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Hypnotism 


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HYPNOTISM. 




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Hypnotism. 



BY 



ALBERT /MOLL 

{Of Berlin), 



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CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS, 
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CONTENTS. 



PAGE 
x^ jvCtfr A\^M^ ••• ••• •>»« *•" ««• ••• ^^9 '^ ^ 



CHAPTER I. 
History of Hypnotism 

Empirical period — The first scientific systems — Mesmer — 
Animal magnetism in France and in Germany — Decline of 
animal magnetism — Braid and the electro-biologists — Occa- 
sional works about hypnotism — Hypnotism in Germany in 
1880 — The school of Nancy — Latest development of 
hypnotism in France, outside of France, in Germany. 



CHAPTER II. 

General Considerations 21 

Examples of hypnosis — Terminology — Production of hypno- 
sis — Psychical methods — Physical methods — Combined 
methods — The awakening — Disposition to hypnosis — 
Hypnoscope — Physical and mental aptitudes — Hypnosis 
without the consent of the subject — Petceiv.la%<i cA Vv-^^xikö- 
tizable j^tsoiis — Stages of hypnosis. 



vi CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER III. 

PAGE 

The Symptoms of Hypnosis 53 

Division of psychical and physical symptoms — Definition of 
suggestibility — (i) Physiology : Voluntary muscular action 
— Suggestions — Fascination — Catalepsy by suggestion — 
Contractures, automatic movements — Ocular symptoms — 
Appearance of new reflex actions in hypnosis — Objective 
changes — ^Variations of the ordinary reflex movements — The 
organs of sense — Hallucinations of the senses — Negative 
hallucinations — Hypersesthesia of the organs of sense — 
General sensations — Perception of pain — Mental condition 
— Involuntary muscular action — Pulse and Respiration — 
Suggestions — Secretion — Organic changes — Anatomical 
changes — Forel's experiments — (2) Psychology : Memory 
— Post -hypnotic memory — Suggestion during hypnosis and 
after hypnosis — Post-hypnotic suggestion — Estimation of 
time — Condition whilst carrying out the suggestion — Con- 
dition between awakening and carrying out the su^estion — 
Reasons given for the execution of the suggestion — Post- 
hypnotic suggestion without loss of memory — Activity of 
the intellect — Mechanical associations — Logical thinking in 
hypnosis — Rapid change of suggested ideas — Rapport — 
Consciousness and will — No loss of consciousness in 
hypnosis — Resistance to suggestions and successful con- 
trol — Other expressions of the consciousness and will — 
Transitional forms of hypnosis — Training. 



CHAPTER IV. 
Cognate States 192 

Sleep —Dreams — Somnambulism — Mental derangements — 
Neuroses — Suggestions in the waking state — Hypnosis in 
animals — Fakirs. 

CHAPTER V. 
The Theory of Hypnotism 218 

General — Credulity — Appearance of expected results — 

Derangements of movement — Hallucinations — Rapport — 

Negative /lai/ucinations— Memory — ^Posl-bypiio\ic SÄgges- 



tion— Actions perriirmed without, and contrary to, will — 
Actions wilh loss ol memory of the command— Automatic 
Hfi ting— Adherence to appointed lime — Further analt^es 
of post-hypnotic tuggestion — Post-hypnotic hallucinations — 
Other psycholc^csJ theories— Inhibition during hypnosis — 
Time of reaction- Physiological theories — Heideohain's 
theory — Circulation of blood in the brain- Physiological 
speculation. 

CHAPTER VI. 



General principles— Points of ditlerence between the schools 
of Charcot and of Nancy — Main points in judging the ques- 
tion of simulation — Limits of tiusi worthiness of single 
symptoms — Psychical symptoms — Probable signs of simu- 
lation. 

CHAPTER VII. 

The Medical Aspects of Hypnotism 

Empirical iherapeutics of suggestion — Su^estii.n the main 
point of hypnosis — Objections to suggestive therapeutics — 
Objections, and the opposing party — Ewald's objection — 
The dangers of hypnosis and their prevention- — Further 
objections — Indications and contra- indications— Interpre- 
tation of results — Rules for sn^eslive therapeutics— Impor- 
tance of suggestion — Importance of psychology lo the 
physician — Utiliiation of hypnotism in surgery and obste- 
trics— Utilization of hypnotism in teaching and educatioD — 
Importance of hypnotism for psychology. 



CHAPTER VHI. 
The Legal Aspects of Hypnotism 

Historical- Crimes committed on hypnotized subjects- 
Crimes committed by hypnotized subjects — Importance of 
hypnosis in civil law — Retroactive hallucinations — Forensic 
utilization of hypnotism — Refusal of testimony otconfessiom 
— Lo^ of menioiy in the waking state of what has hap- 
pened during hypnosis— Legal proposaVs. 



viii CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER IX. 

PAGR 

Animal Magnetism, etc 357 

Definition of animal magnetism — Methods of magnetizing — 
Theories — Telepathy — Clairvoyance — Transference of senses 
— Heidenhain's experiments — Effect of themagnet in hypnosis 
— Historical — Transference — Polarization — Influence of the 
respiration — Action of drugs at a distance — Criticism of 
experiments — Sources of error. 

Index of Contents ... ... ... ... ... 381 

Index of Names ... ... ... ... ... 393 

Bibliography 409 



PREFACE 

TO THE FIRST EDITION. 



In writing this book I was guided by the wish to 
offer to the reader a survey of all that is most impor- 
tant in the whole province of hypnotism. While in the 
numerous and detailed works on this subject which 
have lately appeared, sometimes its therapeutics and 
sometimes its forensic significance have been exclu- 
sively brought forward, I, for my part, have endea- 
voured to treat hypnotism broadly and from various 
points of view, avoiding irrelevant matter; and, being 
aided by my own experiments, I was in a position to 
add much that was new to what was already known. 

I here express my hearty thanks to Prof. August 
Forel, Director of the Cantonal Lunatic Asylum in 
Zürich, who placed several of his most valuable ex- 
periments at my disposal for this booV-, ■a\5«\.ö\i"E, 
Max Dessoir, of Berlin, who 1ias as&aXfiA. tcfc ^ 



X PREFACE. 

with his wide acquaintance with the literature of 

hypnotism and with much good advice ; finally, to 

all who have in other ways helped me in the 

work. 

A. MOLL. 
Berlin, Aprils 1889. 



PREFACE 



TO THE SECOND EDITION 



I 



) 



I HAVE substantially enlarged the second edition of 
my book, and have completely remodelled several 
sections ; for example, the theoretical part. The 
appearance of some new works on hypnotism and 
some later experiments of my own made these 
alterations advisable. 

I have willingly yielded to wishes expressed to me 
in numerous criticisms on the first edition. I cannot, 
however, yield to what several critics desired, namely, 
that I should write the book for physicians only, 
because I believe that hypnotism is a province of 
psychology, and is in consequence of as much inte- 
rest to psychologists and lawyers as to doctors- In 
order, however, not to weary the latter with explana- 
tions of medical expressions inserted in the text, I 
shall give these in the index which is to be found at 
the end of the book. 



xii PREFACE. 

It is a pleasant duty to offer my tribute of thanks 
to all those who have helped me with advice in the 
preparation of the second edition. I owe gratitude 
in particular to Prof. August Forel, of Zürich, and to 
Dr. Eduard Hartmann, of Gross-Lichterfeld, as well 

as to Drs. Max Dessoir and Arthur Sperling, of Berlin. 

■» 

A. MOLL. 
Berlin, January, 1890. 



HYPNOTISM. 



CHAPTER I, 



HISTORY OF HYPNOTISM. 



In order to understand the gradual development 
of modem hypnotism from animal magnetism, we 
must distinguish two points: firstly, that there are 
human beings who can exercise a personal influence K 
over others, either by direct contact or even from a 
distance ; and, secondly, the fact that particular i 
psychical states can be induced in human beings by "^ 
certain physical processes. 

This second fact especially has long been known 
among the Oriental peoples, and was utilized by 
them for religious purposes. Kiesewetter attributes 
the early sootlisaying by means of precious stones to 
hypnosis, which was induced by steadily gazing at 
the stones. This is also true of divination by looking 
into vessels and crystals, a,s the Egj-ptians have long 
been in the habit of doing, and as has often been done in 
Europe: by Cagliostro, for example. These hypnotic 
phenomena are also found to have existed several 
thousand years ago among the Persian magi 
(Fischer), as well as up to the pttsevvt da.-^ -äwissw^ 
I Indian yogis and fakirs, wVvo ttvto*« ^^ÄWvsövNea \s«i 



s. (1 



2 HYPNOTISM. 

the hypnotic state by means of fixation of the gaze. 
The same thing has occurred since the eleventh 
century in many convents of the Greek Church 
(Fischer). Among the best known are the Hesy- 
chasts, or Omphalopsychics, of Mount Athos, who 
ypnotize themselves by gazing at the umbilicus. 
The fact has often been verified in popular opinion, 
apart from these religious customs, that it was 
possible to induce sleep by looking fixedly at a 
certain point ; for example, at the tip of the nose. 
Hypnotic conditions appear offen to occur among 
uncivilized peoples, as is clearly to be gathered from 
the information of many travellers, and as Bastian, a 
chief authority on ethnology, has particularly shown. 
He, as well as Stoll, has pointed out the near rela- 
tionship of many phenomena among uncivilized 
populations to hypnotism. Bastian believes that a 
more exact study of hypnotism by individual 
travellers would be of great service to popular 
psychology ; the phenomena which occur spon- 
taneously among uncivilized populations could be 
more carefully examined and brought into closer 
relation to hypnotism. 

Independently of this there has existed at all 
times in many quarters the belief that particular 
individuals could influence their fellows by the 
exercise of certain powers. This influence could 
be used as well for good as for evil. Of the first 
use we are reminded by the laying on of hands in 
benediction ; also by the healing by touch which 
was obtained 4^ the old Egyptians and other 
Oriental nations^ numerous old monuments testify 
to this. If the meaning of many of them is 
not clear, in the case of others hardly a doubt 
ex/sts as to the right interpretation. The Ebers 



yf^'tri^ 



HISTORY OF HYPNOTISM. 3 

Papyrus also, which represents the state of 
Egyptian medicine before the year 1552 B.c., con- 
tains a statement, according to which thie laying 
of hands on the head of a patient plays a part in 
his treatment' We see the same thing later in 
the cures which King Pyrrlius and the Emperor 
Vespasian are said to have efiTected. 

It is known that Francis I. of France, and other 
French kings up to Charles X., healed by the 
imposition of hands. We sec here already that this 
individual power took effect through contact ; how- 
ever, this appears not to have been always necessary, 
as is witnessed by the widespread and continued 
belief in sorcerers, who could bewitch other persons. 
The belief in sorcerers indicates that contact was 
by no means always necessary to produce an effect, 
which, it is pretended, could be induced even from a 
great distance. 

The question here is only of solitary facts in 
which no scientific system is discoverable. A system 
presents itself to us only after the end of the Middle 
Ages. It develops itself out of the doctrine of the 
influence of the stars upon men which, as is known, 
astrology puts forward. Even nowadays we find 
remains of it, especially in the belief in the influence 
which the moon is supposed to exercise. It is well 
known that many people c.vpect warts and so forth 
to disappear as the moon wanes ; while more modern 
doctors of mental diseases called in the influence of 
the moon to explain special periodical mental dis- ' 
turbances. 

At the end of the Middle Ages, Theophrastus 

' For the knowledge of this I have to thank a private cc 
municalion from Dr. Heinrich Joachim, of BwUti, '«\\q ■«■&. 1 
, mate a Cerman translation of ihe Ebeis Va^-jtus. 



4 HYPNOTISM. 

Paracelsus in particular (about 1530) came forward 
with the theory of the effect of the heavenly bodies 
on mankind, more especially on their diseases. 
Out of this the belief gradually developed itself 
that not only did the stars influence men, but that 
men also mutually influenced each other-^a belief 
which, as we have already seen, had already arisen 
sporadically. 

Van Helmont taught with more precision that 
man possessed a power by means of which he could 
magnetically affect others, particularly the sick. Per- 
haps Helmont obtained the main features of his 
doctrine from Goclenius. ^ 

The Scotchman Maxwell maintained something of 
the same kind later (about 1600). He attributed 
to the human excreta, and also to mummies, an 
effect upon human beings; they could be utilized 
for the curing of diseases (sympathetic cures) ; also 
men could cure themselves of diseases by transferring 
them to animals or plants. A remnant of this system 
developed by Maxwell still exists in country places, 
where people occasionally apply excreta to their 
wounds. Maxwell assumed in particular a vital 
spirit of the universe {spiritus vitalis\ by means of 
which all bodies were related to each other. This 
vital spirit seems to be the same thing which Mesmer 
later called the universal fluid. 

In the beginning of the eighteenth century we 
find Santanelli in Italy asserting a like proposition. 
Everything material possesses a radiating atmosphere 
which operates magnetically. Santanelli, however, 
recognized the great influence of the imagination 
(Ave Lallemant). 

Although the foundation of the doctrine of animal 
magnetism was thus laid, universal attentiotv was 



Fi"^ 



HISTORY OF HYPNOTISM. J 

first drawn to it by Mesmer,' a Viennese doctor 
^ (1734-1815). He studied in his dissertation the 
influence of the planets upon human bodies. At 
the beginning Mesmer made great use of the magnet 
in the treatment of diseases. In the year 1775 he sent 
out a circular letter, particularly addressed to several 
academies. In this he maintained the existence of 
animal magnetism, by means of which persons could 
influence each other; he, however, distinguished 
animal magnetism completely from the magnetism 
of metals, which later he ceased to employ. The 
only academy which replied to him was that of 
Berlin, at Sulzer's instigation, and its reply was 
unfavourable. However, about this time Mesmer 
was nominated a member of the Academy of 
Bavaria. 

Mesmer made much use of " animal magnetism " 
in the treatment of diseases. He cured at first by 
contact, but believed later that different objects of 
wood, glass, iron, and .so forth, were also capable of 
receiving the magnetism. Consequently he made 
use of these as means for conveying his magnetism, 
especially later in Paris, where he went in 1778, 
chiefly in consequence of the enmities he had aroused 
in Vienna. In Paris Mesmer constructed the baquet, 
which was magnetized by him, and which was sup- 
posed to transmit the magnetism. Bailly represents 
it as a very complicated apparatus ; an oak chest or 

' The name is often writlen " Messmer," instead of 
"Mesmer;'' the latter spelling is, however, decidedly the 
correct one. At least it is so found in the book which Mesmer 
himself brought out— "General Explanations of Magnetism," 
by Mesmer, Carlsnihe, 1815. Mesmer's friend, Wolfart, and 
his biograplier, Justinus Kerner, vinVe \\ift tia.mft siisa -«\^ 



6 HYPNOTISM. 

tub, with appendages of iron, &c. Mesmer found 
many adherents in Paris — Dr. Deslon joined him 
first of all — ^but he also encountered many opponents. 
Several scientific Commissions which examined the 
question pronounced, in 1784, against the existence 
of animal magnetism, particularly the one to which 
Bailly was reporter. One of the members of the 
Commission, Jussieu, made, however, a separate 
report, which was not considered decisive. No one, 
however, denied that far-reaching effects were pro- 
duced by imagination ; it was only denied that there 
was a physical force resembling true magnetism. In 
spite of all attacks, Mesmer made disciples. His 
pupils and successors are generally called mesmerists, 
and the doctrine of animal magnetism is also called 
mesmerism, vital magnetism, bio-magnetism, or zoo- 
magnetism. 

I do not wish to join the contemptible group of Mesmer*s 
professional slanderers. He is dead, and can no longer defend 
himself fron; those who disparage him without taking into con- 
sideration the circumstances or the time in which he lived. 

Against the universal opinion that he was avaricious, I 
remark that in Vienna, as well as later in Mörsburg and 
Paris, he always helped the poor without reward. I believe 
that he erred in his teaching, but think it is just to attack this 
only, and not his personal character. Mesmer was much 
slandered in his lifetime, and these attacks upon him have 
been continued till quite lately. Let us, however, consider more 
closely in what his alleged great crime consisted. He believed 
in the beginning that he could heal by means of a magnet, 
and later that he could do so by means of a personal in- 
dwelling force which he could transfer to the baquet This 
was evidently his firm belief, and he never made a secret of 
it. Others believed either that the patient's mere imagination 
played a part, or that Mesmer produced his effects by some 
concealed means. Then, by degrees, arose the legend 
f^at Mesmer possessed some secret by mearvs oi vi\i\OQ. 



HISTOR V OF HYPNOTISM. 7 

he was able to produce eßects on people such as the cure of 
diseases, but that he would not reveal it. In reality the 
question was not at all of a secret purposely kept back by him, 
since he imagined, and always insisted, that he exercised some 
individual force. Finally, if he used this supposiiitious in- 
dividual force for the purpose of earning money, he did nothing 
worse than do modem physicians and proprietors of institu- 
tions who likewise do not follow their calling from pure love 
of their neighbour, but seek to earn their own living by it, 
as they are quite justified in doing, Mesmer did not behave 
worse than those who nowadays discover a new drug, and 
regard the manufacture of it as a means of enriching them- 
selves. Let us at last be just and cease to slander Mesmer, 
who did only what is done by the people just mentioned. 
That those who defame Mesmer know ihe least about his 
teaching, and have the least acquaintance with his works, is 
very clearly shown by a whole series of books about modern 
hypnotism. 

A follower of Mesmer, Chastcnct de Fuyst^gur, 
whose good faith cannot be doubted (Dechambrc) 
discovered, in 1784, a state which was named artificial p- 
somnambulisni! Apart from some falsely interpreted 
phenomena (thought-transference, clairvoyance, &c,) ^| 
the chief characteristic of this state was a sleep, in ^| 
which the ideas and actions of the magnetized person ■ 
could be directed by the magnetizer. Whether Mes- 
mer knew of this condition or not is uncertain, but it 
seems to mc probable that he did. About the same 
time Pdtetin, a doctor of Lyons, occupied himself 
with magnetism ; besides catalepsy P^tetin describes 
phenomena of sense transference (hearing with the 
stomach). The French Revolution and the wars ^H 
repressed the investigation of magnetism in France |H 
till about the year 1S13. ™ 

In Germany animal magnetism was recognized 
at the same time in two diffetent i^Vit^?,— ot\. "Cün.^ 
Upper Rhine and in Bremen, Itv ftvc 'je.M i-i'^fo 



HYPNOTISM. 

Lavater paid a visit to Bremen, and exhibited the 
magnetizing processes to several doctors, particularly 
to Wienholt, through whom Albers, Bicker, and 
later also Hcinekcn, were likewise made acquainted 
with magnetism. Bremen was for a long time a 
focus of the new doctrine ; the town was often even 
brought into bad repute in the rest of Germany on 
account of the general dislike to animal magnetism. 
About the same time the doctrine of animal magnet- 
ism spread from Strassburg over the Rhine provinces ; 
Böckmann, of Carlsruhe, and Gmclin, of Heilbronn, 
occupied themselves with it ; later they were joined 
by Pezold, of Dresden. Getting encouragement from 
Bremen, people began to make experiments in other 
parts of Germany. Seile, of Berlin, brought forward, 
in 1789, a series of experiments made at the Charity, 
by which he confirmed a part of the alleged phe- 
nomena, but excluded all that was super-normal 
(clairvoyance). 

Notwithstanding the early dislike to it magnetism 
finally gained ground in Germany. In particular 
animal magnetism flourished much in Germany during 
the first twenty years of this century. In Austria only, 
it met with ill-fortune ; the exercise of magnetism was 
even forbidden in the whole of Austria in 1S15. I 
do not enter more fully into the details of the teaching 
of different individuals, as they have no close connec- 
tion with hypnotism. In the main two different 
tendencies can be distinguished — one critical and 
scientific^ and the other mystical (Ave Lallemant). 
While the first had the preponderance in the 
ning, later on the last came to the fore and led to the 
downfall of magnetism. Besides the scientific inquirers 
already mentioned I may name Treviranus, Schelling, 
I -fives^/; Fassavant, Kluge; also Pfaff, wIiq attacVcd 





■ Hufelai 
^^ oppone 



HISTORY OF HVPNOnSAr. 



» 



clairvoyance in particular ; and further, Stieglitz and 
Hiifeland. The last, who was at first a decided 
opponent, acknowledged certain facts later on, but 
excluded all the super-normal. He thus drew upon 
himself the hatred of the mystics. Even in the year 
1S34 Hufeland expressed himself as recognizing, to a 
certain extent, the existence of animal magnetism 
and its value in healing. Among the mystics I may 
mention Ziermann, P"schenmaycr, Justinus Kerner, 
the well-known poet and editor of the " Secrcss of 
Prevorst." Wolfart of Berlin must here be especially 
mentioned. 

In the year 1812 the Prussian Government sent 
Wolfart to Mesmer at Frauenfeld, in order that he 
might there make himself acquainted with the subject. 
Wolfart came back a thorough adherent of Mesmer, 
introduced magnetism into the hospital treatment, and 
afterwards became a professor at the university. A 
prize which was offered by the Berlin Academy of 
Sciences, at the request of the Prussian Government, 
for an Essay on Animal Magnetism was, it appears, 
withdrawn. However, magnetism flourished so much 
at that time in Berlin that, as Wurm relates, the Berlin 
physicians placed a monument on the grave of Mesmer 
at Morsburg, and theological candidates received in- 
struction in physiology, pathology, and the treatment 
ofsickness by vital magnetism. It was Mesmer's idea to 
teach it to the clergy. The well-known physician 
Koreff", also, whom Varnhagen von Ense mentions as 
one of the most gifted of men, and of whom Cuvier 
said that if he were not already in Paris he must be 
entreated to come there, interested himself much in 
magnetism, and often made use of it for healing 
purposes so long as he lived in Berlin, 
la the rest of Germany also, ma.o.'j '\aG^\tti%j 



HYPNOTISM. 

occupied themselves with animal magTietism ; in 
several universities a knowledge of the phenomena 
was spread by means of lecturcs^for example, by 
Wolfart in Berlin, and by Bartels in Breslau. As 
many authors inform us, a royal order in February, 

- 1S17, made magnetization in Prussia the privilege of 
physicians only ; but in the official code of laws 
nothing is to be found on the subject. At the 
time such laws were enacted in other countries. 
Magnetism was introduced everywhere, especially in 
Russia and Denmark, In Switzerland and Italy it 
was at first received with less sympathy. 

After Mesmer had left France in the time of the 
Revolution, in order, after prolonged travels, to settle 
himself at his native place on the Bodensee, magnetism 
only regained its importance in France at the begin- 
ning of the present century. In Germany there were 
more physicians who turned to the study of animal 
magnetism, which in France fell for the most part 
into the hands of laymen. Among the most earnest 
inquirers Deleuze must here be mentioned. But the 
whole doctrine received a great impetus through the 

*Abbd Faria, who came to Paris from India. In 
1814-15 he showed by experiments, whose results he 
published, that no unknown force was necessary for 

)the production of the phenomena ; the cause of the 
sleep, said he, was in the person who was to be sent 
to sleep ; all was subjective. This is the main prin- 
ciple of hypnotism and of suggestion, of which 
Faria even then made use in inducing sleep. Two 
other investigators in France must be mentioned, 
Bertrand and Noizet, who paved the way for 
the doctrine of suggestion, in spite of much incli- 
nation to animal magnetism, in 1S20 eK'^tlmcwts 
were beeun in the Paris hospital, chveftv Mniat •Ona 



HISTORY OF HYPNOTISM. 

direction of Du Potet. At the proposal of Foissac, 
and at the recommendation of Husson, the Paris 
Academy of Medicine in 1826 appointed a Commis- 
sion to examine the question of animal magnetism. 
The Commission worked for six years and pronounced 
a favourable opinion in 1S31 ; but the Academy was 
evidently not convinced. In spite of several further 
experiments, for example those of Berna, no other 
result was obtained. Particularly because the chief 
emphasis was laid on the mystical side of the question 
the struggle was made substantially easier to the 
opponents of mesmerism, among whom Dubois was 
prominent. 

The candidates for the Burdin prize for clairvoy- 
ance, Pigeaire, Hublier, and Teste, failed to obtain it ; 
and in 1840 the Academy declined to discuss the 
question further. 

Meanwhile, although in Germany another series 
of investigators were busying themseivcs with mes- 
merism, on the whole, after about 1S20, the belief in 
magnetism declined more and more ; the cognate 
phenomena also received hardly any attention. This 
retrogression was caused as much by the rise of the 
exact natural sciences as by the unscientific and 
■ uncritical hankering after mystical phenomena, which 
could not but revolt serious investigators. Mesmerism 
flourished relatively the longest in Bremen and in 
Hamburg, where Siemers was its advocate ; also in 
Bavaria, where Hensler and Ennemoser, between the 
years 1830 and 1840, still represented it. In other 
towns we likewise still find a number of thoughtful 
inquirers, who allowed themselves to be influenced 
neither by the passion for the wonderful nor by t 
attacks of the principal opponents ol m^^xvc'Cv'^'m,-; 
who sought to defend Iheit positVoft '«^^^g»^ 




12 HYPNOTISM, 

scientific manner ; Most, Fr. Fischer, and Hirschel, 
may be mentioned. It may also be emphatically 
insisted that a series of philosophers have be- 
lieved firmly and persistently in the reality of the 
phenomena, although not much regard has been paid 
to this fact They have even founded scientific sys- 
tems upon the phenomena : U, Schopenhauer, Carus, 
Pfnor. Although magnetism lost many adherents in 
the scientific world, among the people the belief in 
the mysterious force continued prevalent. The 

I more science drew back the more shameless became 
the cheating and fraud ; although in Germany 
there were fewer attempts to make money by it than 
in France. The abuse grew so strong that the 
Catholic Church several times came forward to inter- 

Ifere. But the more the extravagance and cheating 
increased the less inclined were serious-minded persons 
to interest themselves in these matters. 

In England, in spite of the efforts of the London 
physicians Elliotson and Ashburner, magnetism could 
get no footing. When the French magnetizer, La 
Fontaine, exhibited magnetic experiments in Man- 
chester in 1 84 1, Braid , a doctor ofthat place, interested 
himself in the question. He showed, like Faria, but 
with more method, that the phenomena were of sub- 
r jective nature. By carefully fixing the eyes upon any 
object a state of sleep was induced, which Braid called 
" Hypnotism." ^ 

At first Braid considered hypnotism to be identical 
with the mesmeric states, but he soon gave up this 
view ; he was of opinion that the two conditions were 
only analogous, and he left mesmerism in an inde- 

' This name was not, however, altogether new, as already 
Henin de Cavillers had talked of "hypnosco^p^" and " Ik^^xvo- 
bat/' with reference to magnetic states (^Max DessovtV 



HISTORY OF HYPNOTISM. 



^H^pendent position by the side of hypnotism. Braid I 
^V was acquainted with the cataleptic phenomena, and I 
certain suggestions, and used hypnotism therapeuti- I 
cally ; in particular he used it to perform paiiiiess y^ I 
surgical operations. Already, earlier, mesmerism had 
been several times made use of in surgical operations. 
In the result wc see mesmerism and Braidism, as the I 
state investigated by Braid is occasionally called, used 
by different persons for the like purpose. Among 
those who used animal magnetism or hypnotism in 
surgery, the following deserve to be mentioned : 
Loysel, Fontan, Topham, Joly, Ribaud, Kiaro (accord- 
ing to Max Dessoir), Varges, Herzog. Hypnotism, i J 
however, found no general acceptation, in spite of the I 1 
fact that a well-known physiologist, Carpenter , as well- 1 J 
as Laycock, James Simpson, Mayo, and others, con- I 
firmed the facts. I 

I In America, meanwhile, animal magnetism had I 

taken root; New Orleans was, for a long time, its I 

chief centre. A few years later than Braid, Grimes I 

appeared in the United States, and, independently of I 

Braid, obtained like results. His methods were not I 

essentially different from those of Braid ; the states I 

produced by Grimes were called electro-biological. I 

Among his adherents Dods and Stone must be I 

mentioned. In 1S50 Darling came from America to I 

England, where he exhibited the phenomena of I 

electro-biology ; their identity with those of hypno- I 

tism was soon recognized. Durand de Gros," a French I 

doctor who had lived in America, returned in 1853 to 1 

Europe, and exhibited the phenomena of electro- ] 

biology in several countries, but aroused little interest. I 

^^ Braid's discovery was first made known in Bordeaux J 

^^kby Azam, in 1 85g, F;ncouraged by Bazin and mocked ■ 

^^^L ' He irrote under llid päcudon^vn ol V\ü\\'^^- J 



14 HYPNOTISM. 

by others,- Azam made some hypnotic experiments ; 
he communicated the results to Broca in Paris. The 
latter discussed hypnotism before the Academic des 
Sciences. It was made use of several times to per- 
form painless operations ; Velpeau, Follin, ' and 
Gu^rineau in particular made experiments. Other 
physicians, Demarquay and Giraud-Teulon, as well as 
Berend in Berlin, Pincus in Glogau, and Heyfelder in 
St. Petersburg, showed the slight value of hypnotism 
for surgery. In consequence of this it found no 
acceptance in medicine at that time. The experiments 
of Lasegue in 1865, when he obtained cataleptic 
phenomena by closing the eyes, aroused no particular 
interest. 

Meanwhile, Liebeault, who later removed to Nancy, 
had made himself familiar with the phenomena of 
hypnotism and animal magnetism. The last he 
endeavoured to refute, and he became the real founder 
of the therapeutics of suggestion. His book, published 
in 1866 (Du Sommeil, &c.), which is even to-day very 
well worth reading, contains his ideas ; they remained 
little known, and the author was much laughed at. 
Independently of him Charles Riebet came forward 
in Paris in 1875 to contend for the real existence of 
hypnotism, which he called " Somnambulisme pro- 
voqu^.*' 

In the year 1878 Charcot began his public classes, 

in which he directed attention to the physical states 

of hystero-epileptics during hypnosis ; in 1881 Paul 

Richer published, in his book on " La grande hysteric," 

many experiments performed on the lines of Charcot. 

'^Among the later pupils of Charcot I should name : 

*" Binet, F^r6, Gilles de la Tourette, Babinski, Barth, 

Bourneville, Regnard. 

In 1880 many investigators in Germany ,pÄi\.vcw\^xV7 



HISTORY OF HYPNOTISM. 



(Weinhold, Opitz, and Riihlmann in Chemnitz, Heiden- 
hain, and Berger in Breslau, besides Mobius, Benedikt, 
Eulenburg, Senator, Adamkiewicz, Burner, Meyersohn, 
and Baumler, occupied themselves with the subject, 
incited thereto by the exhibitions of Hansen. The 
investigations of hypnotism in animals, published in 
1872 by Czermak, and after him by Preyer, aroused no 
lasting interest, The movement of 1880 also soon 
I ceased, although Preyer often pointed out the impor- 

tance of Braidism. 

The researches of Charcot likewise had little effect 
upon the further pursuit of the inquiry — as httle as 
had the book of Prosper Dcspine on Somnambulism, 
which appeared in 1880. It is true that in some 
^H hospitals investigations were undertaken, particularly 
^H by Dumontpallier in Paris, by Pitrcs in Bordeaux, 
^H also by Ladame in Geneva, and later by Binswangcr 
^H in Jena ; these researches were, however, sporadic. 
^H Only when a second medical school in France — , 
^^ that of Nancy — approached the subject, did the 
^K interest become more general. Prof Bemheimi 
^B of Nancy, who, incited by Dumont, had studied 
^^m the question with Lit5beault, and had accepted 
^" the iatter's views, published a book, "De la Sug- V, 
gestion," &c,, in 1884. He gave in it examples 
of the curative effects of hypnotism, the phenomena 
^_ of which, he says, are entirely of a psychical nature. 
^B^^ Besides this, in Nancy, Beau n is worked at the physio- 
^^Rlogy of hypnotism, and Li^geois t 
^^r of the question. Then followed i 
^H between the schools of Charco t i 
^H is not yet entirely settled ; the latter, however, has 
^Hgaincd ground more and more. 

^H People began to busy themselves with hypnotism, 
^^un other countries as well as I'tance, c\ue?iY '^'^ *^ 




16 



HYPNOTISM. 



s that as ^^| 
lypnotism ^| 



lines of the school of Nancy. It is true 
has already been mentioned, the study of hypnoti; 
had been beg^n in various countries in connection 
with the work of Charcot. As, however, in conse- 
quence of the rather one-sided standpoint of these 
investigations, the different inquirers failed to find 
any lasting satisfaction, even the nam*e of Charcot 
was powerless to give a general extension to the 
study of hypnotism. Only when the school of 
Nancy created a surer basis for hypnotism by a 
profounder psychological conception could people 
elsewhere begin to devote themselves on a larger 
scale to the study of it. In France itself the im- 
portance of the Nancy investigators was more and 
more recognized. A. Voisin, B^rillon, and numerous 
other experimenters occupied themselves with the 
subject, and even those who had at first considered 
the experiments of Charcot to be of higher value 
turned in large numbers to the school of Nancy, 
Hypnotism found an entrance to other countries, 

(and it appears that in the north of Europe a rela- 
tively greater number of investigators interested 
themselves in it than in France. In Belgium the 
eminent psychologist Delbceuf, of Liege, smoothed 
the way for it ; numerous physicians — Van Rcn- 
terghem, Van Eeden, De Jong, and others — made 
use of hypnotism in Holland for curative purposes. 
In Denmark, Sweden, and Nonvay we find also a 
series of inquirers — Johannessen, Sell, Fränkel, 
Carlsen, Schleisner, Velander, and most particularly 
Wetterstrand, of Stockholm, who uses hypnotism 
therapeutically to a very great extent ; also in 
Russia, where Stembo and Tokarski should be 
noticed. Jn Greece, Italy, and Spain, where Pulido 
, used suggestion therapeutically many yea.'ca \ie^Q\e 



I 



HISTORY OF HYPNOTISM. 



rBemheim, hypnotism is gaining in importance. In 
England there exists a society of private investi- 
gators — the Society for Psychical Research — which,^ 
besides examining certain mysterious phenomena,!^ 
also studies hypnotism. Gumey and F. Myers must 
here be especially mentioned. Before this, in Eng- 
land, Hack Tuke had often called attention to 
hypnotism and its therapeutic value. 

*In other quarters of the globe, especially in 
America, hypnotism has also awakened great in- 
terest. Beard had already long ago interested 
himself in the question. Unluckily his investiga- 
tions are not known to the extent which they 
certainly merit. An American Society for Psychical 

■ Research has also been formed in the United States.^ 
In several of the South American States serious in-, I 
quirers have turned to the study of hypnotic phe- \ 
nomena ; for example, Octavio Maira and D^vid 
Benavente in Chili. 

Meanwhile, through Forel, hypnotism had gained 

■ ground, more particularly in Switzerland, and there 
is no doubt that the great movement spread to 
Germany from thence. Obersteiner of Vienna, Fränkel 
of Dessau, and Möbius, had already endeavoured to 
draw attention to hypnotism in Germany, by 
clear and impartial reports. Lesser experiments 
in therapeutics had also been made by Creutz- 
feldt, Wiebe, Fischer, and Berkhan. But a really 
stirring activity has only just lately set in ; it began 
about two years ago, and was the result of the publi- 
cations of Forel, which appeared in the German 
periodicals. They demonstrate the great impor- 
tance of hypnotism for therapeutics. The essential 
importance of suggestion had not hitherto had s\j.ffL- 
' Now affiliated to Ae Etis^\s\v ^^otÄt^. 



1 




/ 



i8 HYPNOTISM. 

cient stress laid upon it, and in consequence many 
hypnotic experiments may have remained fruitless. 
Many other investigators, following the example of 
Forel, have made experiments in medical treatment 
by hypnotism in Germany lately ; among them may 
be especially mentioned ; Sperling, Nonne, Michael, 
Hess, Schrenck-Notzing, Hösslin, Baierlacher (who 
became known by his discovery of reaction of 
degeneration, and who, unfortunately, died a short 
time ago), Corval, Schuster, Hirt, Ad. Barth, Briigel- 
mann. We find likewise a number of physicians 
in Austria active in the same field ; Krafift-Ebing, 
Freud, ' Frey, Schnitzler, and F. Müller may be 
named. Other men — for example, Ziemssen, See- 
ligmüller, Köberlin — set their faces most decidedly 
against the therapeutic use of hypnotism. Other 
authors, again, worked at the particular subjects 
which have a relation to hypnotism without laying 
special stress on its therapeutic value ; and here 
the works of Forel, Lilienthal, and Rieger must be 
named, which inquired into the legal side of the 
question. Krafift-Ebing published an extremely de- 
tailed experimental study of one case ; Max Dessoir 
compiled a valuable Bibliography of Modern Hypno- 
tism ; further, Bleuler, Hückel, Maack, Weiss, Salus, 
Dreher, may be mentioned. 

In spite of. the great importance of hypno- 
tism to therapeutics, I think it a great mistake 
when some doctors fix the therapeutic value of 
hypnotism as the standard by which it is to be 
judged ; and here another factor — the founding of 
an experimental psychology — may be well taken into 
consideration. As a matter of fact, a large number 
of investigators have recognized the great value of 
hypnotism, particularly in this direction— above all, 



HISTORY OF HYPNOTISM. 19 

Kraffl -Ebing, Forel, Max Dessoir ; and several 
scientific societies have been formed in Germany 
after the pattern of the above-mentioned English 
Society for Psychical Research, in the programme 
of which it is essentially the use of hypnotism in 
the carrying out of psychological experiments which 
plays the chief part. Such are the Psychological 
Society in Munich and the Society for Experimental 
Psychology in Berlin, to which we already owe a 
series of remarkable works by Max Dessoir, Bastian, 
Hellwald, and Bentivegni. 

Hypnotism has, moreover, made its entrance into 
the lecture-rooms of several German universities ; 
lectures are delivered about it in Berlin, by the 
well-known physiologist, Preyer, and at Freyburg, in 
Baden, by Münsterberg, a distinguished psychologist. 
In order to facilitate a general discussion of the most 
important questions in the domain of hypnotism, a 
Congress met in Paris in 1S89, where nearly all 
civilized nations were represented, and where a sub- 
stantial clearing-up of opinions on some important 
points was attained. In general it may be said 
that the views of the school of Nancy carried the 
day. 

In any case hypnotism has for the time won great 
importance, as may be estimated from the fact that 
it influences even literary circles. As in former days 
animal magnetism provided Alexander Dumas and 
Balzac with material for romances, so in later times 
several authors have chosen their themes out of 
the domain of hypnotism. Those who have become 
best known are Clarctic, Bclot, Meding, Epheyre. 
Finally, it must be mentioned that animal magnetism, 
out of which hypnotism has developed itself, has re- 
some adherents in the sc\evi\!\^^ --«cäNÄ:— 5. 



20 HYPNOTISM. 

Myers, Riebet, Langley ; so that at present we can 
distinguish three great schools with many points of 
transition (Max Dessoir) : (i) The school of Charcot ; 
(2) the school of Nancy; and (3) the school of the 
mesmerists. 



CHAPTER II. 



GENERAL CONSIDER A TIONS. 



I 



I 



I 



In order to give the reader an idea of the pheno- 
mena of hypnotism it will be best, first of al], to 
describe a few experiments. The phenomena 
this way be made more comprehensible than by 
means of any number of definitions. 

First Experiment. I begin the experiments 
with a young man of twenty. I request him to 
seat himself on a chair, and give him a button to 
hold, telling him to look at it fixedly. After three 
minutes his eyelids fall ; he tries in vain to open his 
eyes, which are fast closed ; his hand, which until 
now has grasped the button, drops upon his knee. I 
assure him that it is impossible for him to open his 
eyes. (He makes vain efforts to open them.) I now 
say to him, "Your hands are stuck fast to your knee; 
you cannot possibly raise them." {He raises his 
hands, however.) I continue to converse with him ; i 
I find that he is perfectly conscious, and I can dis- J 
cover no essential change in him whatever. I raise j 
one of his arms ; directly I let go, he drops it as he / 
pleases. Upon which I blow upon his eyes, which 
open at once, and he is in the same state as before 
the experiment. The young man remembers all that \^ 
I have said to him. The on\y süi.V.m^ ^^■c\.^\&^'^'««.- 



22 HYPNOTISM. 

fore, that he could not open his eyes, and that he 
feels a certain degree of fatigue. 

Second Experiment, This is a woman of fifty- 
three. When she has seated herself on a chair I 
place myself before her ; I raise my hands, and move 
them downwards, with the palms towards her, from 
the top of the head to about the pit of the stomach. 
I hold my hands so that they may not touch her, at 
a distance of from two to four centimetres. As soon 
as my hands come to the lowest part of the stroke 
I carry them in a wide sweep with outspread arms up 
over the subject's head. I then repeat exactly the 
same movemeiifts ; that is, passes from above down- 
wards, close to the body, and continue this for about 
ten minutes. At the end of this time the subject 
is sitting with closed eyes, breathing deeply and 
peacefully. When I ask her to raise her arms, she 
raises them only slightly ; they then fall down again' 
heavily. When I ask her how she feels, she ex- 
plains that she is very tired. I forbid her to open 
her eyes. (She makes useless attempts to open 
them.) Now I lift up her right arm ; it remains in 
the air, even after I have let go. I command her to 
drop her arm. (She drops it.) I lift it again, and again 
it remains in the air ; upon which I request her to 
drop her arm, declaring at the same time that she can- 
not do it (She now makes vain efforts to drop her arm, 
but it remains in the air.) The same thing happens 
with the other arm. When I forbid her she is unable 
to drop it ; she cannot pronounce her own name 
directly I have assured her that she is dumb. (She 
only makes movements with her mouth, without pro- 
ducing any sound.) I tell her that now she can 
speak, (She speaks at once.) I say to her : " You 
hear music " (The woman shakes her head to sUo^ 



GENERAL CONSIDERA TIONS. i% 

that she hears no music.) I wake her by passes from 
below, upwards, over the surface of her body, turning 
the back of the hand towards her. (She now opens 
her eyes, and can control all her movements.) 

We see here, then, that not only are the eyes closed 
during hypnosis, but that all sorts of different move- 
ments become impossible to the subject when I 
forbid them. 

Third Experiment. This is with a boy of sixteen, 
whom I have hypnotized several times. I request 
him to look me straight in the eyes. After he has 
done this for some time I take him by the hand and 
draw him along with me. Then I let go, but our 
eyes remain fixed on each other's. Then I lift up 
my right arm, (The boy does the same.) I raise my 
left arm. (He does the same.) I make him understand 
by a gesture that he must kneel down. (He docs so.) 
He tries to rise, but docs not succeed so long as I 
look at him, and fix him to the floor by a movement 
of the hand. Finally I cease to look at him ; the 
charm is at once broken. 

We see here, then, a young man whose movements 
take the character of imitation, and whose eyes at the 
same time are wide open and fixed upon mine. 

Fourth Experiment. Mr. X., forty-one years old, 
seats himself on a chair. I tell him that he must 
try to sleep. " Think of nothing but that you are to 
go to sleep," After some seconds I continue : " Now 
your eyelids are beginning to close ; your eyes are 
growing more and more fatigued ; the lids quiver 
more and more. You feel tired all over ; your arms go 
to sleep ; your legs grow tired ; a feeling of heaviness 
and the desire for sleep take possession of your whole 
body. Your eyes close ; your head feels duller ; your 
thoughts grow more and mote cotvlusei. "^c™ 'jwa. 



»4 



HYPNOTISM. 




can no longer resist ; now your eyelids are closed. 
Sleep ! " After the eyelids have closed I ask him if 
he can open them. (He tries to do so, but they are 
too heavy.) 1 raise his left arm high in the air. (It 
remains in the air, and cannot be brought down in 
spite of all his efforts.) I ask him if he is asleep. 
" Yes." " Fast asleep ? " " Yes," " Do you hear the 
canary singing?" "Yes." "Now you hear the 
concert?" "Certainly." Upon this I take a black 
cloth and put it into his hand. " You feel this dog 
quite plainly?" "Quite plainly." "Now you can 
open your eyes. You will see the dog clearly. Then 
you will go to sleep again, and not wake till I tell 
you." (He opens hJs eyes, looks at the imaginary- 
dog and strokes it.) I take the cloth out of his hand, 
and lay it on the floor. (He stands up and reaches 
out for it.) Although he is in my room, when I tell 
him that he is in the Zoological Gardens he believes 
it and sees trees, and so on. 
. In this case X. is thrown into the hypnotic state 

/ by my arousing in his mind an image of the sleep. 
This manner of hypnotizing is used by the Nancy 
investigators, and may be called the method of Nancy. 

' The subject is completely without a will of his own. It 
is not only possible in his case to prevent the most 
various movements by a mere prohibition, but I can 
also control his sense perceptions. On my assurance, 
he thinks he hears a canary, or hears music. He 
takes a black cloth for a dog, and believes himself 
to be in the Zoological Gardens when he is in my 
room. But the following phenomenon is still more 

I striking. X. hears all that 1 say to him, and allows 

I himself to be influenced by me in every way. Yet 

two other men, A. and B., who are present, appear 

, not to be obsQrvtd by the hypnotic at all, . A. lifts 



I 



GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 25 

Up the arm of the subject ; the arm falls loosely down, 

and when A. desires the arm to remain in the air the 

subject takes no notice. He obeys my orders only, 

and is en rapport with me only. In order to wake 

him I now call to him : " Wake up 1 " He wakes 

at once, but only remembers going to sleep ; of 

what happened during the sleep he knows nothing. 

I internipt here for a time the description of the 

experiments; I shall describe others in the course of 

this work, and shall occasionally return to those 

already depicted, I will merely remark that in all 

these experiments, however different they might be, 

the voluntary movements were always inhibited, that 

in one case hallucinations of the senses couM be 

L induced, and that it was possible for me in all cases 

1 to converse with the subject, and we could understand 

I each other. 

I wished to bring forward these examples in order 
that the reader might understand to a certain extent, 
in spite of the absence of living subjects, what 
different states are included in the idea of hypnosis, 
and how it is induced and terminated. The above 
I experiments are typical, and every one who makes 
I proper experiments can always repeat them. 

At the conclusion of these experiments I add a 
short Terminology, which, however, is by no means 
complete, as some particular ideas can only be made 
clear in the further course of the work. 

I mean by hypnosis the state into which the subjects 
were thrown during the experiments described 
above. 

Hypnotism is not the name of the state itself, but 
of the whole science which deals with the phenomena 
' o/" this State^ 



26 HYPNOTISM. 

A person in the hypnotic state is called a hypnotic^ 
or subject 

A hypnotist is a man who hypnotizes for scientific 
purposes. A hypnotizer is a man who makes hypno- 
tism a profession. 

The different commands which are given to the 
subjects in the experiments described, the prompting 
and persuasion, are called suggestion^ a word to which 
I shall return, and which I shall define more exactly 
later on. 

I shall use the phrase, " to suggest " for the giving 
of these hints or promptings. 

If the suggestion takes effect it is said, from the 
point of view of hypnotism, that the subject is under 
the influence of suggestion. 

There are several methods of inducing hypnosis, as 
can be gathered from the above examples. 

In order to make a systematic survey, we divide 
these methods into two groups — the mental and the 
physica l. 

The mental methods induce hypnosis by giving 
a particular direction to the subject's imagination ; 
this is done either by concentrating the attention 
upon an arbitrary point (Braid), or by raising an 
image of the hypnotic state in the subject's mind. 
The latter is most easily done by speech, as we 
have seen in the above four examples. Li^beault 
originated the process, which deserves particular atten- 
tion, as by the use of it unpleasant accompanying 
phenomena are more surely avoided. As a matter 
of course, the methods are slightly modified to suit 
special cases, because individual character plays an 
wcomparahly larger part in mental states than in 
ordinary physiological investigations. "Nalut^Wy, \\. 



GENERAL CONSIDERA TIONS. 



ris quite possible to call up the image of the hypnotic 
states by other means than speech, and thus to induce 
them, by the influence of imitation, for example. The 
hypnotic state is occasionally induced by the mere 
sight of others in that condition, as well as by speech. 
^ The recollection of earlier hypnoses has the same 
effect ; upon this fact depends the induction of 
hypnosis by means of letters, or of the telephone 

I(Li^geois). 
It is certain that these mental influences play a 
large part in hj'pnosigenesis,^ that is, in the origination |s, I 
and production of hypnosis. It is equally sure that 
they suffice in many cases to induce hypnosis, par- ' 
ticularly when the person concerned has already been 
hypnotized. Bernheim and Forel even consider the 
men tal factor as indispensable to hypnosis ; they hold 
the opinion that all the other methods mentioned 
below only succeed when they are of a kind to call up 
the picture of hypnosis. As, under certain circum- 
stances which we shall examine later, the hypnosis 
may be a momentary one (that is, may pass away 
quickly), and as further in certain circumstances it 
. need only consist of one solitary recognizable symptom, 

I the representation necessary for the purpose need not 
be a very complicated picture (v. Bcntivegni), Under 
some circumstances the mere idea that an arm has 
lost the power of motion is enough to cause hypnosis, | 
of which precisely this loss of motion is the only, or 
the most important, symptom. 
i- ' Although the terminology up to the present lime is very 

deficient, I will not make use of new expressions, Only instead 
of "hypnogen" and "hypaogeneais" {— induction of sleep), I 
shall use "hypnosigen "and "hypnosigenesis" (= induction of 
hypnotic sleep). " Hypnogen " is derived from iln-fos — sleep — 
s often used (or " sleep-produdiij." " \\-j'^w^\^t\»'" \^ 
erived from Iiypnosis ; and its use mW ptttvü\\. cQ'oS.'iii\ü'&, 







HYPNOTISM. 



Here belongs also autohypnosis, or self-hypnosis. 
A In this the idea of the hypnosis is not aroused by 
y another person, but the subject generates the image 
< himself. This can only happen by an act of will. Just 
as the will is otherwise able to produce particuSar 
thoughts, so it can allow the idea of hypnosis to become 
50 powerful that finally hypnosis is induced ; this is, 
\ however, rare. Autohypnosis generally takes place in 
consequence of some incident by means of which 
the idea of the hypnosis is produced ; this often 
happens when the subject has been frequently hypno- 
tized. It is possible that some states of sleep which 
are generally considered pathological, belong to auto- 
hypnosis. 

Faria formerly made use of a mental method to 
obtain hypnosis. After he had strained the attention 
of the subject as much as possible, he called out 
suddenly, " Sleep I" Li^beault substantially developed 
and completed this process, Bernheim made it more 
universally known. 

I will now speak of the physical methods, which 
for a long time were the only ones used. They con- 
sist of certain stimuli of sight, hearing, and touch. 
Taste and smell (Binet, Fer^) have been rarely tried, 
and have generally given negative results. The best 
known is the so-called method of Braid. The 
hypnosis is caused by a fixed gaze at some object or 
other. It is of little consequence whether the object 
is bright or not. Later, Braid gave up placing the 
object so close as to cause a convergence of the 
eyes. It is considered advantageous to hold the 
object so much above the eyes that the eyelids are 
strained as much as possible in keeping the eyes open. 
Instead of a lifeless object, such as was used in the 
££st experiment mentioned above, the ex^tivmefttfit 



f 

I 

I 
I 



GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 29 

can make use of his finger for the purpose, or, as the 
professional magnetizers prefer to do, of his eye (Du 
Potet). Lately, Luys has used a rapidly revolving 1 
mirror, in order to produce speedy and extreme I 
fatigue of the eye. Just the same effect can be pro- 
duced by hearing as by sight ; for this the ticking of 
a watch is preferred (Weinhold, Heidenhain). Among 
uncivilized races particular instruments are used to 
produce analogous states ; for example, the sound of a 
magic drum among the Lapps ; among other races 
the monotony of uniform rhythm in song (Bastian). 
Instead of these continuous, monotonous, weak stimu- 
lations of the senses, we see also sudden and violent 
ones made use of, for example, in the Salpfitrifere, the 
field of Charcot's work, the loud noise of a gong or a / 
sudden ray of the Drummond light. However, it is 
more than doubtful whether these sudden strong 
physical stimuli, without any mental clement, can 
induce t rue h_ygno^s. Perhaps we have to do here 
with states not far removed from paralysis from fright ; 
at least subjects thus hypnotized often wear an ex- 
pression of fear (Richer). The effect can be also 
produced through the sense of touch, even by a gently, 
stroking of the skin, or by pressure upon it Some 
have also sought to induce hypnosis by the stimulus 
of heat — e.g., warm plates of metal (Berger). It is 
known that warmth easily brings on natural sleep, 
while cold, if it is not too great, keeps it off! 

I here mention in particular the so-called mesmeric, 
mesmerizing, or magnetic passes, upon which Richet 
sets great value. I have already shown and described 
above, in the second experiment, how they are made ; 
I mention them here, though the question of how they 
act is not yet satisfactorily settled. It is not certain 
iKfietAer (he stimulation of tempcia\.\iic,3a\\tvi^'ÄÄ\'!i 



1 



30 HYPNOTISM. 

and Berger suppose, or the slight motion of the air, or 
the mental influence, is the efficient agent in this case. 
I myself consider it most likely that the various 
agencies combine, but that the mental factor is the most 
important. It is not necessary to assume the existence 
of any peculiar force, such as the magnetic fluid of 
the mesmerist. An old hypothesis has been recently 
revived, namely, that we have to do with an electrical 
action (Rostan, J. Wagner). Tarchanoff* has shown 
that by means of gentle stimulations of the skin weak 
electric currents can be produced in it, but that these 
same can also be produced by strong concentration of 
the will, in consequence of which there is always 
muscular contraction. Now, as the mesmerists con- 
sider a strong effort of will necessary on the part of 
the operator, it is possible that a peripheral develop- 
ment of electricity takes place in him, which has an 
effect upon the mesmerized subject. This idea is, 
however, merely a supposition of individual investiga- 
tors ; we know nothing certain about it yet. 

We should note that the method of so-called "mesmeric 
passes" was not used by Mesmer ; it is true that he endeavoured 
to influence by touch, but these peculiar monotonous long-con- 
tinued passes which I have described above, were unknown to 
him. 

Pitres maintains that certain portions of the body 
are particularly sensitive to stimulation of the skin. 
The ^^ zones hypnogines^' described by him some- 
times exist on only one side of the body, and some- 
times on both. Stimuli applied to them are said to 
produce hypnosis in certain persons, as is indeed 
maintained of other parts. Among these parts of the 
I body the crown of the head, the root of the nose, the 
/ thumb, the elbow, &c., are particularly nam^d, Kccotd- 



GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 



31 



I 



ing to Chambard and Laborde a gentle scratching of 
the skin of the neck induces hypnosis. I myself have 
seen many persons who maintained that they became 
hypnotized only when I touched their foreheads. It 
is often stated that touches on the forehead induce a I 
sleepy state in many persons (Purkinje, Spitta). An 
Enfjlishman named Catlow magnetized by means of 
gentle stroking of the forehead (Baumlcr). I also 
know some persons who, in order to go to sleep more 
easily, cause other parts of the body to be gently 
stimulated — the head, or soles of the feet, for example. 
Eulenburg maintains that pressure on the cervical 
vertebra? induces hypnosis. 

Finally, I mention the action of the electric battery, 
whose influence, according to Weinhold, has the same 
effect as mesmeric passes. Weinhold, however, 
writing in a critical spirit, does not consider that 
mental influences are in this case excluded. When 
Eulenburg obtained a lethargic condition, resembling 
hypnosis, by galvanizing the head, this experiment 
did not prove a true hypnosis, since the person 
experimented upon had already had attacks of 
lethargy. It is certain that in many cases where 
hypnosis is supposed to have been caused by the 
application of electricity to the head, the hypnosis I 
has only come on because the subject believed that I 
electricity induced hypnosis. Hirt often uses elec- 
tricity in this way, but is at the same time perfectly , 
clear that it is not the electricity but the subject's 
belief in its effect, that produces the hypnosis. 

To conclude, I further mention stimulations of the 
muscular sense, such as the cradle rocking used to 
send little children to sleep ; I leave on one side the 
question as to whether hypnosis can be attained by this 
means. Similar states ate said to \je ■^toÄ.iiiyiö. Ma.a^'ä^ 



HYPNOTISM. 



T dancing ^^| 
r, accom- ^^| 

3ns. The I 

i 



^^H uncivilized peoples by violent whirling or c 

^^M movements ; the movements are, however, 
^^K panied by music and other mental excitations. 
^B best known are the AVssaouas, in Algiers (Figuier, 
^V Bert, Delphin). "Theycarryon their business chiefly 
in the Algerian town of Constantine. They are able 
by means of dancing and singing to throw themselves 

I into a state of ecstasy difficult to describe, in which 
their bodies seem to be insensible even to severe 
wounds. They run pointed iron and sharp knives into 
their heads, eyes, necks, and breasts, without injuring 
themselves" (Hellwald). The same thing is related 
of the Buddhist convents in Tibet (Hellwald, 
Gabriel Hue), and Dr. Sperling has told me that 
he has himself seen dervishes in Constantinople, who, 
from the expression of their eyes and their whole 
appearance, as well as from the peculiar postures 
^B they maintained for a length of time, impressed him 

^H as being in a hypnotic state. The state may have 
^H been induced by monotonous singing and uniform 
^^ft whirling movements. As Dr. Sperling has a par- 
^^H ticularly wide experience in the fleld of hypnotism 
^^H and is one of the most competent authorities on the 
^^r subject, his opinion is of peculiar value. 
^H I have hitherto spoken only of sense-stimuli among 

^H the physical methods. But it must also be mentioned 
^H that the absence of these stimuli is likewise specified 
^H as an expedient for hypnosigenesis, Jcndrassik, 
^H of Buda-Pcsth, expresses the opinion that fixed 
^^fc attention is only effective because it causes fatigue 
^^H of the nerves of sight, and consequently produces 
^^H insensibility to stimulation. Perhaps the case related 
^^H by Strümpell is of this class; he observed a person 
^^1 who fell asleep immediately on the cessation of sense- 



GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 33 

This classification of hypnogenetic expedients 
is merely theoretical (Forel, Levillain} ; and that 
for two reasons. In the first place we cannot 
regard body and mind as two factors which are 
independent of one another. Sense-stimuli, which 
affect the body, nearly always exercise a certain 
effect on the mind ; the mind, on the other hand, can 
act upon nothing which has not previously entered it 
by means of the organs of sense. In the second 
place, in practice several hypnogenetic processes are 
habitually used at the same time. This will become 
perfectly clear if the hypnotized person is watched : 
let him be told that he must keep any particular Idea 
well in mind, that he must concentrate his whole 
attention on the idea of sleep ; he will then, in order 
to obey the command, look steadily at some point, or 
at once shut his eyes, in order as much as possible to 
prevent distraction of thought. 

Thus Bernheim occasionally uses fixed attention 
at the same time as the mental methods. Braid, 
again, who made use of fixation almost entirely, yet 
considered a particular mental activity also necessary. 
This is particularly to be noticed, because some 
people nowadays believe that they are using the 
method of Braid when they tell the subject to look 
steadily at something, In reality Braid considered a 
steady attention as well as a steady gaze indispen- 
sable if hypnosis were to be attained ; the subject 
must think steadily of the thing he was looking at, 
and must not allow himself to be diverted from it 
According to Braid, one can hypnotize even in the 
dark. 

But even theoretically we cannot always keep 
these things apart. Closing of the eyes, with slight 
re upon tliem, often leads, as 'Las.'ii^'ie ^"ucm^A, 



34 HYPNOTISM. 

to hypnotic states. How these come about, whether 
through the cessation of the sense stimulation, or 
through the idea of sleep, which the closing of the 
eyes certainly easily calls up, cannot be decided. 
After these details, the much discussed and disputed 
question must be answered, whether a person can 
be hypnotized without his knowledge ; whether any 
one can be thrown into the hypnotic state merely by 
sense-stimuli, without these arousing an image of the 
hypnosis. I know of no well-authenticated case in 
which sense stimulation has produced hypnosis by 
a purely physiological action. Most people upon 
whom such experiments are made know that an 
attempt is being made to hypnotize them ; they have 
been already hypnotized, and the stimuli arouse 
conscious or unconscious mental images of the 
hypnosis ; or they have seen the same experiments 
with others, or have heard of them. Even when this 
is not the case, the objection of Bernheim and Forel 
remains to be considered, that the stimuli induce a 
feeling of fatigue, and through this induce the 
hypnosis. 

Which of the above methods, or which combination 
of them is the best for practical use, is a question the 
answer to which is not so simple that every one who 
has made a dozen experiments is justified in trying 
to reply to it. When we find that Riebet thinks he 
can throw nearly anybody into the hypnotic state by 
means of mesmeric passes, that Li^beault hypnotizes 
nearly all his patients by means of the Nancy process, 
that Braid hypnotized ten persons out of fourteen 
by means of fixed attention, we see that different 
methods bring about nearly identical results. I am 
decidedly of opinion that in each individual case 
that method should be selected by me^iws o? v^l\\d\ 



GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 35 

the most vivid picture of the hypnosis, and the 
conviction that it will come on, can be produced in 
the subject. I lay stress on the fact that in individual 
cases persons appear refractory to one method while 
another succeeds. I have found persons insusceptible 
to the use of fixed attention, or to the method of 
Nancy, while I obtained results by mesmeric passes. 
Evidently this proves nothing against mental action, 
as many persons believe they can only be influenced 
by some particular proces.';. On the other side I have 
seen that intense fixity of gaze sometimes induces 
hypnosis when other methods arc useless, perhaps 
because the subjective expectation of the hypnosis 
is sooner aroused by the long, intense stare, than 
by verbal orders. Again, in some cases it is well to 
attain the aim quickly, by means of a sharp shock 
(Sperling, Forel, Van Ecden, Van Renterghcm). 

I should bere mention tha^t, according to Landouzy, Proust, 
Ballet, and iSenedikt, the magnet also has a hypnotizing effect, 
although my own numerous experiments have been unsuc- 
cessful. That the bending back of the head can induce 
hypnosis, as Eulenburg siys it does, must surely be founded 
on a mistake. . 

Chambard puts chloroform, ether, &c., among the hypno- 
genetic agents. In any case, many phenomena analogous to 
those of hypnosis have been observed in the sleep induced by 
these agents (Spring, Rifat, Herrero, Roth). I consider 
better to distinguish these agents from hypnosis (F. Myers). 

The waking from hypnosis (dehypnotization) can 
also occur in two ways-^through immediate action on I 
the imagination, or through sense stimulation, exactly 
as waking out of the natural sleep occurs .sometimes 
from mental causes, for example, from habit, 
from the resolution to awake at a certain hoy-t ■, -säA ] 
«emeli/nes from stronger sVimuW ol ^i-ie- sc^yÄ-,' 



HYPNOTISM. 



example, a loud noise. It is nearly always possible 
to put an end to the hypnosis by mental means, 
that is, by the command to wake up, or to wake up 
at a particular signal. It is hardly ever necessary to 
use other means, such as fanning, excitation by the 
faradism, sprinkling with water, loud calls, &c. I 
cannot confirm the statement of some, that cold has 
an arousing effect. Just as the mesmerizing passes 
induce hypnosis, so the demesmerizing passes — as I 
used thera in the second experiment, above described 
— cause it to disappear. Whether the cool current of 
air, which is nearly always thereby generated, causes 
the awakening, or whether it is, as I think more 
probable, the belief of the subject that he must wake, 
remains undecided. Pitres and others think that there 
. are parts of the body where stimulation produces 
awakening ; they are called "sones kypno-ft'niatrices." 
Among them the ovarian regions are particularly 
notable. Finally, I mention the forcible opening of 
the eyes as a means of ending the hypnosis. Other 
processes which have been given, and which were 
supposed to induce awakening by physical means, 
such as bringing a coal near the patient, have only a 
mental effect, as they are understood as a command 
to awake. In rare cases these artificial means of 
awakening do not succeed quickly ; a feeling of 
fatigue then continues. We feci the same thing 
occasionally when we wake out of natural sleep. 

(After deep and long hypnosis a temporary state 
like extreme sleepiness follows, in which certain hyp- 
notic phenomena continue. 
If the awakening is not brought about by artificial 
means, persons in a light hypnotic state, such as is 
described in the- first two experiments, habitually 
wake of their own accord after a few mmutea ot cvjcvv 



1 



I 



GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 



37 



\ 



seconds ; this especially happens when the continu- 
ance of the stale has not been expressly ordered. 
Some people wake at the exact moment when the 
experimenter leaves them, as they then no longer 
think themselves under his influence. Others awake 
of their own accord out of deep hypnosis if they hear 
an unexpected and loud noise, or have exciting 
dreams. Thus, I once saw a grown-up person wake 
herself by screaming, because in the hypnotic state 
she had believed herself to be.a little child, and in that 
character had begun to cry. The awakening which 
les about without any apparent cause is remark- 
able and unexplained (jnoitvcment psychique.) The 
same thing is sometimes ob.served in natural sleep, 
especially at its beginning ; O. Rosenbach traces it 
to increase of the reflexes. Generally, however, the^ 
deep hypnoses continue for some time when they areS 
not artificially terminated. Sometimes many hours/ 
pass before the subject wakes. 

The old mesmerists (Du Potet, Lafontaine) describe 
ä a rare occurrence in hypnotic experiments a state 
of lethargy, in which artificial awakening was im- 
possible. After some time there was a spontaneous 
awakening, and no evil consequences were to be 
observed, Guermonprez described lately how a | 
person had remained three days in hypnosis, nobody 
being able to wake him. It appears that these inci- 
dents occur more often when sense stimulations are , 
used — for example, the fixed gaze or the mesmeric | 
passes. And again, this state has only been observed 
among hysterical subjects, so far as I am aware. 
Therefore I believe that this lethargy must be dis- 
tinguished from hypnosis, the chief symptoms of 
which are wanting. We cannot idenütv \.'ti\=> =,*wie, 
with hypnosis, merely because it is a. teaaVt o^ ^^ 5am.ft. j 



38 HYPNOTISM. 

processes ; the identity could only be proved by a 
likeness of symptoms, not by a likeness in the manner 
of their production. When one person receives a blow 
on the ear and haemorrhage under the skin follows, 
while another receives a like blow, and has the drum 
of the ear burst : these are two different injuries, and 
the fact that they have the same cause does not make 
them identical. 

Who is hypnotizable ? In order to settle this 
question without hypnotic experiments, Ochorowicz 
has invented a special instrument — the hypnoscope : 
it is an iron magnet in the form of a ring, which the 
person to be tested puts on his finger. Hypnotizable 
persons are supposed to experience certain sensations 
in the skin and twitchings of the muscles, while 
with the insusceptible nothing of the kind takes 
place. The researches of other investigators have 
not confirmed this (Obersteiner, Gessmann, Grasset, 
Bottey). Other signs which are supposed to indicate 
susceptibility to hypnotism I consider untrustworthy. 
Neither neurasthenia nor pallor, neither hysteria 
nor general feebleness of health, produce a disposition 
to hypnosis. As far as hysteria is concerned, it is not 
in my experience peculiarly suited to hypnotism. 
Our ordinary hysteria with its variable characteristics 
of headache and the feeling of a lump in the throat 
(globus) combined with the general hysterical desire 
to be interesting and to exaggerate the sufferings en- 
dured, produces, according to my experience, very 
little disposition to hypnosis. The spirit of contra- 
diction, very strongly developed in such patients, 
contributes not a little to this. The mistaken notion 
that hysterical or nervous patients are particularly 
susceptible to hypnotism results from the fact that 
most physicians have experimented wvlVv tVvem otA^ \ 



GENERAL CONSIDERA TIONS. 31) 

besides which it is very easy to discover in all 
person.s something which may be explained as a 
hysterical symptom, if only we try to do so. If, 
however, we consider every one who submits himself 
to a hypnotic experiment to be " nervous " (Morand), 
then, naturally, only nei^vous persons can be put into 
the hypnotic state; but this view cannot be taken 
seriously. In reality, if we are to take a patho- 
logical condition of the organism as a necessary 
condition for hypnosis, wc shall be obliged to conclude 
that nearly everybody is not quite right in the head. 
For the rest, the old mesmerists in part (Wirth and 
others) maintained that hysteria only produced a 
disposition to the magnetic sleep. 

Further, if general weakness is to be put forward 
as a predisposing factor, I, for my part, must empha- 
size the fact that I haye hypnotized many very 
muscular persons. It is known that Hansen, whose 
practica! experience is of some value, always preferred 
muscular people for his experiments. The suscepti- 
bility of tuberculous patients is striking (Uernheim.) 

With regard to mental aptitudes, Forel believes 
that every mentally healthy human being is hypno- 
tizable. In Liebeault's opinion heredity plays a great 
part in the disposition to hypnosis. It is universally 
agreed that the mentally unsound, particularly idiots, 
even if not wholly insusceptible, are still very much 
more difficult to hypnotize than the healthy. How- 
ever, A, Voisin informs us that he has succeeded in 
hypnotizing ten per cent of the mentally unsound, by 
exercising the necessary patience. With regard to > 
intelligence, intelligent persons are more easily ) 
hypnotizable than the dull and stupid. Among the ) 
lower classes the mentally superior are undoubtedly I 
w ea&ier to hypnotize than others. Menl'aX exöSÄ'ro.ws.* 



4o 



HYPNOTISM. 



easily prevents hypnosis. The numerous observatio 
made by Wetterstrand, Ringicr, and others, that 
certain individuals are occasionally refractory to 
hypnosis, may be connected with this fact I 
could confirm this occasional disinclination to 
hypnosis by a whole series of cases. I consider it a 
complete mistake to say that the disposition to ' 
hypnosis is a sign of weakness of will. Without 
doubt the ability to maintain a passive state has a 
predisposing effect. This is why soldiers are in 

■ general easy to hypnotize. The ability to direct one's 
thoughts in any particular direction is also very 
favourable. As we habitually consider this power to 
be a sign of strength of will, the disposition to 

. hypnosis would rather be a sign of strength than of 
weakness of will. This ability to give the thoughts a 
certain prescribed direction is partly natural capacity, 
partly a matter of habit, and often an affair of 
will. Those, on the contrary, who can by no possi- 
bility fix their attention, who suffer from continual 
absence of mind, can hardly be hypnotized at all, It 
is specially among the nervous that a strikingly large 
number of this last class are to be found, who cannot 
hold fast to a thought, and in whom a perpetual 
wandering of the mind predominates. The disposi- 
tion to hypnosis is also not specially common among 
those persons who are otherwise very impressible. It 
is well known that there are some who can be easily 
influenced in life, who believe all that they are told, 
upon whom the most unimportant trifles make an 
impression, nevertheless, when an effort is made to 
hypnotize them, they offer a lively resistance, and the 
typical symptoms of hypnosis cannot be induced in 
them. 
JVati'onalUy (Ewald), or local 3Uriound'n\g,s (^^tu^a^j, . 



GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 



rhave no influence upon susceptibility to hypnotism. 
Forel in Zürich, Renterghem in Amsterdam, and 
Wetterstrand in Stockholm, have shown that Teu- 
tonic peoples are as easy to hypnotize as Latin. 
Wetterstrand- only failed to hypnotize eighteen people 
out of 718 in Stockholm. Besides, Braid's experi- 
ences in England show nearly the same thing, 
»Recently it has been pointed out in many quarters 
that Russians are more easily hypnotized than any — 
other people (I'oirault and Drzewiccki). In any case 
it may be considered settled that susceptibility to 
hypnotism is no peculiar privilege of the Latin races. 
With regard to age, children under three years cannot 
be hypnotized at ail, and even up to about eight 
years of age they can only be hypnotized with 
difficulty. Although children are otherwise easily 
I influenced, their thoughts are so easily distracted 

I that they cannot fix their minds on a prescribed 
picture, such as that of hypnosis. Old age is by 
no means refractory to hypnosis. According to the 
experiences of the school of Nancy, with which mine 
agree, older persons more often remember, after • 
hypnosis, all that has happened than do younger 
ones. Sex has no particular influence ; it is a 
mistake to suppose that women are better adapted 
than men. 

Besides tliis, individual observers [Btcmaud, Maack) men- 
tion some points which are supposed to be favourable or 
unfavourable. Brdmaud, for example, mentions alcohol as 
favourable, Maacic as unfavourable. Gut universal conclusions 
should not be drawn from a few observailons, as so doing wilt 
not contribute to any clear understanding. For the same 
reason I question Ihe general accuracy of some of RingiePs 
statemenis, though the rest of his remarks have a great 
practical value. According to him, hypnotism is less easiVj 
practised in winter than in summer, becavi;j* i;ü\i\^5,»^^asKÄ. 



k 




42 . HYPNOTISM, 

to be unfavourable ; thus persons who were easily hypnotized 
in summer become refractory in winter. 

The frequency with which an attempt should be 
repeated on the same person is of more importance. 
While, accordhig to Hähnle, only one person in ten 
proves susceptible on a first attempt, the proportion 
increases enormously with the frequency of the 
sittings. This is not to be wondered at, from the 
mental excitement shown by many people in the 
beginning. And as it is most important to hypnosis 
that the attention should not be distracted, many 
people are first of all obliged to learn to concentrate 
their thoughts. There are even experimenters who 
maintain that everybody is hypnotizablc, if only the 
attempt is continued long enough. Without de- 
claring this view to be false, I may remark that I 
have made forty or more attempts with some persons 
without obtaining hypnosis. Perhaps by even longer 
continued efforts a result would have been attained, 
as indeed has happened to me many times after forty 
vain attempts. It may be something the same 4 hin g " 
as with the great lottery prize. According to pro- 
bability everybody would win once, if they could 
only live and play long enough. 

Besides these subjective conditions there are some 
other objective ones. Thus, for example, disturb- 
ing noises at the first experiment have power to 
prevent the hypnosis ; they draw off the attention, 
and thus interfere with the mental state necessary for 
hypnosis. Later, when the subject has learnt to con- 
centrate his thoughts, noises are less disturbing. But 
in hypnotic experiments the most absolute avoidance 
by those present of any sign of mistrust is necessary. 
The least word, a gesture, may thwart the attempt to 
hypnotize. As the mood of a large comp^uy \^ olXexv 



GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 



43 



I 



distrustful, as a whole generation also is sometimes 
sceptical, the great variations in susceptibility to 
hypnosis which have shown themselves at different 
and places are explicable. It is not surprising 
that on one occasion ten persons, one after the other, 
are hypnotized, while on another occasion ten other 
persons all prove refractory. 

Experience and a knowledge of the mental con- 
ditions of mankind are indispensable for the hypno- 
tizcr. The first is absolutely necessary ; it is more 
important than a knowledge of anatomy and physio- 
logy. By experience one learns to discriminate and 
to enter into the particular character of the subject. 
Practice and a gift for observation enable the right 
"stress to be laid at the right moment cither on fixed 
attention or on the closing of the eyes. The experi- 
enced experimenter knows how to judge whether it 
is best in any particular case to attain his aim by 
speaking or whether, as sometimes happens, speech 
would be a hindrance, and the chief stress would be 
best laid on fixed attention, &c. A person who is 
easily hypnotized can be hypnotized by any one ; 
but one who is hypnotized with difficulty can only 
be thrown into hypnosis by a good and experienced 
experimenter. It is by no means a contradiction of 
this that the persona! impression made by the ex- 
perimenter may be very important and have great 
influence. In consequence of this it happens that a 
certain person A. can be hypnotized by B,, while 
he remains refractory to the efforts of C. On the 
other- hand, it may happen that D. can be hyp- 
notized by C. but not by B. This shows that the 
influence of one person over another is dependent 
on the individuality of both. We find \\\c 'ä,'a.w\t 'vft. 
life, in the relation of teacher to pu^vV, a-fti ol ^m-V^J 



r 



44 mTNOTlSM. 

to teacher, in the reciprocal relations of friends, or 
lovers. The influence of one person on another 
always depends on the individuality of both. 

That there exists an individual aptitudo for hypno- 
tization, and for making the suggestions which will be 
discussed later, is certain. It is true that we must not 
think of this ability as did the older mesmerists, who 
supposed that certain persons exercised a peculiar 
physical force upon others ; we must represent this 
natural ability to ourselves as we do many others, 
when we have to do with particular mental apti- 
tudes. Calm, presence of mind, and patience are 
essential, and not every one can exercise these 
qualities. To busy oneself with hypnotizing a 
subject daily for hours at a time demands a per- 
severance which everybody does not possess. Very 
much more patience is necessary for this than for 
writing prescriptions, for example, several hundreds 
of which could be produced in the same length of time. 

The question whether hypnosis can be induced 
against the wish of the subject is by no means un- 
important. We must distinguish here whether the 
subject complies with the prescribed conditions or 
whether he does not. If he does ; if, for example, 
he sufficiently concentrates his attention ; if he gazes 
at some object with the necessary attention, then 
hypnosis may be produced at the first attempt, even 
against the wish of the person experimented on. 
However, it must b(> remembered that a person who 
does not intend to allow himself to be hypnotized 
will hardly place himself in the necessary mental 
state. He will not generally fulfil the conditions ; 
he ic/JJ hx his eyes, but will allow his attention to 
wander. However. I think I may asseit tViat tet\.a\T\ 



GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 



r persons accustomed to obedience can be hypnotized 
at the first attempt even against their will, and with- 
out the ordinary necessary straining of the attention, 
if only they are told that hypnosis will occur. Not- 
withstanding, these cases appear to be rare. It is 
I not to be doubted that many people who have been j 

frequently hypnotized can be re-hypnotized against J 
their will and without their intentional compliance 
with the ordinary conditions. The experiments of 
Heidenhain show that people can be hypnotized 

»against their wish. He hypnotized soldiers in the 
presence of their officers, who had strictly forbidden 
them to sleep. Such a command would have as 
much effect on a soldier as the personal wish not 
to sleep. Post-hypnotic suggestion, of which I shall { 
speak later, is also a means of sending persons to i 
sleep against their wish. There is a third possi- * 
bility, namely, that no wish should exist in either 
direction. The conditions necessary for hypnosis 
may occur occasionally by chance, without the sub- 
^_ ject being conscious of them (Max Dcssoir). For 
^H example, some one over his work is obliged to look 
^H fixedly at a certain point ; this suffices to induce 
^H hypnosis (sometimes after earlier unfit experiments), 
^H without the person thinking of it. In this case 
^H the will is neither interested for it nor against it 
^H The statement of Preyer, tliat persons being photo- 
^B graphed sometimes remain sitting rigidly still after 
^^k the taking of the photograph is finished, may be 
^H referred to a hitherto unsuspected hypnotic state, 
^H brought on by the fixed stare necessary to the 
^H process. It is known that some of the inmates of 
^H the Salpetricre in Paris fall suddenly into catalepsy L 
^H in consequence of some loud unexpected noise. 
^^^ There is an interesting case o5 a ^«X wVö VaA (ä\ää. 



46 HYPNOTISM, 

been hypnotized by loud noises, and who went to a 
drawer to appropriate some photographs out of it. 
The casual beating of a gong threw her into a 
cataleptic state, so that she stood motionless in the 
act of carrying out her theft, and was discovered. 
Hack Tuke remarks that it is a pity all thieves 
cannot be taken as easily. 

As Bertrand related, with certain persons natural 
sleep can be transformed into magnetic sleep. Many 
attempts have been made to do this in later times. 
Baillif, Gscheidlen, Berger, Bernheim, and Forel have 
even made these experiments on persons who had 
never been hypnotized at all, or who had previously 
been refractory to hypnotism. I myself have only 
been able to make one observation of this kind. The 
person concerned was a gentleman whom I had 
already frequently hypnotized, and whom I often 
threw into the hypnotic state while he was taking his 
afternoon sleep, without waking him. It is doubtful 
whether such experiments would succeed with persons 
who had never heard of hypnotism. 

Still more to be doubted appear the assertions of 
Pitres, who thinks it possible to produce a hypnotic 
state in this way by means of stimulating the " zo?ies 
hypnogenesP Coste likewise asserts that sleep pro- 
duced by chloroform and morphia can be transformed 
into a hypnotic sleep. Herrero has lately said that 
even any state of insensibility produced by chloro- 
form, which has reached a certain stage, can be trans- 
I formed into hypnosis, and that by this means persons 
\ apparently refractory to hypnosis may be hypnotized. 
My experiments in this direction up to the present 
time have had negative results. 

In any case, however, previous consent is not 
absolutely necessary to the production o^ \\7^tvo^\?.^ 



GENERAL CONSIDER A TIONS. 47 

and, on the other hand, there are people who are 
refractory in spite of a decided wish to be hypnotized 
(Preyer, Forel). In general, however, the intentional 
resistance of the subject hinders hypnosis, simply 
because a person who is wilting to be hypnotized 
complies more easily with the necessary conditions 
than another. Consequently it is not astonishing 
that patients who come to a doctor on purpose to be 
hypnotized, particularly when they come with full 
confidence, are more easy to hypnotize than others. 
These others often allow an attempt to be made with 
them, with the silent resolution to show that " they are 
not to be caught," or thcy<subniit themselves, as 
Nonne says, "only for fun," and yet many believe 
that susceptibility to hypnosis is a sign of defective 
will or intelligence! 

As so many different circumstances influence the 
induction of hypnosis, it is not surprising that the 
proportion of hypnotizable persons should be 
differently stated. If Ewald in the Women's 
Hospital at Berlin can only hypnotize two persons, 
while Liebcault hypnotizes 92 per cent, of his 
patients, the reason of this enormous difference 
must lie in the different nature of the conditions. The 
insufficient mental preparation of Ewald's subjects 
Is particularly to blame for his failure. Bottcy gives 
30 per cent, as susceptible, Morsclli 70 per cent, 
Delbosuf over 80 per cent. His results appear to me 
of great value, having been evidently collected with 
critical care, as must be acknowledged by every un- 
prejudiced person who reads Delbceufs works. He 
excludes simulators with the greatest care, and is, 
perhaps, in this respect more sceptical tlian the in- 
vestigators at Nancy, Bernhcim refuses the right to 1 
Judge of /lypnotism to aU \\osp'\\.a.\ (io<:,\.öxs ^Vvi cä«w*. 



HYPNOTISM. 



^■48 

^H hypnotize at least 80 per cent, of their patients ; 

^H fully agrees with him. 

^H The oftener hypnotic experiments are made the 

^^1 sooner hypnosis generally is induced. The first 

^^V attempt often takes five minutes or more, although 

^V on many occasions a few seconds suffice. When the 

^H experiment has succeeded a few times, a few moments 

^P are nearly always enough to attain the result This 

is because the remembrance of the earlier hypnosis 

essentially favours its return. Besides this, the 

strongest hindrance has been overcome by the earlier 

hypnosis — which is the belief of the subject that he is 

not hypnotizablc, or that he can only be hypnotized by 

certain persons ; this belief often prevents hypnosis. 

The certainty with which well-known hypnotizers 

hypnotize people, rests partly on the fact that these 

subjects believe they can be hypnotized by one 

celebrated hypnotizer and not by another. The 

disposition to hypnosis may also disappear when 

the experiments have been discontinued for a long 

»time. Thus I nnce saw a gentleman who was sus- 
ceptible in a high degree become refractory again, 
after no experiments had been made with him during 
six months. I have observed the same thing in 
several people, but the disposition to hypnosis can 
generally be reproduced after a short time, if a few 
attempts are made. 

From the above examples it appears that the 
[ various hypnotic states differ much from one another, 
and that the depth of the hypnosis varies extra- 
ordinarily. This suggested that in order to obtain a 
r general survey an attempt at classification must be 
made. The best known classification is that of 
Charcot, who supposes three stages — the cataleptic, 
^thargic, and somnambulic. I shaU go vn\.o movt 



GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 



49 



detail as to these later, but will remark here that this 
classification has no universal value; Charcot himself 
does not maintain that it has. In my own opinion the 
classification made by Gurney, containing two stages \ 

■aiert and dccp^s only accurate for a few cases. In 
the same way the three stages supposed by Richer, 
Fontan, and S^gard, are not sufficiently well marked 
for practical use. Nor does the classification of Del- 
bceuf seem to me entirely admissible. According 
to him there are two stages of hypnosis — a stage in | 
which pain can be felt, and a stage in which it cannot j 
(analgesia). As, however, complete insensibility to pain / 
cry rare, and as the transitions are vague, insensi- , 
bility to pain does not appear to me to be a suitable I 
distinguishing characteristic. The cla.ssifi cat ions made 
by Li^beault, Bernheim, and Forel, have also become 
well known. As they agree in the main, only differing 
in the number of stages — according to Li^beault, 6 ; 
according to Bernheim, 5 ; according to Forel, 3, I 
shall only cite that of Forel r — 

Stage I. Drowsiness : the subject can resist sug- 
gestions only with great effort. 

Stage 2. Hypotaxy {" cfiartne") '. the eyes are 
fast closed and cannot be opened ; the subject is \ 
obliged to obey various suggestions. 

Stage 3. Somnambulism : it is characterized by . 
loss of memory on waking — that is, the subject 
remembers nothing after waking that has passed 
during the hypnosis. 

The classifications of Ford, Lidbeault, and Uern- 
heim, rest chiefly on loss of memory, as a particular 
group (Forel's 3rd stage) of hypnotic states with loss 
Or memory is placed in contrast with the others 
Torei's ist and 2nd stages), in which no loss of 
uemory exists. 



50 HYPNOTISM. 

Those hypnotic states in which loss of memory exists, are 
called somnambulism by the authors above named. Wienholt 
also has already said that the magnetic states with ensuing loss 
of memory may be called somnambulism. 

I think, however, it would be better not to make 
our estimate of the stages of hypnosis dependent on 
I loss of memory, but on the phenomena which appear 
J during the hypnosis itself. I shall show that memory 
after hypnosis is dependent on many other factors 
which have nothing to do with the depth of the 
hypnosis. A chance view of an external object will 
suffice to arouse a whole chain of mental images ; we 
shall see that memory is influenced by suggestion. 

I should prefer on this account to judge of the 

depth of the hypnosis only from the phenomena of 

the hypnosis itself. Delboeuf, who often experi- 

1 1 mented with profound hypnoses, declares that the 

1 1 subjects after the awakening were nevertheless per- 

J>/ fectly aware of all the hypnotic incidents. 

The numerous sub-divisions given by Li^beault 
and Bernheim are not easy to utilize, because there 
exists no principle for such classification (Max 
Dessoir). For example, one stage is distinguished 
by the complete closing of the eyes, and a deeper 
stage by motor disturbances in the arms. As these 
last, howevQr, can occur also when the eyes are open, 
they cannot be regarded as a sign of the deepening of 
the stage in which the eyes are closed ; for in the 
deepening all the phenomena of previous and lighter 
stages must also appear. 

In order to avoid these difficulties. Max Dessoir 

has lately published a classification of the hypnotic 

states as simple as it is comprehensive and clear. 

According to this the states fall into two large 

groups, which aire divided from eac\v olVvet by >äcÄ 



GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 



r extent of the functional disturbances. I will pro- 
visionally accept tliis classification. In the first group 
merely the voluntary movements show changes; 
the second group abnormalities in the functions of 

■ the sense organs are added. In the first group, also, 
only those functions are abnormal which we attribute 
to the centrifugal nerves, while in the second group 
the functions of the centripetal nerves are likewise 
disturbed. The principle of this classification was 
already known to Kluge also. The minority of subjects 
^^ belong to Group II. ; if we take 75 P^"" cent, to be 
^L susceptible, then about 55 percent, belong to Group I,, 
^H and 20 per cent, to Group II. According to Kron 
^H this latter percentage is perhaps too high ; in his 
^H opinion a relatively .smaller number of persons than 
^H I give belong to Group II. He conjectures that 
^H through practice and other factors these figures might 
^H vary considerably. It will be understood that 
^B these two groups many stages and types can be 
^H distinguished. For example, we sec that many a 
^H hypnotic state belonging to Group I. is merely charac- 
^H terized by the closing of the eyes, which the subject 
^^r cannot voluntarily open, as in the first experiment 
(p. 21). As has been mentioned, this state used to 
be considered as a particular stage of hypnosis, but 
^^ according to the explanation given above it takes its 
^K place as merely a particular form of Group I. It was 
^^L generally represented as a particular stage, because in 
^^f many cases hypnosis is ushered in by a closing of the 
^H eyes, while other muscles are only affected later on. 
^H However, this is really a pure accident (Max Dessoir); 
^^1 we have accustomed ourselves more and more to 
^H induce hypnosis by affecting the eyes, and to provoke 
^^^ a closing of them as quickly as possible', bxA 1^\?. v 
^H nothing but a Iiabit, rusiiUiug tio\u \.Vc VÄtKnlCv^c^vs^ 
^^Df byimosh with alccp. Thcie ave ^ Vav^c ■kmw^^'S 



52 HYPNOTISM, 

hypnotists who induce hypnosis when the eyes are 
wide open, as is the case in " fascination," which will 
be discussed later ( cf. third experiment). I myself 
have met many people in whom it was impossible to 
bring about change of movement of the eye, while 
the other muscles were easily affected. For this 
reason I think the assertion of Michael that hypnosis 
can only be proved when the eyes are completely 
closed is mistaken. He is perfectly right, however, 
when he says that we should not ascribe to hypnosis 
the states of fatigue and giddiness which ensue after 
long attention, unless other phenomena typical of 
hypnosis also appear. 

It is clear that the two groups cannot be sharply 
divided from one another. On the contrary, gradual 
transitions are everywhere to be found. Also the 
transition from a normal state to hypnosis is gradual, 
and certainly not so sudden as some think. We find 
many stages even before we arrive at the closing of 
the eyes, which certainly does not indicate a deep 
hypnosis ; at first only heaviness of the eyelids, then 
the desire to close the eyes, then a difficulty in opening 
them, and finally a complete closing of them. All 
possible stages are displayed, and it would not be very 
difficult to describe a hundred different ones. Further, 
a deep hypnosis is not always attained at once ; the 
light states are often passed through before the deepest 
appears. It is naturally difficult, through all these 
gradual transitions, to decide the exact moment of the 
appearance of hypnosis. A deep sigh, which is often 
heard at the beginning of hypnosis, is by many wrongly 
considered as diagnostic of the important moment, 
particularly as this symptom is easily spread by 
imitation (Delboeuf). The movements of swallowing 
which appear, especially after long fvxatvotv, \v^.m^ 
equally little significance. 




I COKIE now lo the point which is most important 
and which requires the fullest consideration. In 
order to present as complete a sur\ey as possible, 
I must i:i3ke an arrangement under headings of 
Physiology and Psychology. It must not be thought, 
however, that we have to do with a real division ; 
of that there can be no qu^ion. For the bodily 
functions, of which I shall speak under the head of 
Physiolf^, show a deviation from the normal purely 
as a consequence of psychical states. Just as a man 
paralyzed by fright cannot move in consequence of a 
mental shock, and not in consequence of an injury 
to the muscles, so people in a state of religious 
excitement have visions, not because their eyes are 
abnormal in visual function, but because they are in 
an abnormal mental state ; thus in hypnosis the 
muscles, the organs of sense, &c., arc abnormal in 
function only because the mental state is altered. I 
OnlyTrom this point of view is the division made in 
what follows. It is doubtful whether there exist 
generally in hj-pnosis, besides the primary mental and 
secondary physical alterations, any primary bodily 
abnormalities. Descriptions have often been given of 
them, of which I shall speak later ; many such inves- 
tigations, however, suffer from tiic fact Vivsi 'A \a w*. 



4 






-1 



54 HYPNOTISM. 

clear whether we are deah'ng with an effect of the 
methods employed to induce hypnosis or with one of 
Its essential phenomena. In order to explain what is 
meant by this I will suppose that a person looks for 
a long time fixedly at a button. This will produce 
watering of the eyes ; but this comes on in any case, 
whether hypnosis is produced or not. Consequently 
the watering of the eyes is not an essential pheno- 
menon of hypnosis, but purely a consequence of the 
means employed to engender it. In consequence of 
the close tie which everywhere exists between the 
mental and bodily phenomena it will not be 
surprising if in. discussing the latter I am often 
obliged to refer to the former, and vice versa ; a 
thorough separation is not possible. In order not 
to destroy the inner unity for merely external con- 
siderations, I shall occasionally deviate from the 
purely tabular arrangement. 

One peculiar quality of consciousness we shall very 
often find in hypnosis : what is called suggestibility, 
or, better, increased suggestibility. I shall so often 
use this word, and words connected with it, that it will 
be well to define exactly what is meant by it. For 
this purpose I must make a little digression 

Every concept in human beings has a particular 
action, which is to be recognized by an external or 
internal effect For example, by the laws of asso- 
ciation one concept calls up another. The idea of 
St. Helena awakes that of Napoleon I. This peculiar 
arousing of ideas by other ideas was called the law of 
suggestion by a great school of Scotch psychologists 
(Thomas Brown and others), and Paul Janet thinks 
that this expression induced Braid to introduce the 
term "to suggest" for an analogous phenomenon — the 
sf/^^^s^sm d'aUitude — which will be discussed further 



THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 55 

on. A concept can, however, produce an effect by 
arousing feeling^ ; if any one thinlis of a dead relative, 
lie feels grief, and the thought of a joyful event awakens 
a feeling of happiness. Inclinations arc called up in 1 
the same way ; the thougBf bian-objcct for which \r\ 
one has a great longing awakens the desire to possess 
iL Sensations can be also produced in the same 
manner. We have an example in the itching which 
many persons feel directly fleas are talked of. These 
ideas, feelings, sensations, and desires, aroused by 
another idea, form internal processes, which we 
recognize by internal experience. But an idea can 
have an effect which displays itself externally — for ^/\^ 
example, thoughts call up certain movements. 

Let us here consider a proceeding which is called 
thought-reading, which, as the " willing game," was J 
for a long time a favourite society game in England H 
in a somewhat modified form, and which became H 
popular in Germany through the exhibitions of H 
Cumberland. Most people have certainly seen it; H 
however, I will again describe the process. A person H 

A. is made to leave the room ; among those who H 
remain, B. is chosen to think of some object present, I 
which A. is to find. A. comes back, takes B.'s hand H 
and demands that he shall think steadfastly of the H 
place of the chosen object ; let us say it is the lamp. H 

B. thinks steadfastly of it, and it is seen that A. and B. H 
go together towards the lamp, till A., pointing to it, H 
says, "That was the object thought of" Simple as H 
this process— explained lately by Beard, Gley, Richet, ■ 
Obersteiner, Preyer, and known fifty years ago to H 
Chevreul — may be, it appeared enigmatical to manyfi^H 
at first This is the explanation : B. thinks steadily. B 
of the place of the lamp, and has at the same time IH 
slight movements of the body, and ^att\c\i.V?ÄVj et ^f 



I 
I 




r^ 



56 HYPNOTISM, 

the muscles of the arm, in the direction of the lamp. 
A. feels these muscular movements and follows them, 
he permits himself to be directed by them, and 
finds in this way the object thought of B. naturally 
did not make the movements intentionally, conse- 
quently they were involuntary and unconscious. All 
the same, the movements were strong enough to show 

A. the way. This example shows us the following ; 

B. had a certain idea (namely, that of the place of 
the lamp) in his head, and this concept called up 
movements. The movement of the lips which occurs 

fwhen one thinks intensely of a word, is of analogous 
character (Strieker). 

We see, then, from the foregoing that ideas aroused 
in us have an effect which sometimes shows itself 
internally as other concepts, sensations, &c., and 
sometimes externally as movement ; in many cases, 
perhaps in all, there is both an internal and an ex- 
ternal effect. What effect appears, what idea, what 
feeling, what movement will be induced by the first 
concept, depends upon the individuality of the person, 
upon his mental imagery, upon his character, his 
habits, and upon the species of concept ; but a certain 
effect always follows. 

In many cases a person (A.) is able to attain some 
particular effect, which he intentionally aimed at, by 
rousing in B. a definite concept ; and this effect is 
often attained independently of B.*s will, or even 
against it. We see an example of this in a juggler. 
He wants to take some object or other without being 
seen by the public : to attain this he looks at 
another point — for example, at his left hand. The 
eyes of the spectators involuntarily follow his. By 
glancing at his left hand the juggler has caused the 
spectators to look in the same direction. He has 



THE SYMPTOMS OF //iTA'OS/S. 57 

aroused, as quick as lightning, in the spectators the 
idea that something is going on at his left hand ; 
and this idea has had the effect of making the spec- 
tators look at the left hand. A juggler is very often 
able to influence the spectators by some such pro- 
ceeding. They are often thus induced to look in 
the direction desired by the juggler, in order that 
he may be able to change or hide some object 
unobserved. We see here, then, that he produces ■ 
the effect he desires— namely, to make people look 
in another direction. But he takes great care 
not to tell the spectator to look in this direction. 
If he were to say this the spectator would discover ' 
his object, and certainly would not look at the 
spot which the juggler wishes, and he would not 
attain his end. On the other side there arc also 
certain cases in which a desired effect is attained 
simply by directly assuring tlie person concerned 
that the effect will appear. He is certainly able in 
most cases to prevent arbitrarily the appearance of 
such an effect; but not always, however. An example 
which is brought forward by Bonniot should make 
this clear. One says to a person who is embarrassed, 
" You are getting red in the face now!" It is well ' 
known that many people really blush when the con- 
viction that they are blushing is aroused in their 
minds. Now a proceeding of this nature, in which ^ 
an effect is obtained simply by arousing in the person Y 
concerned a conviction of its appearance, is called a\ 
suggestion. We shall find it extremely often in 
hypnosis, and I have already given above a number 
of examples of such suggestions. The method of » 
inducing hypnosis in use at Nancy is to be referred to C 
this kind of process, By it an endeavour is made to f 
create in the subject a conviction of Üva i^^eaiumit \ 



4 



I 
( 



}} 



58 HYPNOTISM. 

of hypnosis, and through this to induce the hypnosis 
itself. 

But there are also cases in which the idea of the 
appearance of an effect is not aroused by a second 
person, but generated by the subject himself. The 
corresponding effect very often appears, even against 
the subject's will. Under pathological conditions we 
find this process very common : a stammerer, for 
example, can often speak quite well, when he does not 
think about his stammering ; as soon as he thinks of 
it, and as soon as the conviction that he will not be 
able to speak without stammering takes possession of 
him, that moment he begins to stammer. Now, as 
the idea of stammering is here generated by the 
person himse lf, while the above-mentioned idea of 
blushing was generated by another person, the last 
process, in which an outsider induces the idea is 
called external suggestion, or hetero-suggestion, the 
first self-suggestion or auto-suggestion. 

Such auto-suggestions are not very uncommon as 
pathological incidents. Dread of open spaces (agora- 
phobia) is nothing but an auto-suggestion. The 
patient in this case is possessed by the idea that he 
cannot step across some open space ; no reasoning is 
of avail here. The patient acknowledges its justice 
without permitting it to influence him, because his 
auto-suggestion is too powerful. As a rule, logic is for 
the most part powerless over these auto-suggestions. 
/ Many hysterical paralyses are likewise auto-sugges- 
j tions ; thus a patient cannot move his legs because 
j he is convinced that movement is impossible. If this 
I conviction can be shaken, movement is at once 
I practicable. 

Auto-suggestion may be called up by some external 
cause; this may affect the person from outside, and 



THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSTS 59 

thus induce an auto-suggestion, Charcot refers some 
isolated traumatic paralyses to some such originating 
mechanism — though this point is still in debate. 
According to this view a violent blow on the arm, 
following on certain disturbances of sensibility, may 
produce in the person concerned a conviction that he 
, cannot move his arm. As the conviction was called 
up by the blow, this case stands somewhere between 
external suggestion and auto-suggestion. We will call 
all cases in which the auto-suggestion did not arise' 
spontaneously, but was the secondary result of some- 
thing else, such as a bSow, indirect suggestions ; as 
opposed to direct suggestion, which arouses a certain 
idea immediately, of which I have already given 
several examples. It is, besides, not always neces- 
sary that there should be a conscious mental act 
in suggestion ; individuality and habit sometimes 
replace this, and play a great part in the training of 
the subject, of which we have still to .speak. For 
example, if some external sign, such as a blow on the 1 
arm, has several times, by means of a conscious ( 
mental act, produced the auto-suggestion that the/ 
arm is paralyzed, then the auto-suggestion may repeat \ 
itself later mechanically at every blow without any 
conscious thought about the elTect of the blow. 

A particular psychical .state, disposing to sugges- \ 
tion, is a necessary condition of its appearance. The I 
disposition to .suggestion is called suggestibility ; it / 
must be present and must precede the suggestion if I 
the latter is to succeed (Bcntivegni), A person in such ' 
a state is said to be suggestible. 

We shall now see that we can in this way obtain 
many effects during hypnosis. We shall also see 
that we can produce these effects not only during , 
hypnosis (hypnotic or iotra -hypnotic s\i^%,(;?Ä.\ovi\V«A. 



1 




6o HYPNOTISM 

that these extend to the time following. We call 
this post -hypnotic suggestion. By means of this we 
can tell the person in the hypnotic state that after his 
awakening a particular result will follow. We can 
also distinguish another kind of suggestion : some- 
thing may be suggested to the subject before the 
hypnosis, which is to follow in that state. This is 
pre-hypnotic suggestion. 



(i) Physiology, 

We will now pass to a discussion of th e functions 
I of the individual organs. The alterations which we 
find in hypnosis affect the voluntary and involuntary 
muscles as well as JJie organs of sense, common 
sensation, the secretions, me tabolism, and in rare 
cases also the cell power of organization. 

The voluntary muscles show the most frequent 
abnormalities, and suggestion exercises a most 
extraordinary influence over their functions during 
hypnosis. We will ask, first of all, what is the state 
of the functions of the voluntary muscles during 
hypnosis, when no kind of external influence is 

«exercised. There are the greatest differences, ac- 
cording to the method of hypnotization selected, and 
according to the character of the subject. Some are 
able to move with perfect freedom during hypnosis 
till the command of the experimenter inhibits some 
particular movement ; many, on the contrary, look as 
if they were asleep. In this case we see no move- 
ments, or very rare ones, which are slow and 
laboured. When we discuss the phenomena of 
suggestion we shall see that this incapacity for move- 
ment cannot in rare cases be removed by the com- 
jDand of the hypnotist. It is to be understood that 



r 



THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 61 

between complete freedom of movement and the 
incapacity to move at all there exist all sorts of 
transitional stages. It is all the same which of these 
characters has the preponderance ; muscular activity 
can nearly always be influenced in a high degree by 
suggestion.' By means of it we can make the exist- 
ing movements impossible, or induce previously 
impossible ones. 

I have shown (p. 22) with my second subject how 
easily I can make his arm powerless to move, simply 
by arousing in him the conviction that the arm is 
powerless. In just the same way the movements of 
the legs, trunk, larynx, and so on, escape the subject's 
control. " You cannot raise your arm ; cannot put 
out your tongue." This suffices to make the for- 
bidden movement impossible. In some cases the 
inability to move arises because the subject cannot 
voluntarily contract his muscles ; while in other cases ' 
a contracture of the antagonistic muscles makes >■ 
every attempt at voluntary movement useless 
(Bleuler). In the same manner the leg will lose the 
power of motion at command. We have seen (p. 22) 
in the second experiment how the power of speech 
can also be taken away, And it is even possible to 
allow the muscles to contract for one particular »» 
purpose only. If we say to a hypnotic subject, " You 
can only say your name ; for the rest you are abso- 
lutely dumb," the desired effect will most surely be 
produced. In the same way it is possible to prevent 
movements of the arms for one particular purpose. 
Thus we can make it impossible for a person to write, 
though he will be able to do any otlier kind 

' For the sake of brevity I shall for the fiHure always use 
"suggestion" (or "external suggestion" whtwthe toaWiv^i \^ 
^Qt cu(prcWy £lated, 1 



62 HYPNOTISM. 

of work. The subject can sew, play the piano, 
&c., but all efforts to write are vain. The 
movements only become possible at the moment 
when the experimenter gives permission. It is 
remarkable that in some persons one set of muscles 

)is easier to influence by suggestion, and in others 
another set. For example, we can make a person 
dumb by suggestion, while all the other muscles obey 
his will in spite of suggestion. Another, again, 
loses the power of moving his arms at once, while his 
speech remains unaffected. 

In just the same way as muscular movements are 
prevented by suggestion, so can movements be 
induced by it against, or without, the will of the 
subject. We have seen (p. 23) how the subject in the 
third experiment knelt down, followed me, and so 
forth. I say to another person, " You are lifting your 
right arm to lay it on your head." This happens at 
once. I would insist that it must be decided whether 
these movements take place without, or against, the 
will of the subject, as in the latter case an increase of 
sensibility is already demonstrated. I say, " Your 
left arm will now rise up in the air." And the arm 
rises as if drawn up by a string, although the subject 
makes no intentional movement ; but neither docs it 
r occur to him to resist. The movements without the 
I subject's will can often be distinguished from those 
* against it by a certain steady ease. These last are 
nearly" always characterized by strong muscular 
contractions, and by trembling, which shows the in- 
tense effort not to obey the will of the hypnotist. 

Just in the same way the hypnotic subject is 
obliged to cough, laugh, talk, jump, &c., at command. 
It is further possible to generate by suggestion the 
f idea of a paralysis of one of the exlrem\Wcs. T\\^^a 



r 

I 

I 



THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 



63 



isolated paralyses have a great resemblance to the 
psychical paralyses arising without hypnosis, such as 
Russell Reynolds described in 1869, as "paralysis 
dependent on idea " ; and Erb, later on, as " paralysis 
by imagination." The pupils of Charcot have tried 
to find objective symptoms of these paralyses that 
depend on suggestion. It cannot be doubted that 
such objective changes may occur through a par- 
ticular association of symptoms ; this hypothesis is 
supported by Kraffl-Ebing also. We must, how- 
ever, recognize that this is not the rule. Accord- 
ing to Lober, Gillcs dc la Tourette, and Richer, 
the clinical characteristics of these paralyses are 
marked by the absolute loss of motor power and 
sensation, increase of the tendon reflexes, ankle 
clonus, wrist clonus, complete loss of muscular sense, 
i,e., of the ability to control perfectly the action of the 
muscles, and to be certain of the position of the 
limbs, changed electrical excitability, and vasomotor 
disturbances ; these last are particularly said to show 
themselves by a bright flush of the skin on slight 
stimulation. These paralyses can be produced in 
both the hypnotic and post-hypnotic states. Be- 
sides these atonic paralyses, in which the muscles 
are completely relaxed, other paralyses, in which the 
muscles arc persistently contracted, can also be pro- 
duced by suggestion. 

With these subjects who are deprived of will, 
besides the movements described above, complicated 
movements, or even performances {if I may be 
allowed the expression), also take place by sugges- 
tion. I say to the subject. " You will spin round 
three times." Or again, " You must lift that thing off 
the table ; you must go and do it ; you cannot help 
it" The subject performs the command. 



64 HYPNOTISM. 

The suggestion itself is made in different ways. 
The main point, and all turns upon this, is that 
the subject should thoroughly understand what the 
experimenter wishes. Each of the organs of sense 
is a door of entrance for suggestion. The most 
common is naturally our habitual means of com- 
munication — speech (verbal suggestion) — by means 
of which we tell the subject what we wish. But it is 
very important, and much more effective than words 
alone, that the experimenter should accompany his 

) words by a performance of the movement which the 
subject is intended to execute. Consequently pro- 
fessional magnetizcrs habitually induce movements 
by imitation. Heidenhain was at first by this led to 
the false conclusion that all these movements of 
hypnotics depended on imitation. 

/Imitation appears particularly in a hypnotic state, 
which certain authors (Br^maud, Morselli, Tanzi) 
have thoroughly studied, and which Descourtis calls 
fascination. I have shown (p. 23) in the third 
experiment a case of this kind. A professional 
magnetizer, Donato, has demonstrated this state 
completely ; and Morselli and others have on this 
account called this form of hypnosis Donatism. 

As I saw in Paris, Donato uses a particular process 
to bring about this state. This process aims at a 
primary forced contracture of all the muscles of the 
body, in order, by this means, to limit the voluntary 
movements as much as possible. In this case the 
eyes of the hypnotist and the subject are firmly fixed 
on one another. The subject finally follows every 
movement of the experimenter. If he goes back- 
ward, the subject follows ; if he comes forward, 
the subject does the same. In the same way the 
latter imitates every movement of the exp^nvcv^tvtoc> 



THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 65 

only on the condition, however, that he knows he is 
intended to do so. Wc see here, as in the above third 
experiment, that fascination may be a primary form or 
hypnosis. But it can also be originated secondarily out 
of the other hypnotic states; and this is more usual. 
When the experimenter has hypnotized the subject in 
some other way, and has made him open his eyes, he 
can fix his own steadily on them, and thus induce the 
same phenomena, A variety of this fascination is to / 
fix the eyes of the subject on some other object — for/ 
example, on the finger of the experimenter. In this ' 
case the ^öQjiated_ person follows every movement 
made by the finger. 

But imitation plays an important r6le in hypnosis, 
as well as fascination. This results from the fact that 
the si^ht of a movement arouses a much more vivid -^ 
mental picture of it in the hypnotized person than 
does a mere command ; this last is, however, a neces- 

I sary condition for the success of the suggestion. 

I Verbal suggestion is also made easier by other 
gestures. In order to compel some one to kneel 
down, an energetic movement of the hand accompany- 
ing the verbal suggestion is very effective, as in the 
third experiment. With this fact is connected one of 
tlie phenomena which magnetizers are fond of exhibit- 
ing, namely, the drawing of the subject after the 
experimenter, who makes movements with his hand 
which show the subject that he is intended to 
approach. 

The experimenter can also repel the subject in the 
same way. This succeeds in particular by means of 
movements of the hand, indicating that he is to go 
away. It is not at all necessary that the subject 
should see the movements of the experimenter ; it is 
sufficient that he should divine them eithei: ftoTO. ^ 
6 



< 



66 



HYPNOTISM. 




noise or a slight current of air; thus the hypnotic^ 
obeys the experimenter even when he has his back I 
turned towards him. Upon the same phenomenon I 
depend the attraction and repulsion of single limbs 1 
of the subject, which happen in the same way, through J 
the hypnotic's perception of the experimenter's ges- 
tures. The experimenter can make the subject raise 
and drop his hand, merely by gesticulating with his 
own ; he can also obtain many effects by a glance . 
only. It is not necessary to look steadily in the eyes J 
of the hypnotic, as in fascination. The operator looks I 
at the subject's leg — it at once becomes powerless to 
move. The hypnotic is going away — the experimenter 
looks at a spot on the floor and he stands chained to 
the spot. These phenomena vividly recall the "evil 
eye," the fascinating gaze, and so on, by means of 
which an evil influence was supposed to be exercised. 

I will mention here that not only speech but also 
music has a suggestive effect. If dance music is 
played the subject will dance, following the rhythm, 
and when the dance is changed to another he alters 
his step to correspond. The influence of music 
upon human beings has long been known, and is 
striking in hypnosis. By means of music during 
hypnosis all sorts of different moods and feelings 
can be aroused corresponding to the kind of music 
Naturally, the subject must have a taste for music, 
otherwise it will have no influence. Mesmer long 
ago recognized this influence of music, and used a 
then newly-invented instrument, the bell-harmonica, 
to obtain the necessary effect. 

The muscular sense, which keeps us informed of the J 
position of our limbs, requires particular consideration^ 
as a way of entrance for suggestion. It causes t 
phenomenon which the school of Nancy calls " c; 



» 



THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 67 

lepsy by suggestion " ; " which is also to be found in 
other states than hypnosis — for example, in some cases 
of typhus fever (Bernheim). It is very common in 
hypnosis, and is shown in the following example: 
I lift the arm of a hypnotic, hold it in the air, and 
then let go ; the arm remains as I placed it, although 
I say nothing. Why does this happen .' Because the 
subject believes he must leave his arm thus, and 
because this suggestion was conveyed to him by the 
muscular sense. Another person lets his arm fall ; I 
raise it again, and say at the same time, "The arm 
keeps stiU ; " which happens ; but only because the 
person now knows that this is intended, while he did 
not understand the simple raising of the arm. Let us 
return to the first subject. I raise the arm again, say- 
ing, " Now the arm falls down ; " which, in fact, happens ; 
evidently only because the person believes that he is 
to let it fall. The legs, head, trunk, and so forth, can 
be put into the most different postures and maintained 
there in exactly the same way ; the muscular sense 
here ie the only transmitter of the suggestion. The 
inclination of the subject to maintain cataleptic 
positions is so great that Heidenhain considered the 
hypnotic state to be a catalepsy artificially produced. 
Catalepsy by suggestion has nothing whatever to do 
with physical alterations of the muscles. 

The main point for the attainment of catalepsy is 
that the subject should accept the idea of the corre- 
sponding attitude. Consequently the idea must take 
' As the most different views exist as to what " Catalepsy " 
means, I remark here that, for the sake of brevity, I shall so 
name any stale in which voluntary movements disappear 
and the hmbs remain as they ate placed by the experimenter 
— without having regard 10 the length of time which elapses 
before the limbs move freely again, or fall fiam tiiui Qvio. 
wägbi. 



HYPNOTISM. 

root before the desired result can be attained, Fttf'J 

this purpose some means or other must be employetjj 
to allow it to operate during a certain period. Wordi 
answer the purpose as well as other signs ; many pel 
sons can only bo thrown into catalepsy from suggestio 
when the attitude required is maintained for somftS 
time. 

The mesmeric passes (p. 29), which I have mentionedl 
as a method of hypnotizing, here deserve especial men- J 
tion. These mesmeric passes can be used locally in \ 
hypnosis — for example, over an arm, in order to make f 
it cataleptic. As far as I have been ab!e to study j 
these phenomena, it is unnecessary in their case I 
to imagine any special force as an explanation. | 
According to my view the efficiency of the mesmeric I 
passes results from the fact that by means of them 
the whole attention of the subject is directed to his I 
arm for a long time. By this means the idea has i 
time to take root. Let any one allow his arm or I 
leg to be mesmerized in this fashion and he will find \ 
that his whole attention is directed to this part of his 1 
body, and much more strongly directed than if the 
attention was concentrated on the limb in another j 
manner. From this it follows also that contractures i 
often only appear when the mesmeric passes have"! 
drawn the attention for some time to the part of the t 
body concerned. The passes with contact act : 
exactly the same way as the passes without contact. 
In any ca.se — and this is important — the effect only 
appears when the individual has an idea of what 
is intended to follow. That centrifugal passes call up 
contractions and centripetal ones dissipate them, is a 
phenomenon frequently mentioned ; but we appear to 
have to do here with unintentional suggestions. Be- , 
sides, I have been as often able to do the same thing. J 
■m'th centripetal passes as with cetitcitugaX. 



r 



THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 



I 



69 

We thus see in what manner suggestion affects the 
movements. A particular attitude is adopted by the 
subject because the corresponding idea has been im- 
planted in him by the operator. 

Such an implanted idea has yet another particular 
effect in hypnosis. It has often a tendency to fix 
itself firmly in the mind and consequently to exercise 
a longer continued effect. This continuation of tlie 
effect may express itself in three ways : firstly, by 
the fact that a certain state of contraction is continued 
for a long period — there is, in fact, a contracture ; 
secondly, by a particular long-continued movement; 
thirdly, by the fact that when the muscles are relaxed 
a contraction of them can only be obtained with diffi- 
culty or not at all, I am decidedly of opinion that 
these phenomena of the muscles must be distinguished 
from suggestion ; they certainly produce a particular 
function, but do not explain its long duration. Some- 
times it is not even possible to counteract the effect of 
the first suggestion by a second, 

I order a person to stretch out his right arm stiffly. 
The arm is stretched out, and the subject is unable to 
bend it of his own accord ; that is, the muscles are 
in a state of contracture. In most cases, directly I 
command the arm to be bent it can be done. But 
there are some cases in which the experimenter is 
unable to put an end to the contracture at once 
because the effect of the earlier idea continues. The 
stronger was the contraction of the muscles the more 
difficult it is to put an end at once to the state of 
contracture. A particular movement can also be 
continued for a long time in the same way. The so- 
called automatic movements (Li^beault, Eernheim), 
or continued movements, as Max Dcssoir calls them, 

\oag to the same category, U wc Vuin ^ll^ axmsv Q&. , 



TO 



HYPNOTISM. 




a hypnotic round and round each other, he has a 
tendency to continue the movement after the operator 
has ceased to compel iL This happens because the 
subject believes that he has been ordered to g:o on. 
In some cases h» continues turning his arms passively, 
while on other occasions he makes the strongest 
possible effort to keep them still, particularly when 
requested to do so. This resistance is useless, how- 
ever; in spite of all exertion of the will the movement 
is continued. A new suggestion of the experimenter, 
that the arms shall stop, is enough in most 
arrest the movements. Sometimes the idea has takett 
root so strongly that the experimenter finds it im- 
possible to obtain an arrest at once by a counter- 
command. I have often observed that a movement 
has continued for some time in spite of my order. 
The most varied movements are continued in this 
manner after they have once begun. I lift up an 
arm and bend it gently at the elbow joint; directly 
I let go it repeats the movement. If it is desired 
that the hypnotic shall walk, and he does not obey 
the command, let him be pulled forward a little 
he will then, when left to himself, continue to walk' 
(Heidenhain). The involuntary laughter, which I 
have often heard, is connected with this ; it begins 
at command, or on a slight provocation. It can be 
put an end to neither by the order of the experi- 
menter nor by the will of the hypnotic. Obersteiner, 
who first began the scientific study of hypnotism io^ 
Austria, has observed the automatic laugh in his owij' 
case, and has described it. We can also indu( 
alternate movements of drawing up and stretchini 
out in the arm or leg, and nodding or shaking of tht 
head, &c. 
la some cases the passivity oE Um aub'^ecX ^s 



I 



U 



^B TBE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 71 

^H great that the idea of a movement will not take root 

^H at all. In this case the suggestion of the expert- 

^H raenter is unable to overcome the muscular relaxa- 

^B lion. Subjects of this kind let their arms drop after 

^F they have been raised, in spite of all suggestions. 

Questions are not answered, or only slight movements 

of the lips show that they have been heard at all 

Two different types of hypnosis, which are called 

P active and passive, may be distinguished by the 
preeence or absence of this muscular relaxation. 
The passive form has a greater external likeness to 
natural sleep, while the active might be taken for a 
waking state on superficial observation. Passive 
hypnosis is not regarded by some authors (Braid) as 
a form of hypnosis, but is considered to be a sleep, 
because the especial symptom is wanting which every 
I investigator regards as the necessary characteristic of 

»hypnosis, namely, catalepsy. This does not appear 
to me absolutely necessary in order to show 
hypnosis. Hypnosis often shows itself as passive 
at the beginning ; as soon as the eyes are closed the 
head drops forward, or backward, while the support- 
ing muscles of the neck are relaxed. There are 
many transitional states between active and passive 
hypnosis, and one often passes into the other. 

The motor disturbances which appear in the eye 
must here be particularly discussed. We have 
already seen that many hypnoses are characterized 
only by the closing of the eyes, while in many cases 
this is added to other symptoms. But the closing of 
the eyes can also be influenced by suggestion, and an 
order of the experimenter is enough in most cases to 
se their instantaneous opening. Closing of the 
s greatly favours the appearance of other hypnotic 
j?heDomena, hut is not abso\ute\y vc\Äs^\^.?^^^'i. 



HYPNOTISM. 



into the ^^H 
e, without ^^H 

w and rec og- ^^H 



There are persons who can be thrown 
deepest stage of hypnosis by a fixed gaze, 
closing the eyes at all (Gurney). 

It mustbe mentioned that Heidenhain already knewandi 
nized the closing of the eyes as the only symptom of hypnosis 
It is so much the more astonishing that the knowledge of 
this light hypnotic stale was afterwards completely lost. Two 
years ago, when I threw a person in the Women's Hospital at 
Berlin into this hypnotic state by means of the Nancy process. 
Professor Ewald, who had made earlier fruitless attempts with 
the same person by means of fixing the eyes, believed that the 
closing of the eyes was simulated. These light states were 
then very little known. 

Although, then, as we say, closing of the eyes is not 
a necessary preface to hypnosis, yet the eyes are in 
most cases closed, and it is often impossible to permit 
them to open without ending the hypnosis at once. 
Even when the eyes open during a long hypnosis, 
there is in many cases a certain heaviness in the lids 
and a desire to close them. Much depends, however, 
upon the method employed ; and primary fascination 
in particular always occurs while the eyes are wide 
open. The closing of the eyes is sometimes very 
gentle, and not spasmodic; though I have seen the 
muscles which close the eye contract spasmodically 
in a large number of cases. Braid and Heidenhain 
already pointed out that when the lids close, even in 
the deepest hypnosis, the closing is not complete. 
There is often a slight chink of opening, and this is 
not unimportant, because many experiments in clair- 
voyance, and also pretended reading with the pit of 
of the stomach, may be explained by the ability to 
see through this small opening. In any case 
closing of the eyes is a common occurrence 
Ayptiosis, especially when tlic Nancy method vsms« 



I 



fe 



THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 73 

Everybody will remember that a heaviness of the 
eyelids and a feeh'ng of fatigue about the eyes is 
one of the first symptoms of natural sleep. 

While the eyes are closed the lids not unseldom 
have a vibratory, trembling movement ; but this 
symptom is of no real importance for diagnosis, as on 
the one hand it is sometimes wanting and on the 
other hand often appears without hypnosis. We 
often see the eyeballs roll upwards as the eyes are 
closing. While in some cases this position of the 
eyeball is maintained, in other cases the eyeball 
resumes its natural position directly the eyes are 
closed. If this does not take place, the white sclerotic 
only is visible when the lids are artificially raised. 

I have only been able to find the convergence ftf 
the pupils described by some observers in one case of 
hystero- epilepsy. Borel affirms that this convergence 
can occasionally be obtained by suggestion. If the 
eyes are open, a slight state of exophthalmos is said 
to be observed ; however, this symptom appears only 
to occur when the method of fixed attention is used. 

As we have seen, the voluntary muscles are entirely 
under the influence of external suggestion during 
hypnosis. A further peculiarity is, that a particular 
movement or state of contraction of the muscles 
cannot always be controlled at once ; and finally, we 
have seen tliat in some cases muscular contraction 
can only be brought about with difficulty or not at 
aJL One of these two functional abnormalities of tlie 
muscles exists in all hypnotic states. Though it 
is occasionally confined to an inability to open 
the eyes, in other hypnotic states the functions of 
other muscles of the body are affected. The different 
result, then, from vavioxis c.ovcJji.tva.^ici'Qs s:iv 



74 HYPNOTISM. 

the above-mentioned abnormalities, and from 
different localization in the muscles. The 
kinds of catalepsy arise in this manner. Bemheim 
distinfjuishes several forms of this catalepsy, accord- 
ing to the facility with which the cataleptic position 
can be changed. Sometimes this is very easily done, 
sometimes with more difficulty, as in tonic con- 
tracture ; the flexibilitas cerea forms an intermediate 
stage. These different kinds of catalepsy are affairs 
of hypnotic training and suggestion (Berger). I have 
never clearly seen a typical flexibilitas cerea in 
hypnosis, except when the training of the subject 
had been directed to that point It appears from a 
remark of Nonne concerning ^e flexibilitas cerea, that 
he has collected other experiences regarding iL On 
that account I would say emphatically that I mean 
here the typical flexibilitas cerea, in which the 
feeling of resistance is the same as if we were 
bending limbs of wax ; this feeling of resistance must 
further be uniform, it must not be stronger at one 
moment than at another. According to my ex- 
perience a flexibilitas cerea taken in this sense is only 
to be obtained in hypnosis by training. In any case 
all these phenomena are of a purely psychical nature. 
One of the best known features in hypnosis is the 
rigidity of the whole body. There is sometimes 
a complete tonic contracture of nearly all the 
voluntary muscles, through which the head, neck, 
trunk, and legs become as stiff as a board. A well- 
known experiment can be carried out in this state: 
the head can be placed on one chair and the feet on 
another, and the body will not double up. A heavy 
weight, that of a man, for example, may even be 
placed upon the body without bending it. It is not 
. astonishing, after what I have said o( Üie e.Kect o^ &a 



om their ^^H 
: various ^^H 
Bemheim I 

I 
I 



THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 7S 

mesmeric passes, that this stiffening should be more 
easily induced by their means ; it cannot always be 
induced by mere verbal suggestion. A command c 
sign of the experimenter generally suffices to put an 
end to the rigidity. 

We must now ask whether any further abnormalities 
appear in the voluntary muscles during hypnosis. 
Changes which are supposed not to be of psychical 
nature have often been assumed. It is frequently 
maintained that reflex action is altered in hypnosis, 
that reflexes appear which do not appear in normal 
conditions. Heidenhain and Charcot are particularly 
to be mentioned among those who have expressed 
this view. Charcot bases his classification of the 
hypnotic states upon the alteration of the reflexes ; 
so I will here briefly give the chief characteristics of 
his three stages. 

Charcot distinguishes a grand hypnotisme and a 
petit hypnotisme. The last he does not describe in 
detail ; in the first, which is found in hystero-epileptics, 
he distinguishes three stages; — i. The cataleptic stage, 
which is produced by a sudden loud noise, or results 
from the opening of the subject's eyes while he is in 
the lethargic stage ; in this stage the position of the 
limbs is easily changed while the hypnotic's eyes are 
open. Every position which is given to the linibs is 
maintained for some time, but is also easily changed 
by the experimenter without resistance on the part of 
the subject ; there is also no wax -like flexibility 
{flexibUitas cered). No tendon reflex, no increase of 
muscular irritability. There is analgesia, but it is 
possible to exercise a certain influence over the 
subject through sight, hearing, and the muscular sense, 
Ä The lethargic stage. It can \ie mduitö. '5Vi.'mai\ 



I 




76 HYPNOTISM. 

by fixed attention, or secondarily out of the cataleptic 
stage by closing tlie eyes. The subject is unconscious 
and not accessible to external influences, and there 
is analgesia. The limbs are relaxed and fall by 
their own weight ; the eyes are closed, the tendon 
reflexes increased. There is increased excitability 
of the muscles, the so-called neuro-muscular hyper- 
excitability. These increases are demonstrated by 
mechanical stimulation of the muscles, nerves, or 
tendons. For example, if the ulnar nerve is pressed 
a contraction of all the muscles which it supplies 
follows, so that a characteristic posture of the fingers 
results ; if a muscle is stimulated, it alone contracts. 
The same thing is attained by this as by local faradiza- 
tion in normal states, which was shown by Duchenne. 
While at the extremities the contraction passes into 
contracture — that is, becomes permanent— a stimula- 
tion of the facial nerve only causes a simple contrac- 
tion in the face, which soon ceases. The resolution 
of the resulting contracture is produced by exciting 
the antagonistic muscles ; thus, for example, a con- 
tracture of the wrist is put an end to by excitation 
of the extensors, and the contracture of one stemo- 
mastoid by stimulation of the other. It is striking 
that, according to Charcot, the motor parts of the 
cerebral cortex, can be stimulated through the 
cranium by means of the galvanic current, so that the 
muscles in connection with them contract. 3. The 
somnambulic stage. In some persons it arises 
primarily by means of fixed attention ; it can be 
induced in all by friction on the crown of the head 
during the lethargic or cataleptic stages. The eyes 
are closed or half-closed. By means of gentle stimula- 
of the skin the underlying muscles can be put into 
j-igid contraction, but not, however, by atim\iVa.t\ot\ ol 



^H are cic 

^h tion of 



THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 77 

the muscles, nerves, or tendons, as in the lethargic 
stage. Also the contracture does not disappear on 
stimulation of the antagonistic muscles as in that 
stage. The posture of the limbs produced by con- 
tracture in somnambulism cannot also be so easily- 
altered as in catalepsy ; a certain resistance appears, 

vn flexibilitas cerea ; Charcot calls it the cataieptoid 
state. The same stimulation of the skin which 
induced the contractures also resolves them. In 
somnambulism many external influences are possible 
by means of suggestion, of which I will speak later in 
their proper connection. 

With regard to these stages of Charcot, most 
investigators doußt if they really exist, and think that 
they are only an artificial product, the result of an 
unintentional training process. It is certainly strik- 

; that since the school of Nancy pointed this out, 
and since it has shown the many sources of error that 
should be avoided, the stages of Charcot are less and 
less frequently observed. Wetterstrand never found 
them at all among 3,589 different persons (Pauly) ; 
experimenters who have occasionally observed them, 
themselves remark that they only appear in certain 
persons after numerous experiments (Stembo). I 
have been as little able as have many others to 
observe the stages of Charcot in my experiments ; 
though even a thousand negative results would not 
be able to overthrow one positive result of Charcot's. 
I have besides often experimented on several hystero- 
epileptics, but have failed to observe the stages, in 
spite of Richer's opinion that every one who experi- 
ments on such persons will obtain the same results as 
the school of Charcot. However, I think it possible 
that in some few cases of hystero-epiiej sy the stag^es 
do exist But Jet us cotiEine ouia&Vj^ \.o ^iae-'A^s^J 



r 



TS HYPNOTISM. 

cases ; let us give them no greater importance than 
does Charcot himself, who by no means insists that 
these three stages are always to be found. Even those 
authors who on the whole accept Charcot's stages 
agree that there are many exceptions. 

Charcot himself lays the chief stress on the varia- 
tions of muscular excitability in the different stages. 
Dumontpallicr and Magnin, however, maintain that 
the increase of neuro-muscular excitability is by no 
means confined to the lethargic stage, but appears in 
all of tham. They have likewise pointed out that 
there are numerous mixed states (Jtats mixtes) in 
which the symptoms, partly of the lethargic and partly 
of the cataleptic stages, show themselves. Richer 
finds single cases in which the catalepsy is signalized 
by greater rigidity and disposition to contracture, 
Tamburini and Seppilli find a lethargy with hyperses- 
thesia of the ovaries. Jules Janet again has produced 
a fourth stage in Wit., — one of the best-known of 
Charcot's subjects — which is distinguished from the 
three others, both physically and mentally. Besides 
which, many deviations from the types of the three 
stages are to be found in the writings of Charcot's 
pupils. Thus Richer describes forms of leithargy, in 
which the subject performs movements at command, 
and Gilles de la Tourette describes a lucid lethargy, 
in which there was no loss of consciousness. In any 
case the idea of the stages has become somewhat 
confused, as an attempt has been made to include 
everything possible under them. Every one looked 
for the stages ; when he could not 6nd them, as was 
usually the case, he believed himself obliged to add 
certain new characteristics to them. 

The methods used to induce the different 
Asve a very doubtful value. Magnin mamtains that 




^_ the tor 
^^k to be a 
^^V By me. 



THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 79 

all the stages can be brought on by one particular 
stimulation — for example, by pressure on the crown of 
the head. Which stage appears, depends, he says, upon 
the duration of the stimulation. Dumontpallier and 
Magnin have besides asserted that the same method 
which induces a stage will also cause it to disappear 
[Tagent qui fait d^fait'); for example, if catalepsy is 
caused by a dazzling ray of light it disappears when 
a new ray of light falls on the eye. Braid formerly 
maintained something of the same kind (Max 
Dessoir). 

The main point, however, is that Charcot and his 
pupils describe specific muscular phenomena, which 
are supposed to appear without a psychical cause. 
Thus, as we have seen, contractions of the muscles 
are said to arise during the lethargic stage by means 
of pressure on the nerves ; muscles are contracted 
by stimulation of the skin without any mental act 
taking place ; that is, without the subject's knowing 
that a muscle is to contract, or which muscle it will 
be. Heidenhain stated exactly the same thing, except 
that he found no contractures from pressure on the 
nerves, but only from stimulation of the skin. 
Heidenhain also believes that these contractures occur 
without any participation of the consciousness, and 
that they are reflexes, which are set going by stimu- 
lation of the skin. According to Heidenhain's view 
only the underlying muscles contract through gentle 
stimulation ; by means of stronger stimulation neigh- 
bouring ones also contract, and the consequent 
contracture spreads, in proportion to the strength of 
the stimulation. In this manner Heidenhain considers 
the tonic spasm or rigidity, which is seen in hypnosis, 
to be a reflex. Heidenhain tried to find new reflexes. 
By means of stimulation of certain üa.t'ts qI "Oca, ^vr 



So HYPNOTISM. 

particular movements were supposed by him to be 
induced ; thus stimulation of the neck produced vocal 
sound — as in Goltz's experiments. Born also be- 
lieved he had discovered a series of new reflexes, 
which might be seen after stroking certain portions of 
the skin. 

The much-discussed question, whether in the ex- 
periments of Heidenhain and Charcot we have really 
to do with reflexes or not, is not easy to answer, 
because many physiologists do not distinguish with 
sufficient clearness between two sorts of reflexes — the 
physical and the mental. In order to render this 
clear I must make a short digression and say some- 
thing about reflex action. We understand by reflex 
action of the muscles that particular action which is 
induced by excitation of a sensory nerve, without the 
co-operation of the will. When, for example, an 
insect flies into the eye it closes ; this closing is 
reflex, because it is involuntary. When on another 
occasion the eye is voluntarily closed, this is no reflex, 
but a voluntary movement, so that the same movement 
may be performed either voluntarily or by reflex 
action. Let us take the following case: I touch the 
eye of a person f A.) ; the eye closes in consequence by 
reflex action, that is, without the participation of A.'s 
will. I bring my htrnd near to the eye of another 
person (B.) ; long before it is touched it closes, not only 
without, but also against, B.'s will. The closing of 
B.'s eye is also reflex action ; the stimulation here 
affects the nerves of sight- And yet there is a great 
difference between the closing of A.'s eye and the 
closing of B.'s. While in the case of A. no mental 
action is necessary to produce the reflex, in the case 
of B. it is otherwise. He shuts his eye because he 
Imagines that it will be touched — at least, this is the 




THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 81 

general opinion. If B, puts his own finger near his 
eye it does not close, because this idea does not then 
arise. In any case a decided mental action takes 
place in B, and not in A. On this account we call 
the closing of E.'s eye a mental reflex, and A.'s a 
physical one. The mental reflexes are extremely 
common ; stooping at the whistling of a bullet, 
laughing at sight of a clown, sickness produced by a 
disgusting smell, are mental reflexes. The involun- 
tary muscular action is caused by a stimulation of the 
eye, ear, or sense »f smell, after the stimulatton has 
been interpreted in a particular way by the conscious- 
ness. 

The classification of the reflexes into physical and 
mental is not valueless for us ; I think it better at 
present to keep to this classification, although it 
is only schematic, and although an authority as 
high as Lewes supposes a mental action in all 
reflexes. Gurney, Max Dessoir, and Huckel, have 
directed attention to the importance of mental 
reflexes for hypnosis. Heidenhain and Charcot de- 
nied any mental action in the contractures which 
they induced ; the Nancy school, on the contrary, 

■believes that it occurs, that the subject knows what 
is intended to result, but that his will is unable to 
prevent the contracture ; this is called a suggestion, 
and is only a kind of mental reflex. Consequently 
the question put forward above, whether Hcidenhain's 
and Charcot's contractures arc reflexes, may be thus 

' modified : Have we to do as these authors suppose, 
with physical reflexes, or with mental ones ? 

Without wishing to maintain ä priori that the views 
of Heidenhain and Charcot are mistaken, I should 
say that they would at least require careful cx^tcä'sn'ö.- 
tion before they couJd be accepted. 'Ho'«a^w'&, 



HYPNOTISM. 



when we know from Bernheim, Forel, Delbceuf, and» 
othärs, that these things can all, or almost all, 
brought about by suggestion — that is, by means of the 
hypnotic's belief in their appearance — we are obliged 
to suppose that this is actually the case whenever 
suggestion is not rigidly excluded in experiment, 
Heidenhain's experiments offer no guarantee on this 
point. As the influence of suggestion was then 
unknown, it was naturally not excluded, and it even 
appears, from Heidenhain's publications, that the 
experiments proposed were discussed before the sub- 
ject. When, then, Heidenhain maintains that the 
contractures spread according to rule, and even 
according to the laws for physical reflexes laid down 
by Pflüger, my own experiments oblige me to doubt 
it ; according ta these the contractures progress in' 
proportion to the hypnotic's comprehension of the 
experimenter's wish or command ; so that there can 
be no question of an adherence to rule. 

With regard to Charcot's propositions I will discusa 
later some particular points — for example, the loss of 
consciousness in lethargy. 1 will only remark here, 
that most of the phenomena can be explained by 
suggestion. In the contractures of somnambulism 
the thing is clear. Nothing is easier than to cause 
such contractures by suggestion. If it is to be proved 
that these really occur without suggestion, suggestion 
must first be excluded. Only the publication of more 
exact and detailed accounts of the first experiments 
made with these subjects would convince us that it 
was excluded. Unconscious and unintentional sug- 
gesticMi is the greatest source of error in hypnotic 
investigation. I should conjecture that the contrac- 
tures of somnambulism are only brought about by 
mental action. This is also to be conc\MÄe& ^toto 






I 



I 



THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPlfOSJS. 



83 



I 



I 



another phenomenon. We have seen above, in the 
fourth experiment, that only one person, the experi- 
menter, can influence the subject, is in raj^ort with 
him, as the technical term goes. Only the experi- 
menter can induce contraction of the muscles ; 
stimulation by other persons has no effect. If the 
contractions were produced without participation of 
the consciousness, this would be incomprehensible. 
Charcot's pupils also speak of this phenomenon ; 
they assert that in somnambulism certain persons 
only can influence the muscular action of the hypnotics 
by stimulation of the skin ; those persons, that is, 
who are in rapport with the subject This decidedly 
favours the view that the contractures are caused by 
an act of consciousness ; though Charcot's pupils have 
not drawn this evident conclusion. 

In the case of contractures in lethargy the question 
is rather more complicated, particularly in those 
where a certain group of muscles — for example, those 
of the ulnar nerve — are acted upon, or those in which 
an isolated muscle is excited. It would be well here, 
also, if more exact accounts of the first experiments 
were published. For it can hardly be avoided, that 
when the same experiments are repeated certain 
indications should be given, from which the subject 
draws conclusions as to what he is expected to do. 
I have no doubt that by means of such indications 
even tolerably complicated movements, such as an 
isolated contracture of the muscles supplied by the 
ulnar nerve, can be induced ; that is, purely by sugges- 
tion. With the quick perceptions which hypnotics 
possess, they could easily be brought to this point I 
do not think it at all impossible to induce by sugges- 
tion the few movements which Charcot sho"«?. to Vä 
public classes. I also should noVe ■paxWc^ÄMS.-^J^^^J 



84 HYPNOTISM. 

Jendrässik, an adherent of Charcot, who accepts his 
classification of the stages of hypnosis, thinks that the 
contracture of lethargy is brought about by suggestion ■ 
only. 

It must be admitted that Richer emphatically 
asserts that in those experiments, which were varied ■ 
a thousandfold, the results were always identical, that 
imitation was excluded, and that the stimulation of 
muscles and nerves at once caused the corresponding 
contractures which very few physicans would be able 
intentionally to induce. But It may be concluded 
from the statement of Vigouroux that the thing is not 
so plain. He excepts the deltoid muscle from the ' 
rule. Gillcs de la Tourette also says that the results | 
were only attained after long previous experiment I 
will not permit myself to pronounce a final judgment 
upon contractures in lethargy ; in my opinion it i3 
not yet settled whether they take place with or with- 
out suggestion. 

The phenomena of imitative speech {echolalie\ 
observed by Heidenhain and Berger belong to this 
section. Berger says that hypnotics will repeat 
everything that is said before them, like phonographs ; 
even what is said in foreign languages is repeated 
with some exactness. The notion that only certain 
tracts of the bodily surface must be stimulated In 
order to produce this repetition (Heidenhain, Berger) 
may be considered a mistake, the result of insufficient 
acquaintance with suggestion on the part of the 
Breslau investigators, I believe, that the hypnotic i 
echoes what he believes he is intended to echo. It is 
certain that some persons are able to perform great 
feats in this way, imitating a hitherto unknown 
/angvage quickly and correcÜy, patucuXaiXy a^X^t X\äJ 




THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 



as 



I 



necessary practice. It is perfectly indifferent whether 
the speech be addressed to the stomach, or the neck — 
this was supposed to be the sensitive region — or to 
any other part of the body. The main point is that 
the hypnotic should know he is intended to repeat 
the sounds. Certain reflexes, which are supposed to 
be induced by touching the head, the appearance of 
aphasia, or of twitchings or contractures in the arm or 
leg on touching certain parts of the cranium, should 
be understood in the same way ; statements of this 
kind were made by Heidenhain, and have been re- 
peated lately by Silva, Binet, and F^rd These last 
even believe that they can place single limbs in the 
somnambulic state by stimulating the parts of the 
head which correspond to the motor centres of the 
limbs concerned. The experiments have not been 
carried out with sufficient caution. It is inexplicable 
that the result should be attained by pressure on 
the head, and the reference of these authors to the 
phrenology of Gall explains nothing. Chalande even 
wishes to study the physiology of the brain in this way 
(Delbceuf ). What would our physiologists say if, in 
order to stimulate some portion of the brain, it were 
only necessary to rub the cranium on the correspond- 
ing spot during hypnosis ? The method would 
certainly be practicable on account of its simplicity, 
but unfortunately it 'is founded on inexact observa- 
tions, and is perfectly useless. Braid described 
similar phenomena, which he called ph re no-hypnotic. 
He invented explanations, which were themselves in 
need of explanation. One of Braid's suppositions 
was that there was a kind of reflex stimulus. By 
pressure on a portion of the skull a nerve was stimu- 
lated which by reflex action excited a part of the 
\xiain, and by this means excited fee\m^s t>l tft'ft.fc'j'a- . 



86 HYPNOTISM. 

lence, for example ; by stimulating another spot, 
another nerve was excitett which by reflex action 
produced an expression of piety, &c. Braid appears 
to have given up ph re no- hypnotism later (Preyer). 

Let me here point out that it is possible to induce 
hemi-hypnosis, or hypnosis of one side, by suggestion, 
or to influence each half of the body in a different 
way. It was known even to Braid that by blowing on 
one eye the corresponding side could be awakened. 
Descourtis, Charcot, DumontpalJier, Berillon, Lepine 
Stroh!, as well as Grützner, Heidenhain, and Berger, 
who were under Kayser's influence, carried on these 
experiments in various modified forms ; Berger later 
on changed his views. Though these authors regard 
hemi-hypnosis as a physiological condition induced 
by the closing of one eye or by friction of one-half of 
the crown of the head, their statements do not now 
prove their point. We know by this time that we can 
produce all these states by mental influence, and 
suggestion must be excluded before the experiments 
can be considered conclusive. It appears very 
probable, from Heidenhain's publications, that the 
expected results were discussed in the presence of the 
subject, who only needed to divine the expected 
result to act accordingly. Sometimes stroking the 
left side of the head was supposed to make the left 
half of the body hypnotic ; sometimes the result 
followed on the right side. The rules which Heiden- 
hain laid down on this question are not tenable. The 
main point still is that the subject shall know what 
is intended to happen to him, and what effect is 
expected from the processes. 

As is evident from what has been said, I regard the 
functionai ch^ages which the voVuntaiy mMacXea s.W'N 



THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 8? 

in hypnosis as dependent on central conditions ; a 

suggested idea can cause either paralysis or move- 
ment of the limbs. The question must now be 
discussed whether, in consequence of this suggestive 
central action, alterations in the functions of the 
muscles may appear which are not normally to be 
found, that is, whether the action causes objective 
abnormalities which could not be induced by the will 
of the hypnotic. 

A priori, I think the probability that there are such 
changes is not great, for it cannot be supposed that 
an idea which I implant in the subject should have 
more effect than the idea he himself originates. If, 
then, there are some symptoms which are character- 
istic, this proves that the idea called up by external 
suggestion, and the self-suggested idea, have different 
effects on the functions ; or else that the muscles are 
influenced in hypnosis by something besides sugges- 
tion, i.e., the propensity to contracture, of which I 
have spoken above. We must understand the objec- 
tive phenomena in one way or the other. I have 
already spoken of the physical symptoms of suggested 
paralyses. I will here mention a few other cases in 
which suggestion heightened the normal muscular 
powers. 

The cataleptic posture of the limbs is sometimes 
maintained for a very long time, even for several 
hours. One person remained for seventeen hours in 
a cataleptic posture. Bcrger mentions the case of a 
young girl who maintained this condition without per- 
ceptible change for seven hours, during which she 
was continually ivatched. In these cases the fatigue 
and pain which ordinarily follow on great muscular 
exertion do not ensue. Great fatigue rarely results 
even when the same position is ma,inVavt\c^ ^ö^ ■*& 



8S HYPNOTISAf. 

long as an hour. Some distinctl)' marked caso6 of 

imitative speech {echolalie) must be mentioned here. 
Braid relates that a hypnotized g;irl once imitated 
some of the songs of the famous Jenny Lind per- 
fectly, which she was quite incapable of doing in 
the waking state. Braid attributes this feat to the 
delicacy of hearing and of the muscular sense in 
hypnosis. 

However, we find in hypnosis frequent connecting 
links with the normal life. We see that in hypnosis 
an arm remains longer in the position commanded 
than a leg, for example. This is because the muscles 
of the leg are more difficult to fix in any desired 
posture than those of the arm ; the leg falls more 
quickly by its own weight. 

Dynamometric investigations, that is, measurements 
of the muscular force, have often been undertaken 
during hypnosis. I myself have made a number of 
such investigations, which for the most part agreed 
with the results of Bcaunis. The most important 
point appears to me to be that in most cases the 
muscular force is lessened in hypnosis. I have seldom 
found it increased. I have made these investigations 
during the different hypnotic states, but have hardly 
ever found an increase. However, there are variations, 
and I have occasionally seen the strength of one hand 
increase while that of the other diminished. I have 
also obtained different results at different times with 
the same person. When there were such variations 
they were always of small amount, and they are the 
less important that all dynamometric investigations 
suffer from certain sources of error. 

We may here consider the electric excitability 

the nerves and muscles, to which little attention has 

hitlierto been paid. Moriz Rosenthal finds an mcteasa-, 



ith 
ns 

he ^m 
nsi^^l 

i 



THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 89 

of electric sensibility in hypnosis. Tereg also found 
changes in one case, which, however, was investigated 
without the galvanometer ; and Marina has done the 
same in the case of a person in the waking state 
who, however, had often been hypnotized. I, for my 
part, like Heidenhain, Berger, and Rieger, have been 
unable to discover anything of importance in this 
direction. I have tried more than a hundred different 
experiments without Ending a perceptible difference 
on this point between the hypnotic and waking states. 
I made my experiments with the galvanic and faradic 
current ; I always used Hirschmann's galvanometer, 
and made most of the experiments on the ulnar 
nerve just above the elbow. I have already said 
that the electric susceptibility is decreased in sug- 
gested paralyses ; it appears that electric susceptibility 
undergoes changes in certain cases from a mental 
cause ; a further investigation of this would be very 
interesting. I do not at all believe that we have to 
do with primary changes in the muscles or nerves. 
I may just mention that according to Morselli and 
Mendelsohn the muscles contract more quickly from 
stimulation in hypnosis than in the waking state. 

I have discussed above a whole series of pheno- 
mena, which I, in common with the school of Nancy, 
consider to be produced by suggestion, but which 
Heidenhain and Charcot, among others, regard as 
ordinary reflexes, having no mental cause. I have 
shown that imitative speech {echolalie), many con- 
tractures, and the newly discovered reflexes of Born 
and Heidenhain, are probably phenomena of sugges- 
tion. There appear to be no new reflexes in hypi 
independent of suggestion ; no sure proof has 
been offered, at least. We must U0"w e-x.^'m\'Ci& 
ordinary reffcxes of hypnosis. 



1 
I 



ßorn 

igges- 

pnosis ^^A 



90 



HYPNOTISM. 



I have spoken occasionally of the tendon reflexes, 
whose increase we observed in the lethargic stage of 
Charcot, and in certain paralyses by suggestion. 
Berger has also observed an increase of the patellar 
reflex. But, as I have often noticed, the increase 
seems to depend upon the kind of suggestion. I 
have several times found increases when the muscles 
were completely relaxed ; on the other hand, I have 
found decrease of the reflexes in cataleptic postures. 
This is easily explained ; it has an analogy in waking 
states, and must not be too easily regarded as a 
phenomenon peculiar to hypnosis, since apart from 
hypnosis the tendon reflexes are more perceptible 
when the muscles are relaxed than when they are 
contracted. 

With regard to the pupil of the eye, Braid has 
already mentioned a difference between its states in 
hypnosis and in sleep. In sleep there is a contraction 
of the pupil ; but Braid found that it often dilated in 
hypnosis. This is confirmed by Heidenhain, I have 
never observed this dilatation except when I have 
employed the method of fixed attention ; at other 
times I have more often found contraction of the 
pupil. 1 can confirm Braid's assertion that oscilla- ' 
tions of the pupil appear not seldom in fixation ; 
contraction and dilatation alternate rapidly, 

Spasm of accommodation is also often mentioned 
(Heidenhain, Cohn, Kumpf). The assertion that the 
pupil reflexes are abnormal in hypnosis is often met 
with. In particular it is said that a ray of light does 
not cause a reflex contraction of the pupil during 
hypnosis. I have never observed a complete absence 
of the reflex, but I have often remarked very slight 
reaction when I have used the method of fixed atten- 
tJon to Induce hypnosis. 1 do not know \Ntieth.ec 



I 



r 



THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 



9' 

this was an effect of the method or of the hypnosis, 
but am inclined to consider the method as the cause. 
Sgrosso noticed dilatation of the pupils in his two 
subjects on the appearance of hypnosis, followed by 
contraction during the state. 

Up to this point we have only studied those 
changes which appear in the voluntary motor system 
during hypnosis. The hypnoses belonging to the 
first group (p. 50) are characterized by various com- 
binations of these changes, which are, notwith- 
standing, also found in the second group. The 
hypnotic states belonging to this group are, however, 
distinguished by an increase of susceptibility to 
suggestion. The functions of the organs of sense, In 
particular, are influenced by it. How these act in 
hypnosis without suggestion it is difficult to say 
decidedly ; the statements of different authors are 
very contradictory. There is no essential change in 
the functions of the organs of sense in the light 
stages of hypnosis ; the subject sees, hears, smells, 
&c., normally. According to Li^beault, the senses of 
sight and taste decrease first, then the sense of smell, 
then hearing and feeling disappear in turn. But 
when the method of fixed attention is used, sight is 
the last to go. According to my experience these 
statements arc not quite exact ; if we compare them 
with those of other authors we find many contra- 
dictions. I think that these contradictions occur 
because the condition of the hypnotic in relation to 
various objects and persons is not enough considered. 
For example, he hears the person who is hypnotizing 
him, and not others ; he feels this man's touch, and 
not another's. For this reason I believe that we must 
regard the whole state from tVie begmtütx^ ^ä a ■^m.'sä:^ 





9ä HYPNOTISM. 

psychical ona Braid distinguishes two grades, ao-' 
cording to the functions of the sense organs; in one * 
an increased activity of sense is shown, and in the 
other a diminution of it. My observations have not 
confirmed this. 

It is possible to induce all kinds of sense halluci- 
nations in hypnosis. The images produced are so 
changing that any one who sees them for the first 
time is justified in doubting whether the phenomena 
are real or not. We have accustomed ourselves to 
depend so completely on the perceptions of our 
senses, to think them such trustworthy witnesses in all 
cases, that we are indeed astonished when we find 
that a word suffices to place a hypnotic among utterly 
different surroundings. ' 

Sense delusions are divided into Hallucinations and Illusions. I 
The first is the perception of an object where in reality there ' 
is nothing i the second is the false interpretation of an existing 
external object. If, for eitample, a book is taken for a cat, or 
a blow on the table for the firing of a cannon, we talk of an 
illusion ; but if a cat is seen where there is nothing, we call it 
a hallucination. We have thus to do with a hallucination when 
an external abject causes a perception by means of association. 
A chair on wliich a particular person has often sat, may by 
association call up an image of that person; this is a hallucination— 
called up by an external object. I 

We observe numerous hallucinations and illusions 
in hypnosis. We have seen in Case IV, that it 
suffices to assert that a dog is present, and a dog will 
apparently be seen. A handkerchief was in this 
case taken for a dog, consequently this was an illusion. 
An illusion is more easily induced than a hallucina- 
tion ; in the absence of an external object, such as 
the Jia;id kerchief, the suggestion very often fails. 
When I do not offer some such oVject l\\c Vv^'ptiQ'Lxc. 



THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 



93 



often finds it for himself. Hallucinations of sight 
are more easily caused when the eyes are closed ; 
the subjects then see objects and persons with their 
eyes shut, as in dreams. They think, at the same 
time, that their eyes arc open, just as we are unaware 
in dreams that our eyes are shut. If we wish to 
cause a delusion of the sense of sight at the moment 
of opening the eyes, it is necessary to make the 
suggestion quickly, lest the act of opening the eyes 
should awaken the subject. I advise the use of fixed 
attention while the suggestion is being made {cf. 
Experiment IV.), so that the subject may not awaken 
himself by looking about. The other organs of sense 
may also be deluded. I knock on the table and give 
the idea that cannon are being fired, I blow with the 
bellows and make the suggestion that an engine is 
steaming up. A hallucination of hearing something, 
e.g.i the piano, is induced without the aid of any 
external stimulus. In the same way smell, taste, 
and touch may be the senses deceived. It is 
well known that hypnotics will drink water or even 
ink for wine, will cat onions for pears, will smell 
ammonia for Eau de Colt^ne, &c. In these cases 
the expression of face induced by the suggested 
perception corresponds so perfectly to it that a better 
effect would scarcely be produced if the real article 
were used. Tel! the subject he has taken snuff, he 
sneezes. All varieties of the senses of touch, of 
pressure, of temperature, of pain, can be influenced. 
I tell a person that he is standing on ice. He 
feels cold at once. He trembles, his teeth chatter, 
he wraps himself in his coat. " Goose-skin " can 
be produced by the suggestion of a cold bath 
(Krafft - Ebing), In like manner itchin-j a.i\4 ?» 
forth can be induced, I say to a ^enü.ew\a."sv .^w"^« 



I 



94 



HYPNOTISM. 




morrow at three o'clock your forehead will itch." 
The post-hypnotic suggestion proves true ; the fore- 
head itches so much that the subject rubs it con- 
tinually. It appears to me that the senses of touch 
and taste are the most easily and frequently in- 
fluenced. For example, the suggestion of a bitter 
taste takes effect much sooner than the suggestion 
of a delusion of sight or hearing. It is true that 
the subjects often account to themselves for the 
delusion ; they taste the bitterness, but say at the 
same time that it must be a subjective sensation, 
since they have nothing bitter in their mouths. 

Sense delusions can be suggested in anyway. We 
can tell the subject that he sees a bird. We can 
suggest the same thing by gesture — for example, by 
pretending to hold a bird in the hand — particularly 
after the subject has received some hypnotic training, 
The chief point is that the subject should understand 
what is intended by the gesture. 

Naturally, several organs of sense can be influenced 
by suggestion at the same time, I tell some one, 
" Here is a rose ; " he not only sees, but smells and 
feels the rose. I pretend to give another subject a 
dozen oysters; he eats them at once, without further 
suggestion. The suggestion here affects sight, feeling, 
and taste at the same time. In many cases the 
muscular sense is influenced in a striking manner by 
such suggestions. 1 give a subject a glass of wine to 
drink ; he lifts the pretended glass to his lips, and 
leaves a space between hand and mouth as he would 
if he held a real glass. I am not obliged to define 
the delusion for each separate sense ; tlie subject does 
this spontaneously for himself The subject in this 
way competes most suggestions by a process re- 
^sembling the indirect suggestion desciibed ou v^*^ 



I 

I 

I 




THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 95 

58. The external suggestion does not remain an 
isolated phenomenon, but causes a series of other 
mental processes, according to the character of the 
subject and to the hypnotic training he has received. 
I say to the subject, " Here, take this bottle of Eau 
de Cologne ! " He believes that he feels the bottle in 
his hand, which in reality is empty ; besides which he 
believes he sees the bottle and smells it, although I 
add nothing to my original suggestion. In short, he 
completes it independently. This is a very common 
occurrence. 

Besides which the deception, if it is thorough, is 
clearly reflected in the subject's expression and 
gestures. No gourmand could wear a more delighted 
expression over some favourite dish than does a 
subject over a suggested delicacy. Very few people 
would be able to imitate by art the expression of 
fear on the face of a subject when he believes that a 
tiger is about to attack him. A subject will drink 
several glasses of wine by suggestion, will become red 
in the face, and will then complain of his head. I 
give a piece of cork to a subject for an onion ; he 
smells it and his eyes fill with tears. We can in this 
manner place a subject in any situation we please, 
and from his behaviour under the circumstances draw 
conclusions as to his character (MorselliJ. But it 
would be necessary to exercise caution in such a 
case, since the subject nearly always has some dim 
consciousness of his real surroundings, however 
pletely he may seem to be transported into the 
imaginary ones. I shall return later and more fully 
to these incomplete sense delusions. 

Some authors (Dumontpallier, BSrillon) have particularly 
directed atteniion 10 the suggestiona whldi lakt fcSw,i, <a 
aide of the body only. For examp\e, we cati c.a.\is« ^ i.w|.Vi^ 



1 
I 



96 



HYPNOTISM. 



seen on the right side, and a bird on the lefi, and so forth ; this | 

appears to be only an affair of training and suggestion. It is J 

useless to draw conclusions from this about ihe independent 1 

Itinctions of the two hemispheres of the brain. The case | 

mentioned by Magnin is connected with this; a person J 

affected by weak sight of the left eye, of hysterical origin, be- j 

lieved in the hypnotic state that he saw with the right eye things I 

which he really saw with the left, and so thought they were \ 
on his right side when they were really on his left (allochiria). 

In contrast with the delusions of sense hitherto I 
described, which are sometimes called positive, there 
are also negative hallucinations, or negative delusions 
of sense. The older mesmerists (Deleuze, Bertrand, 
Charpignon) published many observations of them. 
This kind of suggestion, which at first seemed more 
incredible than the positive, nevertheless has analogies 
in the normal state, like all the hypnotic phenomena. 
Consider the juggler, who knows how to use the most 
important psychological laws for practical purposes. 
Let us watch him carefully, and we shall see how he 
hides things, how he makes a change, how he sub- 
stitutes one card for another under the very eyes of 
the spectators. But he knows how to draw off their 
attention by clever talk, so that even those who have 
watched him are unable to give an account to them- 
selves of his proceedings. For example, the cards 
are changed in the spectator's field of view ; the 
sense stimulation takes place, but does not pene- 
trate to the consciousness. We find analogous I 
occurrences in ordinary life. It has happened to j 
everybody to look for something which is before his [ 
eyes. In this case also the thing is not perceived, 
although it is in the seeker's field of view and he is 1 
actually thinking about it. It is no longer incredible, 
then, that we should find analogous processes in j 
hypnosis. If we can make the Viypnofe see >N\\'a.X..l 



THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 97 

does not exist, after the above explanation it is no 
longer surprising Ihat we can prevent his seeing what 
does exist. 

Let us examine such a case. Mr. X. is in hypnosis. 
Two persons are present besides myself. I tell him, 
" From this moment you will only be able to see 
me ; you can no longer see the other men, though 
they are still here." X. then replies to every ques- 
tion addressed to him by these gentlemen, and can 
feel them, but he cannot see them. This is a negative 
hallucination of sight only. But a negative hallucina- 
tion of several senses can be induced as readily as a 
positive one. I say to X., " The two men have gone 
away ; you and I are alone. From tliis moment X. 
neither sees nor hears them, nor perceives them by 
means of any sense. When I ask who is in the room 
he replies, " Only you and I." Part of an object 
or person can be made invisible in the same way. 
We can cause people to appear headless and arm- 
less, or make them disappear altogether by putting 
on a particular hat, as in the story of the Magic 
Cap. ■ The situation may be varied in any way we 
please. 

Forel has lately pointed out that the insane often 
have these negative hallucinations. He has also 
pointed out that hypnotics complete the hallucination 
at their pleasure. Thus I say to X,, while A. is sitting 
on a chair, " A. has gone away ; there is nobody on 
that chair." X. examines the chair, and as he feels 
something there he imagines that a plaid is lying on 
it Wc see here how a suggested negative hallucina- 
tion passes into an illusion through the auto- 
suggestion of the hypnotic ; this is very common. 
To be exact, we can regard every illusion as the sum 
of a.positive and a negative haWücma^wtv, ^^ m «.-i.iä«. I 



K) HVPNOTlSAf. 

phenomena, sucli as transposition of the senses, or 
clairvoyance. 

An increased sensitiveness to touch has been often 
observed. The two points of a compass are used 
for examining the least distance of space that can 
be felt. We try to find out what distance must 
separate them in order that they may be felt as 
two separate points. In this way an increase of 
sensitiveness is found in hypnosis, as the points can 
be distinguished at a less distance than in the 
normal state (Berger). I have made a series of 
experiments on this point, and can confirm Berger's 
statements. 1 have found the same thing under 
pathological conditions. In cases of locomotor ataxy, 
with profound aniEsthesia, increase of sensitiveness 
has also been found when the patients were under 
the influence of suggestion ; the state may continue 
post-hypnotically. In one case of locomotor ataxy, 
I found that on the right fore-arm the two points 
were distinguished at 6'i centimetres distance. 
During hypnosis the separate points were perceived 
at 4'g centimetres distance, and after waking even at 
4"i centimetres. 

The senses of pressure and temperature become 
sometimes much more delicate. The hypnotic recog- 
nizes things half an inch distant from the skin, and 
this simply by the increase and decrease of tempera- 
ture (Braid). He walks about a room with bandaged 
eyes or in absolute darkness without striking against 
anything, becauscs he recognizes objects by the re- 
sistance of the air, and by the alteration of tempera- 
ture (Braid, Poirault, Drzewiecki). D' Abundo produced 
enlargement of the field of vision by suggestion. 

Bergson has described one of the most remarkable 
cases of increased power of vision. T\\\a '^s:c\k.M.\ai^ J 



THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. loi 

case has been cited as a pcoof of supcrsensual 
thought-transference ; but Bergson ascribes the result 
to hypersesthesia of the eye. In this case the hyp- 
notic was aWe to read letters in a book which were 
3 mm. high ; the reading was made possible by 
a reflected image of these letters in the eye of 
the experimenter. According to calculation the 
reflected image could only have been 0"i mm. 
(^j-Itt inch) high. The same person was able, with- 
out using the microscope, to see and draw the cells 
in a microscopical specimen, which were only O'o6 
mm, in diameter. Sauvaire, after some not quite 
irreproachable experiments, supposed the existence 
of such a hypersesthesia of sight, that a hypnotic 
recognized non-transparent playing cards by the rays 
of light passing through them. A case of Taguet's, in 
which an ordinary piece of cardboard was used as a 
mirror, is said to have proved quite as strong a 
hypersesthesia. All objects which were held so that 
the reflected rays from the card fell upon the subject's 
eye, were clearly recognized. The same thing is 
shown by a great increase of the sense of smell. A 
visiting card is torn into a number of pieces, which 
pieces arc professedly found purely by the sense of 
smell ; pieces belonging to another card are rejected 
The subject gives gloves, keys, and pieces of money 
to the persons to whom they belong, guided only 
by smell. Hypersesthesia of smell has often been 
noticed in other cases. Carpenter says that a hyp- 
notic found the owner of a particular glove among 
sixty other person.s. Sauvaire relates another such 
case, in which a hypnotic, after smelling the hands of 
eight persons, gave to each his own handkerchief 
although every cfibrt was made to lead him. ^sV-ta^^. 
Braid ant} the older mesmervsts ve\a\.e wva.x\>j -svi'iV 



LIBRAE. S\K1«Ü>»«^^^"^^^'^ 



IM HYPNOTISM. 

phenomena. Braid describes one case in which thel 
subject on each occasion found the owner of someJ 
gloves among a number of other people ; when his I 
nose was stopped up the experiments failed. This [ 
delicacy of certain organs of sense, particularly of J 
the sense of smell, is well known to be normal in [ 
many animals ; in dogs, for example, which recognize | 
their masters by scent. Hypnotic experiments teach | 
us that this keenness of scent can be attained by I 
human beings in some circumstances. 

The muscular sense again requires a few words.'! 
This sense informs us of the position of our limbs at 
a given moment. The great dexterity of movement, 
which is sometimes found in deep hypnosis, must be 
ascribed to an increased acuteness of this sense. 
Braid believes that imitative sounds {fcbolalic) must I 
be referred to this, as has been already mentioned. 

With reference to this hyperesthesia of the sense ] 
organs, I will quote an experiment which Is often r 
peated.and is wrongly considered as a proof of increased 
keenness of the senses. Let us take a pack of cards, 
which naturally must have backs of the same pattern, 
so that to all appearance one cannot be distinguished J 
from the other ; let us choose any card^the ace of | 
hearts, for example — hold it with its back to the | 
subject, and arouse by suggestion the idea of a par- 
ticular photograph on it — his own, let us say. Let us 
then mix the cards, and request the hypnotic to find 
the photograph, of course without having allowed him 
to see the face of the card. He will often find the 
right one, although the backs are all alike. The I 
experiment can be repeated with visiting cards or I 
sheets of paper, if the selected one is marked, unknown I 
to the hypnotic. This experiment makes a greater I 
impression on inexperienced people x\vax\ it -Resi ^^ 



THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 

For most people are able to repeat the experiment 
without hypnosis; I do not think hyperjesthesia is 
generally a condition for its success. If the backs of 
these cards and papers are carefully examined, minute 
differences {points tie rephre. — Binet) will be discovered. 
I have myself often made the experiment with good 
results, without hypnosis. There can be no question 
of simulation here. Naturally, I do not contend that 
a hypnotic cannot find a paper in such a case better 
than a waking man ; the hyperEesthesia is a fact. 
I only wish to point out that hyperesthesia is 
not absolutely necessary, though this experiment 
is often used to demonstrate its presence. I have 
seen men of science of the first rank show astonish- 
ment when a hypnotic distinguished apparently 
identical sheets of paper. They did not consider 
that there are essential differences in the sheets, 
which suffice for distinguishing them even without 
hypnosis. Yung justly says, " It is surprising to see 
that even scientific people sometimes allow themselves 
to be confounded by apparently marvellous pheno- 
mena." The experiment is to be explained thus : the 
point de repere presented to the hypnotic at the moment 
when the idea of the photograph was suggested to 
him, recalls the suggested image directly he sees it 
again. The point is associated with the image, so 
that one calls up the other. Binet and F6re have 
rightly pointed out that the image only recurs when 
the poiHt lie repire is recalled to the memory ; it must 
first be seen. Consequently, if the paper is held at a 
distance from the subject's eyes, the image will not 
be recognized, for the points de rephre are not visible; 
Binet and Fi^rd have made some interesting experi- 
ments. They have caused pliotographic imi^ressiot\a 
to be made of white papers on wV\\Oa a. '^t'wi'Ä. 



1 
I 



I 




I04 HYPNOTISM. 

been created by means of suggestion. It was shown 
that the hypnotic always took the copies for the 
original, because the photographed point de repere 
aroused the same image in his imagination. Jen- 
drässik has observed the same sort of thing : if a " d " 
is drawn with the finger on a sheet of white paper, 
and it is suggested that the " d " is real, the subject 
sees the " d." If the paper is turned upside down he 
sees " p," and in the looking-glass "q." This is because 
the " d *' was attached to certain points on the paper, 
which were what the subject remembered, and when 
the paper was placed in different positions the points 
appeared in different positions also. 

Suggestion influences common sensation in the 
same way as the functions of the organs of sense. 
Nothing worthy of remark takes place in hypnosis 
with regard to this, unless suggestion is called into 
play. I may, however, mention the feeling of 
fatigue which many hypnotics experience ; it some- 
times appears in the lightest hypnosis, and may also 
exist in the deeper stages. We can influence common 
sensation very materially by suggestion in hypnosis. 
This is not surprising when we consider that it is 
exactly the common sensations which are most under 
the influence of mental processes. Just as looking 
down from a tower causes giddiness, as the thought 
of repugnant food produces disgust, so we can call up 
these, and related phenomena, or cause them to 
disappear, by suggestion. It is in this direction that 
suggestion has to record its most striking successes, 
since the common sensations, of which pain is one, 
are the cause of most of the complaints we hear. As 
pain, &c., can be induced by suggestion, so by 
suggestion it can often be banished. \ s^.^ >lo ^ 



THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 



los 



subject who complains of want of appetite, " The loss 
of appetite has disappeared ; you are hungry." I can 
cause another to feci thirst. FeeHngs of pleasure can 
likewise be excited. Dcbove, on the other hand, has 
induced loss of appetite by suggestion to such an 
extent and for so long a time that the person con- 
cerned took no regular meal for fourteen days. 
Further, it is possible up to a certain point to satisfy 
the hunger and thirst of subjects in deep hypnosis 
by merely suggested food and drink, as Fillassier 
informs us. It is a pity, however, that this result can 
only be obtained with a few persons, and in a certain 
measure ; for otherwise our politicians would no 
longer need to puzzle their heads over social questions 
and the feeding of the masses. 

I shall here particularly discuss the feelings of 
pain. What effect has hypnosis upon them, with and 
without suggestion ? Apart from some particular 
hypnotic states, in which Berger finds increased 
sensitiveness to pain, we occasionally find analgesia 
in hypnosis. Sometimes this exists to such a degree 
that the severest surgical operations can be per- 
formed during the state. It is also known that 
needles may be run into some persons during 
hypnosis without their feeling pain, though they feel 
the touch. And yet a complete analgesia is ex- 
tremely rare in hypnosis, although authors, copying 
from one another, assert that it is common. There 
is an immense difference between pricking the 
subject with a needle and using the faradic brush. 
The pain caused by the use of the latter is so great, 
especially when a considerable electric force is em- 
ployed, that very few persons in hypnosis can endure 
it, even when they show no pain on being pricked 
with a needle. In some cases, w\\e'£c a-TvaX^SÄV^ ^ 



Io6 



HYPNOTISM. 



not appear spontaneously, it can be produced by J 
suggestion. But suggestion more easily produces \ 
a certain decrease of sensitiveness to pain. Com- 
plete analgesia is seldom attained. Many cases 
described as completely analgesic— for example, those 
of Tamburini and Scppllli — proved on a closer ex- 
amination not to be so, as a strong faradic current j 
finally produced pain. I will just remark that all 
kinds of pain can be induced by suggestion ; the 
pain caused by a needle as well as that caused by 
a knife or a burn. The face of the subject expresses 
pain in such a manner, that an impartial person can 
hardly decide whether the pain is real or suggested. 

The state of mind which is intimately connected 
with common sensations can also be influenced by 
suggestion. It is consequently easy to induce either 
sadness or cheerfulness in hypnosis. We often find 
the view promulgated that the hypnotic is strikingly 
grave. My experience obliges mc to dispute this ; 
most people, on the contrary, seem particularly 
comfortable in hypnosis (Riebet). The method of 
hypnotization has some influence here. The desires 
and affections can be controlled in hypnosis as weil 
as the moods. Love and hate, anxiety, anger, and 
fear can be easily called up, and produce correspond- 
ing expressions and postures in the hypnotic. 



■Abnormalities of voluntary movement apart, nearly 
ail the phenomena of suggestion hitherto described 
are the exclusive privilege of the second group of i 
hypnotic states. I come now to some other physical | 
functions which require a deep hypnotic state if they 
are to be influenced. I mention, first of all, the j 
phenomena of that part of the muscular system J 
w/j/ci js normally independent ot ftieviVi. 



THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 107 

We will here particularly consider the circulation 
of the blood, and the respiration, as these 
essentially results of involuntary muscular action. 
A large number of physiological observations have 
been made in this field during hypnosis, in order to 
decide what is the state of the pulse and respiration 
without suggestion. Of course the pulse has been 
often examined, since this is a simple thing to do, 
and yet the statements about it are so contradictory 
that we only dare to receive them with caution. 
Although some have believed they had discovered 
obiective symptoms in changes of the action of the 
heart and the respiration, we cannot doubt that there 
has been considerable exaggeration. A great accele- 
ration of the pulse and of the respiration has been 
often ^observed when the method of Braid, or fasci- 
nation (Brdmaud). or mesmeric passes (Ochorowicz) 
were employed. The respiration, which was normally 
iS per minute has risen to 50, or even more. I have 
myself made a number of experiments on this point, 
and fully agree with Bernheim and Preyer that these 
changes are not so much an effect of the hypnosis as 
of the fixed attention. I believe that it is only the 
effort made which causes these abnormalities ; the 
irregularities in the respiration should probably like- 
wise be ascribed to mental excitement and effort. 
Freyer mentions that the respiration of a person 
looking at a microscopic object often changes ; in the 
same way it displays abnormalities when a person 
believes himself watched. An experienced doctor, 
therefore, prefers to examine the respiration un- 
observed by his patient. In any case I have seen a 
material acceleration of the pulse and respiration set 
in after long strain of attention wiftvout a. XtÄ.ti.fc i^S. I 
■tensos/s: the respiration also became V[^es,vi\M. ^ 



r 



id8 



HYPNOTISM. 



irregularity ^^| 
a few cases ^^| 



there is hypnosis, in a little while the irregularity 
and acceleration cease. I have only seen a f 
in which they persisted, but am by no means inclined 
to think this a sign of hypnosis, as some persons 
show an acceleration of pulse and breathing on the 
smallest provocation. Even a conversation is enough 
to induce acceleration. I have also seen persons in 
whom an uncomfortable sitting posture induced 
changes of pulse and respiration. Besides which it 
must be added that in many people there is an im- 
portant acceleration of pulse and respiration in the 
strong muscular contractions of the cataleptic pheno- 
mena (Braid), and also in tonic contracture (Rumpf). 
If I made such persons lie quietly down, and avoided 
conversation, physical effort, and mental excitement, 
I never observed any lasting acceleration. On the 
other hand, I have often found a deepened and some- 
what long-drawn respiration, and also a stight 
slowing of pulse, in hypnosis. These were the cases 
which bore a greater external resemblance to sleep, 
and in which, as I have several times mentioned 
above, there was no important spontaneous move- 
ment It was also more difficult to induce move- 
ments by suggestion in these cases. Beaunis occa- 
sionally finds an increased blood pressure in the 
pulse, which he does not, however, think of much 
importance. Horslcy finds no alteration in the curve 
of the pulse tracing. 

Of any further unsuggested abnormalities of the J 
involuntary muscles there is little to be said. Moriz I 
Rosenthal has observed vomiting, which he ascribes I 
to stimulation of the cerebral cortex. Nau.sca is I 
occasionally observed in frightened or excited 1 
persons (Friedemann). 
iet us now ask, To what extent can 0\«vTOio\\i'ft'OT^ 



I 
I 



THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 109 

muscular system be influenced by suggestion? The 
peristaltic motion is relatively easy to affect. I have 
had several experiences of the facility with which the 
bowels of some hypnotics are affected by suggestion. 
I say to one of them, " In halt an hour after awaken- 
ing your bowels will act." This is certain to happen. 
" To-morrt)w morning at eight your bowels will act." 
The effect follows. " To-morrow between eight and 
nine your bowels will act three times," Exactly the 
same result, though the subject remembers nothing of 
the suggestion on awaking. It is interesting to note 
that the action of aperients can be checked by sug- 
gestion, though this does not often happen. A patient 
takes a dose of castor-oil which is sufficient to procure 
copious action of the bowels. He is told in hypnosis 
that the medicine will only take effect in forty-eight 
hours. The suggestion is effectual, although with this 
person the dose habitually acts quickly and abun- 
dantly (v. Krafft-Ebing). Or let a few drops of water 
be given to the hypnotic with the assertion that it is 
a strong purge ; motion of the bowels follows. Sug- 
gested emetics act in the same way. This is not 
very surprising, as we know that these and other 
functions, even though they are independent of our 
will,areyctunder the influence of the mind. Vomiting 
at the sight of disgusting things, and the celebrated 
mica panis ^i\\% administered as aperients prove this 
well enough. 

In some persons the vessels and the heart can be 
influenced in the same way, as several experiments 
have proved. Dumontpallier has made some, which 
should here be mentioned. He induced by sugges- 
tion a local increase of temperature of as much as 

C. Forel, Beaunis, and F. Myers have aV?« cfci- 
served local reddening by sugges\,\otv. t-'Jt'cv "ö^a 




o HYPNOTISM. 

phenomenon should not surprise us too much, since we 
observe the same sort of vaso-motor disturbance to 
result from mental condition. I have spoken above 
(p. 57) of the blushing which occurs when any one 
is confused. I will here mention the contrary of 
this^the paleness which often follows fright. And as 
a curiosity I will mention the local reddening of the 
skin which has often been observed in spirit mediums 
(Carpenter, Carl du Frei), and which has been explained 
as a supernatural phenomenon. As these mediums 
are often at these times in a state of trance — that is, in 
a state resembling hypnosis, and perhaps identical 
with it — this phenomenon admits of a perfectly natural 
explanation. 

Some observations have also been made upon the 
influence of suggestion on the action of the heart. I 
myself have often been able to produce a slowing of 
a normal or rapid pulse. However, we should be 
cautious how we draw the conclusion that the sug- 
gestion has affected the nerves of the heart directly ; 
the effect is an indirect one, rather. For, inde- 
pendent of the fact that the action of the heart is 
to a certain degree dependent on the respiration, 
it is likewise under the influence of ideas, which 
affect the emotions. Such ideas have the power 
of quickening or slowing the heart's action ; it is 
possible that the suggestion which retards a quick 
pulse only produces this result indirectly by a re- 
moval of the mental exciting cause, or, vice versa, 
quickens the pulse by excitement. My observations 
of the quickening and slowing of the heart's action by 
suggestion leads me to take this view rather than 
that of a direct influence of suggestion on the nerves 
and nerve centres of the heart. In any case it would 
be difficult to exclude this indirect acücm, es^äaSv^ 



THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. in 

as its effects are rapid. However, the method is 
of no consequence. Beaunis has seen a momentary 
effect of suggestion in several people without change 
of respiration from suggestion. He has seen the 
pulse fall in consequence of suggestion from 98 beats 
to 92, and then rise to 115 beats. He infers a 
direct action of suggestion upon the inhibitory centre 
of the heart, and thinks himself also obhged to ex- 
clude ideas which affect the mental state, such as 
are mentioned above, since the effect of the sugges- 
tion was always momentary. But his reasoning on 
this point is not conclusive. 

Respiration, which holds a middle position between 
the voluntary and involuntary movements,' can also 
be influenced by suggestion. From motives of pru- 
dence I have never continued such experiments for 
longer than half a minute. I suggested to the subject 
that he could not breathe ; an apparently complete 
pause in respiration followed. Jendrassik relates a 
case in which he inhibited respiration for three minutes, 
simply by assuring the subject that he could not 
breathe. 

We find but scanty accounts of physiological re- 
searches into the processes of secretion during hypnosis. 

Perspiration has often been observed (G. Barth, 
Demarquay, Giraud-Teulon, Heidenhain, Preyer). I 
doubt if the secretion of sweat depends on the hyp- 
nosis ; I believe that it is rather a result of the 
straining and excitement of fixed attention. We 
know a little more about the influences of sugges- 
tion. Burot shows that secretion of saliva can be 

' That is, it is generally involuniary, but up to a certain point 
I it is under the inftuence of the will, and caa be a.ccelKta.^^^. «st 
LjvCardeif, 



112 HYPNOTISM. 

induced by suggestion, and Bottey demonstrates the 
same thing of perspiration. Charles Riebet shows 
that erection and emission of semen can be effected J 
by it, so as to produce on the subject an impres- I 
sion of sexual intercourse. I have mentioned I 
above that I have myself seen a hypnotic's eyes I 
water when it was suggested to him that he was I 
smelling an onion. Heidenhain induced discharge of I 
urine by tickling the penn^eum. I do not think this I 
phenomenon should be regarded as a physical reflex ; I 
I believe that the patient emptied the bladder because I 
he believed that he was intended to do so. Preyer I 
mentions this as an example of secretion ; I hold I 
a different opinion ; 1 believe that the patient did not I 
jecrt^/^ the urine in consequence of the external stimulus 1 
or command, but merely passed it. This is, then, a I 
motor suggestion. I have often been able to produce J 
the same effect : " After waking you must make water 1 
five times." The patient is surprised after the hypnosis 1 
that he wishes to make water so often, but obeys. ^ 
Few investigations have been made as to whether the I 
kidney secretions can be influenced by suggestion I 
However, Wetterstrand mentions results produced in ■ 
diseases of the kidneys which almost justify the con>l 
elusion that in certain persons it is possible to influencel 
the kidney secretions by suggestion. This is not sol 
strange when we reflect that many diseases in whicllfl 
there is increased secretion of urine are of nervoiUH 
origin, and that anxiety and fear also appear tEH 
influence it. ■ 

Krafft-Ebing draws conclusions as to the increas^ 
of intestinal secretions from one experiment. H^J 
suggested to his subject a profuse watery evacuatioiM 
of the bowels, which followed. As the bladder had 
been emptied shortly before, and only a small guantij^H 




I 
I 



THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 113 

of urates had been found in the urine, Kraffl-Ebing 
thinks himself obliged to consider the fluid as an 
increase of the intestinal secretions. 

Some special investigations have been made of the 
organic changes during hypnosis, but no sort of con- 
clusion can be drawn from them in any case. Brock 
finds that in a short hypnosis of twenty minutes' 
duration, with partial catalepsy, the sum of the solid 
constituents and the phosphoric acid decreases ; as 
Striibing has described in catalepsy. But as Brock 
forgot to examine his patients under analogous 
circumstances, sitting quietly without hypnosis 
(Preyer), his experiments are not conclusive. In any 
case no conclusion as to the action of the brain must 
be drawn from them. Brock concludes that the 
activity of the brain is lessened, because the quantity 
of phosphoric acid is decreased. Gürtler is much 
more cautious in his conclusions. He also finds a 
difference in the phosphoric acid ; it is true that he 
has not made a sufficient number of comparative 
experiments with the same subject in analogous 
circumstances, without hypnosis. He refrains from 
drawing final conclusions, because to justify these the 
evacuations of the bowels and the respiration must be 
investigated also. 

The experiments of some investigators who pro- 
duced a change in the bodily temperature must be 
reckoned to belong to this section. KraiTt-Ebing's 
experiments are particularly surprising. He succeeded 
in producing any temperature he pleased in his subject. 
The most enigmatical point with regard to this appears 
to me to be that the subject showed the exact degree 
of temperature commanded — namely, 36° C. — when 
examined by the thermometer. As it is evidently 



114 



HYPNOTISM. 



Utterly out of the patient's power to influence this 
instrument mentally, we must assume an astonishing 

capacity for regulating the temperature of the body. 
The experiments carried out by Mares and Hellich are 
very interesting. They often succeeded in lowering 
the temperature of a hypnotic from 37° C. to 34*5° C, 
in twenty-four hours. This result was not produced 
by immediate suggestion, but rather by suggestive 
influence on the feelings of cold and warmth. 



I now come to some phenomena which, for the most 
part, will awaken distrust I mean the anatomical 
changes effected by suggestion during hypnosis. But 
however enigmatical this may appear, we have only 
to do with quantitative differences in phenomena, 
which we have observed elsewhere. The physiognomy 
of certain professions — for example, the type of the 
clergy shows how mental processes gradually exercise 
an influence on organic construction. The mental 
moods and occupation impress their stamp by degrees 
upon the physiognomy. 

The most general and frequently repeated experi- 
ment carried out in hypnosis, is to induce the subject 
to believe that a blister has been applied to him, and 
thus to obtain real blisters. The whole collection of 
observations on this point are not free from objection. 
Even when exact accounts of the experiments are 
published, the sceptic has sufficient cause for hesitation. 
But every man of science should be sceptical, not of 
these statements in particular, but of all statements. 
The reason for hesitation with regard to the above 
experiments is, as a rule, the insufficient watching of 
the subject. But if the published experiments are 
not convincing they are at least worthy of considera- 
i/oa. It is a Aindamentally (aVse pi\tic\^\e to fc^guVt 



THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. iij 

such things ä priori, either because we have not 
ourselves seen them or because they are rare. This 
false principle is far too much acted on, according to 
my view. For there are certain things which are 
rare ; for example, some monsters, and triplets, and 
also millionaires, and yet they are none the less to be 
seen sometimes. Every one believes in their existence 
without having seen them. Consequently, neither 
rarity nor the (act that we have not seen a thing 
ourselves precSudes its existence. For this reason the 
rare observations of others are of importance. 

Among the experiments in this direction I will 6rst 
of all mention the cases in which menorrhagia is 
induced or arrested by suggestion. It is not to be 
doubted that this is practicable in the case of certain 
persons. Forelhas made a whole series of experiments 
on this point, and has also partly confirmed the ac- 
curacy and the effect of suggestion by personal 
investigation. Many other experimenters have also 
been able to confirm the effect of suggestion on 
menstruation (Sperling, A. Voisin, Gascard, Briand). 
Li^beault's statement tliat he was never able to cause 
abortion by suggestion is curious. The infiuence of 
suggestion in menorrhagia seems less wonderful and 
striking when we reflect how very much psychical 
influences otherwise affect it. It is known, for 
example, that the periods often become irregular in 
women who are about to undergo a surgical operation. 

I have mentioned the influence of suggestion in 
this place in spite of the fact that these experiments 
do not, properly speaking, demonstrate an organic 
influence. We may be concerned here with a vaso- 
motor disturbance, which secondarily induces the 
organic changes. This appears to me ^loba-bVe. 

Jeadrässik and Kraffl-Ebing obXavwc^ wv^tVa 



I 

I 



=s.he _ 



lÄ 



HYPNOTISM. 




burns on their subjects by means of suggestion. If 
some object, such as a match-box, a pair of scissors, 
a snufT-lxJx, a linen-stamp, &c., was pressed upon the 
skin, and the subject was at the same time told that 
the skin was being burned, a blister in the form of the 
object resulted. The marks remained a long time 
visible. If the object was pressed upon the left side 
of a hysterica! patient anaesthetic on the right, the 
burn appeared symmetrically on the right as it would 
if reflected in a glass, as could be especially seen when 
letters were used. Jendrdssik maintains that deception 
was absolutely excluded in these cases of suggested 
bums. Besides this, a dermatologist, Lipp, at one 
of the experiments, declared that it would be im- 
possible to cause the suggested lesion mechanically or 
chemically. Burns caused by suggestion have often 
been observed in the Salpetriere. The same may be 
said of the experiments of Bourru, Burot, and Berjon, 
who induced bleeding by suggestion in the same 
subject as Mabille, Ramadier, and Jules Voisin. 
Puys^gur had witnessed the same thing. Bleeding of 
the nose appeared at command in the above-mentioned 
subject, and later on bleeding from the skin at a time 
decided on beforehand. When the skin had been 
rubbed with a blunt instrument in order to give point 
to the suggestion, bleeding of the skin is said to have 
appeared at command, the traces of which were visible 
three months later. It is interesting that in the case 
of this person, who was hemiplegic and anesthetic on 
the right side, the suggestion would not take effect on 
that side. Mabille's observations of this subject are 
particularly interesting, because they show that a 
person in hypnosis can cause these bleedings byauto- 
suggestion. Unfoitunatcly the accounts we possess 
I of such cases do not enab\e us to dia'H a. dAwAa 



THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 



117 



conclusion as to whether contact will induce bleeding 
under other circumstances (F. Myers). Meanwhile 
we must remember that the bleeding did not follow 
closely on the contact, which would have been the 
case if the effect were mechanical. Eerjon reminds 
us, also, that precautionary measures were taken to 
prevent the subject from touching his own arm, and 
thereby causing a wound. 



Everybody will here remember the stigmalics of the Roman 
Catholic Church. Bleeding of the skin is said to appear in 
them, generally in spots which correspond to the wounds of 
Christ. The best known is Louise Lateau, of Bois d'Haine, 
near Mons, who was much talked of in 1868. It appears from 
the literature concerning her, that the anatomical process was 
rather a complicated one in her case (Virchow, Lefebvre). 
Buyers itrst appeared, and after they burst there was bleeding; 
from the true skin (forimn), without any visible injury. I will 
nol enter into the question of simulation, which a Belgian doctor, 
Warlomont, decided was impossible, after personal investigation. 
Delbceuf and others believe that the phenomena were caused 
by auto-suggestion. Lateau directed her own attention con- 
tinually to those parts of her body which she knew corresponded 
to the wounds of Christ, and the anatomical lesions resulted 
from this strain of attention, as in other cases from external 
suggestion. Virchow, as is known, thought that fraud or miracle 
were the only alternatives. In the well-known case of Catherine 
Emmerich the bleedings are said to have appeared while she 
was looking at the crucifix. Without deciding as to the reality 
of these phenomena, since no scientific investigation was under- 
taken, or was even possible, I will remark that at present a . 
natural explanation of the facts is possible, because such things J 
can be induced by suggestion in a suitable mental state. The 
conditions resemble each other \ the ecstasy of Lateau has a 
great likeness to the hypnotic state. Ecstasy and hypnosis 
have many points in common, and are, perhaps, identical con- 
ditions (Mantegazz,-!). 

The Catholic clergy, many of whom, as Sancha Hervas, 
condemn hypnotism altogether, object to the idwvtx&CiÄv«! tii. 
stigmatiiatioa wiih suggested bleeding, '^toc ittvLea "Cofc 



1 
I 



ii8 



HYPNOTISM. 




possibility of a comparison. But Mdric does not reflect tliat 
an auto-suggestion in ecstasy may have exactly the same efTect 
as an external suggestion. Mfric maintains that sligmatics are 
certainly not in an abnormal condition, but quite awake. But 
3S far as Lateau is concerned, she was evidently not awake ; 
that is, if we take it for granted there was no fraud in the 
case. Lateau spoke to certain persons only ; consequently 
some rapport existed as in hypnosis. 



The experiments of Delboeuf also belong to the 
class of organic lesions. He experimented, in common 
with Winiwarter and Henrijean, and he produced 
symmetrical burns, and made one of the wounds 
painless by suggestion. It was observed in this case 
that the painless wound showed a much greater 
tendency to heal, and, in particular, that the inflam- 
mation showed no tendency to spread. As, however, 
there are some slight anomalies, the experiments are 
not fully convincing. 

I now come to some experiments in which the hyp- 
notic was told that a blister had been applied to him, 
which blister was really only an ordinary piece of 
paper. As Binet and Fere inform us, this experiment 
was first made as long ago as 1840, by the Italian 
doctor, Pr^jalmini, and Du Prol tells us that in 1819 
a sloughing of the skin was obtained on a hypnotized 
somnambule of Celicurre de I'Aup^pin, by means of 
a piece of linen, although the linen had been applied 
like a simple plaster. Focachon, an apothecary of 
Charmes, has recently repeated the experiment. 
Sometimes alone, and sometimes in company with 
the Nancy investigators, he has applied pieces of 
paper, suggesting that they were blisters. He is said 
to have often produced blistering. Beaunis has pub- 
Usbed an exact report of some experiments of this 
■irJnd. After the suggestion had \asted ^-«eatv-öua 




THE SYMPTOAfS OF HYPNOSIS. 



"9 



hours the paper was taken off, and it was found that 
the skin was thickened, dead, and of a yellowish 
tint ; later, perhaps as a result of the pressure oi 
the clothes, several small blisters appeared. The 
reverse experiment has also been successfully made 
by the Nancy investigators ; the effect of a real 
blister has been counteracted by suggestion. Meunicr 
has published an account of such an experiment made 
at Nancy, Forel, of Zurich, who has done so much 
for the development of hypnotism in Switzerland and 
Germany, has often tried to produce organic changes 
by means of suggestion. Thus, after an endeavour 
to produce blisters by suggestion little pustules of 
acne appeared. Besides this, Prof. Forel has made 
some other experiments, the results of which he has 
kindly allowed me to publish. 

The experiments were made on a nurse, twenty- 
three years old, who is not at all hysterical. She is 
the daughter of plain country people, and has been 
for a long time an attendant in the Zürich Lunatic 
Asylum, which Forel directs. He thinks her a capable, 
honest person, in no way inclined to deceit. The 
experiments were as follows : A gummed label was 
fixed upon her chest above each breast ; the paper 
was square. In no case was an irritating gum used. 
At midday Forel suggested that a blister had been 
put on the left side ; and at six o'clock in the evening 
a moist spot had appeared in this place ; the skin 
was swollen and reddened around it, and a little in- 
flammation had appeared also on the right side, but 
much less. Forel then did away with the suggestion. 
On the next day there was a scab on the left side. 
Forel had not watched the nurse between noon and 
six o'clock, but !iad suggested Ü\a.t ^.'cvc co\i\i. vi*. 
scratch herself. The other nutses sai4 ^i:ösX 'Oöß.%\" 



I 




r 



T30 HYPNOTISM. 

ject could not raise her hand to her chest, and made 
vain attempts to scratch, Forel repeated the experi- 
ment later ; he put on the paper at 11.45 a.m., and 
ordered the formation of blisters in two and a half 
hours. Little pain was suggested, and the nurse 
therefore complained but little. At two o'clock Forel 
looked at the paper on the left side, for wliich the 
suggestion had been made, and saw around it a large 
swelling and reddening of the skin. The paper could . 
be with difficulty removed. A moist surface of the 
epidermis was then visible, exactly square like the 
paper. Nothing particular appeared under the paper 
on the right side. Forel then suggested the dis- 



+ 




Fig, 11 



appearance of the pain, inflammation, &c. In spite 
of this the place suppurated, and was discharging for 
eight days, and the scab lasted for some time. Even 
when Prof. Forel related this to me, seven weeks later, 
the place was still brownish. The nurse was a little 
annoyed and uneasy about the experiment, and she 
was not strictly watched while it lasted. 

A few days after this experiment Forel drew two 
light crosses with the point of a blunt knife on the 
same person. They did not bleed. Another ( 
(shown in Fig. i) was made on the inner side of e 
fore-arm. Several doctors were present, Forel ; 
I gested the appearance of blistevs on ftie tia^öt ^^^ 




THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 

Even at the end of five minutes, during which Forel 
watched the subject, so that fraud was out of the 
question, a considerable reddish swelling of the skin 
had appeared (Fig. 2, a). A wheal, b, looking like 
nettle-rash, had formed itself round the cross, c, some- 
what in the shape of a cross. On the left side nothing 
was to be seen but the cross that had been drawn, 
unaltered, as in Fig. i. 

The wheal on the right side resembled a vaccination 
pustule, in the form of a cross ; but it was simply a 
papular swelling, as in nettle-rasii. Forel then sug- 
gested the disappearance of the swelling and the 
wheal, and, further, the appearance of a drop of blood 
at the end of an hour. At the end of this time a very 
srfiall drop was to be seen ; but the wheal, redness, 
and swelling had disappeared. But as Forel liad not 
watched the subject during this hour, he attached no 
importance to the drop of blood, which might have 
been caused by a prick. 

Forel wished later to watch this experiment in 
vesication from beginning to end, But the subject 
was made very angry and excited by the words and 
gestures which showed her that she was mistrusted. 
In Forel's opinion this caused the non-success of the 
experiment. After this no more vesication appeared, 
either with or without watching ; a slight reddening 
of the skin was all that was obtained. Forel holds 
the very plausible view that the subject's mental 
excitement was prejudicial to her later suggestibility. 
Among the above-mentioned experiments he only 
considers the one in which the papular swelling was 
produced to be proved ; as concerns the others he 
reserves his opinion, since no strict watch was kept 

Stress must be laid on the fact tW't ■?Q\e\ oA-^ 
[ made a gentle scratch to give point to t\\& svifäSja-CvOT. 



I 




: the wheal ; ^^H 
Eippeared on ^^H 

I 



laa nyPNOTISAf. 

The injury, such as it was, did not cause the 
for if it had, the same thing would have appeared 
the other side of the subject. It may be objected 
that the same force may not have been used to make 
the mark on both sides. However, it should be said 
that the nurse was not one of those persons who get 
a wheal whenever their skin is slightly stimulated. 
This seems conclusive to me. She showed wheals, 
only when bitten by gnats. When her skin wa3 
scraped it showed a disposition to redden, but wheals 
never formed. She had, besides, often been scratched 
by insane patients, but no remarkable result had ever 
been observed. 

It should be added that there are people who 
develop wheals under mental excitement without 
hypnosis. A veiy trustworthy observer told me of 
the case of a person who had once been much 
frightened by a thunderstorm, and who showed after- 
wards wheals with a red border whenever a storm was 
approaching. 

It is to be understood that great caution is necessary 
in dealing with experiments in which anatomical 
injury is caused by suggestion. This is all the more 
necessary because, from one philosophical point of 
view, that of Du Prel, the experiments are already 
regarded as proving that the soul is an organizing as 
well as a thinking power. 

(2) Psychology. 

In the foregoing sections we have studied the I 

physical changes of hypnosis. We have seen how I 

strikingly suggestion modifies the different functions. 1 

/ ba.ve already had occasion to touch upon some j 

^ psychical phenomena, closely connected -wXfti. 'i 



THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 123 

physical. In what follows I shall frequently be 
obliged to refer to the physical phenomena, the 
variations in which, during hypnosis, are purely the 
result of changed central processes. Our conclusions 
as to these central processes must be drawn, then, 
from the physical functions. 

We shall now study the changes which the mental 
functions undergo during hypnosis. As a matter of 
course, I shall not note each individual mental 
action ; I shall only discuss such as are characteristic 
from our present point of view. 

For practical reasons I must first speak of the 
memory, because it determines the other psychical 
activities. Without memory no action of the under- 
standing is possible ; memory is a necessary condition 
for an independent activity of the consciousness and 
the will. 



Memory, in lis broadest sense, consists of three parts : firstly, 
of the power of retaining ideas ; secondly, of the power of re- 
producing these ideas ; thirdly, of the power of recogniiing the 
ideas and of localizing them correctly in the past. To make 
this clear, let us take any event which we remember — for 
example, a severe scolding given to us hy a teacher. The 
memory in this case acts in three ways : in the first place, what 
is said is received and retained in it ; in the second place, the 
memory can reproduce the lecture ; and in the third place, we 
can place it in its correct position in time, by recalling its rela- 
tion to other events, &c. It will be made clear in what follows 
that under certain circumstances these different processes of 
the memory show abnormalities in hypnosis. 

The retention of ideas in hypnosis has been little 
investigated. Beaunis has found no essential differ- 
ence in this respect between hypnosis and waking life. 
Max Dessoir has also made experiments, whose 
results he has communicated Vo me. Ytoi^'^^Sfc'*- ■ 




«4 HYPNOTISM. 

appears the memory is weakened in hypnosis, when 
this is not prevented by suggestion. Dessoir repeated 
a number of syllables which the hypnotic was to try 
to remember; a suggestion of improved memory was 
carefully avoided. Under these circumstances the 
hypnotized subject remembered fewer syllables than 
did the same person awake. The older mesmerists, 
on the contrary, believed that the memory was 
intensified in the magnetic sleep ; poems could be 
learnt by heart in a much shorter time than in the 
normal state. However, these investigators did not 
avoid suggestion. 

Is the chain of memory in ordinary life broken by 
the hypnosis or not ? It was formerly supposed that 
a break in the memory occurred, because the subject 
always forgot on awaking what had taken pJace dur- 
ing hypnosis. But this view has not proved correct. 

In the lighter hypnotic stages, specially in the first 
group, no abnormality of memory is found ; the 
subject remembers everything in the hypnosis which 
concerns his normal life, and after the hypnosis re- 
members all that has occurred. In the deeper hyp- 
noses it is very different ; they belong for the most 
part to the second group, and there is loss of memory 
after the hypnosis. The subject is much astonished 
when he hears what he has done during the hypnosis — 
that he has been running about, that he has had 
hallucinations, &c. Often, however, a dim memory 
persists, like the memory of a dream. I suggest to 
some one the hallucination of a bird flying about the 
room ; the hypnotic tries to catch it, amuses himself 
for a long time with it, gives it sugar, puts it in an' 
imaginary cage, and so on ; after waking he dimly 
remembers that he has seen a bird, but that is all ; he 
certainly does not believe that he has left his seat 



I 
I 



THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 



r However, there are certain people who recall every- 
thing after being told what they have done. 
In other cases, associations of ideas will call up 
memory. A hint is given to the hypnotic after the 
awakening and everything recurs to him (Heidenhain). 
There is something of this sort in dreams ; we very 
often remember a whole dream when we see some 
object that is in any way connected with it (Del- 
bceuf). The same thing happens when a person is 
able to repeat a quotation or a poem directly he has 
heard the first words. Let us consider an example in 

I hypnosis. I suggest a great concert to a subject ; he 
hears various pieces, and among them the overture to 
"Martha" ; meanwhile he eats his supper at the con- 
cert, drinks his beer, and talks to imaginary people. 
After the awakening there is no trace of memory. I 
ask him then if he knows the opera of " Martha" ; 
this suffices to recall nearly all the events of the 
hypnosis. Sometimes memory is aroused in the same 
way by pure chance, after a longer or shorter interval. 
X. believes in hypnosis that he sees a number of 
persons at my house whose presence I have suggested 
to him. X. goes through several scenes with them, 
but remembers nothing on awaking. Only when he 
meets one of these people several days later does the 
whole thing recur to him. Dclbceiif draws attention 
to one method of making the memory last ; he thinks 
that subjects remember any hypnotic event if they 
are awakened in the middle of it ; but this is certainly 
not universally true {Gurncy}. It sometimes happens 
that the first or last occurrences are remembered, 
while all the others are forgotten. It has often been 
observed that memory after awakening can be pro- 
duced by a special effort of the hypnotist (Bleuler, 
Pierre Janet). Some persons remember all the hyp- 



r 




126 HYPNOTISM. 

notic proceedings during their nightly sleep ; it is not I 
rare for the hypnotic dream to be repeated in natural I 
steep. 

However, in some cases, chiefly in the deepest hyp- ] 
noses, memory cannot be recalled by any of the above- 
named expedients, though some think that a carefully 
directed conversation will always re-constitute it 
through the association of ideas. In such cases there 
is complete loss of memory in the waking state. Such 
a person does not even generally know how long he 
was in the hypnotic state. On the other hand the 
subject remembers in hypnosis all that has happened 
in previous hypnoses. Things that happened in hyp- 
noses dating many years back, even as many as ten, 
may be recalled, although they are completely for- 
gotten in the waking state. Wolfart relates the case 
of a woman who remembered in the magnetic sleep ' 
all that had taken place in a magnetic sleep thirteen 
years before, although in the meantime she had never 
recollected it. 

Events of the normal life can also be remembered 
in hypnosis, even when they have apparently been long 
forgotten. This increased power of memory is called 
hypermnesia. Benedikt relates a case of it. 
English officer in Africa was hypnotized by Hansen, I 
and suddenly began to speak a strange language. 
This turned out to be Welsh, which he had learnt as j 
a child, but had forgotten. 

Such cases as these recall others which are men- 
tioned in the literature of hypnotism ; for example, ] 
the famous one of the servant who suddenly spoke I 
Hebrew, She also, in an abnormal state of ci 
ness, spoke a language which she did not know, but 
which she had often heard when young in the house 
of a clergyman. We hear of like cases of hyper- 



THE SYMPTOMS OF HVPNOSJS. 



rmnesia in dreams. Maury, whose investigations on 
the subject of dreams are classic, relates a nureiber of 
things which returned to his memory in dreams, 
although when awake he knew nothing about them. 
The heightened faculties of hypnotic subjects of 
which we so often hear, and which we can observe in 
auto-hypnosis also, are a result of this increased 
power of recollection. Many apparently supernatural 
facts may be explained in this way. Among these I 
may mention the carefully constructed religious ad- 
I, dresses, sometimes supposed to be inspired, which are 

^L delivered by pious but uneducated fanatics in a 
^H peculiar psychical state of ecstasy ; and the elo- 
^f quence occasionally displayed by some spiritualistic 
mediums in trance belongs to the same category. 
Bastian also describes such increase of natural powers 
in hypnosis among savage populations. In many 

I cases other factors may be at work besides the im- 
provement of memory, such as hyperesthesia of the 
organs of sense, &c. 
Dreams, also, which have occurred in natural sleep 
are sometimes reproduced in hypnosis, although they 
may have been forgotten on waking. It is naturally 
very difficult to judge of the accuracy with which 
dreams are reported. But as dreams sometimes lead 
to talking in sleep, it is then possible to make 
observations. I know of a case in which a person 
betrayed his dreams by talking in his sleep ; the loss 
of memory which followed on waking disappeared in 
hypnosis, and the dream was remembered, A bed- 
fellow was able to confirm the accuracy of the 
i recollect ion. 
But, apart from these cases of hypermnesia it is cha- 
racteristic that in the deeper hypnotic states not only 
the events that have taken place in earlier hypnoses 



138 



HYPNOTISM. 




are remembered, but also the events of waking life. 
On the other hand, in the waking state the events of 
that state alone are remembered. This state of things 
is named "double consciousness {double conscience 
in the broad sense of the term). It was evidently 
well known to the old mesmerists— Kluge and 
Deleuze, for example — and was later observed by 
Braid, though not in the early part of his experience. 



The state of double consciousness is also found under patho- 
logical conditions. One of the best-known cases was published 
by hzs.TR. The life of the patient for nearly thirty years was 
divided into certain periods — a, b, c, d, e, f. In the periods 
a, c, e (normal condition) she remembered only what had 
happened in them ; in the periods b, d, f (second condition) she 
remembered what had occurred in these periods, as well as 
what had happened in the periods a, c, e. The normal state 
wasa, c, e, while the pathological onewasb.d, f. MaxDessoir's 
thoughtful work on the " Doppel-Ich" contributes much to the 
elucidation of this question of double consciousness ; he shows 
that indications of such a splitting of the consciousness are 
much more common than has hitherto been believed ; he refers 
us to examples in dream-üfe and in pathological states. But it 
appears to me that Max Dessoir, perhaps, supposes a greater 
extension of these phenomena than is really the case j 
Bentivegni makes the same reservation. I shall return to the 
double consciousness with more detail in the theoretical part of 
the book. 

One phenomenon which I have often observed 
depends on memory in the later hypnoses. If a 
whole series of scenes is suggested to a subject in 
hypnosis a very slight impulse suffices to cause the 
whole panorama to pass before him again in a later 
hypnosis, A hypnotic imagines himself hunting a 
lion ; he kills tKe lion and cuts it to pieces ; and then 
by suggestion he is turned into a general, and then 
into a child. In a later hypnosis he hears an unex- 



I 



I 



THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 129 

pected noise, which he immediately believes to be the 
roaring of a lion. In consequence he goes through 
all the scenes again, without omitting the smallest 
detail. This incident may be counted among the 
indirect suggestions, since the auto-suggestion was 
aroused by an accidental circumstance. The case 
observed and quoted above by Mabille, in which 
. person induced haemorrhage by auto-suggestion, 
after it had once been induced by external sug- 
gestion, belongs to the same category. The sub- 
ject separated herself, so to speak, into two persons, 
one of whom made the suggestion to the other, as is 
proved by the conversation she carried on with her- 
self The subject's recollection of all that he has 
experienced in earlier hypnoses is most important. 
The possibility of hypnotic training depends upon 
this, and it is also a frequent cause of error in new 
experiments, since they are easily spoiled by memory 
of the earlier ones. I say to the hypnotic (X.), "You 
will now raise your left leg." X. does so. While 
I make the suggestion I unintentionally take hold of 
his right hand. When, in a later hypnosis, I take 
hold of his right hand, he again raises his left leg. 
Evidently he remembers the first event, and regards 
the taking of his hand as an order to lift his leg. It 
is probable that the new reflexes which Born thought 
he had discovered, and which I have mentioned 
before, came about in this manner. 

I have hitherto described the state of things when 
suggestion is not called into play. Suggestion exer- 
cises a most active influence. In tlie first place, 
hypermnesia can be increased by suggestion ; though 
as far as I know no careful investigations have yet 
been made on this point. But we possess many 
accounts of careful investigations into the possibility 



1 

I 



I30 HYPNOTISM. 

of inducing errors of memory (paramnesia), or failures 
of memory (amnesia) ; Bertrand collected many ob- 
servations on these points. These memories may 
consist of former perceptions ; the suggestive in- 
fluence of these former perceptions has often been 
observed ; by means of them the subject may be 
completely deluded about his former experiences. 
As these suggestions have a certain retroactive 
force, they are called retroactive suggestions ; or, as 
they are concerned with sense perceptions altered 
by suggestion into sense delusions, they are some- 
times called retroactive hallucinations. They are 
positive or negative, according as a new erroneous 
memory is created or an old one annulled. I say to 
a subject, " You remember that we went to Potsdam 
yesterday, and took a drive on the Havel ? " The 
suggestion takes effect, and the gentleman at once 
begins to relate his experiences in Potsdam. This is 
a retroactive positive hallucination. Again, " You 
have just been running extremely fast ; you ran half 
a mile as hard as you could go." In this case the 
delusion of memory is so great that palpitation and 
gasping for breath follow, in consequence of the 
imaginary race (Delboeuf). These are positive retro- 
active hallucinations, because the hypnotic believes 
he has experienced something which did not really 
happen. The following would be a retroactive 
negative hallucination, as the hypnotic here forgets 
something which did happen : I say to him, " You 
have not had any dinner; you have not had any 
breakfast." Upon which he immediately feels 
hungry, as he thinks he has had nothing to eat 
since he got up. 

Many motor disturbances of which I have before 
spoken may be reckoned as related to amnesia, or 



I 



THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 131 

]oss of memory. For example, when I tell somebody 
that he cannot lift his arm, or that he cannot speak, 
I am sometimes dealing with loss of memory, because 
a movement is made impossible if the memory of it 
cannot first be called up. This is the case in those 
paralyses which some French authors (Binet, F6r^) 
cäSX paralysies systhnatiques — a paralysis for a special 
act. Such a paralysis is not followed by total 
functional incapacity of a whole group of muscles ; 
the function is rather interfered with for one particular 
use only. The incapacity to say a, or to sew, for 
example, would be a paralysis for a special act ; if the 
person could not speak or move his arm at all, this 
would be a total paralysis. It is possible in this way 
to deprive the subject of all memory of the letter a, so 
that he can neither speak nor write it. These forms 
of loss of memory become very clear when we consider 
the disturbances which may be produced by sugges- 
tion in the signs we use for mutual comprehension ; 
that is, in vocal sounds, gestures, and writing. It is 
possible to produce almost all kinds of aphasia experi- 
mentally, as Kussmaul, Arndt, and others have 
clearly demonstrated. We can cause any one to 
forget a language he has learnt — French, for example 
(Forel, Frank) ; we can make writing impossible 
(agraphia). By a suitable suggestion a hypnotic can 
be deprived of the power of making himself under- 
stood by facial expression (amimia). Drawing, 
sewing, every form of activity in fact, can be pre- 
vented by suggestion. 

It is known that there is a particular group of dis- 
turbances of speech in which the perception of words 
is wanting ; this is called sensory or amnesic aphasia. 
The patient still attaches ideas to words. But it is 
possible by means of suggestion to deprive him not 



1 



132 



HYPNOTISM. 



oifly of the perception of a word or letter (e^., the I 
letter a), and of the consequent power to write and 
speak it ; he can also be deprived of the idea which 
he attaches to such a word or letter. This difference 
will become clear if wc observe the behaviour of a 
person under the different circumstances. If he re- 
tains the idea of the letter he is conscious of his 
inability to utter or write it ; he is aware that he is 
writing or speaking nonsense, and even tries to avoid 
using words in which the letter a appears (Max 
Dessoir). But if he is deprived of the conception or 
idea of the letter, he is no longer surprised that he 
cannot write or speak it. This becomes still more 
interesting in post-hypnotic suggestion. It is possible 
to cause a post-hypnotic loss of memory, and to make 
the subject invariably replace one letter by another. 
I told a hypnotic that after he was awakened he 
would always say e instead of a. I woke him, and 
asked, "Are you awake?" "Je" (Ja), he replied. 
" What have you been doing ? " " Ich heb geschiefen " 
(ich habe geschlafen), The subject laughed, but was 
at the same time slightly annoyed, and was perfectly 
aware that he was talking nonsense. But if the idea 
a were also missing, the subject would say e instead 
of« without observing it. 

I have shown above that subjects may be made to 
forget certain of their experiences (negative retro- 
active hallucinations). 

In the same way whole periods can be made to ' 
vanish from the subject's consciousness, Mr. X., who 
is forty-three years old, was told, "You no longer 
remember anything that has happened to you since 
you were thirty I" This sufficed to cause a blank ii 
JC.'s consciousness. He was unable to answer any 
questions about this period i he did not Vno-« Vo-n V«. J 



THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 



133 



made my acquaintance, nor how he got into my 
room ; when such questions were put to him he 
shrugged his shoulders and answered, " I don't 
know." 

It is possible to carry this still further, and trans- 
port the subject back to an earlier period of his life. 
In this case the subject finds no gaps in his memory ; 
he believes that he is living in this earlier time, and 
brings his present surroundings into relation with it. 
Here is a man who fought at St. Privat in the French 
war. His age was forty-one ; I suggested to him that 
he was nineteen years younger, and in the battle. 
He stood up at once, gave military orders, and com- 
manded the artillery to fire. When I asked him if 
he knew Dr. IVIoll, he said, " No ; my doctor's name 
is R. I do not know Dr. Moll." He knew nothing 
that had happened since the battle ; he was unaware 
of the rheumatism for which I was treating him ; he 
said he was quite well. When I asked him who I 
was, he replied that he did not know. It was inte- 
resting that he could not be induced to retreat ; I 
tried to make him take a few steps backward, but he 
replied, "I wül not retreat one step without orders." 
I suggested that the enemy was still approaching, but 
nothing would induce him to retreat. When I drew 
his attention more and more upon myself, and told 
him that he must know who I was, the situation 
suddenly altered. He recognized me, and knew his 
real age, but had no idea of what had just passed. 

I caused a lady, ret. 34, to believe that she was 
eight years old again. She spoke to her doll in a 
childish voice, cried when she thought I was about 
to take it away, and called for her mamma. 

Finally, it is possible to make a ^e.'c^ott ba'ÄcNc 'CwsS. 
he has never been born. Even x\ü?. ^-ü^^eäwiw 



1 



134 



HYPNOTISM. 



be accepted, and the consciousness will be an absolute 
blank. 

New memories can be created at the time the old 
ones are cancelled. This is the case with the pheno- 
menon which Charles Richet describes as objectivation 
des types. In this case the subject believes himsell 
another personality, another being; not only do many 
memories connected with his own ego disappear, but 
he also endeavours to connect the remaining memo- 
ries with his suggested personality. Durand de Gros 
was acquainted with these phenomena; he appears to 
have studied them in America, where they were already 
observed in 1840. 

I told a certain Mr. X. that he was Dr. Moll, and 
that I was Mr. X. ; upon which he asked me to take 
a seat, that he might hypnotize me. He did hypnotize 
me ; that is, he went carefully through the process 
which I go through with him, and did not forget to 
make several pleasant suggestions. 

I experimented with another man, in whom these 
phenomena arc very easily produced. He would 
represent with dramatic vividness any character 
which was within the grasp of his ideas. I told 
him, " You are Napoleon I.," upon which he 
assumed the famous posture of Napoleon after 
the battle of Waterloo, but spoke German, as he 
did not know French. As Frederick the Great, he 
walked with a crutch in the well-known gait, and 
knew nothing about railroads. Subjects can be 
made to believe they are animals ; they will bark 
like dogs, or croak like frogs. They can even be 
changed by suggestion into inanimate objects, such 
as stoves, chairs, tables. When X. thinks himself a 
chair he crouches down on both legs ; when it is 
sug-^ested that the chair has a broken ieg, he sinks 



THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 



135 



his knee to the ground and rests on one leg ; when 
he is a carpet he lies flat and motionless. These 
experiments in suggestion may be carried still further. 
"You are made of glass," I say to a subject; he 
stands perfectly still. When I tell another that he 
is made of marble, he stands stiffly and cannot be 
moved; but directly he believes himself to be made 
of wax he becomes plastic and allows himself to be 
placed jn any attitude, 

It should be remarked that the subject always 
obeys, even when he believes himself an inanimate 
object. Moreover, hypnotized subjects are by no 
means always consistent ; they often forget their part, 
though this may be generally prevented by training. 
For example, another person, whom I had changed 
into Frederick the Great, travelled contentedly in a 
railway carriage, evidently not reflecting that there 
were no railways in those days. Another, whom I 
had carried back into the year 1864, spoke of the new 
German Empire, of the Emperor Willjam, and so on. 
In spite of such inconsistencies, the mental images 
are much more consistent with hypnotics than with 
many lunatics who believe themselves to be kings 
and prophets. The inconsistencies of lunatics are 
much greater, and hypnotics sooner get rid of them, 
Besides this, when they represent a new personality, 
memories of former experiences disappear more com- 
pletely than is the case with lunatics (Cullerre). 

The change of personaliiy in hypnotic subjects has often been 
compared with the performances ol actors. It is a fact that the 
actor who himself creates the idea of his part, and allows him- 
self (0 be governed by it, will play his part the best. This is 
the opinion of Dumesnil ; others— for example, the famous 
Clairon — held a different opinion on this poinL In any c 
ftw actors are able to accommodaic and assimilate thetnselves 




136 



HYPNOTISM. 



to their own idea of a character, e.g., that of Julius Cxsar, as 
thoroughly as a hypnotic subject can do. The subject is not 
distracted by sense perceptions, while the most accomplished 
actor cannot always avoid being affected by his surroundings. 
Some actors, in order to play their parts as naturally as possible, 
call up imaginary objects by force of imagination, so as to 
place themselves amongst suitable surroundings. 

These changes of personahty, and the changing of hypnotic 
subjects into animals, remind us forcibly of the stories of 
changing men into animals (zoanthropia), which was occasion- 
ally epidemic in the Middle Ages and later. People believed 
themselves changed into animals — usually into wolves. Such 
persons attacked and tore others, and displayed the fierce- 
ness and the instincts of wild beasts. This phenomenon was 
supposed to be the work of the devil ; Johann Wier tells us 
many strange things about it. Herodotus and Pliny 
like phe 



Graphologicäl investigations have been undertaken 
in several quarters in order to decide whether the 
handwriting of the hypnotized subject changes with 
the personality, and if the change bears any relation 
to the suggested personality. Changes have been 
observed (Lombroso, Ferrari, Hericourt, Richet 
Varinard, Mayeras). The expert Hoctis, however, 
thinks that the subjects' writing is never altered to 
such a degree as not to be recognizable. I have 
never seen changes of handwriting follow on changes 
of personality ; only when I placed the subjects in 
different periods of hfe has the handwriting altered. 
As children they wrote awkwardly and made faults 
of spelling ; as old people they wrote shakily. 
The trials made with KrafFt-Ebing's patient, who 
wrote different hands, corresponding to the different 
earlier periods of her life, are very interesting; but, 
unluckily, the writing could not be compared with the 
true normal writing of the subject at those periods. 
Nuel's statement that in hypnosis the writing always 



I 



THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 137 

differs from the subject's normal hand, and that con- 
sequently hypnotic signatures may always be distin- 
guished from others, seems to me too general. He is 
probably right when he says that in many cases the 
writing of hypnotic subjects is irregular and spas- 
modic. 

I will here remark that all the above-mentioned 
suggestions influencing the memory can also be made 
post-hypnotic, and in all hypnosea it is only neces- 
sary to tell the subjects before awakening them that 
they will remember everything, and they will do so. 
Also, in some of the hypnotic states, memory may be 
prevented by command. Wc can also cause loss of 
memory of particular events or things ; for example, 
we can prevent the recollection of certain letters, as 
we have seen before. Retroactive hallucinations can 
be transferred to waking life in the same way. I say 
to a subject in my house, " You know that we drank 
two bottles of wine just now, and that we had roast 
goose for supper." When he answers, " Yes," I 
further tell him that after he wakes he will remember 
all about it. He wakes and relates it all ; he declares 
he has eaten too much, and that the wine has made 
his head heavy ; he even thinks himself slightly 
intoxicated. This is a purely imaginary intoxication 
produced by suggestion. Hytten relates an even 
more interesting case ; he says he has cured real 
intoxication by suggestion. 

These delusions of memory may last for weeks and 
months. However, I have seen them disappear a 
short time after waking. A man, who directly after 
waking believed he had seen his mother at my house 
before the hypnosis, forgot all about it after a few 
minutes. Wc had spoken of other things in the 
[meantime, and this probably caused tKt i.'a.^Ää. 



I 

I 




138 HYPNOTISM. 

oblivion. Bernheim has lately shown that in some 
cases the subject forgets not only what has taken 
place during the hypnosis, but also what immediately 
preceded it, and this without any kind of suggestion 
having been made. 

I shall speak of these delusions of memory transferred 
to waking life when I discuss the legal side of the question. 
Bernheim first pointed out their great importance, and rightly 
called attention to analogous occurrences in waking life. For 
example, there are people who will repeat a lie so often that at 
last they no longer know whether they are lying or not. The 
mental image is called up again and again as they talk, and 
each time becomes more vivid. Bernheim also shows that 
complete delusions of memory can be induced in certain people 
without their ever having been hypnotized. It is only necessary 
to repeat to them confidently that such and such a thing has 
happened, and they become unable to distinguish fact from 
fiction. 

I have already mentioned several cases in which 
changes of memory in the waking state have been 
caused by post-hypnotic suggestion. The memory 
in later hypnoses can be influenced in the same way. 
For instance, we can make the loss of memory, or 
the paramnesia above mentioned, continue in later 
hypnoses. And the subject may be made to forget 
in later hypnoses what happened in the earlier ones, 
just as he may be made to forget in the waking state 
what has happened in hypnosis. It suffices to tell 
him that in later hypnoses he will not remember this 
or that. 

I have said above that hypnotic subjects remember 
the events of earlier hypnoses in later ones. But this 
statement needs some limitation, apart from what has 
just been said. In the first place, we see that when 
there is a change of personality, there is generally 
loss of memory also ; a subject as Napoleon does 



THE SYMPTOMS OF HVPNOSIS. 139 

not remember what he did as Frederick the Great. 
I further mention some little unconscious actions, 
which cannot be recalled to the subject's memory ; I 
say, for example, " In five minutes you will sayi 
'Hal'three times." The subject obeys, but remembers 
nothing about it later. In the same way certain 
post-hypnotic suggestions may be obeyed in a new 
hypnosis, and the subject may be unconscious that 
they were suggested in an earlier one. 

Finally, Gurney supposes two stages of hypnosis, 
istinguished from each other by completely different 
memories. The old magnetizers described such stages. 
I have been unable to convince myself of their exis- 
tence, and think them a result of hypnotic training. 
Gurney distinguishes two stages, a and b. In stage 
a the subject knows nothing of stage b ; and in b 
nothing of a. I do not dispute that in some persons 
several sharply divided slates of consciousness may 
exist, apart from the waking consciousness ; this is 
also affirmed by Krafft-Ebing and Pierre Janet ; I 
only object to speaking of it as universal. 

I have spoken several times of post-hypnotic sug- 
gestion. This is a point of such importance in 
medicine and psychology that it must be examined 
in detail. No serious observer can doubt the reality 
of post-hypnotic suggestion The old mesmerists 
observed some cases of it. In 17S7 Mouillesaux 
ordered a lady in the hypnotic state to pay a visit to 
a certain person the next day; the command was 
exactly obeyed (Du Frei) ; Kluge, Schopenhauer, and 
Noizet mention other cases. Liebeault, Riebet, Bem- 
heim, and Dclbceuf have lately studied post-hypnotic 
suggestion ; Gurney and Forel in particular have 
. done so in various ways. It is certain that many 




I40 HYPNOTISM. 

su^estions arc obeyed post-hypnotically, Jendrässik 
has seen a paralysis last several days in consequence 
of hypnotic suggestion ; KrafTt-Ebing successfully 
suggested to one of his patients to maintain a definite 
bodily temperature for a fixed time. Reddening of 
the skin has also been induced by post-hypnotic 
suggestion. Any suggestion that takes effect in 
hypnosis will also take effect post -hypnotic ally ; 
movements and delusions of the senses, itching, pain, 
action of the bowels, hunger, thirst, &c., can be in- 
duced. Dreams can be influenced. " To-day you 
will dream that you are at Swinemiinde ; you will go 
on the Ostsee in a boat with six people ; the boat will 
be upset, and you will fall into the water and wake," 
The subject dreams this in detail. Dreamless sleep 
can be induced in the same way ; or at least the 
subjects do not remember if they have dreamt. 

It is possible to carry on suggestions from hypnosis 
into waking life; they are then called continuative 
suggestions. I suggest that my photograph is on a 
visiting card, and say that the subject will continue 
to see it after awakening. The subject is firmly con- 
vinced that the photograph is there. According to 
Londe an illusion of this kind has lasted for two 
years. This carrying on of the suggestion into 
normal life happens sometimes by chance, when the 
suggestion has not been cancelled before the awaken- 
ing. One of my subjects drinks what has been sug- 
gested to her as peppermint water ; I awake her, and 
she says for an hour after that she has a taste of pep- 
permint in her mouth. The following often -repeated 
experiment belongs to the continuative suggestions : 
I say to the subject, " Count up to ten, and wake 
when you get to three." He counts up to ten, but is 
atvake while .counting from four to six. 



I 



THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 141 

In other cases the suggestion only takes effect after 
waking. I say to the subject, " You will not be able 
to move your right arm after you wake." He wakes, 
and is unable to move it, though otherwise in a normal 
state. Exactly the same effects may be produced 
ifter an interval of hours, days, weeks, and months. 
I say to a subject, " When you come to see me in a 
week you will not be able to speak when you come 
into the room." He comes to see me in a week, and 
is fully awake when he enters the room ; I ask him 
his name, but he is unable to say it, or anything else. 
Here we have an example of fulfilment of suggestion 
after an interval, or suggestion ä icMance, deferred 
suggestion. 

It is remarkable that these deferred suggestions 
should have at first aroused so much incredulity, since 
analogies are certainly to be found for them in normal 
life. Post-hypnotic suggestions may be divided into 
two groups ; but I make this division merely for 
practical convenience in considering them. In the first 
group the suggestion is forgotten on awakening, in the 
second it is remembered. It will be explained in the 
theoretical section that the loss of memory in the first 
group is only apparent. I shall thoroughly discuss 
this group first, as it is the more important and inte- 
resting. 

The moment for the fulfilment of the suggestion 
can be decided in several ways. To one subject I 
say, " An hour after you wake you will hear a polka 
played ; you will believe you are at a ball, and will 
begin to dance." To another, whom I wake at eight 
o'clock, I say, " When the clock strikes nine you will 
take the water-bottle from the table, and walk up and 
down the room three times with it. The moment of 
fulfilment is decided differently in these t"«o t^^sd^a. 



141 



HYPNOTISM. 




In the second case the moment is decided by a con- 
crete external sign ; in the other an abstract term, an 
hour, is fixed. 

The suggestion in this second example, where the 
moment of action is decided by some external sign, 
nearly always takes efTect, especially after a little 
hypnotic training. The first more rarely succeeds. 
There arc some subjects, however, with whom such 
suggestions take effect punctually. But the greater 
number are not only unpunctual, but often do not 
execute the suggestion at all, if some external impetus 
is not given ; others carry out the suggestion, but 
inexactly — in forty-five minutes instead of one hour, 
&c. 

I will point out a frequent source of error in these 
time experiments ; this is the behaviour ol the 
spectators. They look at the clock at the appointed 
time, or make some other unconscious signal that the 
right moment has arrived. This has sometimes 
happened in my own experiments. 

There is a third way of appointing the moment 
for the execution of a post-hypnotic suggestion, 
which has been carefully experimented upon by 
Gurney and Pierre Janet. In many respects it is 
like the first method. I say to a subject (X.), " When 
I rub my foot along the floor for the tenth time after 
you awake, you will laugh." The subject wakes, and 
does not remember my order. I talk to him, and rub 
several times without his paying any attention ; at 
the tenth shuffle he laughs. Consequently the sug- 
gestion has taken effect. I make the experiment 
again, but at the fourth shufSc I ask X. if he has not 
heard the noise. He says, " No." Nevertheless at the 
tenth shufße he laughs, though he is quietly talking 
to me. In most experiments the result was less 



THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 143 

exact. The suggestion succeeded, but not at the 
right moment. 

Many deferred suggestions resemble these sug- 
gestions in which the moment of fulfilment is fixed 
by counting. Post-hypnotic deferred suggestions can 
be made in two ways ; for example, on the 3rd ot' 
May I say to a person who sees me every day, " On 
the 6th of June, when you come into the room, you 
will see me with a black face, and you will laugh at 
me." The suggestion succeeds. But here a fixed 
date is named which helps the subject to carry out 
the suggestion, in the same way as the striking of the 
clock in the case first quoted. Delbceuf, in particular, 
has pointed out the importance of this. In this 
case also we have a concrete sign. It would have 
been another matter if I had made the suggestion 
thus : " On the 35th day, reckoning from to-day, you 
will come into my room and see me with a black 
face," Sec. According to Gurney's observations, sug- 
gestions of this kind succeed, and a few of my own 
experiments confirm him. An example may make 
this sort of suggestion clearer. I suggested once to 
X., "You will come to my house on the sixteenth 
Tuesday, reckoning from last Tuesday, and will abuse 
all the people present," &c. This suggestion suc- 
ceeded completely, although no fixed time was named. 
I shall return to an explanation of this later on. 

I have as yet only discussed the manner of deter- 
mining the point of time for the carrying out of the 
post-hypnotic suggestion. The question now is, 
What is the condition of the subject while carrying 
out the post-hypnotic suggestion ? So far as I 
know, Dumontpallier, Beaunis, and Li^geois were the 
first to remark that post-hypnotic suggestions were 
certainly not carried out in a waking state, even if the 



H4 



HVPNOTISAT. 



action took place after the awakening from hypnosis. 
The question has led to lively discussion ; Forel and 
Gurney have made the best and most numerous ob- 
servations in regard to it; in particular they have 
shown that the post-hypnotic suggestion may be 
carried out in very different states. 

To give the reader an idea of these states, I will 
show some examples. A man (X.), thirty years old, 
is in the hypnotic state, I say to him, " When 
you wake, directly I cross my knees you will take 
the inkstand from the table and put it on the chair." 
He wakes at my order, and I talk to him. After 
a time I cross my knees ; he begins to stare at the 
inkstand and hardly answers me. He goes to the 
table, takes the inkstand and puts it on a chair ; upon 
which I suggest to him that he sees his brother, that 
he is eating his luncheon, &c., all of which sugges- 
tions he accepts. I am obliged to re-awaken him to 
put an end to this new state of suggestibility. After 
waking he remembers absolutely nothing. This 
case is characterized by loss of memory of all that 
happened during the state, and further by suscepti- 
bility to suggestion. I do not know how this state 
is to be distinguished psychologically from a true 
hypnosis, and to my mind Delbceuf is right when he 
says that to make a post-hypnotic suggestion is really 
to order a new hypnosis at a fixed moment, and the 
carrying out of the suggestion in this new hypnosis. 
There are other very diiTerent cases. I say to a 
hypnotized subject, " When you awake, directly I rub 
my hands together, you will forget your name. When 
I separate my hands you will remember it again.'" 
The order is obeyed ; we talk to one another, but 
when I bring my hands together the subject forgets 
his own name. He is, however, completely awake. 



I 



THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS, 



US 



and incapable of accepting any further suggestion. 
When I separate my hands he knows his own name, 
and knows also that he had forgotten it a moment 
aga Directly I bring my hands together he forgets 
it again. He goes away, and in a few days we meet 
again; but now he remembers his name, however I 
hold my hands. But he remembers perfectly that the 
other day he was several times unable to say his own 
name. He maintains that he was awake all the 
time. 

We ai*e not justified in calling this case one of 
hypnosis. There was no mental symptom of hypnosis, 
no loss of memory, no suggestibility, no fatigue ; the 
subject did not think he had been asleep ; nothing 
remains but to consider the state a perfectly normal 
one, except on one point Whether .such a state may 
be regarded as normal, generally speaking, is another 
matter. I shal! discuss this when I come to the legal 
question, for which these cases are very important 
(Bentivegni). 

It appears from these examples that post-hypnotic 
suggestions may be carried out in various different 
states. Between the two extremes — the one case in 
which there were all the mental symptoms of a new 
hypnosis, and the other in which there were none — 
there are many degrees which will now be discussed. 

Here is another example. A woman is hypnotized. 
A. and B. are present. I say to the subject, " When A. 
speaks to you after you wake you will laugh at him. 
When B. speaks to you, you will put out your tongue 
at him. Wake I" The suggestion is exactly carried 
out. A. speaks to the subject and she laughs. I ask, 
"Why did you laugh just now ? " "I did not laugh." 
And she positively insists that she did not laugh. A. 
speaks to her again and again ; she laughs, and again 




146 HYPNOTISM. 

at my question she denies having laughed. She puts 
out her tongue at B. when he speaks to her, and the 
moment after, when I question her, she says that she 
did not do it I suggest that she hears a barrel- 
organ ; but she says she does not, and is insusceptible 
to other suggestions. She remembers everything else 
that has happened, and knows perfectly what I have 
said to her. All that is forgotten is the post-hypnotic 
act and what is connected with it ; /.^., the words 
which A. and B. spoke to her. She can repeat what 
I said to her, and her replies ; everything, in fact, 
unconnected with the suggestion. She knows nothing 
about the time during which she carried out the 
suggestion ; at the same time she recognizes no gap 
in her memory. 

In this case there is complete loss of memory of 
the post-hypnotic act, and no further suggestibility ; 
the loss of memory extends simply to the post- 
hypnotic act. This is, then, a third way in which 
post-hypnotic suggestion is carried out, and it is not 
rare. 

In other cases the subject remains susceptible to 
suggestion while he performs the act, but wakes 
directly it is over and remembers nothing about it. 
It is difficult to distinguish these cases from those 
just described ; on that account I shall not make a 
separate group of them ; for it seems that subjects 
like the person described in the third example are 
really always susceptible to suggestion while they 
are carrying out the act, but that in many cases 
the act takes place too quickly to allow of a fresh 
suggestion being made. The post-hypnotic act is 
completely forgotten, while the state of the subject 
before and after the action is quite normal. Li^geois 
thought this a separate state, which he called " condi* 



THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. u? 

dition prime." He gave up this later, and now calls 
the sXa.i.&" condition seconde provoquee J " Beaunis calls 
it " veille somnambulique" Gumey, " trance-waking." I 
think, however, that these states must be considered 
true hypnoses (Delbceuf), Evidently, the suggested 
idea is so powerful in them that it produces a state 
analogous to that in which it was first implanted- 
When the idea vanishes the state also vanishes. 

Here is a fourth case. I suggest to X. to take a 
chair and put it on the table five minutes after he 
wakes. The suggestion is carried out While he is 
putting thp chair on the table I call out suddenly that 
a dog is biting him. He believes it, kicks away the 
Imaginary dog, and wakes spontaneously. He re- 
members moving the chair and remembers the dog, 
but says the whole thing was like a dream. 

Consequently this state is characterized by suggesti- 
bility during the carrying out of the post-hypnotic 
suggestion ; but there is also memory. It is true that 
X. feels as if he dreamed it He has a consciousness 
of having slept through the performance, and of 
having waked when it was ended. This conscious- 
ness of having slept is very important (Delbceuf). We 
often have some life-like experience in a dream, and 
yet know directly we wake that it was a dream, I 
think that the last-described post-hypnotic state must 
be considered a hypnosis. The suggestibility is very 
characteristic. 

In order not to complicate the question I will re- 
capitulate. Amongst the post-hypnotic states we have 
studied — (i) a state in which a new hypnosis charac- 
terized by suggestibility came on during the carrying 
out of the suggestion ; loss of memory afterwards, 
and no spontaneous waking ; (2) a state in which no 
symptom of a fresh hypnosis was discoverable, although 



in which ^H 
out, with ^^1 



148 HYPNOTISM. 

the suggestion was carried out ; (3) a state 
the post- hypnotic suggestion was carried out, 
complete forgetful tiess of the act, with or without 
fresh susceptibility to suggestion, and from which 
the waking was spontaneous ; (4) a state of suscepti- 
bility to suggestion with loss of memory following. 
In judging of these states I think the chief symptoms 
are, firstly, the fresh suggestibility, and secondly, the 
subsequent loss of memory. Whether the subject 
wakes spontaneously or has to be again awakened, is 
of secondary importance, as spontaneous waking is 
observed iii ordinary hypnoses, 

Gurney has directed attention to a particularly 
important device for estimating the mental state 
during the carrying out of a post-hypnotic suggestion. 
We have seen that the renewed suggestibility is of 
great importance in deciding whether a fresh hypnosis 
■has been induced or not ; and Gurney has made use 
of this post-hypnotic suggestibility for solving the 
question. 

The subject (X.) is shuffling cards. We wish to find 
out in what state he is, and he is therefore told while 
he is shuffling, that when the clock strikes he will 
jump up three times. He has finished shuffling and 
is quite awake. There is nothing to show that he is 
still in hypnosis; he is not susceptible to suggestion. 
He does not remember shuffling the cards, and con- 
tends that he has not done it ; but directly the clock 
strikes he jumps up three times. From this post- 
hypnotic susceptibility to suggestion we conclude that 
he was not in a normal state when he was shuffling 
the cards. Whether this state was hypnotic, or was 
another peculiar mental state, as Beaunis and Gurney 
suppose, is . another question. I incline to think it 
a true hypnosis. 



THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 



149 



Gurney thinks that in order to properly estimate 
and characterize this state we must take memory 
into consideration also. We have seen that subjects 
in later hypnoses remember what has occurred in 
earlier ones. If now the events of earlier hypnoses 
should be present in the post-hypnotic state we 
should consider it a fresh hypnosis. Now I have 
often found that there was a complete recollection of 
the events of earlier hypnoses while the post-hypnotic 
suggestion was being carried out. This fact also 
favours the supposition of a fresh hypnosis. 

Finally, there are cases in which physical symptoms 
may be found. It would be interesting to observe 
these during post-hypnotic suggestion. The fixed look 
and blank expression often seen during the carrying 
out of the suggestion also favour the idea of fresh 1 
hypnosis. 

It may be concluded from what has been said that 
post-hypnotic suggestions may be carried out in 
various different states. This is the case not only 
when we compare one subject with another, but when 
we observe the same subject under the influence of 
different suggestions. The questions upon which it 
all hinges are— 1. Docs the subject remember later on 
what he has done, and does he remember the events 
of earlier hypnoses while carrying out the suggestion ? 
2. Whilst doing what has been suggested is he sus- 
ceptible either to suggestions to be carried out at 
once, or to new post-hypnotic suggestions ? 3. Has 
he the look, the manner, the physical symptoms usual 
in hypnosis or not? 

The question becomes even more complicated when 
we cons.idcr the following experiments of Forcl. 
Forel said to a nurse, " Whenever you say 'Sir' to 
the assistant physician you will scratch your rl^htj 



I50 



HYPNOTISM. 



temple with your right hand without noticing it." The 
nurse did so, talking clearly and rationally all the 
time. She did not notice that she was scratching her 
face. 

Here the subject behaves normally, and yet the 
post-hypnotic suggestion is executed during the con- 
versation with complete loss of memory. When the 
subject acts once with loss of memory, is this state 
hypnosis or is it some other state? I think it should 
be regarded as a normal part of waking life, for it 
would be a mistake to conclude a hypnosis from the 
mere forgetting of one act, without susceptibility to 
suggestion. Gurney points out that loss of memory 
alone cannot be taken for proof of an abnormal state, 
because in normal life we perform actions and see 
objects without remembering them afterwards. If the 
action is a purely mechanical one, such as winding a 
watch, we often remember nothing about it. 

I have purposely in the last section only discussed 
movements and acts executed post-hypnotically. But 
all sorts of delusions of the senses, positive and nega- 
tive, can be induced post-hypnoticaüy at pleasure. We 
can cause whole scenes to be gone through ; the sub- 
ject will go to a ball, or dinner, S:c. The state of 
the subjects during the realization of a post-hypnotic 
delusion may differ considerably. But in my experi- 
ence it is almost a rule that the induction of a post- 
hypnotic delusion should induce a fresh hypnosis with 
susceptibility to suggestion and subsequent loss of 
memory. 

It is possible besides to influence subjects in these 
states in any way (Fore!). For example, we may 
make the suggestion thus : " You will see a dog 
five minutes after you wake ; but you will remain 
awake and not allow anything else to be sug- 
^■^f- w -^- j-» '"it"' i'^ ■ * j^ 



THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. iji 

gested to you." The subject may be in this way 
protected from further suggestion ; he will then carry 
out the first suggestion, but for the rest will appear 
fully awake. Messrs. X. and Y. are at my house. I 
hypnotize Y. I say to him, " When you wake X. will 
be sitting on this chair ; you will remain awake." 
When he wakes he believes that he sees X. in the 
chair, and talks to him, &c. I draw his attention to 
the real X. and say, " Which is the real X. ? You see 
one in the chair and one standing before you." Y. 
feels the chair and the real X. to find out which is air 
and which is reality. He feels about and finally con- 
cludes, "He is in the chair." And yet Y. is not 
susceptible to suggestion on other points. 

In what precedes I have discussed the state of the 
subject during the carrying out of the post-hypnotic 
suggestion. It will not take long to consider the state 
between waking and the execution of the suggestion. 
The subject is then nearly always fully awake, and 
insusceptible to suggestion ; the state is, in fact, the 
same as if he had been wakened without previous 
post-hypnotic suggestion. However, there are some 
cases in which the awakening is not complete so long 
as the effect of the suggestion lasts ; this occurs par- 
ticularly when the suggestion is repugnant to the 
subject's character and will. Such subjects look tired 
and sleepy, and often say themselves that they are not 
quite awake. I have had cases in which I was obliged 
to cancel the suggestion before I could completely 
awaken the subject. However, this has never occurred 
when the post-hypnotic suggestion had a therapeutic 
aim, but only in experiment. I think the resistance 
of the. subject is partly to blame. In other cases I 
have observed a subjective discomfort instead of the 



152 HYPNOTISM. 

feeling of fatigue, till the suggestion was executed. 
This subjective discomfort is sometimes felt without 
the suggestion being carried out. One lady to whom 
it had been suggested that she should put a book on 
the floor woke in great discomfort, but it did not 
occur to her to put the book on the floor. She re- 
covered herself however when, at my request, she had 
put the book on the floor in a waking state. Another 
subject complained of a twitching in the arm after 
waking ; I had suggested to him to give me his hand 
when he woke. He did not do it till I asked him 
again in the waking state ; he was aware of nothing 
but the twitching. 

As in all the above cases of post-hypnotic sugges- 
tion the command was not remembered, it is particu- 
larly interesting to observe how the subjects try to 
account for their execution of the suggestions. 
Naturally, I shall here only consider the cases in 
which the action is not immediately forgotten ; in the 
others the subjects do not try to find reasons for 
actions which they have forgotten. 

Let us take an example. I say to a hypnotized 
woman, " After you wake you will take a book from 
the table and put it on the bookshelf She wakes 
and does what I told her. When I ask her what she 
has been doing, she answers that she has moved the 
book from the table to the shelf. When asked for her 
reason, she answers, " I do not like to see things so 
untidy ; the shelf is the place for the book, and that 
is why I put it there." In this case I suggested an 
action to the subject ; she does not remember my 
order but believes she has so acted of her own accord, 
from love of order. This phenomenon has often been 
observed (Riebet), and is so common that some con- 



THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 153 

sider it the rule. This, however, can hardly be said 
(Forel). Let us go on with our experiment. I suggest 
to the re-hypnotized subject to take the book from 
the shelf and lay it under the table, which she does. 
I ask her why she did it ; she can give no reason. " It 
came into my head," she answers. I repeat the ex- 
periment several times. To a new request for her 
reason she finally replies, "Something made me feel 
as if I must put the book there." In this case the 
subject, who at first believed she was acting freely, 
came by degrees to recognize the constraint put upon 
her ; she, perhaps, suspected the suggestion, but was 
not sure of it. 

Another case. I suggest to a hypnotized man to 
use an insulting expression to me when he wakes. He 
wakes, and after a pause of a few seconds, during 
which his face expresses an inward struggle, he calls 
out" Donkey ! " When he is asked why he so insults 
me, he makes many excuses, and explains, "I felt as 
if I must say ' Donkey ! ' " 

Here we have to do with a paradoxical action ; the 
man knew at once that constraint was being put upon 
him ; the woman who performed the simpler act above 
described only perceived the constraint after several 
experiments. 

However, in a great number of cases the result is 
different. I tell a hypnotized subject that when he 
wakes he is to take a flower-pot from the window, 
wrap it in a cloth, put it on the sofa, and bow to it 
three times. All which he does. When he is asked 
for bis reasons he answers, " You know, when I woke 
and saw the flower-pot there I thought that as it was 
rather cold the flower-pot had better be warmed a 
little, or else the plant would die. So I wrapped it in 
the doth, and then I tliought that as the sofa was 



»54 



HYPNOTISM. 



near the fire I would put the floA-er-pot on it ; and I 
bowed because I was pleased with myself for having 
such a bright idea." He added that he did not con- 
sider the proceeding foolish, he had told me his reasons 
for so acting. In this case the subject carried out an 
absurd post-hypnotic suggestion ; he was unconscious 
of the constraint put upon him and tried to find good 
reasons for his act. Most experimenters have observed 
that their subjects try to find reasons for the most 
foolish suggested acts. 

It is also to be observed that when the subjects are 
questioned as to their motive they make different 
answers ; they cither believe that they have so acted 
of their own accord, and invent reasons for their 
proceedings, or they say they felt impelled to act 
so, or they only say, " It came into my head to do 
it." We can use suggestion here also. When the 
original suggestion is being made, it may, at the 
same time, be suggested to the subject to believe he 
hns acted of his own free-will, or to believe that 
constraint was put upon him. 

When such a suggestion is not made, it depends 
upon the subject's power of self-observation which 
reason he gives— whether he perceives the constraint, 
or invents false reasons for his conduct. Something 
a!so depends upon the frequency with which the 
experiment is made, and particularly upon the 
greater or less absurdity of the suggested act. 

This endeavour of the subjects to find a motive for 
their apparently free acts is very instructive ; since, 
though they believe themselves free, they are really 
acting under constraint. This mistaken feeling of 
freedom has been used by several psychologists lately 
to demonstrate the powerlessness of human wiil. A 
state has been produced by experiment, in which the 



THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 



"SS 



subject is convinced that he is acting freely, while in 
reality his will has been directed in a particular 
manner, unconsciously to himself. Ribot, Forel, and 
others especially point this out. Spinoza's saying, 
"The illusion of free-will is nothing but ignorance of 
the motives for our choice," appears to find support 
in these hypnotic experiments (Fore!); it is certainly 
proved that one of the chief supports of the doctrine 
of free-will, i.e., our feeling that we might have acted 
otherwise, is not enough to prove free-will. The 
following experiment, which I have repeated in 
various ways with several subjects, shows tliis. I 
suggest a post-hypnotic act to a subject — for example, 
I tell him to lay an umbrella on the ground. The 
subject now wakes, and I tell him to do anything 
he pleases ; but at the same time I give him a folded 
paper, on which I have written what he is to do. He 
does what I have suggested, and is much astonished 
when he reads the paper afterwards. He declares 
that this time he was quite sure he would do some- 
thing else than what I had suggested. 

However, I believe that in spite of these hypnotic 
experiments, we should hesitate to draw general con- 
clusions about free-will ; for though hypnosis is not 
a pathological state it is an exceptional one, from 
which we must not draw general conclusions. Few 
who have made such experiments often can fail to 
feel occasional subjective doubts of freedom of will, 
but from these doubts to scientific proof is an im- 
mense step. Further, it should not be forgotten that 
we do not by any means find these deep hypnoses 
and subjective delusions of the judgment in all sub- 
jects. On the contrary, such subjects are in the 
minority. Also, after repeated experiments they 
; begin to observe themselves, and are aware of the 



156 HYPNOTISM. 

constraint put upon them, particularly when the 
suggested action is opposed to their natural dispo- 
sition. Before we can draw final conclusions we 
must find analogous cases in ordinary life; which, 
indeed, has often been done. We will go back to the 
art of conjuring. A well-known trick of the conjurer is 
to allow a card to be drawn from a pack and to guess 
it. The trick is thus explained : the spectator thinks 
he has freely chosen the card, but in reality the 
conjurer has directed him to one in particular, and com- 
pelled him to select it. The conjurer often attains 
this end by putting the card he wishes chosen where 
it will naturally be the first to be taken up. It need 
hardly be mentioned that I do not draw conclusions 
against freedom of will from this example. 

We can then with certainty, by means of post- 
hypnotic suggestion, compel many actions which the 
subject in normal circumstances would refuse to per- 
form. We may, in consequence, consider such acts 
purely compulsory. I ask a man to tell me some- 
thing which he would never voluntarily do ; he replies 
that he would never throw a sofa cushion at my head ; 
ali the same, when I suggest this to him in hypnpsis 
he does it, after a short resistance. These compulsory 
acts have a great resemblance to the impulsive acts 
which we sometimes see performed in pathological 
states. When the signal for the carrying out of the 
post-hypnotic suggestion is given the subject feels an 
impulse exactly like that felt by many morbid persons, 
in whom the sight of a sheet of water arouses a desire 
to commit suicide or murder (Cullerre). The same 
effort to resist the impulse may be observed in these 
patients as in hypnotic subjects. Bentivegni has 
Jately pointed out the analogy between these patho 



I 




THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 1S7 

logical impulses and the above-mentioned post- 
hypnotic suggestions. The patients dominated by 
this imaginary necessity are fully aware of their un- 
fortunate state, but are none the less impelled to 
action (Maudsley) ; in the same way a subject 
dominated by a post-hypnotic suggestion often re- 
cognizes its folly, but finally succumbs. 

Post-hypnotic suggestions are of especial value for 
the induction or prevention of future hypnoses. In 
this way an easily hypnotizable subject may be pre- 
vented from allowing himself to be hypnotized by 
another person. Post-hypnotic suggestion is an 
excellent means for protecting susceptible people 
and guarding them against unexpected hypnosis, as 
Ricard pointed out with regard to the somnambulic 
state. Mr. X., whom I had often hypnotized, had 
also often been hypnotized by Mr. A. I suggested to 
X. that he should in future only allow himself to be 
hypnotized by doctors, and on no account by Mr. A. 
After this Mr, A. could no longer hypnotize him. 
However, I do not believe that this is a perfect pro- 
tection in all cases. But the chief danger, which does 
not arise from susceptibility to hypnotism, but from 
susceptibility to hypnotism against the subject's will, 
is thereby guarded against. On the other hand it is 
possible to throw a subject into an unexpected hyp- 
nosis by means of post-hypnotic suggestion. I say 
to a subject, "Directly I say the word 'to-day 'you 
will fall into a fresh hypnosis," I then wake him, 
and he remains awake till I say "to-day"; upon 
which he is instantly thrown into a fresh hypnosis. 

It is difficult to say to what length of time the 

carrying out of a post-hypnotic suggestion may be 

I deferred, since this depends upon the patient's 

I character and the method employed. The longest 



ijB HYPNOTISM. 

post-hypnotic suggestion I have seen was executed at 
the end of four months ; no hint had been given to 
the subject in the meantime. The longest which has 
ever been described, as far as I know, was in a sub- 
ject under Li^geois and Liebeault ; in this case 
exactly a year elapsed before the suggestion was 
carried out. The case of the photograph, mentioned 
on p. 140, in which the photograph remained visible 
for two years, is rather different, as it appears that the 
suggestion was often recalled to the subject's memory 
in the meantime. The case mentioned by Dal Pozzo 
is, perhaps, of the same kind : a person who was afraid 
of thunderstorms was cured of the fear by suggestion ; 
the effect is said to have lasted twenty-six years. 
(Belfiore). 

These deferred suggestions are not very common, 
and depend upon the power of the subject's memory. 
But by clever management of the association of ideas 
they can often be obtained ; I have observed them in 
nearly all hypnotic subjects belonging to the second 
group. I am surprised that Binswanger has only 
observed one such case, in spite of his more numerous 
experiments. 

I have hitherto only discussed those post-hypnotic 
suggestions in which there is loss of memory after 
waking from the hypnosis. This loss of memory 
greatly favours the carrying out of the suggestion. 
But loss of memory is not absolutely necessary; post- 
hypnotic suggestion succeeds also in light hypnoses, 
where there is complete recollection after waking. 
These cases, though more rare, are highly interesting, 
because the compulsion can be better observed in 
them. The subject may be able to say to himself, 
"The suggestion was made to me in hypnosis; I 



4 
I 



THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 



■59 



remember it perfectly, but I cannot help obeying it." 
One of my colleagues, a doctor, was in the hypnotic 
state ; I sugg'ested abnormal movements to him with 
success ; sense delusions did not succeed. I told him 
that after he woke he would be unable to say his 
name whenever I laid my hand on his forehead, and 
further that instead of his own name he would always 
say mine. The siigäjestioii succeeded perfectly. 
When he woke from the hypnosis, whenever I put 
my hand on his forehead he said his name was Moll ; 
he knew his right name also, but was unable to say it. 
He remembered my order about it, and did not 
believe in any supernatural force ; he knew that the 
effect was mental, but could not help himself It 
is the same thing with sense delusions ; they also can 
be induced post-hypnotically, in spite of the fact that 
the suggestion is remembered. It is true that the 
effect of the sense delusion is in such cases often not 
to be seen, because, as the order is remembered, 
reasoning is possible, and thus the suggestion is nega- 
tived. Nevertheless, sense delusions with remem- 
brance of the suggestion are rarer because sense 
delusions with loss of memory are rarer, even though 
memory can always be restored by suggestion, as we 
have seen. In any case the subjects who remember 
the suggestion are always more conscious of the com- 
pulsion which it exercises upon them than those who 
do not; these often believe they have acted of their 
own accord. Sometimes suggestion only succeeds 
with difficulty and after a long struggle, in conse- 
quence of the subject's resistance and control of his 
consciousness. 

We have now studied the memory and the post- 

. hypnotic suggestions dependent upon it. We have 



i6o 



HYPNOTISM. 



seen that the faculty of memory is an important one 
in hypnosis ; it is also a chief condition for the con- 
tinuance of mental activity. This is certainly much 
circumscribed by suggestion in the deep hypnoses. 

But a certain adherence to rule in the chain of 
ideas, conditioned by the laws of association, exists 
in many deep hypnoses. When, without hypnosis, 
we form in our own minds a mental image — of a fir- 
tree, let us say — a number of other images are formed 
in connection with it : we think of Christmas Day, 
presents, &c. An analogous process takes place 
generally in hypnosis. A suggested idea does not 
remain isolated ; on the contrary, it at once awakens 
new ideas dependent upon it. 

I suggest to A., " Here is a pack of cards." A, 
believes it. The mental picture of the cards arouses 
the idea that he is playing a game, and also another 
idea — that he is at a restaurant with his friends B. and 
C. The single suggestion of the cards has sufficed to 
call up a whole scene before A., by association of 
ideas. A new suggestion suffices to destroy this 
association at once. I tell A., while he still thinks he 
is holding the cards, that he is in the train, and the 
chain of ideas connecting the cards and the restaurant 
is at once put an end to. However, in many hyp- 
notic subjects a certain rational coherence of ideas 
persists, so that a suggested idea calls up others in 
one way or another connected with it. A large 
number of the phenomena of hypnosis depend upon 
this principle. Many mentally induced paralyses, of I 
which I spoke on p. Ö3, also depend upon it ; the idea ' 
of a motor paralysis produces anesthesia, vaso-motor 1 
disturbances, &c. I would emphatically say that the I 
fact of their independence of the will has nothing to j 
do with their being an indirect result of suggestion. 



THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. i6i 

This mechanical associative process shows no real 
mental activity. The mental activity only appears 
when we destroy the natural associations, and see how 
the subject exerts himself to create a new sequence of 
"as. In the example quoted above I told the 
subject as I gave him the cards that he was in a train. 
In order to bring these ideas into some logical con- 
nection, the subject A, now explained that he had 
bought the cards for a birthday present for the friend 
he was travelling to meet. 

The fact that tiie subject sometimes allows himself 
to be persuaded to do something, if a reason is given 
to him for it, shows even more plainly that the 
thinking process is not always arrested in hypnosis. 
It is often necessary to suggest a false premiss to the 
subject before he will do what is wanted. X. cannot 
be induced to spill a glass of water in my room, but 

en I tell him that the room is on fire he does it at 
once. 

On the other hand it should be said that even 
delusions of the senses are sometimes corrected purely 
by a reasoning process. A subject declines to believe 
that he sees a wolf in my room ; or, ratlier, he ex- 
plains that he sees an image of a wolf plainly enough, 
and could point out the exact spot. But he knows 
quite well that it must be a delusion, as I should 
certainly not allow a wolf to come into my sitting- 
room. Macnish says that people can guard them- 
selves against bad dreams and control them in sleep 
by a process of thought. 

The following very interesting phenomenon which 
I have observed in the various hypnotic states, even 
the deepest, demonstrates the activity of the mind 
in hypnosis. The subjects say they know quite well 
that the influence exercised upon them is a purely 



162 IIYPNOT/SM. 

mental one, even while they obey it One, in whom 
all kinds of sense delusions can be induced, said to 
me, " I know quite well that you do not exercise any 
extraordinary magnetic faculty ; I am sure it is my 
own imagination which deprives me of my will ; my 
own imagination obliges me to obey you ; but I c 
not help it." 

Ill a great number of cases the subjects are thrown 
into hypnosis in this way. Some of them, perhaps, 
are influenced by their belief in the experimenter's 
possession of a peculiar magnetic force ; on the other 
hand many are convinced of the subjectivity of the 
phenomena, and yet arc thrown into hypnosis. If it 
happens that A. is easily hypnotized by B., and with 
difficulty or not at all by C, this is by no means 
always because A. believes in B.'s peculiar power ; it 
is rather an indefinite, and at present inexplicable, 
mental influence which unites A. to B. — an influence 
which reason often considers imaginary, but which is 
none the less constraining. 



We see this every day in ordinary life, and particularly in 
love affairs. It happens often that one person is attracted by 
another and repelled by a third, without being able to discover 
his reasons for it. Reason often points out the perversity of 
his inclination ; and yet he cannot overcome the strong mental 
influence which attracts him. Degiistibtis non est disputandum ; 
it is useless to argue about our tastes, because they are not 
guided by reason, but by certain undefined agencies. To call 
these feelings sympathies and antipathies explains nothing. 



It is particularly interesting, however, to observe 
how the hypnotic subject makes a logical use of 
slight external impressions. Few people think of the 
existence of these impressions, which yet often, 
suffice to put a subject on the right track. Much 




r 



THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 163 

apparent "clairvoyance" is a consequence of this 
heightened faculty for drawing conclusions. Many 
subjects are helped also by the hypera:sthesia of their 
organs of sense, which enables them to perceive things 
ordinarily overlooked. Let us take a very common ex- 
periment, often made to prove the existence of animal 
magnetism. The magnetized subject knows whether he 
has been touched by his magnetizer or another person. 
It is astounding to observe the accuracy with which 
such subjects, when their eyes have been bandaged, 
can distinguish one person from another. Ochorowicz, 
who believes in animal magnetism on other grounds, 
gives a number of interesting examples of this. The 
hypnotic subject observes the smallest details — the 
differences in the strength of pressure, in temperature, 
in the posture of the person touching him, in the 
sounds he makes with his shirt-cuffs ; nothing is over- 
looked, and a logically exact conclusion is drawn. 
Many observations and much information as to the 
increased acuteness of the mental faculties in the 
magnetic sleep can be found among the old investi- 
gators of mesmerism. Leonard considered this acute- 
ness characteristic of the magnetic state. It may very 
well happen in such cases that the subject himself is 
not clearly conscious of drawing his conclusions from 
these details. This phenomenon is very common in 
normal life. Suppose a man sees another person for 
the first time. How often it happens that at first 
sight he draws a conclusion as to the character of the 
stranger, and is at the same time unaware of the 
details from which he draws it. We often divine the 
meaning of a face without knowing how : we think 
that it is a stupid or a clever face ; we recognize an 
expression of happiness or sadness at snce, without 
realüin^ the details of our impression. Thought 



.64 



HYPNOTISM. 



transference, of which I shall speak later, may com- 
monly be referred to this ; the subject reads the wish 
and thought of the experimenter even in a gesture, 
in the involuntary movement of the lips, in the 
direction of his eyes (Carpenter), particularly when 
he has had some hypnotic training in this line. 

The prophecies and predictions of somnambules 
and other such persons often depend upon the logical 
utilization of such insignificant impressions. A 
peculiar mental quickness is not always necessary, 
as is shown in the case of a man who was told by 
one of these persons that he had lately suffered a 
severe loss in his family. This was true. The man 
was astonished at the soothsayer's cleverness, till a 
friend drew his attention to the fact that he was 
wearing crape (Fonviclle). 

This mental activity, and particularly the mechani- 
cal associations described above, show themselves 
most clearly when suggested ideas are changed. New 
ideas arise and attach themselves to the dominant 
one, as I showed above. But it is exactly the quick- 
ness with which the subject can be transferred from 
one situation to another, and with which he accepts 
the suggested idea, which demonstrates that he is only 
the plaything of the experimenter. Just as the ideas 
of dreams transport us in a second from one situa- 
tion to another, so do suggested ideas. Pleasure is 
changed into pain in a moment ; the moods change 
as quickly as they usually do only in children. The 
subject now thinks he is in my room ; the next 
moment he believes he is in bed ; directly after he is 
swimming ; now he believes he is ninety years old, 
and in the next second he is back in his tenth year. 
Now he is Napoleon I., then a carpenter, then a dog, 
&c. This change of ideas takes place in a moment ; 



I 



THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 



i6s 



the corresponding ideas arise at once through asso- 
ciation. Few people are able to do this in waking 
life, even when they have a talent for acting. A 
certain opposition is sometimes made to this rapid 
change of ideas in hypnosis, but this is rare. When 
it happens, the sugtjestion must be often repeated 
before the subject will allow himself to be dragged 
out of his earlier sphere of ideas. The quick change 
of these dominating ideas is so common that I was 
astonished to read (in Malten) that a legal specialist 
in Vienna, Ferroni, has been led by it to conclude that 
thing is simulation. 

This dominant idea, which calls up others, may be 
looked at in another light. We may say that it is the 
idea to which the subject's attention is especially 
turned. In such a case this phenomenon of hyp- 
nosis must be regarded as a rapid change in the 
direction of the attention, caused by the suggestion 
of the experimenter, and not by the will of the 
subject. In deep hypnoses the subject's attention is 
first directed to one point only, i.e., to the experi- 
menter, so that other objects hardly exist for him. 
When this phenomenon is clearly marked, we speak 
of rapport. 

This rapport is an important phenomenon of 
hypnosis. We saw in the fourth experiment (p. 23) 
that the subject only answered me, and apparently 
ignored the other persons present. This is the 
common hypnotic phenomenon called rapport. In 
hypnotic rapport the subject responds to the hypno- 
tist only. The old magnetizers were acquainted with 
this fact, and some investigators on the objective side, 
particularly Noizet and Bcrtrand, have tried to ex- 
plain rapport. They thought that the subject fell 
> thinking of the experimenter, and witK tda 




i66 



HYPNOTISM. 




whole attention directed to him, and that on this 
account only the idea of him remained active in the 
consciousness during hypnosis. Consequently he 
alone could make suggestions. As suggestions are 
most easily made through the muscular sense and the 
hearing, when rapport exists it is made most clearly 
evident by means of these senses. I lift up the arm 
or a subject ; it remains raised in suggested catalepsy, 
Another person (A.) makes the same attempt without 
result; the arm always falls down loosely {cf. Experi- 
ment IV.). A. now tries to bend the cataleptic arm, 
but is prevented by its rigid contracture, while I easily 
succeed. In the same way we have seen (p. 83) that 
only the hypnotist can obtain apparent reflex con- 
tractures by stimulation of the skin. The school of 
Charcot also maintains that only the hypnotist can 
relax a continuous contracture in somnambulism by 
renewed stimulation of the skin. As has been said, 
this experiment seems to prove that these contrac- 
tures do not take place without some mental 
action ; for if we had only to do with physical 
stimuli, any one could produce the same result All 
this becomes even clearer in the transference of 
rapport. The command of the experimenter suffices 
to put A. and B. in rapport with the subject But 
the stimulus applied by A. and B. before the 
command is, from a physical point of view, exactly 
the same as they apply after it ; and any explanation 
of these things is impossible, unless we take refuge in 
the supposition that some mental action takes place 
in the production of catalepsy and contractures. The 
circumstances are analogous in verbal suggestion. 
The experimenter says when he has lifted the arm, 
'"Now it bends, now it falls, now it is stretched out," 
and the effect at once follows. The commands of 




THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 



167 



others are thrown away if they have not been put in 
rapport with the subject by the experimenter. Phe- 
nomena like those of rapport in hypnosis have been 
observed in spontaneous sonuiambulism (Macario). 



From all the phenomena hitherto discussed it must 
have been gathered that there can be no question of 
loss of consciousness in hypnosis. Of course I mean 
loss of consciousness as it is understood in psychology.» 
We have seen that the subject in hypnosis remembers 
the events of earlier hypnoses. Consequently impres- 
sions were received into the consciousness in these 
earlier hypnoses. We cannot, therefore, talk of loss 
of consciousness because loss of memory exists after 
the awakening (Forel), apart from the fact that 
suggestion in hypnosis will prevent the loss of 
memory. This temporary loss of memory is an 
cvery-day occurrence, and we could not conclude a 
loss of consciousness from it in ordinary life. 

I will not speak of the daily mechanical actions we 
perform without attention and forget directly. I will 
take quite another case, in which we act with full con- 
sciousness and attention, I will choose an example 
out of my own experience, a thing which we have all 
doubtless observed in ourselves. I take a book and 
put it in a particular place, so that I may find it when 
I want it At last I want it, but I cannot remember 
where I put it. I think in vain. Only when I replace 
myself in imagination at the moment when I put it 
away (a method which every one knows) do I re- 
member where it is. And yet, in spite of temporary 

' Psychologically, loss of consciousness is a slate in which 
no kind of psychical process takes place ; in the penal code 
abnormalities of consciousness are included under loss of con- 
;s (Schwarlier, Casper, Liman). 



i68 HYPNOTISM. 

loss of memory, I did not put the book away in a 
state of loss of consciousness ; it was rather that I 
was at the time in another state of consciousness. 
This is in many respects analogous to hypnosis, the 
events of which are remembered only when the sub- 
ject is again in the same state of consciousness, i.e., in 
a new hypnosis. Thus, in all these cases, we have not 
to do with an unconscious state, since all impressions 
remain in the memory. 

But it might be asked, "Are there not perhaps 
unconscious states in hypnosis?" In my opinion 
this question only concerns the forms of lethargy, 
and only the lethargy which Charcot describes as 
such, and the lethargy which Bernheim calls hyste- 
rical, of which I have spoken (p. 37). As concerns 
the latter, it must be absolutely distinguished from 
hypnosis ; it has nothing to do with the phenomena 
of hypnosis, and is in any case extremely rare. With 
Charcot's lethargy the case stands thus ; apart from 
the numerous cases of lethargy here described, and 
which even the pupils of Charcot admit are associated 
with movements caused by command, there remain 
very few cases worthy of consideration. I doubt, 
however, whether there is the loss of consciousness in 
these cases which Charcot describes. The cases 
which I saw in Paris convinced me of the con- 
trary. The quickness with which these lethargic 
subjects fall into catalepsy when Charcot merely 
touches their eyelids makes me imagine that these 
apparently unconscious persons have been attentively 
waiting for the moment in which they are expected 
to become cataleptic. Consequently the loss of c 
sciousness seems to me more than questionable. 
This point is of groat importance because Charcot's 
pupils maintain that the phenomena of the muscles 1 



THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 



i6g 



and nerves in the lethargic state are not induced by 
suggestion. The experimenters conclude that the 
state is one of lethargy without having proved it, 
and it appears from their statements that, when 
demonstrating this loss of consciousness, they did 
not absolutely avoid discussion of the experiments 
in the presence of the subjects. As a matter of 
course these lose some of their evidential force in 
consequence. 

Even the states mentioned on p. 6g, in which no 
response could be obtained to questions and com- 
mands, do not prove loss of consciousness ; for — (i) 
post-hypnotic suggestions could be made, and were 
effectual, which proves that there was conscious- 
ness ; (2) these subjects woke directly they were told 
to do so (Bernheim), which also shows that they were 



This was evidently also the case with KrafTt- 
Ebing's patient. She sat quite still so long as she 
was left alone. "Like a statue," says KrafTt- Ebing, 
"however long she is watched, there is no play of 
feature nor other motor trace whatever of a spon- 
taneous mental process." And yet, in my opinion, 
we cannot say that all expression of consciousness 
was absent in this subject. The quickness with 
which she responded to the suggestions of the 
experimenter, althougli in otlier cases she remained 
passive under exactly the same stimulations of 
sense, shows that her thoughts were directed to him, 
though perhaps in a dreamily conscious state, and 
also that the idea of him was present in her con- 
sciousness, However, this was apparently the only 
mental process in her case. 

In my opinion, therefore, we cannot speak of loss 
of consciousness in hypnosis, and the opinion held by 



I 
■ 



HVPNOTISAf. 

many that a hypnotized subject is generally uncon- 
scious is a mistake ; such a loss of consciousness as 
takes place in fainting is never found in hypnosis. 

But though we cannot speak of a loss of conscious- 
ness, we must, however, suppose an abnormal state 
of consciousness ; for if some one believes he sees 
things that are not present, or fails to see things that 
are present, he is certainly in an abnormal state of 
consciousness. If a man forty years old believes he 
is ten years old, his consciousness is certainly ab- 
normal. We find such phenomena continually among 
the second group of hypnotic subjects ; we must con- 
sequently here suppose a material abnormality of 
consciousness. It need hardly be mentioned that 
the will in these cases is also not intact, since, 
without normal consciousnes.s, free-will is not 
conceivable. In the first group of hypnoses the 
case is rather different. We must conceive these 
states as involving less power of the external 
activity of the will,' i.e., as a disturbance of the 
voluntary movements; here there is no other abnor- 
mality of the consciousness. The subject knows 
exactly where he is ; he knows what is being done 
with him ; he makes the movements commanded 
because he cannot help it ; his limbs are paralyzed 
at command. A complete catalepsy may be induced 
by suggestion, and yet the subject will be fully aware 
of all that goes on. Some of Hack Tuke's subjects — 
for example. North, a physiologist in London — have 
given very interesting information with regard to the 
interference of the will experienced during the ex- 

' The activity of the will is of two kinds : (i) the subjective, 
wbich can arbitrarily arouse certain ideas, pictures of memory, 
; (2) the objective, which is shown in the exterrial moTO- 
, meats which depend upon the will. 




THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 171 

periments, which makes them unable to resist, though 
otherwise fully c 



In spite of this it would be a great mistake to think 
of the subject as an automaton without a will, set 
moving only by the experimenter. On the contrary, 
the will of the subject expresses itself in manifold 
ways, and this expression of the will presupposes 
consciousness, since without consciousness there can 
be no will, at least in the sense in which I here regard 
it We will now consider in what ways the will of 
the subject can express itself Its expressions may 
naturally be very compJicated, as, though the will is 
always less powerful, on the other hand it is not 
abolished. 

Often the decreased power of will shows itself merely 
in slow and lingering movements. In these cases any 
movement can be made, but the subject takes longer to 
perform them than he does in normal circumstances. 
An inexperienced person Is easily inclined to overlook 
these things, and to fail to recognize the hypnosis ; he 
generally thinks the experimenter mistaken in calling 
this state a hypnosis. Further, it has been already 
said that in many persons only certain muscles can be 
controlled by suggestion (p. 61). But in many cases 
it is necessary to repeat the suggestion often before 
the result is attained, For example, a subject can 
lift his arm in spite of the command of the hypnotizer ; 
but repetition of the command ends by making the 
movement impossible. This is an example of the 
way resistance expresses itself. 

Expressions of the will which spring from the in- 
dividual character of the patient are of the deepest 
psychological interest. The more an action is ceijul?.w^ 
to A« disposition, the strotiget \sVis lesv^'WÄvc&^'i'tö^t ■ 




171 HYPNOTISM. 

Habit and education play a large part here ; 
generally very.-difficult to successfully suggest any- 
thing that is opposed to the confirmed habits of the 
subject. For instance, suggestions are made with 
success to a devout Catholic, but directly the 
suggestion conflicts with his creed it will not be 
accepted. The .surroundings play a part also. A 
subject will frequently decline a suggestion that will 
make him appear ridiculous. A woman whom I 
easily put into cataleptic postures, and who made 
suggested movements, could not be induced to put 
out her tongue at the spectators. In another such 
case I succeeded, but only after repeated suggestions. 
The manner of making the suggestion has an influence. 
In some cases it must be often repeated before it 
succeeds ; other subjects interpret the repetition of 
the suggestion as a sign of the experimenter's inca- 
pacity and of their own ability to resist. Thus it is 
necessary to take character into account. It is often 
easier to induce some action by suggesting each 
separate movement than by .suggesting the whole 
action at once (Bleuler). For example, if the subject 
is to fetch a book from the table, the movements may 
be suggested in turn ; first the lifting, then the steps, 
&c. (Bleuler). 

It is interesting to observe the way in which 
resistance is expressed, both in hypnotic and post- 
hypnotic suggestion. Beaunis has observed that 
an attack of hysteria is sometimes the answer to a 
repugnant suggestion. I myself have observed the 
interesting phenomenon that subjects have asked to 
be awakened when a suggestion displeased them. 

Exactly the same resistance is sometimes offered to 
a post-hypnotic suggestion. It is possible in such a 
case that the subject, even in the hypnotic state, will j 



THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 



173 



decline to accept the suggestion. Many carry out 
only the suggestions to which they have assented 
(Pierre Janet). Pitres relates an interesting case of a 
girl who would not allow him to awake her, because 
he had suggested that on waking she would not be 
able to speak. She positively declared that she would 
not wake till he gave up his suggestion. But even 
when the suggestion is accepted as such, a decided 
resistance is often expressed during its post-hypnotic 
execution. This shows itself as often in slow and 
lingering movements as in a decided refusal to perform 
the act at all. The more repugnant the action, the 
more likely is it to be omitted. In order to induce 
subjects to carry out post-hypnotic suggestions more 
easily, it is well to choose an external stimulus which 
will recall the idea of it more and more vividly to the 
memory. It is suggested to Mr, X. to say " fool " to 
one of the persons present directly the clock strikes. 
X. does not do it ; the idea occurs to him when the 
clock strikes, but he declines to carry it out But if, 
instead of the striking of the clock, I choose some 
other more lasting stimulus which keeps the idea 
alive, I attain the desired result For instance, the 
suggestion succeeds if I say to the subject, " You will 
say ' fool ' to that man when you wake and see me 
rub my hands." When X. wakes I rub my hands, 
and the idea arises in his mind ; he represses it for 
some time successfully. However, I go on rubbing 
my hands for more than a minute ; X.'s resistance 
becomes weaker and weaker, and finally the sugges- 
tion is c.-iiecuted. 

In other cases it is well to suggest a false premiss 
directly resistance is offered to some suggestion (as I 
mentioned on p. i6i, in discussing mental activity). 
The order will then be more easily obeyed. I will 



1 



iject was to ^H 
But when ^| 



174 HYPNOTISM. 

choose an example from Liegeois. A subject 

be induced to steal a watch. He refused. 

it was represented to him that the watch was his own, 

and that he would be only taking it back again, he 

obeyed the commandi Or the subject may be told 

that the laws are altered, that stealing is no longer, 

punishable, &c. 

There are numerous cases of post-hypnotic sugges- 
tion where the suggested act is not performed ; but 
the idea, and the impulse to carry it out are so 
powerful that the subject feels them for long (Forel). 
The impulse often only subsides when the action is 
performed or the suggestion withdrawn. 

These explanations concern delusions of the senses, 
as well as movements and actions, though subjects in 
deep hypnosis often resist delusions of the senses iess 
than movements and actions. However, I have often 
seen unpleasant and improbable delusions resisted 
when contrary ones succeeded. This shows the great 
influence of the consciousness and will ; in a great 
number of cases they triumph over the power of the 
experimenter. The following is an example. The 
subject (X.) was forty-one years old. I told him, " You 
are now thirteen years old." He answered, " No, I 
am forty-one," But directly after he accepted the 
suggestion that he was twelve or fourteen years old. 
However, I failed to make him believe he was thirteen 
years old ; he refused the suggestion. He was super- 
stitious, and disliked the number thirteen. His notion 
tha't thirteen was an unlucky number accounted for 
his resistance ; on that account he would not be 
thirteen years old. 

The experimenter may unconsciously increase the 
resistance merely by the tone in which he speaks. 
Fontan and Sdgard rightly maintain, for example. 



I 




THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS, 



'75 



that many hypnoses may be continued or put 
an end to by the tone in which the operator speaks. 
When we say to a subject, " Try to open your 
eyes ; they are fast closed, you cannot possibly 
open them," the kind of emphasis may alter the 
effect If the emphasis is laid upon "Try to open 
your eyes," the !ast part of the suggestion is more 
easily overcome, and vice versa. Here is an example. 
I say to a subject, " Try to lift your arm ; you cannot," 
he remains motionless ; he is to a certain degree 
influenced, even though he believes afterwards that he 
so acted to please me But if I now add, in as im- 
pressive a manner as possible, " Try all you can, try 
with all your might to move your arm," the subject is 
all at once able to move. It is just these states which 
most clearly show the gradual transitions from the 
lightest stages to the deepest I raise a man's arm ; 
the arm remains raised so long as I say nothing. 
Directly I tell him that if he tries to drop his arm he 
will not succeed, he does it nevertheless, though at 
first with some stiffness. This shows that the state 
was not quite a normal one. In this case, as in many 
others, the subject passively allows his arm to remain 
as it was fixed, he makes no effort of will either for or 
against But the moment I induce him by verbal 
su^estion to make an effort of will, he does so, and 
shows that he can exert the will against my orders, 
even tliough the hesitating movement plainly shows 
that he was influenced. It is the same thing with 
continued movements, which are sometimes made 
passively without an act of the will, and sometimes 
cannot be inhibited by the strongest efl^ort of will, as 
I have explaned above (p. 69). 

Many persons temporarily show substantial varia- 
r tions in susceptibility to suggestion. One declares 



176 



HYPNOTISM. 



at one moment that his name is Moll, and does what 
I command him ; directly after he is himself again, 
without any certain or apparent cause. He says 
afterwards that he perceives two opposing wills in 
himself, and that sometimes one and sometimes the 
other conquers. 

Hypnotic subjects give us another proof that they 
are conscious to a certain degree, when they tell us 
they know they are asleep, or in an altered state 
(Richet, Pierre Janet). This is also clearly shown in 
ordinary sleep. We are occasionally conscious in 
dreams that we are asleep and dreaming. Almost all 
hypnotic subjects of the second group have this con- 
sciousness of being asleep, and it is remarkable that 
when they are asked if they are asleep or awake, they 
almost always give the right answer. When, as 
sometimes happens, the awakening is incomplete they 
also rightly say that they are not quite awake. The 
continuance of susceptibility to suggestion may then 
generally be established. I have mentioned that 
subjects occasionally ask to be awakened when they 
are uncomfortable in hypnosis, or when an unpleasant 
suggestion is made to them, 

I again lay stress on the fact that many hypnotic 
subjects are conscious of an ability to resist. I say 
to X,, " You cannot lift your arm ! " " Yes, I can," he 
answers, and experiment shows that he is right. But 
the contrary sometimes happens ; the subject often 
knows exactly the minute when his power to resist is 
at an end, when he must obey and cannot help him- 
self. X. announces after a time that he is at this 
point : " Now the hypnosis is deep enough," he says. 
I say to a person thirty years old, whom I have often 
hypnotized, " Now you are a little child." The sub- 
ject replies, " It is not enough yet, you must wait a 



7HE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 177 

little." After a time, when I ask, he says that now he 
is at the right point Many people have this feeling 
of deficient will and increased suggestibility in deep 
hypnosis ; they often know the moment when a 
suggestion will succeed and when not. 

The consciousness and will of hypnotics may 
express themselves in other ways, in the case of in- 
determinate suggestions {suggestions indetermindes, as 
Beaunis calls them). In such suggestions no definite 
action is commanded, but the subjects are left to 
choose among a number. Here is a man with a 
violent bronchial catarrh. I suggest to him in 
hypnosis to do something or other which will benefit 
his health. He at once fetches himself some catechu. 
I tell another to do some foolish action after he 
wakes. He wakes and blows the lamp out. From 
this it is to be concluded that the subject was to a 
certain degree able to reflect. 

Although the above examples show that there is 
no complete loss of will in hypnoses, yet in all of 
them the will was set in action by some external 
impulse. Let us consider whether .spontaneity, an 
independent activity of thought and will, may not 
exist in hypnosis, apart from e.tternal impulse. To 
this question we must answer "yes," so far as the first 
group of hypnoses is concerned. Only the second 
group need be considered. Baillif, Obcrstciner, and 
others describe independent hallucinations, arising 
without external suggestion, in the first group. But 
the question is complicated by the fact that we are 
not always able to exclude external stimuli, which 
also induce many dreams in ordinary sleep. For 
example, without any suggestion from me, a hypno- 
tized subject jumps up and says he has seen and 
heard a uiad dog. The cause uf this is the uniuLeii- 



T78 



HVPNOTIS^^f. 




tional creaking of the boots of one of the people I 
present. I had not observed the creaking, but as 
often as it was repeated the same result followed. 
The subject misinterpreted an impression of the sense 
of hearing, which aroused a certain chain of thought 
in him. I have often observed such phenomena in ^ 
impressionable and lively persons. 

But I have found spontaneous hallucinations and | 
actions in the deepest hypnosis, when no suggestion , 
had been made, and which 1 was unable to refer to 
any stimulus of the senses. In particular, any events | 
which had much occupied the subject during the 
waking state continued to affect him in hypnosis, j 
One of them, for example, related anecdotes which j 
he had heard somewhere else a day or two before | 
While his mind was full of them no experiments 
could be made with him ; he was as uncomfortable 
as a diner-out, who only feels at case when he has got 
rid of his whole stock of stories. I believe that in 
this and other such cases we have to do' with indepen- 
dent mental activity, becau.se I could never discover 
any external stimulus. Of course I cannot mathe- \ 
malically prove that these spontaneous actions did not 
result from some external impulse; for the external 
impulse might have been an almost imperceptible 
sound, and even the slight pressure of clothes on the ■ 
skin may act a»! a stimulus and induce apparently I 
independent actions in tbe subject I do not believe 
that hypnotic subjects in the deep stage often have 
independent currents of thought. I have been much < 
impressed by observing the contrary. Durand de \ 
Gros has even made a classification of somnambulists j 
into those who act with, and those who act without, | 
spontaneky. 



THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 



179 



I have hitherto purposely avoided much mention 
of the transitional forms. But I shall now say some- 
thing about them, as certain transitional forms are 
of importance in psychology, and also in discussing 
the question of simulation, particularly as they are 
extremely common. A hypnotized man makes all 
the movements I command him. I say, "Eat this 
beefsteak," and he performs all the necessary move- 
ments with hand and mouth. I say, " Push that dog 
away," and lie makes the appropriate movements of 
the legs. 

And yet we have only here to do with sug- 
gested movements, and the subject by no means 
believes in the reality of the dog or beefsteak, or 
thinks he sees them. Consequently this case belongs 
to the first group of hypnoses. There are two ways 
of judging correctly of these phenomena : firstly, 
from observation, and secondly, from the later recol- 
lections of the subject. As regards the last, the sub- 
ject says to me directly I have awakened him, " I 
knew perfectly well there was no dog and no beef- 
steak ; I did not see them ; however, I could not help 
making the movements you commanded, though 1 
knew I must look utterly ridiculous." This is, then, a 
case of lessened power of the will without loss of con- 
sciousness. This will become clearer if we watch the 
subject during the hypnosis. The movements are not 
so quick as they would be if produced by a hallucina- 
tion ; they have a clearly marked character of con- 
straint There is nothing in the expression of the 
face which points to a hallucination. The subject 
often laughs at the foolish movements he is making, 
and makes corresponding remarks ; for example, he 
says, " This is not a beefsteak," and shake.?. \\\?, \vf*.?i. 
All this pJai/ily proves that it is not a. ca-ac oS. ^^.w^aj 
delusion. 



iBo HYPNOTISM. 



uite passive, ^^| 
commands ^| 



Again in other cases the subject is quite ] 
and does everything the experimenter 
without resistance. When a sense delusion is sug- 
gested to him he says, "yes"; which is a sign that 
he is too passive even to accept the suggestion. For 
instance, when he is told that a tiger is in the room 
his behaviour is not affected ; he does not run away, 
and is not frightened, but simply answers that he sees 
the tiger. In this case only the assent was suggested, 
and not a sense delusion, as the subject's later recol- 
lection shows. He says he only said " yes " because 
it was easier, but that he did not see a tiger. 

Although this case is clear, in others there are j 
important difficulties. These may arise from the 1 
fact that the movemoots themselves generate sense 
delusions. This is a consequence of the known re- 
ciprocal relations of movements and ideas. We have 
already learned that ideas can call up certain move- , 
ments in waking life as well as in hypnosis. Now v 
have to show that particular movements may, on the , 
contrary, excite particular mental processes (Dugald 
Stewart, Gratiolet). I choose first an example from 
ordinary life : an attitude expressing anger is assumed ; 
a real feeling of anger very often follows, especially 
if words are also used ; it is known that people can 
talk themselves into a passion. In this case a par- 
ticular mental state is induced by movements of 
particular muscles, and especially by speaking. 
Something exactly like this occurs in hypnosis, i 
The suggestions made through the muscular sense, 
observed by Braid and Charcot, are founded on this 
{suggestions d'attitude, or suggestion par attitude) ; if 
a subject's arms are put into the attitude of prayer, j 
the face soon wears an expression of religious devo- ] 
tion, J 



THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. i8i 

The following is a favourite experiment of Charcot 
If the subject's hand is raised to his mouth as if he 
were throwing a kiss, he smiles. If the fist is closed 
and raised in a threatening attitude, he looks angry, 
Charcot and Richer maintain that the experiment 
may be reversed. If the muscles used in laughter 
are stimulated by faradization, so that a laughing 
expression is induced, the movement of throwing a 
kiss with the hand fellows. If the muscles which 
produce an angry expression are stimulated, the arm 
is raised as in anger. But I believe it may be safely 
said that suggestions of this kind are affairs of 
hypnotic training. 

However, movements may be used with advantage 
to help the induction of sense delusions, because 
movements influence the ideas. 

I give an imaginary glass of bitter liqueur to a 
subject. He says that there is no glass of liqueur, 
and that he has nothing in his hand. Without 
noticing this objection, I raise his hand to his mouth, 
that he may drink. He obeys slowly and hesitatingly ; 
but when his hand reaches his mouth he makes 
swallowing movements, and the expression of his face 
shows that he has a disagreeable taste in his mouth. 
When I ask him what is the matter, he answers 
that he has an unpleasant taste, as if he had just 
drunk something bitter. Nevertheless he had been 
quite sure at first that no liqueur had been given him ; 
the suggestion took effect during his compulsory move- 
ment ; without this movement the result would not 
have been attained. In another case I make the 
subject move his fingers as if he were playing the 
piano, and suggest at the same time that he is play- 
ing. He does not believe it, but contmues, \!tvc •»lase;- 
ment. "While lie does this the idea oi 'gva.wo-v^^"/'^^^ " 




i82 HYPNOTTSM. 

really arises by degrees in his mind, and at last he 
makes the movements in the firm belief that he 
playing the piano. I have often observed that it was 
easier to induce sense delusions by accompanying 
movements than by verbal suggestion alone, and I 
would recommend this as a means of deepening tl 
hypnosis in suitable cases, as I have often employi 
it successfully myself. It is often impossible to define 
the exact moment when the sense delusion supervenes 
it is impossible, therefore, to decide whether the 
delusion was really in existence before, or whether it 
was called up by the compulsory movements. None 
the less are they a means of obtaining the end. 

The infiuence of speech is especially useful here. 
If a subject refuses to believe that he is in a certain 
suggested situation he should be talked to for some 
time as if he were. Speech controls people more 
than sense perceptions do. This is a case in point: 
I tell a subject to look at a beautiful tree; he declines 
to believe in its existence, and when I ask if he sees 
it he persi-'itently answers " no." But I make hinij 
nod assentingly several times, and the nods graduall] 
induce the assent which he finally utters. The hallu! 
cination is at the same time accepted, and all its oth( 
phenomena are induced. 

Besides thi.s an existing delusion may sometim< 
be corrected by the subject's consciousness, or rati 
by his reasoning powers, as I have stated aboi 
(p. 161). Although the delusion sometimes dii 
appears more quickly by this means, in other cases it 
may persist, in spite of the correction made by the 
reason. If the correction is complete, the delusion 
will have no results ; it will not influence the actions 
following. And yet the delusion will continue in full 
force. I ask a man before I hypnotize him, to tell 



1 I 

ine-^H 

es; I 



THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 



183 



me oi something which in his opinion would never be 
found in my room. He says he would never believe 
there was an owl in my room. In hypnosis I make 
him the post-hypnotic suggestion that there will be 
an owl in my room. He wakes and says he sees the 
owl plainly ; it is chained by tlie foot, and he de- 
scribes it exactly. Although he knows and says that 
the owl is only a hallucination, it is so real to him 
that he hesitates to put his finger on the spot where 
he imagines it to be. 

It is not always easy to recognize the mental state 
of a hypnotic subject, particularly in suggested sense 
delusions ; for it is by no means necessary that a 
sense delusion should dominate the whole conscious- 
ness. If in many cases all thought and action is 
dependent on the delusion, in other cases the effects 
are less complete. I even believe that most subjects 
while the delusion lasts retain a dim consciousness 
that they are in a fictitious situation. For example, 
I suggest to a subject that he is in a battle and must 
fight. An imaginary struggle begins at once and he 
hits at the air. When I suggest that a cloth on the 
table is an enemy he strikes at this. 1 suggest that 
one of the persons present is an enemy, but in con- 
tinuing the fight the hypnotic takes care not to strike 
this person. Naturally this looks like simulation, 
and I was at first inclined to think so myself. How- 
ever, a repetition of such experiments forced me to 
conclude that these were real typical hypiioses, in 
which, in spite of the sense delusions, there was a 
dini dream -consciousness existing which influenced 
the actions of the subject. This dim consciousness of 
his real surroundings prevented the subject from 
striking a human being, but left him free to hit a 
cloth. Many may, perhaps, regard this behaviour of 



,84 



HYPNOTISM. 



the hypnotic as puru automatism. As we when 
walking in the street and reading a newspaper auto- 
matically avoid knocking against passers-by, so the 
hypnotic avoids hitting another person, although he 
is only dimly, or not at all, aware of his existence. 

It is the same thing with negative hallucinations. 
As in the positive delusions a dim perception exists 
of their being only delusions, so the subject in nega- 
tive hallucinations really recognizes the object wliich 
has been made invisible to him through suggestion ; 
even though he is unconscious of the recognition. 
Binct and F^r^ have said about this: "The object 
must be recognized, in order not to be perceived." 
These authors made a series of experiments in sup- 
port of their assertion, which I have been able to 
repeat with success, as an example of a negative 
hallucination, If ten sheets of white paper are taken 
and one of them marked, the subject can be made to 
believe that he sees only nine sheets, even when the 
sheet, whose invisibility was suggested, is among 
them. If he is asked to give up the nine sheets, he 
picks out the nine unmarked ones, and leaves the 
other, guided by the mark. Consequently, he is able 
to distinguish it from the others, although he is 
unconscious of making the distinction. 

A series of experiments made by Cory are even 
better. I was able partly to repeat them, and ob- 
tained the same results. I took a sheet of paper, and 
drew a rather irregular line on it. I then suggested 
to the subject (X.) that the paper was blank. X. 
agreed that he saw nothing. I then drew fifteen 
straight lines on the paper and asked X. what he saw. 
He said, " Fifteen lines." I recommenced the experi- 
ment, but made the first line straight, and then sug- 
gested its invisibility; upon wUvcVi 1 added twenty 



THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 1R5 

more lines exactly like it and made X. count them. 
"There are twenty-one," he said. Therefore the Hiie 
suggested as absent was only invisible to X. when he 
could distinguish it from the others. The following 
experiment resembles this : I took a match and 
marked its end with a spot of ink. I then suggested 
that the match was invisible. I took twenty-nine 
other matches and put the whole thirty on the table 
in such a manner that X. could see the ink spot, To 
my question X. replied that there were only twenty- 
nine matches on the table. I then, while X,'s eyes 
were turned away, moved the marked match so that 
X. could not see the spot. He looked at the matches 
and said there were thirty of them. Thus the marked 
match was only invisible so long as X. could dis- 
tinguish it from the others. I 
From these and other such experiments it may be j 
concluded that the subject recognizes the object of a I 
negative hallucination, and that it produces a central I 
impression, even though there is no perception of it. I 
The automatic writing, of which I shall speak further I 
on, demonstrates this (Pierre Janet). Numerous ex- i 
periments in this direction, which I have made in 1 
company with Sellin and Max Dessoir, also confirm I 
it I shall not give them in detail, as this would take I 
me too long. The results of the negative hallucina- | 
tion depend upon the strength of this central impres- I 
sion. If the central impression is very slight, then I 
the result will be the same as if the object causing it I 
did not exist But if a certain dim consciousness of J 
the presence of the object exists (and this is usually J 
the case), then it may influence the actions of the I 
subject in spite of suggestion to the contrary. I I 
suggest to a subject that a table, which was hefctj^^w I 
him and the door, is no \ongei Üiete -, 'Ooa s^iu^dAJ 



r 




i86 HYPNOTISM. 

fjoes to the dcx)r, but carefully avoids hitting against 
the table, I surest that the electrode, which is 
armed with the very painful faradic brush, is invisible. 
After closing the current I touch the subject with the 
brush and he shows great pain. When I ask what 
has hurt him, he says he does not know, for my hand 
is empty ; but at the same time he takes care not to 
touch the place where the brush is lying, or docs it 
hesitatingly, and with evident signs of fear. I tell 
another that I am going out of the room ; he appar- 
ently neither sees nor hears me. Yet every sugges- 
tion that I now make to him is executed. I order 
him to take the cushion from the sofa and throw it 
on the floor. The order is obeyed though after some 
hesitation. To another, who also believes by sugges- 
tion that I am out of the room, I suggest sense 
delusions — the presence of a dog, &c. All the sugges- 
tions succeed, evidently because the subject hears 
what I say, though he believes me absent. I tell 
another, "Now you are deaf." Upon which he ceases 
to do what I tell him. But after I have several times 
repeated, " Now you can hear again," lie obeys every 
command. We see in these cases, which I could 
multiply, that the organs of sense act normally, that 
a certain effect is produced, but that the impressions 
are not received into clear consciousness. I naturally 
do not maintain that this is the case in all positive or 
n^ative hallucinations ; on the contrary, in some the 
delusion is complete. This depends on character, 
and to a great extent on the manner in which the 
suggestion is made. I wished merely to describe 
the more incomplete and by far most common cases, 
because they are often ascribed to simulation, and till 
now have never been seriously considered. 



THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 



187 



All the phenomena of which I have spoken hitherto 
are very variable. I have purposely only mentioned 
the most common and most important, lest my work 
should grow too long. But hypnotic education or 
training needs a particular discussion. I would ask 
every one who watches hypnotic experiments to give 
it particular attention. All the phenomena of hyp- 
nosis may be interpreted falsely by a mere spectator if 
sufficient attention is not paid to this point. When 
hypnotic experiments are shown to outsiders, subjects 
are as a rule selected who have gone through a hyp- 
notic training in some particular direction, and as the 
directions are various, the results also are various. 
The experimenter A. keeps in view a particular 
symptom, a, and reinforces it at each experiment ; 
in the same way experimenter B. cultivates symptom 
b. In the first case a is fully developed and b receives 
little attention; and in the second case the reverse 
happens. The Breslau investigators, for e.xample, 
developed the imitative movementSj while others did 
the same with the effects of the movements on the 
feelings (suggestions d' attitude) 

He who only regards the final results and pays no 
attention to their gradual evolution will be inclined 
to believe that the two parties of investigators are 
engaged with different things ; though it is in reality 
only difference in training which gives a different 
appearance to identical states. Each experimenter 
now only demonstrates such symptoms as he has 
cultivated by training, especially as this training 
commonly produces most interesting phenomena ; 
the heightening of certain faculties in particular. 
The outsider is unaware that this is a mere result of 
hypnotic training, and is easily misled. Children who 
repeat to strangers the piece of poetry they kno-« 



HVPNOTlSAf. 

best, do exactly the same thing. Experimenters pro- 
duce certain objective symptoms by means of train- 
ing, and any one seeing them for the first time is apt 
to make mistakes. But every experimenter produces 
different objective symptoms — one, for example, a 
lasting catalepsy, another a perfect Miolalie. These 
things strike the stranger, who cannot estimate the 
effect of training. Thus it happens that different ex- 
perimenters discover different objective symptoms. 
The question of training is of immense importance. 
Many have suspected simulation because of the 
apparent variety of hypnotic states. This variety is 
really only the result of different training, if we put 
aside differences of character. The experimenter 
influences the development of the hypnosis (Delbceuf, 
Jendrassik). Unimportant phenomena such as 
öcholalie are developed as much as possible and are 
at last wrongly considered to be essential hypnotic 
phenomena. 

Training is the great source of error for the 
experimenter in hypnotism, because the subject is 
inclined to divine and obey his intentions, and thus 
unconsciously misleads him. Unknown to himself, 
the tone of his voice may induce the subject to 
present the phenomena which he expects. The 
subject is also greatly influenced by his surround- 
ings, and by watching other subjects (Bertrand), 
Imitation is also of great importance here. I hypno- 
tize X-, and suggest that he cannot speak, at the same 
time inadvertently touching his left shoulder with my 
right hand. Y., in hypnosis, sees this, and every time 
I touch his left shoulder with my right hand he, too, 
is unable to speak, Y, believes that this is the signal 
for loss of speech, and behaves accordingly. Training 
enables a hypnotic subject to divine aV\ x'nc £x^x\- 



THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. i8g 

mcnter's wishes. The latter need not speak ; the least 
movement betrays his wish. A long training is not 
necessary ; Delbceuf artificially induced the stages of 
Charcot in one of his own subjects in a few hours. 
My object in making these remarks is to warn against 
attributing great importance to demonstrations, par- 
ticularly when these offer certain symptoms apparently 
objective and impossible to imitate. It should always 
be kept in mind that many such symptoms can be 
produced by training; and can, perhaps,-be Imitated 
by practice even without hypnosis. 

Hitherto I have used the word " training" only for 
the artificial cultivation of certain symptoms ; but it 
also means the production of such particular modifi- 
cations of hypnosis, as are seen after frequent repeti- 
tion of the state. 

As has been said already, it is sometimes necessary 
to make several attempts before the hypnosis appears. 
Husson, in 1831, said this with regard to the magnetic 
sleep. It may be very long before hypnosis is pro- 
duced. Sometimes deep hypnosis only ensues after 
a process of training by several sittings. In one case 
which I have seen hypnosis with sense delusions only 
resulted after eighty attempts, though lighter states 
had been earlier attained. Training not only makes 
the hypnosis deeper, but makes it appear more quickly. 
But, undoubtedly, a deep hypnosis may occasionally 
be induced at a first attempt; and Forel is right when 
he warns against exaggeration on this point. One of 
my relations fell into so deep a hypnosis in a minute 
on a first trial, that I could at once induce post- 
hypnotic negative hallucinations. And this person is 
a perfect specimen of a healthy young man. 

But in most cases it is necessary, as 1 Ua-xc ^\'i.,\p. 
give the subject a hypnotic t,tam\n£,\v\ üii^ix X. «v^s^ 



r 



190 



HYPNOTISM. 



the state as deep as possible. For this 1 wish to 
recommend a particular method, as otherwise the 
deepening is not always attained. Let the first sug- 
gestions be simple, so as not to shock the subject's 
sense of probability. The first suggestions should be 
possible, and prepress should be gradual. More will 
be attained in this way than by suggesting impossible 
situations at first which the subject will not believe in. 
And if a suggestion is often declined, there is apt to 
arise in the subject the auto-suggestion that he is re- 
fractory to this suggestion, or perhaps to any sugges- 
tion. This is often lastingly prejudicial, and may 
lessen susceptibility to suggestion in all later hyp- 
noses. I therefore strongly recommend a slow and 
gradually increasing method for post-hypnotic sug- 
gestion. Perhaps Binswanger's experiments in post- 
hypnotic suggestion failed because he overlooked this 
point A man is in the hypnotic state. I suggest 
that when he wakes he shall call me an insulting 
name ; he does not do it, but is perfectly ready to 
carry out another post - hypnotic suggestion ; for 
nstance, to tell me that he is quite well. Here there 
is only a slight degree of sugge.stibility at first, but it 
quite possible by frequent repetition and slow 
ncrease to get much more complicated suggestions 
carried out. 

This concludes the symptoms of hypnosis. 1 believe 
I have given a sufficient sketch of its essential plie- 
nomena in the foregoing pages. In the following 
chapters I shall refer again to the importance of some 
of them. We have seen that the symptoms are of 
manifold kinds, and I may add that they arc hardly 
ever identical in two different persons. In spite of 
confrrmlty to law one human body \ä niivcv exactly 



THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS, 191 

like another, the mental state of one man is never 
exactly like another's. It is the same in hypnosis : 
one man displays this symptom with greater clearness, 
another that. We shall never be able to find a sub- 
ject in whom all the symptoms are united, just as 
we cannot find a patient who has all the symptoms 
of an illness as they are theoretically described. 



CHAPTER IV. 



COGNATE STATES. 



We always try to advance the study of a state which 
has hitherto been little known and examined, by com- 
paring it with other states, with whose symptoms we 
are better acquainted. We will therefore try to find 
points of correspondence with hypnosis. 

The cognate states might be considered later, after 
we had discussed hypnotism in general, and its theory 
in particular. But as I shall then have to return to 
certain points which must be discussed in speaking of 
the cognate states, I prefer to sketch the.sc first. The 
name selected by Braid shows that there is a resem- 
blance between sleep {/lypiios) and hypnotism ; and 
the Nancy investigators, Liebeault, Bernheim, Brullard, 
as well as Forel, of Zürich, consider hypnosis an 
ordinary sleep ; they think that a person who falls 
asleep spontaneously is in rapport with himself, while 
a hypnotized subject is in rapport with the person who 
hypnotized him ; in their view this is the chief 
difference between sleep and hypnosis. 

I believe, however, that we cannot so easily agree 
to an identification of the states. We must begin by 
distinguishing the light and deep hypnoses. We see 
that in the light hypnosis there is merely an inhibition 
of the will, which affects the movements ; the memory 
is not at all afFected. Now we always presuppose a 



COGNATE STATES. 



193 



great decrease of self-consciousness in sleep. But it 
is just this self-consciousness which remains intact in 
light hypnosis ; and in this state the subject is per- 
fectly aware of all that goes on, and, as a rule, forgets 
nothing on waking. Consequently I do not think we 
can make a close comparison between sleep and 
hypnosis ; nor do I think it possible to make a 
fruitful comparison between these light hypnoses 
and the states of drowsiness and fatigue which pre- 
cede sleep. In any case we have seen that a feeling 
of fatigue is not uncommon in these hypnotic states. 
Besides which we have also seen that the loss of 
voluntary muscular movement is one of their chief 
phenomena. There is hardly a hint of this in the 
drowsy state ; there is only a general fatigue of the 
muscles and heaviness in the limbs. In spite of this 
the sleepy person can move as he pleases ; at the most 
he only feels dull, but the lessened power of the will 
shown in hypnosis is entirely wanting. 

Further, these light hypnotic states are distinguished 
from the early stages of sleep by the decreased 
activity of consciousness in these latter. The current of 
the ideas, of images of memory, &c., is less under the 
control of the^will, while in the light hypnotic states 
only the voluntary movements suffer change. In the 
early stages of sleep sense impressions do not develop 
into conscious ideas in the usual way ; much that 
generally excites our interest and attention is over- 
looked, while there is often reverie independent of 
the will. But almost all this is entirely absent in 
the light hypnotic states. 

On this account I here protest against a termi- 
nology, which has been to a great extent adopted, 
and which many doctors have helped to propagate, 
but wiiich is none the less erroneous. For ait^Mw^Na. 




194 



HYPNOTISM. 




it is often said that hypnotized persons are " asleep," 
and the two states have been partly identified. I 
think this a misuse of words, since, as has been 
explained, there are a whole series of hypnotic states 
in which not one symptom of sleep appears, and mis- 
taken conclusions are often drawn from the mistaken 
terminology, with resulting confusion. 

The case in deep hypnosis is essentially different. 
It is characterized by numerous sense delusions, 
which, however, are just the same thing as our 
nightly dreams. In order to carry out the com- 
parison, it will perhaps be well to consider the mode 
of origin of dreams in ordinary sleep. Dreams are 
divided into two classes, according to the manner of 
their origin (Spitta) : (i) dreams induced by nerve 
stimulation, and (2) dreams induced by association 
of ideas. The first— by far the most numerous — are 
induced by a peripheral stimulus of the nerves, affect- 
ing the brain. Here the nerve stimulus is certainly 
felt; a memory picture arises, and a perception 
results. This picture does not, however, correspond 
to the actual stimulus, which could only be accurately 
estimated by full waking attention. 

It is difficult to say what memory picture will be 
aroused and what dream will result, as it depends 
upon several factors which as yet escape our observa- 
tion. Schemer's numerous attempts td explain this 
are not very convincing. The memory picture 
aroused by a stimulus in the manner sketched above 
attaches itself in a number of cases to a previously 
existing dream. "When an orator dreams he is 
making a speech, he takes every noise for the ap- 
plause of his imaginary hearers " (Walter Scott). 

Dreams can be artificially called up by nerve 
I Stimulation, II a sleeping man is si^ilnkled with 



i 



COGNATE STATES. 



I9S 



wafer he will dream of a shower of rain (Leixner). 
Maury has made a number of experiments on him- 
self during sleep. When Eau de Cologne was held 
to his nose he dreamed that he was in Farina's shop 
at Cairo. Preyer, Prevost, Hervey, and many others 
have published such experiments. 

The second kind of dreams are dreams from 
association of ideas ; they are supposed to follow 
on a primary central act. The memory picture is 
supposed to be caused by some primary central 
activity, and not by a peripheral stimulus. Between 
these two classes of dreams there is another which I 
may call suggested dreams. In these no stimulus is 
applied to the nerves of the subject which he may 
work out according to his fancy ; but a dream is 
suggested to him verbally (Reil, Maury, Max Simon). 
An acquaintance of mine told his daughter that she 
saw rooks, upon which she dreamed of them and 
related her dream on waking. On other occasions 
the attempt failed. 

It would seem that certain stages of sleep are fitter 
for this than others. Delbceuf believes that the 
transitional stage between sleeping and waking is the 
best. He even supposes that many nervous and 
mental disorders originate from natural suggestion 
made at this time, and that they develop themselves 
like post -hypnotic suggestions. As regards the mode 
of origin, these suggested dreams are identical with 
the suggested sense delusions of hypnosis. 

But the. mode of origin of other dreams in sleep 
does not differ essentially from their mode of origin 
in hypnosis. This is particularly clear when we 
compare the hallucinations induced by nerve stimu- 
lation mentioned on p. 178 -witfn \.\veu\ ■, "C^t'^i Viv- 
ludnstions are identical wittv dteavaa \i\ämc^ 



HYPNOTISM. 

nerve stimulation. Here is an example. I hypnotize 
a person, and blow with the bellows close to him, 
without speaking. The blowing causes a central 
excitation, and the subject believes he hears a steam 
engine. He dreams he sees a train ; he believes he 
is at the railway station at Schöneberg, &c. This 
is exactly the same thing as a dream produced by 
nerve stimulation, in which the falling of a chair 
makes the dreamer think he hears a gim fired, and is 
in a battle. Besides, in hypnosis as well as in sleep 
such stimuli are enormously over-estimated by the 
consciousness ; a slight noise is taken for the sound 
of a gun, and a touch on the hand for the bite of a 
dog. I have made many such suggestions in hyp- 
nosis. I drum upon the table, without speaking ; 
the subject hears, and dreams of military music, and 
that he is in the street, and sees soldiers, &c. What 
dream will be induced by the peripheral stimulus, and 
what memory picture will be aroused, either in sleep 
or in hypnosis, depends upon the character of the 
subject. One thing is clear from the comparisons 
I have made : it is a mistake to think, as many do, 
that no intercourse with the outside world takes place 
in sleep. The opinion that by far the greater number 
of dreams are induced by sense stimuli gains more 
and more adherents (Wundt). This receptivity to 
stimuli which reach the brain, unregulated by the 
consciousness, and mistakenly interpreted, is a pheno- 
menon of both sleep and hypnosis. 

It is evident from what has been said that the 
method employed to make external suggestion in 
hypnosis often suffices to induce dreams in sleep. 
At the most there is only a quantitative diflerence, 
since most sense delusions are directly suggested i 

pnosis, while in sleep dreams are caused by som 



COGNATE STATES. 



197 



peripheral stimulus, which undergoes a special elabo- 
ration in the brain of the sleeper. 

The purport of dreams, as well as the way they 
originate, is alike in sleep and hypnosis. It is 
naturally impossible to go into details. But as in 
sleep we believe ourselves in another situation, and 
encounter all sorts of sense delusions, so also in 
hypnosis. And as a subject in hypnosis can be 
replaced in earlier periods of his life, so in dreams 
also. Many habitually dream that they arc again 
undergoing the final examination at college many 
years after. Complete changes of personality also 
take place in dreams. An officer who greatly ad- 
mired Hannibal, told me that he had dreamed he 
was Hannibal, and had fought an imaginary battle 
in that character. Another man was even less 
modest ; he dreamed that he was God, and was 
governing the world. 

We cannot decide whether there is more dreaming 
in hypnosis than in sleep, because we can never know 
how many dreams happen in sleep. While some say 
that dreams only occur during a short period of sleep, 
others, like Kant, Fore!, Exner, and Simonin go 
so far as to deny that there is any sleep without 
dreaming ; they say that dreaming is continuous, 
but that most dreams are forgotten. 

As we find that the origin and purport of dreams 
are the same in sleep and hypnosis, it follows that in 
all probability the dreams of hypnosis are no more 
injurious to health than the dreams of sleep. 

In spite of all this, we can find a difierence between 
the phenomena of deep hypnosis and of sleep in 
several points — (i) in the apparently logical con- 
nection between the suggested idea and the hypnotic 
subject's own thoughts ; (2) in the movements of the. j 



198 



HYPNOTISM. 



L 



subject, and particularly in his speech, since there 
may be a conversation between experimenter and 
subject (Wernich), 

With regard to the first point, we have seen (p. i6i) 
that a scries of ideas sometimes link themselves 
logically to another particular idea. Consequently 
the difference from sleep is only apparent. As long 
as the suggested idea prevails in hypnosis, other 
ideas will often link themselves logically to it. This 
linking is, however, on the whole, merely mecha- 
nical, the result of habitual association of ideas. 
This logical connection can be broken at any 
moment with the greatest ease by suggestion, as 
I have shown ; in the same way the whole current 
of ideas may change at any moment. It at once 
appears from this that the consciousness is unable 
to unite the ideas actively, as the smallest external 
influence suffices to tear them asunder at once. The 
logical connection mentioned above lasts only as long 
as the experimenter permits. Those cases in which 
the dream -consciousness carries on some planned 
mental work show that there may be a logical con- 
nection with the dominant idea even in dreams. 

I will not go into details of examples. It is known 
that Voltaire wrote poetry in sleep, that mathematicians 
sometimes solve problems when asleep, and that the 
well-known physiologist, Burdach, worked out many 
scientific ideas in sleep. Maury has also pointed 
out that apparently disconnected dream-ideas are yet 
related to each other by certain associations. 

I mentioned the movements in hypnosis as a 

further apparent contrast between this state and 

sleep. But this assuredly forms no qualitative dis- 

tinction, since it is known that people move in sleep 

(Hans Virchow). The activity q1 ft\& mu^Ves in^ 



^^B sleep is 
^f ments b' 



COGNA TE STA TES. 199 

sleep is often an automatic continuation of move- 
ments begun awake. This happens with people who 
fall asleep in making one particular movement ; 
they continue the movement in sleep. Coachmen 
will go on driving, and riders will hold the bridle 
without falling off: here the movement begun has 
made an unconscious impression strong enough to 
make the muscular movement go on. Birds also go 
to sleep standing. 

In all these cases the muscular action is very like 
the contractures and automatic movements described 
on p. 69. Besides this, certain external stimuli may 
cause movements during sleep. It seems probable 
to me that they do not happen without conscious- 
ness. If part of a sleeper's body is uncovered, he 
will draw the cover over it ; if he is tickled, he will 
rub the place. Even if these are regarded as physical 
reflexes without any accompanying mental action, 
which is not proved, the case is essentially different 
with the movements which children make in sleep, 
at command. If a child is told to turn over, 
he will do it without waking (Ewald). This is 
an act which, as Kwald remarks, may fairly be 
compared with the phenomena of hypnosis, in which 
movements the same in kind, if greater in extent, 
are made at command. It shows how movements 
may be caused in sleep by external mental stimuli. 
These movements become plainer when they are not 
called up directly, but are purely the consequence of 
a dream. Dreams often cause movements. Many 
persons, particularly children, laugh in pleasant 
dreams. The same sort of thing has often been 
observed. A lady I know dreamed that she ' 
blowing out a lamp ; she made the CQ«t?,^'u*;w,% 
movements with her mouth. SV^e vjaa aw^ew^ 




joo HYPNOTISM. 

and related the dream which had no doubt caused 
the movements of the mouth. Every one knows 
that children in especial often scream when they 
arc dreaming. 

The persons we call somnambulists (sleep-walkers, 
night-walkers) show these movements, which are 
characteristic. The resemblance between hypnotism 
and soranambuhsm is so great that the name som- 
nambulism is used for both (Riebet). Hypnotism 
is called artificial somnambulism, and the other 
natural somnambulism, or, better, spontaneous som- 
nambulism, since artificial somnambulism is really 
as natural as the other, as Poincelot insists. All 
sorts of movements are made in spontaneous som- 
nambulism. Three stages are generally distin- 
guished — (i) that in which the sleeper speaks; (2) 
that in which he makes all sorts of movements but 
does not leave his bed ; (3) that in which he gets 
up, walks about, and performs the most complicated 
actions. In my experience the first two stages are 
found in persons of sanguine temperament who are 
decidedly not in a pathological condition. It is not yet 
finally decided whether the third state appears under 
pathological conditions only. From my own expe- 
rience I am inclined to think that it is occasionally 
observed when there is no constitutional weakness, 
especially in children. If we want to show these 
states, we can do it with the healthiest subjects. As 
regards these movements in sleep, my own experi- 
ence is that the persons who are most restless in 
natural sleep, who talk, or throw themselves about, 
are the most inclined to lively movement in hypnosis. 
In any case the movements are also displayed in 
sleep. I think we ought to call the last states sleep, 
especially Uie two first stages of somnambulisio. 



I 



COGNATE STATES. zot 

Consequently the movements of subjects in hypnosis 
do not offer a fundamental contrast to sleep, espe- 
cially when they are caused by suggested delusions 
of sense. 

The fact that a subject in hypnosis can carry on a 
conversation is not enough to mark off hypnosis from 
sleep, as Werner erroneously supposes ; for many 
persons answer questions and obey commands in 
sleep (Lotze). According to my experience, and that 
of others, certain persons easily answer in sleep when 
some one they know wel! speaks to them. A child 
will speak to its mother, and bedfellows to one 
another. A conversation is easily carried on when 
the waking person follows the sleeper's chain of 
thought and insinuates himself, so to speak, into 
his consciousness (Brandis). A lady I know dreamed 
aloud of a person (X.), and when her husband 
talked to her as if he were X. he was answered, 
but when he spoke in his own person he was ignored. 

Finally, there are many persons who can hardly 
be induced to move in hypnosis, though they can be 
made to dream anything. 

I hope that what has been said makes it clear that 
hypnosis by no means needs to be sharply distin- 
guished from sleep, in spite of its apparent differences- 
To my mind the dividing line between sleep and 
hypnosis is merely a quantitative difference in the 
movements. Movements in hypnosis are easily in- 
duced ; in sleep they are duller, slower, and rarer. 
The resemblance of the two states goes still further. 

Even post-hypnotic suggestion finds an analogy in 
steep (Liebeault). Of course the eifect of dreams 
upon the organism is not so easy to observe as the 
effect of suggestion, as most dreams are forgotten. 
However, I will mention some of these analogous 



1 



HYPNOTISM. 



cases. People who dream of a shot, and wake ii 
sequence, continue to hear the reverberation 
after they wake (Max Simon). Others after waking 
feel a pain of which they have been dreaming (Char- 
pignon). I will merely mention certain phenomena 
which resemble these — the dreams which are con- 
tinued into waking life, which may be compared to 
con tin native post -hypnotic suggestions. There are 
well-known vivid dream-pictures which are not re- 
cognized as dreams, and which are taken for reality 
even after waking (Brierre de Boismont). It is 
certain that even the most enlightened persons are 
influenced by dreams. Many are out of humour the 
whole day after having been annoyed by unpleasant 
dreams. The experiments lately made by Friedrich 
Heerwagen, of Dorpat, have proved that persons who 
have dreamt much are in an unpleasant frame ot 
mind the next day, I know patients who are much 
worse after dreaming of their complaints ; a stam- 
merer will stammer more after dreaming about it 
We find analogies with post-hypnotic suggestion 
everywhere. There are well-known cases in which 
persons have dreamed of taking an aperient, with 
efiTect. 

Perhaps a case mentioned by F6r^ may be referred 
to here. A girl dreamed for several nights that 
men were running after her. She grew daily more 
exhausted, and the weakness in her legs increased 
till a hysterical paraplegia of both legs declared 
itself In mental diseases doctors have often men- 
tioned an analogous phenomenon ; they say that the 
earliest signs of mental disorder show themselves 
first in dream. Griesinger says that delirium often 
begins in dream. Esquirol says that in acute mania 
it has been observed that the parent ttvmV,* Ke is 



e in oon- ^H 
n clearly ^^| 



^H ordered 
^f analoge 



COGNATE STATES. 



J03 

Ordered in a dream to do something. This is certainly 
analogous to post-hypnotic su^cstion. Tonnini men- 
tions a rather inconclusive case of a woman who was 
induced by a dream to do something. Of course 
such cases are difficult to observe ; but it !s very 
probable that dreams have an after-effect on even 
thoroughly heaJthy people. Aristotle maintained 
long ago that many of our actions had their origin 
in dreams. 

The similarity of the means used to induce sleep 
and hypnosis is often insisted upon as a proof of 
their identity. But a distinction must be made. It 
is said that monotonous stimuli induce both sleep 
and hypnosis. Purkinje, therefore, thought that 
Braid's methods would also produce sleep. But we 
should never conclude an identity of states from the 
identity of their causes. Wc should observe whether 
the symptoms are identical. To decide the question, 
we should ask. Is the subject who is sent to sleep 
by monotonous sense stimulation without a primary 
mental act susceptible to suggestion or not? I have 
seen cases in which the subjects fixed their ganc but 
did not concentrate their attention. The subsequent 
state was an ordinary sleep, out of which the subjects 
awoke when I made verbal suggestions to them, 
however softly I spoke. It is the same thing when 
we wish to decide whether a tedious speaker hypno- 
tizes his audience. Many people grow sleepy, or 
even fall asleep, in such a case. Unluckily it would 
be hardly practicable to make a suggestion to a man 
who had fallen asleep under such conditions, and yet 
this would be the only way to decide whether he wa« 
hypnotized or not. But sleep comci on without con- 
centration of the subject's thoughts. If hllco'c\CJW^'w^^Ä.'^. | 
Jiis thoughts on the orator, he wiW v\oH. %Q \o -i««.^'! 



r 



304 HYPNOTISM. 1 

this case his state of partially strained attention much 
resembles hypnosis. If the state is strongly marked, 
negative hallucinations may arise (for instance, with 
regard to noises), as in hypnosis. 1 know several cases 
of this kind. I am also in doubt whether those states of 
loss or disturbance of consciousness, induced by vertigo, 
e^,, by spinning round quickly, should be reckoned 
as hypnoses, Erdmann has identified the states in- 
duced by vertigo and by tedium in his well-known 
ingenious manner. But I must repeat that it does 
not matter how the states are produced ; the point 
is whether their symptoms are alike. This must 
always be considered, and I direct attention to it 
again, although in discussing the symptoms I men- 
tioned excitation of the muscular sense such as takes 
place in spinning round and round as a hypiiogenetic 
method. So much for the resemblance between sleep 
and hypnosis. 

Hypnosis has been often compared to mental dis- 
order as well as to sleep. Rieger and Semal, as well as 
Hack Tuke (so far back as 1865), called hypnosis an 
artificially induced mental disorder. In the first 
place I would remark that it is of no consequence 
what hypnosis is called. Even in therapeutics this 
is a matter of no moment. Suppose the use of 
morphia were denounced because morphia is a 
poison, and because the sleep induced by morphia 
is an effect of poisoning. As Rieger justly says, 
we need not trouble ourselves about names. Wc 
might call hypnosis a mental disorder if we also 
regarded sleep and dreams as such. And we find 

■ that when doctors in psychological practice wish 
to discover analogies to mental disorder, they always 

have recourse to dreams. This icsembUnce has 




I 



COGNATE STATES. ao^ 

struck many observers, but no author has maintained 
that in order to lose one's sanity it is only necessary 
to go to sleep. 

. The most different mental disorders have been 
compared to hj-pnosis, which shows what confusion 
there is about it. For example, Rieger and Konräd 
say that hypnosis is nothing but an artificial madness. 
Meynert maintains that it is an experimentally- 
produced imbecility. Luys compares it to general 
paralysis of the insane, and others to melancholia 
atlonita. These different comparisons show the want 
of unanimity among authors, for the forms of mental 
disorder we call imbecility and mania are as unlike 
as a pea and a rose, which are both plants, but of 
utterly different kinds. No two states of mental 
disorder could be more unlike than imbecility and 
mania. 

When hypnosis is thus compared to mental disorder 
it is generally forgotten that susceptibility to sugges- 
tion is the chief phenomenon of hypnosis. But it is a 
mistake to think that susceptibility to suggestion is 
an essential phenomenon of mental disorder ; if it 
were, mental disorders could be cured by suggestion, 
which is hardly ever possible. Suggestibility is a 
symptom of sleep, and we have seen that the dreams 
which follow on stimulation of the nerves may be 
induced by suggestion. By means of suggestion in 
hypnosis forms of hypnosis may be induced which 
resemble mental derangement, ;>., spontaneous mania, 
or melancholia attoniia, besides forms of imbecility, 
&c. But we can also induce paralysis and stammer- 
ing by suggestion, and yet hypnosis is not a state of 
paralysis or of stammering. We can suggest pain in 
hypnosis, yet hypnosis is not a 5\3.\.c o^ ■^■i\T\, Kn\^ 
hovf the light stages of hypnosis, m >n\C\c\v ovÄ.'i cax'' 




2o6 



HYPNOTISM. 



motor effects are caused by suggestion, ca 
states of mental disorder is not clear to 
a person is to be called mentally unsound simply 
because he cannot open his eyes. But even the 
susceptibility to suggestion which exists in such 
mental disorders as delirium tremens (Moli, Pierre 
Janet), or the Katatonie of Kahlbaum (Jensen), must 
not be without further ceremony identified with the 
susceptibility we find in hypnosis. I need only say 
" Wake ! " to the hypnotized subject, and the state 
ends ; but there is no disease which can be guided and 
ended at a moment's notice like hypnosis. 

Of course no author would call hypnosis a mental 
disorder merely because it may be occasionally a 
delusion in insanity. Freud is right when he says 
that meat does not lose its flavour when an enthu- 
siastic vegetarian calls it carrion ; why should a 
mental influence, such as we have found hypnosis 
to be, lose its value or interest because it is sometimes 
called mental disease ? 

A remark of Griesinger shows how capriciously 
all such terms are used ; he thinks a somnambulism 
of short duration is a sleep, and a longer one a mental 
disorder. 

It is no new thing to see hypnosis brought into 
connection with hysteria and regarded as an artificial 
hysteria or neurosis. Demarquay and Giraud-Teulon 
have pointed out analogies, and Charcot has lately 
called his three stages a " grande nivrose hypnotique." 
Dumontpallier also thinks that hypnosis is an experi- 
mental neurosis. I would make the same remark 
upon this as upon the mental disorders. Charcot has 
called up the complete type of a neurosis, and specially 
of hysteria, by suggestion. This was comparatively 
easy in his cases of "grande hysUrie" because 



:3e called ^^| 

unless ^H 

. simolv I 



COGNATE STATES. 



io7 



phenomena which are common in the subject in 
waking life are more easily induced in hypnosis 
than others (Grasset). I repeat, it would be easy to 
suggest stammering in hypnosis, and then draw the 
conclusion that hypnosis is a state of stammering. 
Besides, Charcot has never maintained that the states, 
as they exist apart from his three stages, and as they 
have been observed by the school of Nancy, are 
neuroses ; on the contrary, he expressly excludes 
them from neuroses. 

Other states have also been occasionally compared 
to hypnosis. I may mention catalepsy, a disease, or 
symptom of disease, in which the limbs keep any 
given position ; and lethargy, a strange state of sleep, in 
which artificial awakening is difficult or impossible, and 
to which a disease called hypnosia or sleeping sickness, 
observed in the negroes of West Africa, appears to be 
related. Thomsen's disease, in which a contracture 
follows voluntary movement, is also compared to hypno- 
eis, and so are epileptic disturbances of consciousness. 
I pass over the phenomena of intoxication by alcohol, 
chloroform, ether, opium, and particularly haschisch, 
which are often compared to hypnosis on account ot 
the delusions of sense which occur in them. Narco- 
lepsy must also be mentioned. In this disease there 
are periodical attacks of sleepiness. It has been 
described by G^ineau, Rousseau, Ballet, and others. 
Certain cases of what Drosdow calls Morbus Hypno- 
iicus, whose resemblance to hypnosis is unmistakable, 
may be included in this tolerably undefined narcolepsy. 
These states might be regarded as auto-hypnoses. 
Vizioh has published an account of an auto-hypnosis, 
in which he succeeded in making even post-hypnotic 
suggestions to the subject. Naturally, the terminology 
is very arbitrary in these cases ; these states might 



2o8 



MypNÖTlSM. 



be ascribed to spontaneous somnambulism arising 
directly out of waking life, and not in sleep, as usual. 
The famous case of Motet, which was so important 
from the legal point of view, would then belong to 
this class. A man committed a criminal act in a 
state of self-induced hypnosis, to which he was 
subject. On Motet's recommendation he was ac- 
quitted. A case of Dufay's is nearly identical. It 
would be extremely illogical, besides, to call hypnosis 
a morbid state merely because a morbid imitation of 
it is to be found in many forms of Morbus Hypnoticus. 
It would be as great a mistake as if we were to take 
yawning for a disease because there are people who _ 
suffer from attacks of yawning, and who yawn to an 
abnormal degree (Ochorowicz). Lata often resembles 
hypnosis (Bastian, O'Brien, Forbes). The word Lata 
properly means the sufferers from this complaint, not 
the disease. The disease is found among the Malays; 
the patient imitates every movement made in his 
presence, as in " fascination." The same thing has 
been seen in Maine among the "Jumpers" (Beard), 
and in Siberia, where the sufferers are called " Mirya- 
chit" (Hammond). 

Once more, the chief feature of hypnosis is increased 
susceptibility to suggestion. By means of this we can 
induce counterfeits of all sorts of diseases, which 
appear identical with the real thing. But none the 
less, hypnosis should not be identified with these 
diseases. The two characteristics of hypnosis are sug- 
gestibility and the power of ending the state at pleasure. 
We do not find them united in mental disorders, 
nor in neuroses ; but we find them in sleep, in which 
suggestion indaccs dreams by means of stimulation of 
the senses, and from which the subject can be aroused 
St any moment by an external stimulus, Although no 



COGNATE STATES. 



2og 



identification of hypnosis and sleep would be justifiable 
on the above grounds, I must again point out that, 
in spite of their apparent differences, they are closely 
related, at least so far as hypnoses of the second group 
are concerned. 



The different phenomena of hypnosis have been 
also observed in normal waking life, and this makes 
a comparison of the hypnotic states with other 
abnormal states considerably more difficult. For 
example, a symptom which A. shows in hypnosis 
he does not show in his normal state ; but it may 
be observed in E.'s normal waking life. This may 
be referred to the phenomena of suggestion, which 
exist normally, as I showed on p. 57, but which are 
increased in certain cases during hypnosis. People 
differ greatly in their susceptibility to suggestion in 
waking life ; I have spoken fp. 57) of suggestions in 
ordinary life, from which hypnosis cannot be con- 
cluded. Besides which a number of phenomena of 
suggestion, which are generally regarded as a pecu- 
liarity of hypnosis, have been found in waking life, 
Braid, the American electrobiologists, Heidenhain, 
Berger, Riebet, L^vy, Eernheim, Beaunis, Li(5geois, 
and Fore!, may be mentioned among those who have 
made observations in this field. 

These phenomena are shown by subjects who have 
been hypnotized as well as by those who have not. 
Contractures, paralyses, dumbness, and all kinds of 
motor disturbances can be induced by suggestion in 
the waking state. According to some authors it is 
I possible to induce hallucinations without hyp- 
nosis. However, many of the experiments, and par- 
ticularly the conclusions drawn from them, seem to 
roe to have two defects. Those who talk of sugges- 





2to HYPNOTISM. 

tions in the waking state {suggestions ä veiUe) forget, 
first, that sleep is by no means always indispensable 
for many hypnotic suggestions. Authors often con- 
fuse hypnosis with sleep in speaking of suggestions in 
the waking state. We have seen that the light hyp- 
notic stages do not much resemble sleep ; con- 
sequently we must not conclude that a state of 
contracture, &c., is, or is not, a hypnosis because it 
resembles sleep or not. The second point which these 
autJiors generally overlook is this : they think that 
hypnosis is excluded in these cases of waking sug- 
gestion, because none of the usual methods of inducing 
hypnosis have been used. But themethods arcnotabso- 
lutely necessary for the induction of hypnosis. We 
cannot make the question, whether hypnosis is present 
or not, depend on the means employed. If we refused 
to believe in any particular state unless the usual means 
had been used to induce it, we should revolutionize 
science. In my opinion we ought to consider the 
state and its symptoms separately. For if we take a 
certain degree of suggestibility, loss of memory, &c., 
for a symptom of hypnosis, nothing remains but to 
regard as hypnoses many — I will not say all — of these 
states which are generally described as suggestions 
without hypnosis. The chief phenomenon of hypnosis 
is that a certain accepted idea leads to a movement 
or a delusion of the senses, &c. We have further seen 
that the experimenter can change the subject's domi- 
nant idea very quickly, i.e., he can suggest one thing- 
quickly after another. If, then, we can do the same 
thing without any previous appearance of hypnosis, 
we must call the state a hypnosis all the same, par- 
ticularly if there is subsequent loss of memory, which 
is generally the case in delusions of the senses. There 
has been a kind of hypnosis in both cases. 



I 




^^ COGNATE STATES. 21I 

Thoroughly concentrated attention is not absolutely 
necessary to induce hypnosis ; a partial concentration 
is enough. In these experiments there is generally 
partial concentration. For example, to produce a 
catalepsy of the arm in the waking state the experi- 
menter often makes mesmeric passes down it. This 
leads, as I have shown (p. 68), to a concentration of 
the subject's attention on the desired result. At least 
it appears from many experiments on this point that 
the attention of the subject is so concentrated ; and 
this concentration leads to hypnosis. 

Besides, in such suggestions the subject generally 
remembers an earlier hypnosis ; and the idea of hyp- 
nosis is enough to induce it. Therefore we often need 
only to repeat a suggestion made in an earlier hyp- 
nosis to cause a new one (Marinj. 

The fact that paralyses, contractures, &c., can be 
produced by suggestion in this new hypnosis, shows 
that it is as real as the first. In the deeper states, 
when delusions of sense can be induced, loss of 
memory usually follows. The changed expression of 
the subject's face also shows there is hypnosis. 
Finally, the presence of a real hypnosis is proved by 
the rapport between subject and experimenter. 

For the reasons above mentioned I think we should 
call many of these states true hypnoses, not sugges- 
tions without hypnosis. The school of Nancy, and 
particularly Li^geois and Beaunis, have to a certain 
extent acknowledged this. But they certainly have 
not given to the point all the importance it de.serves. 
They thought many of these states were intermediate 
forms between sleeping and waking, which they 
identified with the veilU soimeambuliqiie described 
above (p. 146). 

I know that frgin what I h^^ve said it ral^t bi& I 



HYPNOTISM. 



concluded that all these suggestions were made in 
hypnosis. It is, in truth, very difficult to find clear 
diagnostic symptoms in certain cases. My explana- 
tion aims only at pointing out that there may really 
be hypnosis, though none of the usual methods have 
been employed to bring it on. I have, besides, tried 
to prevent suggestion in waking life, and especially to 
make delusions of the senses impossible. 

It is often very difficult to decide whether there is 
hypnosis or not, because isolated hypnotic symptoms 
are often seen in certain people who are not in hyp- 
nosis. There are even delusions of the senses without 
hypnosis, sleep, or mental disorder, when circumstances 
influence the mind in a particular way. The common 
hallucination of smell is an example. People often 
imagine that they still smell things which have been 
removed. Delusions of sight arc just as common. 
Many people have taken trees for men when walking 
in the twilight Goethe's self-induced hallucinations of 
sight are well known. Delbceuf also describes a 
waking hallucination of sight ; he thought he saw his 
dead mother, but corrected his impression by reason. 
If there are even delusions of the senses without 
hypnosis, it is evidently difficult to argue the presence 
of hypnosis from a single symptom, 

I should call the following the chief points in 
settling the question whether a suggestion is made in 
hypnosis or not : i. Of what kind are the suggestions ? 
Are they of such a kind that they rarely occur 
normally? 3. After one suggestion has succeeded, 
can other suggestions be made as quickly as in hyp- 
nosis, or is a long preparation necessary for each 
suggestion ,' The quick success of the following 
gestion would be in favour of hypnosis. 3, 
the suggestion has succeeded, can the subject 



1 



or eacn 1 

ing sug- ^H 

;. After ^H 

prevent ^^H 

im 



COGNATE STATES'. 

further su^estion by an act of will, or not? If he 
cannot, it favours the supposition of a hypnotic state, 
4, Is there rapport? That is, can the subject be 
influenced by anybody or by only one? Rapport 
favours hypnosis. 5, Are there bodily symptoms 
of hypnosis ? 6. Are the events subsequently for- 
gotten ? Loss of memory also favours the suppo- 
sition of hypnosis. 

The many transitional states between waking life 
and hypnosis will often make the question difficult to 
decide ; none of the points above mentioned \ 
alone suffice to settle it 

It sometimes happens that we try to induce a 
person to do something by looking at him fixedly; 
we then see how slight is the division between the 
hypnotic states and waking life. A teacher who 
thinks his pupil is lying, looks at him fixedly to asc 
tain the truth, just as is done in fascination. This 
fixed gaze affects the will of the person looked at, as 
we have seen in hypnosis. We recognize an analogy 
on one hand, on the other we see how difficult it 
must always be to decide where hypnosis begins and 
waking life ends. 

States resembling, or perhaps identical with, hyp- 
nosis, are also found in animals, and can easily be 
experimentally induced. The first experiments of 
this kind are referred to by the Jesuit Kircher ; — the 
so-called experimetitum fnirabile Kircheri. Kircher 
described these experiments in 1646. But accord- 
ing to Prcyer the experiment had been made by 
Schwenter several years earlier. The most striking of 
these experiments, which are being continued in the 
present day, is as follows : A hen is held down on 
the ground; the head in particular is pressed down. 




214 HYPNOTISM. 

A chalk line is then drawn on the ground, starting 
from the bird's beak. The hen will remain motion- 
less. Kircher ascribes this to the animal's imagina- 
tion ; he said that it imagined it was fastened, and 
consequently did not try to move. Czermak re- 
peated the experiment on different animals, and 
announced in 1872 that a hypnotic state could be 
induced in other animals besides the hen. Preyer 
shortly after began to interest himself in the question, 
and made a series of experiments like Czermak's. 
Preyer, however, distinguishes two states in animals — 
catalepsy, which is the effect of fear, and the hypnotic 
state, Heubel, Richet, Danilewsky, and Ricger, 
besides the authors mentioned above, have occupied 
themselves with the question. 

Most of the experiments have been made with, 
frogs, crayfish, guinea-pigs, and birds. I myself have, 
made many with frogs. This much is certain : many^' 
animals will remain motionless in any position im 
which they have been held by force for a time. There 
are various opinions as to the meaning of this. 
Preyer thinks many of these states are paralyses from 
fright, or catalepsy, produced by a sudden peripheral 
stimulus. In any case they vividly recall the cata- 
lepsy of the Salpetri^re, also caused by a strong 
external stimulus. It is said a sudden Drumraond 
lime-light produces the same effect on a cock as it 
does on hysterical patients (Richer). But in general 
the externa! stimulus used with animals is tactile, as 
in seizing them. Heubel thinks that these states in 
animals are a true sleep following on the cessation of 
the external stimuli, and Wundt seems to agree with 
him. 

Preyer has especially shown that the frog will 
main rigid when upright, if it is kept from falling, 



I 



I 



COGNATE STATES. 215 

well as when lying on its back. The hind leg of a frog 
lying on its back may be pulled out, and the animal 
will not draw it in again as it usually does. Riebet, 
however, says that it is drawn in again at once, if the 
spinal cord is divided below the medulla oblongata. 
It is interesting that when a "hypnotic" frog is 
placed in a certain position it will at first move after 
a short time, but the more often the experiment is 
repeated the longer the frog lies without moving. I 
have seen frogs lie on their backs in this way for 
hours, and have even often seen them die without 
turning over. The deeper the state is, the less the 
animal responds to external stimuli; it ends by not 
moving at tolerably loud noises or even stimulation 
of the skin. Danilewsky made a series of experi- 
ments, from which he concluded that there were 
regular changes of reflex excitability ; but Rieger was 
unable to confirm this, Danilewsky has lately made 
some more deeply interesting experiments, which it 
is tobe hoped he will carry on. He says that when 
the brain hemispheres are taken away the frog as- 
sumes cataleptoid postures, and further that these 
turn into hypnoscs in animals who have rotatory 
movements after injury of the semi-circular canals of 
the ear. 

Harting's experiments also deserve mention ; after 
repeated hypnotic experiments with fowls he observed 
hemiplegic phenomena in them, according to a com- 
munication by Milne-Edwards to the Paris Academy 
of Sciences. 

I will not try to decide the question why these ex- 
periments with animals are undertaken, I do not 
think that they will help to elucidate hypnotic phe- 
nomena in human beings. 

Another series of observations, which were chiefly 



2l6 



HYPNOTISM. 



ioned here ^^H 
phenomena. ^^^ 



made for practical purposes, may be mentioned 
They also may be regarded as hypnotic ph< 
I speak of the so-calied " Balassiren" of horses, intro- 
duced by the cavalry officer Balassa. This process 
has been introduced by law into Austria for the 
shoeing of horses (Obersteiner). It consists chiefly 
in looking fixedly at the horse, Just as in "fascination." 
The numerous experiments of Wilson should also be 
mentioned ; he is said to have hypnotized elephants, 
wolves, horses, &c., in London, in 183g. Fascination 
is used by beast tamers, who stare iixedly into the 
eyes of the animal they wish to tame. Many think 
that the charming of birds by snakes is fascination. 
Li^beault and Forel think that the winter sleep 
(hibernation) of animals is an auto-hypnosis ; and so, 
perhaps, is the strange sleep of the Indian fakirs, 
which sometimes lasts for weeks and months (Fischer). 
A number of tnistwc»rthy witnesses and authors 
Qacolliot, Hildebrandt, Hellwald) tell us even 
stranger things about these fakirs, which set any 
attempt at explanation on the basis of our present 
scientific knowledge at defiance ; that is, if we decline 
to regard them as mere juggler's tricks. Hildebrandt 
among other things relates that he saw a fakir sitting 
in a Hindoo temple ; he was crouching down with his 
left arm stretched upwards ; the arm was dead and so 
perfectly dry that the skin might easily have been 
torn from it Another fakir had held his thumb 
pressed against the palm of his hand till the nail had 
grown deep into the flesh. It is said, besides, that 
some of these people can make plants grow very 
quickly. Görres mentioned this. These fakirs are 
also said to have been apparently buried for weeks 
and months, and yet have returned to normal 
Of course these things must be listened to with 



I 



)r weeks ^^H 
al life (?) ^H 
ith scep-^^H 



COGNATE STATES. 217 

tical reserve. Yet even a scientific investigator like 
Hellwald thinks that though no doubt there is a 
great deal of jugglery, yet some of the phenomena 
remain at present inexplicable. 

I have made but brief mention of these matters and 
of the experiments with animals ; details would take 
me too far. Any one who is interested will find 
material enough in Preyer's book, " Die Cataplexie 
und der thierische Hypnotismus." We can only 
mention these states as being analogous to hypnotic 
phenomena in human beings ; they have no further 
value for our subject 



CHAPTER V. 



THE THEORY OF HYPNOTISM. 



It will appear from what has been said that the symp- 
toms of hypnosis are extremely complex, and the 
question now is, " Can the phenomena of hypnosis be 
explained ? " Before we reply to this, we must agree 
what we mean by " explanation," To explain a 
hitherto unknown thing, we must trace it back to what 
we do know. And as we know nothing of the real 
nature of our mental processes, it is useless to expect 
any satisfactory information regarding the mental 
state during hypnosis. It seems then that at present 
we must content ourselves with such an explanation 
as may be got by comparing the phenomena of normal 
life with those of hypnosis. We must settle what are 
the true, and what the apparent, differences between 
hypnotic and non-hypnotic life, and then we must find 
the causal connection between the peculiar phenomena 
of hypnosis and the means used to induce it. This 
last is the main point. An example will make this 
clearer. I will suppose that we want to find an ex- 
planation of a hypnotic negative hallucination of 
sight. We must first of all find some parallel phe- 
nomenon in a non-hypnotic state. If we find a case 
in which, without hypnosis, an object has not been 
perceived, though the eye must have seen it, we must 
I then ask what difference there is between this pheno- 



I 

I 



THE THEORY OF HYPNOTISM. 219 

menon and the same phenomenon in hypnosis. We 
shall then find that in hypnosis objects are not 
perceived only when the experimenter forbids the 
perception ; but that to forbid the perception of an 
object in waking life would be to ensure its being 
perceived. This point of difference must be kept in 
view for a proper explanation. It will be explained 
by the existence in the one case of a peculiar state 
of consciousness — the so-called dream-consciousness ; 
and we must then ask how the origin of hypnosis 
explains the formation of this dream-consciousness. 
If we cannot find phenomena parallel to the methods 
of origination of hypnosis anywhere, we shall be ■ 
obliged to give up the attempt at explanation ioi 
the present. 

I believe that we can already explain many of the 
hypnotic phenomena, if " explanation " is taken in the 
above sense. In any case, such numerous analogies 
to the phenomena of hypnosis have already been 
found that we need no longer think them mystical. 
We need no longer think the methods of hypnosis 
incomprehensible, as was the case a short time ago. 
This progress has been made by following the method 
Obersteiner recommended ; i.e., by carefully observing 
the transitional states between hypnosis and normal 
life. We have been able to connect many every-day 
occurrences with hypnosis, and have found many 
more connecting links with normal life than is 
generally supposed. I even believe, as I have said, 
that we can already explain certain hypnotic pheno- 
mena by means of analogy, and I think that many 
of the post-hypnotic phenomena are capable of ex- 
planation in the above meaning of the word. 

3ut much remains to be done ; one method of in- 
vestigation in especial should be more used ; i.e.. 



220 HYPNOTISM. 

self-observation. It is a great disadvantage that 
strict self-observation often prevents the induction of 
hypnosis ; but on the other hand I think that our 
neglect of self-observation is the reason of our failure 
to explain many hypnotic phenomena clearly. It is 
true that some trustworthy investigators, such as 
Bleuler, Forel, Obersteiner, North, Heidenhain, and 
others have helped a little by their accounts of their 
personal experiences in the hypnotic state ; but such 
observations should be made oftener by intelligent 
people ; they would be valuable to investigators. An 
explanation of hypnosis drawn from the material 
• already accumulated cannot be given in a few words, 
since the symptoms alone are so complex. Besides, I 
think it probable (and Braid was of the same opinion) 
that a great number of different states are included in 
the concept " hypnosis," and that an exact classification 
of them is not possible at present, though it surely 
will be later. Under these circumstances I think it 
best to discuss the most commonly observed and best 
established phenomena of hypnosis singly, and to 
explain them when possible. I must give up any 
attempt at completeness and detail in order not to 
make the theoretical explanation too long; I reserve 
this for another work. The chief points which I 
shall try to explain in what follows are — (i) the 
phenomena of suggestion as regards voluntary move- 
ment ; (2) positive and negative delusions of the 
senses ; (3) rapport ; (4) the phenomena of memory ; 
(S) post-hypnotic suggestion. I will discuss these 
points one by one and try to explain them in the 
manner described above. It may be thought, on a 
superficial view, that it would be more important to 
examine the way the methods employed induce 
hypnosis than to explain the separate symptoms \ 



I 



I 



» 



THE THEORY OF HYPNOTISM. 2i\ 

but to discuss this would be to dispute about words, 
because hypnosis hardly ever appears suddenly, but 
rather develops itself by degrees out of a series of 
symptoms. For example, the eyes close first ; then 
suggestion induces a heaviness in the arm, and then 
the arm is paralyzed ; a suggested sense delusion 
follows. Hypnosis develops itself nearly if not quite 
always in this way ; one symptom is added to another. 
Consequently to explain the separate symptoms is to 
explain the mode of production of hypnosis ; the 
reader will find that the one explanation involves the 
other. This fact will become clear when the abnormal 
functions of the muscles are explained. 

We shall understand the different symptoms of 
hypnosis much more easily if we first examine two 
phenomena. These phenomena might be laid down 
as laws of the psychical states of human beings, though 
they would be laws with many exceptions. They are 
not generally enough considered, but they are of 
immense importance to psychology, physiology, and 
medicine, as well as to hypnotism. These rules are — 
(i) men have a certain proneness to allow themselves 
to be influenced by others through their ideas, and in 
particular to believe much without making conscious 
logical deductions ; (2) a psychological or physio- 
logical effect tends to appear in a man if he is 
expecting it. 

Let us begin by considering the first point. There 
are people who believe that they can escape external 
psychical influences ; but they are wrong, since obser- 
vation shows that every one is more or less influenced 
by ideas (Bentivegni, Eernheim). Life is full of such 
influences, and they will work so long as there is 
mental activity among men. The desire for society, 



S22 HYPNOTISAf. 

the necessity of exchanging opinions, show the need 
we feel of influencing and being influenced by ideas. 
If we want to convert a pahtical opponent we try to 
influence him by arousing certain ideas in him. It is 
not mentally deficient people who are thus accessible 
to ideas. There is in every man a gap where these 
ideas can enter. It is well known that the greatest 
people and most distinguished scholars are often 
dominated by some inferior individual who has dis- I 
covered the gap where his ideas will enter. 

In the same way men have a tendency to believe 
things without complete logical proof ; we will call this 
quahty credulity. Those who contend that men are 
not credulous, show that they are themselves incapable 
of reflection (Forcl). There is no man who believes 
only what has been logically proved to him. Our 
sense perceptions show us this in the clearest way ; 
we hardly ever consciously reason upon them, and yet 
the thing which we take for an external object is 
only in reality an act of our minds, which in no way 
corresponds with the unknown object, the "thing 
in itself," as Kant calls it. Most people confuse 
the subjective idea of an object with the object itself 
(Spencer), This mistake, which we make incessantly 
with regard to our sense perceptions, proves that we 
do not use conscious logical thought But when we 
consider our behaviour with regard to dogmatic asser- 
tions, and to assertions often repeated, this credulity 
is made particularly clear. It leads us to dogmatic 
belief. Children are most influenced by it, but adults 
are also under its jurisdiction. 

As children are particularly credulous of dogmatic assertions, 
and as such credulity is strongly marked in hypnosis, this state 
has often been compared to childhood (Copin, Miescher, 
CiillerrfcWemicke). But I must point out that ii 



THE THEORY OF HYPNOTISM. 



223 



parison childhood and infancy are confused. To make the 
comparison possible we must choose a period of childhood in 
which ideas can be incorporated into the existing consciousness, 
not the period of infancy, in which consciousness is hardly 
formed. 



I will give a simple example of the credulity of 
childhood with regard to dogmatic belief I was told 
t school that the North Cape was the north point 
of Europa This was not logically proved to me ; 
yet I believed it because it was in the book, and 
more especially because the teacher said so. Dog- 
matic assertion influences not only children but 
adults ; and the constant repetition of an assertion 
has also a great power. This is shown in the clearest 
way by an incident which is particularly interesting to 
A few years ago it was believed that there was 
really no such thing as hypnotism, and that those 
who believed in it were deceived. But since that 
time opinion has entirely changed. The representa- 
tions made by different people in authority as to the 
reality of the hypnotic phenomena, and particularly 
the repeated assertions of numerous investigators, 
have caused a complete change of view. Doctors and 
others have changed their minds about hypnotism, 
not because it has been proved to them, but ex- 
clusively because they have been influenced by 
constantly hearing and reading the same assertions 
about it, and by their faith in authority. 

I hope that the above explanations, which every 
one can add to from his own experience, sufficiently 
prove what I said above — that all men are credulous 
to a certain degree. Now for the second of my pro- 
positions — i.e., that an effect on himself which a man 
expects tends to appear. We can find a great 
number of these phenomena in ordinary life ; they 



394 



HYPNOTISM. 



are mysterious and astonishing only when we neglect 
to consider this tendency. Carpenter, Hack Tuke, 
and many English investigators have besides admitted 
that these phenomena are of great importance. I 
will now describe some of them. 

People who suffer from sleeplessness have often 
been sent to sleep by taking something which they 
were told was a sleeping draught, but which was 
really some inert substance. They slept because 
they expected to do so. When they learn that the 
medicine is not a sleepinfj draught they no longer 
expect sleep, and do not sleep. It appears from this 
that to expect a state, and to wish for it, are essen- 
tially different things ; which fact is often strangely 
enough overlooked. A great many people wish for 
sleep, but as they do not expect it, it does not come. 
Some other examples will show that this principle is 
generally valid ; for example, the fatigue that is felt 
at the usual bedtime may be mentioned. We see 
how much habit has to do with it ; when people have 
been long used to go to bed at a certain time, they 
generally feel tired just at that time (Forel). The 
rule holds good for the functions of the motor organs 
as well as the others. We will take a case of hys- 
terical paralysis ; it is well known that such a paralysis 
is sometimes cured at the exact moment the patient | 
expects. Many mysterious effects may be thus ex- , 
plained. Hysterical patients can often foretell an 
improvement in their paralyses. This gift of pro- 
phecy need not astonish us if we think of this rule ; 
the connection is not what believers in the gift of I 
prophecy think ; for the hysterical patient is cured f 
at a particular time because he expects to be — the | 
prophecy causes its own fulfilment. 

Of course there are exceptions to the rule. How- 



THE THEORY OF HYPNOTISM. 225 

ever much a sufferer from severe myelitis may expect 
ills paralyzed legs to move they will not do so, 
because the impediments are too great to be over- 
come by this natura! tendency of expectation to pro- 
duce an effect. There are other impediments which, 
though they do not interfere with the tendency as 
such, prevent its taking effect. 

Another example. People are often sick when 
they expect to be sick at a particular time, and 
particularly if they think they have taken an emetic ; 
and they stammer when they expect to stammer. _ 

Many observations show that the above rule holds \ I 
good for the organs of sense under particular circum- ' i 
stances ; the following case of Carpenter's is related 
by Bentivegni. A judicial disinterment was to be 
made ; the grave was opened, and the coffin raised ; 
the official who was present said that he already smelt 
putrefaction, but when the coffin was opened it was 
found to be empty. Here expectation caused a 
distinct sense perception. There are many examples 
of this. Yung has made a series of experiments, and 
has shown that the sense of touch and the sense of 
temperature are particularly subject to delusion, and 
that certain perceptions occur when they are ex- 
pected without external stimuli. I myself have often- 
repeated the following experiments of Braid, Wein- 
hold, and others. I blindfolded certain persons, 
doctors among the number, or I simply made them 
close their eyes. I then told the subject that he was 
going to be mesmerized ; and even when this was not 
true, he generally imagined he felt the current of air 
caused by the passes ; he believed he knew the exact 
moment when the passes were begun. Here again 
we see expectation produce a perception. Many 
people begin to feel the pain of an operation almost 





226 JiVPA'OTISM. 

before the knife has touched them, simply because 
their whole attention is fixed upon the pain and the 
beginning of the operation. 

The principle has other effects. Forel and many 
others mention that there are certain popular methods 
of slightly retarding menstruation. In one town 
many of the young women tie something round their 
little finger if they wish to delay menstruation for 
a few days in order to go to a ball, &c. The method 
is generally effectual, but when faith ceases the effect 
also ceases. 

I hope that what has been said sufficiently explains 
the second rule mentioned above, 

I go on to discuss single phenomena of hypnosis ; 
the functional disturbances of voluntary movement 
first. These are seen in every hypnosis, as I said 
before in speaking of the symptoms ; they are almost 
always the first symptom, even when there are other 
changes. The principle just developed, that an ex- 
pected functional abnormality comes on when 
expected if it is not hindered by mechanical or 
other insuperable obstacles, best explains the ab- 
normalities of the voluntary movements. But to 
understand this thoroughly, the hypnosis should be 
induced by slow degrees, as in this case the motor 
disturbances are plainer, 

Now, the previous discussion makes it evident that 
to produce any motor disorder in a subject (X.) who is 
at present in a perfectly normal state, we must first of 
all draw his attention to the desired effect, and make 
him firmly expect it ; that is, we must be able to place 
the conviction in the foreground of the subject's 
thoughts, or, as Fechner and Wundt express it, in the 
range of his inner perspective. If we succeed in 



I 



r 




THE THEORY OF HYPNOTISM. 337 

capturing the subject's attention to such a point that 
he firmly beheves something—?.^,, that his arm will 
be paralyzed — the paralysis will generally happen. 

It would evidently be unfavourable if the subject should re- 
flect and criticize while the attempt to direct his attention was 
being made. If he does so an effectual concentration of his 
attention is impossible. Numerous other conditions must be 
fulfilled before we can make an idea dominate the subject's 
attention ; these conditions are for the most part the same 
which I mentioned as favouring the coming on of hypnosis, 
when I was speaking of its production. It is clear, therefore, 
that the surroundings, the subject's mental state as well as ihe 
manner of the experimenter's entrance, play a great part. The 
favourable influence of imitation is also easily explicable ; for 
these things may greatly influence the subject's expectation of , 
the effect. For example, a person who has seen paralysis 
induced by certain passes in another subject's arm, will be 
much more likely Co let the same phenomenon be induced in 
himself, than would another who had not seen it. 

Supposing such a paralysis induced, the subject's 
mental balance is already disturbed. If a man can- 
not voluntarily move his arm he feels at once that 
his will is weakened ; a mental state ensues which 
Pierre Janet often calls " misers psychique " / a pecu- 
liar feeling of weakened will-power. This feeling is 
very important ; by means of it the subject's power 
of resistance is lessened more and more. When one 
limb has been paralyzed it is easier to paralyze a 
second, because the subject already doubts his own 
will-power. Thus, when the subject can no longer 
voluntarily move a limb, or part of it, very much has 
been gained for further susceptibility to suggestion, 
because the consciousness of weakness favours the 
acceptance of later suggestions. The development 
of suggestibility need no longer astonish 
we have found the clue to its production. 




3B HYPNOTISM. 

I have endeavoured to explain the disturbances of 
the muscular functions in ttieir gradual development, 
as it were ; this development is in many cases nearly 
identical with that of hypnosis, which, as we have 
seen, is often merely an inhibition of the voluntary 
muscular functions. Many of the methods used to 
induce hypnosis are alike in one particular — they 
direct the subject's attention to some change in the 
functions of the muscles. The method of the school 
of Nancy consists chiefly in making the subject expect 
the closing of his eyes as strongly as possible, though 
this method also aims at producing the di"eam-con- 
sclousncss, of which I shall speak later. But other 
methods induce abnormalities in the functions of 

gle limbs in just the same way. For example, an 

n or leg loses its power to move when I concen- 
trate the attention of the subject upon the loss of 
power to move. In fact, it is quite unnecessary to 
begin with the eyes, as the school of Nancy does ; 
we can begin with any member, as Max Dessoir 
rightly insists. 

As a fact, it does not matter whether the first motor 
disturbance is a muscular action performed against 
the subject's will — i.e.^ a certain movement which the 
subject makes at command — or whether it is an in- 
ability to move, caused also by a command. The 
great thing is to gain enough influence over the sub- 
ject In any case we should begin with the disturb- 
ance which is the easiest to induce, because one s 
increases the experimenter's influence. Now as a rule 
it is easier to inhibit an action than to cause it, as 
daily observation shows. An example may make 
this clear. We assure a person whose arm is stretched 
out that he is tired and cannot hold it out any longer. 
Jn almost all cases there is a momentary pull down- 



r 

I 



THE THEORY OF HYPNOTISM. 



229 



wards ; i>., there is an inclination to lower the arm. 
This shows that there is often susceptibility to sugges- 
tinn without Hypnosis. I will briefly recapitulate ; 
the disturbances of voluntary movement induced by 
suggestion in hypnosis are caused by the experi- 
menter's directing the attention of the subject as 
strongly as possible to the desired effect. When the 
attempt has once succeeded, further disturbances may 
be more easily induced, since the subject is already 
persuaded of his inability to resist. 

This principle of the effects of expectant attention 
Illustrated above is nowhere shown more plainly than 
in the voluntary movements. It is even not always 
necessary that a movement should be very attentively 
expected ; the idea of the movement will induce it. 
Let a man bend his arm at the elbow at right angles, 
and think that the arm will bend quickly, without 
expecting it to do so ; if he fixes his whole attention 
on this idea the movement will very soon follow. 
This shows again how great is the tendency to make 
a certain movement when the subject concentrates his 
whole attention on that one point. If expectation is 
added to attention the effect will be so much the 
greater. 

I now come to tlie discussion and explanation of 
sense delusions ; first of all, of the positive kind. 
Are we not exposed to such delusions otherwise than 
in hypnosis ? Take first a very simple example of 
Max Dessoir's. I say to someone who is quite awake, 
" A rat is running behind you." The man can assure 
himself at once by turning round that there is no rat, 
but according to experience he will have a mental j 
image of a rat for a moment, because I spoke of it ; 

J there is gjrea^ a, traej pf hallucination. 



lid Stewart ^^| 
an image, ^^H 



230 HYPNOTISM. 

Modern psychology, following such men as Dugald 
and Taine, generally supposes that every idea includes 
e.g.y the idea of a knife includes an image of a knife. As further 
every central image tends to externalize itself, as Stuart Mill in 
particularhas explained, when an idea is aroused, there is always 
a tendency to externalize the corresponding image, i.e., there is 
a tendency to hallucination. We have thus a tendency to take 
the remembered image of former sense perceptions for real 
objects (Binet, F^t^). 

So in the case of the rat there is a transitoiy 
hallucitiation. Its persistence is prevented in two 
ways. Firstly, the man could convince himself by 
means of his senses that no rat was there. Secondly, 
reflection and the logical grouping of former pictures of 
memory would convince him that no rat was present. 
The two factors would suffice to prevent the persist- 
ence of the suggested delusion. A simple considera- 
tion shows that sen.se perceptions are not always 
needed to prevent hallucination. Tell a person whose 
eyes are shut that a rat is running in front of him. 
Without opening his eyes he is convinced of the con- 
trary, and says it is not true. Although the image of 1 
the rat arises in his mind for a moment, it does not 
grow into a definite sense delusion, because reflection 
and memory prevent it. It is not the sense percep- 
tions which prevent it ; calm, critical reflection is 
enough. This is often of more value in preventing a 
threatening hallucination than the perceptions,! 

We have thus learned to distinguish the different 
effects of a suggested hallucination in the waking 
and in the hypnotic states ; we have seen that in the 
latter tlie hallucinations arise absolutely without any 
new factor. They increase in strength and persistence 
because they are not hindered by sense perceptions J 
or critical reSection, It must now be asked, Are | 
there states analogous to these also ? 



THE THEORY OF HYPNOTISM. 231 

We must make it perfectly clear that we have a 
dream -consciousness completely distinct from the 
waking consciousness (Ed. v. Hartmann), in which 
feelings and perceptions do not occur at all in the 
same way as in the waking consciousness. When we 
wake from sleep we are able to distinguish dream- 
consciousness from waking life simply by recollection. 
We know whether what we dreamed was only a dream, 
or whether it was real (Bentivcgni). It is true that 
in dreams ideas are reproduced and perceptions felt, 
but in two respects {according to Wundt) this con- 
sciousness differs from that of waking life. In the 
first place the remembered ideas have a hallucinatory 
character, i.e., we try in dreams to objectify the 
images of memory ; we do not recognize that they 
are images of memory as we do in waking life, but 
believe that we see, feel, S:c., the real object to which 
they correspond. In the same way external impres- 
sions do not produce normal perceptions, but illusions. 
In the second place, in dreams the faculty of percep- 
tion is changed ; i.e., the power of judging the experi- 
ences of which we are conscious is essentially altered. 
It is just this peculiarity of the dream -consciousness 
(mentioned by Wundt) which is found in the con- 
sciousness of such hypnotic subjects as are accessible 
to suggested sense delusions. There is no need to 
enter into details on this point, as it has been 
thoroughly discussed in the chapters on " Symptoms " 
and " Cognate States," The chief point is the hallu- 
cinatory character of the images of memory ; faintly 
indicated in normal states, in dream- consciousness it 
is extremely plain, and appears in hypnosis in con- 
nection with illusions, to which dream-consciousness is 
also favourable. But we may be sure that such a 
dream-consciousness is by no means a strange and 



332 



HYPNOTISM. 



new thing, since it is often found in ordinary sleep ; 
or, rather, it seems to be habitual in sleep, as has just 
been shown. The production of this peculiar di 
consciousness is one of the chief points in hypnotizing. 
The question is, how is it brought about ; is there 
a causal connection between dream-consciousness and 
the induction of hypnosis ? I need not discuss this at 
length, since we already know that children may be 
talked to in sleep. In adults dream-consciousness only 
appears in hypnosis when they have been sent to 
sleep by some methods like those used to induce 
ordinary sleep. As we have seen, hypnosis is gene- 
rally induced mentally. Now, Forel, Li^beault, and 
many other investigators say that natural sleep is the 
immediate result of a mental process — an auto-sug- 
gestion of sleep, in fact. 1 do not contend that the 
products of tissue waste in the body may not produce 
sleep without arousing the idea of it, but it is a fact 
that in many cases — whether in all must be left un- 
decided at present — we fall asleep merely because we 
have the idea of sleep, and are convinced we shall 
sleep. As sleep is only a particular state of con- 
sciousness, it is not clear why we cannot induce cer- 
tain people to sleep by telling them to do so, when 
we are hypnotizing them. We can talk people into 
all sorts of states of consciousness ; the priest, the 
popular orator do so every day. Why can we not 
induce dream-consciousness in a like way, as Is often 
done as a matter of fact when children are put to 
sleep ? 

It is true that in many cases dream-consciousness can 
be induced in hypnosis by means which have nothing 
to do with the induction of sleep ; for example, when, 
a hypnotic subject fixes his gaze and his eyes finally 
close, this does not appear to be the induction of a 



I 

I 




rTHE THEORY OF HYPNOTISM. 333 ^H 

state of sleep. Nevertheless,! think that sleep comes ^^| 

on, even when it is not purposely suggested. Sleep may ^^| 

be brought on by the feeling of heaviness in the eyes, ^^^k 

through association of ideas (Forel) ; for some people ^^| 

are in the habit of staring fixedly at a point in order ^^| 



are in the habit of staring fixedly at a point in order 
to tire their eyes and bring on their ordinary sleep. 
For these reasons, about which I cannot enter into 
more details here, I believe that when a hallucination 
happens in hypnosis, some means of inducing dreara- 
consciousness have always been used. Even those 
hypnoses in which hallucinations happen without 
previous closing of the eyes do not contradict this, 
since the dream-consciousness is not necessarily con- 
nected with the closing of the eyes. It sometimes 
comes on when the eyes are open, as is seen in cases 
of spontaneous somnambulism. After what has been 
said we can find an explanation of sense delusions in 
the analogy tietween these hypnotic states and sleep. 
Certainly we do not know why sense delusions 
happen in ordinary sleep. I have not space to enter 
into the different attempts at explanation which have 
been made, and, besides, it would be useless. But I 
think it will provisionally help us in examining hyp- 
nosis if we take the hypnotic states in which thei-e 
are pronounced sense delusions, as completely cor- 
responding with ordinary sleep and its dream- 
consciousness. In both states certain impressions 
of external origin (memory pictures, or mere stimu- 
lations of the senses) induce sense delusions. It is 
only necessary that the impression which causes the 
delusion should affect the sleeper deeply enough. 

These conclusions lead to a discussion of rapport. 
This rapport causes the subject to be more influenced 
^ certain impressions than by others, and to respond , 



I 




HYPNOTISM. 

to them by corresponding sense delusions, I shall 
speak of rapport briefly, as I am preparing a detailed 
publication about it. According to Noizet and 
Bertrand, who have been joined lately by Liebeault, 
Bernheim, Forel, and others, rapport is a state of 
sleep in which the attention of the subject is fixed 
exclusively upon the hypnotizcr, so that the idea of 
him is constantly present in the subject's memory. 
On this account Bertrand compared these processes to 
the falling asleep of a mother by her child's cradle. 
She continues to watch over it in sleep ; she hears the 
least sound it makes, but no otlier sounds. This 
analogy may explain the peculiar influence which a 
hypnotizer has over his subject. The subject has 
fallen asleep with the thought of the hypnotizer in 
his mind, and hears only what he says, as in the case 
of the mother and child. 

It is also not strange that this influence should 
increase in the course of hypnotic training, as we see 
that the influence which one person has over another 
in normal circumstances grows with exerciser No 
new psychical law is to be found in hypnosis. 

When we go on to discuss the negative hallucina- 
tions and the way they originate in hypnosis, we 
remark two things: firstly, that the subject does 
not see certain objects or hear certain noises, &c. ; 
secondly, and more particularly, that the objects he 1 
does not see are just those he is forbidden by the J 
hypnotist to see. I have mentioned that many things I 
are not seen and heard in normal circumstances when I 
the attention is not directed to them. These facts j 
are not astonishing, but the way they originate in i 
hypnosis is striking. If I tell a waking man who I 
has a chair in front of him, " There is nothing ther^H 



I 



THE THEORY OF HYPNOTISM. 235 

neither chair nor table," he will see the chair in spite 
of what I say ; but the hypnotic subject will not see 
it, at least if he is susceptible to negative hallucina- 
tion. Now we can regard this process in the hypnotic 
as a diversion of the attention, like that in the waking 
man who fails to perceive things which stimulate his 
organs of sense. 

This is shown in particular by those hallucinations 
which vanish the moment the attention is drawn to 
the hallucinatory object. We can see clearly in such 
cases that the negative hallucination was caused by 
the diversion of the attention from the object, and 
that the direction of tlic attention to it was a counter- 
suggestion. I say to a subject, " When j'ou wake, X. 
will have gone away." When he wakes and is asked 
how many people are present, he says, " Two ; you 
and I." i then point out X., and tell the subject to 
look at him. Then he sees X., and the suggestion 
has lost its effect. 

But in any case the mode of origin is remarkable. 
For just because I told the hypnotic subject the chair 
was not there, he did not see it ; but if I told a man 
in the normal state that the chair was not there, he 
would bo all the more certain to see it. My remark 
would draw his attention to it. How can we explain 
the completely opposite result with the hypnotic 
subject ? 

According to Binet and Fi^re, another factor must 
be added to the diversion of the attention ; before it 
can be attained a conviction that the chair is not 
there must be first established in the subject. With- 
out this there would hardly be a negative hallucina- 
tion. 

It is a certain fact, observable without hypnosis, that such an 
established convictioD favours negative hallueinations. 




lEUBm'l- oV 




236 HYPNOTISM. 

Let us suppose a man occupied with work in some plac^l 
which isgenerally quiet, and where he does not expect n 
us suppose some noise is made i the man wili not perceive it. YeM 
he would have heard the same noise if he had known before 
hand that it would be made. In just the same way he ivoi 
Jail to see a spark of light if he had the conviction beforehand I 
that no light was there, but would perceive it if he expected it. 
The expectation of an effect is very favourable to its appear- 
ance. Consequently we have here another analogy between 
hypnotic and non-hypnotic processes. 

We see, then, that under normal circumstances the 
conviction that a thing is not there makes it probable 
it will not be perceived, H we make use of this 
principle to explain negative hallucinations in hyp- 
nosis we must ask, How is the conviction that a 
thing is not there established in the subject? We 
must come back to his subjective feelings of weakened 
will and dependence. A whole series of experiments 
which have convinced the subject of his weakness 
has generally been made before the negative hal- 
lucination succeeds. When he is once convinced that 
everything really happens which the hypnotist says, 
he will believe him more and more. The hypnotist 
has generally made many suggestions of movement 
to him, and has induced in him the positive hallucina- 
tions of which I have given an explanation above. 
Consequently we cannot feel surprised that the sub- 
ject inclines to believe him when he is told by him 
that some object is not there. 

Nevertheless these two factors, the diversion of the 
subject's attention and the conviction established in 
him, do not suffice to explain negative hallucinations. 
However firmly he believes the hypnotist, without 
such motives as would induce belief under normal 
circumstances (as Bentivegni rightly points out), this 
does not alone explain such mistakes of the sense 






THE THEORY OF HYPNOTISM. 237 

perceptions as are found in negative hallucinations. 
A completely changed state of consciousness must be 
added if wc wish to understand negative hallucina- 
tions ; the dream-consciousness again, which helped 
us to understand positive delusions of the senses. 
For dream-consciousness is not only distinguished by 
the reappearance of former memory pictures as hal- 
lucinations ; it is also characterized by the fact that 
sense impressions which under riormal circumstances 
become feelings and perceptions induce in it no feel- 
ing or perception. To recapitulate : there are three 
factors for the production of negative hallucinations : 
firstly, dream-consciousness ; secondly, the con- 
viction established in the subject of the absence of an 
object ; and thirdly, the diversion of the attention 
which results from this. 

We can explain the analgesia of some hypnotic 
subjects in a like manner. It is known that an 
expected pain is more acutely felt than an un- 
expected one. When any one believes that the effect 
of some stimulus will be painful he will feel the pain 
much sooner than he would if he did not expect it 
and believe in it We see this in operations ; the 
subject feels much more pain when he expects the 
stroke of the knife and sees it than when it takes him 
unawares ; in the latter case he often feels hardly any 
pain. It is the same thing with analgesia in hyp- 
nosis. I still doubt whether there is ever an entirely 
spontaneous analgesia without suggestion, though 
I have mentioned it above. In any case analgesia is 
more usually induced by suggestion. Here again we 
may take it that the hypnotic subject has been pre- 
convinced by the repeated assertions and suggestions 
of the hypnotist, and that he has in consequence an 
unreasoning credulity. If now the hypnotist firmly 



i HYPNOTISM. 

insists upon the analgesia, the subject will soon 
believe in and expect it, and this will greatly help 
him to it. 



The phenomena of the memory must now be con- 
sidered. Such a derangement of the memory as 
sometimes happens in hypnosis is certainly very 
striking, though it is clear at once that we can find 
many analogies in ordinary life. I need not, of 
course, discuss those hypnotic states in which there is 
no derangement of the memory. 

But there arc persons who, after waking from hyp- 
nosis, remember nothing of what has happened. It 
is also a well-known fact that we forget certain events, 
apart from hypnosis. We entirely forget certain me- 
chanical actions, such as the winding of a watch. But 
some things done with reflection and in perfect con- 
sciousness are occasionally forgotten. We have here, 
then, an analogy to the forgetfulness of the hypnotic 
subject. But these analogies by no means explain 
the sudden and often nearly systematic forgetfulness 
in liypnotic states. We studied this phenomenon 
when discussing the memory before, and we also saw 
that the subject in hypnosis remembered all the 
events of preceding hypnoscs, and of his waking life ; 
we called this "double consciousness," This requires 
special consideration. It is, indeed, a striking phe- 
nomenon that two complete and thoroughly separate 
states of consciousness can be induced and distin- 
guished in a human being; so that in one, the waking 
life, the events of waking life only are remembered ; 
and in the other, the hypnotic state, the events of 

jceiiing hypnoses and of waking life. If we think 
of the life of such a being as divided into several 
periods, a, b, c, d, e,f, g, in the periods a, c, e, g, only 



r 



7 HE THkORY OF HYPNOTISM. 



239 



the events of those periods will be remembered, so 
that in period c he will remember only what happened 
in a, and in period e what happened in a and c. On 
the other hand, in the periods b, d,f, both what has 
happened in them and in a, c, e, will be remembered. 
This is very remarkable, particularly when it happens 
spontaneously, i.e., without suggestion. 

In order to explain this double consciousness I 
must return to Max Dessoir's theory of the " Doppel 
Ich," or double Ego ; I must, however, describe it 
exactly before it can be applied to our subject. 

Max Dessoir supposes, with Pierre Janet, that 
human personality is a unity merely to our conscious- 
ness, but that it consists really of at least two clearly 
distinguishable personalities, each held together by 
its own chain of memories. He chooses several ways 
of establishing this principle. According to him 
many actions are done unconsciously, though of 
mental origin. I do not notice many automatic 
movements, e.g., rubbing the hands when they are 
cold, &c. The experiment made by Barkworth is 
more complicated than this. He can add up long 
rows of figures while carrying on a lively discussion, 
without allowing his attention to be at all diverted 
from the discussion. 

This shows that, in the first place, there is an un- 
conscious intelligence in men, as is seen in the rubbing 
of the cold hands, and in the second place, that there 
is an unconscious memory; for Barkworth, for ex- 
ample, must have at least two groups of figures in his 
memory, to make a third out of them; he must retain 
the third to add a fourth. But this chain of memory 
is independent of the other chain, by means of which 
he carries on the conversation (Max Dessoir). As. 
according to Max Dessoir, consciousness and memory 



OSes that ^^| 
there arc ^^1 



240 HYPNOTISM. 

are the two elements of personality, he suppo; 
in the above-mentioned case of Barkworth 
the elements of a second personality. The mental 
processes which take piace consciously to the man 
are called the primary consciousness, and those which 
go on without his knowledge the secondary conscious- 
ness ; the action of both together is a state of double 
consciousness, or "doubled consciousness" (Max 
Dessoir). Thus in Barkworth's case the primary 
consciousness carried on the conversation, while the 
secondary one mechanically performed the addition. 

To prevent confusion it should be impressed on the reader 
that what has hitherto been habitually called consciousness will 
for the future be called primary consciousness. Generally . 
speaking " consciousness " means the sum of subjectively per- 
ceived mental processes. We must now give it a wider meaning. 
Consciousness falls into two halves, primary and secondary, 
and the primary consciousness is consciousness in the older 
sense of the word. 

In the case above mentioned both consciousnesses 
exist together, but they may, under certain circum- 
stances, follow one another. Max Dessoir tells of a 
case in which a person took up his dream on a second 
night where he had left off on the first. Here, then, 
the dream-consciousness tended to form a new chain 
of memories. The same author puts the following 
case of Macario's with the last : A girl who was out- 
raged during an attack of spontaneous somnambu- 
lism knew nothing about it when she woke, and only 
told her mother of what had happened in her 
attack. Such cases occur under morbid pathological 
conditions {cf. p. 128). 

These cases in dream and in morbid conditions 
show the two consciousnesses following one 



I 



vas our- 

mambu- 

nd only ^h 

ler ^^1 

lological ^^H 

nditions ^^| 

another ^^^k 



^^ THE THEORY OF HYPNOTISM, 241 ^^| 

as the Barkworth case showed them co-existing. ^^| 

)Max Dessoir mentions other examples in support of ^^| 
his view, but I am unable to go into them here. ^^H 

To return to hypnosis. We have now to explain ^^^ 
the state of double consciousness. Max Dessoir ^^| 
thinks that hypnosis simply exhibits the hidden half 
of our mental life ; the part which is called secondary 
consciousness and which can occasionally be ob- 
served in ordinary life, or more plainly in pathological 
states. \ 

Although I believe that Max Dessoir includes too 

much in his idea of the double Ego {Doppel Ich), his 
explanations are none the less valuable for the con- 
sideration of the double consciousness in hypnosis. 
It is not necessary for our purpose to generalize this 
theory, as, though double consciousness is sometimes 
observed in hypnosis, it is by no means so common 
as some authors suppose. I shall return several times 
to this double consciousness, which, however, I do not 
conceive on the plan of Max Dessoir. Even if we 
suppose that hypnosis is simply the demonstration 
by experiment of the pre-existing double conscious- 
ness, the question of the causal connection between 
the origin of hypnosis and this demonstration still 
remains unanswered. Perhaps we may call in dream- 
consciousness again ; it may be that it is induced by 
the originating of hypnoses, and may complete the 
secondary consciousness. Delbceuf, who by no means 
accepts the sharp division of the primary and second- 
ary consciousnes.s, identifies the hypnotic phenomena 
entirely with nightly dream.i, as far as the subsequent 
recollection is concerned. In this case wc could ex- 
plain the causal connection between the production 
of hypnosis and the appearance of double conscious- 
ness in the same way as we explain sense delusions 



342 HVPNor/sAr. 

by the experimental induction of dream -conscious- 
.iMss, . I will not go into further details with regard ] 

to the'phertomena.'t)f memory during hypnosis, : 
Jiave already mentioned many analogies in speaking J 
*of the symptoms. 



The post-hypnotic suggestions will occupy i 
little longer, because, in a certain sense, they can be I 
explained by analogy. For this purpose I will choose l 
some action induced by post-hypnotic suggestion, and 
will suppose it to be a case of hypnosis without sub- 
sequent loss of memory. 

Here is an analogous case in waking life. I give a , 
letter to X., who has called on me, and ask him to j 
post- it on his way home, if he passes a letter-box. | 
This he does. 

I now give exactly the same commission to Y., 
who is in a hypnotic state, without subsequent loss of J 
memory. 

In both cases my commission is executed. Now ' 
the question is. What is the difference between the 
two cases? In the case of Y., one circumstance 
may strike us, i.e., that he did the act without, or 
perhaps against, his will. 

The fact that Y. posted the letter without willing .1 
to do so does not distinguish his case from X.'s. 
X. walked home with Z, and talked all the way. He 
passed a pillar-box, and though he continued to talk, 
and apparently did not notice the box, he mechani- 
cally threw the letter into it. Later it occurred to ■ 
him that he had the letter to post ; he had a faint 
recollection of having done it. He could, however, 
convince himself of the fact by feeling in his pocket _J 
for the letter. We sec, then, that he executed the j 
commission without conscious will. 



THE THEORY OF HYPNOTISM. S43 

It would be more striking if X. should do some 
such action against his will. In the action described 
this was not the case. He would not have executed 
the commission if his will had not consented. Also, 
he would have remembered the action if his will had 
opposed it. There must always be consciousness 
when the will is exerted to prevent something. There 
must be an idea of the action to be performed. What 

striking in post-hypnotic suggestion is exactly the 
fact that it is carried out against the will, in which 
case the subject of course knows what is to be done, 
and has an idea of it. It is this idea which causes a 
post-hypnotic action to be carried out in spite of the 
will. 

The question now is whether we can fina an 
analogy to this in waking life, whether an idea can 
in this case cause a motor or other effect in spite 
of the will. The answer must be, "Very commonly." 

We saw, when talking of suggestion in the waking 
state, that an idea is sometimes enough to cause an 
action or a particular state in spite of the will. This 
is a common occurrence. We will suppose that A. 
has lost a dear relation. A. is in consequence sad 
and depressed, and cannot refrain from tears. Months 
pass, and he grows calm ; but when the anniversary 
of the death arrives he falls again into the same state 
of mental excitement and tears, which he cannot 
conquer. The vivid idea has been enough to throw 
him, against his will, into a certain state. 

A person who stammers is in the same case. Alone 
at home he can speak quite well, but a stranger 
comes in and he begins to stammer. He stammers 
because he thought he should stammer, and his will 
is powerless both over the thought and the stammer- 
ing. We see the same sort of thing constantly;, and 



HYPNOTISM. 

certain states of illness are induced merely by a vivid 
expectation of them ; they then come on in spite of 
the will. Accordingly it is not astonishing that a I 
post-hypnotic suggestion should succeed against the I 
subject's will. 

The post-hypnotic movements and actions carried 
out in spite of the will — or, to speak more exactlyj in 
spite of the wish — have a great likeness to the in- 
stinctive movements well known in Psychology, 
which are often made to satisfy a pleasure which 
follows from the act. Such instinctive movements 
are entirely independent of the will ; they take place 
in spite of the wish. For example, the raising of the 
hand to ward off danger is an instinctive movement 
(Wundt). Here there may very well be an idea 
of the movement, though deeper mental processes 
compel its execution, as in many cases of post-hyp- 
notic suggestion carried out in spite of the will. It is 
the same thing in cases of so-called impulsive mania. 
The patients act without clear ideas of their motivea 
Their actions appear to be impelled by instinct, 
though they are consciously carried out (Schule). 



I have now considered why post-hypnotic sugges- 
tions are carried out without, or in spite of, the will. 
1 supposed a case in which the subject remembered 
the order given him in hypnosis after he woke ; »>., 
I considered only those cases in which there was no 
loss of memory in waking. It is a more enigmatic 
question, why post-hypnotic suggestions are carried 
out when there is loss of memory after waking, and 
the subject in consequence is apparently unconscious 
of having received the command. 

For explanation let us return to the case of waking 
life, where X. was to post a letter. I point out that j 



THE THEORY OF HYPNOTISM. 



HI 



X. did not keep the request continually in his con- 
sciousness, and that he even apparently posted the 
letter unconsciously ; yet he would not have per- 
formed the action at all if he had not really re- 
membered my request. 

It is the same in post-hypnotic suggestion. It 
really remains in the memory, and the unconscious- 
ness is only apparent. All post-hypnotic suggestions 
are merely apparently forgotten between waking and 
fulfilment. To prove this I must digress a little and 
go back to the primary consciousness, which is the 
name given to our subjective mentally perceived pro- 
cesses, while the unperceivcd ones are called the 
secondary consciousness. 

The state of the primary consciousness is not uni- 
form, but, on the contrary, subject to constant 
changes. In one period we are conscious of ideas 
which are wanting in others. One period comprises 
more than another. Now, if we call the sum of mental 
processes perceived in one state a sphere of conscious- 
ness, we may suppose a number of such spheres. But 
not to complicate the subject too much, we will 
suppose two spheres, which will answer our purpose. 

We saw, when discussing the memory, that the 
hypnotic subject who forgot the events of hypnosis 
in waking life remembered them in later hypnosis. 
But he remembered the events of waking life also in 
hypnosis, though in waking life he was only con- 
scious of the events of that life. We have, then, two 
different spheres of consciousness here: one com- 
prises the events of hypnosis and of waking life, the 
other only those of waking life. They follow one 
another. 

During waking life there arc only memory pictures 



346 HYPNOTISM, 

secondary consciousness there are memory pictures 
of the hypnotic state, i.e., the impressions of hyp- 
nosis are received, but do not rise into the primary 
consciousness. But it must not be thought that the 
two consciousnesses arc completely separated. Im- 
pressions made on the secondary consciousness 
occasionally rise to the primary. Upon this fact 
depends the restoration of memory through associa- 
tion of ideas, spoken of on p. 125. It can also be 
proved that the impressions of hypnosis by no means 
disappear in waking life, but are really firmly estab- 
lished in the brain. 



To prove this I must digress again, and n 
writing. I owe my knowledge of this to Dr. Max Dessoir, 
whom 1 again thank for his unselfish and genuinely scientific 
help in the writing of this book. This automatic writing is 
of great interest and importance. It has been also observed 
among uncivilized peoples (Doolittle, Bastian). 

I have had frequent occasion to speak of automatic move- 
ments and actions. To prevent confusion of ideas it should 
be expressly mentioned that I do not mean here by automatic 
movements, those so called by Li^beault and Bernheim, which 
Max Dessoir more jusily calls continued movements {cf. p. 69), 
Dy automatic movements I here mean those of which we are 
unconscious at the moment they are made, though Ihey show 
all the sympioms of a mental causation. When I walk my 
,s are nearly always automatic; I walk without being 
:s of making the individual movements. 

With regard to automatic writing, it should be mentioned 
that there are men who habitually move their fingers on the 
table while they are talking or thinking. When such people 
take a pencil in their hands they make all sorts of scribbled 
marks without observing it, while Ihey are thinking of other 
things. This scribbling may be regarded as the beginning of 
automatic writing. It may take a certain rational form. Schiller 
says that when reflecting he has often covered whole sheets of 
paper with little horses (.Max Dessoir). Other people auto- 
matically write letters and words, and this process is called 




THE THEORY OF HYPNOTISM. 247 

automatic writing; it is evidently guided by a species of in- 
telligence, as without it no rational words could be written. But 
this intelligence resides in the writer, though it may not be 
conscious in the ordinary sense of the word ; it is the secondary 
consciousness, which carries on movements and actions as dues 
the primary consciousness, although the person concerned does 
not remark them. In any case the intelligence is innate in the 
person, and is part of him, and not an externa! force or spirit, 
as the spiritualists, who are also acquainted with it, and call it 
medium! Stic writing, say it is. 

I ask the reader to follow me through some experiments with 
automatic writing. I give a person who is not in hypnosis a pen 
or pencil and ask him to answer some question in writing^ — for 
example, what he had for dinner yesterday ; he is, however, to 
leave his hand passive and not write on purpose ; at the same 
lime I put the point of the pencil on paper. It would not he 
strange that the person should write down something he is 
thinking of. It would remind us of the experiments in thought- 
reading described (p. 56). The person thinks of roast veal and 
the hand makes corresponding movements. But the process 
becomes rather different when I talk quietly to the writer mean- 
while. 1 speak of the theatre, the weather, &c. ; in the mean- 
time the hand writes "roast veal." It appears that this was 
yesterday's dinner. In this case the hand wrote without con- 
centration of thought on the writer's part ; and this is already 
different from the usual thought-reading. A rational and true 
answer has been given to a direct question while a conversation 
was being carried on. As the writing was not noticed it follows 
thai it was automatic. This automatic writing is certainly 
striking. 

Now, though the writer did not know he was writing, he knew 
the fact which he unconsciously wrote down ; i.e., he knew that 
he had had roast veal for dinner yesterday. But there are also 
persons who will answer questions through automatic writing 
about things they do not know at all, e.g., when somebody is 
asked what lie had for dinner every day last week, he will i 
down the whole list of dishes, though he does not know them 
himself, i.g., though they are not in his primary < 

Such experiments are very good when made in hypn 
isions, especially the negative 
intelligible by them, as was pointed out 
in hypnosis, thai A- and B., who a 



I 




248 



HYPNOTISM. 



gone away. X. ceases entirely to respond to A. and B. ; hs J 
neither hears nor sees them. When I ask him who is present * 
he says, " Only you and I " ; upon which I give him a pencil 
and paper and command him to answer the question in writing. 
He writes, " Dr. Moll, Mr. A., Mr. B., and myself." Conse- 
quently he has answered the question intelligently, without 
knowing that he is writing. This shows that A. and B, were J 
really perceived, but that X. was unconscious of the perception, 1 
We will now return to the starting-point of our discussion. I 

By means of automatic writing it can be proved that I 
the impressions of hypnosis are really firmly lotJged I 
in the brain ; Gtirney, F. Myers, and Pierre Janet I 
have made a series of very good experiments on this I 
point. X., for example, is waked from hypnosis and I 
remembers nothing that has happened ; but when he I 
is ordered to write automatically what was said to h'im I 
he does it. Now, as he could not tell these things, I 
and they are not to be found in the primary con- 1 
sciousness, these experiments in autom'atic writing I 
prove that the impressions exist all the same. They I 
disclose themselves in the automatic writing. I 

We have now to show why the post -hypnotic sug- I 
gestion is carried out in spite of loss of memory. Wei 
have seen that this loss of memory only exists so far I 
that the hypnotic events and the post-hypnotic sug- 1 
gestion are to be found in the secondary consciousness ■ 
only. In any case, as I have shown, the loss of« 
memory is only apparent, and the post-hypnotic sug-Ä 
gestion is lodged in the secondary consciousness. ■ 
And this, as I have also shown by automatic writing.B 
acts with a certain intelligence, and without confusion I 
in its proper chain of thought. I 

The foregoing explanations show, firstly, why al 
post-hypnotic suggestion is carried out without the« 
will or in spite of it ; and, secondly, why it is carried! 



rr- 



THE THEORY OF HYPNOTISM. 



349 



I 
I 



out in spite of tiie apparent forgetting of the com- 
mand. A further question is this — Why is a post- 
hypnotic suggestion carried out at the right moment ? 
The answer will differ according to the manner in 
which the moment for the execution of the suggestion 
is decided. We already know (p. 142) that the 
moment may be appointed in numerous ways ; either 
by a concrete external sign — e.g., the striking of the 
clock — or by fixing an abstract period, or by counting 
signals or days. 

In the case of the striking clock we shall find no 
new mental law ; we find the same process quite com- 
monly in normal life, it is a result of the association 
of ideas. The striking of the clock often reminds us 
of something we wanted to do at that particular time. 

The same thing happens when we tie a knot in our 
handkerchiefs to remind ourselves of something. It 
occurs to me that I must write a letter to-morrow ; I 
make a knot in my handkerchief to remind myself of 
iL The knot and the letter are then associated in my 
consciousness, and when I see the knot the idea of the 
letter rises from my secondary into my primary con- 
sciousness. Memory is caused by association of ideas. 
Now we see the same thing in the example of post- 
hypnotic suggestion on p. 142. The striking of the 
clock made the subject remember to take the water- 
bottle and walk up and down with it This process 
of association is so powerful that it often takes effect 
even when the suggestion is not punctually carried out. 

I hypnotize a man on Saturday and tell him, " When 
you come in on Tuesday I shall cough three times ; 
you will then give me your hand and remark, ' That is 
too stupid.' " The man does not come till Thursday, 
but the suggestion is carried out, merely because I I 
:ough, 



2S0 



HYPNOTISM. 



We will take the second case where an abstract 
period of time was given instead of a definite sign. 
Here the idea lay in the secondary consciousness till ' 
it resulted in the corresponding action. An approxi- 
mate but inexact calculation took place in the 
secondary consciousness. 

For this also many analogies may be found in 
ordinary life. I .say to A., " Remind me in an hour 
to write a letter." A. is busy, and thinks no more of 
the letter, but nevertheless reminds me of it after 
some time. But as he has not looked at the clock, he 
is not punctual : the case is quite analogous to post- 
hypnotic suggestion, where there is generally no perfect 
punctuality. 

Some people suppose that in the few cases of 
striking punctuality, some unconscious calculation 
of time takes place, like the unconscious regularity 
of our pulse and breathing. However that may be, 
there are certain persons who can calculate time with' 
some exactitude when they are awake, and others 
can do the same in sleep ; they can wake themselves 
at a definite time without hearing the clock strike. In 
any case it is unnecessary to suppose that hypnotic 
subjects possess a peculiar faculty for fixingtime which 
others do not. 

The older mesmerists, Nasse and Eschenmayer for example, 
made investigations about this faculty of somnambulic subjects 
for exactly reckoning time. The ancient Hindoos studied it 
industriously. This subjective faculty for calculating 
sometimes called the mental clock {Kopfukr) (Du Prel). 

The third way of fixing time is by counting signalaj 
or days {cf. p. 142), Gurney's explanation of this ii 
grounded on the division of the consciousness inl 
primary and secondary, which \ have explained 



I 




r 



THE THEORY OF HYPNOTISM. 



251 



While the primary consciousness is busy talking to 
the experimenter the secondary consciousness works 
on independently. It remembers the command and 
counts the signals given ; e.g., the shuffling of feet, &c. 
When the tenth signal is given the suggestion is ■ 
carried out, just as other suggestions are carried out at 
an appointed signal {cf. the euample on p. 142). 

Gurney endeavours to explain many long-deferred 
suggestions in just the same way. As we have seen, 
in these also the execution of the suggestion may 
be ordered at the end of a series of days and weeks 
instead of on a definite date (p. 142). This may be 
explained in two ways. Perhaps the subject cal- 
culates the date after he has been told the number 
of days or weeks. Against this there is the fact that 
the subjects, when hypnotized in the intervening time, 
cannot tell the date. On this account Gurney sup- 
poses an action of the secondary consciousness in 
such cases. He thinks that the subject counts the 
days in his. secondary consciousness just as we con- 
sciously count days in waking life, and thus is able 
to carry out the suggestion. He thinks this all the 
more likely because when the subjects are hypnotized 
in the intervening time, they can count the days 
which have elapsed, and are to elapse, before the 
suggestion is carried out, though they do not know 
the exact date. 

These different spheres of consciousness enable us 
to better understand those post-hypnotic suggestions 
which arc carried out in a state of complete loss 
of memory; for the suggested command is always 
accepted, even when the subject remembers nothing 
about it subsequently. The punctual execution of 
such a command is only comprehensible if, besides 
the primary consciousness, a secondary consciousness 
works intelligently in us. 



252 



HYPNOTISM. 



The preceding explanations are chiefly intended 
to approximate as much as possible post- hypnotic 
suggestion to certain habitual occurrences. There is 
no question of a complete identification of them ; 
for many post-hypnotic suggestions can apparently 
be distinguished from all known processes of waking 
life in two ways. The subject does not remember 
the command when the hypnosis is over ; he is appa- 
rently unconscious of the idea of executing it ; if he 
is spoken to about it after waking the idea cannot 
be recalled to his mind ; and yet, in in spite of this, 
it arises at the time fixed. Wc forget much in 
ordinary life also ; but the recollection of a thing 
at a certain moment, which no hints or efforts can 
recall in the intermediate time, appears to me to be 
the first prerogative of many post-hypnotic sugges- 
tions ; a second is that it is not the command itself 
but the idea of its execution which is remembered. 

And yet even these striking phenomena are by no 
means an absolute prerogative of hypnosis. We are 
reminded, in the first place, of those dominant ideas 
which are often patholc^ical, and whose origin is for 
the most part unknown (Bentivcgni). These ideas ^ 
sometimes impel to actions ( K rafft- Ebrng) which 1 
the person concerned becomes under some circu 
stances powerless to control. Sometimes the origin 
of the idea is not to be discovered by questions or 
by any other means. If we hold fast to the principle 
of Locke, " Nil est in inieHeciu, quod ?ioii priits fuerit 
in sensu" we shall be obliged to suppose that some ' 
external event has formerly influenced the mind of 
the person concerned, but that the event itself is 
forgotten. None the less, it has an effect, which 
sometimes takes the form of a dominant idea and 
sometimes of an action caused by it (murder, suicide, j 



THE THEORY OF HYPNOTISM. 



253 



ft 



incendiarism, &c.) (KrafTt-Ebing). Here, exactly 
as in post-hypnotic suggestion, the external prompt- 
ing impression is forgotten in the intervening time, 
as well as at the moment when the Idea arises or the 
action is carried out. 

But I think that it is not only under pathological 
conditions that some externally induced idea in- 
fluences our actions, feelings, &c., without our being 
able by any means to remember how the idea was, 
so to speak, implanted in us. Let us suppose that 
a child two or three years old is often in the society 
of A. and B ; A. is kind and gentle, B hard and 
unkind, so that the child gradually learns to like 
A. and dislike B. Let us suppose that the child sees 
neither for a long time ; nevertheless when it does 
it will still like A. and dislike B. The child, who 
is now several years older, will not know its own 
reasons ; it will not remember the former conduct 
of A. and B. ; no questions will bring this back to 
its memory ; yet the effect of the old impressions 
remains, and shows itself in the child's behaviour 
to A. and B. It is certain that the same thing 
happens after childhood. Sharp-sighted observers 
think it likely that a man may owe his preference 
for a particular profession — painting, for example — 
to some childish impression, such as dabbling with 
colours ; in this case also the early impression is for- 
gotten by the adult. 

Besides, this occurrence is by no means confined 
to childhood. We are often influenced by unim- 
portant expressions we have heard, though later 
we cannot trace back the effect to its cause. Our 
conduct with regard to persons, circumstances, and 
things is very often the effect of early unconscious 
impressions. 



254 HYPNOTISM. 

We now know that those hypnotic states in which 
there is subsequent loss of memory are by no means 
unconscious states, but that the impressions received 
are at the most only sub-conscious. Therefore the 
fact that the impressions received in hypnosis in- 
fluence the waking conduct of the subject, though 
he has forgotten them, need no longer be an enigma 
us. Like the waking people in the examples 
given, he will rather fully assimilate the external 
nfluence, will forget it, and act as if spontaneously ; 
or he will yield to an Impulse, as in the cases of a 
dominant idea, without being conscious of its external 



I have hitherto spoken only of post-hypnotic move- 
ments and actions, and have endeavoured to explain 
the most important phenomena by means of analogy. 
I have still a few words to say about post -hypnotic 
sense delusions, which are less easy to explain. It is 
true that those which occur in a fresh hypnosis hardly 
present any substantial difficulty. We have seen that 
the subsequent loss of memory is only apparent, and 
that consequently the idea remains in the conscious- 
ness, though only in the secondary consciousness. 
Consequently it is not surprising that the suggested 
idea should at an appointed time transform itself into 
a sense delusion in a fresh hypnosis, which fresh 
hypnosis comes on through association when the idea 
reappears ; we must then explain the sense delusion 
by means of the dreamc-onsciousness, as I have shown 
above. 

It is quite another thing when the sense delusion 
appears without a new hypnosis For example, I 
say to some one in hypnosis, " When I cough after 
j'ou wake, you will see a pigeon sitting on the table ; , j 



THE THEORY OF HYPNOTISM. 



2SS 



you will remain thoroughly awake." The suggestion 
takes effect ; the subject sees a pigeon where no 
pigeon is ; but it is impossible to make him accept 
a further suggestion. That one point excepted, he 
seems perfectly normal. Whether, in spite of this, the 
total mental state of such people is really normal, 
will be discussed when we come to the legal side 
of the question. Bentivegni speaks very clearly 
on this point. Now, how can we explain this par- 
ticular sense delusion ? We can hardly consider the 
dream -consciousness its cause, as this apparently is 
not present while the suggestion is taking effect. 
But we find like occurrences under different circum- 
stances. I do not mention the hallucinations of 
insane persons, because it is exactly the addition 
of other disorders to their sense delusions which dis- 
tinguishes them from the above case. But we find 
the same kind of sense delusions under other circum- 
stances in persons who for some reason or other 
" are disinclined to correct the creations of their own 
imagination," as Krafft-Ebing puts it. This author 
mentions the hallucinations of several famous men — 
the case of Socrates and his Dsemon, and Luther, 
who threw an inkstand at the devil, &c. Such delu- 
sions are often caused by strong expectant attention, 
of which I have already spoken. This is very clearly 
seen in spiritualistic manifestations, which may be 
ascribed in great part to hallucinations of the spec- 
tators, who think they see spirits or other things 
in consequence of abnormal processes in their own 
brain. Eduard v. Hartmann has carefully discussed 
the theory of hallucination in spiritualism, though 
he e,xplains the origin of the hallucinations in a 
peculiar manner. In any case there are persons who 
have hallucinations of sight, hearing, &c., without 



256 HYPNOTISM. 

being hypnotized ; they result from a particular 
mental state which in some cases may be called a 
state of expectation. It thus appears that the induc- 
tion of sense delusions by means of post-hypnotic 
suggestion brings about a mental state when the idea 
reappears, which htis a great resemblance to this state 
of expectation, and is even perhaps identical with 
it. In this way, perhaps, these cases of sense delusion 
may be classed with facts with which we have long 
been acquainted. 

Several attempts have been made to explain hyp- 
nosis from the point of view of psychology ; but their 
common defect is, that they try to explain too many 
different phenomena by attention, the change in 
which is most striking during hypnosis. I have j 
formerly tried to explain hypnotic phenomena in a 
like manner. As the different theories referring to 
this are often met with, I shall develop them further ' 
in what follows. The ensuing explanations are not 
in contradiction with what has been already said, but 
are, on the contrary, supplemented by it, particularly 
by a careful consideration of the dream-conscious- 
ness. 

Susceptibility to suggestion is the chief phenomenon 
of hypnosis. We have seen how easily a hypnotic 
suggeafion is carried out. The externally suggested 
idea of a movement induces the movement, the idea I 
of an object causes a corresponding sense hallucina- I 
tion. However strange and paradoxical the pheno- 
mena of hypnosis may appear to us at first sight, 
we may be sure that there is no absolute difference j 
between hypnotic and non-hypnotic states. Psycho- 
logy has lately shown that a certain degre 
ceptibility to suggestion is normal, If A. tells '. 



r 
I 
I 



THE THEORY OF HYPNOTISM. 



2S7 



to lift his arm B. is inclined to do it, though he pro- 
bably controls the impulse by his own will. The 
following example may make this clearer. When 
two people look at each other they both often begin 
to laugh, if one assures the other he is going to 
laugh. But the idea of laughter is a necessary con- 
dition for its appearance, and the stronger the idea 
the quicker will laughter ensue. We seek to prevent 
the laughter by arousing in ourselves the contrary 
idea Probably many of my readers have made the 
following observation in their own cases, as I have 
in myself: when I feel inclined to laugh lean pre- 
vent it by causing myself some physical pain, e.g., 
by pricking myself with a needle. The pain drives 
away the idea of laughter, and so prevents it. This 
is an example of the way in which laughter may 
be prevented by arousing an opposing idea. 

Now it appears that this occurs often in ordinary 
life; the idea of a movement results in a movement 
(Johann Müller), if it is not opposed by a contrary 
idea. The idea of a movement called up in a subject 
in or out of hypnosis has a tendency to induce the 
movement. But in waking life this idea is made 
ineffectual by the voluntary idea of the subject that 
he will prevent the suggested movement ; the hypno- 
tized subject cannot do this. Thus in hypnosis 
certain ideas are inhibited, and even the inhibitory 
ideas can be inhibited. We have to thank Heiden- 
hain for having first pointed out the importance of 
inhibitory processes in hypnosis. The case is of 
course the same with suggested paralyses. Here the 
idea of inability to move is suggested. In ordinaiy 
life we can oppose this and make it ineffectual by 
means of voluntarily produced opposing ideas ; but 
in hypnosis the suggested idea cannot be supplanted 
i8 




2S8 



HYPNOTISM. 



by the voluntary one, and in consequence the idea ofl 
inability to move transforms itself into a real inability»! 

Let us see if the process in sense delusions can bej 
looked at in the same light. To my mind it iäfl 
possible. When we hear some one say, "There is al 
dog," we are inclined to believe it, as I have said! 
above. Our sense perceptions, feelings, and memory! 
pictures prevent the suggested idea becoming a per- T 
ception, so that wc decline to believe in the dog. I 
But in hypnosis the sense impressions do not change! 
into feelings, except such external impressions as the ! 
experimenter allows to change into conscious sense 
ideas ; consequently the memory pictures in hypnosis 
do not follow their normal course and are not justly 
estimated. The normal course is interfered with. 
This limitation of the normal course of the ideas 
allows the idea of the dog to become a perception 
because the idea cannot be corrected. It is the same 
with negative hallucinations, which we may consider 
as caused by the inability of the normal course of 
ideas to correct the suggestion. 

We may, then, consider every hypnosis as a state« 
in which the normal course of the ideas is inhibited \ 
It matters not whether the ideas have to do with I 
movements, or with sense impressions. We havel 
seen that their normal course is always inhibited. In.J 
particular, the subject is unable to control the external 
ideas or to put fonvard his own ; the external ones 
dominate his consciousness. Psychologically speakingj 
what we mean by attention is the power of fixing! 
certain ideas in the mind and of working with them.J 
Consequently we may say that there is an alteratioi^ 
of attention in hypnosis. 

But attention may be either spontaneous or refles 
(Ed. V. Hartmann), When by an act of will we choc 



one of several ideas and fix our attention upon it, 
this is spontaneous attention ; but wlien one idea 
among several gets the upper hand through its 
intensity or for some other reason, and thus represses 
other ideas, and draws exclusive attention upon itself, 
this is reflex attention. 

Now it is only spontaneous attention which is 
altered in hypnosis, j>., the subject's ability volun- 
tarily to prefer one idea to another is interfered 
with, while reflex attention is undisturbed, and 
it is through this last that a suggested idea, the 
choice of which has not, however, been left to the 
subject, comes into prominence. Many investigators" 
conceive hypnotism in this way. The works of Durand 
de Gros, Liöbeault, and more lately of Beard, Riebet," 
Schneider, Wundt, and Bentivegni, are in the main 
directed to this point. 

We may hope besides that further investigations in 
numerical' psychology will throw light upon the state 
of the attention in hypnosis. Measurements of the 
time of reaction should be the chief point considered ; 
they have hitherto been undertaken in insufficient 
number. By time of reaction we mean the time that 
elapses between the moment of making a sense 
impression, and the moment when the impression 
manifests itself by some external sign (Wundt). It 
is known that a number of different processes take 
place in the consciousness during the time of reaction. 
I shall the less enter into them, that the researches 
which have hitherto been made into the time of 
reaction during hypnosis have given contradictory 

■ In Mas Dessoir's classification of psychology he calls that 
part which occupies itself with calculating the time of reaction, 



26a 



HYPNOTISM. 



results. Marie and Azoulay have measured the time 
of reaction of suggested sense delusions in hypnosis ; 
they found it longer than when the object was a real 
one. Perhaps this is because the points of recognition 
{points de repere) have to arouse the suggested picture ' 
before it can be received. The time of reaction, 
according to my experience, may last so long — to 
return to the experiment with the photographs on 
p. 103 — that we might even speak of a search for 1 
the picture. The subject looks till he finds the 
points of recognition, which at once recall the picture 
to his memory. This search may be united with a 
dim consciousness on the part of the hypnotic that 
the whole thing is a delusion. It is quite a mistake 
to think this search a sign of fraud. 

Other experimenters have examined the time of 
reaction for real objects. Stanley Hall found that 
for real objects it was considerably shortened in 
hypnosis. He found before hypnosis, 0'328 seconds ; 
during hypnosis, 0'i93 seconds ; half an hour after, 
0'348 seconds. The time of reaction during hypnosis 
is thus sensibly diminished here; but William James's 
experiments have not confirmed Stanley Hall's. He 
nearly always found an increase of the time of reaction 
during hypnosis, sometimes to an important extent. 
He gives this as the average on one occasion : before 
hypnosis, 0'282 seconds ; during hypnosis as much as 
0'546 seconds ; after hypnosis, O'iöö seconds. But as 
there are many contradictions in James's different 
experiments, no conclusion can be drawn. He him- 
self believes that the contradictions are to be ascribed 
to the fact that so many different states are included 

■ I am doubtful if in this case we ought to talk of ti 
reaction, as tliis expression is generally used only with regard , 
D perceptions of real objects. 



I 
I 



THE THEORY OF HYPNOTISM. 2G1 

in hypnosis, and that we should be careful not to 
generaUze from single observations, Beaunis, who 
has also made these experiments, is just as cautious. 
The only conclusion he draws from his partly con- 
tradictory results is, that the time of reaction in 
hypnosis may be shortened by suggestion. 

It should be already clear from all the foregoing 
explanations that the phenomena of hypnosis have 
many more points of contact with ordinary life than 
would be concluded from the discussions and articles 
written to satisfy a mere longing for sensation. Some 
of the phenomena, e.g., motion without will, only 
appear mysterious on the most superficial observa- 
tion, for we have seen that an idea of a movement is 
enough to cause a movement without an act of will. 
The explanations could only be given in outline, not 
to lengthen the chapter too much, but they have to a 
great extent approximated hypnosis to waking life, 
as well as to the nightly state of dream. The 
thoughtful reader will have recognized that phe- 
nomena which were often considered the prerogative 
of hypnosis, e.g., the movements without will, appear 
spontaneously in ordinary life. I will, therefore, here 
express my conviction that all good observers may 
find "hypnotic phenomena" in daily life. They 
result spontaneously from a chance concurrence of 
the necessary conditions. There are further analo- 
gies to hypnosis which can easily be developed out of 
the preceding discussions, and which I hope to present 
in the form of a monograph. They would show that 
many symptoms of hypnosis often appear spontaneously 
in ordinary life, or, what is the same thing, that 
ordinary life often displays phenomena, which we 
find again in hypnosis. Hypnosis, or at least many 
hypnotic states, is merely a means of easily and 



362 



HYPNOTISM. 




safely producing symptoms which, under other 
circumstances, are not easy to produce because all 
the necessary favourable conditions do not concur 
at the same time. 

An explanation of one side of hypnosis, i.e., the 
psychological, has already been given in oart, and can 
in part be deferred for a time. But I do not believe 
that every one will be content with an explanation 
in this sense of the word. The physiologists in 
particular make very different demands. They want 
an answer to the following questions: i. What is the 
state of the central nervous system and the other 
organs during hypnosis? 2. What is the causal 
connection between this state and the phenomena of 
hypnosis? 3, What is the causal connection between 
this state and the methods which induce hypnosis and 
put an end to it? 

Unluckily the physiology of the nervous system 1 
has been built up on such a weak foundation that 
we can expect no explanation from it at present, or 
perhaps, as Leixner thinks, for ever. In spite of 
the great progress which physiology has made, we 
must admit to ourselves that we know much less , 
about the psychical functions of the different ele- 
ments of the brain than would appear from 
physiological text-books. The hypnotic experiments^ 
of which I have spoken will not help us to reach our I 
goal. However carefully such experiments may be f 
made, it would be very daring to draw conclusions 1 
from them about mental action in men, Heidenhainl 
believes that hypnosis may be explained by means of« 
experiments on animals, since animals can be hypno- J 
tized. But we cannot hope much when we rememberl 
that hypnotism is essentially a psychical process.J 



THE THEORY OF HYPNOTISM. 263 

The investigation of mental processes may, as we 
have seen, be undertaken in two ways — (i) by 
observing indviduals, and (2) by calling the subject's 
memory to our aid. This last could not be done in 
the case of animals. But any observation of animals 
must be very elementary ; we can very seldom under- 
stand the processes of their consciousness. For these 
reasons I at present believe that experiments with 
animals will give us very little help. We may, further, 
be perfectly sure that the successful electrical stimu- 
lation of any portion of the brain does not prove that 
an act of will originates in that spot Heidenhain and 
Bubhoff have made a number of experiments in elec- 
trical stimulation of the cortex of the brain on dogs 
poisoned by morphia. But when these authors draw 
conclusions about the action of will in men from such 
experiments, I must pronounce them mistaken till it 
can be proved that the impulse of the will is an 
electrical stimulation. For the above reasons I 
consider Heidenhain's comparison of these experi- 
ments on dogs with hypnotic experiments on human 
beings too hazardous ; no conclusion can be drawn 
from them. 

The attempt to give a physiological explanation of 
hypnotism on the foundation of our present knowledge 
of physiology has often been made. 

Heidenhain must here be mentioned first, though I 
believe that Heidenhain's theory is built up on a 
mistaken premiss. Heidenhain supposes that the- 
cause of the hypnotic state is an inhibition of the 
action of the ganglion cells of the cerebral cortex, 
induced by continuous weak stimulation of certain 
nerves. Heidenhain thinks this inhibition is analogous 
to reflex paralyses, as in these also the functions . 



peripheral ^^M 



264 HYPNOTISM. 

of the ganglion cells are impaired by 
stimuli. 

But even if we take the inhibition of the action of 
the ganglion cells for granted, Heidenhain's theory- 
does not explain the connection between this and the 
means used to induce hypnosis. For (i), according 
to the views of most authors, mere fixed attention, 
apart from an idea or representation, will not induce 
hypnosis ; {2) in any case there would be no causal 
connection here between the purely psychical methods 
and hypnosis. 

Besides this, Heidenhain starts from a mistaken 
premiss when he supposes an inhibition of the action 
of the cerebral ganglion cells. He concludes this 
inhibition from the lowered state of consciousness 
during hypnosis. But consciousness expresses itself 
in many ways during hypnosis. The processes of 
consciousness seem merely to be concentrated on one 
point, which is removable at the experimenter's plea- 
sure. Heidenhain maintains, like Despine, that the 
subject is not conscious of the external stimuli. This 
erroneous view has lately been taken by several 
physiologists ; e.g., by Landois. Heidenhain was led 
to take it- by his almost exclusive observation of 
the movements of imitation. He supposed that the 
subject received a sense impression of a movement 
and copied it, though it did not result in a conscious 
idea (as in fascination). From what does Heidenhain 
conclude that the sense impression was unconscious? 
From the subsequent loss of memory ? But he says 
himself that the subjects often remember what has 
happened when .some hint is given them. Even when 
this is not the case, loss of memory does not prove J 
that we have to do with an unconscious movement.1 
(Forcl). Besides, the subjects generally remember iE( 



THE THEORY OF HYPNOTISM. 



265 



the hypnosis the imitative movements they have 
made ; they remember theitt also in later hypnoses, 
and finally, a suggestion made during the hypnosis 
will cause subsequent memory. 

In 1880, when Heidenhain declared his views about 
the imitative movements, O. Rosenbach explained 
that the processes were certainly mental, and not, as 
Heidenhain thought, unconscious physical reflexes. 
Unfortunately Roscnbachdid not at that time explain 
his own views in detail. Bcrgcr and others agreed 
much later that these processes were mental. I also 
was enabled to study the imitative movements. They 
only take place when the hypnotic subject is con- 
scious of them, and knows that he is intended to 
make them. If they were unconscious reflexes, the 
subjects would imitate any person's movements. 
But they only imitate the one person who exists for 
them, i.e., the experimenter, and only him when they 
know they are intended to do so. A clear idea of 
the movements to be made is the first condition, I 
do not contest that when such experiments are often 
made,the imitation may not become mechanical in later 
hypnoses, as happens in waking life. However, at first 
a clear idea is necessary ; but we regard the cerebral 
cortex as the seat of ideas, and there is no reason 
for placing them in another part of the brain in hyp- 
nosis ; so that there can be no doubt of the inaction 
of the cerebral cortex. Fore], who is one of the 
greatest authorities on the brain, also holds this view. 
But perhaps there are mental processes in the sub- 
cortical brain-ccntrcs during waking life, about whose 
extent we know nothing. In any case there is no 
need to suppose that mental processes in hypnosis 
take place in another part of the brain than in waking 
life. 



266 HYPNOTISM. 

For these reasons I recur to the comparison between j 
hypnosis and the state *of Flourcns' ' pigeon when 
its brain was removed. It sat quite still unless it was 
touched, when it flew, ran, &c. But some external 
impulse, some mechanical stimulus probably unaccom- 
panied by an idea, was necessary. For this reason all 
pigeons behave alike under the circumstances. It is 
otherwise with the hypnotic subject. He sees the 
movement he is to imitate; but the stimulus is only 
effectual when he knows he is to make the movement ; 
if he has seen that another subject did not imitate 
the movement he also does not do it, because he 
does not understand the stimulus as a command. It 
is true that a subject often continues to walk forward 
automatically when he has once been set going. But 
this does not prove the inactivity of the cerebral 
cortex, for he goes on when he believes he is in- , 
tended to go on ; if he continues to take steps auto- I 
matically, he does it as we do it in waking life ; once 
moving, we go on, paying no attention to our separate ' 
steps. This phenomenon, consequently, is no reason 
for supposing that the cerebrum is less active in hyp- 
nosis than out of it I will take this opportunity to ' 
remark that a partially paralyzed person whom I hyp- 
notized, whose Capsula interna had, in my opinion, 
been injured by a fit of apoplexy, made no imita- 
tive movements in hypnosis with the paralyzed 
side, any more than out of hypnosis. But in 
this case exactly that part was excluded in which 
we place the conscious ideas of movement, i.e., the 
cerebral cortex ; the centres which cause the uncon- 
scious reflexes were not excluded. As, however, 

' Flourens experimented on pigeons, whose cerebruin 
lemoved. Untouched they remained quiet, but 
they made alt sorts of movements, as if tg walk, fiy, &c. 



n he had ^^k 
■\ excited ^^| 

iil 



THE THEORY OF HYPNOTISM. 267 

there were no imitative movements, this shows that 
without that part of the brain in which ideas are pro- 
duced, no imitative movement takes place. None the 
less, I should as yet hesitate to say that Hcidcnhain's 
theory of the inhibition of the cortex was false, 
wished only to prove that his reasons do not justify iL 
I thought these explanations all the more necessary 
as Heidenhain's supposition that the hypnotic subject 
is influenced by unconscious sense impression is often 
accepted. Even such a prominent authority on 
mental diseases as Mendel has been led astray by this. 
It is the cause of the mistaken views taken of sugges- 
tion, the chief phenomenon of hypnosis. There is no 
suggestion without consciousness. It makes no differ- 
ence whether the suggestion is made through imitation 
(imitative automatism) or by a command (the com- 
manded automatism of Heidenhain) (Max Dcssoir). 
Mendel (whose symptomatology of hypnosis by no 
means corresponds to the facts, according to my 
experience) maintains that hypnosis is a state " in 
which consciousness is non-existent for all that takes 
place in iL" I am compelled to reject this view as 
completely mistaken. My explanations when dis- 
cussing the consciousness and the memory will have 
made this clear. I must insist, in opposition to 
Mendel, that there is consciousness of what is sug- 
gested, and that this is the main point in the matter. 
A suggestion without consciousness is to me incon- 
ceivable. I likewise think Bernheim altogether mis- 
taken when he compares certain functions, such as 
breathing and the action of the heart, which we 
assume to occur without mental action, to the phe- 
nomena of suggestion. 

My reasons for not completely rejecting this opinion 
of Heidenhain and Mendel on the inhibition of the 



aßS HYPNOTISM. 

cerebral cortex are as follows. Although single ideas, J 
single processes of consciousness, are not absent in I 
hypnosis, yet the influence of the will upon their 1 
course is limited. According to the present views of i 
physiology the cause of this absence of the power of j 
the will must be sought in a functional disorder of the f 
cerebral cortex, 

Cuilerre, supported by Ferrier's experiments, thinks I 
there is a functional disturbance in the front half of ) 
the cerebral cortex during hypnosis. He thinks that ' 
though this is not the seat of the motor centres, the I 
centres here have a regulating influence on the motor 
centres, but that this influence is removed in hyp- ( 
nosis. 

Others do not try to localize the hypnotic subject's 
loss of will. Dr, J. Hughes Bennett, who, as Preyer 
tells us, put forward a very interesting physiological 
tlieory as early as 1851, is one of these. He recog- 
nized more clearly than many present investigators 
that it is not the genesis of separate ideas which is ' 
prevented in hypnosis, but the voluntary synthesis of 
them. And as the ideas originated in the ganglion 
cells, Bennett supposed a functional disturbance during 
hypnosis in the nerve fibres which connect them. We 
li now that these nerve fibres are called the fibres off 
association. 

Jendrdssik takes somewhat the same view at the 1 
present day. At least he tries to account for hyp- 
nosis by a disturbance of the nerve fibres of associa- j 
tion. 

Other investigators went further ; they did not ask I 
merely what parts of the brain are inactive ; they I 
tried to find the cause of the inactivity. Naturally, \ 
one of the most probable causes was a change of the I 
circulation of blood in the brain. Braid thought of 1 



r 

I 

I 



THE THEORY OF HYPNOTISM. 269 

this, and sought the cause in the altered circulation 
in the brain and spinal cord. Carpenter supposed 
cerebral anaemia, as Hack Tuke has more recently 
imagined a partial spasm of the vessels. Rumpf 
expresses a like opinion. 

Heidenhain also at first supposed that anaemia of 
the brain was the cause of hypnosis. He soon gave 
up this opinion, for two reasons, i. The investiga- 
tions of Förster with the ophthalmoscope discovered 
no sort of change in the vessels at the back of the eye 
during hypnosis, I can confirm this by my own 
experiments. 2, Heidenhain saw hypnosis appear in 
spite 01 inhalation of nitrite of arayl, which causes 
hyperzemia of the brain. Salvioli and Bouchut have, 
on the contrary, found cerebral hyperemia during 
hypnosis. Tamburini, Seppilli, and Kaan also investi- 
gated the circulation of the blood during hypnosis, but 
only in connection with the three stages of Charcot. 
They used several methods. 1. Mosso's method, 
which determines the volume of an extremity, and 
concludes from a decrease in the mass of blood con- 
tained in it, an increase in the mass contained in the 
brain. 2. The action of cold and hot compresses on 
the head (Kaan), which cause ansemia or hypertemia. 
From the resulting changes, i.e., from the cessation or 
modification of the hypnosis, a conclusion is drawn as 
to the causal connection between this and the mass 
of blood contained in the brain. 3, Ophthalmoscopic 
investigations of the vessels of the retina. I do not 
enter into the details of the different experiments, (i) 
because they are valid for the stages of Charcot alo 
(2) because the influence of hypnotic training was 
not enough regarded, i.e., in the application of warm 
and cold compresses ; {3) because cause and effect 
are not distinguished clearly enough. 







r 



V}0 



HYPNOTISM. 



The last point is often overlooked. Even when 
there is really a change of circulation in the brain It 
is a mistake in logic to think the changed circulation 
causes the changed functions. As a muscle needs 
more blood when it is at work, but does not work more 
because more blood flows to it ; as the stomach when 
digesting needs more blood than when it is inactive, 
it is also not improbable that the brain, or portions of 
it, when they are active, need much blood, and when 
they are inactive but little. Then if we take the 
vasomotor disturbances as proved, it is by no means 
proved whether they are the cause or the effect of 
hypnosis. 

In fact, Cappie takes the opposite view. He thinks 
that the increased activity of the motor centres in 
hypnosis draws too much blood to them, thereby caus- 
ing anzemia of the other portions of the brain which 
are necessary to consciousness. Of course this is no 
explanation, apart from the facts that the author 
arbitrarily opposes the motor centres to the parts of 
the brain necessary for consciousness, and that there 
is consciousness in hypnosis. The principle from 
which Cappie starts is the one put forward by Brown- 
Sequard. He thinks that hypnotism is a sum of 
dynamo-genetic and inhibitory acts ; i.e., that the 
increased action of certain parts of the brain (dynamo- 
genetic act) causes decreased action of others (in- 
hibitory act). 

Finally, I mention the theory of Preyer, which is 
indeed cleverly thought out, but is, as Bottey insists, 
in no way confirmed ; and Bernheim objects that it 
cannot explain the hypnotic states. Preyer puts the 
matter thus : An activity of one hemisphere of the 
brain results in hypnosis ; fixed attention causes a 
rapid accumulation of waste tissues in the parts ofj 



THE THEORY OF HYPNOTISM. 271 

the brain which are active, and by this a quick local 
consumption of the oxygen of the blood is caused. 
In consequence of this, favoured by the failure of the 
ordinary change of stimulus of the nerves of sense, 
there is a partial loss of the activity of the cerebral 
cortex, Tho partial loss of activity of one region 
would then explain the increase of activity of the 
other, because the inhibition would disappear. Bern- 
heim justly objects to this that it does not explain 
a rapidly induced hypnosis, for it is hardly con- 
ceivable that waste matter should accumulate so 
rapidly. But, in particular, the sudden termination 
of hypnosis is not consistent with this. As we have 
seen, the one word " wake " is enough to end the 
hypnosis at once. We should be obliged to suppose 
that the simple idea of waking was able to dissipate 
the waste matter or make it of no effect. 

I do not think that these physiological theories are 
satisfactory or even acceptable. As long as the 
physiologists fail to consider what an enormous influ- 
ence an idea, roused for example by the word "wake," 
exercises, their theories will be unable to explain the 
phenomena. It is by no means necessary to show 
how the word acts, or why it is enough to put an end 
to the state. I even think we ought to set our faces 
decidedly against the way in which certain physiolo- 
gists play with words, as if the enigma of conscious- 
ness were child's play for them. What must a layman 
think of medicine when certain persons arrange their 
theories to please themselves and express them with 
as much confidence as if they had given strict logical 
proof of them ? Lotze is said to have ironically 
stated that, according to his own statistical reckoning, 
the great discoveries of physiology had .an average 



1 



272 HYPNOTISM. 

existence of four years (Max Dessoir). This may 
not be exact. I think better of physiology. But 
when Mendel, speaking of hypnotism and the pheno- 
mena of suggestion, explains that we have to do with 
a strong stimulation of the cerebral cortex, and 
Ziemssen declares the exact contrary, i.e.y that the 
cerebral cortex is too little stimulated and the sub- 
cortical centres too much, we are startled at such 
contradictions, and are compelled to hope that in 
future less will be asserted and more will be proved. 
Such contradictions as those between Mendel and 
Ziemssen would be inconceivable if it were not for 
the presence in their works of just such speculations 
as those with which medicine is in the habit of 
reproaching philosophy. 



CHAPTER VI. 



SIMULA TION. 



I NOW come to the question of fraud, or simulation. 
As is well known, hypnosis has only lately been gene- 
rally recognized. The scepticism which once reigned, 
and which is an advantage so long as it does not pass 
into äpriori prejudice, has been overpowered by facts. 
But it took some time to attain this result. At present, 
when it is generally acknowledged that " there is 
something in it," it is not necessary, when discussing 
simulation, to consider whether there is such a thing 
as hypnotism at all. We have only to consider the 
question of " simulation or hypnosis " for each separate 
case. 

were for a long time re- 
It was occasionally less 



harshly supposed that any man 
tism must be suffering from 
balance ; which was said of so: 
tors. Such personal attacks i 



who busied himself with hypnO' 
ome loss of mental health oi 
le of our best-known investiga- 
to be made 



like 



Forel, Krafft-Ebing, Hirt, Mendel, &i:. Less celebrated per- 
sons may console themselves that they are in good company. 
Accusations of deceit, credulity, or madness, are luckily not 
likely to be made in the future. 

In the first place, fraud is much rarer than is gene- 
rally believed. It has been too much the habit to 
look for one physical symptom or another, and settle 




I 



274 HVPNOTISAf. 

the question of fraud from its presence or absence. 1 
And yet this is exactly the opposite of what f 
generally done in judging of mental states ; f^J 
when we want to diagnose a case and decide whethen 
it is insanity or not, no authority on mental disorders 
would suppose fraud simply because some bodilyfl 
symptom was absent He will consider and weiglw 
the case as a whole. Even when each symptoms 
taken separately might be fraudulent they would t 
weighed against one another and a diagnosis formet 
from them. If the doctor finds also some symptOEB 
which cannot be simulated, he will weigh this to(\B 
but he will not conclude fraud from its absence. Itfl 
is true that in this way the conviction may be onlya 
subjective, or rather it will be clear only to those who« 
have studied mental disease. The outsider may often 1 
be able to raise the objection that this or that symptom ( 
may be feigned. But no doctor of mental diseases | 
would allow himself to be influenced by this. 

If we apply this to hypnosis, which is also a mental ' 
state, it follows that only he whs has studied hypm 
practically is in a position to diagnose it. The \i 
has gradually grown up that every one is able to 
judge of hypnotism, and may express his opinion and 
demand consideration for it, however ignorant he may I 
be about hypnotic experiment. Kron and Sperling I 
have very rightly contested this supposition. It is not J 
correct to diagnose fraud in hypnotism from a certain J 
bodily symptom. Even when each separate symptom I 
may be feigned, tlie experienced experimenter will \ 
diagnose by summing up the different symptoms and.l 
comparing their relation to each other. It is satisfac-'| 
tory if he finds an unfcignabJe symptom besides ; this J 
is an objective proof, convincing even to those who'J 
have no practical knowledge of hypnosis. But it ü 




w 

^P to be saic 
H^ seldom i 



SIMULATIOff. 



I 



to be said that objective physical symptoms are more 
seldom found in hypnosis than in mental diseases. 
The first is a transitory mental state, in which objec- 
tive physical change is !ess likely to happen than in 
mental disorders, which last for months and years. 

However, we must of course try to find bodily 
symptoms in hypnosis. Many authors have done so, 
among them Charcot in particular, who threw the 
weight of his name into the scale for hypnotism. The 
school of Nancy also sought for objective symptoms 
and found them, though different from Charcot's ; 1 
mean the blisters, &c., produced by suggestion. As 
a mistaken notion is beginning to take root, that the 
question of fraud forms the point of difierence between 
the two schools, because that of Nancy had found no 
objective symptoms, I will here point out the real 
difference between them. 

To exclude fraud we look for symptoms which 
cannot be voluntarily simulated ; it is indifferent 
whether these are produced by suggestion or not 
Now, there are phenomena which are produced by 
suggestion and which are independent of the subject's 
will. And in these the chief difference between the 
two schools lies. 

The Nancy school believes that all the symptoms 
arc caused by suggestion, even those independent of 
the will, while the school of Charcot finds bodily 
symptoms which are independent of the will and of 
suggestion. Consequently, suggestion is the main 
point on which they difl"er. 

I shall show that the questions of suggestion and 
fraud are very different. The case of Siemerling 
teaches us this. His subject was hemianjesthetic, 
both with regard to sight and feeling, i.e., the power 




276 



HYPNOTISM. 



^L Chare 
^H arm 
^K, some 



of sight was limited on the side on which the skin was 
without feeling. The field of vision was concentrically 
narrowed, so that anything beyond a certain distance 
from the point on which the eyes were fixed could not 
be seen. Now in hypnosis the sense of feeling on 
the hemiancESthetic side was restored by suggestion, 
and directly feeling was restored the eye on the 
corresponding side became normal, without direct 
suggestion. Westphal and Siemerling thought this 
an objective proof of hypnosis, and I also believe that 
such a proof might satisfy even somewhat strained 
demands, since the power of sight is independent oi 
the will And yet this effect was produced only by 
suggestion, though by indirect suggestion. Krafft- 
Ebing had a case like this ; mental paralyses with 
objective symptoms were produced by suggestion, 
and the symptoms were tliosc mentioned by the 
school of Charcot as happening in mental paralyses. 

Objective symptoms can be produced by sug- 
gestion. It is doubtful whether they happen without 
suggestion. We see that the suggestion need not be 
direct ; the symptom may be produced by an indirect 
and partly unknown menta! influence. Siemerling 
said to his patient, " Now you can feel again " ; when 
the patient recovered sight as well as feeling, this was 
the effect of an indirect suggestion, induced by a 
certain mental interdependence between the anasthesia 
of the eye and that of the skin. Both organs were 
functionally disordered, and this common disorder 
disappeared, when the function of one organ was 
restored by suggestion K rafft- Ebing's case is like 
those mental paralyses studied by the school of 
Charcot. In these, when the subject is told, " Your 
arm is paralyzed," vasomotor disturbances follow c 
some mental process, with which we are at present ! 



^B unacqua 
^T direct ct 



SIMULATION. 



unacquainted. As tiie vasomotor disturbance is the 
direct consequence of the paralysis we are obliged to 
think that some mental communication causes both 
phenomena. 

To return to the objective symptoms of Charcot. 
We see that there are certain bodily phenomena in 
the three stages. Thus the point of difference 
between the two schools is this r Are these bodily 
symptoms a result of suggestion or not ? I believe 
(as I said, pp. 82-83} that suggestion plays an im- 
portant part in most of the symptoms, but I by no 
means maintain that they have no objective value, 
though I am not quite sure. For phenomena might 
be produced by practice, even without hypnosis, 
which at first sight would seem impossible to simulate 
(p. 189). This is the point of difference between the 
two schools. I have discussed it here in order to 
show that objective symptoms may be caused by 
suggestion, and that, consequently, the objective 
symptoms in themselves do not separate the two 
schools, although the symptoms mentioned by each 
are rather different. 

Let us now ask what symptoms should help us to 
decide the question of fraud. In the first place we 
must notice how the eyes close, and how the subject 
tries to open them. This closing of the eyes is diffi- 
cult to describe. The gradual falling of the lids is 
important, and the action of the»mu5cles of the fore- 
head when opening the eyes, in a way like that after 
sleep, as well as the convulsive rolling upwards of the 
eyeballs, which is often seen. The fibrillary twitching 
of the eyelids is, on the contrary, of no importance, as 
it often happens without hypnosis. 

In cases where the eyes are open their expression 



278 



HYPNOTISM. 



is most important The look is often blank and ] 
meaningless, the mask-like expression and the atti- 
tude of the subject are often characteristic also. He 
moves his limbs slowly and heavily when com- 
manded. But I should mention that in certain cases, 
particularly of light Iiypncsis, these symptoms are 
wanting, and the movements in especial are quick 
and lively. The expression during sense delusions is 
also very important. Every one knows how difficult 
it is to place oneself in an imaginary situation so that 
the expression, the attitude, and the actions should 
correspond to the idea. This is the great art of 
actors, and everybody knows how seldom an actor 
is able to represent a scene by the mere exertion of 
his own will ; but it is still more difficult to change 
the mood in a moment, and pass from one situation 
to another in a few seconds. It is extremely difficult 
for a person awake, but the hypnotic subject does it 
easily. It is astonishing that outsiders should regard 
this very ability as a sign of fraud, as a competent 
judge once did at Vienna {cf. p. 165). It is surely one 
of the most difficult things to do, and it would be 
wonderful that all the suspected persons should 
devote themselves to the thankless part of fraud, 
when with such talents for acting a very different 
career would be open to them. The expression of 
pain, the smiles, the chattering of teeth and shivering 
at different suggestions of pain, pleasure, cold, &c., 
would be no easy task to the supposed impostor. 

The waking in many cases is just as characteristic ; . 
the astonished face with which the subject looks 
round, as if to fuid out where he is. His behaviour 
in post-hypnotic suggestion is likewise important. 

The impostor generally exaggerates, like a person 
pretending madness. In spite of the variability o£j 



^m the syir 
^F formity 



SIMULATION. 



I 



the symptoms of hypnotism there is a certain con- 
formity to rule in its development. The impostor 
usually accepts all suggestions very quickly, while the 
experienced experimenter knows that susceptibility to 
suggestion increases with a certain uniformity. It is 
very easy to simulate analgesia to slight feelings of 
pain, as this analgesia is mistakenly thought to be 
a common symptom. An unexpected pain causes 
the usual reflexes in the face and eyes, and yet the 
impostor will declare that he felt no pain. It is the 
same with sense delusions, where the suggestion 
generally requires to be emphasized before it takes 
effect. The impostor usually exaggerates here also. 

Let us consider certain objective symptoms which 
have been said to be particularly characteristic. 
Charcot and his pupils lay great stress on the 
curves of the muscular contraction and respiration 
in the cataleptic stage, Charcot says there Is no 
essential difference in the duration ; a cataleptic 
person cannot hold up his arm longer than an im- 
postor. But when the curve- tracings from the raised 
arm and the respiration are noted, there is an impor- 
tant difference ; the impostor soon shows that he 
is tired by irregularity in the arm and respira- 
tion curves ; the hypnotic subject, on the contrary 
breathes calmly and evenly from beginning to end 
and there is no perceptible trembling in his arm. 

Other people say that a cataleptic posture is some- 
times maintained a very long time, and therefore 
offers an objective proof, 

Charcot mentions increased neuro-muscular irri- 
tability as a particular characteristic of lethargy. It 
is not to be denied that this is impressive when seen 
for the first time. It cannot for a moment be sup- 
posed that a person can thus bring single muscles, 



1 



3do 



HVPNOTISAf. 



and also groups of muscles supplied by single nerves, 
into contraction. But these contractions would 
be important if they appeared instantaneously from 
the first. 

Charcot does not think that the contractures 
induced by stimulation of the skin in the somnam- 
bulic state are of much value, and in fact they might 
easily be simulated. Apart from these symptoms of 
Charcot's stages we must, in judging of fraud, con- 
sider some abnormal muscular actions — e.g., the 
cessation of the uncertain, staggering gait in cases of 
locomotor ataxy, which Berger described and I also 
have observed — and other like phenomena. 

Binet, Fere, and Parinaud have made particular 
investigations on the sense delusions of sight. They 
say that a prism doubles the hallucinatory object as it 
would a real one ; and in hallucinations of colour, 
the complementary colour is said to be seen after- 
wards. But Charpentier and Bernheim have refuted 
these experiments, particularly those with the prism, 
which from the first seemed very improbable. They 
showed that the apparent doubling of the halluci- 
nation was due to some point de repire, which the 
subject found for himself. He first saw some real 
object doubled by the prism, and concluded from this 
that the suggested hallucination should be doubled 
also. In any case, the great point is that the prism 
only produces the doubling when a real object can be 
seen through it. I f there is no such point de repere ; 
i.e., if the experimenter is in a dark room, or if he 
shows the subject a perfectly blank, white screen, the 
doubling does not happen. 

According to Charpentier and Bernheim the 
experiments with complementary colours were not 
more exact ; and the same is the case with other. 



lerves, ^^H 
only ^^1 



I 



^m experime 
^T which th 



SIMULA TION. 



a8i 



experiments of Binet and ¥^r€ on colours, from 
which they drew the conclusion that in suggested 
perceptions of mixed colours the effect was the same 
as with real optical images. 

The phenomenon presented by the pupil of the eye, 
which they mention, seems to me more valuable. In 
suggesting a hallucination, e.g., that of a bird, the 
suggested approach of the object causes a contraction 
of the pupil, and vice versa. At the same time there 
is often convergence of the axes of the eyes, as at 
the approach of a real object. But it must be re- 
membered that some people are able to produce this 
phenomenon in themselves by an effort of will 
(Hack Tuke, Budge). 

Bernheim lays great weight on the analgesia of 
hypnotic subjects. I agree with him. If a com- 
pletely analgesic subject is touched with a faradic 
brush he shows no trace of pain. There are no 
impostors who could repress the expression of pain 
under these circumstances, particularly if the contact 
were unexpected. But we must consider that such 
a high degree of analgesia is very rare in hypnosis. 
Naturally, this true analgesia must be distinguished 
from the simulated analgesia, which I mentioned on 
p. 279. The anaesthesia of the mucous membrane, 
e.^,, of the membrane of the nose, with regard to 
ammonia, is to be tested. There is no need to 
say that certain rare phenomena, e.g., secretion of 
tears and sweat, flushings, changes in the heart's 
action and organic changes produced by suggestion, 
are of the highest value. Finally, I shall direct 
attention to a phenomenon whose absence may be 
of some importance ; I mean the absence of move- 
ments which I should prefer to call movements caused 
by tedium (Langweiligkeit). As is known, a waking 



1 



j83 hypnotism, 

man is unable to retain any posture for a long time, I 
even when all his muscles are relaxed. In the I 
latter case the movements cannot be caused by I 
fatigue of particular muscles ; it is rather that when I 
one position is long maintained, a lively feeling J 
of discomfort ensues, that is subjectively felt as | 
tedium. This, it seems to mc, induces certain move- I 
ments difficult to describe, the movements from I 
tedium. Their absence is strong evidence of the I 
presence of hypnosis, and I'think this an important I 
and almost unmistakable symptom. They are best I 
observed when the subject has been left for some time 1 
to himself. 

From two points of view, however, all these I 
symptoms have only a relative value. In the first I 
place their presence is important, and is in favour of I 
hypnosis, but their absence is unimportant We are\ 
never justified in concluding fraud from the absence of\ 
any particular symptom. In the second place we must \ 
consider whether any symptom might not be pro- 
duced by practice without hypnosis, and whether the I 
subject could use this practice, or whether there may I 
not be a special capacity for the voluntary productiona 
of this symptom. 

On the first point I should say that in some cata*| 
leptic postures there are perceptible tremors, that» 
analgesia is rare, and that neuro -muscular hj^perJ 
excitability is but rarely found. 

The second point is often overlooked ; for it isl 
not yet decided whether by practice some persons^ 
might not produce even all the above-mentioned! 
symptoms without hypnosis. Perhaps there is noB 
hypnotic symptom which has not been observed i 
some person or another without hypnosis. Fca 




SIMULA TION. 



2S3 



example, neuro-muscular hyper-excitability is found 
in hysterical patients, so that it is not enough to prove 
hypnosis. And the most strained cataleptic attitudes 
can be produced by gymnasts, by means of practice. 
Some persons have been known to influence the 
action of their hearts without a change of breathing; 
though, according to Beaunis. a distinction can be 
found here : the hypnotic obeys suggestion at once, 
while out of hypnosis a short time must always elapse 
before the will can exercise its influence. 

The local -flushings of Mantegazza are a more 
extreme case. Mantegazza says that at one time in 
his life he was able to induce local reddening of the 
skin simply by thinking intently of the spot; he even 
adds that wheals sometimes appeared. It has often 
been asserted that people can perspire at any place 
they please. Delbceuf says that he can influence the 
secretion of saliva by his will or ideas. It is well 
known that this last is much under the influence of 
the ideas. 

I have purposely made these remarks, because 
mistakes about the objective symptoms are made on 
all sides, For this reason I think that the first 
question to be decided is the one mentioned above ; 
whether the subject could not produce the symptoms 
by practice, without hypnosis. I know well that I 
thus lessen the value of my earlier explanations ; but 
I think it is more honest to say that we do not know 
enough about the objective symptoms of hypnosis. 

I have as yet onlj- spoken of such symptoms as 
take the form of bodily functions ; but according to 
Pierre Janet these symptoms, contractures for example, 
are of much less importance to the question of frauil 
than the mental ones; the memory in particular. 



284 



HVPNOTISAf. 



Gurney also thought the memory of great impor- 
tance here. The postulate from which these authors 
start is that there is loss of memory after waking 
from hypnosis, and that consequently the subject 
remembers nothing that has happened during the 
state. Now this loss of memory is to be used to 
decide the question of fraud. An example will make I 
this clear. 

I tell X., whom I have hypnotized, that when he i! 
going to bed he is to dip a handkerchief in warm 
water and tie it twice round his throat. When he 
wakes he seems to remember nothing about it ; upon 
which I repeat the command, but omit the doubling 
of the handkerchief. When I ask him what he is to 
do, he answers, " I am to dip a handkerchief in warm 
water and wrap it twice round my throat." It will 
be seen that I gave the order differently before and 
after hypnosis ; yet X. repeats the command as it was 
given in hypnosis. 

According to the views of Pierre Janet and Gurney, 
this would very likely be a case of fraud ; for X., i 
who had apparently completely forgotten everything i 
after waking, yet mentions the one point omitted in ' 
the second command. But must we really consider 
this a case of fraud ? I believe not, and I appeal to a 
long series of experiments with perfectly trustworthy 
subjects, in whom I often observed objective bodily 
symptoms alsa The subject may very well make I 
such a statement as the above about the twice- I 
folded handkerchief quite automatically, neither re- J 
membering nor remarking it ; but he may also make J 
it consciously, as a previously forgotten idea may be I 
suddenly called into consciousness by the law of 1 
association mentioned on p. 125. 



I 



I 



SIMULA TION. aSs 

On account of their practical importance I shall 
speak of other symptoms which, according to ex- 
perience, are often wrongly considered by outsiders as 
proofs of fraud. I begin by insisting that there are 
very few hypnoses which really correspond to the 
outsider's ideal picture of a hypnosis. At least the 
inexperienced often think that the apparent impostor 
is forgetting his part when some symptom appears 
which, according to them, ought not to appear. 

First, the laughter of hypnotic subjects. Of course 
many subjects iaugh, Just as a waking man does. In 
the light stages the subject is quite aware that he is 
playing a somewhat absurd part, e.g., he makes all the 
movements of eating an apple, and feels compelled to 
make them, but knows quite well that he looks rather 
ridiculous ; therefore it is not odd that he should 
laugh. But there is often a trace of consciousness 
even in deep hypnoses ; the subject separates himself, 
so to speak, into two parts, one of which acts the 
suggested part and the other observes it and laughs. 

I have already spoken of the trembling of cata- 
leptics. I add that the subject sometimes makes 
movements unforeseen by the experimenter, and 
which sometimes interrupt the suggestion. I stretch 
out a subject's arm and suggest that he cannot move 
it. It remains as I placed it. But now a fly settles 
on the subject's forehead and he moves his arm at 
once to rub the place. This is a common occurrence. 
Rubbing when one is tickled has become a habitual, 
rapid, unconscious act. So that if the first suggestion 
has lost its vividness, the new impulse causes a change 
of posture, I have seen people put their hands to 
their faces when they sneezed, as we habitually do, 
though the hands had previously been made motion- 
less by suggestion. Besides, many movements which 



r 

I 



2S6 



HYPNOTISM. 



have been prevented by suggestion become possible 
when the subject does not think of the suggestion ; if 
he is forbidden to say " a," he can use it unconsciously ; 
he only cannot say it when he thinks about it (Laver- 
dant, Hack Tuke, Max Dessoir). 

There are many phenomena of this kind. I say to 
the subject, A., " You area rope-dancer, and are on 
the rope." He believes it, and I pretend to cut the 
rope, on which he falls down ; but he falls so as not 
to hurt himself. This is caused by a normal, me- 
chanical, nearly unconscious process which is always 
going on in us. Wc always use our hands to shield 
ourselves when we fall. This habitual mechanism 
works on in hypnosis regardless of the suggestion. 
Hysterical paralytics for this reason seldom hurt 
themselves when they fall. Hack Tuke told a subject 
that he was dead ; he fell without hurting himself, 

I will further point out that the eyes sometimes 
open very quickly. I have seldom seen this, but can 
safely assert that it happens in genuine hypnoses. 
An impostor will also often open his eyes when he 
thinks he is not observed ; the hypnotic subject does 
it whether he thinks he is observed or not I must 
also direct attention to those sense delusions in which 
a dim dream-consciousness persists, which prevents 
the full effect of the delusion. In such cases fraud is 
often suspected ; e^., the case mentioned on p. 183, 
where the subject fought with an enemy, taking pains 
not to hit him. 

Further, a complicated suggestion may be mis- 
understood or half- forgotten, in which case it will be 
carried out imperfectly. A post-hypnotic suggestion , 
can naturally only be fulfilled when it is remembered. . 
As memory is the first condition for the success of a 
stion, a person with a good memory (ceteri^^ 



SIMULATION. 



287 



paribus) will execute a suggestion better than another. 
If the post-hypnotic suggestion is badly remembered 
it will be badly carried out, as the memory only acts 
in a natural way. I mention this though it seems a 
matter of course, because I have heard the existence 
of hypnosis doubted, purely in consequence of such 
mistakes. To a man whom I have hypnotized in the 
presence of A., B., C, and D., I make the post- 
hypnotic suggestion that when A. speaks he is to say 
" Ha ! " when B. speaks," He ! " when C, speaks, " Hi ! " 
and when D. speaks, " Ho ! " It is not surprising that 
he is confused in carrying out the suggestion, and 
makes the wrong exclamation to each person. For 
all depends upon the strength of the memory, and its 
power to retain and reproduce the suggestion. 

Finally, a subject will sometimes confess to impo- 
sition, or to having acted to please others. Such a 
confession must be judged with caution. Many who 
have made hypnotic experiments have observed that 
subjects will often say after the hypnosis that they 
have been pretending, though their actions were 
really compulsory. 1 need not say that there are 
people who think they show weakness of will by 
allowing themselves to be hypnotized ; then they 
consciously tell untruths. Another group is more 
interesting psychologically. Their self-deception is 
the same as we have found in some cases of post- 
hypnotic suggestion. They think they could have 
acted otherwise if they had pleased (F. Myers). 
Heidenhain mentions such a case ; a doctor said, 
after the hypnosis, that he could have opened his 
eyes if he had pleased ; but when the hypnosis was 
renewed he could no more help himself than the first 
time. I could add a number of persona! observations. 
One case was that of a doctor, who often asserted 



288 HYPNOTISM. 

after the first hypnosis that he could have behaved 
otherwise ; but in each fresh hypnosis his will i 
inhibited. Finally he himself became aware of his 
loss of wili-power. In another case I hypnotized X 
at least ten times before he would agree that the 
suggested paralysis of his arm had really made him 
unable to move it ; he previously believed that he had 
so behaved to oblige me. 



All this makes it evident how difficult it is to 
decide the question with regard to fraud. It seems 
to me to occur more often with children, but the 
transition from simulation to true hypnosis is so 
gradual that even an experienced experimenter is 
sometimes uncertain. For example, when a subject 
shuts his eyes to be obliging, it is not the same 
thing as if he shut them to deceive ; or he shuts them 
because he is tired of fixing them on something, but 
could open them by a strong effort, though he keeps 
them shut because it is more comfortable. It would 
be a great mistake to identify this with simulation. 
Others do what the experimenter wishes, to please 
him, but not to deceive him. This is not pure fraud 
either, for the wish to deceive is absent And there 
is another complication; for people in hypnosis some- 
times pretend, just a; it is known insane persons do. 
Thus a hypnotic will say he sees something when he 
does not. It is naturally very difficult to say where 
deceit begins and ends in such a case ; but, generally 
speaking, practice will enable us to judge the mental 
state of the subject with some certainty, There is no 
doubt that even the most experienced deceive them- 
selves or are deceived ; the most experienced doctor 
of mental diseases is in the same case. But as he 
Jearns to diagnose by experience so will the experi* 




SIMULATION. 289 

menter in hypnotism. The fear of being deceived 
has prevented many from interesting themselves in 
the subject. But no advance can be made unless the 
fear is put on one side and the question examined. It 
is possible to maintain a complete scientific reserve. 
The question of fraud must be treated in a scientific 
manner, as mental diseases are treated. We must 
not make impossible demands in order to exclude 
imposition ; to do so would prove neither scepticism 
nor a scientific spirit ; it would, on the contrary, be 
unscientific. And yet I have heard a "cultivated** 
man, who thought himself scientifically sceptical, say, 
when watching a hypnotic subject, that he would 
believe in the reality of the hypnosis only if the sub- 
ject could see through a non-transparent substance ; 
e.g,^ if he could sec through a man as if he were 
glass ! 



20 



CHAPTER VII. 

THE MEDICAL ASPECTS OF HYPNOTISM. 

It is certain that the present interest in hypnotism 
depends chiefly upon its therapeutic utility, although 
its value for experimental psychology must not be 
underrated. The attention of doctors has never been 
directed to it so much as at present ; in spite of all 
differences, it becomes more and more clear in 
medical circles that a thorough examination of it is 
necessary. 

We have already seen that Bernheim and Li^beault 
think that hypnotism means suggestion, and sugges- 
tion is truly the chief agent in it. Bernheim's definition 
of hypnotism makes its therapeutic value more com- 
prehensible. He believes that hypnosis is a particular 
mental state, in which susceptibility to suggestion is 
heightened. It follows from this that suggestibility 
exists apart from hypnosis, and that consequently 
there is no contradiction between the therapeutics of 
suggestion in, and out of, hypnosis ; one is the natural 
complement of the other. It is the school of Nancy 
which has pointed out that there are many sugges- 
tions without hypnosis, and it was the first of all to 
recognize the therapeutic value of purely empirical 
suggestion. 

The therapeutics of suggestion are founded on Uie 



THE MEDICAL ASPECTS OF HYPNOTISM. 291 

premiss that a number of diseases can be cured or 
relieved merely by making the patient believe he will 
soon be better, and by firmly implanting this convic- 
tion in his mind. Every able practitioner knows this 
suggestive treatment, which is as old as disease. 
Most of the miraculous cures one hears of may be 
referred to it ; at present we may consider them the 
results of empirical and often unconscious suggestion. 
We can refer many of the results procured by the 
mesmerists to the same cause. It is known that 
when Bailly wrote his report, in 1784, he thought of 
the power of imagination, to which he ascribed 
Deslon's phenomena. From ancient times this mental 
influence has been used. Ancient medicine, which 
was partly in the hands of the priests, and in which 
many religious ceremonies were used, is full of this 
mental influence. The temple sleep of the old Greeks 
and Egyptians was a means to facilitate the effect of 
suggestion. The sick lay down to sleep in the 
temple, and were told by the god in dreams of some- 
thing that would cure them. We find the same kind 
of thing again and again. The belief in some par- 
ticular medicine is an important agent in healing. 
There is no need to recount the miraculous deeds of 
each century. But in later times I may mention the 
well-known Greatrakes, whose cures astonished all 
England in the seventeenth century, and Gassner, the 
exorcist, at the end of the last. The reports upon 
them make it clear that Gassner used suggestion ; 
for though he spoke Latin, it is evident that he made 
his patients understand him ; nobody misunderstood 
his famous " Ces.set" ; they knew that the pain, &c., 
was ordered to stop. 1 was interested to find in 
Sierke that Gassner once sent a patient to sleep by 
command. He told her to sleep, and when lo wake, 



398 HYPNOTISM. 

and in fact inducecf what we should at present call a 
hypnosis. 

Among other wonder-workers I may mention Princ&l 
Hohenlohe, at the beginning of this century; 
Catholic priest, who aroused much attention by hisl 
cures in Bavaria, after 1821. The mesmerists sup-j 
posed he was one of those persons who [ 
peculiar force, while on other sides religious faith I 
was called in as an explanation. One school of mes- f 
inerists, that of Barbarin, of Ostend, took up an odd I 
middle position. Barbarin maintained that the i 
fluence was a purely spiritual one, and that the right 
way to induce sleep was to pray at the patient's bed- 
side (Perty). Even to-day many adherents of vital 
magnetism hold like views ; for instance, Timmler J 
thinks religious faith valuable and necessary 
obtaining the result. 

I will not multiply examples of suggestive thera- 
peutics. I will but mention the authenticated cures 
which have occurred at Lourdes and other holy places 
quite recently. Everywhere and in all times sugges- 
tion has been effectively and unconsciously 
When we see that it is exactly those people who usfl 
suggestion who are the most successful, 
tied in giving it a high place in modern therapeutics 
For no one who reads the stories with unprcjudicet 
mind can doubt that Gassner and many others w 
more successful than many a scientific physiciai 
though they are unjustly called swindlers, It mayb 
that some of the diseases were hysterical, but t 
were many others. It is at least certain 
nearly all of them were diseases which the usual 
medicinal treatment had failed to heal. As has beei 
explained, if suggestion is to succeed tlic 
must firmly believe he will be cured. This bcli^ 



I 



THE MEDICAL ASPECTS OF HYPNOTISM 293 

must be impressed upon him, and the question is how 
this can most surely be done. Any patient who goes 
to Lourdes with the certain belief that he will be 
cured, and whose expectation has been redoubled by 
the reports of others and his own faith as a Cathohc, 
will obtain quite a difierent result from the man who 
goes without faith. 

It is not always possible for a doctor to implant] 
this idea, however great his patient's faith in him may i 
be. Hypnotism is a means of attaining this end, in \ 
spite of opposition. No patient, be he ever so intelli- 
gent, can resist the influence of hypnotic suggestion 1 
if only the hypnosis is deep enough. An idea im- ] 
planted in hypnosis takes root like a dogma in a ^ 
faithful Catholic. The idea of a cure should be in- 1 
stilled into the patient during hypnosis. If it is ', 
allowed that the idea of a cure effects a cure in many , 
cases tliere can be no doubt that suggestion is an J 
integral part-of therapeutics. 

We have to thank Liebeault, of Nancy, for having 
been the first to use suggestion methodically in 
therapeutics. It is true that verbal suggestion was 
occasionally used by the old mesmerists. Kluge, 
Lausanne, Jobard, and others, as Du Prel and Pick 
justly point out. But method was entirely wanting. 
It is often maintained that Braid recognized the 
value of suggestion in medicine, but this is an error. 
It is clear that Braid saw suggestion, but he did 
not recognize it. Whoever will take the trouble to 
read his works will find that he did not try to find 
the therapeutic value of hypnotism in suggestion. 
He believed ratlier that certain methods of inducing 
catalepsy, &c., influenced the distribution of blood, 
and he thought it likel" that there were nervous 
changes. 



294 HYPNOTISM, 

I must not forget to notice that in 1880 Friedberg, 
and more especially Berger, concluded that hypnosis 
was a therapeutic agent. Berger saw a hemiplegic 
patient make movements in hypnosis which he could 
not make awake. He saw sufferers from locomotor 
ataxy cease to stagger during hypnosis and for a 
short time after. It is true that he did not use 
hypnosis systematically. The simplified method of 
Li^beault was unknown to him; he knew nothing 
of the Nancy methods, nor of verbal suggestion, nor 
of the great importance of suggestion. Many people, 
unknown to Liebeault, had seen that, from a medical 
point of view, a state in which contractures and 
paralyses, analgesia and pain, &c., could be induced 
and removed, must be of immense importance ; but 
Liebeault was the first to find the right path, while 
Bernheim and Forel developed the methods and 
made them known to physicians. Li6beault must 
be regarded as the true founder of systematic sug- 
gestion. 

It is not astonishing that objections have been 
made to the therapeutic use of suggestion. No 
essential progress has often been made in the science 
of medicine without a struggle. Every one knows 
how the use of quinine, and vaccination, and particu- 
larly of emetics, especially in France, was contested ; 
and how the cold-water cure was rejected, and how 
Remak was attacked in Germany before the gal- 
vanic battery was accepted in the medicine-chest. 
Every one knows how vtassage was laughed at. 
And all these methods have finally succeeded, in 
spite of opposition and childish laughter. 

The difficulty of judging of the therapeutic value 
oi hypnosis is much increased by the hazy definition 



THE MEDICAL ASPECTS OF HYPNOTISM. 295 

of " hypnotic suggestion." Thus, some oppose sug- 
gestive treatment, and some hypnotic suggestive 
treatment, while others object sometimes to sugges- 
tion in general and sometimes to hypnotism, e.g., 
Ewald, Mendel, S. Guttmann. I think that the latter 
are right, in spite of their false point of view, because 
it is impossible to draw a sharp lino between sug- 
gestion and hypnotism. I refer to the discussions 
in Chapters iv. and v., and again express my opinion 
that hypnotism and suggestion will be gradually 
welded into ofic, because spontaneous transitory 
hypnoses appear to be often found in ordinary life. 

It has orten been asked wliy so many authorities have pro- 
nounced afjainsl suggestii'e the rapeu tics. There aje three 
answers — (1) Even an authority may be wrong, and generally 
it is the authority wjiich believes in its own infallibility ; (2) 
all so-called authorities are not necessarily authoritative ; (3) 
many who are authorities in one field are just for that reason 
not so in another. The last two points are important in 
medicine, and we may consider them further. 

In al! sciences, besides the real authorities, there are men 
who are mistakenly supposed to be so. It is interesting to 
observe in the history of culture how fashion makes "authori- 
ties" out of those who have no real scientific greatness. A 
man is called an authority ; but when it is asked what he has 
done there is shrugging; of shoulders, for often he has done 
nothing. Such pseudo -authorities are much inclined to pass 
judgment on questions they have not examined There have 
always been such persons ; they are- the drag on the wheel of 
science. Their position and credit is due to a faculty, which a 
clever writer, Karl von Thaler, a short time ago called the art 
of putting oneself on the stage. Their judgments are of no 

But I do not me.tn to say that all who have opposed the 
therapeutic use of hypnutism are pseudo-authorities ; on the 
contrary, true authorities, such as Meynert and others, have 
expressed themselves decidedly against it. But as regards the 
third point above-mentioned, I will say that because a man i^ _ 



296 



NVPA'OTISM. 



an aulbority on otic matter it does not follow Uiat he has a 
right to claim authority on another. A great historian or 
astronomer is not in a position to pass judgment on medicine. 
N^w, many of those who have objected lo the therapeutic use 
of hypnotism are authorities on matters that have nothing to 
do with therapeutics. Physicians as well as laymen often lose 
sight of this. A man may be eminent in (he histology of the 
brain, and yet be incompetent in therapeutics. And there i: 
nowadays no more connection between the art of healing aod 
the histology of the brain thnn there is between it and a 
nomy. If 1 may call the art of healing a. science, the histology ' 
of the brain is snmethtiig quite apart from it—at least, in ihe ' 
present day. Perhaps a connection between them may he 
discovered (ater ; perhaps the histology of the brain may be 
of use to the science of healing ; but at present there is no such 
inner connection. Therefore I consider the judgment of a ir 
who may be an authority in his own branch as of little weight 
here as the judgment of an astronomer would be. I would on 
no account have it thought that I depreciate the investigations 
of such men. On the contrary, investigations on the histology 
of the brain, for example, are necessary and immensely valu- 
able ; but as yet they have not affected the *-t of healing. 
Whether they ever will the future will show. Feuchtersieben, 
whom no one will accuse of dislike to medicine c 
since he was their most ardent admirer, has expressed the 
opinion that the art of healing should not be confused with the I 
knowledge of anatomy. 



Besides, scientific opposition has always advanced 
science. A serious, unprejudiced opposition prepares 
the way for a scientific investigation of new ques- 
tions; only the investigation must be permitted, not 
rejected « priori, as was done in some quarters in the i 
case of hypnotism. 

Every investigator should test as a matter of I 
course, if he wishes to judge clearly. But unluckiiyi 
this is not done. When the author demanded such an 1 
examination, that the vnhie of hypnotism might be j 
tested, many scientific iiivestiyators protested againstJ 



THE MEDICAL ASPECTS OF HYPNOTISM. 297 

the demand in the moat energetic way. He simply 
asked in several reports that the therapeutic use of 
hypnotism should be examined- — a demand which 
may justifiably be made to men of science. While 
Virchow, &c., considered a long and thorough ex- 
amination necessary, others were already prepared 
with an ä priori judgment, for which they could 
not offer a shadow of reason. But, indifferent to 
condemnation, new observers came forward to test 
the healing power of hypnotism and of the sug- 
gestion and mental treatment so closely connected 
vith it. When it became evident that the ques- 
tion could not be easily put aside, and it was 
recognized that the absolute refusal to examine 
was unscientific, an endeavour was made to support 
the original ä priori decision by false assertions. 
Those who had first defended the therapeutic value 
of hypnotism were accused of having asserted the 
discovery of a universal panacea. It is a pity that 
those who, as the representatives of science, ought 
to seek for truth, should take such a way of 
justifying their original refusal. These tactics are 
pitiable, and deserve to be branded. Neither the 
serious investigators at Nancy nor those in Germany, 
Switzerland, and Austria, have ever wished to make a 
universal panacea out of hypnotism. 

We will consider singly the objections made to 
hypnotism as a therapeutic agent. 

A chief objection was made by Ewald, of Berlin, 
who " decidedly protested against calling suggestion 
medical treatment." He did this in the interest of 
physicians. Forel's reply to him will make it clear 
what he meant. It refutes his objections better than 
I could do. 

■' Ewald protested against the cxpicssion ' medical 




agS HYPNOTISM. 

treatment by hypnotism.' He said that medical 
treatment meant the medical art and medical know- 
ledge, and that every shepherd - boy, tailor, and 
cobbler could hypnotize ; only self-confidence would 
be necessary. I, for my part, think it right to pro- 
test against this way of treating a scientific question. 
Has not medicine drawn a countless number of its 
remedies from the crudest empiricism, from the tradi- 
tions of the ' siicpherd-boys ' ? Cannot every cobbler 
inject morphia, apply blisters, and give aperients if 
he has the material ? Yet we do not despise these 
remedies, nor baths, nor massage, 8:c. I3ut Prot 
Ewald deceives himself greatly if he believes that: 
a delicate agent like hypnosis, which affects and 
modifies the highest and most refined activities of 
our minds, could be manipulated by a shepherd, 
ought to be handed over to him. Medical science 
and psychological knowledge, the ability to diagnose 
and practise, are all necessary to its use. It is true 
that laymen have succeeded with it, just as charla- 
tans have succeeded, and continue to succeed, in all 
provinces of medicine. Should we on that account 
leave the practice of medicine to them ? I-ong^ 
enough, much too long, science has left the impor- 
tant phenomena of hypnosis to ' shepherd -boys and- 
their like'; it is high time to make up for the] 
delay, and to devote ourselves to a thorough exami- 
nation of the series of phenomena which can com^ 
plete our views of psychology and of the physiology] 
of the brain. Medical therapeutics must not 
behind when great result are to be obtained. Bui 
these results can only be obtained by a thorougl 
study of the proper hypnotic methods." 

A second objection is the danger of hypnosis. 
Jong ago pointed this out, and earnestly war« 



I 



THE MEDICAL ASPECTS OF HYPNOTISM. 299 

people not to consider hypnosis absolutely safe. 
Mendel and others have said the same thin^ later, 
but have somewhat exaggerated the danger. This 
point must be seriously weighed. But it is 
never asked whether a remedy might not be dan- 
gerous ; we only ask if we cannot avoid the 
danger by careful and scientific use of it. Rust 
asserts, in speaking of artificial somnambulism, " the 
best assertion that can be made about a remedy or 
method of cure, is, that it might also do damage ; 
for what can never do positive harm can never do 
positive good." This assertion is to a great degree 
justifiable, though perhaps exaggerated ; for I think 
I may say that there are few remedies in medicine 
which would not injure if carelessly and ignorantly 
used. There are even medicines which may injure, 
however carefully used, because we do not know 
exactly under what conditions they become hurtful 
I need not speak of morphia, strychnine, and bella- 
donna, which have sometimes done injury even when 
the maximum dose was not surpassed, nor of the 
deaths from chloroform, the reason of which has not 
been explained. Thiem and P. Fischer, with praise- 
worthy scientific frankness, have quite recently 
published a case of the fatal after-effects of chloro- 
form ; death followed on the fourth day. These 
authors say that there is at least one death for every 
thousand administrations of chloroform. Neither will 
I speak of the dangers of surgical operations ; I need 
only point out that an apparently harmless medicine 
may have very likely already done more mischief 
than hypnotism. Many deaths have resulted from 
the use of potassium chloride, and unfortunately this 
drug can still be bought in retail without a medical 
prescription. Severe collapse has been observed after 




300 HYPNOTISM. 

the use of antipyrine, I will add to these one of thel 
most recent medicines — sulfonal— which is supposed to .1 
be a perfectly harmless hypnotic drug. A friend and \ 
colleague has told me that he has seen sad consequences j 
follow from its use, and that there were some patients J 
to whom he never gave it, for fear this "harmless" 
drug should work great mischief. And again, as to J 
the treatment by suspension, which has lately become \ 
almost a fashion, and from which certain enthusiasts 
really expect the cure of locomotor ataxy. It is now 
certain that it may cause great injury, or even death ; 
a death from it has recently been published. Many j 
published reports show that even the presence of al 
doctor does not prevent evil consequences. Andl 
Billroth has lately pointed out great dangers from 1 
carbolic acid, which is constantly used. If we gav» j 
up the use of these remedies we might give up j 
medicine altogether, as eveiything employed may do I 
harm. 

I need not enlarge this chapter further, for whether 1 
there are dangers in the use of drugs or not, is not 1 
the question. Rather we must ask: i. Do we know 1 
under what conditions the danger appears? 2, Can I 
we remove these conditions and the consequent 1 
danger? 3. And if we cannot, does the advantage I 
to be gained by the patient outweigh the danger he J 
runs? The answer to these questions is in favour o 
hypnotism ; we know perfectly well under what con- 
ditions it is dangerous, which we do not know ;" 
some drugs ; we are able in certain cases to e 
these conditions by using the proper and hat 
methods, and thereby preventing danger; and su[> 
posing that these perfectly harmless methods fail, ' 
can ask ourselves if we shall or shall not use 1 
methods which are not harmless. I think the stn 



T abouH 
■xclude 
larmleasi 



THE MEDICAL ASPECTS OF HYPNOTISM. 301 

discomforts to which the patient is exposed — a short 
headache, watering of the eyes, and depression, are 
infinitesimal compared to the advantages which may 
result from the hypnosis. The future will decide 
here also, but I will remark that nearly all the men 
(Gilles de la Tourettc, Ewald, Mendel, Ricger, Bin. 
swanger), who have said the most about the dangers 
of hypnotism, and are in general against it, by no 
means themselves refrain from hypnotizing. By this 
they allow that it is not hypnotism itself, but its 
misuse, which is mischievous. 

I will now speak of the different ways in which 
hypnotism might endanger health, and explain the 
causes of the danger, and the method of avoiding it. 

In the first place, the danger has been enormously 
exaggerated. The inhabitants of a little town once 
left off eating potato soup because a woman fell 
downstairs and broke her neck half an hour after 
eating some. Conclusions have been drawn in the 
same way here, and this sort of reasoning is not un- 
common. If a person was hypnotized, and later on 
had some ailment or other, straightway the ailment 
was ascribed to hypnotism. If we reasoned thus we 
should have to say that Carlsbad causes apoplexy, for 
Mr. X, had an attack of apoplexy a fortnight after ho 
returned from Carlsbad, &:c. Many things could be 
proved in this way. 

I should hardly have thought it possible that such 
logic should be used in scientific circles. It is 
true I iiave often heard that when patients come 
back from a watering-place without having been 
cured — which must happen sometimes^ they are 
dismissed with the comforting assurance that they 
will feel the effects later. Till now I thought this 
was a bad juke, or at best an effort to console llie 



1 



302 HYPNOTISM, 

patient ; I never believed that such a principle was 
really credited in the medical world. If a patient 
got better or worse six months after his return from a 
watering-place, I should not be inclined to ascribe the 
effect to the baths, because in the interval other 
things might have affected the patient. Like Pauly, 
I must on these grounds reject the connection found 
by Binswanger, Ziemssen, and others, between hyp- 
nosis and ailments long subsequent to it. Besides, 
if I were to accept their sophisms, it would be easy 
for me to prove in the same way that modern 
medicine makes mankind ill ; for what medicine 
might not produce important results half a year 
after its administration ? What doctor has ever 
argued in this way? 

However, I by no means deny that there are 
certain dangers in the improper use of hypnotism. 

Mendel maintains that it induces nervousness ; that 
nervous people grow worse, and sound people nervous 
through its use j but Forel and Schrenck-Notzing 
think this is a mistake of Mendel's, caused by his 
using the method of Braid instead of suggesting 
hypnosis verbally. I agree that fixed attention too 
long continued may have unpleasant effects. It may 
be followed by nervous debility or nervous excite- 
ment. But I have never seen any one become 
"nervous " whom I hypnotized verbally, and to whom 
I made no exciting suggestions. This also is im- 
portant (Bertrand). Whoever has seen the difference 
between a subject who has received an exciting 
suggestion and one who has received a soothing 
one, will agree that as much good can be done 
in one way as harm in the other. A man who 
makes absurd suggestions to amuse himself and 
satisfy his curiosity, without a scientific aim, need 



THE MEDICAL ASPECTS OF HYPNOTISM. 303 

hardly be astonished if he produces ailments. 
Sawolshskaja is right in warning against such sports. 
I have observed that patients are often worse on days 
following bad dreams. Can we be astonished that a 
person who has awaked from hypnosis during an 
imaginary fire should feel ill after it ? Such sug- 
gestions should not be made at all, or with the 
greatest caution, taking care to do away with the 
suggestion and soothing the subject before the 
waking. This is the most important point, I think 
that even if these mistakes are made it Is of little 
consequence, provided the subject is thoroughly and 
properly wakened in the manner used at Nancy and 
by all who follow the prescriptions of that school'. 
I should like to ask those who talk of the dangers 
of hypnotism if they have taken care that the 
awakening should be complete? I know that most 
people are not at all aware that they should do away 
ivith the suggestion entirely. They think it enough 
to blow on the subject's face, and arc astonished that 
he does not feel well after it. I am surprised that 
more mischief is not done in consequence of in- 
sufficient technical knowledge. It is this that is 
dangerous— not hypnotism. No wonder that there 
are sometimes unpleasant consequences. It is as 
necessary to know the right way in this case as 
in using a catheter. 

To show how a suggestion should be done away 
with I will suppose that an exciting suggestion has 
been made to a subject, who is disturbed in conse- 
quence. One should say something like this : " What 
excited you is gone; it was only a dream, and you 
were mistaken to believe it. Now be quiet. You 
feel quiet and comfortable. It is easy to see you are 
perfectly comfortable." Only when this has sue- 



304 HYPNOTISM. 

ceeded should the subject be awakened ; and thiafl 
should not be done suddenly ; there are reasons f(»l 
thinking it better to prepare the patient for wakingfl 
(Sallis). I generally do it by saying. " I shall counti 
up to three Wake when I say three." Or, "Counq 
to three, and then wake." I add (and this i 
important), " You will be very comfortable, happjȀ 
and contented when you wake." 

Further on I will give some other precautionarj 
rules which should be used before the awakening t<j 
prevent disagreeable consequences. 

I have spoken of the nervousness which hypnotism 
is supposed to produce, and have tried to show that it 
is not hypnotism which causes it, but its improper use. 
These rules should especially be followed : ~ 
avoid continuous stimulation of the senses as much a 
possible. 3. To avoid all mentally exciting su^cstioHj 
as much as possible. 3. To do away with tlic s 
gestion carefully before the awakening. The prope^ 
method will not cause nervousness. Ilypnotis 
offers less dangers on this point when properly usM 
than electricity, for example, which has made man^ 
people " nervous." A lady I knew became so nervoiH 
when electricity was applied to her larynx by a v 
competent doctor, that she was obliged to give it up. I 

It is asserted in particular that hypnotism causes 
hysteria, or hysterical convulsions (Guinon), even inj 
people who have never had them. It is not to b^ 
denied that hystero-epileptics arc sometimes throw 
into hysterical convulsions in hypnosis, but I contend 
decidedly that the convulsions are not caused by thql 
hypnosis. The slightest mental affection causes conj 
vulsions in such persons: electricity causes them a 
they fall into them even when they hear a noise, s 
as a falling book, a bell, &c. But it is prepostw 



THE MEDICAL ASPECTS OF HYPNOTISM. 305 

to say the electricity causes the convulsions ; the 
mental excitement of the patient about the electri- 
zation is the real cause ; timid patients sometimes 
faint when they are electrified (E. Remak). Besides, 
the main point is whether the convulsions of the 
hystero-epileptic are permanently aggravated or not, 
and experience shows that this is not the case. On 
the contrary, when once a complete hypnosis has 
been obtained we have in our hands a trustworthy 
means of permanently lessening the convulsions ; and, 
in truth, an attack of hysteria is not so important that 
it need be regarded as one of the chief dangers ol 
hypnotism. Hysterical attacks are sometimes arti- 
ficially induced merely for the sake of experiment 
or demonstration. 

Certain cases of Sperling and Krakauer show that 
hysterical attacks are of no importance, and do not 
indicate the necessity of stopping the hypnotic treat- 
ment ; in these cases there were attacks at first, yet 
cures were obtained ; and they also show that the 
attacks are by no means permanently aggravated, 
even when they take place at the first or second 
attempt to hypnotize. If Krakauer, in his case 01 
hysterical deafness, had allowed himself to be thus 
hindered from making further experiment his patient 
might be as deaf to-day as she was two years ago. 
And I will further mention that Mesmer and Deslon 
even thought the hysterical convulsions {crises) neces- 
sary if the magnetizing were to do any good ; which 
was certainly a mistake. So far as I know, in no 
single case has a person hypnotized according to the 
above rules ever had convulsions in hypnosis, unless 
he had had them before. 

But I should like to mention some slight accom- 
p£inying ailments which are sometimes found after 



3o6 



HYPNOTJSAf. 



hypnosis, though they cannot be tnought a real 
danger, and are often the result of auto-suggestion 
(Forel), or of a bad method. There may be 
fatigue and languor, heaviness of the limbs, &c,, 
after waking. It is easy to prevent these by sug- 
gestion in deep hypnoses. It is different in the 
light ones, though I believe a clever operator can do 
it by post-hypnotic suggestion even here. In other 
cases I think it better to prevent fatigue by sugges- 
tion before the awakening ; in any case it is a good 
plan to get rid of it at the first sitting, as othenvise it 
increases by auto-suggestion at each sitting, and can 
finally be hardly overcome. This feeling of fatigue in 
the light hypnoses is the same we sometimes have 
after an unsound sleep. All these inconveniences are 
slight, and can for the most part be avoided. Dros- 
dow made of these phenomena a particular stage of 
the hypnotic state, characterized by headache, pains 
in the limbs, faintness, &c., but he was no doubt mis- 
led in 1 88 1 by the then want of knowledge of the 
methods of Nancy. 

The main dangers of hypnotism are not those just 
mentioned, which appear relatively seldom even when 
improper methods are used. The real ones show them- 
selves more easily in such a case. They are ; the 
increased tendency to hypnosis, and heightened sus- 
ceptibility to suggestion in the waking state, i.e., the 
possibility of a new hypnosis against the subject's 
will, perhaps without his suspecting it (cf. p. 45), and 
the danger of his accepting external suggestions even 
without hypnosis. It is just this too great suscepti- 
bility to hypnosis which shows us how careful we 
should be with the method of Braid, which is the 
most frequent cause of this; for accidentally fixing 
the eyes on some object may cause a sudden hyp- 




I 



THE MEDICAL ASPECTS OF HYPNOTISM. 307 

nosis, simply because the idea of an earlier hypnosis 
1 thereby vividly recalled. 

The last-mentioned danger can be guarded against 
by repeatedly making some such suggestion as 
follows to the subject before awaking him: "Nobody 
will ever be able to hypnotize you without your con- 
sent ; you will never fall into hypnosis against your 
wish ; nobody will be able to suggest anything to you 
when awake ; you need never fear that you will have 
sense delusions, &c,, as you do in hypnosis, you are 
perfectly able to prevent them." This is the surest 
way to avoid the danger. Such are the dangers of 
hypnotism, and such the methods of meeting them 
Their antidote is suggestion, and they are no hin- 
drance to hypnotic treatment. They can be avoided 
by a proper use of hypnotism. 

But it may be objected that though a short use of 
hypnotism may not be hurtful, a long one, involving 
a repeated induction of the state, might be so. The 
objection is justifiable. But it might also be made 
against the use of various drugs, since we do not yet 
know whether a long use of them might not cause 
severe chronic poisoning. Experience is the only way 
to decide such questions. Now Li^beault, who has 
used hypnotism therapeutically in France for nearly 
thirty years, has watched cases for a long time, with- 
out finding bad consequences. Forel has done the 
same thing, though for a rather shorter time; I 
myself have hypnotized persons for more than a year 
without evil results. On the contrary, the hypnosis 
grew deeper, and suggestion consequently easier. 

I will not enter into a purely theoretic discussion of 
the dangers of hypnosis. Mendel fears over-action of 
the cerebral cortex from it, while Ziemssen and 
Meynert fear just the contrary, that is, a loss of 



3o8 



HYPNOTISM. 



power of the same part The contradictions 
which they are involved are evident ; to suppose than 
they meant the same thing would show a great waati 
of reflection. 

In the foregoing 1 have discussed and refuted twoJ 
objections made to the therapeutic use of suggestion I 
and hypnotism : first, the assertion that hypnotism I 
should not be called medical treatment; and secondly,! 
that it has too many dangers to allow of its practical« 



It is further added that its mysterious side should! 
prevent its being used. Benedikt maintains this, andl 
thus contradicts Mendel, who finds its healing value I 
especially in the mysterious impression it causes, 
on the contrary, believe, as I shall explain later, that 1 
the mysterious impression plays a subordinate part,.! 
and that there is less mystery about the matter than I 
is generally believed. Apart from this, it would bei 
perfectly indifferent to a practitioner whether a dru^ 
took effect from the mysterious impression it made, or.l 
through suggestion, or through chemico-physical inJ^ 
fluence. The point is that it shall act, not in what] 
manner it acts. 

When Benedikt maintains that, in order to li 
the impression of mystery, hypnosis should bei 
induced by the use of a magnet instead of thel 
ordinary methods, he would do better if he showed I 
how this is possible. He should prove his assertion.! 
that the magnet produces liypnosis by publishingfl 
his experiments. I have applied the magnet to I 
hundreds of persons and never induced hypnosis. 

If I believed that in some cases a mystenous*! 
agent would be useful to the patient I should noti 
for a moment hesitate to use it; for were I to do I 
otherwise I should be neglecting my duty as a doctorJ 



I 

I 



HYPNOTISM. 309 

which is of more importance than any scientific sign- 
board. For example, I should think it right in certain 
cases to send patients to some miracle-worlting spot, 
e.g., Lourdes, if they expected they would be cured 
there; and, in fact, fifty or sixty patients are yearly 
sent to Lourdes from the Salpfitri^re (Constantin 
James). In any case, even if hypnosis was effectual 
only from its mysteriousness — which is not the case 
— it would none the less be well to use it. 

Among the remaining objections to suggestive 
therapeutics the assertion that they do not produce 
any lasting improvement or cure may be mentioned. 
This may be answered as follows. The results are 
by no means transitory ; on the contrary, a large 
number of lasting cures have been observed and 
published. The author has seen many cases where 
there was no relapse for years. One cannot ask for 
more. The objection that the improvement may 
be only temporary is thus not justified. But even 
were this so we must still rejoice to have found a 
way of procuring even temporary relief {Purgotti, 
Schuster). For instance, in difficulties of men- 
struation, it is a great thing if we can succeed in 
subduing pain for a time. If the pain returns a new 
hypnosis may bo induced ; it is always to be had, 
and as it generally becomes deeper the more it is 
used, it is less likely to lose its effect (even in relapses) 
than drugs, which often do so quickly (SperUng). In 
any case therapeutics are not yet so far advanced as 
to give us the right to reject a remedy merely because 
it only affects symptoms or has often merely a tem- 
porary value. If we were to reject remedies which 
suppress the phenomena of disease for a time only, we 
might abandon a large part of therapeutics, perhaps 
'hole. Besides, from some methods of treatn^ 





310 HYPNOTISM. 

nothing but a temporary improvement is expected, 
and yet this temporary improvement is considered to 
prove the value of the method. How often it happens 
that a patient who has benefited by a stay in Carlsbad 
or Aix, &c., is recommended by his doctor to go back 
there when his ailment returns, because his health wasj 
improved the first time. Remedies should not 
weighed and measured by different standards. 

Another objection to the therapeutic use of hypno- 
tism is that it cannot be generally applied because 
everybody is not hypnotizable. I should like to add 
that in many cases, even when a hypnosis is induced^] 
it is not deep enough to be used therapeutically. Ij 
pointed out these two defects several years ago,,- 
without, however, exaggerating their importance. 
After all, it is the same with other remedies. For 
instance, under some circumstances a journey to th« 
North Sea, or among mountains, or, perhaps, in somi 
states of collapse, a few bottles of Madeira, are su] 
posed to be excellent remedies. I think that many] 
more people can be hypnotized than can be sent to 
bathe in the North Sea. 

A further objection to treatment by hypnotic 
suggestion is that there may be suggestions without 
hypnosis. But this is exactly the standpoint which 
the school of Nancy and I myself have always taken 
up, although, as I have pointed out, it is often difficult 
to distinguish between hypnosis and suggestion. This 
is the heart of the present movement, which shows us 
how extensive is the empirical use of suggestion 
therapeutics. It is also the real reason of the strong 
opposition to hypnotism. We hereby see how often 
suggestion occurs spontaneously in ordinary life and.] 
medical practice Hypnotism, by means of which wm 
can make suggestions artificially, shows us what 



It 
is 

I 

I 



THE MEDICAL ASPECTS OF HYPNOTISM. 311 

great mistake has been made in estimating previous 
therapeutics, since we have neglected to consider the 
mental element in the action of the various drugs. 
The physiological effect only was regarded ; it was 
quite forgotten that many remedies have only a 
suggestive value. 

Now, when it is asserted that there is suggestion 
without hypnosis, and that suggestion in medicine is 
no novelty, let it be remembered what Ewald said a 
short time ago — that suggestion oversteps ike bounds of 
medical treatment and trenches on tfie field of psychology. 
We also see that some of the opponents of suggestion 
generally fail to recognise mental treatment as a factor 
in medicine. According to them suggestion is no 
affair of the physician as such. ( I maintain, on the 
contrary, that a physician can only do good, only attain 
his aims, when he is a psyclwlogist, and that this is at 
least of as much importance as what we call medical 
art and science.^ 

There are, then, as the school of Nancy has shown, 
many suggestions without hypnosis ; but, in spite of 
this, artificially induced hypnosis makes suggestion 
possible in many cases where it would otherwise fail. 
Therefore when any one, in objecting to hypnotic 
suggestive therapeutics, says that there is also 
suggestion without hypnosis, he is merely confirming 
what the school of Nancy has always maintained. 
This " refutation " of hypnotic therapeutics is as if 
one were to say that a doctor is no longer needed in 
confinements, because many births take place spon- 
taneously and very well without one. 

Hardly anybody thinks the temporary loss of \ 
is an objection to hypnotic therapeutics. The main 
point is to choose only an experienced and trust- 
worthy experimenter, as we should do in taking 
chloroform. 




312 HYPNOTISM. 

About the indications for suggestive treatment 
there is not much to be said with certainty. This 
is why Ewald will not concede the same rank to 
suggestive treatment as to other methods, e.g., elec- 
tro-therapeutics, treatment by drugs, &c. Mendel 
decidedly opposes Ewald and thinks the indications 
clear ; unluckily he does not say what they are. I 
think that the indications are not yet clear, but that 
it cannot be expected they should be, when the 
method of treatment has been under examination 
for a time relatively so short. But Ewald is certainly 
mistaken in thinking that fixed indications art 
to be found in internal disease at all. (Medicint 
consists to a great extent in trials of various treat- 
ments. J Strictly speaking, there are indications in but 
few cases, as may be clearly seen by comparing various 
text-books, and from the numerous contradictions 
among different doctors. I think that indications 
for suggestive treatment are at least as exact as those 
for treatment by electricity, by massage, by drugs, by 
baths, which are all supposed to cure a great number 
of definite diseases, if the too favourable explana- 
tions of the text-books and essays in journals are to 
be believed. In any case I think that this belief is 
to be found hardly anywhere but in medical students, 
who generally greatly over-estimate the power of 
therapeutics (Unverncht). '• Any one who keeps his. 
eyes open in practice may soon convince himself thati 
there unluckily are not many so-called accurate indi-i 
cations for the treatment of internal diseases, and 
particularly for nervous disorders, j It is by no means 
a contradiction to this that there are doctors who in 
certain cases can find the proper remedy at a gl; 
It rather confirms what I have said, and is a ct 
quence of the fact that therapeutics are less a scieil< 



I 



r 



THE MEDICAL ASPECTS OF HYPNOTISM, 313 

than an art, although many representatives of "exact 
medicine " suppose the contrary. Though this has 
often been said before, it is, unfortunately, not suffi- 
ciently considered nowadays. On the whole, to 
exclude any misunderstanding, I should expressly 
declare that I recognize definite indications in certain 
cases of internal disease, but they are very rare when 
compared to the total number of diseases. 

So far as we have hitherto been able to judge, 
functional neurosis is the chief field of suggestive 
therapeutics, i.e., nervous disorders not founded on 
anatomical derangements. These must not be too 
readily confused with hysteria or with neurasthenia. 
It is true that these ideas are so blended, and hysteria 
in particular is conceived in so many different ways, 
that we might almost say, "What we cannot define, 
that we call hysteria." "Hysteria" is used in many 
senses ; the terra is used in one sense or another at 
pleasure, and thus sophisms are constructed which 
even many doctors fail to penetrate. I will here give 
two meanings of the word " hysterical." 

In the first place, hysteria is a name for an ill- 
ness which has no anatomical foundation, which has 
numerous and variable symptoms— now headache, 
now ovarian pain, now pain in the side, and now 
weakness in the legs. The patient is called "hyste- 
rical " as well as the symptoms. As such patients 
are sometimes obstinate and capricious, and like to 
make themselves interesting, this word " hysterica! " 
has a somewhat unpleasant after-taste ; some authors 
go so far as to say that a tendency to falsehood and 
hypocrisy is a chief symptom of such hysteria. This 
is evidently an unfair generalization. At all events, 
the multiplicity and variability of the symptoms are 
the main characteristics of " hysteria " taken in this 



3T4 



HYPNOTISM. 



sense. Hysteria in the other sense is quite different 
In many quarters any symptom is called hysterical 
when there is no anatomical cause for it and it is 
merely " nervous," e.g., headache, pains in the muscles, 
certain tremors, frequent vomiting, &c. ; even when 
the symptom is solitary' and constant. Now, if in 
such a case the patient, as well as the symptoms, 
is to be called "hysterical," we have two entirely 
different meanings for the term "hysterical patient," J 
from the interchange of which, at pleasure, all sorts crfl 
subtle sophisms result. The meanings of the term 
are changed to suit the discussion. For example, 
an author says in one place that any hysterical 
symptoms can be removed by hypnosis, i.e., such 
as are marked by quick spontaneous changes. That 
is hysteria No. i. But as soon as some one asserts 
he has seen a person, without any other symptom 
of hysteria, freed by suggestion from a severe pain 
in a muscle — ^the biceps, for example — then, to suit! 
the discussion, the second meaning of the worcJ 
hysterical is adopted, and it is said that the symp-l 
tom was hysterical. But a prudent silence is main-^ 
tainedwith regard to the fact that the patient sufferect« 
from one merely local pain, had no other hysterical ¥ 
symptom, and consequently was not hysterical in the 1 
first meaning of the term. Anything can be proved, I 
or refuted if the word " hysteria " is thus treated. 



To give another proof of this 1 return to a letter ( 
Charcot, which has lately aroused much attention, and i 
■Which he asserts that only hysteria can be treated by hypnosis. 
If this means that hysleria in sense No. 2 can also be thus 
treated, there is nothing to say against it, and the most different 
authors would agree upon the point. But, in. fact, Chafcoti| 
as Nonne remarks, understands much more by " hysteri 
is understood in Germany. Thus Charcot says, in 



I 



THE MEDICAL ASPECTS OF HYPNOTISM. 315 

diction to two German authors, Oppenheim and Thomsen, 
who think the variability of the symptoms the chief mark of 
hysteria, that in his view this is not a characteristic of hysteria. 
To avoid error it should be mentioned that Charcot has not 
hitherto advocated suggestive therapeutics — at least, publicly — 
though he admits them conditionally in his letter. He even says 
that a good effect may be hoped from them in hysterical pheno- 
mena. It is true that these parts of Charcot's letter about 
suggestive treatment are sometimes omitted when the letter is 
repeated, while every impartial observer must see in this pas- 
sage rather a defence of suggestive therapeutics than an attack 
upon them, if " hysteria " is understood in the second sense given 
above. Moreover, while Charcot expresses himself decidedly 
in favour of the hypnotic treatment of hysteria, Ziemssen, who 
is supposed to have the same standpoint, maintains that such 

Even though Charcot's authority is appealed to, if erroneously, 
against suggestion, it should not be forgotten that a short ti 
ago Charcot was attacked and laughed at ; that his hypnotic 
experiments were mocked at ; that Rieger, among others, e; 
getically opposed hypnotization in the SalpStrifere; that Mendel 
said his subjects were "prepared"; that according to Ewald 
the said subjects obtained all sorts of advantages from sub- 
mitting to the experiments (though he did not talk of fraud); 
and that Ewald expressed himself in a manner not altogether 
appreciative about Charcot's experiments with the magnet ; that 
he described the antecedents of his subjects un flatteringly, &c 
From all which it appears that the side which now claims him 
as an ally against hypnosis was attacking him vehemently 
hardly a year ago. 

From this digression, which was intendetj to make 
clear what is meant by " hysteria," I return to the 
question of the indications for suggestive thera- 
peutics. I vifill give them here, so far as my own 
experience permits, with the help of trustworthy 
authors, especially of Forel. Particularly suitable 
ones are all kinds of pains which have no anato- 
mical cause (headaches, stomach-aches, ovarian pain, 
rheumatic and neuralgic pains) ; sleeplessness ; 



3i6 HYPM>T7SM. 

b)-sterical dtshubances, pattkuUrly paralyses of the 
extremities and apbooia ; disturbances of menstrua- 
tion ; spontaneous somnambulism ; uneasy dreams ; 
loss of appetite ;'aIophpItsm and^rorphinism } neuras- 
thenic ailments ; stammering (Corii'al, Ringier, Wet- 
terstnutd, Panly) ; nervous disorders of sight (Ford, 
MÖllenip^ Chiltoff) ; emmnsis nocturna ; pruritus 
cutameus mtruoius; perverted sexual feeling, when 
not inherited (KrafTt-Ebing, Schrenck-Notzing. 
Ladame] ; singii^ in the ears ; prolonged cases of 
chorea ; railway ^ine and emotional neuroses (Hirt) ; 
agoraphobia (Dc Jong) ; writer's cramp (of central 
origin). 

Hysteria (in the sense of deGnition No. i) 
easily curable. Consequently we try as much 
possible to obtain an improvement in the sym] 
toms. As far as our experience goes, this is at 1< 
as easily done by hypnotism and suggestion as by 
any other method. Much depends upon the depth 
of the hypnosis, and upon the d^ree of susceptibility 
to suggestion, &c. But I am decidedly of opinion 
that hysterical patients are less susceptible to su^es- 
tion than others, Forel thinks that a sound brain 
is above all things necessary for hypnosis ; the 
sounder it is, the sooner we may hope for results. 
In hysterical patients the brain is often by no means 
sound. For the same reason it is difficult to treat 
insane persons by h_vpnotism. However, improve- 
ments have been obtained in the lighter forms of 
mental disease, e.g., of melancholia and mania (Forel, 
Burckhardt, A. Voisin, Seglas, DufourJ. But gene- 
rally the effect is less than in the neuroses. This is 
partly because insane persons are not good subjecl 
for hypnosis. Even when the hypnosis is deep, insai 
ideas and delusions ,of, the senses are much 



S IS j^ 

1 



H most d 
H It 



THE MEDICAL ASPECTS OF HYPNOTISM. 317 

difficult to remove than nervous troubles, such as 
sleeplessness and headache, which are often found 
to accompany psychoses (Forel). Although there 
may sometimes be organic changes which cause the 
mental disturbance, and which explain the resistance 
to suggestion, yet the chief reason is to be found in 
the tenacity of the patient's diseased ideas. These 
might often be rightly called auto-suggestions. A. 
Voisin and Repoud say, however, that they have 
seen good effects produced in cases of severe mental 
disorder ; but Forel is unable to confirm this. 

The therapeutic successes which hypnotism has 
had in neuroses have been confirmed in so many 
quarters that a doubt of the trustworthiness of 
their source is hardly possible. I will only name 
Forel, KrafTt-Ebing, Obersteiner, Hirt, Bernheim. 
Those who dispute the successes do so generally 
ä priori, without having scientifically and patiently 
tested the matter. It is a mistaken assertion that 
only such cases of illness can be benefited which 
could easily be benefited in other ways. At leasts 
I must contend that this was not so in a number of 
cases in my own experience, where the cold-water 
cure, massage, electricity, surgical operations, or 
drugs had been tried in vain, while suggestion, and 
hypnotic suggestion In particular, was successful. 

Besides, even when one of the above methods is 
successful, we should be careful how we draw the 
conclusion that suggestion had nothing to do with 
it ; for numerous remedies appear to be effectual 
only through suggestion ; they succeed because the 
patient believes in them, as even Mendel, one of the 
most decided opponents of suggestion, has admitted. 
It is in the nature of things that drugs, even when 
they only act by suggestion, should sometimes 




318 



HYPNOTISM. 



ceed better than verbal suggestion, because many j 
people are more easily influenced by something 
tangible than by words only. Some very practical 
investigators {Krafft-Ebing and others) even attribute 
a merely suggestive value to drugs in certain diseases, 
e.g., in neurasthenia and hysteria. 

With regard to organic diseases, in which we find 
anatomical changes in the organs, as opposed to 
functional derangements, we have before us a number 
of accredited observations, from which it follows 
that important functional improvements were made 
possible, i.e., the consequences of the disease could 
be partly removed by hypnosis. Thus in a case of 
tabes dorsalis, though the disease continued, the 
severe pains were subdued (Lloyd Tuckey). It may, 
no doubt, be objected that the diagnosis was mis- 
taken, and that a functional derangement was mis- 
taken for an anatomical lesion. But the examination 
of sections of the spinal cord contradicted this in one 
such case. Bernheim saw an apoplectic paralysis 
rapidly improved by suggestion. The patient died later 
of disease of the lungs, and the seat of the original 
disease was discovered on dissection. Besides this 
confirmation by anatomy there is another method by 
which we can sometimes decide a doubtful diagnosis. 
For example, in chronic rheumatism of the joints, with 
clearly visible and tangible swellings, there can be I 
no doubt about the diagnosis. If suggestion removes [ 
the pain, we have obtained an important improve- J 
ment in an organic complaint. But many such cases f 
have been published. I can confirm it from my own I 
experience in a case of articular rheumatism. 

Among other diseases accompanied by organic ] 
injury I have seen a very painful eczema of the < 
in a child of eight, made painless by post-hypnotic J 



THE MEDICAL ASPECTS OF HYPNOTISM. 319 ' 

suggestion. I observed this case in the company of 
my friend and colleague Friedemann, of Cöpenick, 
whom I have to thank for a number of interesting 
experiences in hypnotism. The child in question 
could not bear the slightest touch. An order given 
in his first hypnosis had such an effect that he could 
afterwards endure even strong pressure on the spot 
What are the counter- indications against hypnotic 
treatment, i.e., what conditions forbid the use of 
hypnotism ? I do not know of one. But it may 
be that when certain phenomena produced by auto- 
suggestion cannot be avoided the use of hypnotism 
is counter-indicated. However, the therapeutic effect 
we wish to obtain is of so much more importance 
than a chance attack of hysteria, &c., that in general 
we should not allow ourselves to be restrained by it. 
In any case there are no more counter- indications 
against this treatment than against any other. 

How can the effects of hypnotism be explained ? 
Some think that it is in itself healing and beneficial 
(Beaunis). The general view is that suggestion is the 
healing agent. I beheve it to be the essential point. 
To make this somewhat clearer I will take an 
example. Suppose we wish to cure a headache by 
arousing in the subject the idea that the headache 13 
gone. Spontaneous reflection would prevent this in 
most waking people, but in hypnosis ideas are more 
easily established. If the subject accepts the sugges- 
tion we may be sure that in the hypnotic state he 
does not feet the pain. But now we have to prevent 
the return of the pain after waking. Either external 
post-hypnotic suggestion or auto-suggestion will do 
this. We can make the patient continue to think the 
•pain is gone after he wakes. He need not be con- 



I 



I 
I 



320 



HYPNOTISM. 



scious of this idea in the sense of remembering it I 
On the contrary, the less conscious the idea is, the I 
more effect it will have, because reflexion will not j 
struggle against it (Forel). Auto-suggestion is the 
second plan. The patient, finding himself without 
pain in hypnosis, may convince himself that pain is | 
not a necessary consequence of his state, and this 
idea may under some circumstances be strong enough 
to prevent the return of the pain. 

The more easily an idea can be established in the -J 
subject, the quicker a therapeutic result can be induced I 
And the deeper the hypnosis, the more easily ideas ] 
can be established. Consequently, the deeper the ' 
hypnosis, the better the cure. I cannot agree with ■ 
Schrenck-Notzing when he says the deep stage is I 
in general unnecessary ; on the contrary, the deeper i 
it is the better. It does not follow, of course, that the J 
light stages are of no value. Apart from the fact , 
that they often become deeper, they are often useful | 
in therapeutics, especially when we have to do with 
motor disturbances. Much depends upon the subject's 
character. For example, A. may be as susceptible to 
suggestion in the light stage as B. is in the deep one. 
However, it is not to be contested that suggestibility 
increases in some persons with the depth of the hyp- 
nosis. 

This methodical suggestion is the key to suggestive I 
therapeutics. When the hypnotized subject refuses j 
the suggestion, which sometimes happens, the mys- I 
terious impression may be ever so great, and yet no | 
therapeutic result will be obtained. I have success- I 
fully treated people who certainly had no mystical I 
ideas about the matter. People can be influenced 1 
hypnotically or suggestively though they do not 1 
believe they are hypnotized ; they are often much J 



rTHE MEDICAL ASPECTS OF HYPNOTISM. 321 ^H 

astonished when they wake to find they have been ^^| 

hypnotized. But I do not contest that in certain ^^^ 

cases the mystical impression may not have some ^^| 

effect, though it is by no means the rule, ^^| 

Neither is the effect to be attributed to the patient's ^^| 

I confidence in itself, though it plays a large part 
Misrepresentation has aroused so much distrust of 
hypnotic treatment that in some cases there is no ' 
confidence at all. But the immense power of hypnotic ^^H 
suggestion is shown by the fact that it succeeds in a ^^H 
large number of cases in spite of mistrust ; for mis- ^^| 
trust is a powerful auto-suggestion, and auto-sugges- ^^H 
tion is the greatest foe of external suggestion. The ^^| 
success of hypnotic suggestion will be greater the ^^| 
more distrust disappears, and when it has been recog- ^^H 
nized that hypnotism properly used is as harmless as ^^H 
electricity properly used. Then only will the power ^^| 
of hypnotic therapeutics be practically estimated. I h 
have little doubt what that estimation will be. Hyp- 
notism and suggestion will outlive many remedies . 

whose praises fill the columns of medical journals at ^^1 

present. ^^| 

To avoid misunderstanding, I will briefly state in ^^| 

what way the improvement of organic diseases by ^^| 

hypnotic suggestion is to be explained (according to ^^H 

Bernheim). I only mention this because Binswanger ^^| 
and Seeligmiiller mistakenly represent Bernheim as 
having maintained that the original organic injury is 
done away with by suggestion (Corval). Apoplexy 
is an example. If a part of the brain, a, is injured, 
then the functions of the nerves served by a are 
interfered with. Now it is a well-known experience 
that when a is injured the functions of another part 
of the brain, b, are often influenced. Then the func- 
tions of the nerves served by b are also interfered 




52* 



HYPNOTISM. 



with ; b itself is not organically injured, only its 
functions are inhibited. Now suggestion can restore 
these functions. It can sometimes also produce a 
functional amelioration in an organic disease. In any 
case it need not be supposed that suggestion has an 
immediate influence on the organic lesion, in order 
to explain the functional improvement in organic 
diseases. Bernheim's explanation may, w/;(/(7J"ww«J'a«- 
dis, be called in for other cases. Sperling believes 
that electricity only docs good in apoplexy by 
restoring the inhibited functions of parts which are 
anatomically sound. He is known to have experience 
and ability in the field of hypnotism and electro- 
therapeutics, such as are possessed by few, but does 
not believe that the part of the brain injured in 
apoplexy has ever been restored by electricity. 

It would take too long to give all the rules for 
hypnotic treatment, and Baierlacher, Bcrnheim, and 
Forel have already done so. I will merely mention 
that there is a difference between preparatory and 
therapeutic experiments. Practice- will enable us to 
decide whether the hypnosis in particular cases is deep 
enough to be used therapeutically, or whether further 
trials are needed to increase susceptibility to sugges- 
tion. In most cases preparatory experiments are 
necessary. The first trials should only be continued 
for a few minutes. If they are unsuccessful the 
stronger methods should be tried, e.g., fixed attention. 
As violent pain often prevents hypnosis it is better 
to choose a time when the subject is free from it for 
the first attempt. Hypnosis will be easily induced 
later, even in the midst of violent pain. It is generally 
necessary to repeat the suggestion occasionally, after 
improvement or cure has been obtained, to prevent 



r 



THE MEDICAL ASPECTS OF HYPNOTISM. 323 

Hypnotism does not necessarily succeed at once, 
If the hypnosis is deep a result may be very quickly 
obtained ; in other cases patience and method are 
wanted, and the time the illness has lasted must be 
taken into consideration. The more the idea of pain 
has taken root, the more difficult is it to overcoma 

Why hypnotism should be measured by a different 
standard than other methods of treatment is inex- 
plicable to me. A doctor is often satisfied to obtain 
a result after weeks or months of electro-therapeutic 
treatment, and how often, after months of perseve- 
rance, it fails to appear. Why, then, should we 
expect suggestive therapeutics to succeed in one 
day? Patience on the side of both doctor and patient 
is often required. 

I likewise deny that hypnotism should be regarded 
as a sort of last hope in the treatment of diseases. 
The longer they have lasted the more difficult they 
are to cure, because the idea of the disease has 
established itself firmly. It is the duty of every one 
who believes that hypnotism is harmless when 
properly applied to use it where he thinks it will be 
of service, and before it is too late. For some 
diseases become incurable simply because they were 
not rightly treated at first. The illness develops 
into an auto-suggestion, more and more difRcuIt to 
overcome. The more a patient thinks of his pain at 
first, the less his attention is turned from it, the less 
possible it is to remove it later. We might hesitate 
to make long preparatory experiments with people 
difficult to hypnotize (Grasset). But it is to be wished 
that hypnosis should be used when the hypnosis can 
easily be induced, and when the method is indicated, 
rather than that a hundred other methods, all dis- 
agreeable to the patient, should first be tried in vain. 



ling. To ^H 
a lareer 1 



334 HYPNOTISM. 

It has been asked whether hypnotism and 
tion are of real value to the art of healing, 
answer this we must consider whether a larger 
number of patients are cured or improved by this 
means than by exclusively physical and chemical 
treatment. It is difficult to decide. If we suppose 
that 50 per cent, are cured or improved by the usual 
treatment-^which is by no means the case— ^and that 
2 per cent, are cured or improved by suggestion, these 
figures would not mean much, as the percentage would 
only be raised from 50 to 52. But if we suppose that by 
the ordinary methods only i per cent, of functional 
neuroses are cured or improved — which is nearer the 
truth — and that 2 per cent, are cured or improved by 
suggestion, this would bo a great progress, since the 
percentage would be raised from i to 3 per cent,, 
i.e., the number of successfully- treated patients would 
be tripled, I have chosen two extreme cases, to show 
how difficult it is to settle the question. I think that 
very few neuroses — I will consider only these in the 
first place — are cured or improved by any treatment 
not mental ; perhaps one per cent is too high a 
figure. 

Such questions are hard to decide, since we are not dealing j 
with fixed quantities. I have spoken on purpose of improve- 
ment as well as cure, because cure is understood in different ] 
ways. Mendel calls a disappearance of the symptoms a cure, 1 
without regard to the time during which they have disappeared. 
He said that a person who was periodically deaf-mute had heen 
cured by hypnotic treatment, because he spoke and heard for 
several days, though a few days later there was a relapse, 1 
should make the idea of cure depend upon the disappearance 
of the tendency to return of the disease, 
theoretical notion, while the other springs from practical need. . 

But I certainly believcLwijth Kraffl-Ebina gj 




'DICAL ASPECTS OF HYPNOTISM, gaj 

Müller, and others, that no important effect can be 
obtained in most functional neuroses without sugges- 
tion. Therefore I consider suggestion an immense 
step in advance In this direction ; suggestion without, 
as wel! as with, artificially induced hypnosis, which, 
however often materially helps its effect. I think 
that hardly any of the newest discoveries are so im- 
portant to the art of healing, apart from surgery, as 
the study of suggestion. This will be specially pointed 
out in a later work. In any case, the conclusion that/ 
neither hypnotism nor suggestion will again disappear 
from the foreground in medicine is justified. This 
hope is grounded on the fact that there are in 
Germany a number of practical doctors, not carried 
away by enthusiasm, who study suggestion, and do 
not look for hasty successes and " miraculous " cures. 
They are all the more careful inasmuch as many 
opponents of suggestion watch their cases in the hope 
of forming an opinion of their failure. This is the 
only proper and scientific way, which the most decided 
opponents have not always followed. 

Naturally, care must be taken to examine character 
as in all therapeutics. Men are no more alike men- 
tally than physically, and I believe that their mental 
differences are greater than their bodily ones. There- 
fore it is not astonishing that doctors who have 
psychological knowledge should succeed, while others, 
who treat by hard and fast rule, fail. The investiga- 
tions of many authors show what results may be 
obtained by a clever use of suggestion ; they have 
succeeded in most unpromising cases. Forel is one 
of these. It is true that few have it in their power to 
experiment as he has done. It is very unscientific to 
impugn the successes of others because one has failed 
:lf. Perhaps it may be mentioned that^ 



HYPNOTISM. 

eminent Swedish alienist — Oedmann — says that het 
recognizes the good effects of suggestion in alcoholism, J 
but that as he is unable to produce them he sends \ 
such patients to Wetterstrand (Corval). 

No doubt experience is the best teacher. It is in- 
comprehensible why some people deny the thera- 
peutic value of hypnotism simply because their own 
few experiments have failed. It is the same with all 
instruments ; a practised operator succeeds where an 
unpractised one fails. So an experienced and con- 
scientious hypnotist will remove ailments by sugges- 
tion, while an unpractised one may induce them from 
want of experience. It is certain that people who 
are suggestible and easy to hypnotize may be in- 
fluenced by any one. But in more difficult cases a 
doctor, who has experience and psychological know- 
ledge, will succeed where others fail. 

There is, of course, no need to cease using other 
means, while hypnotism is being used (Sperling) ; on 
the contrary, in each case the indications must be ■. 
followed. No method of healing will be driven out 
by hypnotism ; that is, if it is accepted in practice. 
Suggestion will not supplant other methods of heal- 
ing, but complete them (Bourdon). 

Naturally, whatever might injure the prognosis, or ' 
make suggestion ineffectual, must be avoided in sug- 
gestive therapeutics ; and, before all, the fear of hyp- 
nosis. There is no doubt that this may do more 
injury and produce more unfavourable effects than 
hypnosis itself Therefore it is advisable not to use ' 
it when the patient is excited and frightened about 
it ; Tokarski is of the same opinion. But other i 
mental excitements should be avoided as much as j 
possible. Krafft-Ebing's case plainly proves that J 
excitement may make suggestion ineffectual. 



THE MEDICAL ASPECTS OF HYPNOTISM. 327 

Further, I believe that the study of hypnotism will 
much enlarge our point of view in other ways. We 
shall now be able to solve many a riddle that has 
puzzled us. Now that it has been proved that even 
organic changes can be caused by suggestion we are 
obliged to ascribe a much greater importance to 
mental influences than we have hitherto done. I 
think that the diseases which are generally called 
imaginary are much more common than is supposed. 
I think that improper surroundings cause or increase 
many maladies. There are few people who are not 
impressed when they are assured on all sides that 
they look very ill, and I think many have been ; 
much injured by this cumulative mental process as if 
they had been poisoned. Just as suggestion can take 
away pain, so it can create and strengthen iL It is 
small comfort to call such pains imaginary. And 
even if the pain is "only" imaginary it troubles the 
patient as much as if it were real. 

Besides, I believe this expression " imaginary pain," 
which is used by physicians as well as laymen, is 
scientifically false. One author has excellently com- 
pared " imaginary pains " with hallucinations. Now 
we can say that the hallucinatory object is imaginary, 
but it is false to say the perception is imaginary ; it 
has a central cause. It remains the same whether 
the object is imaginary or not ; so does the pain 
when it is felt, i.e., when there is a central process. It 
is a matter of indifference whether this central process 
is caused by a peripheral stimulus or by suggestion 
by a spontaneous mental act. The pain exists in 
both cases, and is not imaginary. If in the latter case 
the patient were to refer it to an external stimulus 
he would be wrong, but the pain as a subjective 
feeling is not imaginary. We may call such a pain, 



338 HYPNOTISM. 

without objective symptoms, what we please, but we 
may be sure that it is a necessary consequence of 
some central processes. Certain subjective ideas 
cause pain as much as a penetrating thorn causes 
pain. The removal of these is as much the doctor's 
affair as taking a thorn out of the foot. 

Krafll-Ebing's case shows what mental influence 
without hypnosis can effect. The patient, fully 
awake, thought she had been poisoned by bella- 
donna, A dangerous collapse followed, which was 
finally cured by hypnotic suggestion. 

Suggestion is not only a key to the origin and 
aggravation of maladies, it also explains the working 
of drugs. If medicines have different effects when 
prescribed by different doctors, we shall not find the 
cause of this in chemical differences. We should 
rather ask if the manner of the prescription, the im- 
pression made by the doctor, and other mental factors 
have not some effect ; it has been proved in many 
cases. We shall have to consider this influence of 
unconscious suggestion as of much more weight than 
we have done. The powerful mental influence of 
surgical operations has been pointed out, especially 
by L. Landau, and that of electricity by Mcibius. 
Some ascribe the efficacy of homo;opathy to sugges- 
tion, against which Roth emphatically protests ; and 
I believe that many of the successes and failures of 
allopathy may also be laid to the account of sugges- 
tion. When the practical importance of mental in- 
fluences become more generally recognized physicians 
will be obliged to acknowledge that psychology is 
important as physiology. Psychology and psychical 
therapeutics will be the basis of a rational treatment 
of neuroses. The other methods must group them^ 
selv es around this; it will be the centre, and no longi 



I 

i 



THE MEDICAL ASPECTS OF HYPNOTISM. 329 

a sort of Cinderella of science, which now admits 
only the influence of the body on the mind, and not 
that of the mind on the body. 

The use of hypnotism in surgery has already been 
mentioned. Its use in inducing analgesia is not new ; 
one inventive genius even imagines that God took the 
rib from Adam while he was in a hypnotic sleep, 
since he would certainly have waked had it been a 
natural one. The first methodical surgical operations 
I the magnetic sleep were begun in 1S21, byRdca- 
mier. Such operations were often performed in the 
Paris hospitals under the direction of Baron du Potet. 
Mesmerism has since occasionally been used for the 
same purpose, Cloquet used it in 1S29, He related 
his experiences to the French Academy of Medicine, 
but Lisfranc, the celebrated surgeon, put him down 
for an impostor or a dupe. Oudct was no better 
received in 1837, when he told the Academy of the 
extraction of teeth in the magnetic sleep. 

In 1846 Esdaile performed a number of operations 
during mesmerically induced analgesia in the hospital 
at Calcutta. The wounds are said to have healed 
very quickly, Hellwald also draws attention to the 
quick healing of the wounds of the Arab pilgrims which 
are made in the hypnotic state. Elliotson at the same 
time was using mesmerism in London. Braid, who 
was much struck by Esdaile's results, also used hyp- 
notism in surgery. The opinion that mesmeric passes 
perhaps induce analgesia better than the other hyp- 
notic methods has some adherents noiv. Azam 
brought Braid's method of inducing analgesia to 
Paris (p. 13) ; from thence it passed to Germany, but 
found little support. Preyer says that military 
doctors and others appear often to have used empi- 



330 



HYPNOTISM. 



rical hypnotizing methods for small operations, such 
as tooth-drawing. Forel, Voigt, Tillaux, Le Fort, and 
others have lately performed surgical operations in 
hypnotic analgesia. 

The value of hypnotism for inducing analg« 
not very great. Analgesia cannot sometimes be in- 
duced at all, and sometimes only after repeated trials. 
The excitement before the operation increases the 
difficulty. At all events, the cases in which hypnotism 
can be used to make an operation painless are very 
rare; the care with which every such case is registered 
by the daily press shows this. Besides which we 
have at present so many certain means of inducing 
analgesia — ether and chloroform, which, however, 
occasionally kill the subject — that hypnotism is little 
likely to be much used. When by chance a person 
who is to undergo operation is found to be susceptible, 
there is no reason why hypnotism should not be used, 
Hack Tuke and Forel think that hypnotism should 
be used in all cases where chloroform would be 
dangerous. Forel believes, besides, that analgesia 
is more easily induced than I suppose ; it is pos- 
sible that a clever hypnotist may obtain better 
results in this direction than I have been able to 
do. 

I once hypnotized a patient in order to open a boil 
painlessly. I did not succeed in Inducing analgesia, 
but the patient was almost unable to move, so that 
I could perform the little operation without diffi- 
culty. 

Cases in which analgesia is induced by post- 
hypnotic suggestion, and the operation performed In 
the waking state, have a greater theoretical interest- 
(Boursier). 

The value of hypnotism in obstetrics is about 



■ 



r 



THE MEDICAL ASPECTS OF HYPNOTISM. 331 

same as in surgery. Lafontaine and Fillassier among 
the mesmerists have put women to sleep during 
labour, Li^beault has done the same with hypnotism. 
A series of such cases has lately been published 
(Pritzl, Mesnet, Secheyron, Auvard, Thomas, Varni er, 
Voigt, De Jong). The effects were not unfavour- 
able. The pains wore regular and strong, and could 
often be made almost insensible by suggestion. 

There is an interesting statement of Freyer's that 
Jörg, an eminent obstetrician, at the beginning of the 
century thought birth impossible in the magnetic 
sleep without a quick awakening ; a view which is 
now disproved. 

Much has been said of the use of hypnotism in 
education. This, however, belongs rather to path- 
ology, though such distinctions are rather arbi- 
trary. For example, a child gets chorea through 
imitating other children who have it. In such a case 
it is not easy to say where the bad habit leaves off 
and disease begins. The cases of B^rillon, who has 
cured various üttle tricks and bad habits in children 
by hypnotic suggestion, may be reckoned among 
diseases. It Is indifferent whether we say that 
hypnotism is used in such cases to cure disease 
or in the interests of education ; the point is, 
to know what is meant. But serious observers 
have by no means wished that hypnotism should be 
introduced into schools, but that suggestive treatment 
should be used by doctors to suppress the bad 
instincts of children. Only one author — Decroix — in 
spite of all sorts of contradiction, says that such sug- 
gestion should also be made by laymen ; the unani- 
mous opposition of Forel, Dekhtereff", and others . 
shows plainly that my view is just, When an 



333 HYPNOTISM. 

anonymous German author ' thought he made the 1 
thing ridiculous, or refuted French authors by banish- 
ing hypnotism from the schools, he simply refuted an 
assertion that was never made. Other authors have | 
taken superfluous pains to do the same. The French I 
authors (B^rillon, Hement, Netter, Leclerc, A. Voisin, ■ 
CoUineau) merely mean that certain faults in children, 1 
which in my view and that of others are pathological» I 
should be cured by medical hypnotic suggestion, par- 
ticularly when other methods have failed. 

The frequent objection (Blum, Seeligmiiller) that I 
children would thus become machines instead of inde- 1 
pendent creatures is erroneous. Hypnotic suggestion j 
and suggestion out of hypnosis have the same aim: 
to determine the subject's will in a certain direction. 
He is to do right, not unconsciously and mechanically, 
but with conscious will, which has got its direction 
either from hypnotic suggestion or ordinary educatioa ' 
Suggestion sets the conscious will in the right direc- •] 
tion as education does. 

Education is only good when what is taught grows 
into an auto-suggestion ; i.e., when in particular cases 
the well-taught person must consciously do the right 
he has been taught to will. But hypnotic suggestion 
is also only good when it turns into auto-suggestion 
(Forel) ; that is, when the same thing happens as 
without hypnosis. We see again that the false views 
result from the fact that hypnotic suggestion is taken I 
for an unconscious process — a supposition which 11 
have already refuted {p. 264). 
"' Cases of chronic alcoholism, which have been suc<i4 
cessfully treated by hypnotic suggestion by several! 
experimenters (Forel, A. Voisin, Ladame, Widm 
Wetterstrand, Corval), belong here. 

' In the paper " Hypnotismus in der Fädagogi!i^''p 
by Heuser, 



THE MEDICAL ASPECTS OF HYPKOTISM. 333 

A decision can no doubt be arrived at only by 
serious examination, such as the men just mentioned 
have mada 

I shall only briefly mention other scientific uses of 
hypnotism. It will no doubt be of great use to 
psychology, although psychologists in Germany seem 
disinclined to approach the subject. In other 
countries much psychological work, founded on 
hypnotism, has been done. Beaunis goes so far as 
to say that hypnotism is to psychologists what vivi- 
section is to physiologists. Forel and Krafft-Ebing 
think the same. Max Dessoir, in particular, has often 
represented the great value of hypnotism to psy- 
chology. 

I believe, indeed, that some of the facts are of the 
deepest interest ; e.g., the apparent freedom of will of 
hypnotic subjects in post-hypnotic actions. Hypno- 
tism is a mine for the psychological investigator, for 
hypnosis is nothing but a mental state. When we 
think that psychologists have always used dreams so 
much in their investigations of mental life, and that 
experiments can be better made in hypnosis than 
in ordinary sleep, because it can be regulated at 
pleasure, we cannot deny the value of hypnotism to 
psychology. Krafft-Ebing has lately pointed out how 
important it is in the study of consciousness. 

I will not enter further into the advantages which 
.other sciences may hope to gain from it I confidently 
hope that the study of it will help to clear up the 
hitherto dim field of mental life, and that it will help 
to free us from the mountain of superstition inste ad of 
increasing it 



CHAPTER Vlir. 



THE LEGAL ASPECTS OF HYPNOTISM. 



We will now discuss the points which have a par- I 
ticular interest in law. Some of the old adherents of I 
animal magnetism recognized the legal importance of 1 
the subject, though their point of view differed slightly | 
from ours. Thus, the commission which investigated f 
the matter in Deslnn's time, besides their official ver- I 
diet, sent in a private report to the king, which, it I 
appears, came to light through the Revolution ; they 
thought that morality especially was threatened. The 
mesmerists in Germany — Kieser, for example — also 
touched upon the legal side of magnetism. Char- 
pignon has occupied himself with the point lately. 
Liebeault also thoroughly discussed the question in 
his book in 1866, and his explanations are very valu- 
able even now. Gilles de la Tourette, Li^geois, and 
particularly Forel, Reden, Lilienthal, and Bentivegni 
have studied the legal side of the question very . 
recently. 

The first point to be considered is the relation ( 
hypnotism to crime. The crimes committed on, and 
by, hypnotic subjects must both be discussed, 
will begin with the first. 

The offences against morality to which hypnoti^ 
subjects are exposed, are important ; few such caseu 
have hitherto come to the notice of the law. F. Cj 



I 



THE LEGAL ASPECTS OF HYPNOTISM. 335 

Müller supposes that this may be because, from loss 
of memory, the subject is usually unaware of them. 
But Ford's supposition seems to me more probable ; 
he thinks such offences are rare because experimenters 
know that the loss of memory is only temporary, and 
that the subject may unexpectedly remember the 
occurrences of earlier hypnoses. A number of such 
cases were brought to justice In Germany at the time 
when animal magnetism was flourishing. Wolfram 
published one in 1821. A doctor is said to have 
assaulted his patient during the magnetic sleep. He 
endeavoured to avoid the consequences by procuring 
abortion, and this brought him to justtce ; however, 
he was acquitted. 

Lately several cases have been made known in 
France. A more exact collection of them may be 
found in Li^geois' book (" De la Suggestion," &c.). 
One case is that of a professional magnetizer of Mar- 
seilles, who, in 1853, assaulted a girl in the magnetic 
sleep. The experts, Coste and Broquier, with whom 
the well-known authorities on medical jurisprudence, 
Devergie and Tardieu, agreed, gave their opinion that 
a magnetized subject might be assaulted against her 
will and without her consciousness. 

The case of Castellan in 1865, reported by Prosper 
Despine, is better known. An assault was committed 
on a subject in an obviously hypnotic state, though she 
retained her consciousness. Li^geois refers the case 
to suggestion ; Castellan, the criminal, must have 
suggested to his victim, Josephine H., to love him, 
trust him, &c. CasteUan was condemned to twelve 
years' imprisonment, upon the opinion of Roux and 
Auban, with whom the doctors Hdriart, Paulet, and 
Th^us wore associated. 

The Lövy case, in 1879, is also interesting. A 



33« 



HYPNOTISM. 



dentist of Rouen, named L^vy, assaulted a girl in the 
magnetic sleep. The case is remarkable because the 
girl's mother was present and noticed nothing. L6vy 
had placed his dentist's chair so as not to be seen. 
Brouardel gave his opinion on the case and L^vy was 
imprisoned for ten years. 

Beilanger mentions the case of a woman who was 
assaulted by a doctor, and a case in Geneva in rSSa, 
in which Ladame gave evidence, may be mentioned ; 
the supposed offender was acquitted, as the accusa- 
tion was possibly false. 

There are some other cases in Li^geois, in Golt- 
dammer's Archives for 1863, and in F. C. Mijller's 
book, " Die Psychopathologie des Bewusstseins." 
The number would be slightly increased if some J 
cases of auto-somnambulism were counted among I 
them, 

The judgment of such cases would offer no diffi- 
culty if the state of affairs was always clear ; the 
same legal clauses would be used as in cases of 
narcosis by chloroform. 

Among further offences against hypnotic subjects 
may be mentioned intentional injury to health, which 
in some cases might be caused by post-hypnotic 
suggestion. All sorts of paralyses, loss of memory, 
&c., may be thus caused ; even some paralyses with 
objective symptoms, such as the so-called paralyses 
dependent on idea, on p. 63. It is not probable that 
these win ever be important from a legal point of 
view, and Lafforgue's supposition that a man might 
try to evade military service by causing a disease to 
be suggested to him seems to me even more im- 
probable. At all events, the law provides for such J 
cases. 

I need hardly add that bodily injury may be c 



by inattention to the proper precautions, nor need I 
discuss the question of deprivation of will in cases 
when the subject is hypnotized without his consent 

It has also been asked (Roux-Freissinerg) whether 
suicide might not be caused by suggestion ; to which 
I say, " Yes, if the suggestion were adroitly made." 

The hypnotic state might be used to get possession 
of property illegally. People can be induced hypnoti- 
cally and post-hypnotically to sign promissory notes, 
deeds of gift, &c. I reported to the Society of Prussian 
Medical Officers a case of a man who in the post- 
hypnotic state promised a donation to the Society, 
and carefully explained in writing that he did it of 
his own accord, after I had suggested to him that he 
should think so. Testamentary dispositions might 
be influenced in the same way. 

I shall speak later of the significance of such acts 
in civil law, when quoting Bcntivegni. I cannot 
venture to decide whether the criminal law would 
interpose in such cases. 

There are important differences of opinion about 
the offences which hypnotic subjects may be caused 
to commit Lidgcois, who has discussed the legal 
side of the question of hypnotism in a scientific 
manner, thinks this danger very great, while Gilles 
de la Tourette, Pierre Janet, Benedikt, and others, 
deny it altogether. 

There is no doubt that subjects may be induced to 
commit all sorts of imaginary crimes in one's study, 
1 have made hardly any such suggestions, and have 
small experience on the point. In any case a repeti- 
tion of them is superfluous. If the conditions of the 
experiment are not changed, it is useless to repeat it 
merely to confirm what we already know. And tfies 



338 



HYPNOTISM. 



criminal suggestions are not altogether pleasant 
certainly do not believe that they injure the mora 
state of the subject, for the suggestion may 
negatived and forgotten, But these laboratory e 
pcriments prove nothing, because some trace of corP 
sciousness always remains to tell the subject he i 
playing a comedy (Franck, Delbceuf), consequently^ 
he will offer a slighter resistance. He will moit 
readily try to commit a murder with a piece of pap« 
than with a real dagger, because, as we have si 
almost always dimly realizes his real situation. Thes 
experiments, carried out by Li^geois, Foureaux, am 
others in their studies do not, therefore, prove t" 



On the other hand, Li^geois has made some sucl 
experiments in all apparent earnestness, and in thq 
presence of officers of the law, by hypnotic an<I 
post-hypnotic suggestion, and even by suggestion i 
the waking state. He made a girt fire a revolver^ 
which she thought was loaded, at her mother ; an<S 
another put arsenic into the drink of a relation. Sd 
that it cannot be disputed that a crime may be comfl 
mitted in this way, as Li^gcois and Forel insist, 
theoretical grounds I believe it is possible with somd 
subjects. There may be much exaggeration. Fol 
example, few people arc so susceptible as to accef^ 
the suggestion of a criminal act without repeatetj 
hypnotization. It is also true that many would refua 
even after long hypnotic training (Delbceuf). Gillei 
de la Tourette insists, besides, that a criminal who 
suggested an olTence would be no more protected 
from discovery than if he did the thing himself. A 
hypnotic subject is not a suitable instrument for 
the commission of a crime. For a person who 
would commit a crime by post-hypnotic suggestion 



^^^ normal 
^H that 



THE LEGAL ASPECTS OF HYPNOTISM. 339 

would, generally speaking, not be a person of the 
most honourable character, since morally defective 
people are decidedly easier to affect in this way than 
those with strong principles (Forci). However, 
criminal suggestion is not impossible. Forel thinks 
the greatest danger is that at the time the suggestion 
is made the subject may be induced to believe that 
he is acting without constraint. But this should only 
be possible in the case of morally defective persons. 
If such a case were brought to justice, the experts 
would need to consider the following explanations. 
As has been said, all suggestions, criminal and other- 
wise, can be made hypnotically or post-hypnotically, 
and the legal decision would differ accordingly. 

Till now I have called those states "waking states" in 
which a post-hypnotic suggestion is carried out when the state 
was apparently normal, eiccept on the one point. But I onl/ 
did this to avoid complication ; the question has been passed 
over, but Benlivegni has lately called attention to it. I will, 
therefore, now consider whether there is a mental state which 
may be called normal in spite of irregularity on one point, as 
is the case when post-hypnotic suggestions are carried out in 
an apparently normal waking state. 

We will take a simple case. I say to X. in hypnosis, '' When 
you wake you will give A. a blow in the ribs." X. wakes, and 
instinctively does what I told him. He perfectly remembers 
doing it, and will accept no other suggestion either before or 
during the act. Thus it appears that X. is quite normal, except 
on the one point. But the modern psychology, and medical 
jurisprudence in particular, say that a man cannot be mentally 
abnornlal on one point only ; they rather suppose a mental 
disturbance showing itself on one point, which is a symptom 
of general menial disturbance (Kraffl-Ebing, Bentivegni, Morel, 
Maudsley). Therefore the sl.ite in carrying out a post-hyp- 
suggestion would be abnormal, though it appeared 
normal, as Bentivegni insists. But this author rightly thinks 
ihai this cannot be supposed in all cases of post-hypnotic sug- 
gestion, otherwise we should be obliged 10 think every man 



340 



HYPNOTISM. 




who accepted a therapeuEic posC-hypnolic suggestion 
abnormal state while he carried it out. Here 
hypnotized in my warm room, and I tell him to say in half 
hour, " Your room is frightfully hot.'' Now, supposing that it 
is really hoi in my room, the carrying out of this post-hypnotic 
suggestion would by no means sufüce to prove the abnormal 
stale of the subject. 

Thus we see that in these cases — we are only corsiderij^ 
cases in which there is no symptom of a new abnormal state — -- 
the suggestion is sometimes carried out in a changed mental 
slate, and sometimes in a completely normal one. How can we 
decide which is which ? A diagnostic point is difficult to find, 
but it seems to me that Bentivegni's is the only practicable 
one at present, though it is rather vague. He says, " The state 
while carrying out a post-hypnotic suggestion can oiJy be 
thought normal when the motive force of the suggestion is 
such as can also be explained by the normal disposition of the 
subject, and when it is not so opposed to reality that the normal 
individual would discover and correct it." According to the 
last clause, post-hypnotic sense delusions without a renewed 
state of suggestibility would at once prove an abnormal mental 
state ; according to the first, an abnormal state of consciousness 
must also be supposed for the carrying out of numerous post- 
hypnotic acts, even when there is no renewed state of suggesti- 
bility. Truly, in many cases it is difficuU to decide whether 
a subject finds the motive force for his posthypnotic act in 
his nonnal disposition or not. However, Bentivegni has 
found a point of view from which these post-hypnotic sug- 
gestions may be judged. I now apply this to the two above 
examples. One post-hypnotic suggestion was that X. should 
give A. a blow in the ribs. Let us suppose that X. is a peaceful 
man, who likes A. ; then the motive of X.'s act would be ioex- 
phcable from his normal disposition ; consequently, according 
to Bentivegni, his post-hypnotic state would be abnormal, 
Y.'s remark about the heat was different. It was a natura 
remark, supposing that the room was really warm, Conse- 
quently we have no reason lo conclude a generally abnormal 
mental stale. The question is no doubt difficult to decide 
because " normal disposition '' is hard to define. However, 
llentivegni has brought us a good deal nearer to solution, 

Desjardiiis in France expresses the strange opinioi 



I 



THE LEGAL ASPECTS OF HYPNOTISM. 341 

that a person who commits a crime by hypnotic or post- 
hypnotic suggestion is punishable, because he might 
have foreseen the possibiHty of such a suggestion. 

According to Lilien thai this position is quite 
untenable. It would be a strange sort of justice 
which punished a crime committed in unconsciousness 
and without intention. The case would be different 
if the subject had caused the criminal act to be 
suggested to him in hypnosis, perhaps with the view 
of carrying it out more courageously. Lilienthal 
thinks that in this case he would be punishable. The 
power of self-determination would be normal at the 
moment of decision. The induction of the hypnosis 
would be the cause of the act, and consequently the 
subject would be guilty (Lilienthal). 

Campili, who has thoroughly discussed the different 
legal questions connected with hypnosis, distinguishes 
between the standpoints of two schools, the classical 
and the anthropological. ^ According to the first 
there is no guilt in the last-mentioned case, as there 
can be no reflexion when the crime is committed ; 
according to the last the criminal must be punished 
because he is dangerous to society. 

If hypnosis is considered to be a state of mental 
disease, then all actions in the hypnotic state must go 
unpunished. Punishment of an act committed in a 
state of mental disease would be at least a novelty. 
It is not the custom at present, even if the legal code 
did not prevent it. 

' ll may briefly be remarked, that in Italy these two scbools 
are decidedly opposed ; tlie classical school recognizes freedom 
of will, and the anthropological does not. However, the last- 
named also agrees to punishment in such a case ; but only 
because the person concerned is dangerous to society, i 
because his vsill is free when be commits the offence. 



342 



HYl'NOTISM. 




The importance of hypnosis in civil law was i 
seriously considered at first Most investigato; 
passed it over, supposing that hypnotism could only 
be important in criminal law. However, Bentivegni 
has put forward the contrary in a detailed work. I 
am, unfortunately, no expert, and cannot decide th? 
question. The main points of what follows are there 
fore borrowed from Bentivegni's work, which besidej 
puts forward many new views in connection witi 
hypnotism. 

Bentivegni, in discussing hypnotism in its relai 
tion to civil law, distinguishes between responsibili™ 
in business and hability for damages. The 
means such a degree of freedom of will as is neces 
sary for the transaction of business in connectioifl 
with legal affairs. Liability for damages means ths^ 
degree of freedom of will which causes responsibilitj 
for unlawful acts. 

As regards responsibility in business, BentivegnW 
thinks that a mere state of hypnotic suggestibility 
is enough to exclude it, since in such a case th( 
power to act with reflection and reason is wanting 
Tt is true he also takes the stage of hypnosis intc 
account, for a very light stage would hardly excluded 
responsibility in business, It should be said that inX 
opposition to earlier views, he thinks that not only^v 
such acts as are carried out through hypnotic sug-T 
gestion are invalid, but that tlie mere existence of | 
hypnotic suggestibility is enough under some circum-' 
stances to exclude business responsibility, even when J 
the acts are not suggested. He thinks the same aboufev 
most post-hypnotic suggestions, where he makes 
several distinctions. All transactions are invalid! 
which are effected in a post-hypnotic state in whichJ 
there is renewed suggestibility. Also, the stat« 



THE LEGAL ASPECTS OF HYPNOTISM. 343 

during the carrying out of a post -hypnotic suggestion, 
if it is united with post-hypnotic forgetfulness of the 
act, excludes responsibility, even if the suggestibility 
has ceased. But we saw (p. 145) that a person may 
be apparently quite awake and yet carry out a post- 
hypnotic suggestion without remarking it, without 
falling into a new hypnosis, and calmly talking 
meanwhile. Now we must ask whether such post- 
hypnotic suggestions affect responsibility in business. 
Bcntivegni decides this according to the kind of 
suggestion. When the post-hypnotic suggestion is 
merely a movement or action which the subject often 
does automatically at other times, there is no reason 
to question the responsibility. Some persons, for 
example, have a habit of scribbling on paper. Now, 
according to Bentivegni, if he does this post-hyp- 
noticaily, he is not in an unfit state for business. 
But he is unfit when he does post-hypnotically what 
he would refuse to do under normal circumstances. 
Bentivegni thinks that when the post-hypnotic act 
is done in an apparently waking state, i.e., when there 
is no loss of memory and no susceptibility to sug- 
gestion, the question becomes very difficult. He 
thinks (p. 340) that in such a case all depends on the 
nature of the suggestion. The question is. Are the 
suggested acts, and their possible motives, of such a 
nature as to be willingly received into the conscious- 
ness of the subject, and to be compatible with the 
general content of his consciousness, or not? Ben- 
tivegni gives the two following examples ; i. A. 
owes B. £20, but has forgotten it ; in hypnosis he is 
told to pay B. the money at the first opportunity, 
which he does, post-hypnotically. 2. C, who is not 
in good circumstances, is told in hypnosis to make a 
present of his personal property to D., whom he does 



HVP.WOTTSM. 

not like. He wakes, and the idea occurs to him wb< 
he sees D. ; he resists at first, but finally formally 
obeys the order. 

According to Bentivegni, in Example I. neithi 
responsibility for the particular act nor the capacity fc 
business in general need be doubted, because the sug- 
gestion was acceptable to the motives pre-existing inj 
the subject's consciousness. But in Example II. thei 
must be a revolution in the subject's consciousness' 
before he will obey a suggestion so contrary to hia' 
interests. Therefore Bentivegni thinks the responsi- 
bility is doubtful, at least as far as the single acfe' 
is concerned. ' 

In other cases the incapacity is much more exten- 
sive, because delusive ideas may be post-hypnotically 
suggested, which, without doubt, cause incapacity for 
business so long as they last, in the same way as do 
the delusions of the insane. Bentivegni thinks it 
should be provisionally supposed that a subject who 
is under the influence of a post-hypnotically sug- 
gested idea must be considered unfit for business, 
when this idea is of such a kind that its spontaneous 
recurrence would partially or wholly do away with 
his responsibility. 

Finally, besides the post -hypnotic suggestions 
wliich do not interfere with consciousness, and 
those which alter consciousness, as insane ideas do, 
Bentivegni discusses a third category of suggestions. 
For example, a subject might be told in hypnosis 
that a particular cngrav*ing was an oil-painting. In 
such a case the error must be considered, i.e., the 
inability to perceive the real facts. It is an important 
question whether such a suggested error is excusable;' 
Bentivegni thinks it generally is. If the 
excusable, there could be no claim for damages, 



I 

I 




THE LEGAL ASPECTS OF HYPNOTISM. 345 

Bentivegni next discusses liability for damages. 
This implies an illegal act committed in a respon- 
sible state, and the civil law punishes it with fine. 
According to the Prussian common law all illegal 
acts are irresponsible when the agent is not in 
possession of his reason and is unable to control his 
actions. Consequently the conclusions that Benti- 
vegni draws with regard to irresponsibility in business 
hold good also for liability for damages. 

They hold good for all acts done in a state of 
hypnotic suggestibility, such as in deep hypnosis and 
in some post-hypnotic states of suggestibihfy, and 
further for the post-hypnotic states in which there is 
loss of memory. If such a division of the conscious- 
ness occurs through post-hypnotic suggestion that 
a suggested act is done, independently of the normal 
activity, e.g., if a subject after hypnosis, but under the 
influence of post-hypnotic suggestion, injures some 
other person, he will not be liable to damages if he is 
in an unfit state for business, as this state is described 
above. But any man who causes himself to be 
hypnotized, only that he may not be responsible for 
his misdeeds, must make reparation for every damage, 
as appears from a decision of the common law 
(Bentivegni). 

Of course, I have been unable to enter into detail 
on all points. I have taken the chief facts concerning 
the legal importance of hypnosis from the learned 
work of Bentivegni, " Die Hypnose und ihre civil- 
rechtliche Bedeutung," as may be seen from the 
numerous quotations. I recommend the book to any 
one who wishes to study the question. 



Retroactive hallucinations are of great import- 
ance in law. They can be used to falsify testi- 



346 



HYPNOTISM. 



mony. People can be made to believe that th) 
have witnessed certain scenes, or even crimes, &c* 
I have before pointed out the analogy between.! 
these retroactive suggestions and many phenomena I 
of ordinary life. Lilienthal believes that the trainingj 
of witnesses is the same sort of thing, and ForelJ 
explains the management of the different parties in a A 
lawsuit by the counsel in the same way. Max.| 
Dessoir agrees with him. Bernheim and Motei 
believe that the Tisza-Eszlar lawsuit was the resultl 
of a retroactive suggestion made by Moritz Scharffl 
without inducing hypnosis. As a matter of fact two f 
parties often assert the exact opposite both in law ) 
cases and in ordinary life without conscious falsehood. 
An old proverb says, " The wish is father to the j 
thought;" and each party imagines what it wishes. I 
An honest delusion of memory is the consequence. 

Bernhcim insists upon certain rules of precautionJ 
for preventing witnesses giving false testimony purely 1 
in consequence of the method of examination. He j 
thinks that the suggestibility of the witnesses should \ 
be tested, and that this could be done by suggesting I 
a reply which could at once be proved incorrect. This I 
advice, with which Forel agrees, may seem self- 
evident, but it is practically valuable. Every one I 
knows how easily mistakes are made in legal cases I 
from mental excitement. Any excited state lessens J 
the power of cool reflection which is required iofm 
every act of memory. 

Bernhcim's wish certainly does not appear super-! 
fluous, when we recollect that he has succeeded in { 
inducing complete delusions of memory by sugges- 
tion without hypnosis; he has made people believe! 
they had witnessed thefts, &c., which were purelyj 
imaginary. 



I 



[ 



THE LEGAL ASPECTS OF HYPNOTISM. 347 

The next question is, Can hypnotism be in any way 
made useful to justice? It cannot be denied that the 
point may become of practical importance at any 
moment. Is hypnotization in a court of justice 
allowable at present? Lilienthal says it certainly 
is under some conditions, and for some purposes. 

To the question occasionally asked, whether hyp- 
notism may be used to obtain testimony from the 
accused or from witnesses which they decline to give 
in a waking state, we must certainly answer in the 
negative, in the present state of the law. 

The practical value of such a proceeding has been 
much exaggerated. In the first place, very few 
people can be hypnotized against their will, and it 
is not to be supposed that an accused person would 
submit to the necessary conditions. 

Besides this, I think it a mistake to suppose that 
a hypnotic subject would divulge all his secrets so 
easily. This supposition is copied from one book 
into another, but is none the truer for that. It is 
supported by a few well-known cases ; for instance, 
that of Giraud-Teulon and Demarquay, who were 
obliged to wake one of their subjects who began to 
tell secrets ; and a similar case is related by Brierre 
de Boismont. Though I do not -contest the truth of 
these cases, I must insist that the phenomenon is rare. 
I have never observed it. According to my experience 
the subject keeps his individuality, and what he does 
not choose to tell he hides. A further question, 
whether the subject can be induced to tell by sugges- 
tion, must be answered in the affirmative, in a few 
cases. I have hardly any persona! experience in this 
direction. I once observed a case of lock-jaw, 
the subject feared some word would escape him. 
spasm was so strong that it was impossible to 
artificially. 



1 



in this 

, when ^^M 
The ^H 



348 HYPNOTISM. 

It is much easier to attain the end in a circuitoutf'.l 
way thaji by suggestion ; by suggesting a false!« 
premise, for example, as I have mentioned on p. i6i, I 
Let the subject be told that some person is present in J 
whom he would confide, or that the people he does not I 
wish to tell are absent. This answers in many cases. 

But all such statements must be received with I 
caution, for I can safely assert that hypnotic J 
subjects can tell falsehoods as well as if they were. I 
awake, and that subtle webs of falsehood are invented I 
in hypnosis. Lombroso tried in one case to obtain ] 
a confession of a crime which had been proved, 
though the subject had always denied it. The \ 
attempt was useless ; the subject told the same tissue I 
of iies as when awake. Laurent and Algeri give the I 
same information. In any case, a statement made in J 
hypnosis must be received with caution ; it might be j 
an indication, but not a proof 

I have, however, made some experiments in anotherj 
direction. Interested by Max Dessoir's expcriment&-a 
in automatic writing, I tried to obtain results in thef 
same way, with a subject whose consent I previously. I 
got. I put a pencil into his hand, and ordered him 1 
to answer certain questions, but not to write purposelyi , 
The subject wrote everything I told him, and | 
answered every question, betraying many family I 
secrets without knowing it or wishing iL He did 4 
not know that he was writing. I have not space tO:l 
enter into details of this case. 

Thus, in law, hypnotism might be used to decide! 
whether a person were hypnotizable or not, or tol 
obtain a statement which the accused or the witnesses^ 
cannot give in the waking state. Such a case may 1 
occur, and, as a matter of fact, the question hasJ 
already been of practical importance. 



THE LEGAL ASPECTS OF HYPNOTISAf. 349 

Such statements in hypnosis would be valuable 
because subjects remember in later hypnoscs all that 
has occurred in earlier ones. Now, if it is suspected 
that tlie subject has been the victim or the instrument 
of a crime which he forgets in the waking state, it is 
evident that hypnotism should be judicially used, 
for re-hypnotization might clear up the case. 

But according to Lilienthal there is a legal limi- 
tation here. He thinks an accused person or 
subject may be hypnotized if he consents. But hyp- 
notization is only permissible to confirm the fact of 
hypnotizability, and he thinks a judicial examination 
in hypnosis is illegal. However, the arrangement of 
criminal proceedings does not appear to me so care- 
fully defined that a statement made in hypnosis 
might not be received in particular cases ; it is certain 
that in some circumstances such a statement might 
be very important. For, as so many persons are 
susceptible, a mere proof of susceptibility to hyp- 
notism would not be worth much. Lilienthal thinks 
that such a statement is inadmissible, because the 
testimony of unsworn witnesses is only allowed in 
certain cases, and an oath could not be administered 
to a hypnotized subject, and it would not be possible 
either to make him swear to his statement after 
waking. The statements of an accused person in 
hypnosis are not admissible, because he should not be 
compelled to make statements against his will. How- - 
ever, I think that Lilienthal here overlooks the 
fact that when an accused person, who has forgotten 
the criminal suggestion in his waking state, demands 
to be hypnotized that he may remember, he is not 
making a statement against his will. At the most it 
would only be a statement without his will, I cannot 
venture to decide what scruples a lawyer might have, 



3S0 



HYPNOTISM. 



neither do I feel competent to decide whether the | 
statement of a hypnotized witness is admissible 

law. 

Goltdammer relates that this question of the usi 
of hypnotism in law called up a discussion in a < 
of justice between the defending counsel and thel 
counsel for the crown, in a suit at Verona twenty-six [ 
years ago. It was a case of assault in magnetic sleep. 
There was loss of memory in the waking state. The \ 
defending counsel opposed the counsel for the crown, 
who proposed to re-magnetize the assaulted person, but j 
the court agreed to his doing so, as it considered the 1 
induction of the magnetic sleep merely as a method I 
of proof The victim made important statements in ] 
the sleep, and in consequence of these the accused J 
was condemned. 



We will now discuss what should be done when the ] 
accused person pleads that he has committed the , 
offence through hypnotic or post-hypnotic suggestion, 
or when he says he has been the victim of a crime in 
hypnosis. If such a plea had never boon made, hyp- 
notism need never be judicially considered. The 
point requiring consideration, as Forel points out, 
is that when the crime is suggested it may also be \ 
impressed upon the subject that he shall think he has J 
acted freely. However possible this may be, a con- 
sideration of it at present would lead to the most ' 
monstrous consequences. If any regard were paid to I 
it, we should be obliged to take into consideration 
that every case of crime might be a result of hypnotic ] 
suggestion. This is always theoretically possible, J 
especially when the crime does not in any way 1 
advantage the accused (Dclbceuf). But at present— 
whether rightly or wrongly must be left out of th« 



r 



THE LEGAL ASPECTS OF HYPNOTISAf. 

question — it is impossible for Justice to weigh this 
point. We must confine ourselves to the considera- 
tion that this objection might be raised, greatly to 
the advantage of the accused (Riant). 

Let us suppose that the accused says the crime was 
suggested to hira, that he felt a subjective constraint, 
and that he has often been hypnotized, but that he 
does not remember the suggestion. 

It would then have to be judicially decided— (l) 
whether the accused was really hypnotized ; (2) 
whether a suggestion was made to him in this state ; 
(3) who made the suggestion ; (4) to what degree he 
was suggestible (Max Dessoir). 

Now, if the statements of witnesses were insufficient, 
he could be hypnotized ; but, as is easily to be seen, 
hypnotization would naturally prove nothing. I will 
therefore suppose that examination and statements 
made in hypnosis were legally admissible. Making 
use of the memory in hypnosis we should, first of all, 
ask who made the criminal suggestion. If no a 
was obtained (since tlie originator might have also 
suggested loss of memory) an indirect method must 
be used, such as Li^geois mentions ; the originator 
might be discovered by means of association, if any 
one is decidedly suspected. The subject might be 
told to laugh, cough, &c., when he saw the originator, 
or his photograph, or heard his name. I believe he 
could probably be got at in this way ; but there must 
be a starting-point, such as suspicion of somebody. 

If nobody were suspected the name of the origi- 
nator might probably be got at in some other way ; 
e.g., by automatic writing. 

I think it certain the aim could be attained by 
repeated suggestions, in spite of loss of memory ; for 
a suggested loss of memory can be made to disappear 



35' 



HYPNOTISM. 




I 



by repeated contrary suggestions in a new hypnosi 
Finally, as I have said, the degree of suggestibility! 
must be ascertained. This could also be done by I 
fresh suggestions, which would have full play in i 
new hypnosis. But further, the author of the crime 
might suggest that the subject should not be hypno- 
tizable by anybody but himself, as has been explained 
on p. 1 57; this would complicate matters. Although 
no experiments have yet been made on this point, nny 
own experience makes it seem probable that even 
such a suggestion might be made ineffectual by re- ' 
peated opposed suggestions in new hypnoses — sup- I 
posing, of course, that a repetition of the originai ' 
suggestion could be prevented. 

The case would be the same if a subject asserted * 
that he had been the victim of a crime ; new hypnoses I 
must be induced, and if there was loss of memory the 
question must be cleared up by examination during I 
hypnosis, supposing the law allowed it, 

AH this shows what difficulties would arise if hyp- 
nosis should become an important question in law. | 
New hypnotization would only result in a certain- 
degree of probability, since (i) there is intentional \ 
falsehood in hypnosis ; (2) the assertions may be 
influenced by previous suggestions ; (3) the answers 
are readily influenced by the method of examination ; 
(4) previous suggestion may make new hypnoses very 
hard to induce. 

AH which shows that statements in hypnosis might ' 
be indications, but could never be proofs. Danillo 1 

. thinks such assertions so completely untrust- 
worthy that he proposes to refuse to accept them. 
As a matter of course all the other points should be 
weighed, as in ordinary cases ; such as who benefits | 
by the crime; whether the subject has often beenj 



THE LEGAL ASPECTS OF HYPNOTISM. 353 

hypnotized, &c. This would be the only way when 
the person supposed to have been influenced by sug- 
gestion is already dead, as is conceivable in a will 
case. Such a case does not seem to be unlikely, and 
would be very difficult to clear up. 

And in cases of legal hypnotization the possibility 
of simulation must, of course, be considered, as well 
as the possibility of a purposely false accusation 
(Ladame). In judging of simulation the bodily 
symptoms of the school of Charcot must on no 
account be alone considered, as they are relatively 
uncommon. Gilles de la Tourette ascribes a legal 
importance to the stages of Charcot and their symp- 
toms, which they by no means deserve. 

Finally, Forel's opinion may be mentioned. He 
thinks indirect extortion of money by an unprincipled 
experimenter a much greater danger in hypnotism 
than direct criminal actions, and that it would not be 
difficult for such a man to avoid direct conflict with 
the law. 

Many proposals have been made for avoiding the 
possible dangers of hypnotism to health as well as to 
morality. Delacroix, in France, demands that hyp- 
notization should be legal only for doctors, and then 
only when at least two are present. Friedberg wished 
in 1880 that hypnotic experiments should only be 
allowed in the presence of a doctor ; ' Grasset and 
others agree with him. 

' According to a short notice in the Deutsche Med. Zeit, in a 
part of Russia any doctor who wishes to hypnotize is ordered 
to have two other doctors present. This proposal — about which 
I can find no further details — plainly shows a want of experi- 
ence. On the ground of my own experiments I could make 
many objections, but content myself with the following : (i) 
Wlio is to pay the two doctors who are merely spectators f. 



r 





354 HYPNOTISM. 

. It would certainly be well to avoid all dangers \ 
means of a law. But to begin with, the term ' _ 

notism " is vague and hard to define, and this alone 
would raise all sorts of difficulties. And other diffi- 
culties would be raised by the fact that many people 
can hypnotize themselves (Preyer). 

But hypnotization is by no means so dangerous as 
would be concluded from many novels, whose authors 
have naturally chosen the rarest and most sensational 
phenomena. There are in reality things more im- 
portant than hypnotism from a hygienic standpoint. 
For example, it would be of great service if exact 
legal directions for disinfection were given to both 
doctors and laymenattendingcasesof diphtheria, and if 
disobedience to such directions were severely punished. 
This point seems to me much more weighty than the 
hygienic importance of hypnotism. How many 
people have communicated diseases by insufficient 
disinfection! The happiness of many families has 
been destroyed, and the guilty person has remained 
unpunished. 

I think it indispensable that science should take 
possession of hypnotism. This is the easiest way to 
prevent its misuse. When I speak of science I 
naturally mean psychology as well as medicine, for 
hypnotism will never become a factor in medicine 
without a scientific psychological basis. Psychology 
is needed for the investigation of mental states just 
as chemistry and physics are needed for the testing 
of drugs and the investigation of electricity. But just 

(2) Should a doctor, who is perhaps treating a poor man with- 
out any fee, pay the two other doctors into the bargain? 

(3) If there is only one doctor in a place is he to fetch doctors 
from one or two other places to witness an experiment which 

- perhaps must be repeated daily ? 



THE LEGAL ASPECTS OF HYPNOTISM. 355 

as medicine is obliged in part to leave the study of 
chemical and physical agents to the representatives 
of other sciences, so it will be obliged not only to 
leave the investigation of hypnotism to psychologists, 
but to beg them to undertake it. But as it is 
necessary to have some physical and chemical know- 
ledge in order to prescribe drugs, so it is necessary 
for a doctor to have some psychological knowledge 
before he can use hypnotism. In a time when the 
pillars of therapeutics, though apparently raised on a 
foundation of exact medicine, are crumbling more 
and more ; when the supposed fixed indications — 
which many think are a prerogative of non-mental 
therapeutics — are more and more attacked ; when 
men like Unverricht, Arndt, and Hugo Schulz dis- 
cover the errors and false conclusions of a system of 
therapeutics supposed to be guided by fixed indica- 
tions ; when the " exact " therapeutics of fever have 
been more and more abandoned during the last ten 
years, and knowledge of fever seems to be returning 
to the standpoint of Hippocrates, we have no right 
to be hostile to psychology. Nowadays, when ill- 
grounded therapeutics are Increasingly attacked by 
doctors as well as laymen, an assertion such as was 
lately made is untenable : " Mental treatment is out- 
side the domain of medicine, because there are no 
fixed indications for mental treatment." But mental 
therapeutics are an integral part of medical treatment, 
and as the study of hypnotism is a department of 
psychology, it should not be superciliously rejected 
hypnotism should be regarded as a department 
science in medical circles as well as in any others. 

From this point of view medicine and psychology 
should unite to study the question. In any case 
path is made plain already. Public exhibitions 



atment, 

nent of 

Reeled ; ^^| 

^H 

:hology ^H 
ase the ^^^| 
ns have^^^H 



ates, thougb'^H 
inism in the ^^B 



3S6 HYPNOTISM. 

called the attention of science to these states, 1 
on the other hand the flavour of charlatanism i 
matter has repelled many. For this reason it is a - 
good thing that such public exhibitions have been 
forbidden in Prussia. Nothing now prevents our 
approaching the subject in a scientific manner. 

I do not wish to depreciate the services of those 
who have drawn attention to hypnotism by public 
exhibitions. Just as 1 refuse to join in the general 
condemnation of Mesmer, I try to judge men such as J 
Hansen, Bollert, and others, fairly. Though their 
motives may not have been purely unselfish, they 
have been of great service to science, since without 
them we should probably still be ignorant of the sub- 
ject. To the honour of those mentioned, to whom 
Donato may be added, it should be expressly stated 
that all three of them have been ready to help the 
representatives of science in the most straightforward 
way. Heidenhain, Michael, Wernicke, Morselli, and 
many others have emphatically recognized this. None 
the less, I oppose such exhibitions for the reasons 
mentioned, and I do not think they are justified by 
Delbceufs supposition that they are the best means 
of spreading a knowledge of hypnotism, and thus 
lessening its dangers. 



CHAPTER IX. 



ANIMAL MAGNETISM, ETC. 



The following chapter aims at giving the reader an 
idea of some phenomena which are often mentioned 
in connection with hypnotism, although the connec- 
tion is rather historical than essential. In my view 
they are the consequence of erroneously interpreted 
observations. But as they are often quoted, and 
it is necessary to know at least something about 
them, I will explain them in the following sections. 
I do not think that the conclusions drawn from them 
are just, but everything should be examined without 
prejudice. A scientific refutation helps truth more 
than ä priori negation ; and some of these things 
are related by eminent observers. An investigation 
is as much in place here as it was when Virchow 
consented to examine the case of Louise Lateau 
when the necessary conditions were fulfilled. As 
Virchow remarks what we call the laws of nature must 
vary according to our frequent new experiences. 

The phenomena are — (i) animal magnetism; (2) 
super-normal thought-transference, telepathy {sugges- 
tion mentale) ; (3) certain super-normal acts in som- 
nambulism ; (4) the effect of the magnet on hypnotic 
subjects ; (5) the effect of drugs on approach or 
contact. 



3i8 



HYPNOTISM. 



Lthe ; 
lierci 
whic 



In animal magnetism the chief part is played by 
a personal influence, not resulting from suggestion, 
which A, exercises over B, The following examples.J 
will make this clear : — 

A. tells B., " You cannot speak." B, hears, andl 
cannot speak ; this is merely suggestion. If A. J 
makes mesmeric passes down B.'s arm, and anal- 
gesia follows, this may be also suggestion. B. knows 1 
what A. is doing, and the result may be produced by j 
B.'s imagination in a purely mental way. Let us I 
suppose that C. comes on the scene, and makes 1 
passes over B.'s arm, and that analgesia does not j 
follow ; suggestion explains this too. B. believes [ 
that A. can induce analgesia, and that C. cannot, j 
and the results arc in accord with his belief. But I 
the case is different when B. does not know whether 1 
A. or C. is making the passes. According to the I 
views of the adherents of animal magnetism — the J 
so-called mesmerists — A. can produce analgesia by \ 
magnetizing and C. cannot. They therefore think I 
that A. has some personal influence which sugges- I 
tion docs not explain. This influence is an inherent / 
power in some people, and only such people can 1 
magnetize. This example shows what is at present j 
understood by mesmerism or animal magnetism I 
(vital magnetism, bio-magnetism, zoo-magnetism). 

The mesmerists think that a man who has this ] 
power can cause local or general analgesia or con- 
tractures, or even cure diseases. He can even maj 
nctize children under a year old, and influence them 
therapeutically. Litbeault, the founder of the Nancy 
school and of the method of suggestion, who disputed 
the magnetic influence in iS66, became a firm ad- 
hercnt of it later. In 1883 he published a book in j 
which he describes cures of children under threeJ 



ANIMAL MAGNETISM, ETC. 



359 



years ; these cures caused the change in his views. 
He thought that though nearly ail might be ex- 
plained by suggestion, something remained which 
needed another explanation, and this he called 
animal magnetism or zoo-magnetism — a name used 
by Bartels in the beginning of this century. Lately 
Li^beault appears to have abandoned his belief in 
animal magnetism again. 

Besides the effects named — induction of analgesia 
and contractures, the healing of diseases, and its 
influence on young children— other effects of this sup- 
posed animal magnetism are mentioned as proving 
the existence of the force. Du Pre!, one of its 
decided adherents, gives the following ; Firstly, 
animals can be magnetized, in which case he thinks 
suggestion out of the question. On this point I 
refer the reader to the hypnotic experiments on 
animals which I have described. Such a force can- 
not be concluded from them. In the first place, it 
is by no means proved that animals are not suscep- 
tible to suggestion ; e.g., if an animal is held for some 
time, why should it not be able to conclude that it is 
unable to move, even after it has been released ? 
Many eminent experimenters hold this view. And 
further, certain stimuli applied to the nerves of the 
skin make movements impossible, though the stimuli 
are not caused by some unknown force ; and the fasci- 
nation which the rattlesnake exercises on birds cannot 
be considered a proof, in Du Prel's sense of the word, 
any more than the fascinating gaze of a man can be 
considered to prove the possession ot some force 
peculiar to himself. Secondly, Du Prcl speaks of 
magnetic experiments on sleeping persons, i.e., on 
persons who did not know they were being mag- 
netized. But it must be remarked that sleep does 




36o HYPNOTISM. 

not involve an absolute loss of consciousness; con-! 
sequently, that suggestion, in the psychological sense>J 
is not impossible in sleep. Thirdly, the same author 1 
can magnetize people at a distance, as well as asleej^ 1 
in which case suggestion is also supposed to be ex- ' 
eluded. Fourthly, he says that plants can be mag- 
netized and their growth thus influenced, as is said 
of the fakirs {cf. p. 216). Fifthly, the magnetic force 
can be passed on to inanimate objects, which then 
have the same effect as the magnetizer. Sixthly, 
Du Frei brings forward the super-normal thought- 
transference, which I shall shortly discuss, in proof of 
animal magnetism. 

The magnetic influence is used by means of mes- 
meric passes, by touch, byfixed gaze of operator and 
subject, by breathing on the subject (Bar^ty), and 1 
some think by concentration of thought and will on | 
the desired result (Puysögur, Nasse). 

The mesmeric passes described on p. 22 are most 1 
generally used. Much information about the direc-l 
tion of the passes can be found in the books of the 1 
mesmerists. The effect is supposed to be different j 
according as the passes are upwards or downwards, 
or made with the back or palm of the hand, apart 
from suggestion. The right and left sides have diflfe- 
rent effects. The mesmerists all speak much about 
the polarity of the magnet, and Fludd, Hell, and 
Mesmer supposed there was a similar polarity in 
men. The same thing has been asserted more re- 
cently by Chazarain, D^cle, Duiville, De Rochas, J 
and Barety, But I find such opposed views among I 
the different investigators about the distribution of ' 
the poles that for the present I ascribe the supposed 
polarity to unconscious habit. 

The mesmerists have put fortli many theories to 



' I 

I ANIMAL MAGNETISM, ETC. 361 ^H 

explain this persona! influence. I pass over most of ^^| 
them for brevity's sake. But I will mention those ^^| 
of Mesmer, because many false views are widespread ^^M 
about them. He says the whole universe is filled with ^H 
a fluid which is more subtle than ether, just as ether ^| 
is more subtle than air, and air than water. This fluid 
conducts vibrations just like ether, air, and water. As 
the vibrations of the light-ether cause light, and those 
of air cause sounds, so the vibrations of this universal 
fluid cause other phenomena. The mutual influence 
which the heavenly bodies undisputedly exercise on 
each other and the earth are caused by the vibra- 
tions of this fluid. One animal body influences 
another by means of the vibrations of this fluid, 
Mesmer called this animal magnetism. 

This theory of Mesmer's is often confused with 
another theory of a fluid. Mesmer was thinking of 
a universally extended fluid. Another theory sup- 
poses a fluid in the nerves, which is called outwards 
by movement. This is the assertion of Albrecht von 
Haller, the famous physiologist of the last century, 
who established his priority to Mesmer, although 
their theories are by no means identical. These 
are not mere notions invented and defended by 
swindlers and fools. Many clever men — A. von 
Humboldt, for example — thought that a force in the 
nervous system could produce effects at a distance, 
if not at a great distance. The well-known phy- 
sician and anatomist, Reil, held a like view. In 
any case the mesmerists had the support of eminent 
scientists, who supposed a nervous fluid surrounding 
men. Mesmerism has even quite lately found some 
adherents among eminent men of science. Ed, von 
Hartmann is a convinced adherent of it, and founds 
his belief on personal experience. 



362 



HYPNOTISM. 



I shall pass over the other theories of animal mag'- J 

netism, merely mentioning that many persons dhä'^ 
not believe in the universal fluid. 

The mesmerists maintain that sleep need not! 
always be induced before a person can be magnet!- 1 
caliy influenced ; that the subjects may be thoroughly J 
awake ; and that this is the distinction between mes- J 
merism and hypnotism. But it should be said that \ 
there is by no means always a true sleep in hypno- 1 
tism. It is evident that the old mesmerists knew the] 
light hypnotic stages well ; they called them mag- 1 
netic states. The mesmerists also did not use the 1 
personal methods exclusively ; they used inanimate I 
objects for magnetizing, such as the baqitet of Mesmer I 
and Puysegur's favourite magnetized tree. They 1 
thought that the magnetic force passed into the I 
object from the magnetizer. But when this was not j 
the case they were not at a loss. When no magnetize* J 
has touched the object, as is the case in the method J 
of Braid, then (as Moricourt thinks) the fluid of the-.| 
subject is reflected from the object gazed at, and t 
is affected by his own fluid. 

So-called animal magnetism has been made of practica 
importance by its use by healing magnetizers, who a: 
posed to be able lo cure diseases. The utter lack of c; 
among thein, which makes scientific discussion impossibl 
obliges me to renounce the attair.pt Ij give details, though 1 
am convinced that not one professionai magnetizer has ] 
proved that he possesses any particular power unexplain 
by suggestion. On the other hand, many authors — e.g., Göler 
von Ravensburg — have pointed out great sources of e 
that childlike faith would be required to take their asseTtioasI 
seriously. 

The phenomena of thought-transference, menta 
suggestion, telepathy, or, as Mayerhofer calls 
tel^esthesia, are related to animal magnetism, an^ 



ANIMAL MAGNETISM, ETC. 363 

are often spoken of in connection with it. Telepathy 
means the transference of thoughts, feelings, sensa- 
tions, &c., from a person A. to a person B. by some 
means other than the recognized sense perceptions 
of B. Consequently such thought-reading is alto- 
gether excluded, in which one person guesses the 
thought of another by means of the tremors in his 
muscles, i.e., by a recognized kind of perception. 
Telepathy has a certain relation to mesmerism 
(Ochorowicz). 

In making the experiments, the person B., who is to 
guess the thoughts of A., is often mesmerized by A., 
as this is supposed to make the transference easier. 
Some English experimenters, Guthrie in particular, 
have made experiments when both persons were quite 
awake. The transference is supposed to be caused 
merely by a strong concentration of thought on the 
part of the agent. In the same way the subject feels 
the agent's sense perceptions. If A. is pricked, B. 
feels it ; if A. tastes salt, B. tastes it, &c. It is also 
said that A. can make B. act, merely by concentrating 
his thoughts on what B. is to do. Others think that 
it is the concentration of A's. will on B. which causes 
the action. Perronnet even maintains that it is pos- 
sible to influence the pulse and cause vasomotor 
changes telepathically, by an effort of will. The 
nearer A. is to B. the better, but the phenomena are 
said to have been observed when subject and agent 
were separated by several kilometres. It is said to be 
even possible to hypnotize certain people at long 
distances by concentration of thought ; such experi- 
ments are said to have succeeded at Havre. Among 
authors who vouch for the reahty of telepathy, and 
whose experiments deserve consideration, I mention 
Chades Riebet, Ochorowicz, Pierre Janet, Gibert, 



and ^H 



364 HYPNOTISM. 

Myers, A. Myers, Gurney, Birchall, Guthrie, and Max 
Dessoir. However, these experiments raise some 
doubts. Those published by Du Prel, Schrenck- 
Notzinj, Mensi, and Welsch, contain so little in- 
formation about the conditions of the experiments 
that it is difficult to weigh the question. 

Clairvoyance is the perception of things distan^ 
either in time or in space. Belief in it is as old as 
history ; Du Prel reminds us of the Oracles. The 
prophecies of the Pythia at Delphi show that it was 
even then believed in. From what has come down to 
us in history it seems that the state of the Pythia was 
like deep hypnosis, although they probably used toxic 
methods also; Kluge and Ed. von Hartmann think that 
the state was somnambulism. It was the same thing 
with the Sibyl of Cum^e. 

The mesmerists think clairvoyance and the trans-J 
position of the senses of which I shall shortly speaj 
are phenomena to be found in magnetized subje< 
It is not certain whether Mesmer himself knew of Ü 
phenomena; but it appears from one of his lettei 
(published by Du Potet) that he was acquainted wit| 
them, but did not enter into them, because thej 
appeared to him inexplicable. Most of the commla 
sions which have investigated clairvoyance have failed^ä 
but some great minds — Schopenhauer, for example-!^ 
have believed in iL Even Braid, about whose viei 
there are so many mistaken opinions, believed i 
clairvoyance. This must be mentioned, because fro 
Preyer's representation of Braid's teaching we should 
be obliged to conclude that he denied clairvoyancf 
I should explain the passage in Braid's NeurypnologjJ 
p. 21, in quite the opposite sense. Braid thougM 
clairvoyance proved, though he had never si 



ANIMAL MAGNETISM, ETC. 



36s 



r could not induce it himself; but he thought that a 
number of those who vouched for its reality were 
scientific and truth-loving enough to be believed ; he 
expressly says so, and there can be no doubt about it. 
The magnetic state in which such phenomena as 
clairvoyance, thought-transference, &c., are found, is 
sometimes called somnambulism ' by the mesmerists. 
In previaional clairvoyance forthcoming events are 
foretold ; in spatial clairvoyance things are seen which 
are so placed in space that normally they would be 
invisible ; they are either separated from the seer by 
some non-transparent substance, or they are too far off 
to be seen. In Paris, somnambulists are often made 
use of in diagnosing disease ; this is a kind of spatial 
clairvoyance. One common experiment is to make 
the somnambulist diagnose his own disease, foretell its 
course, and mention the drugs to be used, 

In transposition of the senses, stimuli, which nor- 
mally would only affect a particular organ of sense, 
affect some other part of the body. For example, 
letters are said to be read by means of the skin, 
instead of the eyes, without a heightening of the 
sense of touch, such as is found in the blind. On the 
contrary, the part of the skin concerned is supposed 
to be stimulated by the light rays, even without direct 
contact, and when there is no hyperesthesia of feeling. 
The supposed transposition of the senses is thus dis- 
tinguished from hyperEesthcsia of the sense of touch, 

" Consequetiiiy the word somnambulism is used in several 
senses : i. One of Charcot's stages is often called somnambulism. 
2. The school of Nancy calls that hypnotic state somnambulism 
in which there is loss of memory after waking. 3. Some identity 
hypnotism with somnambulism. 4. Somnambulism is a natural 
sleep in which there are aciions and movements. 5. The 
mesmeric slate described above is called somnambulism. 



I 



366 



HYPNOTISM. 



One of the most commonly mentioned phenomena is 
reading or hearing with the pit of the stomach. I 
have seen a person who was supposed to read with his 
nose, even at a distance of several feet When his 
nose was covered with wadding he failed. It is toler- 
ably certain that he saw with his eyes; for though 
they appeared to be covered with wadding and ban- 
daged, Braid has pointed out that such bandaging is 
of very doubtful use. 

I will here mention some experiments of Heiden- 
hain's which are generally misunderstood, and which 
at any rate may be easily misunderstood. He main- 
tained that his subjects repeated whatever he said to 
them when a stimulus was applied to their stomachs ; 
it was necessary to speak close to the stomach to 
stimulate it. He even said that the part could be 
exactly defined, and that it was the region of the 
stomach. According to him the vagus nerve was set 
vibrating and the sound centres were stimulated, and 
thus a sound was made which exactly corresponded to 
the one heard ; but he thought the sound was heard 
by the ear and not by the stomach, the nerves of which 
merely stimulated the sound centres and thus induced 
imitation of what was heard by the ear. It might be 
concluded from many accounts of Heidenhain's ex- 
periments that he thought his subjects heard with 
their stomachs, but nothing was further from his 
thoughts. I have said on p. Si that Heidenhain was 
probably wrong in his conclusions. 

The law of the individual capacity of the sense 
organs ' would be violated by transposition of the 
senses. But I do not think the thing is proved. 

■ According to this law each organ of sense has its own 
appropriate stimulus, which has no effect on any other organ, 
e.g., the eye is stimulated by light, but nni the sense of touch or j 
tiie sioinach. 



ANIMAL MAGNETISM, ETC. 367 



rThe belief in the action of the magnet on human 
beings is very old. The Magi of the East used it for 
curing diseases, and the Chinese and Hindoos used it 
long ago. Albertus Magnus in the thirteenth century, 
and later Paracelsus, Van Helmont, and Kircher also 

^used it, as well as the astronomer and ex-Jesuit Hell 
of Vienna at the end of the eighteenth century. 
Mesmer is said to have heard from him of its effect 
upon men, and he also used it at first (p. 5). Even 
then many doctors — e.g., Deimann, of Amsterdam — 
denied the therapeutic action of the magnet, and 

I asserted, as others do at present, that brass plates did 
as well. ReiJ, the well-known physician, used the 
magnet therapeutically ; in 1845 Reichenbach asserted 
that some sensitive persons had peculiar sensations 
when they were touched by a magnet. He also said 
that theysawlight — the so-called Orf light — at the poles 

»of the magnet : an assertion that was supposed to be 
disproved, but which has lately been again made by 
Barrett, in London. Maggiorani, in Italy, has lately 
contended for the therapeutic use of the magnet 
(Belfiore), and quite recently the school of Charcot 
has asserted the influence of the magnet on certain 

I individuals. 
I have already spoken of the application of the 
magnet for inducing hypnosis, as well as of the action 
of the hypnoscope. 
With regard to the action of the magnet during 
hypnosis, the phenomena of transference must first be 
mentioned. According to the school of Charcot, 
transference means that certain phenomena, influenced 
by some zest hesio-gene tic expedient, particularly the 
magnet, change the placeof their appearance. Charcot 
says that such phenomena are seen in hysterical 
patients. Thus, contractures on the right side can be 



368 



HYPNOTISAf. 



transferred to the left by the ma^et Charcot, as 
well as a number of other experimenters, among them 
Preyer, thinks these phenomena quite proved, while 
in Germany a mental factor has been called in to 
account for them. It was supposed that the subject's 
expectation produced the effect and not the m^net, 
and that (according to Westphal) sealing-wax, boni 
&c,, produced the same result, provided only that 
subject expected it. The school of Charcot say that 
this transference takes place in hypnosis as well as in 
the waking state. The laws which Binet and F6r^ 
have laid down about it are as follows i When 
lethargy on one side of the body and catalepsy on the 
other have been induced by closing the subject's eyes, 
the approach of a magnet causes lethargy on the 
cataleptic side, and on the lethargic side catalepsy. In 
the same way, when the state is somnambulistic on one 
side and cataleptic or lethargic on the other, the magnet 
causes transference. But also, in each particular 
hypnotic state, symptoms can be transferred by the 
magnet from one side to the other, e.g., the individual 
contractures in lethargy, and particular postures of 
the limbs in catalepsy. In somnambulism, contrac- 
tures as well as hallucinations of one side, and hemi- 
anjesthesise, can be transferred in the same way. 
Binet and Viri say that when hypnotic subjects 
write with the right hand, they reverse the direction 
of the writing under the influence of the magni 
and write at the same time with the left hand. 

Another method of influencing with the magnet is 
called polarization. It is a reversal of a functional 
state (Belfiore). For example, the magnet is supposed 
to resolve a contracture induced by suggestion (moti 
polarization). It can banish a suggested hallucinati* 
and can change the mental pictures of colours 



;crs 
letiH 



4 




ANIMAL MAGNETISM, ETC. 369 



r their complementaries. If a subject believes he sees 
blue, he thinks he sees yellow when the magnet is 
brought close to him (sensory polarization). The 
magnet is said to change happiness into sadness 
(mental polarization). When a reversal of the state 
takes place, e.g., when " blue " is turned into " yellow," 
i.e., into its complementary colour, then this is called 
polarization in a narrower sense, and an arbitrary 

I change of state, i.e., the changing of " yellow " 
into "red" is called "dispolarization " (Lombroso, 
Ottolenghi). Binet and F^ri^ are the authors oi 
these experiments, which are confirmed by Bianchi 
and Sommer, whose experiments, however, offer no 
guarantee that suiflcient precautions were taken ; at 
least I have found nothing concerning this point in 
their publications. Lombroso and Ottolenghi also 
affirm the phenomena of polarization. 

I The phenomena of mental polarization were care- 
fully examined by a special committee of the Medical 
Congress at Padua. They were not confirmed ; at least, 
they could not be referred to the action of the magnet. 
Tanzi especially opposes them, and thinks they are to 
be referred to unconscious and unintentional suggestion. 

IVenturini and Ventra made a therapeutical experi- 
ment in connection with these phenomena. They say 
they conquered a fixed idea, an auto-suggestion in the 
waking state, by means of the magnet. Some experi- 
ments of Raggi belong to this class ; he says that the 
approach of a magnet in hypnosis often causes sub- 

Ijective discomfort. In other cases the magnet is said 
to have put an end to the hypnosis. 
A third possible way of influencing the hypnotic 
subject by the magnet is given by Tamburini and 
Seppilli, They think that when the magnet is brought 
close to the pit of the stomach it influences the 



370 



HYPNOTISM. 



respiratory movements. Later on, Tamburini and 
Righi found that other metallic bodies produced the 
same effect ; the strength of the effect depended, how- 
ever, on the size of the metal. The electro-magnet 
is said to have the same effect whether the stream is 
open or closed ; Tamburini supposes later that it is 
only the temperature of the magnet which has the 
effect, and that the magnetic force may have no 
Influence. 

In conclusion, there are Babinski's experiments, 
founded on a union of true magnetism and animal 
magnetism. If a hypnotized subject and a sick person 
are set back to back, a magnet put between them will 
cause the sick person's symptoms to pass over to the 
hypnotized subject. Hysterical dumbness and con- 
tractures have been thus transferred. But symptoms 
of organic disease, e^., of disseminated sclerosis have 
also been transferred in this way. As a matter of 
course the phenomena must not be caused by sugges- 
tion. The hypnotic subject must not know what the 
sick person's symptoms are. Luys made such 
experiments with the same result. 

All these actions of the magnet are very enigmatical, 
and my personal conviction is that the observations 
were erroneous. But it is certainly singular that the 
action of the magnet should have been asserted by so 
many authors at so many different times. 
' Little can be safely said in explanation of its effect, 
Obersteincr supposes that there may be a magnetic 
sense, which may come into activity during hypnosis, 
and which is, perhaps, localized in certain terminal 
brgans of perception whose functions are still un- 
known. 



The action of drugs at a distance is at the pr^ 



w 

^P moment 
H authors s 



ANIMAL MAGNETISM, ETC. 



371 

moment supposed to be disproved, though some 
authors still assert it. This also is no new thing. The 
belief has often arisen that certain persons could find 
water or veins of metal with a divining-rod, through 
some influence of the water or minerals at a distance. 
Burq's metalloscopie and metallotyrapie. In which, 
however, there was contact with the metals, was the 
same sort ofthing. 

Certain persons were supposed to be inRuenced by 
particular metals — copper, for example— -which even 
caused symptoms of disease to disappear. The later 
investigations on the action of drugs at a distance 
apparently proved that certain drugs in hermetically 
closed tubes would, when brought close to human 
beings, act in the same way as if they were swallowed. 
Thus, strychnine was supposed to cause convulsions, 
ipecacuanha vomiting, opium sleep, alcohol drunken- 
ness, &c. The experiments were first made by Grocco 
in Italy, and Bourru and Burot in Rochefort. They 
experimented with both waking and hypnotized 
people; Luys repeated the experiments with hypno- 
tized subjects and confirmed them ; so did Duplouy 
and Alliot. Luys went further ; he even found dis- 
tinctions, according as the ipecacuanha was appüed to 
the right or left sides. 

It is known that these experiments have been 
repeated in other quarters, e.g., by Jules Voisin, Forel, 
Seguin,and Laufenauer, without result ; Luys brought 
the subject before the French Academy of Medicine, 
which appointed a commission (Brouardel, Dujardin- 
Beaumetz,and several others) to test the question in the 
presence of Luys ; they came to a conclusion opposed 
to his. Seeligmuller has confuted the experiments in 
a much better and more scientific way, which appears 
to me the only proper one for coming to a deciMon. 



\ 



372 HYPNOTISM. 

It consists of examining the conditions of t 

ments ; the leports of commissions have r 

value. When we consider the history of animal 

magnetism we see that commissions always find 

what they wish to find ; the result is always what 

they expect. Commissions, in fact, are much infltb 

enced by auto-suggestion. 



of the expt^^^l 
: no parti cull^^l 
mal 
find 
■hat 



Although I have spoken of a number of enigmatical 
phenomena in this chapter, 1 have not done so 
because I wish to maintain their reality; I should 
expressly state that this is not the case. I thought it 
necessary to mention them briefly, on account of their 
connection with the history of hypnotism. It was 
further necessary to point out the many sources of 
error in such experiments. 

One important condition in such experiments is 
that every word uttered should be taken down by 
some person present for the purpose. One apparently 
unimportant word may be enough to justify the chief 
objection made to such experiments — i.e., suggestion. 

And there is an absence of criticism in most of them. 
When a subject reads in a closed book, and it is not 
proved that he was unacquainted with it previously, I 
think it is at least 7iaive to speak of clairvoyance. 
When the magnet causes transference in subjects who 
know that the magnet is supposed to cause trans- 
ference, it should be proved that the subjects could 
not know of the presence of the magnet through their 
organs of sense. When the approach of the magnet 
changes a subject's perception of "blue" into "yellow," 
let it be proved that he did not know the magnet was 
near, for a properly "trained" subject knows that 
the magnet is supposed to change his perceptions of 
coJour. When it is asserted that drugs in closed tubes 



ANIMAL MAGNETISM, ETC. 



H have an effect, Beriiheim's conditions should be 
H observed, the chief of which is that no one in the 
H room should know the contents of the tube. When it 
H is asserted that some persons can magnetize others by 
f means of a particular force, let suggestion be excluded. 
The impression that A. makes upon B. is often im- 
possible to calculate, and when A. can influence B., 
but C. cannot, it should be shown tliat A. does not 
know whether B, or C. is magnetizing him. This is 
of course very important ; for there is no doubt that 
some people, by the manner in which they play their 
part and by a thorough knowledge of the technique of 
suggestion, can influence subjects who are refractory 
to others. It by no means follows that they possess 
a peculiar magnetic force ; suggestion will explain it. 
The chief sources of error in the experiments 
described in this chapter are as follows; — 

1. Intentional simulation on the part of the subject 
in or out of hypnosis. A simulation of hypnosis is less 
to be feared, because if a person saw without using his 
eyes, it would not matter whether he was in hypnosis 
or not ; the main point is the seeing. But even when 
there is hypnosis, the experimenter is not protected 
from simulation on the subject's part, because lying 
and fraud are possible even in deep hypnosis. 

2. Unintentional simulation, if I may use an ex- 
pression which is really contradictory. For example, 
the subject hears something, and is not conscious that 
the impression has been made on the usual organ of 
this sense ; as is the case when subjects themselves 
believe they hear with their stomachs. Or trans- 
ference happens, when the .subject has been induced 
by training to produce this phenomenon whenever a 
magnet is brought near him. The subject pays no 
attention to the approach of the magnet, and is not 



374 HYPNOTISM. 

really conscious of it, and yet the effect appears. In 
the same way the subject in thought-transference 
learns to guess others' thoughts from many little 
signs, but is not conscious that he does so. The 
involuntary tremor of the muscles which every one 
has when he concentrates his thoughts strongly, and 
which betrays his thoughts to the subject, seems to 
me a great point in these cases ; Wernicke in par- 
ticular has pointed out this source of error. 

It should be especially guarded against In clal 
voyance, because persons present, who can see 
thing which the clairvoyant is to see without using his' 
eyes, may give indications by involuntary muscular 
movements, &c. Even Göler v. Ravensburg, who is 
generally so practical, does not enough consider the 
'mportance of this point. 

3. The probability of chance success. As many 
experiments fail, it should be considered whether the 
number of successful ones exceeds probability. 

4. Coincidence. E.ff.,a. command given in thought 
may be obeyed, because by chance, or for some 
reason, experimenter and subject think of the same 
thing. In telepathy the first order thought of is 
nearly always that the right arm should be raised, 
This source of error is both great and interesting. It 
has lately been carefully examined by a member of 
the American branch of the Society for Pyschical 
Research, C. S. Minot. Thus it has been discovered 
that every one prefers certain figures, &c., which recur 
strikingly often, even when the choice is left open. 
Now, when in a telepathic experiment one person is 
to divine a number thought of by another, it would 
be necessary to discover if they prefer the same 
figures, if they have the same ■' number habit." This 
must also be weighed in experiments with cards, \a 



ali^l 



ANIMAL MAGNETISM, ETC. 37S 

which it appears to me the ace of hearts is very often 
chosen. It is evident that great care must be exer- 
cised in drawing conclusions, and that the study of 
" mysterious " phenomena leads to the recognition of 
important laws. 

5. Hyperzesthesia of the subject's organs of sense 
often allows him to perceive things imperceptible to 
others. 

6, The increased power of drawing conclusions, 
which I have spoken of before, must be taken into 
consideration, 

Münsterberg supposes that in thought-transference 
the agent's strong concentration of thought may 
throw him into a hypnotic state, and that in this 
state he may simply tell the subject what he is think- 
ing of, without remembering it afterwards, I have 
myself made and watched numerous experiments, 
and cannot think the supposition just. Wernicke's 
supposition is just as doubtful ; he thinks that different 
thoughts induce different cfifluvia from the skin, from 
which a properly trained subject can discover what 
the agent is thinking about. 

When the published experiments are criticized by 
the rules given above, very few are left which are 
worthy of serious consideration. These are chiefly 
the experiments in thought-transference of Guthrie 
and Birchall, published by the Society for Psychical 
Research. I could discover no sources of error in 
them. As conscious deception is c-icluded, the 
supposition that the experiments did not really take 
place as published is out of the question. However, 
even here there was no regular registrar of the pro- 
ceedings ; and besides, I am subjectively convinced 
that some sources of error were overlooked, and that 
suggestion was somehow or other called into play. 



376 HYPNOTISM. 

Perhaps somebody else may be able to discover thesa 
In any case the members of the society are too scien- 
tific and too honourable not to recognize sources of 
error which are pointed out. 

There is nothing to be said against the present 
examination of inexplicable things. Almost all great 
steps in natural science have been made by some one 
who had the courage to contest existing views, in 
spite of the danger of looking ridiculous. Harvey 
was obliged to struggle with the prejudices of his 
colleagues for years before the circulation of the 
blood was accepted. The fall of meteors was long 
denied. Modern anatomy was founded by Andreas 
Vesaüus, who fought the prejudices of his time often 
by improper methods. The fact that a thing is 
contrary to known laws ought not to prevent its 
being examined. The contradiction is often merely 
apparent, and even the laws of nature change from 
day to day, as Virchow has said. Theories never 
precede facts ; observation first, and then theory, j 
The electric current does not contract muscles because ■ 
the book says so ; the book says so because the \ 
current causes the contraction. As Herbert Spencer 
explains, experience comes first, and then theory. 

Everybody may not care to approach this subject ; 
but they should not blame others for their unpreju- 
diced investigations. So long as science does not I 
examine everything, practically and without preju- j 
dice, the great delusions of which animal magnetisi 
&c., makes use, will continue to exist. When care- | 
ful examination has shown the sources of error, I 
charlatanism will have lost its chief support. The I 
indifference of science has always been the mainstay I 
of charlatanism. The dread that many people have I 



I 



CONCLUSION. 377 

of investigating things of evil reputation is the chief 
support of imposture and error, and yet how much 
can be done to suppress them by a careful investiga- 
tion of even what is improbable. The real enlighten- 
ment of the people can only be attained in this way. 

It is incomprehensible to me that even scientific 
men should call those who interest themselves in 
hypnotism marvel-mongers. Any one who examines 
the question seriously will find, on the contrary, that 
the latest hypnotic experiments explain in a natural 
way much that has been called strange and super- 
natural. Stigmatization, for example, and automatic 
writing, which seems to be almost unknown in most 
scientific circles, and for this reason, and for want 
of scientific examination, is a powerful support to 
spiritualism and superstition. The spiritualists think 
that automatic writing proves some external force, 
because a work showing design, and independent of 
the consciousness of the writer, can only be produced 
by an external force or a spirit. But thanks to the 
investigations of Taine, F. Myers, Gurney, Pierre 
Janet, and Max Dessoir, automatic writing has now 
received another explanation, as table-turning did 
through Faraday. It is the same with many other 
phenomena which have been pressed into the service 
of superstition. 

Whoever reads the writings of the magnetic healers 
and spiritualists will see how bitter they are against 
the investigators of hypnotism, and how angry the 
professional magnetizers become about suggestion, 
which takes the ground from under their feet (Forel). 
Truly great men try to avoid dogma and ä priori 
conclusions, in spite of scientific doubts. If they can- 
not examine themselves, they yet consider a scientific 
examination, even of the improbable necessary. An 



378 



HYPNOTISM. 




example which Delboeuf brings forward may 
mentioned. Darwin once wished, it is said, to ex*i^ 

amine the influence oF music on the growth of plantv] 
because such an influence had been talked of before I 
him, and he therefore made some one play the ■' 
bassoon for several days, close to some planted beans, 
If this anecdote is not true, it is well invented. Ex- 
amination will conquer superstition sooner than an 
ä priori philosophy. The non -recognition of dogma 
distinguishes science from blind faith, but to say a I 
fact is impossible because it is opposed to the laws j 
of nature is to dogmatize. 

We should be careful, besides, not to make the 1 
mistake of claiming supernatural powers for ourselves I 
and denying them to others. When — as happened 1 
to me — an otherwise scientific man, X,, of Berlin, said | 
that the subjects of Forel and Bcrnheim were im- 
postors, without having seen them, and without 
offering proof, he made the mistake of claiming clair- 
voyance for himself, though he denied its existence. 
I have often seen such self-contradictions. Knowledge 
of the laws of nature is still in its infancy. Have the I 
elementary mental processes yet been explained?! 
Has any one ever explained how an ovum, fertilized 
but soulless, develops into a being with a soul ? Has 
it been explained how the brain moves the muscles 
by means of the nerves ? Do we know why an apple 
falls to the ground ? The, most elementary processes I 
are inexplicable wherever we look, and most people I 
only do not think them inexplicable because they see^ I 
them every day. Some one has justly said that ] 
dreams, as well as hypnotism, might be called an | 
extravagant fancy, if they did not happen every day. 

In spite of the progress which the exact sciences. ] 
have made, we must not for a moment forget that the J 



CONCLUSION. 379 

inner connection between the body and the mental 
processes is utterly unknown to us. Under these 
circumstances we should not refuse to examine the 
apparently inexplicable. Let us, however, impose 
severe conditions, and not accept any facts on 
authority without proot 



^ INDICES. ^^H 


^^^^^^^^ INDEX OF CONTENTS. ^^^^B 




■ Academy, Berlin, 59 


137, 139. 141. 142, 143. 146. 


■ „ Uavaria, 5 


147, 149. 160, 167,201,210, 


■ „ Paris, 11, 14, ziSi 


213,242,244. 247,251,254, 


W 339. 371 . 


264, 284, 285, 319- 335, 336, 


" Accommodation, spasm of, go 


339- 349. 350, 35= 


Acne pustules, 119 


Ansemia, 131 


Acting, 13s, i6S< 278, 279 


Anesthesia (loss of feeling). 


Activity, mental, 58, 123, 160 


98, 160, 281. See Anal- 


eU., 174, 182, 19S, 212, 


gesia 


L 375 


Analgesia (insensibilily to 


■ Acts, compulsory, 155, 244 


pain), 45, 49, 75, 104, 106, 


H II dynamogenetic, 270 


116,237,238,279,281, 294, 


U „ habitual, 171,285 


3'ö, 329.330. 331. 359. 'S'« 


„ impulsive, 156 


Surgery 




Anatomy, 296, 376 


Age, 41, 135. "34, 136 


Anger, 106, 181 


Agoraphobia (dread of open 


Animals, experiments with, 15 


spaces), 68, 316 


213 «fc-, 263, 359 


Agraphia (inability to write), 


Animal-tamer. 216 


131 


Antipathy, 162 


Aissaoua, 32 


An ti pyrin, 300 


Alcohol, 207, 37 1 


Aperients, log, 202 


Alcoholism, 41, 316, 332 


Aphasia (loss of speech), 84, 


Alen stage, 49 


131, 132, 144, 159, 188. See 


Allochiria, 96 


Stammering, Dumbness 


Allopathy, 328 


Aphonia (loss of voice, not to 


^L Amaurosis, 98 


be confounded with loss of 


H Amnesia (loss of memory), 


speech), 316 


^t 49) 501 123 etc., 129 eU., ' Apoplexy, 266, 318, 331 ^^M 



33i IND 

Appetite, loss of, 105, 316 
Aniculaiions, rheumatism of 

ihe. 318 

Associations, 54, 92, 103, 160, 
164, 198,254,168,351. See 
Reproduction 

Association, fibres of, 2 68 

,. of ideas, dreams 

from, 195 

Astrology, 4 

Ataxy, locomotor, 99, 100, 280, 
294, 300, 318 

Attention, 26, 27, 33, 40, 44, 
45, 68, 16;, 167, 194, 198, 
203,211,326 rff-, 234, 235, 
256, 23B, 23g, 264, 270 

Attention, expectant, 256 

Authority, 222, 236, 295, 296, 
378 

Auto- hypnosis, 28, 127, 208, 
216 

Automatic movements, lao, 
149, 168, 1S3, 238, 239, 242, 
246, 247, 26-1, 265, 284, 28?, 
291. See Continued Move- 
Automatic writing, 18s, 247 
etc., 348, 3SI, 377 

Auto-somnambulism (spon- 
taneous somnambulism), 
283. See Somnambulism 

Auto-suggestion, 58, 59, 94, 
116, 117, 129, 190, 232, 306, 
307,316,319,320, 323,332, 
369, 372 

Awakening, 146, 147, iji, 172, 
176, 207, 278. See Waking, 
method of 



Balassa's method with horses. 



Jaquet, the, 5, 6, 362 
ialhing, treatment by, 301 



Blindness, 98 
Blood, circulation of, 109, j 
„ contained in brain, i 
271 
Bowels, secretion of, i _ ^ 
„ action of, 109, m 

112, 140 

Braid's method, see ] 

attention, method of 
Buddhists, 31 
Burns, wounds from, iij, : 



Canals, semi-circular (part « 
the internal ear, injury t. 
which causes abnormal! tieif 

Capsula interna (series of 
fibres in the brain which 
conducts the voluntary 
motor impulses, among 
others, from the cerebral 
cortex to the periphery), 36(5 

Carbolic acid, 300 

Catalepsy, 7, 13, 14, 46, 67, 68, 
71,87,88, 90, 108, 113, 166, 
168 etc., 188,207, 211, 282, 
293 

Catalepsy, stages of, 49, 75 
etc., 214, 279, 280, 367 

Cataleptoid phenomena, 78, 
216 



from J 



Belladonna, 299 
Biceps, the, 314 
Biomagnetism. See Magnet- 
Bladder, the, 113, 113 



Cataplexy (paralysis 

fright), 214 
Catatony (of Kahlbaumu 

(mental disorder, with cata 

leptic phenomena ; 

muscles), 206 
Catholic Church, ij, 11 
Centres, sub-corlical, 263, 27C^ 

307 
Changes, organic, 



43. "72, 325 _ 

Charcot, sdiool of, 15, 16, 30|fl 
75,76,79, 82, 83, 275, 27flC 
3S3, 365, 367 



I 
I 



Charcot's letter, 314, 315 

stages, 49, 76 etc., 
189, 206, 269, 35 3, 365 

Charit^, hospital, Berlin, 8 
Children, 41, 323,253,288, 331, 

358, 359 
Chinese, 367 
Chloroform, 35, 46, 207, 299, 

311,330,336 
Chorea (St. Vitus' dance), 316, 

331 
Clairvoyance, 8, 9, 72, 99, 163, 

364, 36fi, 372. 373, 378 
Clock, mental (Kopfuhr), 250 
Clonus, 63 
Coincidence, 374 
Cold-water cure, 294, 317 
Collapse (sudden weakness of 

the heart), 299, 328 
Colour-blindness, 98 
Colour, sense of, 98, 280, 281 
Combined methods, 34 
Commissions, 6, 11,334, 364, 

369. 372 
Compulsion, 153, 154, 159,350 
Conclusions, false, 301, 302, 

314,315 
Congress at Paris, the, 19 
Conjunctiva, 9S 
Consciousness, 95, 98, 124, 

139, 171 etc., 179, 183, 185, 

i93i "99. 218, 222, 239, 243, 

258, 263 etc., 266, 270, 284, 

2S5, 332> 345. 346. See 

Dream -consciousness and 

Memory 
Consciousness, disturbance of, 

167, 170, 204 

usness, double, 128, 

Ic, 348, 3SO 

usness, dream, 2 28, 

231 */f-, 237, 240, 254 etc. \ 
Consciousness, loss of, 76, 78, 1 

79. 187 etc., 170, 203, 254, 

336«/;-., 339. 341,359 I 

Consciousness, primary, 240, ; 

245 f'f- 
Consciousness, secondary,240, 1 

341, 245, 246, 21)8 etc., 253 I 



Consciousness, severance of, 
34^ etc. See Double con- 



Consciousness, 
_^24S 



sphere 



of, 



Conlact, I, 2, 5, 29, 30, 67, 
163 

Contractures, 6r, 63, 64, 68, 
70 etc., 76 etc., 87, 88, 108, 
166, 199, 109, 25;, 276, 277, 
279, 283, 294, 359, 367. 370 

Convergence, 29, 72, 281 

Corium, 117 

Cortex, cerebral, 108, 263 etc., 
272, 307 

Credulity, 1 22 1 etc., 236, 237 

Crimes against hypnotic sub- 
jects, 334 f/c, 350 

Crimes by hypnotic subjects, 
337 etc, 350 

Crises, 305 

Cures, 2, 4, 5,9, 118, 308,323, 
324, 367. See Medicine 

Cures, miraculous, 291 etc., 
325 

Cures, sympathetic, 4 



Damages, legal, 342, 343 
Diemon of Socrates, 255 
Deaf-mutism, 324 
Deafness, 98, 186, 305 
Deep stage, 4,9 
Dehypnoiization, see Waking 
Deliriujn tremens, 207 
Depolarization, 369 
Dervishes, 32 
Diseases, nervous, 207 

„ organic, 31;, 318, 

321 
Disease, Thomsen's, 207 

,, mental, 3, 195, 202, 

204, 20fi, 273, 274. 316, 

317. 339.341 
Disgust, [04 
Distrust, 42,321 
Disturbances, vaso- mot or, 276, 

281, 2S3. S'ff Flushing 
Divining-rod, the, 371 



^H 3B4 INDICES. 1 


^V Dogma, 172. 293. 377 


Eye, the evil, 66 


^H Donatism, 49 


Eyes, watering of, 54, 95 nj. 


^H Dreams, 37, 93, 124 etc., 140, 


281 


^H 147, 161, 176, 177, 194 ete.. 




^H 204, 240, 26z. 303. 316, 333. 




^H 378. See Dream conscious- 


Face, expression of, 93, 106, 




131. 149, 164, 181. 211, 278 


^H Dreams caused by stimulation 


Fainting, from electrisation. 


^H of nerves, 194, 195, 196, 204 


305 


^H DruKs, 7. 292, 298, 299, 300, 


Fakirs, 216,360 


^1 3<:>7. 309< 311. 3I2> 3I7> S^i, 


Falsehood, 137, 34S, 352 


^H 326,328,355 


Faradiialion (mode of elec- 


^H Drugs, action of, at a distance, 


trifying), 36, 76 


^1 357. 37o<^/T- 


Fascination. 23, 49, 64, 66, 72, 


^H Dumbness, 22, 209, 358, 370 


107, 215, 216. 264, 359 




Fatigue, 22, 34, 36, 52, 73. 87. 




104,152 


^H Ears, singing in, 3t6 


Fear, loS, 122, 158 


^1 EcbolalieT6| 


Feelings, 55 


^^F Ecstasy, 32, 117, 127 


common, 104 elc. 


^^ Eczema, 318 


Feeling, see Anesthesia, Anal- 


Education, 172. 33r, 332. See 


gesia, Organs of seiise,Sense 


Training 


of touch 


Egyptians, 12, 291 


Fever, therapeutics of, 355 


^^ Electricity, 31, 89, 263, 304, 


Fixed attention, method of, 


^K 312,317.321,322,328 


21,28,33,34.37.40.45.52. 


^^B Electro- biology, 13, 20^ 
^^1 Enuresis nocturna, 316 


54, 72, 73. 76, 90, 91. 107, 


ri2, 203, 264, 302, 306, 323, 


^^P Epidermis, 119 


363 


^^1 Epilepsy, 207 


Flexibilitas cerea, 74 etc. 


^H Error, 346 


Fluid, the universal, 4, 30, 361 


^H Error, sources of, 373 etc. 


etc. 


^H Etats tnixtes, 78 


Flushing, 109, 140, 283. See 


H^ Ether, 35, 207, 330 


Vaso-motor disturbances ^^H 


H Exaggeration, 279 


Force, measurement of mus- ^^H 


^H Exhibitions, public, 55, 355, 


cular, 88 ^H 


■ 


Fraud, confession of, 287 ^^H 


^H Exophthalmos (protrusion of 


.. 47, 72, 99. 165, >83) ^^1 


^H the eyeballs). 73 


223, 260, 273 etc., 353, 373 ^^1 


^H Expected effects, 323 etc., 229, 


Freedom, deprivation of, 337 ^^H 


Friendship, 44 ^^1 


^^H Experimental Psychology, 5o- 


^^H 


^H cietyfor, 19 






Galvanism, 76. 89, 294. See ^H 


^H Eyelids, see Eyes 


Electricity ^^^1 


^H Eye, the, 22, 23, 28, 33, 50, 5 1 , 


Galvanometer, the, 89 ^^^| 


^H 52, 71 e/f:., 76, 93, 95, 99, 


Gifts made in hypnosis, 337 ^^^| 


^H 100, 17;, 223, 233, 279> 3SÖ, 


Globus hystericus, 38 ^^H 


^^L 


Goetz's vocal experiments, 80 ^^^H 



^ m 


^^^m 3S5 ^1 


W Graphology, 136 


Hypermnesia (increase of 


■ Greeks, 291 


memory), 126, 127, 129 




HypnobaC, 12 




Hypnoscope, the, 12, 38 


■ " Habit, 35, 59, 224, 286 


Hypnoses, examples of, 21 


■ Hemorrhage, n6, 117, 121, 


etc. 


r '^9 


„ dassilication of, 49 


Hemorrhage from uterus, 115, 


etc. 


r26 


Hypnoses, groups of, 49, 50, 


Hallucinations, 93. See Sense 


91, 106, 124. 158, 170, 176, 


deceptions 


177, 178, 192£fc., 193,209 


V Haschisch, 207 


Hypnosia, 207 


Havre, experiments at, 363 


Hypnosigenesis (induction of 


Head, stimulus applied to 


hypnosis), 26, 27, 28 eU., 


crown of, 86 


157, 161, 202, 203, 209 e/c. 


Headache, 301, 306, 315, 319 


218, 219, 220, 226rfc., 231, 


Heahng force, 35S, 359 


232, 241, 261, 263, 291, 


Health, injury to, 336. See 


308 


Hypnotism, dangers of 


Hypnosis, auto-, 28, 126, 207, 


Hearing, the, 29, 165 

Heart, action of, 107 eU., 130, 




Hypnosis, active, 69 


268, 281, 283 


„ dangers of, 44, 157, 


Heavenly bodies, 361 


197, 298 etc., 326, 337 etc., 




353 


1 ing in one half of the body), 


Hypnosis, depth of,49efc., 91, 


h 116,275,368 


105, 107, 124, 159, 189, 192, 


■ Hemianopsy (loss of half the 


194, 310, 320, 342, 343, 


f field of view}, 98 


362 


Hemi-hypnosis, 86, 368 


Hypnosis, fear of, 326 


Hemiplegia (paralysis of one 


„ hemi-, 86, 367 


side), 116,215,294 


„ passive, 70, 107, 


Heredity, 39 


169,201 


Hesychasts, I 


Hypnosis, psychology of, 53, 


Hetero-suggestion, 58 


Hibernation, 216 


Hypnosis, stages of, 48 etc., 91 


Hindoos, 216, 250, 367 


„ tendency to, 38 etc., 


Histology, 296 


48,306 


■ History of hypnotism, I elc. 


Hypnotisme, ^ana, 75 


■ 139, 292 etc., 329, 380, 334, 


Hypmtisnu, petit, 75 


■ 3^7 


Hypnotization,mentalmethpds 


■ Homceopathy, 328 


of, 26, 27 etc. See Hypno- 


■ Hunger, 105, 130, 140 


sigenesis 


■ Hypersemia (excess of blood). 


Hypnotiiation, legal, 347 


■ see Blood 


Hypotaxy, 49 


^K Hyperesthesia (increase of 


Hysteria, 37. 206, aU. 224, 
283. 386, 292, 304, 313 etc., 
315,316.367 , 

Hysterical attacks, 172, 304, 


^B sensibility), 92, 99 eU., 163, 


^M Hyperexcitability, 76 eie,, 279, 


K 282 


30s. 319 1 



Hyslero-epilepsy, 14, 73^ 75, 
77, 206, 304 

Ideas, 54efc., 161,221 
Ideas, associalion of, 69, 

126, 160, 246, 24S, 249, 250.' 

iw Association 
Ideas, change of, 164, ^,<j 

„ dominating, 15Ö, zji 

Ideas, insane, 3r6,34S 
Illusions, see Delusions of the 

Imagination, 4, 6, 34, 65, 16-' 

,Jl''''.3SS, 291, 327,346,358 
Imbecibty, 205, 206 
Imitation, 23, 24, 26, 64, 84, 
187 183, 2o8. 227, 264 «S 
iee Fascination 
Imitation, automatic, 267 

„ of sounds (A-:4o/aÄA 
, 84,85,89,102,188,366 
Imposition of hands, 3 
Impotence, 225 
Indications, 260 elc, 303 
Influence, personal, i, 2 
44, "63, 234, 35a, 359, , 

Inhibition, 256 etc., 271, 272 
Injury, physical, 336 
Insane, the, 39, 07. nc nrr 
289,345 ^ "' 

Instincts, 55, 106, 253 
Intelligence, 39, 40 
Intoxication, 137 
Ipecacuanha, 371 
Itching, 55 

Jogis, 1 

Jugglers, 56, 57, 96, 156 

Jumpers, the, 208 



Law, natnral, 3C7. „fi __o 
n 9, =08, di',e^.^il\,, 
,, ctv.l and crimmlr" ^" 
342 eU. ' ^^'' 

Lethargic stages, 49, 76 ,/. 
82, 83. 90, 168. rl^-, 1%"'- 
Uthargy, 32, 37. 168,2^,8 
,,»'.. lucid. 78 
Life-spirit {sfiiritus vi/alü), 4 
Light, the Od, 367 '' * 

Locahzation, in time, 121 

Louise Laleau, 117 »ce 

Lourdes, 292, 309 ^^H 

Love, 44, 106, 162 ^H 

Magic cap, 97 
Magi, the, 1 , 367 
Magael, S, 35. 3«, loS, 315 
3SS, 360, 367 ^}c.,' ill' 

■■7, • i/-!. 



Katharina Emmerich, i 

Lata, 208 

Laughter, 70. 257, 285 




Magnetic force, 5, 162, 291 
361,372. Äs Influence 

Magnetic passes, see Passe<i 
mesmeric ' 

Magnetic sense, 371 

" , sleep, 10, 39, .g 

124, 126, 189, 292, 329, 330. 

,335, 336, 350. 362 " ' 

Magnetisers, 6, 20, 64, 66 

139. 163. 362, "^3777 is 

Mesmerists 

Magnetism, animal, i etc., 16^ 

329, 330, 336, 3S7 etc., -'=■■ 

372. 376 

Mama, 204, 205, 317 

Massage, 294, 312, 317 

Medicine, 5, 13 ^u., itj 

-. Ü90 „.., 3;V 

Medulla oblongata, 215 
Melancholia attonita, 20? 

316 I 

Menstruation, disturbances d 

309. 315 ■ 

Mesmerists, 4 etc.. 18, 30. ■ 

38,44,96, roi, 124, 12« -' 

'63, 165, 290, 331, 334, 

360,361,364.365 



^^^^r INDICES. 387 ^1 


Mesmeric passes. 22. 29, 30, 


Movements, trembling, 285 


31. 35. 37. 68, 7S, 107, 2io, 


„ hesitating, 171, 


225, 227, 329. 358, 360 


175.277 


Mesmerism, see Magnetism 


Muscle, deitoid (used in 


animal 


moving the arm), 84 


Metabolism, 113, 114 


Muscles, antagonist (muscles 


Metalloscopy, 371 


with opposed functions, i.e.. 


Metallo -therapeutics, 371 


flexor as opposed to ex- ( 


Meteors, 376 


tensor), 


Methods, dangers of various 


Muscles, involuntary, 107 etc. 


curative, 299 


„ voluntary, 60 etc., see 


Memory, 22, 25, 41, 48, 49, 


Movements 


124 etc., 148, 149- 167, 180, 


Music, influence of, 66 


192, 210, 220, 230, 237 etc.. 




238,239,345.249.25'. 253. 


spinal cord), 225 


264, 268, 284, 286, 287 


Mysticism, 8, 11,219, 224,261, 


Memory, delusions of, see Sug- 


308, 309, 320, 375. 377. 378 


gestions, Retro -active 




Memory, loss of (amnesia), 48, 




_ 49.109.123 etc., X^'Aetc, 138, 


Nerves, stimulation of, see 


|L 139. 140, 141. 144. 146. 147. 


Senses, stimulation of 


■ 149, 159, 167, 201, 210, 213, 


Nervous diseases, 207 


■ 242, 244, 247. 251, 254, 264, 


Nervousness, 39, 302 etc. See 


■ 284, 285, 319. 335. 33Ö, 339. 


Neurasthenia 


■ 349.3Sr, 352 


Nervus facialis (nerve of facial 


■ Mica panis pills, 109 


movement), 76 


■ Miryachit, 208 


Nervus ulnaris (one ofthechief 


r Miscarriage, 115,335 


nerves of the arm), 76, 83 


Misdemeanours, responsibility 


Nervus vagus (one of the 


for. 345 


nerves of the stomach), 366 


MisirepsycHque, ivj 


Neuralgia, 316 


Morality, offences against, 334 


Neurasthenia, 38, 313, 315,318 


etc. 


N euro-muscular excitability, 


Morbus bypnoticus, 207, 208 


see Hyperexcitability 


Morphia, 46, 304, 363, 398 


Neuroses, emotional (neuroses 


Morphinism, 316 


caused by mental excite- 


Motives, 152, 153, 154, 339, 


ment), 316 


343 


Neuroses (nervous diseases 




without anatomical changes). 


23. 27, 50. 60 etc., 106 etc.. 


207, 3'3. 316, 3'7. 324. 327 


Nitrite of amyl, 269 


112, 131, 141, 170, 179, 181, 


Number habit, the, 374 ^ 


182, 192, 193, 199. 200, 20s, 


Numbers, favourite, 374 


209, 210, 226 etc., 256, 257, 




360,261,279,285,288,330 




Movements in sleep, 199, 200 


Obedience, automatic, 267 


„ continued, 69, 


Objectivation des types, see 


175,176,199 _ 


Personality, change of 




Obstetrics, 330 



Od light. 367 
Omphalopsy chics, I 
Operations, 115, 237. Sm 

Surgery 
Ophibaimoscope, experiments 

with, 269 
Opium, 207, 371 
Oracles, 364 

Organic diseases, 318, 319, 321 
„ changes, 113 «fc-, 337 



Pains, rheumatic, 315 
„ ovarian, 313, 315 

Pain, loss of. see Analgesia 
I' 63i 93i '"St '°^> '4°i '*'^' 
ao5, 225, 237, 257, 279, 294, 
315.32z, 323,327. 5s£ Anal- 
gesia 

Papyrus, the Ebers, 3 

Paralyses, 58, 59, 63, 87, 131, 
140, 160, 20s, 209, 224, 227, 
257, 276, 277, 288, 294, 
316 

Paralyse5(paralyses for special 
acts), 131 

Paralyses, reflejt, 265 

,, traumatic {i.e., 

caused by external injury), 
59 

Paralysis from fright, 29, 214 
„ general, of the 
insane (severe form of men- 
tal disease with decreasing 
intelligence and abnormali- 
ties of consciousness), 205 

Paramnesia (false memory), 
130. '39 

Paraplegia (paralysis of both 
sides of the body), 202 

Passes, de-mesmeriiing, 22 

Passes, mesmeric, 22, 29, 30, 
37,68,74,107,211,225,329, 
358, 360 

Pathology, 331,332 

Percentage of hypnotizable 
persons, 39, 47 

Perceptions, 230 

Personality, 239 



1 



Personality, change of, 

etc., 197 
Perversity, sexual, 316 
Philosophy, 12, 272 
Photographs, experimei 

with, 102, 103, 140, 158, 
Phreno-hypnocism, 85, 86 
Physiognomy, see Face, «t- 

pression of 
Physiology, 14, 6d £tc., 2S1, 

Plants, growth of, 2i6, 360 
Points de repire, see Points of 

recognition 
Points of recognition, 102, io3i 

260 
Poison, 364 
Polarization, 369, 37 
Polarity, 360 

Precaution, rules of, 302 etc, - 
Prediction, i, 130. See Clair- 
voyance 
Pressure, sense of, 100 
Prism, experiments with, si 

281 
Probability, 374 
Processes, judicial, 350 
Promises to pay, 337 
Property, 337 
Pruritus culant 

(nervous tingling), 316 
Psychical Research, Society 

for, 19, 321 
Psychology, 19, 53, 221, 290, 

298,302.303, 3". 325, 326t 

328, 333 
.53. 

Psychological Society, the, 19 
Pulse, 107 etc., 250, 363 

Punishment, legal, 334 etc. 

Pupils of eye, 91, r" 



i 

lir- 




INDICES. 389 ^1 


A-eMor/.s;;, 83, 84, 118,16s. 
166,167,193,211,213, 220, 


Sense, muscular, 31, 69, 87, 
94. 99. 102, 166, 204 


233. 361 


Sense, incomplete delusions of, 


Reaction, time of, 259, 260 


95, i83f/f., 368 


Reason, 161 


Sense, post-hypnotic delusions 


Reflexes, 37, 63, 75 etc., 80 etc., 


of, 150, 151, 160, 254, 255, 


85.88,9098,112, 130, 166, 


339 


215, 265, 266 


Sense, negative delusions of, 


Reflexes, ment^, 80, 81 


96, 97, 184 tte., 204, 209, 


„ physical, 80,81,199, 


218,220,235^^,247,258 


266 ->. 


Sense, organs of, 51, 64, 91 


Resistance, 151, 166, 171 etc. 


etc., 186, 220, 366 


Respiration, 107, 108, 111, 


Sense, stimulation of, 32, 33 


130, 250, 267, 279, 280, 370 


s/f., 177, 178, 195, 196,199. 


Reverie, 193 


214, 21S, 257, 263, 264, 273. 


Rigidity, convulsive, 76, 79 


313 


Rules, precautionary, 303 etc. 


Sense, delusions of, 24, 91 




etc., 125, 161, 174, 177, 178, 




181,182,183,195, 190,197, 
207,201,211,220,225, 229 




L Saliva, secretion of, iii, 283 


etc., 241, 255, 256, 258, 279 


■ Salpetri6re, the, 29, 45, 116, 


etc., 316, 327, 328. See 


■ 214, 309, 315 


Dream 


■ School, anthropological, 341 


Sex, 41 


H classical, 341 


Sibyl, 364 


■ „ of Charcot, 14, 20, 75, 


Sighing, 52 


■ 76, 77, 78, 80, 275, 276, 301, 


Signals, counting of, 143, 


m 3>4.3'S 


249 


School of Nancy, ig, 20, 41, 
47,77,81,89,1.8,^75,276, 


Sight, disorders of, 316 


Sleep, 29,33, 35 45,51,71,72, 


303,306, 310,312 


90, 108, 126, 147, 161, 176, 


Schools, use of hypnotism in. 


192 etc., 204 etc., 214, 224, 


331, 333 


231 etc., 249, 306, 307, 309. 


Sclerosis, multiple (nervous 


S£i Dream and Dream-con- 


disease with changes in 


sciousness 


brain and spinal cord), 370 


Sleepiness, 36, 192, 193 


Secretion, in, 112, 283 


Sleeplessness, 224 


Secrets, betrayal of, 347, 348 


Smell, sense of, 91, 93, 94, 


Self-consciousness, 169, 192, 




196, 193 




Self-deception, 152, 153, 287, 


157, 166, 178,200,207, 2-!3- 


338, 339 


24°, 316, 338, 35S, 3'^4, 


Self-judgment, 176, 177 


365 


Self-observation, 154, 155, 


Somnambulists, 199 


220 


Somnolence, 49 


Self-suggestion, S4e Auto-sug- 


Sorcerers, 2 


gestion 


Space, sense of, loo 


Sense, transposition of, 7, 72, 


Spasm of accommodation, 


100, 365<:/t.,3?3 

L 


69 j»«^^ 



m9 


m 


390 INDICES, ^^ 


Speculation, 323 


Suggestion, cancelling of, 303 ^^| 


Speech, 64, 1S2 


continuous, t4ak^^H 


„ abnormalities of, 62 




Spititualism, 1 10, 127, 246, 255, 
377 


Suggestion d' altitude, 54, iSaj^^^| 


Spiritus ■vitalis, 4 


Suggestion, direct, 56 ^^^H 


Spontaneity, 177, 178 


indirect, S6| 94^^^| 


Stage, deep, 323 


128, 275, 276 ^^H 


Stages, lethargic, 49. 75 'Ic., 


Suggestion, mental, see Tele^^H 


82, 83, 90, 168, 169. 368 


pathy ^^m 


Stages, somnambulistic, 49, 




75 eU., 82, 85, 280. 368 


56, 138, 209 etc., 229, 243^^H 


Stages, Gumey's, 139, 140 


255, 2^8, 259, 286 ^^H 


„ Charcot's, 49, 76 etc., 


Suggestion, hypnotic or intra<^^^H 


1 189,206,269.353,365 


hypnotic, 59 ^^H 


Stammering, 58, 20;, 225, 243, 


Suggestion, post-hvpnotic, 45(^^H 
59,^3, 134. 137.139 «i'<r., i6Ä'^^B 


316 


Stars, influence of, 3 


172, 173, 183, 190, 207, 319, ^^H 


State, while obeying post- 


220, 242 etc., 279, 287, 306, ^^H 


hypnotic suggestion, 144 


3'9, 330. 336. 33S etc., 347, ^H 


etc., 287 etc., 291, 292 


^^^1 


State, normal, 128 


Suggestion, post-hypnotic, in ^^H 


„ primary, 146 


sleep, 196, 201, 202 ^^H 


„ secondary, 129, 146 


Suggestion, pre-hypnotic, 60 ^^^| 


States, transitioDal, ;i, $2, 


retro- active, i3Cb^^^| 


175. 179 etc., 219, 287, 


137. 13S, 345. 346 ^^H 


288 


Suggestion, intermediate, 177 ^^^H 


States, waking, 145, 150. See 


law 54 _^H 


Suggestion without hypnosis 


catalepsy by, ^«tf^^H 


Statistics, 38, 48 


Catalepsy ^^^H 


Stemo mastoid (a muscle 


Suggestion, therapeutics of, ^^^| 


used in moving the head), 


see Medicine |^^^| 


76 


Suggestion, method of, 189, ^^^| 


StigmatiMtion, 117, 377 


^^B 


Stomach, pain in, 315 


Suggestion, verbal, 59, 94, i66,.^^H 


Strychnine, 297, 371 


1S2, 293, 317 ^^H 


Suggestion, susceptibility to, 
54, 60. 63, 146 (■/c, 175.190, 


Suggestion, repetition of, 171, ^^^H 


172 ^^H 


205, 206, 208, 2og, 227, 256, 


Suicide, 337 ^^H 


279. 290, 306, 339, 342, 345. 


Sulfonal, 300 ^^^H 


347. 351 


Superstition,333,377,378. Sei^^^ 


Suggestion, 10, 14. 15, 16, 26, 
49. SO, 56. 267, 275, 276, 293, 


Mysticism ^^H 


Surgery, 13, 14, 318, 329 ffr- ^^H 


394. 309. 310. 319. 335. 347, 


Suspension, treatment by^^^^l 


358, 362, 369, 370, 373, 370- 


^^^H 


See chapter on subject, and 


Swallowing, movement Q^^^^H 


sub -divisions, especially in 


'^^H 


chapter on symptoms 


Sweat, secretion of, iit>38li^^H 


Suggestion, deferred, 141, 250 


^^^_^^H 



I 



I 



Tabes dorsalis (locomotor 
ataxy), 99, 100, 280, 294, 
300- 318 

Table-turning, 377 

Talking in hypnosis, 182, 198, 

Talking in sleep, 127, 2«^ 

Taste, sense of, 93, 94 
Teachers, influence of, 44 
Tedium, sleep from, 203 

„ movements from, 281, 

282 
Telepathy. 2, 164, 357, 363, 

364, 374, 3?S 
Telephone, the, 27 
Temperature, 29, 109, 113, 140 
„ sense of, 29, 30, 

93, 100, 22s 
Temple sleep, 291 
Tendons, reflexes of, 58, 76, 77. 

See Reflexes 
Terminology, 25, 26, 27, 54, 55, 

Testimony, 345 eU. 

Theft, 45, 174 

Theory, 218 etc., 360, 361 

Therapeutics, see Medicine 

Thirst, 105, 140 

Thought, concentration of, 56, 

3Ö0, 363, 375 
Thought-reading, 55, 56, 24S, 

363, 374 
Thought-transference, j« Tele- 
Time, estimate of, 142, 143, 

249 etc. 
Tisza-Eslar case, the, 346 
Training, 59, 77. 79, 95, 129, 

139, 142. 181,186,234, 269, 

338. 3to, 372 etc. 
Trance, 110, 127 
Trance-waking, 89 
Tramferl, 368, 373, 374 



:es. 391 

Tranaiiional states, 36, Jt, 52, 

175, i79«'c-. 219,337. ?88 
Treatment by baths, 313 
Trust, 47, 321 
Tuberculosis, 39 



Vaccination, 294 

Vasomotor abnormalities (vari- 
ations in quantity of blood 
circulating in an organ), 63, 
ro9, 115, 160, 269,276 

Vasomotor disturbances in the 
brain, 269. 270 

Veille somnambulique, 147. 

Vegetarians, 2o6 
Vesication, 114, ii3 eic.^ 275 
Vespasian, 2 
Vessels, 109. See Vasomotor 

disturbances 
View, field of, 101 
Visions (sense deceptions of 

sight), 53 
Vivisection, 333 
Vomiting, 104, 225 



Waking, somnambulic, 147, 

Waking, 35 etc., 93, 125. 140, 
148, 169, 2o3. 303, 304, 316 

Warts, 3 

Wheals, 119, 120, 121, 283 

Will, 28, 56, 58, 62, 80, 87, 160, 
170 etc., 192. 193, 213, 242 
etc., 257, 263, 268,275,281, 
283, 287,311,332, 337, 338, 
346, 349, 363 

Will, freedom of, 152 etc., 160, 
333. 337,342, 351 

Will, weakness of, 40 

Willing-game, the, 55 



39* 



INDICES. 



Wills, 337. 3S3 
Wnters cramp, 316 
Writing, mediumisiic, 246 
n automatic, 185, 346 
«''^■,348,351.377 

Yawning, 308 



Yogis,! 

Zoanthropia, 136 
Zones hypnofrenatrices, 36 
Zones hypnogines, 30, 46 
Zoomagnetism.ji " 



INDEX OF NAMES. 

/ shall be obliged la anybody -aiho tiHU sind me information for the 
completion of the following short biographical notices. 

A single dale in the index means the year in which the author's work 
OH hypnotism, or his most important warh, appeared ; ttoo dates mean 
the times of his birth and death. When no dale is added, the author's 
wort has almost invariably been fiuilished during the lost ten years, A 
dagger is placed after the nami -when the person in juestian is dead. The 
large ßgures point to the most important paragraphs. 



I 
I 

I 



d'Abundo, doctor, Naples, loo 
Adamkiewici, O,, prof, of 

medicine, Cracow, 15 
Albertus Magnus, 1193-12B0, 

eminent philosopher, 367 
Algeri, G., Italian alienist, 348 
Ailiot, French doctor, 371 
Aristotle, 384-322 B.C. ; Greek 

philosopher, psychologist, 

natural scientist, 203 
Arndt, Rudolph, prof.; alienist, 

Greifswald, I3r, 355 
Ash burner, John A., about 

1B34, doctor, London, 12 
Auban, 1865, French doctor, 

335 
Aupepin, Celicurre de 1', mag- 

Auvard, obstetric physician, 

Avö • Lallemant, Friedrich, 
1881, jurist, Lübeck, 4,8 

Azam, prof^ surgeon, Bor- 
deaux, 13, 128, 329 

Azoulay, L^on, French doctor, 
260 



Eabinski, neurologist, Paris, 
14, 370 

Bäumler, Ch., prof, of medi- 
cine, Freiburg, Bohemia, 15, 
31 ■ 

Baierlacher, Eduard, doctor, 
Nurembei^.t 18S9, iB, 323 

Baillif, L. E., 1868, French 
doctor, 46, 141 

Bailly, P. R., 1784, 5,290 

Balaasa, Constantin, 1828, 
Austrian cavalry officer, zi6 

Ballet, Gilbert, prof, agri^e 
ai Paris, French neurologist, 
alienist, and physician, 35, 
207 

Baliac, Honord de, 1799-1850, 
famous French novelist, ig 

Barbarin, Chevalier de, 1786, 
Ostend, 292 

Barety, A., doctor, Nice, 360 

Bark worth, Thomas, Ch ig well, 
Essex, 239. 240 

Barrett, VV. F., prof, of experi- 
mental physics, Dublin, 367 

Bartels, Ernst, prof, 1812, 



physiologist, Breslau, lo, 
35? 

Barth, Adolph, aural surgeon, 
Berlin, 1 8 

Barth, George, 1852, doctor 
and magnetizer, London, 
III 

Barth, Henty, doctor, phy- 
sician, Paris, 14 

Bastian, Adolf, prof, extra- 
ordinary, Berlin, founder of 
modem ethnology, director 
of the ethnological museum 
at Berlin, 2, 19, 29, 127, 

Bazin, prof., 185g, Bordeaux, 
alienist, 13 

Beard, George Miller, 1839- 
1882, neurologist. New 
York, 17, 5S, 208, 255 

Beaunis, prof, of physiology, 
Nancy, i j, 88, 108, 109, 1 1 1, 
118, 123, 143, 147, 148, 172, 
177, 209, 211, 261, 283, 
319 

Belfiore, Giulio, 1887, doctor, 
Naples, 158,367,368 

Bel I anger, Nicolas, 1854, 
doctor, Paris, 336 

Belot, Adolphe, French author, 
19 

Benavente, David, doctor, 
Santiago, 12 

Benedikt, Moriz, prof, extra- 
ordinary and neurologist, 
Vienna, 15, 35, 126, 30S, 
337, 285 

Bennett, John, 1812- 1875, 
physiologist and physician, 
Edinburgh, 268 

Bentivegni, Adolf v., jurist, 
Berlin, 19, 27i 59, 128, 145, 
156, 221,225,231,236,252. 
25Si2S9. 334,337, 339, 34o> 
342, 343, 344- 345, 5:c. 

Berend, iB6o, doctor, Berlin, 



logist, Breslau, 15, 29, 46, 
74, 84, 86, 87, 89, 90, loo, 
105, 209, 265, 280, 294 

Bergson, H., Clermond-Fer- 
rand, France, loo 

B^rillon, Edgar, doctor, Paris, 
editor of the Revue de 
T Hypnotisme, 16, 86, gt 

331.332 7 

Berjon, French doctor, iifij 

117 
Berkhan, Oswald, doctoi 

Brunswick, 17 
Berna, 1837, magnetizer, Pai 

Bernheim, prof, of medicini 
Nancy, 15, 17, 27, 28, •■ ' 
34, 39, 46, 47, 49. SO, 67, i 
82, 107, 138, 139, 168, 

192, 209, 221, 234, 246, : 

270, 271, a8o, 281,890, 88L 
317, 318, 321, 222, 346, 37« 
378 7 

Bert, Paul, 1830, 1886, Frend| 
physiologist and politiciai' 
31 

Bertrand, Alexandre, 18 
doctor, Paris, 10, 46,96, 1 
165, 188, 234, 302 

Bianchi, Leonardo, 
legist, Naples, 369 

Bicker, Georg, 17S7, doctorJ 
Bremen, 8 y 

Billroth, Theodor, prof., emlrJ 
nent surgeon, Vienna, 300 

Binet, Alfred, prof., psycho« 
logist, Paris, 14, 28, 85|1 
102, 103, 118, 13t, 184, 23tsfl 
235, 280, 281, 368, 369 ■ fl 

Binswanger, Otto, prof. extra<i>J 
ordinary and alienist, Jeofl 
15,158, 190, 301,302,321 J 

Birchall, James, secretary a 
the Literary and PhtlM 
sophical Society of Live* 
pool, 364, 375 

Bleuler, Karl, alienist 
neurologist, director of . 
Rheinau Nursing InstiW 



^H tion, Ztii 

■ Blum, pre 



I 



tion, Zurich, tS, 6i, 125, 173, 

prof, of philosophy al 
the Lyceum of St. Omer, 332 

Böckmann, Johann Lorenz, 
1787, doctor, Carlsruhe, 8 

Bollert, Theodor,t 1889, hyp- 
notizer, Charlotten bürg, 356 

Bömer, Paul, 1829 - 1885, 
doctor, medical author, and 
hygienist, Berlin, 15 

Bonniot, Paul de, orthodox- 
Catholic author, 57 

Borel, Belgian doctor, 73, 98 

Bom, G., prof, extraordinary 
and anatomist, Breslau, 80, 
89, 129 

Bottey, Ferdinand, doctor, 
Paris, 38,47, III, 270 

Bouchut, Ernest, 1875, emi- 
nent doctor for diseases of 
children, Paris, 269 

Bourdon, doctor, M^ru (Oise, 
France), 326 

Bourneville, neurologist and 
alienist, Paris, 14 

Bourru, prof, of the naval 
school of medicine, physi- 
cian, Rochefort, 116, 371 

Boursier, A., doctor, Bor- 
deaux, 330 

Braid, James, doctor, Man- 
chester, 1795-1860, 12, 13, 
26. 28, 33, 34,, 41, 54, 71, 72, 
79, 85, 86, 88, 92, too, loi, 
107, 108, 128, 180, 192, 209, 
220, 22s, 268, 293, 329,364, 
366 [see method of fixed 
attention) 

Brandis, Joachim Dietrich, 
1762-1S45, prof., doctor and 
court physician in ordinary 
at Copenhagen, 201 

Br^maud, French naval doctor, 
Brest, 41, 64,, 107 

Briand, alienist, Paris, 115 

Brierre de Boismoni, Alex- 
andre, 1798-18 . 
alienist, Paris, 202, 347 



:ES. 39S 

Broca, Paul, 1824-1860, emi- 
nent surgeon and physio- 
logist, Paris, 13 

Brock, H., doctor, Berlin, II3 

Broquicr, 1853, surgeon, Mar- 
seilles, 335 

Brouardel, prof, (leader in 
medical jurisprudence), 
Paris, 336, 371 

Brown, Thomas, 1778-1820, 
Scotch physiologist, 54 

Brown-Sequard, prof., physio- 
logist, Paris, 270 

Erügelmann, doctor, Pader- 

Brugia, prof., alienist, Lucca, 
Italy, 40 

Brullard, French doctor, 192 

Bubnolf, N„ 1881, Breslau, 363 

Budge, Julius, 1885, prof., 
anatomist and physiologist, 
Greifswaldjt 281 

Burckhardt, G., director of the 
Maison de Sanii, of Pröfar- 
gier (Switzerland), 316 

Burdach, Cari Friedrich, 
1776-1847, prof., Königs- 
berg, celebrated anatomist 
and physiologist, 198 

Burdin, junior, J837, French 
doctor, member of the 
Academy of Medicine, 11 

Burot, prof, of the medical 
school at Rochefort, iii, 
1 16, 371 

Burq (also written Burcq), 
1823-1884, inventorof ;«//(!/- 
lotMrapie, 371 

Cagliostro, Count Alexander 
de, 1743-1795 i weli-known 
adventurer, wonder-worker, 
and spirit -seer, I 

Campih, Giulio, Italian jurist, 

Cappie, James, M.D,, 1886, 

England, 270 
Carlsen, Danish doctor, 16 
Camochan, M,, Governor in 



396 IND 

Cambridge, Massachusetts, 
U.S.A..99 
Carpemer. William, 1813- 
iSSs, physiologist, London, 

13. loi, no, 164. 224, 215, 
269 

Carus, Cari Gustav, eminent 
doctor, philosopher, i 
painter, 12 

Casper, Johann Ludwig, 1796- 
1864, prof, in Berlin, 
authority on medical juris- 
prudence, 167 

Cat low, English magnet izer, 
about 1845, 31 

Celsus, Roman savant and 
physician under Augustus, 
21 

Chalarde, doctor, Toulouse,S5 

Chambard, French alienist, 
30, 3S 

Charcot, Jean Martin, prof, in 
Paris, eminent neurologist, 

14, IS, 16,48,49,59, 63,75, 

76,77,78,79-80.81,82,83, 
84,86, 89,90, 168, 180, 181, 
189, ao6, 207, 269, 275, 276, 
277.279-280,314, 31S. 367 
i^sie stages and school of 
Charcot) 

Charpentier, prof, of physics, 
Nancy, z8o 

Charpignon, 1815-1BB6, doc- 
tor, Orieans, g6, 20z, 334 

Chazarain, doctor, Paris, 360 

Chevreul,! 1889, eminent 
French chemist more than 
one hundred years old, 55 

Chiltoff, doctor, Charkow, 31Ö 

Clairon, Claire Hippolyte, 
1 723-1803, celebrated 
French actress, 135 

Clare tie, French romance 
writer. 19 

Cloquet, Jules, 1S29, surgeon 
and prof., Paris, 329 

Cohn, Hermann, iBSo, prof, 
extraordinary, oculist, Bres- 
lau, 9«^ 93 



Collineau, French author, 332 
Copin, Paul, French author, 

Corval, v., doctor, Baden- J 
Baden, 18, 316, 321, jzfi^a 

333 m 

Cory, Charles B., Boston, 184 
Cosie, 1853, director at the 

school of medicine at Mar- 
seilles, 335 
Coste de Lagrave, French 

doctor, 46 
Creutzfeldt, Otto, doctor, Har- 1 

burg, 17 J 

Cullerre, A-, French alienis^.l 

13s, 156, 222, 268 I 

Cumberland, Stuart, "thoughts J 

reader," 55 1 

Cuvier, 1769-1832, eminent. ] 

naturalist and zoologist J 

Cuvillers, Hc'nin de, I 

Czermak, Johann Nepomul^:! 
1828-1-873, physiologist and 
larysgologist, Leipzig, ijL 

214 

Danilewsky, prof, physiot 

gist, Charkow, 314, 215 
Danillo, S. N., Russian lec-^ 

Darling, 1850, 13 

Darwin, Charles, 1809-1882, I 

celebrated naturalisL foun- I 

der of the doctrine of evola- \ 

tion, 378 
DebovB, prof, agrigd, phy- 1 

sician. Pans, 105 
Dechambre, Amedde, 

18SÖ, medical author and ] 

doctor, Paris, 7 
Dfecle, Ch„t 1888, Frenciri 

engineer, 360 
Decroix, French military vetA^fl 

ri nary- surgeon, 331 | 

Deimann, J. R., about 1775,:,] 

doctor, Amsterdam, 367 
Dekhtereff, hygienist, £ 

Petersbui^, 331 



I 

I 



Delacroix, Fr^d^ric, member 
of the Cour ^Appel, Besan- 
?on> 353 

Delbceuf, J., prof, at Liege, 
psychologist, 16, 47, 49, 50, 
52, 8z, 8s, 118, 125, 130, 139, 
143, 144, 147, i88> 189. I95> 
212, 241,283, 338, 350,356, 
378 

Deleuie, 1753-1835, naturalist, 
Paris, 10, 96, 128 

Delphin, G., prof, of Arabic 
at Oran, Algeria, 31 

Demarquay, Jean, iSri-1875. 
French surgeon, 14, i 

206, 347 
Descourtis, French doctor, 64, 

B6 

Desjardins, Arthur, French 
lawyer, 340 

Deslon (also d'Eslon), 
Charles,-|- 1786, physician 
in ordinary to tlie Count of 
Anois, doctor, Paris, 6, agi, 
30s. 334 

Despine, Prosper, alienist and 
psychologist, Marseilles, 15, 
264, 335 

Dessoir, Max, psvchologist, 
Berlin, III., IV., 12, 13, 18. 
19. 4!. SO, 51- 69- 79. 8r. 
133, 128, 132,185,228,22g, 
239, 240, 241, 246, 259, 267, 
272, z86, 333, 346. 343,351, 
364, 377 

Devergie, Marie Guillaume 
Alphonse, 1798-1879, emi- 
nent authority on medical 
jurisprudence, Paris, 335 

Dods, J. B., 13 

Donato, Belgian magnetizer, 
64, 356 

Doolittle, 246 

Dreher, formerly lecturer on 
philosophy at Halle, 18 

Drosdow, W. J., 1881, lecturer 
at St. Petersburg, doctor, 

207, 306 
Dnewiecki, Stephan, teacher 



^B Drosdo 

K at S 

H 207, 

^H Dnewii 



■ES. 397 

of mechanics, St. Peters- 
burg, 41 , 100 

Dubois, Frederic, Amiens, 
member of the academy 
of medicine, doctor, 11 

Duchenne. 1806-1875, French 
neurologist in Boulogne a: 
Paris, founder of trealme 
by faradization, 76 

Dufay, doctor, Blois, France, 
ao8 

Dufour, alienist and head phy- 
sician at the asylum of St. 
Robert (IsJre), 316 

Dujardin-Beaumeti, doctor, 
physician, and medical 
author, Paris, 371 

Dumas, Alexandre, the elder 
1S03-1870, French novelist 
'9 

Dumesnil, 171T-1802, cele- 
brated French actress, 135 

Dumont, 1882, director of the 
laboratory at Nancy, 15 

Dumontpallier, Amdd^e, phy- 
sician, Paris, 15, 78, 79, 86, 
95. io9> 143- 206 

Duplouy, surgeon and head 
physician at llie military 
hospital at Rochefort, 371 

Dupotet, see Du Potet 

Duprel, see Du Prel 

Durand de Gros (Philips), 
French doctor, exiled by 
Napoleon III., 13, 134, 178, 



H-, 



magnetizt 



Paris, 360 

Eeden, F. van, doctor, Am- 
sterdam, 16, 35 

Elliotson, John, 1788-1863, 
eminent London physician, 
12.329 

Enneaioser, Joseph, 1787- 
1854, doctor and professor 
in Bonn and Munich, ti 

Epheyre (pseudonym of a 
great man of science), 19 



398 ^^^^^H 


Erb, W„ prof, Heidelberg, 


Fischer, Engelbert Loren^^^H 


eminent neurologist, 63 


1883, Würzburg, I, iTt^^^H 


Erdmann, 1852, prof., Halle, 


^^^H 


psychologist, 304 


Fischer, Fr., 1S39, prof., Basle,^^H 


Esche may er, Karl August 




von, 1768-1852, philoso- 


Fischer, P., doctor, Cottbu^^^H 


pher, doctor, alienisi, prof. 


^^H 


of Tübingen, 9, 250 


Flourens, Pierre, 1794-1867, ^^^H 


Esdaile, ahout 1840, surgeon 


physiologist, Paris, 266 ^^^H 


at Calcutta, 329 


Fludd, Robert,! 1637, doctor.^^H 


Eslon, d', see Deslon 


mystic, London, 360 ^^^H 


Esquirol, Jean, 1772-1840, 


Focachon, apothecary» ^^H 


eminent alienist. Pads, 202 


Charmes, 118 ^^^H 


Eulenburg, Albert, prof., lec- 


Foissac, P., 1825, doctor, ^^^H 


turer in Berlin, neurologist, 


II '^^H 


'5. 3' 


FoUin, £., tSeo, French sur- ^^H 


Ewald, K. A., prof, extraor- 


geoR, 14 ^^H 


dinary, and physician, Ber- 


Fontan, J., T8S7, French naval ^^H 


lin, 40,47, 72, 199.295.297. 


doctor, Toulon, 49, 174 ^^^H 


298, 301,311,312,315 


Fonvielle, W. de, Frencli ^^1 


Exner, Siegm., prof, extraor- 


author, 164 ^^^1 


dinary and physiologist, 


Forbes, Henry 0., i386, na- ^^H 


Vienna, 197 


turalisi, zoologist, traveller, ^^H 




Aberdeen, 208 ^11 




Forel, August, prof., alienist ^y| 


Fanton, doctor, London, 13 


psychologist, histo login, 


Faraday, 1791-1867, eminent 


Zürich, iii, iv, .7, 18, 19. 


natural philosopher, 377 


27, 33. 34. 35. 39, 40. 46, 47. 
48,49.82,109.119,120,121, 


Faria, Abbd de, theologist and 


philosopher, ex-prof. Portu- 


131. 139, 144, 149. 150. «S3. 


guese, lived in Goa and 


155. "67,171, 174, 189. 192. 


Paris, 10, 12, 28 


197, 209, 216, 222, 324, 226, 


Fechner, Gustav, 1801-1887, 


332, 234, 264, 273, 294, 297, 


eminent physicist and psy- 


302, 306, 307, 315, 316, 317, 


chologist, Z2Ö 


320,322, 325. 330, 33[, 332. 


Fdr^ Ch., neurologist and 


333. 334, 339. 34°. 35°. 353. 


physician, Paris, 14, 28, 85, 


371.377,37s 


103, I IS, 131,134, 202,230, 


Förster, Richard, prof., ocu- 


235, 280, 2S1, 368, 369 


list. Breslau, 269 


Ferrari, Henri, Paris, 136 


Fort, le. surgeon, Paris, 330 


Ferner, David, eminent neuro- 


Foureaux, lawyer, Charmes, 


logist, London, 26S 


338 


Ferroni, doctor, Vienna, 165 


Fränkel, Danish doctor, 16 


Feuchtersieben, Ernst, Frei- 


Franke!, Moriti, doctor, Des- 


herr v., 1806-1849, doctor 


sau, 17 


in Vienna, 296 


Franck, mtmbrt de P Institut, 


Figuier, Louis, French author. 


338 


31 


Frank, doctor, alienist, Zürich, 


— ^ FUUssier, tS33, 105, 331 


'31 J 



■ ■ INDICES. 399 


H Freud, Siegm,, neurologist, 


Goethe, Joh. Wolfgang v., 


H doctor, Vienna, i8, 206 


1749-1832.212 


■ Frey, doctor, Vienna, 18 


Goltdammer, Ober-Tribunah- 


Frey er, Moriti, district medi- 


rath, 336, 350 


cal officer, Darkehmen, 331 


Goltz, prof., Strassburg, phy- 


Friedberg, Hermann, 1817- 


siologist, 80 


1884, prof, extraordinary at 


Gras set, pro£, Montpellier, 


Breslau, authority in medi- 


neurologist and pharmaco- 


cal jurisprudence, 294, 353 


logist, 38, 207, 323, 3S3 


Friedemann, Julius, doctor. 


Gratiolet, Louis Pierre, 1815-. 


Cöpenick, 108,319 


1865, doctor and zoologist, 




comparative anatomist. 


L Gall, Franz Joseph, 1758-1828, 


Paris, 180 


■ doctor, Vienna, later Paris ; 


Greatrakes, Valentine, about 


B eminent anatomist and phy- 


1770, "healer," Ireland, 291 


H siologist, founder of phreno- 


Griesinger, Wilhelm, 1817- 


logy, 85 


186S, alienist and physician, 


Gascard, doctor, Paris, 1 1 S 


Berlin, 202, 206 


Gassner, Joh. Jos., 1727-1779, 


Grimes, 1848, New England, 


Catholic priest, well-known 


U.S.A., 13 




Grocco, 1882, Italian doctor. 


■ wang, &c., 291, 292 


371 


■ G(!lineau, French doctor, 18S0, 


Griitzner, P., prof., Tübingen, 


ff ^°? ' 


physiologist, lecturer at 
Breslau in 1880, 86 


Gessmann, G., Vienna, 38 


Gibert, doctor, Havre, 363 


Gscheidlen, R., 1842-1S89, 


Gigot-Suard, ^ Jaques, i860, 


prof, extraordinary at Bres- 
lau, hygienist, chemist, 46 




doctor at Cauterets, Hautes 


Gu^rineau, i860, doctor, Poi- 


Pyrdn&s, 29 


tiers, 14 


Gilles de la Toureile, neurolo- 


Guermonprez, prof., doctor, 


gist, assistant of Charcot, 
Paris, 14, 63, 78, 84, 301. 


Lille, 37 


Gürtler, 1880, doctor, Sagan, 


334,337.338,353 


"3 


Girard-Teulon, 1816 - 1887, 


Guinon, neurologist, Paris, 


oculist, Paris, 14, in, 206, 


304 


347 


Gumey, Edmund, 1847-1888, 


Gley, Eug&ne, physiologist. 


psychologist, secretary of 


Paris, 55 


the Society for Psychical 


Gmelin, Eberhard, 1753- 


Research, London, 17, 49, 


1809, physicist, Heilbronn,3 


72, 81, 99, 125, 139. '42. 


Godenius, Rudolph, 1572- 


143. 144. "47. 148. 149. 150 


1611, doctor, professor of 


348, 250, 284. 364. 377 


physics, Marburg, 4 


Guthrie, Malcolm, merchant, 


Goier V. Ravensburg, art his- 


Liverpool, 363, 3^4. 375 


torian, Berlin, 362, 374 


Guttmann, S., doctor, Berlin, 


Görres, Jak. Jos. v., 1776- 


29s 


1848, prof-, Munich, writer 




on mystical subjects, zi6 


Hack TuWe, He Tuke 



400 



INDICES. 



Hähnle, Karl, doctor, Reut- 
lingen, Würtemberg, 42 

Hall, Stanley, prof, of Univer- 
sity at Clark, United States, 
eminent physiologist and 
psychologist, 260 

Haller, Albrecht v, 1708- 
1777, prof, of anatomy at 
Bern and Göttingen, 361 

Hammond, prof., neurologist 
and alienist. New York, 208 

Hansen, Danish magnetizer, 
15,39, 126,304 

Harting, 1882, prof, at Utrecht, 
215 

Hartmann, Eduard v., well- 
known philosopher, Gross- 
Lichterfelde, near Berlin, 
IV., 231, 255, 258, 361,364 

Harvey, William, 1 578-1658, 
doctor and physiologist, 
London, 376 

Heerwagen, Friedrich, Dor- 
pat, 202 

Heidenhain, August, doctor, 
Steglitz, 220 

Heidenhain, R., prof, at Bres- 
lau, eminent physiologist, 
15,29,45,64,67,69,72,75, 
79,80, 81,82,84,85,86,89, 
90, III, 112, 125, 209, 257, 
262, 263, 264, 267, 269, 287, 

356, 366 
Heineken, Joh., 1761-1851, 

doctor, Bremen, 8 
Hell, Maximilian, Jesuit priest, 

astronomer, 360, 367 
Hellich, Prague, 114 
Hellwald, Friedr. v., author, 

Tölz, Bayern, 19, 32, 216, 

- 329 

Helmont, Joh. Baptist van, 

1 577- 1644, celebrated doc- 
tor of Amsterdam and Brus- 
sels, 4, 367 

H^ment, Felix, membre du 
Conseil^ supSrieur de Pin- 
struction publique^ 332 

Henrijean, surgeon, Li^ge, 118 



Hensler, Philipp Ignaz, 1795- 
186 1, prof., Würzburg, phy- 
siologist, II 

H^riart, 1865, French doctor, 

335 
H^ricourt, J., Paris, 136 

Herodotus, 484-424 B.c., Greek 
historian, 136 

Herrero, Abdon-Sanchez, pro£ 
of medicine, Valladolid, 35^ 
46 

Hervas, Sancha, bishop, Ma- 
drid, 117 

Hervey, 195 

Herzog, 1853, 13 

Hess, Julius, neurologist, Ham- 
burg, 18 

Heubel, Em., 1877, lecturer, 
Kiew, 214 

Heyfelder, Johann, 1798-1869, 
surgeon and medical author, 
Petersburg, 14 

Hildebrandt, Eduard, 216 

Hippocrates, 460-364 B.C, 
** The Father of Medicine," 

355 

Hirschel, Bernhard, 1840, doc- 
tor, Dresden, 11 

Hirt, prof, extraordinary, Bres- 
lau, neurologist, 18, 31, 273, 

316,317 
Hoct^s, 136 

Hösslin, v., doctor, Neuwit- 
telsbach, near Munich, 18 

Hohenlohe, Prince, 1821, 
Catholic priest, Bavaria, 
292 

Horsley, Victor, surgeon, Lon- 
don, 108 

Hublier, 1839, doctor, Bor- 
beaux, 11 

Hue, Gabriel, 1813-1860, 
French missionary, 32 

Hiickel, A., doctor, lecturer, 
Tübingen, 18, 81 

Hufeland, Christoph Wilhelm, 
1762- 1836, prof., Berlin, 
eminent doctor, 9 

Humboldt, Alexander v., 1769- 



^^v 


m 


^^^ INDICES. 4oI ^1 


1859, celebrated naturalist. 


Kant, Immanuel, 1724-1808, 


Paris, Berlin, 361 


greatest German philo- 


Hunter, John, 1 728-1 793, emi- 


sopher, 197, 222 


nent English surgeon and 


Kayser, Richard, 1B80, doctor. 




Breslau, 86 


Husson, Henri Marie, 1831, 


Kemer, Justinus, 1786-1862, 


doctor, Paris, 11, 189 


lyric poet, doctor, Weins- 


Hytten, 137 


berg, s, 9 




Kiaro, doctor, Poitiers, 13 




Kieser, Dietrich Georg, 1779- 


JacoUiot, Louis, French travel- 


1E62, prof., alienist, Jena, 8, 


ler, writer on occultism and 


334 


student of Sanscrit, 216 


Kiesewetter, historian, author. 


Jäger, Gustav, joologist, Stutt- 


Meiningen, 1 


gart, 37S 


Kircher, Athanasius, 1601- 


James, Cons tan tin, French 


1680, Jesuit priest, Egypto- 


doctor, 309 


logist, 213, 214. 367 


James, William, prof., Cam- 


Kluge, Kari, 1782-1844, doc- 


bridge, U.S.A., 99, 260 


tor, prof, Berlin, 8, 51, 128, 


Janet. Jules, 78 '^^' 


139, 293. 364 


Janet, Paul, philosophical 


Koberiln, Hermann, alienist, 


writer, mtmbre de PInstitut, 


Eriangen, 18 


Paris, 54 


Königshöfer, oculist, Stuttgart, 


Janet, Pierre, psychologist, pro- 


98 


fessor at Havre,i25,i39,i42, 


Konräd, Eugen, alienist, Her- 


173, 176, 185, 206, 227, 239. 


mannsiadt, 295 


248, 283, 284, 337, 363, 377 


KorefT, David Ferdinand, 


Jendrässik,Emst,doctor,Buda- 


1783-1851, eminent doctor, 


Pesth, 32, 84, 104,11s, 116, 


Berlin. Paris, 9 


140, 188, 263 


Krafft-Ebing, R. v., prof, at 


Jensen, Julius, alienist, Char- 


Vienna, eminent alienist and 


lottenburg, 206 


student of medical Juris- 


_ Joachim, Heinrich, doctor, 


prudence, 18, 19, 63, 93, 


L Berlin, 3 


109, 112, 113, IIS, 136- 139. 


■ Jobart, 293 


140, 169, 252, 253, 25s, 273, 


■ Joi^, Joh,, 1779-1856, prof 


276, 316, 3(7, 318. 324, 326, 


■ obstetrician, Leipzig, 330 


3^8, 333. 339 


Joly, doctor, London, 13 


Krakauer, aurist, Berlin, 305 


Johannessen, Danish doctor, 


Kron, doctor, neurologist, Ber- 


16 


lin, 51, 274 


Jong, de, Dutch doctor, 16, 


Kussmaul, former prof, and 


■ 3'6. 331 


physician, Strassburg, now 


■ Jussieu, Antoine Laurent, 


Heidelburg, 131 


H 1748-1836, prof., physician. 




■ botanist, Paris, 6 






Laborde, French doctor, 31 




Ladarae, lecturer, neurologisf, 


B Kaan, Hans, 1885, doctor, 


Geneva, 15, 316, 332, 336, 


H Graz, 2&9 


353 1 


^^^^^^^^^^« 


i> - ^^^^^^H 



»•^ 



:\p/cEs. 



'• ...•.«^..«, >'vix'\ «\n.v»:, ;;\> 

■ ■ ■ » « ■ 1 » v.» • 

1 ■» • \. • V 

• « % . •. . , 



\ 



\\ . \ N » % ■» 



.\ ^ 



■•'\\ ' 



XN V* 






» ^ \ \ 



** V 



.^ 



::o9. 211, 334. 335,336, 837, 

Li lien thai, C. v., prof., Mar- 
burg, lawyer, 18, 334, 341, 

346, 347, 349 
Litnan, K., prof, extraordinary 
a: Berlin, student of medi- 
cal jurisprudence, 167, 283, 



•N- 



l.?-j.\ prof, extraordinary at 
Oru, dermatologist, 116 

'...sfrar.c. Jaques, 1 790-1 847, 
esnisent surgeon, Paris, 329 

l.;:e« American doctor, 98 

■y^is-^z.xs.. Lille, 63 
l.v«. .'--=• 1 632- 1 704, emi- 

r«r.:: y-iilosopher, 252 
1 .'."rr,*^?. Cesare. prof., Turin, 

^. ^?i:.*:. anihropologist, 136^ 

..^^.:xf. cjiediac. assistant to 



'. .-.T-e. K-ccIrh^ Hermann, 

> '^">5:. rrrf.. Götüngen 

-"^-: "i>sr>z. psychologist, 

-^c-. ^~^ irctor, Cher- 



N. '. 



'v" \ ir: ::. :^5 5-15^5. 255 



i-Arrrr. Kiel, 















■ •«'*«w. -x.^*.::«. 5:' 



1» ■• »■ >«-^««^«|p ^i^" 



Malten, E., iSSo, 165 

Mantegazza, Paolo, prof., an- 
thropologist and ethnologist, 
Florence, 117, 283 

MarSs, Prague, 114 

Marie, Pierre, neurologist, 
Paris, 260 

Marin, Paul, 211 

Marina, Alessandro R., 1B87, 
doctor, Trieste, 89 

Mauds ley, eminent English 
alienist, 157, 33g 

Maury, Alfred, archaeologist, 
Paris, 127, 195, 198 

Maxwell, William, about 1600, 
Scotch doctor, 4 

Mayerhofer, Austrian doctor, 
362 

Mayo, Herbert, 1854, English 
surgeon and physiologist, 13 

Meding, Oscar, novelist, 19 

Mendel, prof, extraordinary 
at Berlin, alienist, 267, 272, 
273. 39s, 299, 301, 302, 307, 
308,312,315,317,324 

Mendelsohn, S9 

Mensi, Alfred 
Munich, 364 

M^ric, Elie, prof, at the Sor- 
bonne, theologist, 118 

Mesmer, Fried r. Anton, 
1734-1815, doctor, Vienna, 
4. 5. 6. 9. 30, 66, 305, 314, 
356, 360, 361, 364 

Mesnet, Ernest, alienist and 
physician, Paris, 331 

Meunier, Victor, French 
author, 119 

Meyersohn, Bernhard, 1880, 
doctor, Schwerin, 15 

Meynert, prof., Vienna, alien- 
ist, 205, 295, 307 

Michael, J., doctor, Ham- 
burg, 18, 52, 356 

Miescher, F., prof., Basle, 
physiologist, 222 

Mill, John Stuart, JS06-1873, 
English philosopher and 
political 



luthor, 



"£S. 403 

Milne-Edwards, H., physio- 
logist, Paris, 215 

Mi not, Charles Sedgwick, 
Boston, U.S.A., 374 

Möbius, Paul Julius, lecturer, 
Leipzig, neurologist, 15, 
17,328,351 

Moll, Karl Franz, lecturer, 
alienist, Dalldorf, near Ber- 

Möllerup, Danish doctor, 316 
Morand, J. S., French doctor, 

33 
Morel, celebrated French 

alienist, 339 
Moricourt, J., doctor, Paris, 

362 
Morselli, prof,, Turin, alienist, 

47. 64, 89, 95, 356 
Mosso, Aug., prof-, Turin, 

physiologist, 269 
Most, G. F., 1842, doctor, 

Stadthagen, 11 
Motet, doctor, Paris, 208, 346 
Mouillesaux, 1787, French 

magnetizer, 139 
Müller, F., lecturer, neuro- 
logist, Graz, 18, 272, 325 
MiiJler, F. C, doctor, Alex- 

andersbad, 334, 335 
Müller, Johannes, 1801-1859, 

physiologist, prof., Bonn and 

Berlin, 357 
Miinsterberg, Hugo, lecturer, 

psychologist at Freiberg in 

Baden, 19, 375 
Myers, A., doctor, London, 

36+ 
Myers, Frederic W. H., 

psychologist, Cambridge, 

17. 39. 35. 109. "7. 136, 

248, 287, 364, 377 

Nasse, Christian Friedrich, 
1778-1851, prof., Halle and 
Bonn, physician, 250, 360 

Netter, A., librarian of the 
University, Nancy, 33a 



Noiiet, French i^neral, 1820, 
Stenay, Paris, 10, 13g, 165, 
189 

Nonne, doctor, neurologist, 
Hamburg, 18, 47, 74, 314 

North, W., lecturer on phy- 
siology, London, 170, 220 

Nuel, prof., Li6ge, oculist, 136 



Obersteiner, H., prof, extra- 
ordinary at Vienna, alienist 
and histologist, 17, 38, ss, 
70, 177, 216, 219, 220, 317, 
370 

O'Brien, 208 

Ochorowicz, Julian, psycho- 
logist, Paris, 38, 107, 163, 
208, 363 

Oedmann, alienist, Lund, 
Sweden, 326 

(Ebers, 1758-1840, celebrated 
astronomer and doctor, 
Bremen, 8 

Opit;:, Wilhelm Martin, 1880, 
doctor, Chemnitz, 15 

Oppenheim, Hermann, alien- 
ist, lecturer, Berlin, 315 

Otlolenghi, Turin, 36g 

Gudet, Jean Etienne, 1837, 
dentist, Paris, 329 



Paracelsus, Theophrastus, 

1493-1541. eminent doctor 

at Basle and many other 

places, 4, 367 
Parinaud, oculist, Paris, 280 
Passavant, Job. Karl, 1821, 

doctor, Frankfort, 8 
Faulet, iB6s, French doctor, 

335 
Pauly, doctor, Wiesbaden, 77, 

302, 316 
Perron net, Claude, former 

prof of philosophy, 363 
Perty, Maximilian, 1804-1884, 

prof., Bern, naturalist and 

philosopher, 292 




P^tetin, 1787, doctor, Lyoi 

Peloid, 1789-1813, doctoi^] 

Dresden, 8 
Pfaff, Christoph Heinridi 

1817, prof., Kiel, physicia 

and surgeon, 8 
Pflüger, E., prof., Bonn, 

eminent physiologist, 82 
Pfnor, Friedrich, 1784-1867, 

philosopher, Baden-Baden, 

Philips, pseudonym of Durand J 

de Gros j 

Pick, A., 1885, ahenist, profJ 

Prague, 293 
Pigeaire, J., 1839, doctor 

Paris, II 
Pincus, i860, doctor, 

Glogau, 14 
Pitres, A., prof., Bordeau« 

physician, 15, 30, 35, ' 

173 
Pliny, the elder, 23-79 A.D,J 

Roman natural philosopher 

136 , 

Poincelot, Achille, pbiloso^ 

pher, Paris, 200 ^ 

Poirault, Georges, student of 

medicine, Paris, 41, 100 
Potet de Senne voy. Baron 

Du, doctor, magnetizer In 

Paris and London, " "' 

37, 100,329,364 
Pozzo, Errico Dal, prof, t 

physics, Perugia, 158 
Pr^jalmini, 1840, Italia^ 

doctor, 118 
Prel, Du, philosopher, 

on spiritualism, Munid 

110, 118, 122, 139,250, ; 

359, 360, 364 
Provost, Geneva, 195 
Preyer, William, prof^ leo 

turer at Berlin, physiol« 

gist, IS, 19, 45. 47. 55. "'■ 

107, in, 113, 195, 213,314, 

217, 3681 270, 329. 354« 3641 

36a 



^^^^ ^^^/^D^^^^^^^^^^S^^^ 


Pritzl, obstetrician, Vienna, 


Ribaud, doctor, Poitiers, 13 


33' 


Ribot, Th., prof,, Paris, psy- 


Proust, physician, Paris, 35 


chologist, 15; 


Pulido, doctor, Salamanca, 16 


Ricard, 1841, magnetizer, 157 


Purgotti, Luigi, 1887, doctor. 


Richer,Paul,neurologist, Paris, 


Padua, 309 


assistant to Charcot, 14, 29 


Purkinje, Johannes, 1787- 


49.63,77,78,84,181,214 


1S69, prof., physiologist, 


Riebet, Charles, prof, of phy- 


Breslau, Prague, 31, 203 


siology in the university of 


Puys^gur, Marquis Chastenet 


Paris, 14, 19, 34, 55, 106, 


de, 1784, French officer at 


iiz, 134, 136, 139. 15z. 176, 


Busancy, near Soissons, 7, 


200, 209, 214, 215. 259, 363 


116,360,362 


Rieger, prof., Würzburg, alien- 




ist, 18,89,204,205,214,215, 




301, 315 


Radestock, Paul, 1B79, psy- 


Rifat, doctor, Salonica, 35 


chologist, 158 


Righi, Italian doctor, 370 


Raggi, Antigono, Italian alien- 


Ringier, G,, doctor, Combre- 


ist, 369 


mont-le- Grand, Switzerland, 


Ramadier, J., alienist at the 


40, 41, 263 


Asylum de Lafond(Charente 


Rochas, A. de, 316, 360 


Inferieure), 116 


Rosenbach, Ottomar, 1880, 


Rdcamier, J. C. A., 1821, prof. 


prof., Breslau, physician, 37, 


of medicine, physician. 


265 


Paris, 329 


Rosenthal, Moriz,| 1889, prof.. 


Reden, Benno, 334 


Vienna, neurologist, 88, 108 


Regnard, French doctor, 14 


Rossi, E., i860, physician in 


Keichenbach, Carl Friedr. v., 


ordinary to Prince Hahm 


17Ö8-1B69, naturalist, che- 


Pasha, Cairo, i 


mist, Leipiig, 367 


Rostan, 30 


Reil, Johann, 1759*1813, prof., 


Roth, doctor in Switzerland, 


Halle, physician and anato- 


35 


mist, 19S.361.367 


Roth, Mathias, homeopath in 


Remak, Ernst, lecturer, neu- 


London, 328 


rologist, Berlin, 294 


Rousseau, 1S81, French alien- 


Remak, Robert, 1815-1865, 


ist, Auxetre, 35, 207 


prof, extraordinary at Berlin, 


Roux, Jules, 1865, naval doc- 


histologist and neurologist, 


tor, Toulon, 335 


founder of galvano-thera- 


Roux - Freissineng, lawyer. 


peutics, 294, 30s 


MarseiUes, 337 


Renterghem, A. W. van, doc- 


Riihl mann, Richard, i88o,prof._, 


tor, Amsterdam, 16, 35, 41 


teacher at the Gymnasium, 


Repoud, alienist, director of 


Chemnitz, 15 


Marsens Lunatic Asylum, 


Rumpf, prof, extraordinary of , 


Canion Freiburg, 317 


medicine, Marburg, 90, 108, ^1 


Reynolds, Russell, neurologist. 


269 M 


London, 63 


Rust, Joh. Nepomuk, 1775- H 


Riant, A., French doctor, hy- 


1S40, prof., Berlin, surgeon, ^H 


^^g^^^ 


-g4?. -j^B 



406 

Ssülis, Joh. C, i3S8, Baden- 
Baden, iS, 304 

Salvioli, Gaetano, 1887, his- 
tologist, Turin, 269 

Santanelli, Ferdinand, 1723, 
prof, of medicine, Naples, 4 

Sauvaire, C, loi 

Sawolshskaja, Russian doc- 
tor, 303 

Schelling, 1775-1854, well- 
known philosopher, founder 
of the philosophy of nr " 
S 

Schemer, Carl Albert, leC' 
tiircr at Breslau till 
194 

Schiller, Friedrich v., 1759- 
1805, 246 

Schirmer, R., prof., Greifs- 
wald, oculist, 98 

Sehleisner, Danish doctor, 16 

Schneider, G. H., 1B80, 259 

Schnitzler, Arthur, doctor, 
Vienna, 18 

Schopenhauer, Arthur, 1788- 
1860, philosopher,Frankfort- 
on-the-Main, 21, 139, 364 

Schrenck - Notzing, Albert, 
Baron v., doctor, Munich, 
iB, 302, 316, 320, 364 

Schule, Heinrich, eminent 
alienist, Illenau, Baden, 244 

Schulz, Hugo, prof, Greifs- 
wald, pharmacologist, 353 

Schuster, doctor, Aix, iB, 309 

Schwartzer, Otto, 1878, alien- 
ist, Buda-Pesth, 167 

Schwenter, 1636, 213 

Scott, Walter, 1771-1S32, 
Scotch author and poet, 194 

Seeheyron, doctor, Paris, 331 

Seeligmiiller, prof, extraordi- 
nary at Halle, neurologist, 
18, 331,332, 371 

Sdgard, Charles, 1887, doctor, 
Toulon, 49, 174 

S^glas, J., alienist, Paris, 316 

" uin, prof-, neurologist. New 
'ork, 37' 



Sell, Danish doctor, 16 

Seile, 1789, philosopher, doo-fl 

tor, Berlin, 8 I 

Sellin, Albrecht W., coloniati 

director (retired), Stegliu^l 

rear Berlin, 185 * 

Semal, FraD<;oi5, alie) 

asylum of Mons, Belgium, 

Senator, prof, extraordinary at 

Berlin, physician, 15 
Seppilli, Gius, 1881, Modena, 

alienist. 78, 106,269,369 
Sgrosso, Italian doctor, 91 
Siemerling, alienist and lec- 
turer, Berlin, 275, 276 
Siemers, J. F., 1835, doctoij] 

Hamburg, 11 
Sierke. Eugen, 1874, 

Berlin, editor of the Tägl 

lichen Rundschau, 291 
Silva, B-, Italian doctor, 85 
Simon, Max, junior, alienisi 

head physician of the asylud 

at Bron (Rhone), 195, 202 
Simonin, Amed^e, H., 
Simpson, James, 181 

celebrated obstet 

Edinburgh, 13 
Socrates, 470-399 B.C., nell-| 

known Greek philosopher 

25s 
Sommer, G., Italian naval 

doctor, 369 
Spencer, Herbert, eminent 

English philosopher, 222, 

376 
Sperling, Arthur, neurologist, 

Berlin, \w, i3, 32, 35> 21-1, 

274, 305, 309. 323, 326 
Spinoza, 1633- 1677, well 

known philosopher, ,, 
Spitla, H., prof, extraordinary] 

at Tübingen, psychologist 

31. 194 
Spring, 31, 194 
Stembo, neurologist, Wiini 

16,77 
Stewart, Dugald, 1753-183] 



"'a 

I 



INDICES. 407 ^ 


celebrated philosopher, 


Tillaux, surgeon at the Hotel- 


Edinburgh, 180, 230 


Dieu, Paris, 330 


Stieglitz, Johann, 1816, phy- 


Timmler, Juhus Eduard, 1873, 


sician in ordinary at Han- 


Allenburg, 292 


over, 9 


Tokarski, doctor, Moscow, 16, 


Stoll, Otto, lecturer on geo- 


326 


graphy and ethnolo^at the 


Tonnini, 1887. doctor, Giri- 


polytechnic and university. 


falco, Calabria, 203 


Zürich, 2 


Topham, doctor, London, 13 


Stone, 1852, Boston, 13 


Tourette, see Gilles de la 


Strieker, prof., Vienna, patho- 


Tourette 


logist, 55 


Treviranus, i776-i837,famous 


Strohl, apothecary, Fontaines, 

86 
Strübing, Paul, 1880, doctor. 


doctor, physiologist, Bre- 
Tuckey, C. Lloyd, London, 


prof., Greifswald, 113 


31S 


Strümpell, prof.. Erlangen, 


Tuke, Daniel Hack, eminent 


physician, 32 


alienist and psychologist. 


Sulzer, H. J., 1720-1779, art 


London, 17, 46, 170, 204, 


critic in Berlin, 5 


224, 269, 281,286, 330 




Unverricht,prof.,Dorpat, phy- 


Taguet, alienist, director of 


sician, 312, 355 


the Asylum de Lesvellec, 




near Vannes, 101 


Varges, 1853, 13 


Taine, Hippolyte, French psy- 


Varinard, 136 


chologist and historian of 


Vamhagen, von Ense, 1785- 


literature, 230, 377 


1858, well-known biogra- 


Tamburini, August, 1881, prof. 


pher, author, Berlin, 9 


Modena, alienist, 78, 106, 


Vamier, doctor, Paris, 331 


269, 369. 37° 


Velander, doctor, Jönköping,i6 


Tanii, Eugenio, alienist, Tu- 


Velpeau, Alfred, 1795-1867, 


rin, 64. 369 


eminent surgeon, Paris, 14 


Tarchanoff, Jean de, 30 


Ventra, Italian alienist, 369 


Tardieu, Ambroise, 1818-1879, 


Venturi, Silvio, prof-, alienist, 


authority on medical juris- 


Noccra Inferiore, near Sa- 


prudence, Paris, 335 


lerno, 369 ■ 


Tereg, lecturer, Hanover, 89 


Vesalius, Andreas, 1514-1564, ^1 


Teste, Alphonse, 1840, doctor. 


doctor and eminent anatom- ^| 


Paris, 1 1 


ist, 376 V 


Thaler, Karlv., author, Vienna, 




295 


gist and electro-therapeutist, 


Th^us, 1865, French doctor. 


Paris, 84 


335 


Virchow, Hans, prof, extra- 


Thiem, doctor, Cottbus, 299 


ordinary at Berlin, anato- ^ 


Thomas, surgeon-in-chief of the 


mist and histologist, 19S ^| 


naval station at Toulon, 331 


Virchow, Rudolph, prof., Ber- ■ 


Thomsen, Robert, lecturer. 


lin, pathologist, anthropo- ^H 


^^ ^ienist, Bonn, 315 


logist, 1 1 7, 297. 356. 376 ^H 



4o8 



INDICES. 



Vizioli, Franc, neurologist, 

Naples, 207 
Voigt, Hermann v., doctor, 

Hochweitzschen, Saxony, 

330, 331 
Voisin, A., alienist, Paris, 16, 

39, 115,316,317.332 
Voisin, J., alienist, Paris, 116, 

371 
Voltaire, 1694-1778, French 

poet and author, 198 

Wagner, J., American doctor, 

30 
Warlomont, Evarist, oculist at 

Brussels, 117 

Weinhold, Adolph F., prof., 
teacher of physics at the 
state institute for technical 
education at Chemnitz, 15, 
29, 31, 225 

Weiss, M., doctor, Prague, 18 

Welsch, Hermann, doctor, 
Kissingen, 364 

Wemich, Councillor of Med., 
Cöslin, 198 

Wernicke, Alex., lecturer at 
the technical college, Bruns- 
wick, writer on physics and 
philosophy, 222, 356, 374, 

375 
Westphal, Karl Friederich 

Otto, prof., Berlin, alienist 

and neurologist, 276, 368 

Wetterstrandj doctor, Stock- 



holm, 16, 40^ 41, 77, lis, 
316, 326, 332 

Widmer, doctor, Lausanne, 332 

Wiebe, 1884, doctor, Freiburg 
in Baden, 17 

Wienholt, Arnold, 1749- 1804, 
doctor, Bremen, 8, 50 

Wier, Johann, 1 5 1 5-1 5 58 , doc- 
tor, Amheim, opponent of 
the witch prosecutions, 136 

Willy, Charles, oculist, Chaux 
de Fonds, Switzerland, 98 

Wilson, doctor, London, 216 

Winiwarter, Alex, v., prof.| 
Li^ge, surgeon, 118 

Wirth, J. A., 1836, 39 

Wolfart, Karl Christian, 1778- 
1832, prof, and doctor, Ber- 
lin, 5, 9, 10, 126 

Wolfram, Johannes (pseu- 
donym), 1 82 1, 335 

Wundt, Wilhelm, prof., psy- 
chologist, Leipzig, 196, 214, 
226, 231, 244, 259 

Wurm, Wilhelm, 1857 doctor, 
Munich, 9 

Yung, E. , prof., Geneva, 103, 
225 

Ziemssen, prof, Munich, phy- 
sician, neurologist, 18, 272, 

302,307,315 
Ziermann, J. C. L., 1819, doc- 
tor, Hanover, 9 




As I have read nearly all the authors 1 have quoted in th 
original, it would take too much space to mention them i 
detail. There are catalogues for certain periods— for the ii 
ment of 1880, those of Mobius in Schmidt's Jahrbüchern and 
Max Dessoir's Bibliography of 1888 ; these are for the later 
periods. The bibliography is continued in the periodical Revue 
de FHypnotisme. The following is a list of works particularly 
to be recommended : — ■ 

EEhfiOR.^ l^lpnelismc. Naples.iSS?. (Contains much hiätorical 
information which is wanting in most French books.) 

Bentivecni, v., Die Hypnose und ihre civilrecktliche Bedeu- 
tung. Leipzig, 189a 

Bernheim, De la suggestion et de ses apfilicaiions ä la thA-a- 
peulique, (Shows the universal importance of suggestion 
with and without hypnosis. Written for doctors.) 

BiNET and F^r£, Le Magniiisine animal. Paris, 1887. (Treats 
hypnotism from the point of view of the school of Charcot.) 

Dessoir, Max, i?aj Z'o;li^/-/(rA. Leipzig, 189a (Short psycho- 
logical studies, partly connected with hypnotic experiments. 

EnnemosER, Dey Magnetismus. Leipzig, i8ig. (Contains 
much historical information about animal magnetism.) 

FoREL, Der Hypnotismus. Stuttgart, 1889. (Short, very clear 
work, explaining the general importance of suggestion.) 

GURSBV, Peculiarities of Certain Post-Hypnotic States (essay 
in the " Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research," 
voL iv., April 23, 1887). (Contains classical records of 
experiments, like almost all the works of Gtimey and his 
friend Frederic Myers.) 

Janet, Pierre, VAutomalisme psyckologique. Paris, 1B89. 
(Detailed psychological experiments on human c 
ness, its analysis by means of hypnosis, &c.) 
27» 



410 UTERAR V INFORM A TION. 

Krafft-Ebing, v., Eine experimentelle Studie auf dem Gebiete 
des Hypnotismus, 2nd ed. Stuttgart, 1889. (Contains a 
detailed account of many physical and mental symptoms 
of hypnosis in connection with an interesting case.) 

LltBEAVLT, Du Sommeil. Paris, 1866; new ed., 1889. (Psycho- 
logical analysis of ordinary and hypnotic sleep. Much 
information.) 

LifeGEOiS, De la suggestion et du somnambulisme dans leurs 
rapports ceuec la jurisprudence et la mddecine Ugale* Paris, 
1888. (A rather diffuse book, containing much of deep 
interest.) 

LiLTENTHAL, V., Der Hypnotismus und das Strafrecht, Re- 
printed from the Zeitschrift für die ges. S traf rechtswis sen- 
schaßt 1887. (Based on the school of Charcot.) 

MoRSELLif 11 Magnetismo anifnale, Turin, 1886. (An interest- 
ing book, written from a determinist point of view.) 

OCHOROWICZ, De la suggestion mentale. Paris, 1887. (Though 
the book does not prove telepathy convincingly, it is 
written with scientific earnestness, and is clever and in- 
teresting.) 



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MANUAL TRAINING. By Dr. C. M. Woodward, Director 

of the Manual Training School, Washington University, St. Louis, 

Mo. Illustrated. 

"There is no greater authority on the subject of manual training than 

Professor Woodward. . , . Professor Woodward is not less instructive as a 

practical man than as a theorist, and his book may be confidently recommended 

to those who wish to know what may be done and what has been done in 

America in the direction of systematic instruction of this kind." — Manchester 

Guardian. 

THE SCIENCE OF FAIRY TALES. By E. S. Hartland. 
" Mr. Hartland's book will win the sympathy of all earnest students, both 
by the knowledge it displays, and by a thorough love and appreciation of his 
subject, which is evident throughout." — The Spectator, 

PRIMITIVE FOLK. Studies in Comparative Etiinology. 
El IB Reclus. 
" A more suggestive book, with leas of pjedantry, coiUd lu 
Birmingham Daily Gaitlle. 

BACTERIA AND THEIR PRODUCTS. 

WOODIIEAD. 

" A singularly able and informative exposition of the present state of know- 
ledge Id regard to one of the youngest, but most practically important, depart- 
ments of natural science. " — Scollish Lsiidcr. 

THE EVOLUTION OF MARRIAGE, By Letourneau. 

An ethnographical summary of the facts regarding the origin and growth of 
marriage and the family among savages, tiarbarians, and in civilisation, with 
hints ns to its probable evolution in the future. 

EDUCATION AND HEREDITY. By J. M. Guyau. 

A sociological study of the various modifications in education which a 
involved by modern scientific conceptions and modern conditions of civilisa- 
tion. It deals with the influence of education in the development of the race, 
with the eEfects of heredity in education, with the place of physical education, 
and with the objects and methods of education generally. 

New York: Cuaklbs Scribhb^ 



I 



' THE MAN OF GENIUS. By Prof. Lombroso. 

This wock is a. traaslntion of PioL Lombcoso's L'Uomi di Geaio (the latest 
end most imporiani work yet wrilten on Geniu!), made with the co-operaljon 
□f another autboiily, who has supplied additional material for the English 
edition. The work deals wilb the causes of genius ; the inSuences of race, of 
heredity, of climate, of great cities % the menial and physical characteristics of 
men of genius in literature, art, politics, and religion ; and goes fully into the 
much-debaled question of the relation between genius and insanity. The 
volume will be copiously illustrated. ^_ 

PUBLIC HEALTH. By Dr. J. F. J. SyKES. ^L 

THE SPIRIT OF SCIENCE. By Prof. Karl Pearson. -^ 



Eininiaes/' ■•' 
lenV^'ThBl 



Factors of E?olntloll," "WaRBs," i 

fi-tfaring ■eelumes far this Series :— 

F. Filigerald, Prof, J. GeiHe, E. C K, 

lain). Prüf, C. H. Heribrd, Prof. Haddoa, 

mn FAMOUS PPSE DRpFs; 

(COMPLETE IN FIVE VOLUMES.) 

Edited ev WILLIAM ARCHER. 

I2ma, CLOTH, PRICE $1.25 PEJf VOLUME. 
VOL. L 



This volume contains— "A DOLL'S HOUSE," "THE 
LEAGUE OF YOUTH" {mvtr be/ore translaied), and 
"THE PILLARS OF SOCIETY." 

VOL. IL 
"GHOSTS," "AN ENEMY OF THE PEOPLE," and "THE 
WILD DUCK." With an Introductory Note by Wim 
Archer. 

VOL. in. 

"LADY INGER OF ÖSTRÄT," "THE VIKINGS 

HELGELAND," "THE PRETENDERS." With , 

Introductory Note by William Archer, and Portrait ^ 
Ibsen. 





VOL, IV. 
t''EMPEROR AND GALILEAN." Translated by Wili 
Archer. 

VOL, V. 
"ROSMERSHOLM," "THE LADY FROM THE SEA," 
"HEDDA GABLER." 

The sequence of the plays in each volume will be chronological ; 
and the set of vohimes comprising the dramas will thus present them, 
when .completed, in chronological order. 

" The art of prose tionslalion does not perhaps enjoy a very high literary 
status in England, hut we have no hesitation in numbering the present Persian 
of Ilisen, so far as it has gone (Vols. I. and IL), among Ihe very best Eu:hieve- 
menls, in that kind, of our generation. " — Academy. 



GREAT WRITERS. 



LIBRARY EDITION. 

Printed on large paper of extra quality, in handsome binding, 

Demy &m, price Jfi.oo each. 



ALPHABETICAL LIST. 



PRESS NOTICES. 
üfe of Jane Austen. By Goldwin Smith. 

" Mr. Goldwin Smilh has added another to the 
of eminent meu who have found their delight in Jai 
a fascinating book." — Spectalor. 
Life of Balzac. By Frederick Wedmore. 

"A finished study, a concentrated summary, a 
Balzac's successes and failures, and the causes of these s 
failures, and of the scope of his genius." — Scottish Leader. 
Life of Charlotte Bronte. By A. Birreli. 

"Those who know much of Charlolle Bronte will learn more, and thcöa 
who know nothing about her will Rod all that is best worth learning io 
Mr, Birrell'spleasant book."— Jr./a»«/' Gasetli. 

of Browning. By William Sharp, 

" This little volume is a model of encellenl English, and in every respect 
IS what a bic^aphy should be." — Public Opitt' 



I 



Life of Byron. By Hon. Roden Noel 

"He (Mr. Noel) has at any rate given 10 Ihc world Ihe a 

Uld comprehensible portcail of the poet ever drawn with pen and ink."» 
Manchater Examititr. 

Life of Bußyan. By Canon Venables. 

" A most intelligent, appreciative, and valuable m 
Life of Burns. By Professor Blackie. 

" The editor certainly made a hit when he persuaded Blackie to * 
»bout 'Sxaos." —Pall Mall Gtaelle. 
Life of Thomas Carlyle, By R. Gatnett, LL.D. 

"This is an admirable bouk. Nothing could be more feliciCoua 
fairer than the way in which he takes us through Carlyle's life and h 
—Pall Mall Gaulle. 

Life of Coleridge. By Hall Caine. 

" Brief and vigorous, writlen throughout wiLh spirit and gieal I: 
skill " — Scelimait. 
Life of Congreve. By Edmund Gosse. 

" Mr. Gosse has written an admirable and most interesting biography a 
a man of letters who is of particular interest to other men of lette ' 
TAi Academy. 

Life of Crabbe. By T. E. Kebbel. 

" No EnglLih poet since Shakespeare has observed certain aspects of 
nature and of human life more closely; and in the qualities of manliness 
«nd of sincerity he is surpassed by none. . , . Mr. Kebbet's monograph 
ii worthy of the subject." — Alhtnawn. 

Life of Darwin. By G. T. Bettany. 

"Mr. G. T, Bellany's U/t af Danain it a MUnd atid conscientious 
work." — Saturday Review. 

Life of Dickens. By Frank T. Marzials. 

" Notwithstanding the mass of matter that has been printed relating to 
Dickeos and his wo^s ... we should, until we came across this volume, 
have been at a loss to recommend any popular life of England's most 
popular novelist as being really satisfactory. The difficulty is removed by 
Mr. Mariials'a little 'boo'x." —Alkenaum. 
Life of George Eliot. By Ost:ar Browning, 

' ' We are thankful for this interesting addition to oi: 
great novelisL" — Liltrary IVerld. 
Life of Emerson. By Richard Garnett, LL.D. 
" As to the larger section of the public, to whom 
Writers is addressed, no record of Emerson's life and work could hi 
desirable, both in breadth of treatment and lucidity of style, than Df,1 
Garnett's."— Jaftin/ay Rt-jiew. ■ 

Life of Goethe. By James Sime. 

"Mr. James Sime's competence as a biographer of Goethe, both lu^ 

respect of knowledge of bis special subject, and of German literattUvS 

generally, is beyond question." — Afatukislir Guardian. 
Life of Goldsmith. By Austin Dobson. 

The slory of his literary and social life in London, with alt I 
humorous snil pathetic vicissitudes, is here retold, as none could tell ^ 
belter." — Daily News. 



r knowledge of 



^H " The 

^^B humorous 



NewVork; CUAKLBS ScKIUNEK'i 




Life of Nathaniel Hawthorne. By Moncure Conway. 
" Easy aod coDversational as the tone is thtoaghoul, no in 
is omilled, no useless fact is recalled." — Speaier. 
Life of Heine. By William Sharp. 

"This is a-a admirable monogiaph . . . moie fuUf written ap to the, 
level ar recent knowledge a,Qd criticism of it3 theme than any other Engliih ' 
work. " — Scotsman. 
Life of Victor Hugo. By Frank T. Marzials. 

" Mr. Muzials's volume presents to us, in a more hand; form than a.aj 
English, or even French handtiook gives, the summary of what, up to the 
moment in which we write, is known or conjectured about the Ufe of the 
great poeL" — Satttrday Sevie-ui. 
Life of Samuel JohnsoiL By Colonel F. Gratit 

" Colonel Grant has performed his lask wilh diligence, sound judgment, 
good laste, and accuracy. " — Illuitrattd London News. 
Life of Keats. By W. M. Rossetti. 

"Valuable for the ample information which it contains." — Camhrid^ 
Independtnt. 

Life Of Lessmg. By T. W. RoUeston. 

" A picture of Lessing which is vivid and truthful, and has enough of 
detail for all ordinary purposes." — Naiion (New York). 
Life of Longfellow. By Prof Eric S. Robertson. 

" A most readable liltle book." — t-roerfeol Meriury. 

Life of Matryat By David Hanniy. 

"What Mr, Hannay had to do — give a craftsman -tike account of a 
great craflsmaa who has been almost incomprehensibly undervalued— 
could hardly have been done better than in thh Utile volume." — Mmt- 
ehester Guardian. 
Life of Mill. By W. L. Courtney. 

" A most sympathetic and discriminating memoir." — Glasgovi Htrald. 
Life of Milton. By Richard Garnett, LL.D. 

" Within equal compass the life-stoiy of Ihe great poet of Puritanisni has 
never been more charmingly or adequately told." — Scollüh Leader. 
Life of Dante Gabriel Rossetti. By J. Knight. 

*' Mr. Knight's picture of the great poet and painter is the fullest and 
best yet presented to Ihe public."— 7"A! Graphic. 
Life of Scott By Professor Vonge. 

" For readers and lovers of the poems and novels of Sir Walter Scott, 
this is a most enjoyable book." — Abirdecn Free Press. 

Life of Arthur Schopenhauer. By William Wallace. 

" The aeries of ' Great Writers ' has hardly had a contribntioo of more 
marked and peculiar excellence than the book which the Whyte Professor 
of Moral Philosophy at Oxford has written tor it on the altractive and 
still (in England) little known subject of Schopenhausr."- Afa«i:A<i/»r 

Life of Shelley. By William Sharp. 

" The criticisms . . . entitle this capita] monograph to bt 
the best biographies of Shelley." — Westminster Review. 



New York : Charles Scribnbk's Sons. 



I 




das produced ^^^1 
icli fainter pKffl^^ 



Life of Sheridan. By Lloyd Sanders. 

" To say that Mr. Lloyd Sanders, in this voll 
best existing memoir of Sheridan is really to award mudi 
itina the book deserves." — Mamhesltr Eiaminer. 

" Rapid and workmanlikE in style ; the author has evidently a good 
practical knowledge ot the stage of Sheridan's day." — Saturday Review. 

Life of Adam Smith, By R. B. Haldane, M.P. 

"Written with a perspicuity seldom eiemplilied when dealing with 



" Mr. Haldatie's hani^ling of his subject impresses us as that of a man 
who well understands bis theme, and who knows how to elucidate it." — 
SioUish Ltaiitr, 

" A beginner iti political economy might easily do worse than take Mr. 
Haldane's book as his fiist \£}X-\xxi'^." —Graphic. 

Life of SmoiletL By David Hannay. 

"A capital record of a writer who still remains one of the great masters 
of the English novel." — Saturday Review. 

" Mr. Henhay is excellently equipped for writing (he life of Smollett. 
As a specialist on the history of the eighteenth century navy, he is at a 
great advantage In haudliog works so full of the sea and sailors as 
Smollett's three principal novels. Moreover, he has a complete acquaint- 
ance with the Spanish romancers, from whom Smollett drew so much of 
his inspiration. His criticism is generally acute and discriminating; and 
his narrative is well arranged, compact, and accurate." — St. jamtit 
Gattlle. 

Life of Schiller. By Henry W. Nevinson. 

" This is a well-written little volume, which presents the leading facts of 
the poet's life in a neatly- rounded picture." — Scotsman. 

" Mr. Nevinson has added much to the charm of his book liy his spirited 
translations, which give excellently both the ring and sense of the 
original." — Manckeslir Guardian. 

Life of Thackeray. By Herman Merivale and Frank T. Marzials, 
"The book, with its excellent bibliography, is one which neither the 

student nor the general reader can well afford to miss."— /W/iWo// Cow//«. 
"The last book published by Messrs. Merivale and Manials is full of 

very real and true things." — Mis. Anne Thackeray Ritchie on " Thackeray 

and his Biographers," in Illustrated London Neuis. 

Life of Cervantes. By H. E. Watts. 



Volumes are in preparation by W. E. HENLEY, H. E. WATTS, 
COSMO MONKHOUSE, FRANK T. MARZIALS, W. H. POLLOCK. 
STEPNIAK, etc., etc 



LANE MEDICAL LIBRARY 

STANFORD UNIVERSITY 

This book should be returned on or before 
the date last stamped below. 



' r» 



25M-3-58--88267 



IAHE LIBRARY. STANFORD UNIVERSITY 



y 



Ü921 Moll, Albert 
M726 hypnotism. 
1892 


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