How to know the ferns

HOW TO KNOW
THE FERNS

S. LEONARD BASTIN

UC-NRLF

Agri o. Lands cape Design

HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

HOW TO KNOW
THE FERNS

S. LEONARD BASTIN

WITH THIRTY-THREE ILLUSTRATIONS

METHUEN & CO. LTD.

36 ESSEX STREET W.C.

LONDON

First Published in

• ;-. .

CONTENTS

CHAP. PAGE

I. THE FERNS AND THEIR ALLIES . . i

II. LIFE HISTORIES . . . -13

III. YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY . . .23

IV. THREE DAINTY FERNS . . -33
V. THE BRACKEN FERN AND Two INTEREST-
ING SPECIES . . . . .38

VI. THE MALE FERN AND ITS RELATIVES . 46

VII. THE LADY FERN AND THE SPLEENWORTS . 66

VIII. THE POLYPODIES . . . .86

IX. THE ROYAL FERN . . . -93

X. FOUR CURIOUS FERNS . . .96

XL THE CLUB MOSSES .... 101

XII. THE HORSETAILS . . . .112

XIII. FERN COLLECTING AND PRESERVING . 122

XIV. THE CULTURE OF FERNS . . . 129
INDEX ...../. 133

808960

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

THE BRISTLE FERN . . . . -34

THE TUNBRIDGE FILMY FERN . . -36

THE BRACKEN FERN. . . . -39

THE MAIDENHAIR FERN . . . .42
THE MAIDENHAIR FERN (Enlarged view of Back of

Frond) . . . . . -43

THE MALE FERN . . . . -47

THE MOUNTAIN BUCKLER FERN . . .51

THE MOUNTAIN BUCKLER FERN (Enlarged) . 52

NEPHRODIUM DILATATUM . . . -54

THE HOLLY FERN . . . . .58

THE OBLONG WOODSIA . . . .62

THE BRITTLE BLADDER FERN . . .64

ATHYRIUM FILIX-F&MINA . . . .67

THE RUE-LEAVED SPLEENWORT . . .71
THE RUE-LEAVED SPLEENWORT (Enlarged Back of

Frond) . .. . . . -72

THE SEA SPLEENWORT . . . .76

THE MAIDENHAIR SPLEENWORT . . 79

THE GREEN SPLEENWORT . . . .81

THE HARTSTONGUE . . . . .82

vii

viii HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

PAGE

THE SORI ON THE BACK OF A HARTSTONGUE FROND 83
THE COMMON POLYPODY . . . .87

ENLARGEMENT OF THE SORI ON THE FROND OF

COMMON POLYPODY . . . .88

THE BEECH FERN . . . . .89

THE ROYAL FERN . . . . • 94

THE ADDER'S TONGUE . . . -97

THE MOONWORT . . . . .99

THE COMMON CLUB Moss .... 102
THE FIR CLUB Moss .... 104

THE QUILLWORT ..... 108
AZOLLA CAROLINIANA . . . . IIO

BARREN STEM OF EQUISETUM ARVENSE . .113

FERTILE CONES OF EQUISETUM MAXIMUM . . 115

THE DUTCH RUSH 120

HOW TO KNOW THE
FERNS

CHAPTER I
THE FERNS AND THEIR ALLIES

T N its lowest forms vegetable life is a very
J[ simple affair. The minute Algae which
clothe damp surfaces with a green film show
few indeed of the characteristics with which
we are familiar in the higher plants. Certainly
they are green, proving that the tiny cells of
which they are composed contain the wonderful
colouring matter — chlorophyll, by means of
which they are able to assimilate carbon from
the carbonic acid of the air. There is, however,
in these lowly plants no sign of a stem, a leaf,
or a root. As we ascend in the scale of vege-
table life we begin to get an increasing number
of distinctive characters. In the case of the
Mosses we have plants with distinct stems and
leaves. But Mosses have no true roots, neither
is there any vascular (woody) tissue in their
composition. Mounting yet higher in the scale
we come to a very important and interesting
group of plants usually referred to as the Vas-
cular Cryptogams. In this group are included
the Ferns, the Horsetails, and the Club Mosses.

.2-; : HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

•In -passing, it. may be pointed out that the term
Ctyptbg-a&vis a name which was originally given
to the flowerless plants by Linnaeus to indicate
that the plan of fertilization was hidden. The
name is still retained, but it has lost its mean-
ing in this sense, in that since the introduction
of high-power microscopes it is not necessarily
more difficult to study the fertilization of the
non-flowering plants than it is to watch the
process in the kinds which bear blossoms.

A small acquaintance with the Vascular
Cryptogams will show us that they approach
very closely to the flowering plants, or Phanero-
gams, as they are called, in their general features.
It is true that in the cases of the Club Mosses
and Horsetails the leaves are small or very
poorly developed, but with the Ferns the foliage
is often of an advanced type. All the Vascular
Cryptogams, apart from a few insignificant ex-
ceptions, produce real roots ; and. as the name
implies, in a botanical sense, evidence woody
tissue in their composition. Whilst the Club
Mosses and Horsetails are comparatively humble
plants, the Ferns have reached a remarkable
development in the arboreal species. These, of
course, grow into large trees which may be fifty
or more feet in height, with thick woody trunks.
Our common Male Fern not infrequently forms
a short trunk-like stem if it is allowed to remain
in an undisturbed state for a number of years.
Not all the Ferns are large or even of moderate
size ; many of the Filmy Ferns are so minute
that they are often taken for Mosses by those
who do not know any better.

All the Vascular Cryptogams show an alterna-
tion of generation ; that is, in the life history of
each plant there is a sexual and an asexual
individual. As is fully explained later, the

THE FERNS AND THEIR ALLIES 3

plant which arises from the spore of the Vascular
Cryptogam is quite an insignificant body known
as the prothallus. This has a comparatively
short existence in most cases. It is on the pro-
thallus, however, that the sexual organs are
produced, and after fertilization the plant as
we know it arises. This individual is called the
sporophyte. The plant is responsible for the
spores which are produced in little cases called
sporangia. These are borne straight on the
leaves, and are produced without anything in
the way of fertilization having taken place.
As far as the Ferns are concerned, the spores
are all of one kind, but in certain of the Club
Mosses two kinds of spores are produced.

Apart from a few exceptions the Vascular
Cryptogams are mostly perennial in habit. In
many cases other means of reproduction are
available than the agency of spores. It is
believed that the Bracken Fern is rarely repro-
duced by its spores. The increase of this plant
seems to be very effectively carried out by means
of the strong growing underground stems which
shoot about in all directions. The Horsetails
commonly propagate themselves in the same
way, and it is this which makes them so difficult
to eradicate in the garden. In the case of many
Ferns a common mode of increase is that of
budding off new plants on the leaf. The well-
known New Zealand species, Asplenium bulbi-
ferum, produces little buds on its fronds ; these
grow into small plants, so that each leaf may
be responsible for dozens of new individuals.
An even more singular case is the so-called
Walking Fern from North America (Scolo-
pendrium rhizophyllum), which bears long,
tapering leaves something like our Hartstongue.
These bend over in such a way that their tips

HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

touch the ground; on the point of the frond
a bud is developed. Roots go down into the
soil from the point of the frond, leaves shoot
upwards, and thus a new plant is born. In
some species of Club Moss the increase of the
plant by spore production is supplemented by
a plan Which involves the bearing of bulbils
on the shoots. These are vegetative processes
which give rise to new individuals when they
tumble to the ground.

It is of interest to consider the general
characteristics of the members of the Fern
tribe. As a rule the stem is either in the nature
of a short underground process bearing a rosette
of leaves, as in the case of the Male Fern and
Hartstongue, or there is a horizontal stem more
or less below the surface of the soil, such as is
to be seen in the case of the Bracken Fern and
the Polypody. Sometimes the stem assumes the
proportions of a trunk, but these Tree Ferns
only occur in the tropics. Where the stem of
the Fern is upright it is properly termed a caudex,
whilst in its horizontal form it is spoken of as a
rhizome. There is actually some doubt as to
the real nature of the frond of the Fern. Some
botanists are inclined to believe that it is not
really a leaf at all, but is a modified stem
structure. Those who hold this view consider
that the curious scaly structures so common
amongst Ferns are really the leaves of the
plant. Here the matter must be left on the
present occasion, as it is proposed to use the
terms leaf and frond as meaning the same thing.
An outstanding feature in the case of most
Ferns is the remarkable manner in which the
fronds are subdivided. In the case of the
Male Fern it is seen that the upper part of the
stalk, or rachis, as it is called, bears two rows

THE FERNS AND THEIR ALLIES 5

of leaflets. These leaflets are properly referred
to as pinnae. When the leaflets are subdivided
the divisions are spoken of as pinnules. These
pinnules may be deeply lobed, and when this
is the case each lobe is called a segment. In
very large fronds the pinnules are again divided ;
the frond is then said to be tri-pinnate. Some-
times towards the top of the pinnae or the frond
the divisions become less pronounced ; this
character is designated pinnatifid. It should be
noticed that the lower portion of the stalk, on
which there are no pinnae, is called a stipes.
Of course in some cases, as with the Hartstongue,
the leaf is quite undivided, without even any
very pronounced indentations on the margin.

The unrolling of the Fern frond is a very
beautiful process. Where the leaf is not
divided in any way the process of expanding
resembles the uncoiling of a watch-spring.
Even where there are divisions the unrolling
goes forward in the same manner with each
subdivision, even down to the lobes. This
particular mode of unfolding is called circinate.
The texture of the leaves of Ferns is mostly thin
and delicate, so that apart from some exceptions
the foliage is not able to withstand the action of
dry air. A notable feature with a large number
of Ferns is the length of time which the leaves
take to develop. The fronds of the Male Fern,
for instance, start in the bud at least two years
before they actually unfold. An examination
will show that the roots of the Male Fern spring
from the frond bases. It will be found that
the position of the roots is the same in all
Ferns.

With all Ferns the production of spores is
confined to the leaves. In many instances there
is no distinction between the fertile and the

6 HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

barren leaves. The stem does not start at once
to produce leaves bearing the sporangia or spore
cases. Thus, in the very young Fern the fronds
are always barren ; as the stem becomes older,
fertile fronds are produced. In some cases the
sporangia are borne on distinct leaves, as in the
case of the Hard Fern, or on special parts of the
leaves, in the manner to be seen in the Royal
Fern. The difference in such cases is not really
a very important distinction. A careful ex-
amination of the fertile portion of a Royal Fern
frond will show a small amount of green tissue,
or mesophyll, as it is called, at the lower portion
of the pinnae. Actually the fertile leaf, or part
of a leaf, is similar to the barren portions, save
that it produces a much reduced amount of
green tissue or, in some cases, perhaps none at
all.

In general appearance the Club Mosses bear a
resemblance to the true Mosses, and hence the
popular name, which is certainly rather mis-
leading. With these plants the leaves are
small and almost bristle-like, and are gathered
closely round the stem. In many of the Club
Mosses a large part of the stem lies closely
along the ground, and from this at intervals
roots are sent down into the soil and leafy
shoots rise upwards. The sporangia are pro-
duced on special leaves, which are usually
gathered together in the form of cones.

Although they vary somewhat in size, all
the Horsetails are striking plants. Here there is
a branching underground rhizome from which
arise the aerial stems. The most distinctive
feature of the plant are the whorls of smaller
branches which arise from the joints of the
main stem. These carry on the work which is
usually assigned to the foliage of the average

THE FERNS AND THEIR ALLIES 7

plant, — that is, the assimilating of carbon from
the carbonic acid of the atmosphere. The real
leaves of the Horsetail are much reduced in size,
and take very little part in the work of nutrition.
We shall find them at the joints of the stem as
rings, each collection forming a kind of sheath.
The leaves, which are usually of the same
number as the branches, show no sign of their
individuality, save in the little projecting teeth.
In some species the fertile shoots, which appear
in the form of cones, are produced specially.
These appear in the spring before the ordinary
vegetative growths, and are quite destitute of
chlorophyll. In other species the normal

¥reen shoots are fertile at the termination,
he sporangia are borne on curious scale-like
leaves, a large number of which go to the
making of a cone.

One or two aquatic plants, which belong to
the Vascular Cryptogams, call for comment.
The Pillwort is a singular plant not uncommon
in damp situations. The leaves of this plant are
narrow, and the spores are produced in curious
rounded processes. The Water Fern (Azolla)
is an introduced plant which sometimes grows
abundantly on lakes in the South of England.
Both the before-mentioned plants are allied to
the Ferns. The Water Club Mosses (Isoetes)
are represented in this country by a species
commonly known as the Quillwort. This
plant grows in lakes, and is easily recognized
by its quill-like foliage.

Owing to the large number of species a some-
what elaborate classification is necessary in the
case of Ferns. In distinguishing the different
families, the manner in which the collections of
spore cases, known as sori, occur, as well as the
features which the individual sporangia present,

8 HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

are important guides. The actual position of
the sorus on the leaf, the presence or absence
of a covering (indusium), are also distinctive
features, both in the families and sub-families.
When the individual sporangium is examined
it is found that there is often present an annulus,
a special ring of cells which plays an important
part in the rupturing of the case. The extent
of this ring or (as sometimes happens) its
absence will alike be a decisive factor in fixing
the family to which a species belongs. In
some families a prominent feature is the fact
that the sporangium has little or no stalk,
although this is the exception rather than the
rule. For a more complete description of the
sporangium of the Fern the reader is referred to
a succeeding chapter. It is certainly helpful to
a study of these beautiful plants to try to fix
in the mind the families, and their characters,
of the order Filices, In all there are eight
families belonging to the Fern tribe. These are
given in the order in which they occur in
technical books.

i. Hymenophyllacea. — The Filmy and Bristle
Ferns. This family includes some of the
simplest kinds of Ferns. There are only three
representatives in the United Kingdom. These
are Hymenophyllum tunbridgense, H. Wilsoni,
and Trichomanes radicans. The two former
species are fairly common on rocks which are
splashed with water, but the latter seems only
to occur in restricted districts in the South of
Ireland. All the species must have an abund-
ance of water, or the foliage quickly shrivels.
This is due to the fact that the leaves consist
of a single layer of cells and are, of course, very
thin. A distinctive feature in this family is the
bearing of the sporangia ; these are almost or

THE FERNS AND THEIR ALLIES 9

entirely stalkless. The sorus, as the group of
sporangia is called, is surrounded by an en-
closure from the leaf margin. In Trichomanes
this is cup-shaped, whilst in Hymenophyllum it
is bivalved. The popular name Filmy Fern —
bestowed on the Hymenophyllums and allied
species — has reference to the semi-transparent
nature of the fronds. In the case of Tricho-
manes the axis on which the sporangia are
inserted often projects beyond the cup in which
they are contained. This gives a curious spiky
appearance to the fertile frond, and hence the
name Bristle Fern.

2. Polypodiacea. — This is a very large family,
containing two or three times as many species
as all the rest of the Vascular Cryptogams put
together. Nearly all our native species, with a
few exceptions, belong to the family. A dis-
tinctive feature is the incomplete annulus of the
sporangium. Another point to notice is that
the spore cases are stalked. So large is the
family that it has been divided into a number of
sub-families ; the members of these are chiefly
characterized by the position of the sorus, the
cluster of sporangia on the back of the frond.
The different sub - families may be briefly
outlined.

(a) Davalliacece. — There are no British re-
presentatives of this family. In this case the
sorus is always near to the margin of the leaf,
and the indusium or covering is cup-shaped.
A familiar species is Davallia bullata from .the
East ; the rhizomes of this Fern are trained
into various shapes by the Japanese.

(b) Pteridea.— lte Bracken Fern (Pteris
aqmlina), the Maiden Hair (Adiantum capillus-
veneris), and the Parsley Fern (Cryptogramme
crispus) belong to this sub-family. A notable

io HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

feature of the Bracken is the continuous mar-
ginal sorus. There is no proper indusium, but
the leaf margin curls over and protects the
sporangia to some extent.

(c) Aspidiece. — The sorus is in the form of
a little rounded heap. The indusium, which is
usually kidney-shaped, is supported by a central
stalk, somewhat after the manner of a nastur-
tium leaf. The Male Fern (Nephr odium filix-mas)
belongs to this sub-family, as well as the Bladder
Ferns (Cystopteris) and the Woodsias.

(d) Aspleniece. — Here the sorus is elongated
or linear. The indusium arises from a vein to
which the sorus is attached. Some very charm-
ing Ferns belong to this sub-family. Many
botanists include the Lady Fern (Athyrium
filix-fcemina) in this section. Certain of the
Spleen worts (Asplenium) are common. The
Wall Rue (A. ruta-muraria) and *the Black
Maidenhair Spleen wort (A. adiantum-nigrum)
are well known.

(e) Polypodies. — The sori on the underside
of the leaves are without any indusium. They
are in rounded clusters, and look like small
buttons. Polypodium vulgare is one of our
commonest Ferns. Some of the other species
of this genus, such as the Oak Fern (P.
dryopteris) and the Beech Fern (P. phegopteris) ,
are abundant in some localities.

(/) GrammitidecB. — The Gold and Silver Ferns.
The only British species is the Annual Maiden-
hair (Gymnogramma leptophylla). The plant
occurs in the Channel Islands. This species is
one of the few Ferns which are not perennial.
The sori, which follow the veins, have no in-
dusium.

(g) Acrostichece. — There are no British repre-
sentatives of this sub-family. In this case the

THE FERNS AND THEIR ALLIES n

whole of the underside of the leaf is covered with
sporangia, and there is no indusium.

3. Cyaiheacece. — There are no British repre-
sentatives of this family, which is interesting,
owing to the fact that it includes the Tree Ferns.

4. Gleicheniacea. — A group of Ferns which
are almost entirely tropical.

5. Schizceacecz. — Another tropical family.

6. Marattiacece. — A family of large and hand-
some Ferns, the members of which occur in the
tropics. There are not many representatives of
this family nowadays, but remains in the Coal
Measures show that the species were very much
more numerous in Palaeozoic times.

7. Osmundacece. — A small family, but rather
an important one, owing to the fact that a lead-
ing representative, the Royal Fern (Osmunda
regalis), is so well known. In this species only
the upper portion of the leaf is fertile. The
sporangia have very shor+ stalks, and are not
provided with an annuku at all. They burst
open in a longitudinal slit, opposite to a special
group of cells just below the apex. The sorus
has no indusium.

8. Ophioglossecz. — This family is represented
by three British species, of which the Moonwort
(Botrychium lunaria) and the Adder's Tongue
(Ophioglosstim vulgatum) are best known. There
is much doubt as to whether this family can be
properly included amongst the Ferns at all.
We may here give them the benefit of the doubt.
The leaves in these species are unfolded from
the sides — a totally distinct plan from that to
be observed in all the Ferns which have been
described, where the frond and its divisions are
unrolled upwards. The prothallus is a small
underground body destitute of chlorophyll.
The fertile leaves are distinguished from the

12 HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

barren ones by the production of a special branch
which bears the fructification. The sporangia
are large.

The next order of the Vascular Cryptogams
is of comparatively small importance as far as
the present study is concerned. It is known as
the Rhizocarpece (Pepperworts). The order is
divided into two families as follows : —

1. Salviniacea. — The only two genera are
Salvinia and Azolla ; the latter has been
already mentioned.

2. Marsiliacece. — The British example is the
Pillwort (Pilularia globulifera).

The Club Mosses have been divided into six
families. Two of these — the Lepidodendracece
and the Sigillariacece — are only represented by
fossils ; and one, Psilotacece, has no British
representatives. The remaining families all
include one or more species which are indigenous
to our islands.

1. Lycopodiacece. — These are the Club Mosses
proper. Several species of the genus Lyco-
podium are British. The Common Club Moss
(Lycopodium clavatum) is often abundant on high
moors.

2. Selaginellacea. — A large family containing
three or four hundred species, only one of which,
however, is British ; this is Selaginella spinosa.

3. Isoetacece. — A family of aquatic Club
Mosses. The British species is Isoetes lacustris,
a plant which is sometimes common in the
northern lakes.

With this brief survey of the Vascular Crypto-
gams one may naturally pass to a somewhat
more detailed consideration of the life histories
of these interesting plants than it has been
possible to give in an opening chapter.

olete

CHAPTER II
LIFE HISTORIES

VEN the most general survey of the
, Vascular Cryptogams would not be com-
plete without an attempt to indicate the means
of reproduction to be observed in these plants.
The subject is one which might well be treated
at great length, for there is scarcely any species
which does not present some interesting point
that calls for comment. Within the limits of
the present inquiry it will not be possible to
give more than an outline of the reproductive
schemes to be observed in a few typical species.
These life histories must not be taken as neces-
sarily applying to all the related plants. None
the less, by a careful study of the species de-
scribed we may receive a fair conception of the
habits of the class to which it belongs. Inci-
dentally it may be mentioned that even a low-
power microscope will be an enormous help in
studying the life histories of the Vascular Crypto-
gams ; but if this is not possible, a pocket -lens
will help to a better understanding of many of
the points described.

For the study of the life history of a Fern
one cannot do better than take the commonest
of our native species, the Male Fern (Nephrodium
filix-mas). Seeing that the general aspects of
the plant are fully described in a later chapter,

i4 HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

there is no need to enter into such matters
at the present moment. We may, however,
examine a fertile leaf of the Fern in order that
we may start at the beginning of a really
interesting romance. A very small magnifica-
tion of the brown patches on the back of the
frond, which we remember are called son,
will reveal their true character. After removing
the kidney-shaped cover (indusium) we shall
be able to see the spore cases or sporangia
quite clearly. Each of these consists of a
capsule borne on the end of a stalk. These
sporangia are seen to grow out from the sides
of a mass of special tissue, known as the
placenta, from which the indusium really
arises. On occasions a curious club-shapecl
hair which secretes resin can be observed on
the stalks of the sporangia. There seems to
be no satisfactory explanation as to the part
which this process plays. The capsule of the
sporangium is much flattened, and has not
been inaptly compared to a watch-case. Its
wall is very thin, being composed of a single
layer of cells. Around the edges of the little
case there is a row of large and thickened
cells which form the ring or annulus. Here
it may be mentioned again that the structure
of this annulus varies greatly in the different
families, and is often a useful distinguishing
feature. To return to our Male Fern, the
annulus is plainly seen to start from the stalk
of the sporangium at one side of the capsule,
and it can be traced right over the top to a
situation about half-way down on the other
side. The chief business of the annulus is to
bring about the opening of the sporangium
in such a way that the spores are violently
expelled. This happens in the following

LIFE HISTORIES 15

manner. When the contents of the sporangium
are mature the wall of the capsule, and
especially the cells forming the annulus, begin
to lose water. The sides of the capsule start
to draw inwards, and ultimately the annulus
suddenly straightens out and the sporangium
is torn open, the actual rupture taking place
just at the base of the ring.

The manner in which the spores originate
in the sporangium calls for comment. In the
case of the Male Fern these arise owing to
the repeated division of a single cell. At a
certain stage in the process there are produced
what are known as mother cells. Ultimately
these divide twice, and the resulting cells
represent the spores. When ripe, the spores
become kidney-shaped and the wall of the
cell takes on " a rich brown colour. In the
different kinds of Ferns, the form of the spore
and the sculpturing of its walls vary a great
deal. Thus the spores may be globular, oval,
or angular in shape ; whilst the exterior may
be quite plain, or, perhaps, most beautifully
marked. The number of spores produced in
the sporangium of a Male Fern is usually some
forty- eight to sixty-four, although in other
species there might be less than the lower
figure or more than the higher. To the naked
eye the spores appear to be so much dust,
and as they are comparatively light they
float away on the breezes, and often enough
travel for a considerable distance before coming
to rest. As a rule the bursting of the sporangia
takes place during dry weather. There is a
real advantage in this, for when the spores are
damp they hang together in masses and in
such a state a wide dispersal would be out of
the question.

16 HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

The best thing that can happen to
the spore is that it should settle upon some
moist soil. Here it may be mentioned a most
instructive experiment is the sowing of a few
fern spores. This may be carried out in
ordinary garden soil, although it is wise to
sterilize it before use. All soil contains the
germs of such organisms as mould which, in
cultivation at any rate, is especially destructive
to developing spores. The plan is to bake the
mould in an oven until it is so hot that one
cannot bear to touch it. We shall get any
number of spores from the fertile leaf of a
Male Fern by just tapping the frond whilst
holding it over the surface of the soil. Do
not scatter the spores too thickly, or it will
be difficult to examine the stages of develop-
ment, and remember also that the soil should
be moist at the start. The results of this
spore culture are always more satisfactory if
the soil is covered with a bell-glass — an ordinary
tumbler would do if nothing better is avail-
able. Water must be given as necessary,
though do not swamp the soil ; the best plan
is to let the liquid in a few drops at a time.

In the case of the Male Fern the germination
of the spore will start in about eight days,
but in other species the period varies. Many
of the succeeding stages cannot be intelligently
followed except with the aid of a microscope.
The first thing which happens to the germinating
spore is the development of a root hair which
helps in fixing the process to the soil. A
system of cell division now commences in the
other portion of the spore which results in the
formation of a green filament, every cell of
which is capable of producing root hairs.
This filament is the beginning of the body,

LIFE HISTORIES 17

known as the prothallus, which is responsible
for the sex organs. The process of cell-division
goes forward and ultimately results in the
development of a green scale measuring,
perhaps, an eighth of an inch across at its
broadest part. This is the fully-grown pro-
thallus. From the underside arise more root
hairs, and it is here also that the antheridia
(male organs) and the archegonia (female
organs) are produced. As a rule, both kinds
of organs occur on the same prothallus,
although now and again prothalli have been
discovered which are exclusively male or
female. The matter is of interest, because it
evidences an occasional distinction of sex
which has become habitual in some of the
Club Mosses. In the case of a perfectly normal
prothallus the male organs or antheridia are
to be found amongst the root hairs, whilst
the female organs or archegonia arise from a
cushion, several cells deep, more towards the
centre of the process.

The manner of fertilization may be briefly
outlined, although the observation of this is
beyond the ordinary student. With Ferns, as
is the case with nearly all the Cryptogams,
the fertilization takes place under water ; the
moisture may be the outcome of heavy rain
or even dew. However that may be, as soon
as the underside of the prothallus has become
thoroughly wetted the antheridia open, and
certain little bodies called spermatozoids are
allowed to escape. These are exceedingly
active, and are in the form of spirally coiled
bodies with a number of fine threads (cilia)
at one end. The same moisture which caused
the antheridia -to open also brings about the
opening of the archegonia. Some time ago it

i8 HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

was shown that the spermatozoids steered a
decided course towards the archegonia, but the
reason for this has only been comparatively
recently explained. At the mouth of the
archegonia there is a viscid drop which almost
certainly contains chemical substances attrac-
tive to the spermatozoids. Although the
nature of the substance is not exactly known,
it is suggested that this may be malic acid,
seeing that experiments have shown that the
spermatozoids are attracted to this product
when it is artificially introduced. Of course
the matter is a difficult one to prove, in that
the viscid drop is so minute that it is impossible
to determine the nature of the substance which
it contains. Malic acid has, however, been
discovered to be present in the prothallus as
a whole. Although there is quite a competition
amongst the spermatozoids as to which shall
enter the archegonium, it is likely that only
one actually succeeds in entering the egg cell.
As a rule, too, in the prothallus only one of
the archegonia shows any further signs of
development.

After the fertilization is completed the first
happening is the formation of a cell-wall round
the ovum. Passing through various stages of
growth and subdivision it finally forms the
embryo of the young plant. For a while the
newly-born Fern relies upon the prothallus for
sustenance, but eventually starts an inde-
pendent existence. The baby sends down roots
into the ground and leaves up into the air, and
from thenceforward its development into a
mature plant will only be a matter of time.

The life histories of the Club Mosses have
certain points which make them of special
interest. In the first place, the manner of

LIFE HISTORIES 19

reproduction to be observed in the Lycopo-
diums may be outlined. Sometimes the
sporangia are borne on fertile leaves which
exactly resemble the ordinary ones ; a good
instance of this is seen in the case of the Fir
Club Moss (Lycopodium selago). On the other
hand, the fertile leaves may be gathered
together into cones such as are to be observed
in the case of the Common Club Moss (L.
davatum). The sporangium is quite a large
affair, easily discerned with the naked eye.
The number of spores produced is enormous —
so much so that these can be shaken out in a
thick powder. In some of the Lycopodiums
the spores have a remarkable habit of resting
before the development of the prothallus. It is
said that in the case of the Common Club Moss
the prothalli do not appear until the end of the
sixth year. Even then, several more years
elapse before the prothallus is sufficiently
mature to bear the organs of sex. In the
case of L. inundatum the length of time
which elapses between the coming of the pro-
thallus is nothing like so great. With all the
Lycopodiums, however, the prothallus, which
varies a good deal in the different species, bears
both kinds of sexual organs. In most of the
cases where the development of the spore is
such a long business the prothallus is produced
underground. With L. inundatum, however,
the prothallus is green and leaf-like. The
underground prothalli have no chlorophyll, and
hence cannot live the life of an independent
green plant. It has lately been demonstrated
that these are always found in conjunction with
a certain fungus ; probably the benefits of the
association are mutual. Making allowance for
certain differences which are not of great im-

20 HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

portance to the general student, the fertilization
of the egg cell in the prothallus of the Lycopo-
dium is carried out on very similar lines to
those which have been described in the case of
the Fern.

The life histories of the Selaginellas evidence
some important differences which call for
special comment. Here throughout the whole
family the spore-bearing part of the plant is in
the form of very definite cones. As in the case
of Lycopodium there is only one sporangium to
each leaf, but they are of two kinds. One, on
account of the fact that it is responsible for tjie
production of small spores, is called the micro-
sporangium ; the other, the megasporangium.
The two kinds of sporangia are usually present
on the same cone, although the microsporangia
are as a rule higher up the stem than the mega-
sporangia. The number of microspores pro-
duced is very large, but only four megaspores
are borne in each megasporangium. The mega-
spores are, of course, very much larger than
the microspores. The germination of the
megaspores is started in the sporangium; at
a certain point in their development they are
shed. In the case of the microspores germina-
tion commences after the spores have fallen
on to moist soil. The prothallus is exceedingly
small, being little more than a group of cells
forming an antheridium. Should there be
sufficient moisture about, the spermatozoids
which are produced by the antheridium swim
towards the archegonia in any female pro-
thallus which may be near. Fertilization then
takes place, and the final outcome is the young
plant. Now and again in certain species it is
seen that the megaspores develop to such an
extent within the sporangium that fertilization

LIFE HISTORIES 21

takes place, and even an embryo or young
plant may be formed.

There remains to be considered the life history
of the Horsetails. The spores are always pro-
duced on special processes, which are arranged
in the form of a cone at the apex of the stem.
The sporangia are borne on curious scales which
are supported by stalks placed in the centre.
These scales are arranged in whorls round the
centre of the stem, and there may be twenty
or more in each row. On the underside of these
scales we shall find the sporangia — almost any
number of them up to ten. Each sporangium
produces a considerable number of spores, so
that every cone is responsible for an enormous
number. These spores are all of one kind, and
they are so singular that they are worth a
somewhat detailed description. The covering
of the spore really consists of four layers, the
outermost of which is split spirally in such a
way that two long arms with flattened ends are
produced. As long as the spore is damp these
remain closely gathered round, but under dry
conditions they are stretched out. The move-
ments of these arms or elaters, as they are
called, are readily watched under a microscope.
By gently breathing on the spores we bring
them under the influence of moist air, and this
causes the elaters to curl up ; after a while,
however, when they become dry, the arms
stretch out again. It is not certainly known
what is the use of these elaters. A very little
observation shows that the opening and closing
of the arms keeps the spores on the move ;
this would aid dispersal at the time of the
bursting of the sporangium. Another point
which is worth consideration is that although
the spores appear to be exactly the same, yet

22 HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

as a rule they develop on distinctive sex lines.
It is obviously important that the male and the
female prothallus should be together. The long
arm-like processes on the spores often link the
little bodies side by side, and this would be an
advantage.

The spores of the Horsetails are not long in
developing after they have settled in a damp
situation. The actual forms which the pro-
thalli take are often very irregular. That of
the male prothallus is usually rather small ; on
the other hand, the female prothallus is some-
times large, and may have complicated branch-
ings. As in the case of the other Vascular
Cryptogams which have been considered, sper-
matozoids are produced in the antheridia.
These are very active, and travel through the
agency of water to the archegonia on the
female prothallus. The spermatozoids unite
with the various egg cells, and in this way an
embryo is formed which finally develops into
the mature plant. Owing to the fact that the
prothalli of the Horsetails have proved to be
excessively difficult to cultivate; the life history
has not been so completely worked out as in
the case of the Ferns and Club Mosses. One
interesting point in connection with the cultiva-
tion of Horsetail spores has been brought to
light. Whenever the spores are growing on
poor soil, by far the larger number of them pro-
duce antheridia. On the other hand, where
there is plenty of nourishment the tendency is
all the other way. The matter is of interest, as
it appears to show that the amount of available
nutriment is a definite factor in the determina-
tion of sex.

CHAPTER III
YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY

A LTHOUGH to most people the study of
jf~\_ fossil botany may appear to be an un-
inviting pursuit, there can be no question as to
the importance of the science. It is only in
this way that we are able to appreciate the
changes which have led up to the existing types
of plants. Now the question of the past history
of the Vascular Cryptogams is of very special
interest in more ways than one. It is, of course,
most fascinating to be able to discover what
kinds of Ferns flourished, for instance, at the
period when the coal deposits were being
formed. But, even in a cursory description, it
will be quite impossible to allow the matter to
rest there. The story of the past, in the case
of the Vascular Cryptogams, is closely inter-
woven with some of the most absorbing phases
in the evolution of the Flowering Plants which
are such a dominant feature on the earth at the
present time.

Quite recently we have had to alter our views
materially on the matter of the past history of
the Ferns. Within the last few years it has been
proved that a huge number of the fossil remains,
belonging to the Palaeozoic formation at any
rate, are not Ferns at all. They belonged to a
very distinct race of plants altogether, known
23

24 HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

as Pteridosperms, even though they had a
superficial resemblance to Ferns. After a large
amount of patient research it has been demon-
strated that these plants bore seeds. The
method of flowering and seed-production was
vastly different from that which is to be ob-
served in the flowering plants of to-day. The
male or pollen-bearing organs were produced
straight on the foliage in much the same way
as the sporangium of a true Fern is developed.
In a similar manner the seeds were borne straight
on to the leaf. In some general points these
plants also bore a strong resemblance to the
Ferns, and it was this which misled the early
observers. Without a doubt these Pterido-
sperms were related to the Ferns, and probably
at some remote period the two groups had a
common ancestry. There is good reason for
believing that at the same time these Pterido-
sperms were flourishing true Ferns were also well
represented.

Now the interesting point about these Ferns
is that they were not vastly different, in many
ways, from the species which exist on the earth
at the present time. Of course certain types, of
which we have living examples, were more fully
represented than is the case nowadays ; on the
other hand, some of our most widely distributed
families seem to have been at rather a low stage
in their history. As well, the remains evidence
a large number of very simple species, which
perhaps give us an idea of what the original
Ferns were like. But on the whole there is
nothing to show that our living Ferns are any
more developed than the highest types which
grew in the coal forests. In these far-away
times there were Tree Ferns ; but so there are,
of course, at the present time.

YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY 25

The early botanists who strove to prove that
Fenis were, so to speak, the last development
before the Flowering Plants were not, perhaps,
very far from the truth. It has been seen that
during the period when the coal deposits were
being formed there flourished side by side races
of true Ferns and Fern-like plants which bore
seeds — the Pteridosperms. The point has also
been suggested that in all probability these two
groups of plants had a common origin. With
the coming of later times (the Cretaceous and
Jurassic periods) there appeared the Bennetti-
teae. These remarkable plants seem to have
entirely taken the place of the Pteridosperms,
and were an enormous advance towards the
Flowering Plants of the present day. Only
recently have the Bennettiteae been properly
described and their interesting features fully
understood. We have a few representative's
of this important group in the Cycads, plants
bearing a superficial resemblance to Palms, but
actually very different in all other ways. By
the manner in which the reproductive organs
are produced, and the way in which the scheme
is carried out, these Bennettiteae appear to be
a half-way house between the cryptogams and
the advanced flowering plants. The stamens
bearing the pollen are produced on the fronds
very much like the sporangia of Ferns. On the
other hand, the seed-bearing structures are
collected together into a sort of pistil. This was
borne at the tip of the branches and ended their
growth, just as happens in the case of Flowering
Plants. For some reason which we cannot
understand these Bennettiteae seem to have
fallen back in the race for supremacy, for the
group is but poorly represented in our modern
Cycads and a few allied plants. In all the world

26 HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

there are perhaps not more than about a dozen
species, the sole survivors of a race which at one
time dominated the world. There seems every
reason for thinking that the Flowering Plants
arose as an offshoot of the Bennettiteae, and in
some way secured an advantage which enabled
them to arrive at their present position.

When we come to consider the past history of
the Club Mosses the record is of a different nature
to that of the Ferns. Nowadays the Club Mosses
are not of great importance in the world, even
though, as will be shown later, the number of
species is considerable. But when we travel
back to Palaeozoic times, particularly in the coal
period, it is evident that these plants were
represented by a number of very large and
dominant families. Some of these early Club
Mosses certainly came very near to rivalling the
Flowering Plants. Probably the tendency of
the world to become drier has had something
to do with the decline, seeing that in all cases
the fertilization is carried out under water. We
may gather some idea of the importance of the
Club Mosses in Palaeozoic times from the fact
that in every part of the world where coal de-
posits have been examined great numbers of the
fossil remains of these plants are always dis-
covered. Many of these grew into large trees
which were a hundred or more feet in height,
sending out great branching shoots above and
an enormous root system below.

From a botanical point of view there is no
doubt that some of the Club Mosses, particularly
those belonging to the family Selaginellacece,
have approached very nearly to the Flowering
Plants. At the present time the existing species,
the Selaginellas, bring us up to the very threshold
of the dominant group. The lowest division

YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY 27

of the Flowering Plants is the Gymnosperma
(which includes the Conifers), and it is interesting
to note the points of similarity between a typical
Gymnosperm and a Selaginella. To start away
with, the Selaginella bears two kinds of spores,
each of which in its development has a definite
sex character. The smaller ones (microspores)
are in their manner of production analogous to
the pollen-grains of the Flowering Plant. The
prothallus and the male organ (antheridium)
are comparable to the special cell-group in the
pollen-grain, whilst the spermatozoids approxi-
mate to the generative cells. In the larger spores
(megaspores) these represent the embryo sac,
and the sporangium in which they are produced
closely approximates to the part containing the
embryo sac in the Flowering Plant. The pro-
thallus which arises from the megaspore in the
Selaginella closely resembles the endosperm — a
special tissue formed to feed the embryo in the
case of flowering plants. The female organ
(archegonium) and the cell which it produces are
practically identical in both cases. Fossil re-
mains have shown that some of the plants like
Selaginella which flourished in Palaeozoic times
seemed to have come very near to the production
of seed. Thus one species which has been
described shows a megaspore which was per-
manently within the sporangium, and which in
its general development greatly resembled a
fruit. It is, of course, impossible to give more
than a very brief outline of some of the chief
points in this highly important comparison
between the Gymnosperm and the Selaginella.
The author trusts that those of his readers who
are interested will pursue the study in the ad-
mirable textbooks which are now available.
The Horsetails, like the Club Mosses, have had

28 HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

a very important past. Although they are few
in number, as far as the species are concerned,
they still retain many striking characteristics.
Without a doubt the Palaeozoic Horsetails grew
into giant plants, sending out branches and
developing trunks which in some ways are
comparable to those possessed by our trees at
the present time. These great stems seem to
have arisen from rhizomes which travelled
about in the mud of the coal jungles. It is usual
to refer to these Palaeozoic Horsetails as Cala-
mites, owing to the fact that they were origin-
ally supposed to bear a resemblance to a reed
(Calamus). In the later rocks, such as those
which belong to the Jurassic and Triassic
periods, occur the Equisetites, plants which
were still of great size, but already in some
respects showing signs of that decline which has
culminated at the present day in the little
group of plants which, were it not for a certain
robustness of growth, would find it hard to
maintain their position at all.

To complete our brief survey of the Vascular
Cryptogams it is now necessary that we should
review the position of these plants at the
present time. Of course in number the Ferns
are enormously in advance of all the other
plants put together. In the whole world,
there are not ,far short of seventy distinct
genera, which include anything between three
and four thousand species. The Ferns of the
United Kingdom number not far short of fifty,
and there are certain variations from the type
which some folk are tempted to include as
species. For some reasons which we cannot
well understand, the Ferns alone amongst the
Vascular Cryptogams have been able to hold
their own in the world. It is probable that

YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY 29

there are quite as many species, and that these
are as varied, to-day as has ever been the case.
The size of Ferns, as we have already seen,
varies enormously. In the tropics and in
Australasia there are Tree Ferns eighty feet in
height, whilst with many of the Filmy Ferns
the size is scarcely larger than that of Mosses.
Owing to the fact that it is so necessary in
the scheme of reproduction, the majority of
Ferns are lovers of moisture. None the less,
a few specimens have adapted themselves
marvellously to drier conditions. Thus the
Bracken will grow on the exposed hillside or
cliff-top even where its rhizomes cannot carry
the roots to a great amount of moisture. Some
of the most interesting species of Ferns are
those which grow on walls and rocks, where
there is little dampness, during the summer at
any rate. Many of these have adopted special
devices to cope with drought, such as are to be
seen in the Scaly Spleen wort. Here the under-
side of the frond is covered with hairy scales,
and in dry weather the leaves roll up so that
the well-protected underside is alone exposed
to the sun. After all, however, Ferns are
most at home where there is a comparatively
deep shade with abundance of moisture. Many
species which will grow in somewhat dry
situations attain a much finer development
under happier conditions.

Luckily many kinds of Ferns are still very
common in the United Kingdom. Of course,
in much- visited localities the ravages of the
trippers have practically exterminated some
interesting species in these particular districts.
Naturally, one hardly expects to find the Royal
Fern flourishing to any extent in the popular
holiday haunts — none the less, there are still

30 HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

any number of places where this noble plant
" grows like a weed." The wise man does not
talk about such things to his friends. Many of
our most beautiful Ferns are saved even in
much-frequented places on account of the fact
that they grow out of reach. No doubt the
graceful Trichomanes of South Ireland would
long ago have been stamped out in the Kil-
larney district, were it not for the fact that it
often grows in situations which it is almost
impossible for anyone to reach.

As far as number is concerned, the living Club
Mosses represent a comparatively insignificant
group when compared with the Ferns. In all
the world there are probably not more than five
or six hundred species. These are very widely
distributed, and there is hardly any part which
cannot offer at least a iew species. We have
five species of Lycopodium in the United King-
dom. All are rather local, though often
enough they occur in great abundance in
special localities. Only one (Lycopodium
inundatum) ever occurs in lowland districts ;
all the rest must be looked for on highland
moors. A few exotic Lycopodiums grow to a
fair size, though this is largely due to the
fact that their creeping stems straggle along
the ground for a considerable distance. The
Selaginellas are a much more important group
as far as the world generally is concerned.
There are certainly as many as four or five
hundred species, and some of these assume
almost a shrubby habit. A species from
Borneo (5. grandis] is said to attain the height
of two feet. In the United Kingdom we have
but a single species of Selaginella — S. spinosa,
an insignificant little plant. Many exotic kinds
are frequently grown in greenhouses, so that a

YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY 31

variety of species is within the reach of every-
body.

Authorities vary as to the exact number of
species which belong to the only genus of the
Horsetail — Equisetum ; the estimate is never
higher than forty. Nearly all these plants are
striking in appearance, and some are quite large.
A tropical American species is said to attain
the height of thirty feet, though this is not so
remarkable when one considers that the plant
has a climbing habit. In the United Kingdom
we have at least eight distinct species. Some
of these are exceedingly common, and owing to
their vigorous growth will often hold their own
against all comers. Indeed, the existing Horse-
tails are, to use a common expression, " putting
up such a good fight " that it is certain they will
continue to hold their own for many a long day.
Unlike the Club Mosses, the Horsetails seem to
be quite happy in the vicinity of towns, and are
often seen at their best on railway embank-
ments and in similar situations.

Although the Vascular Cryptogams played
an important part in helping to build up our vast
stores of coal, it is astonishing to note of what
little direct economic value they are to mankind
at the present time. In a few parts of the
world, where the native races make little or no
attempt at agriculture, the root-stocks of Ferns
— often rich in starch — are eaten. Thus the
Maoris of New Zealand and some of the South
Sea Islanders secure a poor kind of sago from
some of the Tree Ferns which grow in their dis-
tricts. The Japanese use the growing tips of the
Bracken as food. Years ago, Ferns used to be
burnt for potash in this country, and their
astringent properties naturally attracted the
old-world pharmacist. They are practically

32 HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

useless as fodder on account of their bitter
taste, and no animal — except, perhaps, the
goat — would think of eating Ferns. In many
cases, however, Bracken is used regularly as a
bedding-down material for cattle.

Coming to the Club Mosses, it is even more
difficult to find that they are of any direct
benefit. Some kinds in South America are said
to yield a blue dye. Our Common Club Moss
is in its huge quantity of spores responsible for
the " Lycopodium Powder " which at one
time was employed in the making of fireworks.
The powder is said to be highly inflammable,
but when shaken straight out of the cones it
does not always ignite very readily. One of
the Horsetails, the Dutch Rush (Equisetvm
hyemale), was — and perhaps is still — used in
polishing, owing to the large amount of silica
which is present in its stems. In addition,
those who are interested in coast erosion say
that the stronger-growing species of Equisetum
should be planted to keep clay cliffs from
falling. From an ornamental point of view the
Ferns and some of the Club Mosses are, of course,
of great value. They are widely cultivated in
garden and greenhouse, and we may say that
these plants make up in aesthetic value what
they lack from an economic point of view.

CHAPTER IV
THREE DAINTY FERNS

A LTHOUGH the members of the family
^/-^Hymenophyllacese are largely tropical, we
are fortunate in having three representatives
in the United Kingdom. Two of these, both
Filmy Ferns, are not so familiar to people as
they might be, if folk were only a little more
observant ; whilst the Bristle Fern is only to
be found in the South of Ireland. All the
species require an abundance of moisture,
and they attain their greatest perfection on
rocks which are dripping with water.

Trichomanes radicans. The generic name is
said to be derived from two Greek words —
thrix, " a hair," and manos, " soft " ; the
specific name is obviously connected with the
Latin radix, " a root," and has reference to
the creeping rhizome. The Bristle Fern.

This species is quite one of the most beautiful
of our native species. Its fronds are very
graceful in form, and are of such a delicate
texture as to be almost transparent. The
general outline of the fronds is triangular in
shape. The leaves, varying in length from
three inches to a foot, rise from a black, creeping
rhizome, which will often cover a large area
on a moist rock with a perfect network. The
stipes or bare portion of the frond is, as a rule,

34 HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

about the same length as the leafy portion.
A singular feature is a wing-like margin which

Trichomancs radicans. The Bristle Fern.

is present on the upper part of the leaf-stalk.
The frond of the Bristle Fern is divided three
or four times, the first of the pinnae being

THREE DAINTY FERNS 35

placed alternately on either side of the rachis.
The pinnules are deeply cut. The veins of the
frond are very strongly marked. All the divisions
of the leaf are more or less curled, so that the
frond as a whole presents a curled appearance.

The sporangia of the Bristle Fern are borne
of the veins in the lobes of the fronds. These
are produced in curious cup-shaped processes
which are really formed by the margin of the
leaf. The veins pass right through these re-
ceptacles and project beyond the outer edges,
thus giving a curious bristly appearance to the
frond as a whole.

The Bristle Fern, as has been indicated,
chiefly occurs in the South of Ireland. It has
been discovered in several counties, though it
seems to be best established in the Killarney
district. Any attempt to cultivate this Fern
will prove a failure, unless the plants are kept
continuously under a close glass cover where
the atmosphere is saturated with moisture.
The Bristle Fern is evergreen.

Hymenophyllum tunbridgense. The generic
name is derived from two Greek words —
hymen, " a membrane," and phyllon, " a leaf " ;
tunbridgense has reference to the fact that the
species was first of all noticed at Tunbridge
Wells. The Tunbridge Filmy Fern.

The fronds, rarely more than two or three
inches long, are of a very dark green colour,
and rise from a slender, creeping rhizome
which produces immense quantities of fine
roots. The texture of the fronds is of a delicate
nature, and the veins are strongly marked ;
in colour the leaves are dark green. The
outline of the fronds is roughly ovate ; that
is, it tends to be broadest towards the centre.
The pinnae branch alternately from either

36 HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

side of the rachis, and these are usually very
distinctly lobed. If examined with a magnify-
ing glass it will be seen that the edges of the
pinnules are bordered with bristling points.

In the case of the Tunbridge Filmy Fern,
the sporangia are gathered in a little cup
formed by the margin of the leaf ; these are
present at the end of the veins which branch
out from the mid- veins of the pinnae.

The Tunbridge Filmy Fern has a very wide

Hymcnophylhun tunbridgense. The Tunbridge Filmy Fern.

distribution in this country. As a rule the
plant grows intermingled with moss, and on
this account it is often passed by without
recognition. Almost everywhere where there
are wet and especially water-splashed rocks
one may expect to find this species. The
Tunbridge Fern can only be cultivated in the
same manner as that indicated in the case of
Trichomanes. The plant is evergreen.

Hymenophyllum unilaterale. The specific
name is, of course, a Latin word meaning

THREE DAINTY FERNS 37

" one-sided " ; the application of the term
is explained in the following description. (In
some books this species has been called H.
Wilsoni, out of compliment to a Mr. Wilson,
who is said to have noticed the species first
of all.) The Ohe-Sided Filmy Fern.

Some botanists have considered that the
One-Sided Filmy Fern is merely a variety of
the former species, though it is generally con-
sidered to be a distinct type. The two plants
often grow mixed up together and superficially
look very much alike ; it is only after a close
examination that the differences become
apparent. In a general way it will be found
that in the case of the One-Sided Filmy Fern
the fronds are somewhat more narrow than
those of the Tunbridge Filmy Fern. The chief
point of distinction is indicated in the popular
name : — if the pinnae are closely examined it
will be seen that the upper portion is much
more divided than the lower side. Another
distinctive point to which attention should be
drawn is that in this species the pinnae show
a marked tendency to curve backwards.

A study of the fertile leaf of the One-Sided
Filmy Fern will also give us an additional
point in the identification. With a magnifying
glass it is plainly seen that the margin of the
cup-shaped receptacle into which the sporangia
are gathered has not the toothed border to be
found in the case of the Tunbridge Filmy Fern.

As has been indicated, we may look for the
One-Sided Filmy Fern in exactly similar
situations to those which suit the Tunbridge
Filmy Fern. The former species is said to be
more common in Scotland and Ireland than
the latter. The One-Sided Filmy Fern is, of
course, an evergreen.

CHAPTER V

THE BRACKEN FERN AND TWO
INTERESTING SPECIES

MANY members of the Fern tribe are of
a retiring disposition, and to find them
we must search in out-of-the-way corners.
This cannot be said, however, of the leading
subject under discussion in this chapter, for of
all native ferns there is certainly none with a
wider distribution than the Bracken. As one
of the few ferns not needing a moist situation,
the Bracken is able to make itself at home
almost anywhere, save perhaps in the vicinity
of large manufacturing towns. The sub-family
Pteridese to which the Bracken belongs has not
a large number of representatives in the United
Kingdom. In the Ribbon Ferns and the
Maidenhairs of our greenhouses we have
evidence that, as far as the world at large is
concerned, the Pterideae are very numerous.

Pteris aquilina. The generic name is derived
from the Greek word pteron, " a wing/' and the
specific name comes from the Latin aquila,
" an eagle." The Bracken Fern.

The height and general outline of the Bracken
Fern varies enormously. On exposed hillsides
the plant may be barely a foot in height, with
leaves correspondingly small. In the sheltered
wood it is not an uncommon thing to discover
38

BRACKEN FERN AND TWO SPECIES 39

specimens which may be taller than a man.
In such cases the fronds may measure as

Pteris aquilina. The Bracken Fern.

much as four feet at their widest parts. The
fronds of the Bracken start to develop — in the
South of England at any rate — about April and

40 HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

are fully expanded by Midsummer. During
September they turn a beautiful golden brown
and finally die altogether, although the leaves
do not decay quickly. The Bracken is, of course,
a very strong-growing perennial, and the plant
has a wonderful system of underground rhi-
zomes. In a strong-growing specimen these
rhizomes may be as thick as a finger and are
very succulent. They are of a jet-black colour,
and at the base of each frond there are sent out
a quantity of fibrous roots. The fronds arise
from either side of the rhizome, and often not
more than one or two are developed in a single
season. By examining the rhizome it is
possible to discover the buds containing the new
fronds for two years ahead.

The fronds of the Bracken Fern are roughly
triangular in outline. That portion of the
stipes which is under ground is of a dark brown
colour, but the portion above the surface is of a
bright green tint. The rachis, or foliage-bearing
portion of the stalk, represents about half of the
whole. On either side of the rachis the pinnae
are arranged in pairs, which are placed nearly
but not quite opposite to one another. These
pinnae are divided again, and in very large
examples there may be a further subdivision.
In all the parts of the frond of the Bracken there
is a tendency for less division at the apices of
the different portions. It should be noted that
the lowest pairs of pinnules, those next to the
rachis, are often much modified ; they are always
small, and in some cases the upper pinnules are
missing.

It is along the margins of the lobes of the leaf
that the sporangia are produced. There is no
proper indusium, the spore cases being pro-
tected by the rolling back of the margin of the

BRACKEN FERN AND TWO SPECIES 41

leaf. When the sporangia are mature the back
of the Bracken frond, with its outline of bright
brown, is very pretty. The number of spores
produced is prodigious, and it is a common
experience to find one's boots covered with the
brown dust after walking through the fronds.
It is believed that the Bracken is rarely propa-
gated in a natural state by the agency of its
spores. The strong-growing rhizomes provide
a very effective method of increase, and as has
been stated, the Bracken Fern is very quick to
claim any land which has been allowed to go out
of cultivation.

The Bracken Fern grows almost everywhere
in the United Kingdom. It is, however, not
able to hold its own on mountains of greater
elevation than two thousand feet. There seems
to be a popular impression that the Bracken is
a difficult plant to grow in the garden. This is
not really the case, the trouble, as a rule, arising
from the careless manner in which the rhizomes
are torn up when the plant is removed. The
Bracken is, of course, a useful subject for placing
in shrubberies and under trees, but seeing that
the travelling rhizomes take up a great deal of
room, it should be kept out of the ordinary
borders.

Adiantum capillus-veneris. The generic name
is connected with a Greek word adiantos, which
means " dry or unmoistened," this having
reference to the fact that water rolls off the frond
of this Fern. Capillus-veneris simply means
" the hair of Venus," and this doubtless refers
to the shining black leaf -stalk and its delicate
branches. The True Maidenhair.

This is one of the most beautiful of our native
ferns, and it would probably have been ex-
terminated long ago in this country were it not

42 HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

that it so often grows in inaccessible positions.
The True Maidenhair loves a position which is
shady and where moisture is abundant. From
a slender, creeping rhizome, which is black in
colour, the fronds arise. These vary greatly in

Adiantwn capillus-veneris. The Maidenhair Fern.

length, and may measure anything from six
inches up to a foot, or even more, according to
the conditions in which the plant is living. The
stipes, which is usually about the same length
as the leafy portion, is jet-black, and like the
rachis and all its branchings, is of a very wiry
nature. In a moderate-sized specimen the

BRACKEN FERN AND TWO SPECIES 43

arrangement of the frond would be on the
following lines. On either side of the rachis
the pinnae are produced ; these usually branch
alternately from the central stalk. The pinnae
bear fan-shaped pinnules, which are attached
to the stalk of the leaf -division by very fine
stalks. The margin of the pinnules is much

Adiantum capillus-veneris. Enlarged view of back of frond.

notched and veined. Where the frond is of a
very large size they may be divided three
times.

In the case of a fertile frond the edges of the
pinnules are turned back in a very striking way.
If we turn up the fold, it is possible to see the
sporangia arranged on the underside. Before
the fertile leaf has reached maturity the upper.

44 HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

part of the fold has a whitish appearance ;
finally it turns black.

The True Maidenhair Fern is more widely
distributed than is generally supposed in the
South of England and in Ireland. It is a delicate
specias, and, generally speaking, is restricted to
those parts of the kingdom where the winter
is mild. It may be seen growing abundantly
on old quarries in Cornwall, as a rule quite out
of reach. The Maidenhair Fern is a fairly
easy plant to grow in pots, though it likes a
moist atmosphere. Curiously enough, it is not
so simple a plant to cultivate as some of the
exotic species. The True Maidenhair is an
evergreen plant.

Cryptogramme crispus. The generic name of
this fern is derived from two Greek words, krup-
tos, " hidden," and gramme, " a line," having
reference to the fact that when mature the son
are arranged in lines round the margins of the
fronds. The specific name, crispus, is an apt
one, when the crisped or curled appearance of
the barren fronds is considered. In some books
this species is called Allosorus crispus. The
Parsley Fern.

A very attractive species bearing both barren
and fertile fronds. The former in their general
appearance certainly bear a resemblance to
Parsley. The Parsley Fern has a thick root-
stock from which the fronds grow up in tufts.
The barren fronds, which will be considered
first, grow to the height of about six to nine
inches. The stipes is somewhat longer than
the rachis, and it is of a whity-green colour.
The outline of the barren frond is roughly tri-
angular, the apex of the leaf being rather blunt.
The pinnae are placed alternately on either side
of the main stem, and these bear pinnules which

BRACKEN FERN AND TWO SPECIES 45

have their margins deeply cut. In very large
specimens the fronds may be divided three
times. The barren fronds grow on the outside
of the tuft. The fertile frond is somewhat taller
than the barren leaf, to which it bears a resem-
blance in its general form. The pinnae, of course,
are very much restricted. At first the sori are
rounded, but as they mature they spread so as
to form almost unbroken lines round the margins
of the pinnules. The sori have indusia, but this
is hidden by the margin of the pinnules, which
are recurved.

There are few more local species than the
Parsley Fern. The plant loves to grow amongst
rocks which are often scattered about on the
slopes of mountains. Its two chief strongholds
seem to be the Snowdon district in Wales and
the mountainous parts of Cumberland. In some
localities of these districts the plant grows in
the greatest abundance, happily often out of
the reach of the tourist. The Parsley Fern has
also been recorded in the West of England, and
it occurs in Scotland. It is easily cultivated,
if the fact is borne in mind that it is a rock
species needing good drainage. It loses its
bright, pretty colouring in a sunny position.
The Parsley Fern sends up its green fronds in
the month of May, and the fertile leaves follow
soon after. The foliage disappears in the
winter.

CHAPTER VI
THE MALE FERN AND ITS RELATIVES

APART from the Bracken Fern which, as
we have seen, is abundant almost every-
where, there are few ferns more common than
certain of the leading members of the sub-
order Aspidieae. The British representatives
of this sub-order include the important genus
Nephrodium, of which the Male Fern is the
leading example. In addition we have the
Shield Ferns (Aspidium), and also some
interesting species gathered together under the
genera Woodsia and Cystopteris.

Nephrodium Filix-mas. The generic name is
derived from the Greek nephros, " a kidney,"
this having reference to the kidney-shaped
indusia which is typical of the genus ; Filix-
mas, of course, is a name formed of two Latin
words, filix, " a fern." and mas, " a male."
In some books the species is called Lastrea
Filix-mas, and Aspidium Filix-mas. The
Male Fern.

One is almost tempted to follow the example
of the early writers of botanical works and
to say that the plant is so well known that
" it needeth no description." However, such
a fine Fern, common though it be, is certainly
as worthy of a notice as any species within
the covers of this book. A very characteristic

MALE FERN AND ITS RELATIVES 47

feature of the Male Fern is its stout and some-
times very upright stem or caudex. In some

plants this is at times so large that it almost
resembles a short trunk. It will readily be
seen that the leaves arise from the outside of

48 HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

the crown of the plant, whilst at the base of
the stalks occur the fibrous roots. Within the
circle of the developed leaves we may find
the immature fronds ; the least advanced of
these may not develop for three years. The
crown of the plant, as well as the stipes and
the rachis, are more or less covered with brown
scales. The length of the fronds of the Male
Fern vary enormously. In a favourable situa-
tion the leaves may measure as much as three
feet or more, though an average example
would be a good deal less than this. A well-
developed plant should show six or more
finely developed fronds arranged cup-fashion
round the central stem. The shape of the
leaf of the Male Fern is roughly lanceolate,
broadest in the middle and tapering at each
end. The frond is bi-pinnate, and the pinnae
are long and taper to a fine point. The pinnules
are rather blunt, and frequently show serrated
edges. The upper portion of the frond is
pinnatifid, and in many of the higher pinnae
it is only the pinnules nearest to the rachis
that are distinct.

Practically all the fronds are fertile, though
the son occur chiefly on the upper portions of
the leaves. The brown patches are to be
found arranged in a single line on either side
of the central vein of the pinnules. The sorus
is circular and is covered with an indusium
which is notched or kidney-shaped. In the
early days the indusium is of a lead colour,
but as the sporangia ripen underneath the
brown colouring shows through the thin
covering. The foliage of the Male Fern is of
a bright green tint, changing to a duller shade
as the leaves become older. Not uncommonly
the fronds last in good condition through a

MALE FERN AND ITS RELATIVES 49

large part of the winter when the season is
mild.

It is now recognized that the Male Fern may
be divided into three sub-species. These are
called N. filix-mas (true), N. pseudo-mas, and
N. propinqua. The differences are not very
obvious to the beginner, but it is said that
the first named is only partially deciduous —
the fronds lying prostrate during the winter.
In the case of N. pseudo-mas, the fronds are
of a leathery nature, and the plant is practically
evergreen in sheltered positions. A well-estab-
lished feature of N. propinqua is that the
foliage completely dies away in the autumn.

The Male Fern is abundant in all parts of
the United Kingdom where the conditions are
in any way suitable. Naturally it is of easy
culture in the garden. The new fronds, which
are very pretty when they are uncurling, put
in an appearance in the month of April.

Nephrodmm Thelypteris. The specific name
of this plant is a compound word derived
from the Greek, meaning " ladyfern " ; the
title probably has reference to the delicate
growth of the species. The Fern is also called
Lastrea Thelypteris. The Marsh Buckler Fern.

This is a very attractive Fern, and perhaps
the only British species which frequently
grows in water. The Marsh Buckler Fern has
a creeping rhizome from which arise the
fronds at intervals ; these are of two kinds,
barren and fertile. The barren fronds some-
times reach the length of four feet, the stipes —
which is slender and of a pale green colour —
being about equal to the leafy portion. The
fertile fronds are usually shorter. In both
cases the outline of the fronds is the same,
being lanceolate. In each case, too, the pinnae

50 HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

arranged alternately on either side of the rachis
are cut almost to the midrib. In the case of
the fertile fronds the pinnae are perhaps a
little more contracted ; also the margins are
inclined to bend over in such a way as to
protect the son. The clusters of sporangia
are almost circular, and these are borne on
the margins of the lobes on the underside of
the pinnae. The clusters of the sporangia are
covered with small indusia which are slightly
notched. The indusia are soon thrown off
when the spore cases start to develop.

The Marsh Buckler Fern is not uncommon,
and in suitably moist positions is often very
abundant. It is, however, said to be rare in
Scotland. The species will not flourish in a
garden unless something in the way of a bog
can be provided. The fronds appear in the
spring and are cut down by the first frost.

Nephrodium oreopteris. The specific name
is connected with the Greek word ores, " a
mountain." In some books this fern is also
called N. montana and Lastrea montana. In
certain districts, varieties of the species are
common. The Mountain Buckler Fern.

In certain respects this species bears a resem-
blance to the Male Fern. The fronds spring
from a tufted rootstock and their outline is
lanceolate ; they are from one to four feet in
length. The foliage of the Mountain Buckler
Fern is of a pale green colour. A distinctive
feature is the manner in which the frond of
this Fern tapers to a point at both ends ; this
is even more pronounced at the base than at
the apex. In the Male Fern any tapering
at the base is of a very slight description.
The Mountain Buckler Fern is once pinnate,
the pinnae being continued almost through the

MALE FERN AND ITS RELATIVES 51

entire length of the stalk ; this makes the
stipes very short. The pinnae, which are
generally placed opposite to one another, are
cut very deeply.

The sori are much more abundant on the

Nephrodium oreopteris. The Mountain Buckler Fern.

upper portion of the frond ; we shall find them
on the back of the leaf along the margins of
the lobes. They are covered by a very slight
indusium, which soon falls off. In the Moun-
tain Buckler Fern there are to be detected a
number of tiny glands on the back of the
frond ; these are responsible for rather a

52 HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

pleasant odour when the foliage is passed
through the hand.

The Mountain Buckler Fern grows on
heaths, and it has been found in almost all
parts of the United Kingdom. In certain
parts of Scotland it is said to clothe the
mountain sides with a wonderfully vigorous

Back of frond of a typical Nephrodium. Enlarged.

growth. It is not, however, as its name seems
to imply, strictly a mountain species ; for
it often grows in lowland districts. In cultiva-
tion, the species should be given a moist
situation. The Mountain Buckler Fern dies
down in the winter and the new fronds appear
in the spring.

Ncpkr odium cristatum. The specific name of
this Fern simply means " crested," and has

MALE FERN AND ITS RELATIVES 53

reference to the fringed border of the frond.
It may be pointed out, however, that there
are not a few Ferns on which the name cristatum
could with more reason have been bestowed.
This species is also called Lastrea cristatum.
There are a number of forms of this Fern.

This is a very handsome Fern, and it is a
pity that it is not more common. The fronds
are somewhat oblong in outline and have a
very narrow appearance. The rootstock has
a creeping habit and sends up tufts of fronds
at intervals. These are very erect, and usually
measure between one and three feet. The
stipes is shorter than the leafy portion, and
it bears a few brown scales. The pinnae are
arranged alternately on the rachis and these
are not again divided, although they are very
deeply cut. The colour of the fronds is of a
bright green.

The son are borne in lines on either side of
the mid-vein of the lobe. These are covered at
first by an indusium which is notched after the
manner of that of the Buckler Ferns.

The Crested Buckler Fern is very rare,
though it is found in a few localities — chiefly in
the North of England. As a rule it occurs on
boggy heaths, and if these conditions can be
imitated in the garden, the Fern grows freely.
The fronds are soon cut down by the autumn
frosts, and the new growth does not appear
until May.

Nephrodium spinulosum. The specific name
means that the plant has little spines. This
Fern is associated with other forms, and in some
quarters has not been regarded as a definite
species at all. Some of the varieties, or, as
some authorities say, actually distinct species,
with which it is associated have been called

54 HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

N. dilatatum and N. uliginosa. It may be men-
tioned that some botanists consider N. dilatatum
to be the most important of the three forms.
The chief points about N. dilatatum are
the very dark green fronds which are ex-
tremely broad at the base ; these spring from
a massive caudex. The whole plant has a
very robust appearance, and it is exceedingly
common. Providing the situation is shady this

Nephrodium dilatatum.

Fern is not particular as to its place of growth.
In the same way the preceding species N.
cristatum is regarded by some as a doubtful
species. On this account the beginner will find
IV, spinulosum rather difficult to identify, and
he must be prepared for departures from the
present type which is here described. The
Prickly Buckler Fern.

The frond of this species rises from an erect
root-stock. The length of the leaves varies from
one to three feet, and the stipes is usually about

MALE FERN AND ITS RELATIVES 55

a third of this in measurement. The fronds are
triangular in outline, and it is seen that the
pinnules nearest to the rachis are considerably
larger than the upper ones. This gives a very
tapering appearance to the pinnae. The borders
of the pinnules are deeply cut, and the lobes are
adorned with tiny points which give a somewhat
prickly appearance. The lobes are most pro-
minent on the lowest pinnules, and are also far
more pronounced on the lowest pinnae than they
are on the upper divisions of the frond.

The son are placed on small veins which
grow outwards from the midrib of the pinnule.
These are covered with kidney-shaped indusia.
As has been indicated, the Prickly Buckler
Fern varies enormously, both in size and in
almost every other particular.

The Prickly Buckler Fern is not uncommon in
parts of England, and is to be found in damp
woods, especially by the sides of streams. It
seems to be less abundant in other parts of the
kingdom. It is of easy culture in the garden.
The Prickly Buckler Fern retains its fronds
through the winter.

Nephrodium amulum. Here the specific
name is taken from a Latin word meaning
" comparable with " ; the reference is to the
similarity of the species of N. spinulosum.
Some botanists have considered that N. cemulum
is merely a variety of N. spinulosum, though
the species seems to be quite distinct. The
species is also called Lastrea cemula ; L.
fceniscii and L. recurva. The Hay Scented
or Triangular Buckler Fern.

A very characteristic feature of this species
are the upturned margins of the fronds. This
makes the leaf look as if it was curled, and at
the same time renders the upper surface of the

56 HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

frond concave. The outline of the fronds is
roughly triangular, being widest at the base.
The fronds are about one or two feet in length,
and the stipes is about equal to the leafy
portion. The pinnae are arranged either in
pairs or alternately on either side of the stalk.
These are divided into pinnules which, in some
cases, towards their bases are again divided.
The fronds are of an exceptionally bright green
colour, and when bruised give out a pleasant
odour not unlike that of new hay. This is due
to the secretions of small glands which are to be
found on the undersides of the fronds.

The sori on the backs of the fronds are
arranged in lines on either side of the mid-veins
of the lobes. These are covered with kidney-
shaped indusia.

The Hay Scented Buckler Fern cannot be said
to be common, although it has a wide distribu-
tion and may turn up in unexpected places. It
is more abundant in the West of England and
in Ireland than elsewhere. It only flourishes in
damp places, and this point must be borne in
mind when planting it in the garden. The Hay
Scented Buckler Fern is an evergreen species.

Nephrodium rigidum. The specific name —
Latin for " stiff " — is evidently bestowed on
the plant on account of its erect habit of growth.
The species is also called Lastrea rigida. The
Rigid Buckler Fern.

This species is quite the rarest of all the
Buckler Ferns. The plant has a thickish root-
stock from which arise the fronds, usually
about a foot in length. The stipes is, as a rule,
about half the length of the entire leaf ; the bare
portion of the stalk is thickly covered with
brown scales. The outline of the frond is some-
what variable; on occasion, examples may be

MALE FERN AND ITS RELATIVES 57

found with a lanceolate outline, whilst others
may be distinctly triangular in shape. The frond
is Si-pinnate, the pinnate being placed rather
irregularly on either side of the rachis. The
pinnules are blunt and somewhat oblong in shape ;
they have serrated edges, but do not bear any
spines.

The sori are placed on either side of the vein
in the middle of the pinnules. These are
covered in their early stages with kidney-shaped
indusia. Sometimes this frond has a slight
fragrance when it is bruised.

The Rigid Buckler Fern is really a mountain
species, and generally grows at an elevation of
more than a thousand feet above sea-level. It
is fairly common in parts of Yorkshire and in
some of the north-western counties of England,
otherwise it is a real rarity. It is not difficult
to grow in the garden, but as it flourishes best in
a limestone soil it is a good plan to mix bits of
this rock up with the soil which is used. The
new fronds appear in May and die down during
the winter.

Polystichum (Aspidium) lonchitis. Here the
generic name is based on two Greek words,
polys, ''many," stichos, "order"; the specific
name is also derived from another Greek word
— lonche, " a spear," this referring to the narrow
spear-like appearance of the fronds. The Holly
Fern.

This species, on account of its regular habit
of growth and generally stiff appearance, is an
easy one to identify. The fronds arise from a
tufted root-stock, and in average specimens would
be about nine inches in length. This might be
greater or less, according to the conditions under
which the particular plant was living. The
shape of the fronds is narrowly lanceolate, and

58 HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

there is a very short stipes which is thickly
covered with scales. The leaves of the Holly
Fern are once pinnate, the pinnae being ovate
and having a curious ear-shaped enlargement at
their bases on the upward side. The edges of
the pinnae are adorned with a number of sharp
teeth, and this gives a singular spiny appearance
to the whole plant. On this account the Fern
has probably received its popular name of

Polystichum lonchitis. The Holly Fern.

Holly Fern. The colour of the foliage is of a
very pretty bright green tint.

The Holly Fern, as indeed are all the species of
Polystichum, is very distinct from a Nephrodium
in the matter of its indusium. This is quite
circular, and has no notch ; moreover, it is
attached to the pinnules by a short stalk in the
centre. Thus it is proper to describe the
shape of the indusium as peltate. The son
are chiefly confined to the upper portion of the
back of the frond, and are situated on either

MALE FERN AND ITS RELATIVES 59

side of the midrib of the pinnae. After the
falling away of the indusia the son tend to
spread, so that they may finally cover almost
the whole of the back of the fertile pinnae.

The Holly Fern is essentially a plant of the
mountains, and it is often found growing in the
most exposed situations. It is not common in
England, though it has been found in a few
localities in the north. The species has a much
wider distribution in Scotland. The Holly
Fern is evergreen in habit, and its stiff fronds
seem to be able to withstand the severest frost.
The plant is rather a difficult one to grow, though
if it can be given a rock crevice it will sometimes
settle down happily in the garden. The foliage
of the Holly Fern lasts through the year.

Polystichum (Aspidium) aculeatum. In this
case the specific name is a Latin term simply
meaning " provided with prickles " — an allusion
to the fact that the fronds are adorned with
spines. The Hard Prickly Shield Fern.

This species is very distinct in its general
appearance from the Holly Fern, though it
can at once be seen to be a Shield Fern by the
unnotched indusia which cover the sori. The
fronds may be as much as two feet in height, or
even a little more, and these rise from a tufted
root-stock. As a rule the stipes is very much
shorter than the leafy portion, and both it and
the rachis are thickly covered with scales. The
outline of the frond is lanceolate, and the colour
of the foliage is dark green. A pretty glossy
effect is noticeable on the upper surface. The
frond of the Hard Prickly Shield Fern is twice
divided, and the pinnae are arranged alternately
on either side of the rachis. A distinctive point
about this species is that the upper pinnules at
the base of each pinna is larger in all ways than

60 HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

the other pinnules. The pinnules are provided
with sharp teeth, and it should be noted that
they have nothing very decided in the way of
stalks. Actually they are what botanists call
decurrent — that is, tending to run together at
the base. In some varieties of this species the
tendency is more marked than in others.

The sori are placed on either side of the mid-
veins of the pinnules, and these are usually con-
fined to about half the upper portion of the back
of the frond.

The Hard Prickly Shield Fern is very widely
distributed in England, and it is to be looked for
in shady woods. It is an exceedingly easy plant
to grow, and thrives even in town gardens. The
plant is evergreen in habit.

Polystichum (Aspidium) angular e. It is not
regarded by some botanists as an established
species, but is thought to be a variety of A.
aculeatum. However, there are certain differ-
ences which appear to be specific. The Soft
Prickly Shield Fern.

As in the Hard Prickly Shield Fern, we find a
tufted root-stock from which grow lanceolate
fronds. We notice the same short stipes and
the narrow pinnae on the leafy portion tapering
to a point. In this species it is said that the
pinnules at the base are more nearly equal in
size than is the case with A. aculeatum. The
pinnules are also more definitely stalked in the
former than in the latter. In the case of the
Soft Prickly Shield Fern, it is noticeable that all
parts of the stalk of the frond — both stipes and
rachis, and even the rachides — are covered with
brown scales. It is said, too, that the droop
of the fronds is more pronounced in the Soft
Prickly Shield Fern than in the Hard Prickly
Shield Fern.

MALE FERN AND ITS RELATIVES 61

The arrangement of the sori is similar in both
species.

The Soft Prickly Shield Fern has been found
widely distributed in England and Ireland,
though it is not so common in other parts of
the United Kingdom. It is easily cultivated,
and is evergreen in habit.

Woodsia hyperborea. The generic name of
this species commemorates the botanist, Mr.
Joseph Woods ; the specific name is taken from
two Greek words — hyper, " beyond," and Boreas,
" the north wind/' without doubt a reference to
the fact that the species extends to the Arctic
regions. The plant is also called Woodsia
alpina. The Alpine Woodsia.

This is a very pretty little Fern. The tiny
fronds, which are not more than two or three
inches in length, spring from a tufted root-stock.
The stipes is rather short and bears a few brown
scales. The outline of the frond is oblong, and
the leaf tapers slightly towards the base as well
as at the apex. The fronds are once pinnate,
and the pinnae, which are lobed, are arranged in
rather an irregular fashion on either side of the
leaf-stalk. A curious feature of the Alpine
Woodsia is that the fronds are jointed just above
their connexion with the root-stock. When
the leaves die the stalks break away at this
point and leave the bases behind.

When the back of the frond is examined it is
evident that we have here a very distinctive
feature. The patches of spore cases are covered
with a very thin indusium, and as time goes on
this splits into divisions which resemble a number
of hairs. The fronds are of rather a stout texture
for so small a Fern, and in all parts show an
inclination to be hairy.

The Alpine Woodsia is a very rare Fern, and

62 HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

there are only a few recorded localities of it in
England and Wales. It makes its home on
moist rocks on the slopes of high mountains.
This little Fern is fairly easily cultivated. The
fronds disappear in the winter.

Woodsia ilvensis. The specific name refers to
the island of Elba (Ilva) , where this plant was
first of all discovered. In some quarters this

Woodsia ilvensis. The Oblong Woodsia.

plant is held to be merely a variety of W.
hyperborea. The Oblong Woodsia.

The fronds of this Fern rise from a tufted
root-stock. The stipes is short, but the frond
as a whole is larger than that of the Alpine
Woodsia, and may be as much as six inches in
length. The outline of the fronds is oblong,
tapering towards the base and at the apex.
Over the whole frond, both on the upper and
the lower side, is a covering of fine hairs.
Usually the hairiness of the Oblong Woodsia

MALE FERN AND ITS RELATIVES 63

is very pronounced. The covering is so thick
on the underside that it is rather difficult
to discover the son. These have the same
curious divided indusia to be observed in the
Alpine Woodsia.

The Oblong Woodsia is a very rare Fern, only
to be found in mountainous districts. It has
been reported from a few localities in England
and also occurs in Scotland, usually in almost
inaccessible places. The fronds die down in
the winter and break away from the Astern just
at the crown of the root -stock.

Cystopteris fragilis. The generic name of this
Fern is formed of the two Greek words kystos,
" a bladder." and pteris, " a fern." The
specific name is, of course, a Latin word which
means " easily broken." The Brittle Bladder
Fern.

This is one of the most beautiful of all our
native Ferns. From a tufted root-stock which is
clad with pale brown scales the fronds arise ;
these are about six or eight inches in length and
are lanceolate in outline. This Fern has a habit
of spreading in such a way, that each plant may
have several of the tufted crowns from each of
which arise a cluster of fronds. These are
sometimes once, and on other occasions, twice
pinnate. The pinnae are about an inch in length,
and where there are pinnules these are toothed.

We shall find the sori on veins which run from
the mid-vein of the pinnules. The spore patches
are rounded and are covered with a curious in-
dusium, with an inflated appearance towards the
centre. It is from the resemblance of this
indusium to a bladder that the plant has received
its popular name. With the disappearance of
the indusia the sori tend to spread over the whole
surface of the back of the frond. The general

64 HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

appearance of the Brittle Bladder Fern is of a
delicate nature and it has a very distinctive
appearance.

Properly speaking, the Brittle Bladder Fern
is a mountain species, though it sometimes occurs
on old walls or in rocky clefts which are not very
elevated. The species is widely distributed in
all parts of Great Britain, though in frequented
districts it is soon exterminated. The Brittle

Cystopteris fragilis. The Brittle Bladder Fern.

Bladder Fern does not seem to grow very well
in the open rockery, though it is fairly easy to
cultivate in pots. The fronds die down at the
approach of winter. There are a certain
number of varieties.

Cystopteris montana. Here the specific name
is formed from the Latin word mons, " a
mountain." The Mountain Bladder Fern.

This is the only other recognized species of
Bladder Fern to be found in the United King-

MALE FERN AND ITS RELATIVES 65

dom. The species has a slender creeping under-
ground stem from which arise the delicate fronds.
These are usually about four to eight inches in
length, and the stipes is considerably longer
than the leafy portion. The design of the frond
is rather like that of the three-branched Poly-
pody, this being due to the fact that the lowest
pair of pinnae is much larger than any of the
others.

The general outline of the fronds is wedge-
shaped, and these are very finely divided.
Indeed in a well-developed leaf the fronds may
be three or even four times pinnate. The pin-
nules themselves are also deeply cut. It will
be noticed that the lower portion of the frond is
always more freely divided than the upper part ;
a common characteristic in Ferns.

The sori are very freely scattered on the lobes
or pinnules at the back of the frond, and these
are covered with the curious hooded indusia
which were noticed in the last species.

The Mountain Bladder Fern is perhaps the
rarest of all our native species. It is at home
in mountainous districts, and seems only to have
been noticed in a few localities in Wales and
Scotland. Probably it would be seen more
often were it not that it grows in positions which
are not of easy acces >. It should be given the
same treatment in the garden as that recom-
mended for the Brittle Bladder Fern. The
fronds disappear in the winter.

In some books a species is given, known as
Cystopteris alpina or regia. The plant nearly
resembles Cystopteris fragilis, although it is
somewhat smaller. This is a very doubtful
native, as it seems only to have been recorded
in one or two localities where it may have been
naturalized.

CHAPTER VII

THE LADY FERN AND THE SPLEEN-
WORTS

r I ^HE sub - family Asplenieae has a large
J_ number of representatives in the United
Kingdom. There is much division of opinion
as to the real place of the Lady Fern. Many
botanists consider that the species is a true
Asplenium. Others regard it as the solitary
British representative of the genus Athyrium.
All Fern growers support the latter view. Some
of the small Spleenworts are quite common.

Athyrium or Asplenium Filix-fcemina. The
generic name of the Spleenworts is derived from
the Greek word splene, " the spleen," this having
reference to the fact that in the old days a
medicine derived from the leaves was held to
be a remedy for diseases of the spleen. The
specific name is simply a. combination of two
Latin words — Filix, "a fern," and fcemina, "a
woman," — that is, " Lady Fern," a name no
doubt given on account of the elegant appear-
ance of this species, particularly when it is
compared with the Male Fern (N. Filix-mas).
The Lady Fern.

Although it is altogether more fragile in
appearance, the growth of the Lady Fern bears
a resemblance to that of the Male Fern. We
notice the same tall fronds rising from a stout

66

LADY FERN AND SPLEENWORTS 67

root-stock covered with brown scales. In a
favourable situation, such as a damp hedge,

these fronds may grow to the length of four
feet, or even more. They are of a beautiful
pale green colour, and being of a thin texture

68 HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

soon disappear at the approach of winter. The
stipes is usually about one-third of the whole
leaf, and is sometimes of a brownish colour. The
stalk is remarkable for its brittle nature. The
outline of the fronds is lanceolate, and they taper
very decidedly towards the base as well as at
the tip. The leaves of the Lady Fern are bi-
pinnate. The pinnae are placed either in pairs,
or alternately, on opposite sides of the rachis,
and these in turn are divided into toothed
pinnules. In the case of both the pinnae and
the pinnules the distinctiveness is lost towards
the upper portion.

The son are very abundant, but as these are
small they should be carefully examined. They
occur about midway between the central vein
of the pinnule and the margin of the leaf. The
indusium is not clearly linear, being more in the
shape of a horseshoe, but this character can only
be recognized before the delicate covering has
started to shrivel. There are a huge number
of variations of the Lady Fern, but many bear
a more or less striking resemblance to the type.

Happily the Lady Fern is common in many
parts of the United Kingdom. Often it is to
be found growing surprisingly near to towns,
though its pretty green foliage makes a strong
appeal to the eye of those vandals who go about
uprooting every fern which they see. It is of
easy culture in the garden. The fronds of the
Lady Fern develop in the spring of the year.

Asplenium septentrionale. The specific name
means " northern," and this has reference to the
fact that the species is more abundant in the
north than in the south. The Forked Spleen-
wort.

The fronds of this Fern are of a thick leathery
nature, but they are rarely more than about two

LADY FERN AND SPLEENWORTS 69

inches in length. As they are produced in thick
tufts, the individual plants will oft en cover a good
deal of space, considering the diminutive nature
of the plant as a whole. The stipes is con-
siderably longer than the leafy portion of the
frond ; this latter is of a very simple nature,
being composed of two or three blades which
fork out something on the lines of a stag's horn.
The plant is quite unlike any other British Fern,
although its foliage bears a singular resemblance
to that of the Buck's Horn Plantain (Plantago
coronopus), a common enough weed, especially
on waste patches near to the sea.

On the underside of the narrow blades are
produced the son ; these are present in the form
of lines on either side of the mid-veins. At
first they are covered with scale-like indusia,
but as the sporangia ripen the protecting shield
is thrown aside. Finally, the capsules spread
out so as to cover almost the whole of the under-
side of the blade.

The Forked Spleenwort finds its home in the
fissures of rocks and in the crevices of old walls.
It is, however, a rarity, less uncommon in the
North than in the South of England. Now
and again it has been recorded in great abun-
dance in a particular spot, and it is difficult to
understand why the species is not more wide-
spread in its distribution. The Forked Spleen-
wort can be grown in gardens if suitable rock
crevices are provided. The plant is an ever-
green species.

Asplenium germamcum. It is uncertain what
is the derivation of the specific name germani-
cum ; in some quarters it has been said that the
name was given owing to the fact that the
Fern is a very popular one in Germany, though
whether this is a true explanation cannot be

70 HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

stated with certainty. The Alternate-leaved
Spleenwort.

This species is somewhat larger than the
last-named, though it is hardly so striking in
appearance, owing to the comparatively small
number of fronds which are produced. These
will, as a rule, be about four or five inches in
height, and they arise from a tufted root-
stock. The stipes is about the same length
as the leafy portion of the frond. The rachis
bears alternately curious wedge-shaped pinnae.
At the broad end these pinnae are toothed,
and these segments are more pronounced on
the lower than on the upper pinnae. The
fronds are of a fairly tough texture.

On the backs of the pinnae we shall find the
sori, two or three lines of the collections of
sporangia being present on each division of
the frond. At first these are covered with
an indusium, but as the capsules ripen this is
thrown away and the clusters join together
in one mass.

The Alternate-leaved Spleenwort is very
rare. It is, however, known to occur in a few
rocky localities in England and Scotland.
Probably it is often overlooked by the few
people who visit the more inaccessible parts.
It has proved to be rather a difficult subject
to grow, and it has a most annoying habit of
dying off suddenly, even when given a great
amount of care. Probably the real trouble is
that it is given too much water ; good drainage
would go a long way to meet the difficulty.
The fronds of the Alternate-leaved Spleenwort
sometimes survive the winter.

Asplenium ruta-muraria. In this case the
specific name simply means " wall rue," and
refers to the resemblance which the Fern bears

LADY FERN AND SPLEENWORTS 71

to the Common Rue (Ruta graveolens). The
Wall Rue.

A very charming little species, with which
most people who take the least interest in
Ferns are probably familiar. In reality this
plant is a rock Fern, but it often finds a con-
genial home on old walls. The Wall Rue has
a tufted root-stock which is furnished with
a quantity of fibrous roots ; these often force

Asplenium ruta-muraria. The Rue- leaved Spleen wort.

their way for a considerable distance into the
crevices. From the root-stock arise a number
of little fronds ; where the situation is dry,
and the battle for existence is a hard one,
these may not be more than a couple of inches
in length. In damp situations the fronds
might measure three times as much. Where
the examples are dwarfed the stipes will be
about the same length as the leafy portion,
but in a well -developed instance it will be
much longer. The colour of the fronds is of a

72 HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

dark green colour, and these are of a somewhat
leathery nature. In a fair-sized example the
frond is twice pinnate, the pinnae are definitely
stalked, and the pinnules are roughly wedge-
shaped, being somewhat toothed at the lip.
The Wall Rue is excessively variable, and in
exposed places it is possible to find plants

Back of frond of Asplenium ruta-muraria. Enlarged.

bearing fronds which are only divided once,
the pinnae being segmented.

The son are in the form of lines which branch
out from the lower part of the pinnule in a
fan-shaped manner. The indusium disappears
as soon as the sporangia become mature, and
eventually the son may spread over the whole
of the back of the pinna or pinnule.

LADY FERN AND SPLEENWORTS 73

The Wall Rue is really a very common Fern,
but it is often overlooked when hiding in the
dark crevice of some old wall. The plant has
a wonderful habit of adapting itself to dry
conditions. It is of easy cultivation if it can
be given an open and well-drained situation.
The Wall Rue is an evergreen plant.

Asplenium adiantum-nigrum. In this case
the specific name is formed of two words, the
first of which belongs to the true Maidenhair
Fern. As has already been explained, it
comes from a Greek word which means " un-
wetted," a reference to the fact that the
fronds do not become damp when it rains.
The word nigrum, of course, simply means
black, and is obviously an allusion to the
colour of the leaf -stalks of this Fern. The
Black Maidenhair Spleenwort.

A very pretty Fern, which in some ways is
to be regarded as the most attractive of all
the Spleenworts. The species varies a good
deal according to the situation in which it is
growing. Thus in dry hedge-banks it will be
a comparatively small Fern, whilst when
growing in damper situations — such as by the
side of a waterfall — it will be very much larger.
The root-stock is thick and is densely covered
with scales, and from it arise the leaf-stalks,
which are black towards the base. The stipes
is usually about the same length as the leafy
portion. In the varying forms the fronds
range from about four inches to a foot, or
even more, in length. In the smaller examples
the fronds are twice pinnate, whilst the larger
leaves may be thrice pinnate. The general
outline of the frond is triangular, and the
pinnae, which are arranged alternately on
either side of the rachis, are somewhat similar

74 HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

in outline. The pinnules are shaped like
wedges and have toothed lobes.

If we turn up a frond of the Black Maiden-
hair Spleenwort we shall discover the sori
situated on veins which issue from the mid-
veins of the pinnules. In their early days
these clusters are distinctly in the form of
lines, but after the throwing off of the indusia
they rapidly mature and spread to such an
extent that the whole of the under-surface
of the pinnule is covered. Often an entire
frond appears to be completely brown on its
underside.

The Black Maidenhair Spleenwort is an
exceedingly common Fern. It occurs in almost
all parts of the United Kingdom, although,
of course, near towns it is usually rooted up.
The species is of very simple culture and will
be quite happy on an ordinary rockery. The
Black Maidenhair Spleenwort retains its fronds
throughout the winter.

Asplenium lanceolatum. The specific name
has reference to the fact that the outline of the
frond is lanceolate. The Lanceolate Spleen-
wort.

This is a species which in its early days is
sometimes confused with the Black Maiden-
hair Spleenwort. The fronds, which are
lanceolate in outline and about four inches
to a foot in length, arise from a tufted root-
stock ; the stipes is usually about a third of
the irond. The colour of the stipes, and also
part of the rachis, is bright brown, and this
contrasts finely with the handsome green of
the leafy portion. The actual length of the
fronds will vary to a considerable extent,
this depending upon the amount of moisture
available. The clesign of the frond, when it

LADY FERN AND SPLEENWORTS 75

is developed, shows by its lanceolate outline
a marked feature which distinguishes it from
the triangular outline to be seen in the case
of the Black Maidenhair Fern. The frond is
twice pinnate, and as a rule the pinnae are
opposite ; these are roughly egg-shaped in form.
The pinnules have serrated margins.

The son are placed on veins which branch out
from the mid- veins of the pinnules. At first the
collections of sporangia are long and narrow,
and covered with a white indusium. As the
capsules mature the son spread out over the
under-surface of the frond.

The Lanceolate Spleenwort is usually met
with near to the sea or in mountainous districts.
It is rather local, although it sometimes occurs
in great plenty on damp rocks. It is said not
to occur in Scotland. In a suitable rocky
corner there is no reason why the Lanceolate
Spleenwort should not be grown in a garden.
The situation should be well drained, but a
sufficiency of water is needed. The Lanceolate
Spleenwort remains green throughout the
winter.

Asplenium marinum. The specific name
marinum has, of course, reference to the fact
that the Fern is to be found near the sea. The
Sea Spleenwort.

This is an interesting and a most beautiful
species, often growing abundantly from the
roof-crevices of caves on the coast. The root-
stock of this plant is stout, and from it are pro-
duced a large number of fine black roots which
penetrate into the rocky fissures. The fronds
are, as a rule, four or five inches in length,
though in favourable situations they may be
very much longer. The stipes is somewhat
short, hardly ever more than a third of the

76 HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

length of the frond, and sometimes less than
this. In most cases the stipes is of a purple
colour, and the leafy portion of the frond is of an
exceptionally fine green shade. The leaves are
freely produced in tufts and are roughly lanceo-
late in outline. The fronds of the Sea Spleen-
wort are only once pinnate, the pinnae — which
are usually about an inch in length — being, as

Asplenium marimim. The Sea Spleenwort.

a rule, oblong in outline, They are, however, de-
cidedly variable in form, some being egg-shaped.
A curious feature of the pinnae is that they are
unequal in shape at the base, the lower part
appearing to have been cut off whilst the upper
portion is greatly enlarged. Between the lower
pinnae the rachis is winged, but this feature
disappears at the tip of the frond where the
pinnae run together.

The sori are to be found on the underside of
the pinnae, arranged in lines on either side of the

LADY FERN AND SPLEENWORTS 77

mid-veins. During the early days the cluster
of sporangia is covered with very distinct
indusia, but as the capsules ripen, these dis-
appear.

The Sea Spleenwort is hardly ever found at a
great distance from the sea. It is most common
on the coast of southern and western England,
sometimes appearing in great abundance in
rocky caves. The species also occurs in other
parts of the United Kingdom where there is a
rocky coastline. Happily it often grows in
inaccessible places, and even where the plant
can be reached with ease it is extremely difficult
to tear the root-stock from its crevice. It seems
to be almost impossible to grow the Sea Spleen-
wort in the open garden, although it is readily
cultivated under glass. The species is evergreen
in habit, though the foliage will not stand frost.

Asplenium ceterach. The specific name is
considered to be a corruption of Chetherak, a
name given to this Fern by early medical writers.
In some books the species is called Ceterach
officinarum. The Scaly Spleenwort.

This is the most distinctive of all the Spleen-
worts. The root-stock of the plant is tufted
and scaly, and from this are sent down dense
masses of roots which penetrate into the remote
recesses of the wall or rock crevice where the
Fern has made its home. The fronds vary
greatly in length, and in a very exposed situa-
tion may not be more than an inch or so ; in a
sheltered and moist place they will be two or
three times this size. The outline of the fronds
is lanceolate. Strictly speaking, the fronds of
the Scaly Spleenwort are pinnatifid, the leaf
being designed with rounded lobes and deeply
cut intervals. W? en held lengthways an idea
is obtained of the wonderfully regular manner

78 HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

in which the cutting-out of the lobes has been
devised. The segments of the fronds occur
alternately on the rachis.

At first glance it is not an easy matter to
discover the sori, for the back of the frond of
this Fern is completely covered with brown
scales ; these are, however, white in the early
days of the leaf.

By removing the scales it is possible to see the
groupings of the sori ; these are arranged in the
form of rough lines. There is no very clear
indication of an indusium, and indeed when one
considers the protective scales this hardly seems
to be necessary. It is generally considered
that the scales on this Fern act in a protective
manner during the long spells of dry weather.
In such a condition the fronds of the Scaly
Spleenwort appear to be trying to roll right
up, whilst the lobes close in towards each other.
To all appearance the plant is dead. It soon
revives, however, after a good shower of rain.

The Scaly Spleenwort is to be looked for in
limestone districts, where it occurs on old walls
or amongst rocks, often in great abundance. It
is said to be less common in Scotland than in
other parts of the United Kingdom. Under
cultivation the Scaly Spleenwort often comes to
grief through excessive moisture ; it is most
happy in a crevice on a rockery. The Scaly
Spleenwort is an evergreen plant.

Asplenium trichomanes. The specific name
is probably formed of two Greek words — thrix,
" a hair," and manos, " soft." This is doubtless
a reference to the hair-like nature of the leaf-
stalks. The Maidenhair Spleenwort.

This is a very familiar Spleenwort, not infre-
quently sold as the Englisi Maidenhair. The
plant has a stoutish root-stock, from which grow

LADY FERN AND SPLEENWORTS 79

a quantity of fine roots ; these often penetrate
for a long way into the crevices of the rocks, or
between the building materials of an old wall.
The length of the fronds varies from a few
inches to nearly a foot. The stipes is very short
and is extremely brittle. On either side of the
rachis, which is of a deep purple colour, the
pinnae are produced. These are borne on a very
short stalk and are of an oval shape, being about

Asplenium trichomanes. The Maidenhair Spleenwort.

half an inch in length. The margins of the
pinnae are occasionally slightly toothed. As a
rule, the pinnae are set in opposite pairs on
either side of the rachis. A curious feature of
the leaf-stalks of the Maidenhair Spleenwort is
that they do not decay at once when the pinnae
fall off. Thus it is often possible to find thick
bunches of them on the root-stock looking like
so much dark hair.

The sori are placed in the form of lines on
veins which branch from the mid-vein of the

So HQW TO KNOW THE FERNS

pinnae. In the early days the clusters of spore
capsules are covered with indusia ; as the
capsules mature these are thrown off, and
finally the sori may spread over the back of
the pinnae.

The Maidenhair Spleenwort is an exceedingly
common Fern in many parts of the United
Kingdom. It is often found on old walls in
great abundance. Happily it is not an easy
plant to exterminate ; for, owing to the long
roots already mentioned, it is a difficult matter
to dislodge a plant from its crevice. In the
garden the Maidenhair Spleenwort is perfectly
happy on a rock ledge ; it should not be given
a large amount of moisture. The Maidenhair
Spleenwort is an evergreen species.

Asplenium viride. Here the specific name
is formed of the Latin word viride, " green,"
obviously a reference to the bright colour of
the fronds. The Green Spleenwort.

In some respects this species resembles the
Maidenhair Spleenwort, though there are certain
important distinctions. In the first place,
there is the bright green colour of the whole
plant ; this is very different from the dull
shade of the Maidenhair Spleenwort. The
Green Spleenwort also grows in damp situa-
tions, and would not be at all happy on the
top of a wall. Most distinctive of all, the
Green Spleenwort has a bright green rachis
to its fronds, although the stipes has a tendency
to be purple in colour. In other respects the
two plants are very similar. We notice the
same narrow frond with the rounded pinnae
set on either side of the rachis, sometimes in
pairs and sometimes in alternation. The
margins of the pinnae are inclined to be
notched.

LADY FERN AND SPLEENWORTS 81

The son are narrow, and when young are
covered with an indusium. It is said that
even when ripe the sporangia hardly ever spread
over the entire surface of the pinnae, as is to be
seen in the case of the Maidenhair Spleenwort.

The Green Spleenwort is a much rarer species
than the Maidenhair Spleenwort. It grows
in wild and often mountainous situations in
various parts of the United Kingdom. As

Aspleniutn virile. The Green Spleenwort.

has already been indicated, it likes rather
damp situations, and is to be seen at its best
in moist places. The Green Spleenwort is
rather a difficult plant to grow in the garden,
and it is happiest of all in a humid greenhouse
— unless, of course, a very favourable situation
can be found out of doors. The fronds of the
Green Spleenwort generally last through the
winter.

Scolopendrium vulgare. In this case the
6

82 HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

generic name is derived from scolopendra, the
Latin name for a " centipede " ; this has
reference to the supposed resemblance of the
lines of spore cases to the legs of a centipede.
The specific name is, of course, simply Latin
for " common." The Hartstongue.

Scolopendriutn vulgare. The Hartstongue.

This is certainly one of the most familiar
of all British ferns. Almost alone amongst
the well-known species, the plant has an uncut
frond. The leaves rise from a tufted root-
stock which generally stands well above the
level of the ground. The length of the fronds

LADY FERN AND SPLEENWORTS 83

varies considerably, and in a mature plant
which has found a damp corner these are
sometimes two or three feet in measurement.
Where the plant has found a home on a dry
wall, however, it may be a very diminutive
affair. As a rule, the stipes will be about
one-third of the whole frond, the leafy portion

The sori on the back of a Hartstongue frond.

being long and tongue-shaped. At the tip
the frond ends in a point, whilst towards the
middle the leaf swells out again, narrowing
once more towards the base and finally ex-
panding again into a couple of ear-shaped
projections. The rachis of the Hartstongue
Fern is a very prominent feature, and at the
back of the leaf appears in the form of a ridge.

84 HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

From the rachis arise veins which run out
to the borders of the frond, and parallel to
these are the linear son. Although at first
sight this is not very apparent, the brown
lines are composed of two sori which practically
join together. The pairs of sori are covered
with pairs of indusia which, on the maturity
of the sporangia, open out opposite to each
other. As a rule the sori are most plentiful
on the upper portion of the frond of the
Hartstongue. There are an immense number
of varieties of the Hartstongue, some of which
are familiar garden subjects. In a wild state
it is not an uncommon thing to find fronds
which are abnormal, and some of these show
a greater or less tendency to develop fronds
which are branched.

The Hartstongue is an excessively common
Fern, often occurring in the greatest abundance.
It is said to be less frequent in Scotland than in
other parts of the United Kingdom. Naturally
it is of the simplest culture in the garden.

There is much division of opinion as to the
position of the Fern, which we must now
consider. In some quarters it has been given
a place among the Spleenworts, but many
authorities consider that the Hard Fern is the
solitary British representative of its class.

Blechnum spicant. In this case the generic
name is derived from a Greek word blechnon, a
name for a Fern. The specific name, spicant,
is from the Latin spica, " a point." The
application of the name is realized when the
sharply-pointed pinnae are examined. The
species is in some books called Lomaria spicant
and Blechnum bore-ale. The Hard Fern.

This species has a rather thin root-stock,
from which arise large quantities of wiry

LADY FERN AND SPLEENWORTS 85

roots. From the crown the two kinds of
fronds are sent up. We may first consider
the barren fronds : these vary according to
the conditions under which the plant is
growing, and range from a few inches up to
one or two feet in height. The stipes is very
short and it is of a brownish colour, with a
few scales. The leafy part of the frond is
narrowly lanceolate, tapering slightly at the
point but more decidedly at the base. On
either side of the rachis, which is green, are
arranged the pinnae ; these are not opposite,
but are in alternation. The pinnae are narrow
and oblong, and at the tip the frond tends to
become pinnatifid, whilst at the base the
pinnae are little more than rounded lobes.
The frond has been not inaptly likened to a
double comb. The fertile frond has much
the same outline as the barren one ; it is,
however, easily distinguished by its greater
length and the extremely narrow pinnae. These
fertile fronds arise from the centre of the
clump and are at their best about the month
of June. They are very erect in their growth.
The sporangia are borne along the margins of
the pinnae of the fertile fronds. The borders
of the pinnae seem to curl over and protect the
sporangia ; by a close examination it is easy to
discover the independent indusia. When the
spore capsules ripen they spread so that the
whole of the underside of the pinnae is covered.
The texture of both the barren and the fertile
fronds of the Hard Fern is very leathery.

The Hard Fern is, of course, a very common
species, to be found all over the United
Kingdom. The plant is of a simple culture
and is evergreen in habit.

CHAPTER VIII
THE POLYPODIES

THERE \must be very few people, indeed,
who are not familiar with the leading
British representatives of the sub-family Poly-
podies. It is difficult, indeed, to make a journey
in any part of the country without sooner or
later coming across some plants of the Common
Polypody. Some other species of the genus
Polypodium are not uncommon in certain parts
of the country.

Polypodium vulgare. Here the generic name is
derived from two Greek words — polys, " many,"
and pous, " a foot." This has been given to
the plant on account of the fact that the creep-
ing and branching rhizomes from which the
fronds arise are in some way suggestive of feet.
The specific name, of course, means " common."
The Common Polypody.

This species has a creeping root-stock which
in its young days is covered with brown scales.
From the underside there grow masses of fibrous
roots, which often spread for a considerable
distance. The rhizome may be very much
branched, and from it alternately on either side
arise the fronds. These may be quite short —
*bout five or six inches — or, on the other hand,
they may be as much as one or two feet in
length. The stipes is usuallv about the same

86

THE POLYPODIES 87

length as the leafy portion of the frond and is of
a plain green colour. The general outline of the
leafy part of the frond is lanceolate, tapering to
a point, broad in the centre and narrowing
slightly at the base. The frond of the Common

Polypodium vulgare. The Common Polypody.

Polypody is cut in a pinnatifid manner. The
lobes, which are more or less rounded at the tip,
are separated by openings in which the leafy
portion is cut almost down to the rachis. Now
and again the margin of the lobes is somewhat
toothed.

On the back of the frond are to be found the

88 HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

sori. These are disposed on both sides of the
mid-ribs of the lobes ; they are circular in shape
and have no indusia or covering of any kind.
When the sporangia are young the sori are of a
very pale yellow colour ; this changes to a rich
golden-brown as the capsules mature. The sori

Enlargement of the sori on the frond of Common Polypody.

are mostly confined to the upper portion of the
frond, and on account of their bright colouring
add very much to the appearance of the leaf.
There are a large number of varieties of the
Common Polypody.

The Common Polypody will, of course, grow
in almost any position. It often finds a home

THE POLYPODIES 89

amongst the branches of old oak trees, whilst
it seems to be equally happy on the wall or the
hedge-bank. It is of fairly easy culture in the
garden, though the plant likes a well-drained
situation. The Common Polypody is an ever-
green species.

Polypodium phegopteris. Here the specific
name is formed of two Greek words — phegos,
" a beech," and pteris, " a fern." This is, of

Polypodium phegopteris. The Beech Fern.

course, a rendering of the popular name, though
why the species has been called the Beech Fern
nobody seems to know. Certainly the species
is not like a Beech, neither can it be said to grow
in association with this tree. The Beech Fern
or Mountain Polypody.

This species has a slender creeping rhizome
from which arise the dainty light green fronds.
The fronds vary from about six inches to a foot
in length ; the stipes is longer than the leafy

9o HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

portion, and is of a light green colour. The out-
line of the leafy part is triangular in form, and
on either side of the rachis are the tapering pinnae.
At the top the frond is pinnatifid, whilst the
lower pinnae are deeply cut. A very distinctive
feature of the Beech Fern is the way in which
the lower pair of pinnae point downwards away
from the tip of the irond.

Nearly the whole of the underside of the
frond bears the son. These are placed quite
near to the margins of the lobes of the pinnae.
Like all the Polypodies the clusters of sporangia
have no indusia.

The Beech Fern cannot be called a common
species, though it is often abundant in certain
localities. It is much more frequent in Scot-
land than elsewhere, and may be looked for
hopefully in almost any moist wood. It also
occurs abundantly in some parts of the North
of England. Unless the Beech Fern can be
given a moist position it is not an easy plant to
grow in the -open garden. It is, however, suc-
cessfully cultivated in the greenhouse. The
plant dies down in the winter, and the new fronds
do not appear until somewhat late in the spring.

Polypodium dryopteris. Here the specific
name is derived from two Greek words — drus,
" an oak," and pteris, " a fern." Here again
it is not easy to see a resemblance between this
fern and an oak, unless it be that the newly-
developing fronds are in colour something like
the delicate green of the tree when it is decked
in its new foliage. The Oak Fern or Three-
branched Polypody.

This plant has a thin creeping rhizome from
which the fronds arise. The stipes is of a pale
green colour, and it is usually longer than the
leafy portion. Actually the frond is divided

THE POLYPODIES 91

into three branches, each of which is triangular
in shape and pinnate towards the base, be-
coming pinnatifid at the tip. The pinnae are
deeply segmented. The unrolling of the frond
is a very novel feature of this Fern, each branch
at this time appearing to be like a small coil of
wire. In its early days the golden green colour
of the frond is very much pronounced, but as the
leaf ages a deeper tone is assumed.

The sori are disposed near to the margins of
the lobes of the leaves, and these are circular
and without indusia. The lower pinnae of the
Oak Fern do not point downwards, as is seen in
the case of the Beech Fern.

The Oak Fern is common in many parts of
Scotland, and is to be seen carpeting the ground
of many a moist wood. It also occurs in Eng-
land chiefly in the northern counties. In some
parts of Wales it is to be found in plenty, but
the species is said to be rare in Ireland. The
Oak Fern grows in a damp and shady spot in
the garden, though it is often more happy in a
pot. The fronds of the plant die down in winter,
and the fresh ones do not start until late in the
spring.

In some books a species called Polypodium
calcareum (The Limestone Polypody) is described.
In some quarters this plant is regarded as a
variety of P. dryopteris, as it is similar in some
respects. Mr. C. T. Druery considers it to be a
distinct species. The chief points of difference
are said to be the following. The whole plant
is larger in growth, whilst the green of the
fronds is not such a golden colour, even in the
early days. Also the pinnae are not arranged so
definitely in the form of three branches, as is to
be observed in the case of the Oak Fern. Finally ,
the unrolling of the frond does not present the

92 HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

appearance of three little balls, seeing that each
pinnae unfolds separately. The Limestone Poly-
pody occurs chiefly in the North of England.

Polypodium alpestre. The Alpine Polypody.
This is a most remarkable species, in that it bears
a singular resemblance to the Lady Fern. By
some authorities it is positively regarded as a
Mountain form of the Lady Fern. The reason for
linking the species with the Polypodies is found
in the rounded son, which have no indusia. The
Alpine Polypody has a short tufted root-stock,
and from this arise the fronds, which may be a
foot or even more in height. The stipes is very
short when compared with the leafy portion,
and it is covered with brown scales. The
general outline of the fronds is broadly lanceo-
late, and they are twice divided. The pinnae
are arranged in alternation on either side of the
rachis, and these are divided into pinnules with
blunt points. The pinnules have toothed edges,
the son are chiefly situated near to the inside
border of the pinnules. Those who consider
that the Alpine Polypody is a form of the Lady
Fern call the species Pseudathyrium alpestre.

The Alpine Polypody seems to be exclusively
confined, as far as the United Kingdom is con-
cerned, to the highlands of Scotland. It is
sometimes to be found at an altitude of four
thousand feet above sea-level. In spite of its
restricted locality the Alpine Polypody is an
easy subject for the garden, if it can be provided
with a well-drained situation.

CHAPTER IX
THE ROYAL FERN

UNDER the name of the Flowering Fern
it is probable that most people are
familiar with the subject we are now about to
consider. The title has without a doubt
arisen from the fact that the species bears its
son in masses at the termination of the fronds,
quite apart from the leafy portion. The Royal
Fern is the sole British representative of the
family Osmundaceae.

Osmunda regalis. There is great diversity
of opinion upon the derivation of the name
Osmunda. The name is thought to be of
Saxon origin, and possibly was given to the Fern
in honour of a personage who bore the name of
Osmund. Osmunda was one of the titles of the
great god Thor. In other quarters the name
is said to be compounded of the two words os,
" a house," and mund, " peace." Finally, a
pretty story associates the name Osmunda
with a certain Osmund, a ferryman, who, to
hide his daughter from marauding Danes,
placed her amongst the great clumps of the
Royal Fern which grew so plentifully by the
riverside. The specific name regalis is simply
Latin for " royal," and is an apt reference to
the noble proportions of this Fern.

The Royal Fern has a sturdy tufted root-
stock which in an old example may well be one
or two feet in height. From the crown of the

93

94 HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

root-stock arise the fronds, which are of a
yellow-green colour when they are young. The

Osiiiutiiia recalls. The Royal Fein.

stipes is about the same length as the leafy
portion, and the fronds themselves often rise to
a great height. Cases are on record where, the

THE ROYAL FERN 95

plant being in a very damp situation, the fronds
have been as much as twelve feet in height.
Average specimens would range from three to
six feet. The fronds are twice pinnate, the
pinnules being oblong with uncut edges. Some
of the fronds are barren and never bear any sori.

In the case of the fertile fronds only the
upper portion produces the clusters of spore
cases. Here the leafy portion of the pinnules is
very much contracted, so that little or no green
is visible. The sori are quite naked, no indusia
being present at any time. A notable feature
of the sporangia is that they split up into two
valves when about to burst, and are not pro-
vided with the elastic ring (annulus) which
assists in the rupture of the capsules in the case
of most ferns. That the pinnules which bear
the sori are exactly comparable to the leafy
portion is often very plain. Here and there on
a plant it is possible to find fertile examples
which have developed partly in a barren, and
partly in a fertile manner.

The Royal Fern is essentially a plant of the
marshland. It never grows happily in dry or
elevated situations. It is perhaps to be found
at its best growing by the side of some river or
stream. The Royal Fern has been found in
many parts of the United Kingdom, though the
plant suffers much from the depredations of
trippers. Most fern-lovers know of places
where this handsome species grows in abundance,
but they wisely keep such knowledge to them-
selves. In the garden the Royal Fern grows
well, but it must not suffer from lack of water,
or it will prove but a poor subject. The fronds
of the Royal Fern die down at the coming of
the frost, and the young growth does not put in
an appearance until the late spring.

CHAPTER X
FOUR CURIOUS FERNS

THE three species which must now be de-
scribed would hardly be recognized as Ferns
at all by most people. It has been indicated in
an earlier chapter that there is really some doubt
as to their true position, but for the sake of con-
venience they are here included amongst the
Ferns. All the British species of the family
Ophioglosseae are somewhat inconspicuous plants,
owing to their habit of growing mixed up with a
lot of herbage.

Ophioglossum vulgatum. The generic name is
formed of two Greek words — ophios, " a snake,"
and glossa, " a tongue " ; a reference to the fact
that the barren leaf was thought to bear a
resemblance to a snake's tongue, though it
must be confessed that the likeness is not
very apparent. The word " vulgatum " is, of
course, Latin for " common." The Common
Adder's Tongue.

In this species the frond is very definitely
divided into two parts, a leafy portion and a
spike. These are borne on a stalk about six
inches in length which arises from a fleshy root-
stock. The roots of the Common Adder's
Tongue are quite coarse and entirely unlike the
wiry roots of the majority of ferns. The leafy

or barren portion of this curious frond is not

96

FOUR CURIOUS FERNS 97

divided in any way and is roughly egg-shaped.
The fertile portion is in the form of a stalked
spike, the spore cases being arranged on either
side in double rows. The capsules are rounded
in form and have no elastic ring, but open
transversely when the contents are ripe.
Attention should be called to the beautiful

Ophioglossum vulgatum. The Adder's Tongue.

veining of the barren leaf of the Common Adder's
Tongue, which forms a perfect network through
the green tissue.

The Common Adder's Tongue is really very
abundant in many parts of England. It should
be looked for in damp meadows, and will prob-
ably be difficult to find without a close search.
It is not so abundant in Scotland and Ireland.

98 HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

The only way to secure the plant safely for
cultivation is to cut up a piece of turf, and remove
the whole thing into a position where the soil is
moist and rich. The Common Adder's Tongue
is not very often cultivated, as from the gar-
dener's point of view its decorative value is
small. The new frond of the Common Adder's
Tongue is fully developed by June, and it dis-
appears early in the autumn.

Ophioglossum lusitanicum. Here the specific
name is taken from Lusitania, the old designa-
tion of Portugal — a reference to the fact that
the species is abundant in that country, as in-
deed it is in other parts of Southern Europe.
The Little Adder's Tongue.

This plant is really a miniature addition of
the former species. There is no doubt, how-
ever, that it is to be regarded as a distinct type,
although at one time it was thought to be
merely a variety of 0. vulgatum.

As far as the United Kingdom is concerned
the Little Adder's Tongue has only been dis-
covered in one or two localities. Some years
ago it was stated to have been found in Corn-
wall, and it certainly used to occur in Guernsey.

Botrychium lunaria. The generic name in
this case comes from a Greek word which means
" a cluster," this being a reference to the
packed son of the fertile pinnae. The specific
name comes from the Latin luna, " the moon,"
— an allusion to the curiously-shaped pinnae on
the barren part of the frond. The Moonwort.

This is an interesting species which is easily
distinguished from the Adder's Tongue. The
plant has a fleshy root-stock from which arises
a frond divided into two parts, a leafy portion
and a fertile branch. The whole frond is about
six or eight inches in height, and the stipes is

FOUR CURIOUS FERNS 99

usually more than half the entire measurement.
The leafy branch is pinnate, and its divisions are
curious crescent-shaped processes which may
be toothed round the edges. These are usually
rather crowded together on the stem. The

Botrychitiin lunaria. The Moonwort.

fertile portion of the frond is very upright, and
bears about the same number of branches to be
counted on the leafy portion. These branches
are again divided into sections which bear the
clusters of spore cases. These are of a reddish-
brown colour and burst open when the contents
are mature, in the same manner as that to be

ioo HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

seen in the Adder's Tongue. In the Moonwort,
as in the previous species, it is possible to find
the next year's frond concealed at the apex
of the root-stock.

The Moonwort grows in drier situations
than that which suits the Adder's Tongue. It
is abundant in many parts of England, and is a
very common plant in localities in Yorkshire.
The species also occurs in other parts of the
United Kingdom, though on account of its habit
of growing mixed up with grass, the Moonwort
is often overlooked.

The following is the only indigenous species
related to the Gold and Silver Ferns of our
greenhouses : —

Gymnogramma leptophylla. The generic
name is derived from two Greek words —
gymnos, "naked," and gramme, "a. line"; an
allusion to the unprotected sporangia. The
specific name means " slender leaf." The
Annual Maidenhair.

This is a pretty little species with barren
and fertile fronds of a bright green colour.
In some respects the fronds resemble those of
the true Maidenhair. The Annual Maidenhair
only occurs in Jersey, as far as the United
Kingdom is concerned.

CHAPTER XI
THE CLUB MOSSES

AS we have seen, the living species of the
Club Mosses are comparatively insignifi-
cant plants. None the less, most of them are
attractive each in its own way, and it is interest-
ing to be able to identify the different kinds.
First of all we may consider the five species of
Lycopodium.

Lycopodium clavatum. Here the generic name
is derived from two Greek words — lukos, " a
wall," and pous, " a foot." One of the popular
names of the plant is Wolf's Claw ; possibly an
allusion to the curious branching-stem, although
it must be confessed that the plant is not very
claw-like. The specific name is derived from
the Latin clava, " a club " ; this having reference
to the cones, or club, which bears the sporangia.
The Stag's Horn Moss, or the Common Club
Moss.

Tnis species has wiry stems of considerable
length, sometimes measuring as much as six
or eight feet. These run along close to the soil,
to which they are attached at intervals by strong
roots. The stems which branch in all directions
are covered with small narrow leaves, each of
which ends in a curious little bristle. This
gives to the whole plant a singular grey appear-
ance. These hair-like points to the leaves may

io'2 HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

be regarded as a distinct feature of the Common
Club Moss. In the autumn the fruiting spikes

of the Common Club Moss are borne on the ends
of erect stalks. The cones are generally about
an inch in length, and at times as many as two

THE CLUB MOSSES 103

or three of them may be allotted to each stalk.
If closely examined it will be found that the
fruiting spikes are composed of a number of leaf-
like bracts, each one of which bears the case
filled with spores. After the dispersal of the
spores the cones fall off, but the plant as a
whole remains green throughout the winter.

The Common Club Moss is often very abun-
dant upon the moors of the North of England,
and also in Scotland and in Wales. On account
of its creeping habit of growth the plant is often
overlooked, and few people realize that this
Club Moss is really very common. Sometimes
single plants cover huge areas of ground, and
many of the trailing stems are several feet in
length. The spores of this, in common with
those of other Lycopodiums, are inflammable ;
and in the old days these were used in the
manufacture of fireworks.

Lycopodium selago. In this case the specific
name of selago was that formerly given to all
the Club Mosses. The Fir Club Moss.

This is a very pretty little plant, which, on
account of its upright habit of growth, attracts
a good deal of attention. The stems vary from
about three to six inches in height, and these rise
upwards from a main stem which sometimes,
but not always, trails along the ground for a
short distance. The branches are very thickly
covered with leaves which overlap one another,
and are very stiff. Indeed, the whole plant is
covered with the foliage, which, being narrow and
pointed, is almost bristle-like in appearance.
The colour of the foliage is bright green. The
spore capsules are present in the axils of the
uppermost leaves of the branches, and these
are kidney-shaped. The Fir Club Moss is also
very commonly propagated by means of special

104 HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

little buds which appear at the tops of the
branches. When these are developed they fall
to the ground, and give rise to fresh plants.

The Fir Club Moss is probably almost as
common as the Common Club Moss. It should,
however, be looked for on elevated moors and
the slopes of mountains.

Lycopodium inundatum. Here the specific
name has reference to the fact that this Club

;

Lycopodium selago. The Fir Club Moss.

Moss grows in situations which are often under
water. The Marsh Club Moss.

This is a peculiarly interesting species, in
that it is the only British Club Moss to be found
in lowland districts. The stems of the plants
are prostrate, and these are so closely fixed to
the soil with strong roots that it is almost im-
possible to remove a specimen without taking
away the soil as well. The fertile branches
rise in a very direct manner to the height of two
or three inches, and these, like the main stems,

THE CLUB MOSSES 105

are thickly covered with narrow leaves, which
have sharp points. The fructification is pro-
duced in the autumn, the capsules being borne
between leaf -like scales at the upper part of the
shoot. A singular thing about the Marsh Club
Moss is that one end of the creeping stem is
always decaying, and an individual plant is
rarely more than a few inches in length. In
the winter only the growing tip of the plant
remains, and from this the whole of the new
development arises.

The Marsh Club Moss is comparatively rare
in the North of England, though in the South
and West it is often to be found. As a rule
it occurs in large isolated patches, and one
may hunt for some distance around before
finding any more specimens. It likes a
thoroughly wet situation, and on this account
is soon stamped out when any schemes of
land drainage are undertaken.

Lycopodium alpinum. In this case the
specific name is simply a reference to the fact
that this Club Moss grows in mountainous
districts. The Alpine Club Moss.

This species has long creeping stems which
are rather bare of leaves. From these, how-
ever, spring the upright branches which are
thickly covered with foliage ; every one of the
leaves terminates in a point. The Alpine
Club Moss is an evergreen plant, and it is of a
very bright green colour. The branches which
bear the fertile spikes are somewhat taller
than the barren ones, and these are often
twice forked. The cone bears a number of
thin scales, and between each of these and
the stem is to be found the kidney-shaped
capsules.

The Alpine Club Moss is often to be found

106 HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

in great abundance in elevated districts in
Scotland and Ireland. It seems to be most
happy in elevated situations.

Lycopodium annotinum. In this case the
specific name is from the Latin term signifying
" a year old." This is an allusion to the fact
that the yearly additions to the plant are very
evident. The Interrupted Club Moss.

This species at first sight is sometimes taken
for the Common Club Moss. It is, however,
readily distinguished when its branches are
examined ; these are increased annually by an
addition which is very plainly to be observed.
It is seen that at these periods the leaves are
smaller and much less inclined to spread than
in the normal forms. At times the branches
divide, and at the tip of some of the upright
shoots occur the fertile cones. Each one of
these is about an inch long, and it is covered
with bracts upon which the spore capsules
are borne. The Interrupted Club Moss is a
fine species, and is of a pale green colour.

This is probably the rarest of our native
Club Mosses. In some parts of Scotland it is
said to be abundant, but the plant is always
a local one. It has been found in the North
of England, though it is decidedly uncommon.

In the United Kingdom there is only one
native species of Selaginella.

Selaginella spinosa. In this case the generic
name is derived from the name Selago ;
actually the name means " a little Club Moss."
The specific name has reference to the tiny
spines on the margins of the leaves. The
Lesser Alpine Club Moss.

This plant is, of course, very distinct from
the Lycopodium, in that it produces two kinds
of spores. The Lesser Alpine Club Moss is a

THE CLUB MOSSES 107

small plant with both prostrate and upright
stems. The leaves are very tiny, and owing
to their semi-transparent nature the whole
plant is of a pale green colour. Some of the
upright stems are barren, but a certain propor-
tion bear the spore capsules in the axils of
the small leaves. In the upper part of the
cone occur the capsules containing the micro -
spores, whilst in the lower portion are to be
found the sporangia, each of which produces
three or four megaspores.

The Lesser Alpine Club Moss is probably
more common than is generally supposed,
especially in the North of England. It grows
in damp situations and is often very much
mixed up with other herbage, so that it is
easily overlooked. It is now necessary to
describe the two or three curious little plants
which are closely related to the Ferns and
Club Mosses.

Isoetes lacustris. In this case the generic
name originates in two Greek words — isos,
" equal," and etos, " a year." This has refer-
ence to the fact that the plant keeps its leaves
all through the year and does not alter in
appearance. The specific name lacustris is
derived from the Latin word laciis, a lake, and
is an allusion to the fact that the plant grows
in such a situation. The Quillwort.

This is an interesting little plant which is
entirely aquatic in its habits. The Quillwort
has a tuberous root-stock, and from this arise a
large number of dark green leaves, somewhat
resembling quills in shape. These are about
three or four inches in length, and when the
plant is growing in quantity in some pool, it
is often taken for a kind of grass. At the
base of the leaves, partly protected by the

io8 HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

sheathing, are to be found the spore capsules.
These cases are of two kinds, those on the
outermost rows of leaves containing the large
spores, and those on the inner leaves being
responsible for the small spores.

Isoetes lacustris. The Quillwort.

The Quillwort is often abundant in mountain
lakes in Scotland and the North of England.
Owing to its habit of growth, however, the
plant is usually unnoticed by the majority of
people.

Another species of Quillwort — Isoetes Hys-
trix — occurs in the Channel Islands, but it

THE CLUB MOSSES 109

has not been found elsewhere in the United
Kingdom.

Pilularia globulifera. In this case the generic
name is formed from the Latin word pilula,
" a little pill," this being a reference to the
curious pill-like spore capsules which the
plant produces. The specific name of globulifera
is made up from two Latin words — globus, " a
ball," and fero, " I carry." This is another
allusion to the rounded sporangia. The Pill-
wort.

This is a curious little plant with a very
slender creeping root-stock. From this are sent
down small tufts of roots into the damp soil
in which the plant grows. From the upper
part of the stem arise the leaves, which are
bristle-shaped, two or three inches in length,
and of an intensely bright green colour. It
is interesting to note that in their young state
these leaves uncoil very much in the same
manner to be noticed in the Ferns. The spore
cases are situated at the point where the leaf
arises from the root-stock. Externally these
are densely covered with brown hairs, and they
are just about the size of a small pea. The
sporangia are four-celled, and when the time
for the dispersal of the spores arrive, the cases
split open. The spores are of two kinds, and
both sorts are present in the same sporangia.
The large spores are confined to the lower
portion of the case, the small ones to the
upper part.

The Pillwort is common in some parts of
England, though less so in Scotland and Ireland.
It always grows in very damp situations,
though it is rarely found submerged, save
when this happens as the result of flooding.
The Pillwort so often grows mixed up with

no HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

grass, which in some ways it resembles, that
the plant is frequently overlooked.

Azolla caroliniana. Here the generic name

is derived from two Greek words — azo, " to
dry," and olio, " to kill " — an allusion to the
fact that dryness is fatal to the well-being of

THE CLUB MOSSES in

the plant. The specific name has reference
to the fact that the plant is very abundant in
Carolina, though as a matter of fact it occurs
in other parts of the world. It should be
pointed out that the Azolla is not a native of
the United Kingdom, but it has become well
established in some parts of the South of
England.

During the summer time the Azolla, which
is a floating plant, increases with great rapidity,
sometimes completely covering the surface of a
lake. At first the fronds, which are exquisitely
beautiful, are of a silver-green colour ; towards
the autumn they assume a bright crimson
tint. Underneath the fronds are produced a
large quantity of roots which hang down into
the water. Two kinds of spores are produced.
The microspores are packed away in cases
which are provided with curious barbed con-
trivances. The megaspores bear hooks, and
in this way the two processes become attached.
The Azolla is a pretty plant to grow in an
aquarium, though where it has been able to
make itself at home it will sometimes increase
so vigorously that all other vegetation is
killed.

CHAPTER XII
THE HORSETAILS

IT is now necessary to consider a very strik-
ing order of plants. Unlike the Club Mosses,
it is probable that most people are familiar with
one or more species of Horsetail ; some of these
plants are not only common, but they are also
very striking in appearance. In all there are
eight species of Equisetum which are natives
of the United Kingdom, and most of these are
fairly easy to identify if a few leading features
are borne in mind.

Equisetum arvense. The generic name in
this case is composed of two Latin words — equus,
" a horse," and seta, " a bristle." Thus we see
that the popular name of the plant is an almost
exact translation of the scientific one. The
specific name is derived from the Latin adjective
drvus, " a field," and has, of course, reference
to the fact that the plant grows in pastures.
The Field Horsetail.

This species is by far the commonest of all the
Horsetails, and is very frequently to be found
on embankments in fields and by the sides of
roads. The plant, which dies down in the
winter, starts its growth quite early in the year
with the development of the fertile stems.
These rise straight up from the branching
root-stock, and are generally about five or six

THE HORSETAILS 113

inches in height. The stem, which is of a very
pale colour, is of rather a succulent nature;
it is hollow in the centre and in a certain way
reminds one of bamboo, At intervals there are
certain sheaths which are divided into a number

Barren stem of Equisetum arvense.

of teeth with very sharp points. The cone-like
fructification is about an inch in length and
bears a number of peltate scales to which the
spore capsules are attached. The spores are
ready for dispersal in the month of May. Just
about this time the barren stems put in an
appearance. These rise to the height of two
8

H4 HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

feet, or even more, and have many whorls of
spreading branches which in their turn may
again be branched. It is these branches
which carry on the real vegetative work of the
plant. For the real leaves we must examine
the sheaths, which with their wedge-shaped
teeth are to be found at the stem joints. The
teeth are the only free portions of the leaves of
the Horsetails. It is interesting to note that
in each whorl the branches are equal to the
number of leaves and are alternate to them.
The stem of the barren branches of the Field
Horsetail is slightly marked with furrows,
which vary in number. The branches are
usually only four-furrowed, and have sheaths
with the same number of teeth.

The whole of the barren portion of the Field
Horsetail is very rough to the touch. This is
due to the fact that the plant is covered with
tiny flinty particles. That the measure has a
protective value is very evident, for cattle have
hardly ever been known to eat the plant.

Equisetum maximum. In this case the
specific name, of course, means great, and has
reference to the fact that the species is the
largest of all the kinds. In some old books
this species is given as E. Telmateia and E.
fluvialis. The Great Horsetail.

This is by far the most striking of all our
native Horsetails. As a rule the plant grows in
a damp situation, and it then assumes handsome
proportions. The fertile stems appear on the
scene about April, and these do not as a rule
exceed a foot in height. They are very succu-
lent, and have loose sheaths which have about
thirty or forty teeth. The sheaths are green
at the lower, and brown at the upper part,
being distinctly marked with lines. The fertile

THE HORSETAILS 115

cones are three or four inches long and possess
a very large number of scales. The barren
stems are remarkable for their erect growth,
and in a fine specimen these may be four or
five feet in height. The stem bears numerous

Fertile cones of Eqiiisetum maximum.

whorls of branches, and these branches may
show yet further divisions. As a rule each
whorl has thirty or forty branches apiece. On
the upper part of the stem the whorls are
very close together, but they are more widely
separated at the lower portion. The main
stems, which taper towards the apex, are

n6 HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

marked with lines, and at intervals are en-
closed in sheaths ; these have long teeth and
fit the stem very closely. The branches are
rough to the touch, and have sheaths which end
in four or five teeth ; each tooth in this case is
prolonged into a bristle which has two toothed
ribs. This is a feature by means of which it is
always possible to distinguish the Great Horse-
tail from any other species. Now and again
stems have been found which, whilst bearing
fertile cones, at the same time branch in the
manner to be observed in the case of the barren
stems.

The Great Horsetail is widely distributed and
is sometimes very abundant, though it is not so
common as some of the other species of Equise-
tum.

Equisetum pratense. In this case the specific
name is a Latin word which means " growing in
a meadow." In some books this plant is known
as E. umbrosum. The Shade or Blunt-topped
Horsetail.

This species has three kinds of stems. The
first of these is about six inches in height, and is
provided with large loose sheaths. This bears
the cone of fructification, which is ripened about
the month of April. The second type of stem
produces both branches and a fertile cone,
though this latter is very much smaller than in
the case of the first type of stem. Finally,
there is the barren stem, which may be about
eighteen inches in height ; this is very rough,
and has about twenty strongly-marked ridges.
The sheaths, which are not so large as those of
the fertile stem, fit somewhat closely. The
stem branches freely, and it is to be noted that
these branches have three or four ridges ; as
well, they bear sheaths which end in the same

THE HORSETAILS 117

number of teeth. A distinctive feature of the
Shade Horsetail is that the topmost whorls of
branches spread upwards in such a way that
they reach the summit of the stem ; there is no
long tapering point such as is to be seen in the
case of the Field Horsetail, for instance. The
result of this habit of growth is that the plant
has a curious flat-topped appearance ; it is on
this account that the species has received one
of its popular names.

The Shade Horsetail grows in damp meadows
and very shady woods, though it is not common
in all districts.

Equisetum sylvaticum. In this case the
specific name is taken from the Latin silva,
" a wood," and is a reference to the habitat of
the plant. The Wood Horsetail.

This is one of the most beautiful of our
Horsetails. The plant has two kinds of stems,
both of which are ultimately branched. The
fertile stems put in an appearance first of all
in the early spring ; at this time these bear only
a cone and are without branches. With the
dispersal of the spores the cone shrivels up, and
then the stems starts to send out green branches.
These branches give off whorls of smaller
branches from their joints. In a general way
the stems of the barren shoots are not so
succulent as those which bear the cone ; the
barren stems, too, are somewhat taller and
branch more freely than the fertile ones. In
both barren and fertile stems are to be noticed
the whorls of small drooping branches which
give a characteristic appearance to the Wood
Horsetail, and by means of which it may
always be identified. The sheaths which enclose
the stem evidence three or four teeth, whilst
the terminal branches (which are three-ribbed)

u8 HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

bear at each joint a sheath ending in three long
pointed teeth. The stems of the Wood Horse-
tail are marked by about a dozen ridges.

The Wood Horsetail is often abundant in
damp shady woods.

Equisetum palustre. The specific name pal-
ustre means " belonging to the marshes." The
Marsh Horsetail.

This plant has a very thick rhizome from
which arise the erect stems. The barren and the
fertile stems closely resemble each other, being
about a foot or more in height, with very rough
surfaces on which it is possible to count from
six to twelve very prominent ridges. The stems
are enclosed at intervals in loose sheaths, which
have the same number of teeth as the ridges on
the stem. It should be noted that the branches
from the various whorls show a marked tendency
to turn upwards. On certain of the stems the
fertile cone appears and the spores are ripened
about June, after which the process withers.
The plant as a whole remains green until
late in the autumn. Sometimes in the case
of large plants, cones have been known to
occur on the tips of the branches of the Marsh
Horsetail.

The Marsh Horsetail is a very common species,
often growing in the greatest profusion by the
sides of pools.

Equisetum limosum. In this case the specific
name is a Latin word which means " full of
mud " ; this being an allusion to the fact that
the plant favours swampy situations. The
Smooth Naked Horsetail. The plant is also
called the Water Horsetail.

A distinctive feature of this plant is that it
has almost completely smooth stems, though a
close examination will indicate the presence of a

THE HORSETAILS 119

number of slight ridges. The barren and the
fertile stems are very similar, and in a favourable
situation they will grow to the height of two or
three feet. A curious feature of this plant is the
irregular way in which the branches appear.
Sometimes the stems are quite bare ; on
other occasions they are partly branched ; in
any case the branches are short. The sheaths
with many teeth are closely pressed to the stem.
The fertile stem is, of course, distinguished by
the cone which it bears at the summit. It is
said that cattle are not averse to eating the
Smooth Naked Horsetail, and certainly the
stems are not unpleasant to the touch.

The Smooth Naked Horsetail is a common
plant, specially by the sides of streams and pools.
It sometimes grows right in the water.

Equisetum variegatum. Here the specific
name means variegated, and has reference to
the fact that the sheaths enclosing the stem
are pale green below and blackish in colour
above. The Variegated Rough Horsetail.

As a rule this plant grows by the seashore,
where, by means of its fibrous roots, it may play
a useful part in helping to bind the shifting sand.
The Variegated Horsetail is not exclusively
maritime, however, for it sometimes grows by
the sides of rivers and ponds. The barren and
fertile stems closely resemble one another, and
they are very nearly prostrate in habit. As a
rule they are about a foot in height, and the
stems have from four to ten ridges. The upper
part of the stem is usually unbranched, but
whorls of branches occur towards the base.
The sheaths, which, as already stated, are green
below and black above, fit very closely to the
stem. The black teeth have white margins,
and terminate in bristle-like points. The cones

120 HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

are borne at the summit of the fertile stems, and
are comparatively small.

The Variegated Rough Horsetail occurs chiefly,
though not exclusively, in the North of England.

Equisetum hyemale. — In this case the specific

Equisetum hyemale. The Dutch Rush.

name is a Latin adjective which means " per-
taining to winter," an allusion to the fact that
the plant is to be found all through this season.
The Rough Horsetail or Dutch Rush.

This is quite the most distinct of all the
Horsetails. There are none of the whorled
branches which are so familiar in the other

THE HORSETAILS 121

species, and it is only now and again that even
a single branch is produced from the base of one
of the sheaths. There is a strong resemblance
between the barren and the fertile stems. These
are both tall and very erect, usually running up
to the height of two or three feet. The stem is
very rough to the touch, and is marked with
from fourteen to twenty ridges. The edges of
these ridges are thickly covered with flinty Dar-
ticles. The sheaths of the Dutch Rush clasp
the stem of the plant very closely. The fertile
cone is small, and is placed at the top of the stem.
The Rough Horsetail is not a very common
species, but is abundant on the Continent, es-
pecially in Holland and Germany, where it is
largely employed for the fixing of the soil of
embankments. The Rough Horsetail is very
useful for polishing wood.

CHAPTER XIII
FERN COLLECTING AND PRESERVING

PERHAPS none of our native plants have
suffered more from those vandals who root
up every pretty thing they see than the Ferns.
To the average tripper there seems to be some-
thing irresistible in the green fronds, and up
comes the root, or enough of it to destroy the
plant, and the prize is carried home. Even if
the fern is so fortunate as to be planted at all,
it is probably dealt with in such a way that its
chances of living are very remote. County
Councils may pass by-laws, but one is afraid
that these will have little effect until there is
amongst the people as a whole a more wide-
spread regard for natural beauty. It is to be
feared that one cannot entirely acquit the
scientific student of helping in the destruction
of Ferns. A rare find is a terrible temptation to
the enthusiast, but if the plant is a solitary
one it is a golden rule to leave it alone. Often
enough a single frond will give us any quantity
of ripe spores from which fresh plants may be
raised. In any case the gathering of the leaf
is a certain proof that one has found the par-
ticular species. If it is possible to re-visit the
spot at a later date it is not unlikely that the
specimen may have propagated itself in some
way. Of course, where there are a number of

COLLECTING AND PRESERVING 123

specimens there can be no harm in taking one
for cultivation. The same applies to common
Ferns, or varieties of these; and if by propa-
gation the stock is increased the number of
beautiful plants in the country is made the
larger. So that there is a form of collecting
which is perfectly legitimate, and, indeed, to be
commended.

For those who start out on a Fern collecting
expedition, one of the long narrow trowels
will be found to be extremely useful. A
proper vasculum is, of course, of service, but
this is sometimes apt to get in the way, and
it will not accommodate very large Ferns.
Mr. C. T. Druery, who has done an enormous
amount of Fern collecting at home and abroad,
declares that he contents himself with some
old newspapers and a ball of string. In this
way bundles of the plants are easily made,
and in most cases these can be readily carried
about. Great care is necessary when removing
the Ferns to do as little damage as possible to
the roots. If it is desired that the plant should
settle into its new home as quickly as possible,
it is an excellent plan to take away with it a
certain amount of soil. Of course, considera-
tions of weight have to be taken into account,
but the more mould round the roots the
better. Never grasp a Fern plant from above
and try to pull it away, as this will be almost
sure to result in damage. Rock Ferns are
often exceedingly difficult to remove, owing
to the manner in which the roots of these
plants spread to great distances in the crevices.
Yet without a large amount of their roots
these Ferns can never be satisfactorily
established. In such cases a chisel and a
mallet will often come in highly useful, as in

124 HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

many instances if the rock is chipped away
the Fern can be readily taken from its position.
As the specimens are secured it is most
important to take steps to protect them from
withering. First of all, wrap a portion of damp
newspaper round the roots, and then tie up
with dry paper. When on a holiday the Ferns
may be kept alive and in good condition for a
week or so, if they are placed in some shady
corner with their roots protected in the manner
described. An occasional sprinkling of water
will help to prevent any withering. Of course,
for packing it is often necessary to cut off
some of the largest fronds; and there is not
much lost by so doing, for these often become
very much damaged, and will probably die
when the plant is established in its new quarters.
The question is often asked at what time of
the year may Ferns be removed. Nearly all
our native species will surfer transplanting at
almost any season if the business is carried
out on the lines indicated. Of course, most
specimens are probably taken up in the summer
when the handsome foliage attracts the eye.
In some ways this is the least satisfactory
time on account of the hot dry weather, but
by protecting the roots there is no reason
why the specimens should flag to a harmful
extent. Of course, newly acquired Ferns will
pay for extra attention in the way of watering
until they have secured a proper roothold.

A very interesting way of studying Ferns is
that of collecting the fronds of the species
which the hunter may come across. This is a
pursuit to which no sort of objection can be
taken, for, of course, the plant itself is not in
any way disturbed, and is not in the least
likely to suffer from having one or two of its

COLLECTING AND PRESERVING 125

fronds removed. In a general way the fronds
are best collected during the summer and
autumn, when they will, of course, be well
developed. It is much more difficult to secure
perfect fronds than may be generally supposed,
and even with the common species a number
of plants may have to be examined ere
specimens without blemish of some kind or
another can be obtained. Seeing that the
position and shape of the son play such an
important part in classification, the fronds
should be secured when the patches of spore
cases are developed. On the other hand,
these should not be quite ripe, or they will be
likely to burst in the process of drying, and
the real character of the son will not be very
apparent. When they are gathered the fronds
should be placed at once in a vasculum, or
a long tin box, and must be kept there until
the time for pressing arrives. Naturally it is
a good plan to treat the fronds as soon as
possible, though in a closed tin box they will
keep for some days without withering.

If properly dried and pressed, it is possible
to preserve the Fern fronds with a great deal
of their natural colour. Botanical drying
paper should be employed, and, of course, if
desired an orthodox press may be used; but
this is not really necessary. The cheapest
plan is to secure two boards of wood of a size
to cover the sheets of drying paper, which are
placed between the boards. If the paper is
about twelve by eighteen inches this will
accommodate moderate examples of most of
the fronds. Of course, special arrangements
will have to be made for extremely large
leaves. It is not a bad plan to have two
straps with buckles so as to keep the boards

126 HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

together, and prevent them from moving
when the Fern fronds are in position. In the
the first place, two or three thicknesses of the
paper should be spread on one of the boards.
Now take the same number of sheets, and
start to place these over the frond. Starting
at the tip of the leaf the divisions should be
carefully spread out in such a way that the
frond as a whole is well displayed. To keep
the frond in position it may be useful to put
a book on the paper as it is spread out. A
number of fronds may be accommodated
between the two boards in this way, but it is
important to have two or three pieces of the
drying paper between each specimen. When
all the fronds have been spread out in the
manner indicated the uppermost board is put
on the top of the layers of paper, and by
means of the straps the pieces of wood are
drawn together. A very small amount of
pressure should be employed in the first
instance, and a few light books on the topmost
board will be all-sufficient.

After about twenty-four hours the fronds
may be examined. They are still compara-
tively supple, and any misplaced pinnae may
be re-arranged without any difficulty. In any
case, fresh pieces of drying paper must now
be used, and on to these the fronds are placed.
It will be found that as a whole they assume
a flat position, and are very easily handled.
A little stiff brush, or the end of a hairpin,
will be found very useful at this stage to help
in the working out of any refractory pinnae.
The pressing is carried out in the same manner
as before, only if it is decided to make this
the final stage of the process, the weights
should be heavier. In the case of very com-

COLLECTING AND PRESERVING 127

plicated fronds the process of examining may
be repeated three, or even more times, with
intervals of twenty-four hours. After two
or three days it will be found that the fronds
are quite dry, and they should have retained
almost all of their natural colour.

The fronds may be moved into a portfolio
formed of sheets of stoutish paper. They may
be held in place by fastening a few strips of
gummed paper over the stipes and rachis. The
name, locality, and date of gathering should be
added to each specimen. Of course, in all cases
it is a good plan to have two fronds, one showing
the upper and the other the under side. Where
there are both barren and fertile fronds, an
example of each should naturally be included.
Thus, a highly interesting collection of fern
fronds may be gathered together with a small
amount of trouble.

One is often asked by those who wish to study
British Ferns, where the most interesting speci-
mens are to be found. The answer to the
question is that it is always a wise plan to keep
your eyes open wherever you go. Many of our
smaller ferns are readily overlooked even by
the keenest observers. The writer can call to
mind an occasion when he sent away to a London
nursery to buy an example of the Wall Rue
Spleenwort. At the time he was living in a
town, and without a long tramp into the country
there seemed to be no hope of securing a speci-
men. A few days after the arrival of the pur-
chased plant any quantity of the little Fern, in
rather a dwarfed form, it is true, was found
growing in the crevices of a wall adjoining a
public road. The upper part of the wall being
covered with ivy, the Spleenwort found a position
beneath the protecting shade, where it attracted

128 HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

no attention from the passers-by. Of course, cer-
tain species of Fern are extremely local, largely
owing to the fact that they require special con-
ditions of soil, etc. It is therefore quite useless
to look for such in an average district. Many
species flourish only in rock crevices or on old
walls. Others are to be found, as a rule, in
rather elevated positions, and we cannot hope
to find them save in a mountainous country.
Finally, there are a great many Ferns which can
adapt themselves to a variety of conditions.
The actual circumstances of their surroundings
will make them vary more or less from the
type, and this must always be borne in mind
when specimens are being examined. In another
way identification is sometimes rather difficult,
owing to the fact that immature Ferns are often
very misleading in their appearance. Quite
likely they may resemble another species al-
together. It is therefore only when a mature
frond bearing sporangia is discovered that it is
possible in some cases to speak with certainty.
Many British Ferns evidence a marked ten-
dency to " sport," and this is a fact which the
beginner should always bear in mind. As a
rule, however, even in the case of extreme
varieties, a careful examination of the specimen
will enable it to be identified.

CHAPTER XIV
THE CULTURE OF FERNS

IT goes without saying that Ferns of all kinds
are interesting plants to grow in the garden
and house. A few suggestions as to the culture
of the various species described has been
appended in each case, but one or two general
remarks may not be out of place. First of
all, it is desired to correct the popular im-
pression that Ferns are happiest in very wet
situations ; true, these plants like plenty of mois-
ture, but only one or two of the British species
are ever found actually growing with their roots
in water. On this account, great care should be
taken to provide well-drained positions. The
best kind of rockery should not be solid earth
all through, and the plants will grow much better
if there is a core of heaped stones covered with
a deep layer of soil. Of course, shade is very
desirable, and hardly any Ferns, even those kinds
which grow on walls, are seen at their best in
very sunny positions. Happily in most gardens
it is possible to find a border with a northern
aspect on which it is not easy to grow flowering
plants with much success ; in such a position
Ferns will find a home that will suit them
admirably.

Of course it is only the hardiest Ferns which
can be expected to grow well in the town garden.
9

130 HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

Many of the common, and strong-growing species,
however, do very well anywhere, the only
attention which they require being an oc-
casional watering in dry summers. This will
often save the foliage from drying up, a happen-
ing which makes the plants rather unsightly.
Where the outside conditions are not very
favourable, practically all the British species
may be grown with ease under glass. In such
conditions many kinds which do not flourish
very freely in the open garden, grow into hand-
some specimens. A case in point is the Sea
Spleenwort, which is an exceedingly difficult
subject to establish out of doors, yet it grows
well as a pot plant. Whatever the species, it is
well to imitate the natural conditions as much
as possible in the way of soil. For instance, the
Limestone Polypody is not happy unless there
is a certain amount of lime present in the soil.
Ferns with upright root-stocks do well in ordinary
pots, but those which produce creeping rhizomes
are best accommodated in pans or baskets.
One wonders why even some of the common
British Ferns are not more generally cultivated
in rooms. Small plants of the Lady Fern, for
instance, make charming specimens, and in the
comparatively dense shade of the apartment the
fronds are unusually delicate in their form and
colouring. In all forms of room culture the
great enemy is the dust which settles so freely
on the fronds, and the only way in which to
combat this is through the agency of frequent
syringings.

Fern cases were very much in vogue some
years ago, and this is really a very delightful
way of cultivating the plants. Of course, the
old Wardian cases can often be picked up at
second-hand shops, but one of the simplest

THE CULTURE OF FERNS 131

devices is formed with the aid of a cloche similar
to those commonly used in French gardening.
It is only necessary to have a zinc, or a galvanized
tray on which to stand the glass in an inverted
position. Some means or other should be
devised for the drawing off of the superfluous
water from the tray, and the simplest of all is
to arrange a hole which can be stopped with a
cork. Broken crocks should be strewn upon the
tray, and on to this is heaped peaty soil mixed
with sand. A few small rocks of some soft
stone may be added, and in between these the
Ferns are planted. Of course, the Filmy Ferns
(Hymenophyllum) and the Bristle Ferns are good
subjects, but many other species may be grown
with great success in this way. The two chief
dangers are a very rank growth, by means of
which the stronger subjects overwhelm the less
vigorous plants, and too much moisture. Where
the dampness is excessive the fronds take on an
unhealthy appearance, and mould may appear.
The case should at such times be opened for a
few hours each day to admit the drying air.
The case may be kept in a light position, and
when once under way it will rarely need any
additional water.

A very interesting practice is the raising of
young Ferns from spores. This is really a very
simple undertaking, and almost always meets
with success if the precaution is taken to
sterilize the soil used by baking it in an oven.
Afterwards it is, of course, necessary to moisten
the mould, and the spores are then scattered on
the surface. Keep closely covered with a bell
glass and, in a few weeks, more or less, the baby
Ferns will start to put in an appearance.

Those who take up the cultivation of British
Ferns will certainly become interested in the

132 HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

immense range of varieties which some species
have produced. Not a few of these are ex-
tremely beautiful, and are well worth grow-
ing on this account, quite apart from their
peculiarity.

INDEX

Acrostichea, 10
Adder's Tongue, 1 1
Adiantum capilhis-veneris, 9,

41

Algae, I

Alpine Club Moss, 105
Alpine Polypody, 92
Alpine Woodsia, 61
Alternate-leaved Spleenwort,

69

Alternation of generation, 2
Annual Maidenhair, 10, 100
Annulus, 8, 14
Antheridia, 17
Archegonia, 17
Aspidiece, IO, 46
Aspidium aculeatum, 59

angulare, 60

filix-mas, 46

lonchitis, 57
Aspleniece, 10, 66
Asplenium, adiantum-nigrum,
10, 73

bulbiferum, 3

ceterach, 77

Jilix-femina, 66

germanicum, 69 *

lanceolatum, 74

marinum, 75

ruta-muraria, 10, 7°

septentrionale, 68

trichomanes, 78

viride, 80

Athyrium filix-femina, IO, 66
Azolla, 7, 12, no

Beech Fern, IO, 89

Bennittitea, 25

Black Maidenhair Spleenwort,

io,73

Bladder Ferns, 10
Blechnum boreale, 84

spicant, 84

Blunt-topped Horsetail, 116
Botrychium lunaria, 1 1, 98
Bracken Fern, 3, 9, 29, 38
Bristle Fern, 8, 33, 131
Brittle Bladder Fern, 63
Buck's Horn Plantain, 69

Calamites, 28

Calamus, 28

Caudex, 4

Ceterach officinarum, 77

Classification of Ferns, 7 etseq.

Club Mosses, 6, 12, 26, 101

Classification of, 32

Economic importance of, 32

Life histories of, 30 et seq.

Number of species of, 30
Coal deposits, 25, 31
Common Adder's Tongue, 96
Common Club Moss, 12, 19,

101

Common Polypody, 26
Common Rue, 71
Conifers, 27

Crested Buckler Fern, 53
Cryptogamme crispus, 9, 44
Cryptogams, 2
Cyatheacea, II

134 HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

Cycads, 25
Cystopteris, 10

alpinci, 65

fragilis, 63

montana, 64

regia, 65

Davallia bullata, 9
DavalliacetZ) 9
Druery, Mr. C. T., 91, 123
Dutch Rush, 32, 120

Elaters, 21

Elba, 62

Embryo, 18

Endosperm, 27

English Maidenhair (^

Mountain Spleenwort)
Equisetites, 28
Equisetum, 112 et seq.

arvense, 114

fluvialiS) 116

hyemale, 32, I2O

limosum, 118

maximum, 114

palustre, 118

pratensc, 116

sylvaticum, 117

telmateia, 114

umbrosum, 116

variegatum, 119

Female organs (j^ Archegonia)

Fern cases, 130

Ferns, classification of, 7 £/

j^.
Collecting and preserving,

122 ^ ^.

Comparative sizes of, 29
Cultivation of, 129 «* ^.
Economic importance of, 31
General characteristics of, 4

Grown from spores, 131
Habitats of, 29, 128
In greenhouses, 130
Life histories of, 13 et seq.

Ferns, number of genera and

species, 28

Reproduction of, 13 et seq.
Sometimes difficult to

identify, 128
Where to find, 127
Fertilization of Ferns, 1 7 et seq.
Field Horsetail, 112
Filices, 8

Filmy Ferns, 2, 8, 33, 131
Fir Club Moss, 19, 103
Flowering Fern (see Royal

Fern)
Flowering Plants, probable

origin of, 26
Forked Spleenwort, 68
Fossil botany, 23 et seq.
Fronds, 4 et seq.

Gleicheniacea, II

Gold and Silver Ferns, 10

GrammitidccE, 10

Great Horsetail, 1 14

Green Spleenwort, 80

Gyinniogramma leptophylla^

10, 100

Gymnosperm, 27
GymnospermcZ) 27

Hard Fern, 84

Hard Prickly Shield Fern, 59

Hartstongue, 82

Hay-scented Buckler Fern, 55

Holly Fern, 57

Horsetails, 6, 27, 31, 112

Life histories of, 21
HymcnophyllacecE, 8, 33
Hymenophyllum, 131

tunbridgensis ', 8, 35

ttnilaterale, 36

Wilsoni, 8, 37

Indusium, 8, 14
Interrupted Club Moss, 106
Isoetacece, 12
Isoetes, 7

iX) 108

INDEX

'35

Isoetes lacustris, 12, 107

Lady Fern, 10, 66, 130
Lanceolate Spleen wort, 74
Lastria (zmula, 55

cristatum, 53

faniscii, 55

filix-mas, 46

montana, 50

recurva, 55

rigidum, 56
Lepidodendracea, 12
Lesser Alpine Club Moss, 106
Life histories of Club Mosses,
1 8 et seq.

of Ferns, 3, 13 et seq.

of Horsetails, 21
Little Adder's Tongue, 98
Limestone Polypody, 130
Lomaria spicant, 84
Lycopodicea, 12
Lycopodium, 12, 19

alpinum, 105

annottnum, 106

clavatum, 12, 19, 101

inundatum, 19, 30, 104

-r<?/o£V7, 19, 103
Lycopodium Powder, 32

Maiden Hair, 9, 38, 41
Maidenhair Spleenwort, 78
Male Fern, 2, 10, 13, 46
Male organs (see Antheridia)
Malic acid, 18
Marattiacece, II
Marsh Buckler Fern, 49
Marsh Club Moss, 104
Marsh Horsetail, 118
Marsiliacea, 12
Megasporangium, 20
Megaspores, 20
Microsporangium, 20
Microspores, 20
Moon wort, II, 98
Mosses, I
Mother cells, 15
Mountain Bladder Fern, 64

Mountain Buckler Fern, 50
Mountain Polypody (see Beech
Fern)

Nephrodittm amulum, 55
cristatum, 52
dilatatum, 54
filix-maS) 10, 13, 46
montana, 50
oreopteriS) 50
propinqtia, 49
psetido-mas, 49
rigidum, 56
spinulosum, 53
thelypteris, 49
uliginosa^ 54

Oak Fern, 10, 90
Oblong Woodsia, 62
One-sided Filmy Fern, 37
Ophioglossece, n, 96
Ophioglossum lusitanicum, 98

vulgatum, n, 96
Osmunda regalis, 1 1 , 93
Osmundacece, II, 93,
Ovum, 18

Parsley Fern, 9, 144
Pepperworts, 12
Phanerogams, 22
Philotacea, 12
Pillwort, 2, 7, 12, 109
Pilularia globulifera, 12, 109
Pinnae, 5
Pinnules, 5
Placenta, 14
Plantago coronopus, 69
Pollen grains, 27
Polypodiacece, 9, 10, 86
Polypodies, 86
Polypodium alpestre, 92

calcareum, 91

dryopteris, 10, 90

phegopteris, 10, 89

vulgare, 10, 86
Polystichum aculeatumt 59

angulare, 60

lonchitis, 57

136 HOW TO KNOW THE FERNS

Prickly Buckler Fern, 54
Prothallus, 17

Pseudathryrium alpestre, 92
Pteridea, 38
Pteridosperms, 24
Pteris agttilina, 9, 38

Quillwort, 7, 107

Rachis, 4

Reproduction, vegetative, 3

Reproduction of Ferns, 13 et

seq.

RhizocarpecE) 12
Rhizome, 4
Ribbon Ferns, 38
Rigid Buckler Fern, 56
Roots, 5

Rough Horsetail, 120
Royal Fern, II, 93
Rue-leaved Spleen wort, 71
Ruta graveolens, 71

Salvinia, 12

Salviniacece, 12

Scaly Spleen wort, 29, 77

Schizxacece, 1 1

Scolopendrium rhizophyllum^ 3

vulgare, 81
Sea Spleenwort, 130
Seed, 27
Selaginella grandis, 30

spinosa, 12, 30, 106
Selaginellacece, 12, 26
Selaginellas, 30

Life histories of, 29
Sex organs, 17
Shade Horsetail, 116

12

Smooth Naked Horsetail, 118
Soft Prickly Shield Fern, 60
Sori, 7, 14
Spermatozoids, 17
Spleen worts, 10, 66 et seq.
Sporangia, 6, 14
Spore cases (see Sporangia)
Spores, 5, 15 et seq.
Stag's Horn Moss, 101
Stipes, 5

Three-branched Polypody (see

Oak Fern)
Tree Ferns, 4, 1 1
Triangular Buckler Fern, 55
Trichomanes, 30
radicanS) 8, 33
Tunbridge Filmy Fern, 35

Variegated Rough Horsetail,

119

Vascular Cryptogams, I et seq.
Economic importance of, 3 1
Vegetative reproduction, 3

Walking Fern, 3
Wall Rue, 10, 70
Wardian cases, 130
Water Club Mosses, 7
Water Fern, 7, no
Water Horsetail, 118
Wolfs Claw, 10 1
Wood Horsetail, 117
Woods, Mr. Joseph, 61
Woodsia hyperborea, 61

ilvensis, 62
Woods ias, 10

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