberries, varieties of —
195; Miller, 196, 199; Miller Daily,
170 ; Miller Favorite, 196, 216 ; Mills,
170 : Mills' No. 1, 170 ; Mills' No. 7,
172; Minnesota, 170; Mohler, 170;
Mohler, No. 1, 216; Montclair, 181;
Monthly Black-cap, 172 ; Moody, 171 ;
Moore Seedling, 171; Mote Ever-
bearing, 181; Mrs. Ingersoll, 206;
Mrs. Wilder, 206; Mrs. Wood, 181;
Munger, 171; Muriel, 206; Muskin-
gum, 181; My Seedling, 217; Mys-
tery, 171 ; Naomi, 204, 207 ; Narra-
gansett, 207 ; Nebraska, 217 ; Nemaha,
171 ; Newark, 217 ; New Everbearing,
207 ; New Haven, 171 ; New Prolific,
217; New Red Antwerp, 205; New
Rochelle, 181 ; Niagara, 196 ; Norfolk,
171; Northern Wonder, 217 ; North-
field, 171 ; North River Antwerp, 205;
Northumberland Fillbasket, 207 ;
Norwalk, 207; Norwood, 182; Notting_
ham Scarlet, 207 ; October Red, 204 '•
October Yellow, 204 ; Ohio, 171, 176 ;
Ohio Everbearing, 159, 172; Olathe,
196 ; Old English Yellow, 203 ; Older,
172, 176; Onondaga, 172; Ontario,
172 ; Orange, 207 ; Orange King, 200 ;
Oregon, 172; Osceola, 196; Ozark,
172 ; Palluau, 208 ; Palmer, 173, 176 ;
Papier, 208; Parnell, 208; Parry's
Nos. 1 and 2, 196; Patrician, 208;
Pearl, 196; Pennsylvanian, 196;
Percy, 182; Perfection, 196; Philadel-
phia, 182 ; Phoenix, 217 ; Pilate, 208 ;
Pioneer, 173 ; Pomona, 197 ; Poschar-
sky, Nos. 3, 9, 15, 173 ; Pride of Kent,
208 ; Pride of the Hudson, 208; Pride
of the Market, 173; Pride of the
West, 173; Prince Globose, 209;
Prince of Wales, 208 ; Princess Alice,
209 ; Progress, 173 ; Prolific Red, 209 ;
Prosser, 201 ; Pullman, 217 ; Purple
Cane, 182; Purple Dulcet, 182 ; Purple
Prolific, 182; Queen Marguerite, 217;
Queen of the Market, 193 ; Queen of

the West, 173; Quinby's Favorite,
193 ; Rancocas, 197 ; Ransom Ever-
bearing, 173 ; Red Antwerp, 209 ; Red
Cane, 182, 209; Red Cluster, 217;
Re(e)der, 197; Redfield, 182; Red
Imperial, 194 ; Red Pearl, 196 ; Red
Prolific, 182; Red Sweet, 209; Red
Queen, 197 ; Reliance, 183 ; Rex, 173 ;
Reyes, 173 ; Richardson, 217 ; Rider,
217 ; Riley's Early, 217 ; Rivers' Or-
ange, 209 ; Rivers' New Monthly, 206;
Rivers' Yellow, 209 ; Rocky Mountain
Cluster, 173 ; Rogers' Victoria, 211 ;
Royal Church, 197 ; Russell Red, 209 ;
Ruby, 217; Rundell, 173; Salzer's
Everbearing Red, 183 ; Sarah, 183 ;
Saunders, 217; Sauuders' Hybrid,
183 ; Saunders' No. 60, 173 ; Savanna,
173 ; Scarlet, 197 ; Scarlet Gem, 197 ;
Semper Fidelis, 209; Seneca, 174;
Shaffer, 183 ; Shaffer Seedling, No.
5, 183; Sharpe, 209; Short-jointed
Cane, 218; Silver Queen, 210; Sinton
Thornless, 174 ; Sir John, 210: Skow-
hegan, 174; Smith • Giant, 174;
Smith's Ironclad, 168; Smith No.
2, 174; Smith Prolific, 174; Smith
Purple, 183 ; Souchetti, 210 ; Souhe-
gan, 174, 176; Southern Red, 198;
Southern Thornless, 198; Spanish
Black, 174 ; Spray Early, 174 ; Spring-
field, 174; Spring Grove, 210; Stay-
man's No. 1, 183; Stayman's No. 2,
197 ; Stayman's No. 5, 196 ; St. Louis,
218; Stoever, 197; Success, 174; Sucre
de Metz, 210 ; Summit, 174 ; Superb,
184, 210; Superb d'Angleterre, 210;
Superlative, 210 ; Surpasse Merveille,
210 ; Surprise, 175, 184, 210 ; Surprise
d'Autumn, 210; Surrey, 175; Sus-
queco, 192; Sweet Home, 175; Sweet
Yellow Antwerp, 210; Talbot, 211;
Talcott, 198; Tall Red Cane, 218;
Taylor Paragon, 211 ; Thimbleberry,
161 ; Thomas, 175 ; Thompson's Early
Pride, 198; Thompson's Early Pro-

532

INDEX

Raspberries, varieties of —
lifie, 198; Thompson's King, 206;
Thompson's Sweet, 175 ; Thunderer,
211; Thwack, 198; Townsend No.
2, 175 ; Trusty, 198 ; Turkish Turban,
211 ; Turner, 198 ; Twice-bearing, 203 ;
Tyler, 175, 176 ; Vermont, 211 ; Vice-
President Cope, 202 ; Vice-President
French, 204; Victor, 218; Victoria,
211; Virginia, 175; Virginia Bed,
198 ; Wade, 175 ; Walker, 211 ; Water-
loo, 218 ; Waters' Success, 174 ; Wat-
son's Seedling, 218 ; Wauregan, 218 ;
Welsh, 198 ; Westchester, 176 ; Weth-
erbee, 184; White Antwerp, 211;
White Canada, 218; White Four-
seasons, 204; White-fruited, 198;
White Mountain, 118 ; White Thim-
bleberry, 161; White Transparent,
210; Williams' Preserving, 211 ; Wil-
mington, 192; Wilmot Early Red,
211; Winant, 198; Winona, 176;
Wonder, 176; Woodland, Miller's,
196 ; Woodside, 176 ; Woodward, 211 ;
Woodward Red Globe, 211 ; Wragg,
176 ; Yellow Antwerp, 211 ; Yellow
Canada, 200 ; Yellow-cap, 161; Yellow
Chili, 211 ; Yellow Pearl, 176 ; Yosem-
ite, 176.

Raspberry-cane borer, 268.

maggot, 260.

— Chinese, 150.

— Fire. 155.

— geometer, 260.

— saw- fly, 273.

Recommended varieties, blackberries,

240.

currants, 391.

dewberries, 250 .

gooseberries, 412.

raspberries, American red, 199.

— black, 176.

European red, 212.

purple-cane, 184.

Red and white currants, 379.

— flowered currant, 413, 476.

Red-necked cane-borer, 262.

— raspberries, 43.
American, 184.

recommended varieties, 19tf

varieties of, 192.

autumn-fruiting, 52.

duration of plantations, 55.

European, 199.

recommended varieties, 212.

varieties of, 199.

evaporating, 55.

fertilizers for, 45.

hardiness of, 57.

harvesting and marketing, 53.

location for, 44.

planting, 46.

pollination of, 48.

profits of, 58.

propagation of, 45.

pruning, 49.

soil for, 43.

tillage for, 49.

uses of, 54.

yields of, 58.

— raspberry, future of, 186.
history of, 186.

— rust, 285.

Reid, E. W., berry crate described

32.
Rhodites rosze, 283.

— radicum, 283.
Rhabdospora ribicola, 441.

— rubi, 300.
Rhytisma Blakei, 302.
Ribes, 444.

— geographical variation in, 444.

— acerifolium, 472, 483.

— alpinum, 470.

— amarum, 450.

— ambiguum, 465.

— Americanum, 376, 390, 414, 48L

— amictum, 414, 452.

— aureum, 376, 390, 413, 482.
var. tenuiflorum, 483.

— Beatonii, 483.

— braehyanthum, 460.

INDEX

533

Ribes bracteosum, 473.

— Californicum, 414, 450.

— cereum, 474.

— ciliosum, 468.

— eognatum, 459.

— curvata, 456.

— cynosbati, 398, 464.

— dikuscha, 483.

— divaricatum, 457.

— erythrocarpum, 468.

— flavum, 484.

— floridum, 481.

— fragrans, 413.

— glutinosum, 478.

— Gordonianum, 414, 478.

— gracile, 398, 444, 455.

— grossularia, 394, 403, 463.

— hesperium, 453.

— hirtellum, 463.

— Howellii, 472.

— Hudsonianum, 472.

— intermedium, 481.

— irriguum, 460.

— lacustre, 466.

— lasianthum, 460.

— laxiflorum, 472.

— leiobotrys, 484.

— leptanthum, 459.

var branchyanthum, 460.

— leucoderme, 460.

— Lobbii, 414, 453.

— Loudoni, 484.

— malvaceum, 479.

— Marshallii, 455.

— Menziesii, 447.

— migratomm, 484.

— Missouriense, 484.

— Mogollonicum, 481.

— montanum, 466.

— montigenum, 467.

— multiflorum, 467.

— Nevadense, 477.

— nigrum, 375, 388, 473.

— niveum, 456.

— nubigenum, 467.

— odoratum, 484.

Ribes oxyacanthoides, 394, 399, 414,

461.
var. saxosum, 457.

— Palmeri, 481.

— pinetorum, 466.

— prostratum, 467.

— quercetorum, 459.

— resinosum, 484.

— Roezli, 450.

— rotundifolium, 398, 457.

— rubrum, 375, 379, 469.

— Rusbyi, 484.

— sanguineum, 413, 476.

— saxatile, 470, 484.

— setosum, 461.

— speeiosum, 413, 446.

— subvestitum, 447.

— tortuosum, 479.

— uva crispa, 463.

— velutinum, 460.

— viburnifolium, 471.

— victoris, 453.

— viscossissimum, 475.

— Watsonianum, 465.

— Wilsonianum, 452.

— Wolfli, 477.

Rocky Mountain thimbleberry, 151,

305.

Root-cuttings, blackberry, 110.
gooseberry, 362.

— gall, 294.
Rose chafer, 265.

leaved raspberry, 322.

Rubi podogra, 263.
Rubus, 303.

— Allegheniensis, 326.

— Americanus, 314.

— arcticus, 153, 312.

— argutus, 219, 235, 326.

var. floridus, 326.

Randii, 327.

— Armeniacus, 336.

— Baileyanus, 330.

— bellidiflorus, 335.

— Californicus, 305.

— Canadensis, L.,220, 327,

534

INDEX

Rubus Canadensis, author?, 241, "242,

328.
var. invisus, 329.

— chamaemorus, 308.

— cratsegifolius, 150, 152, 310.

— cuneifolius, 220, 240, 327.

— deliciosus, 152, 307.

— decumbens, 336.

— Enslenii, 330.

— floridus, 326.

— frondosus, 326.

— fruticosus, 221.
flore pleno, 335.

— Henryi, 155.

— hesperius, 319.

— heterophyllus, 336.

— hispidus, 242, 334.

— Hoffmeisteriana, 150.

— Idams, 185, 186, 190, 199, 314.

— invisus, 244, 329.

— Japonicus, 336,

— Kcefmeisterianus, 336.

— lachriatus, 154, 334.

— lasiococcus, 308.

— leucodermis, 159, 319.

— longipetalus, 336.

— macropetalus, 330.

— microphyllus, 146, 311.

— Millspaughii, 220, 327.

— montanus, 326.

— nanus, 336.

— neglectus, 59, 177, 318.

— Neo-Mexicanus, 307.

— nigrobaccus, 219, 226, 324.

var. albinus, 237, 324.

sativus, 232, 324.

x strigosus, 326.

— x villosus, 238, 324.

— nivalis, 310.

— Nutkanus, 151, 305.

— occidentalis, 158, 219, 321.

— odoratus, 151, 304.

— palmatus, 311.

~- parviflorus, 151, 305.

— pedatus, 313.

— phcenicolasius, 148, 153, 321.

Rubus rosaafolius, 147, 322.

— saxatilis, 314.

— setosus, 334.

— spectabilis, 153, 322, 335.

— sorbifolius, 147, 322.

— stellatus, 310.

— strigosus, 184, 185, 317.

x occidentalis leucodermis, 318.

— tetraphyllus, 336.

— trifidus, 155, 336.

— trivialis, 243, 246, 330.

— ulmifolius var. bellidiflorus, 335.

— ursinus, 330.

— villosus, Ait. 241, 242, 244, 328.
authors, 324.

— — var. frondosus, 326.

humifusus, 330.

Michiganensis, 329.

— — — montanus, 326.
roribaccus, 329.

— vitifolius, 241, 243, 330.
Running swamp blackberry, 334.
Rynchites bicolor, 282.

Salmon-berry, 151, 153, 322.
Samia cecropia, 280, 431.
Sand blackberry, 240, 327.

— cherry, 510.

San Jose scale, 417.
Saperda tripunctata, 268.
Saunders, Professor, quoted, 273.
Scarifier, home-made, 16.
Schizura ipomeaa, 278.

— unicornis, 278.
Scopelosoma sidus, 279.

— vinulenta, 279.
Scott, W. J., quoted, 495.
Scuffle-hoe, 15.

Seeds, propagation by, 25.
Selandria paupera, 282.

— rubi, 273.
Selling, 35.
Septoria aurea, 441.
destruans, 441.

— ribicola, 441.

— ribis, 438.

INDEX

535

Septoria rubi, 288.
Septosporium praelongum, 301.
Sericaria mori, 280.
Sesia tipuliformis, 418.

— hemizoniae, 278.
Setting, methods of, 11.
Shakespeare, quoted, 222.
Shepherdia argentea, 485.
Short-cluster blackberries, 232.
Sipha rubifollii, 276.
Siphonophora lactucse, 428.

— rubi, 276.

Slingerland, M. V., quoted, 256.

Slope, 3.

Smerinthus excsecatus, 280.

Smith, John B., quoted, 258, 264, 267.

Snowy tree-cricket, 252.

Soil for blackberries, 106.

black-caps, 61.

bush-fruits, 5.

currants, 339.

dewberries, 135.

gooseberries, 358.

red raspberries, 43.

Solanopsis fugax, 283.
Southern dewberry, 243, 246, 330.
Sphserella grossulariae, 439.
Sphseria anisometra, 298.

— caespitulans, 298.

— concrescens,'440.

— Hendersonia, 298.

— melanostyla, 297.

— malantera, 298.

— obtusa, 298.

— penicillata, 440.

— recondita, 440.

— ribesia, 440.

— rubincola, 298.

— ruborum, 298, 299.

— rufa, 298.

— sepincola, 298.
Sphaeropsis hyalina, 441.

— ribicola, 441.

— rubicola, 299.
Sphaerotheca Castagnei, 290, 439.

— humuli, 290.

Sphaerotheca mors-uvae, 433.

— pannosa, 297.
Spilosoma Virginica, 430.
Sporocyba parasiticum, 301.
Spraying, effect on pollination, 27.
Spring planting, 7.

— pruning, 18.
Stacks, evaporator, 87.
Steam tray-driers, 94.
Stemphylium macrosporoideum, 441.
Stictis rubi, 302.

Stigmus fraternus, 283.
Stilbum pruinosipes, 301. [berries, 114.
Strawberries, planting among blacfc-
Strawberry-raspberry, 147, 322.

— weevil, 270.
Subsoiling, 6.
Suckers, 9.

— increased by cultivation, 109.
Summer planting, 8.

— pruning, 18.

Swamp blueberry, 495, 499.
Synchlora albolineata, 260.

— glaucaria, 260.

— rubivoraria, 260.
Systena frontalis, 431.

Tangleberry, 497.
Tarnished plant-bug, 253.
Tasteless mountain currant, 470.
Tetracis trianguliferata, 430.
Tetranychus telarius, 275, 427.
Thamnonoma flavicaria, 430.

— quadrilinearia, 430.

Thayer, M. A., blackberry profits, 129.
Thelephora ribesina, 442.
Thimbleberry, 151, 304, 319.

— Rocky Mountain, 151.
Thinning currants, 349.

— gooseberries, 366.

— the fruit, 27.
Thornless blackberry, 327.
Thrips tritici, 275.
Thyatira scripta, 279.
Thyreocoris pulicarius, 276.
Tillage, 12.

536

INDEX

Tillage for blackberries, 115.

black-caps, 69.

currants, 346.

dewberries, 141.

gooseberries, 364.

red raspberries, 49.

— tools, 14.

Time required for evaporating,
Tips, tools for putting down, 65.
Tischeria ^Enea, 278.

— malifoliella, 278.
Tmetocera ocellana, 256.
Tools for putting down tips, 65.

— pruning, 17.

— tillage, 14.
Topping evaporator, 85.
Tower drier, 86.
Training currants, 348, 349.

— dewberries, 141.

— gooseberries, 366.
Tray for evaporators, 98.
Tree cranberry, 506.
Trichopeziza subochracea, 302.
Trochilium caudatum, 429.

— tipuliforme, 418.
Trypeta Canadensis,421.
Tubercularia carpogena, 301.

— confluens, 441.

— decolorans, 301.

— persicina, 301.

— vulgaris, 436.
Tymnes tricolor, 282.
Tympanis conspersa, 302.
Types of blackberries, 225.
Typhlocyba obliqua, 428.

— tricincta, 276, 428.
Typhula rubicola, 301.
Tyroglyphus ribis, 427.

Unclassified raspberries, 212.
Uredo (Cseoma) confluens, 442.

— interstitialis, 285.

— Jonesii, 442.
- lucida, 285.

— ribicola, 442.

— speciosa, 302.

Uroplata pallida, 431.
Uses of blackberries, 120.

currants, 351.

gooseberries, 368.

red raspberries, 54.

Vaccinium, 497.

— Canadense, 499.

— corymbosum, 495, 499.

— Pennsylvanicum, 496, 498.

— vacillans, 499.
Valsa agnostica, 439.

— ceratophora, 297.

— ribesia, 439.

— rubi, 297.

— rubicola, 439.

— rubin"ola, 298.

— sepincola, 297.

— subclypeata, 297.

— syngenesia, 297.
Vanessa comma, 280, 431.

— progne, 431.

Variation in currants, 375, 378.
Varieties of blackberries and dewber-
unclassified, 227. [ries 219.

— — currants, 375.

- — gooseberries, 394, 402, 403.

raspberries, 157.

American red, 192.

black, 160.

European red, 199.

purple-cane, 178.

unclassified, 212.

Variety of black-cap for evaporating, 98.
Velutaria rufo-olivacea, 302.

— Kunzei, 297.
Vermicularia compacta, 299.

— effusa, 299.
Viburnum opulus, 506.

Waterton, quoted, 223.
Western dewberries, 243, 247.
White blackberry, 237, 324.
Wild black currant, 481.
Williams evaporator, 93.
Wind-breaks, 4.

INDEX

537

Wineberry, 148, 153, 321.
Wine, blackberry, 122.
Winter-killing, 19, 24.
Winter protection, 20.

Xylophasia arctica, 430.

Yellows, 285.

Yield of blackberries, 125.

Yield of black-caps, 101.

in dried fruit, 102,

currants, 353.

dewberries, 145.

gooseberries, 371.

red raspberiies, 58.

Zerene catenaria, 278.
Zophodia grossulariae, 418.

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